THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1981

Front Cover—The Beehive. Parliament Buildings, including the new executive wing, on the occasion of the 7th Regional Conference of UNESCO National Commission of Asia and Oceania in July 1980.

Back Cover—Cromwell Township, Otago, viewed through Firewood Creek culvert.

                                                                                                                                                                                              Photographs by Michael Redican, Ministry of Works and Development.

FURTHER INFORMATION

Further sources of information, given at the end of each section or sub-section, refer generally to official sources, especially parliamentary papers, statistical reports, and other publications of Government departments. These can usually be consulted in the principal public libraries (Parliamentary papers, for example, are collected in annual volumes entitled Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives) or can be purchased from Government Bookshops. Where difficulty is experienced in obtaining publications the responsible Government department or other organisation should be consulted.

Other publications giving fuller information on many of the subjects mentioned in the Yearbook may be found listed in the select bibliography of New Zealand books near the back of the Yearbook.

NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEARBOOK                                                                                                                                                                                               PRICE (N.Z.) $9.50

CAT. NO. 01.001

ISSN 0078-0170


Table of Contents

PREFACE

As in previous years, the aim of the New Zealand Official Yearbook is to provide a comprehensive statistical survey of the economy and population of New Zealand, with a background of text aimed primarily at the non-specialist. The achievement of this aim within the compass of a single volume of modest proportions and price becomes more difficult each year as the amount of available statistical and other material expands. Each year it is necessary to be a little more ruthless in cutting out dead wood and in compressing what remains or what is to be introduced.

A major statistical innovation in recent years has been the series of integrated economic censuses compiled by the Department of Statistics and designed to cover the whole economy over a 5-year cycle. The first of these was the Census of Manufacturing 1974–75 (the Census of Manufacturing 1978–79 is summarised in the present volume). Other economic censuses summarised in the present volume are the Census of Distribution 1977–78 in Section 21B, Domestic Trade; the Census of Building and Construction 1978–79 in Section 19, Building Construction and Housing; the Census of Mining and Quarrying 1978–79 in Section 17, Minerals; the Gas Census 1979–80 in Section 20C Gas; and (briefly summarised in the Latest Statistical Information section) the Census of Transport, Storage, and Communications 1979–80, the Census of Forestry and Logging 1979–80, and the Census of Agricultural Services 1979–80. Two further censuses from which data are included in this Yearbook do not form part of the series of integrated economic censuses. They are the 5-yearly Census of Population and Dwellings 1976 and 1981 (frequently referred to as “the Census” since it is the one census that directly concerns everybody in New Zealand) and the Census of Libraries 1979.

Special features in the present Yearbook include an article on the evolution of the wool industry specially prepared by the New Zealand Wool Board. This complements articles on the development of the dairy industry, the meat industry, and the forest industries published some years ago. Another article introduces the latest revision of the Consumers Price Index. The subject of the photographic supplement is New Zealand's foreign-aid programme which aims to promote social and economic development in Third World countries by co-operating directly with their governments or by contributing through international or non-governmental organisations which have similar aims. More details of this programme are included in Section 2, History, Government, and International Relations.

As always, every effort has been made to ensure that the information in the Official Yearbook is as full, clear, and up to date as limits of space and time allow. Nevertheless, in the nature of things, a Yearbook which takes almost 12 months to produce cannot be completely up to date. A new feature introduced in last year's Yearbook which has proved popular is a brief reference to further sources of information at the end of each section or subsection. In the main these are parliamentary papers, statistical reports, and other publications of Government departments. A brief guide to additional background material is provided by the list of New Zealand books grouped according to subject near the back of the Yearbook. Among the principal sources of the latest statistics are the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and the many scores of Information Service releases put out annually by the Department of Statistics. With the Official Yearbook to provide background and historical perspective, and the Monthly Abstract to supply the latest figures, the student of the New Zealand economy is well equipped.

The Yearbook owes much to the assistance and co-operation of the other Government departments, producer boards, the Reserve Bank, and a considerable number of other official bodies, as well as to the compiling, editorial, and draughting sections of this department. I would like to express my appreciation to all the people involved, and especially to the staff of the Government Printing Office, without whose work there would be no Yearbook. The editor, N. G. Killick, B.A., would also like to express his appreciation of the assistance and co-operation he has received.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          J. H. DARWIN,
                                                                                                                                                                                                                          GOVERNMENT STATISTICIAN.

Department of Statistics,
Wellington,
NEW ZEALAND.

August 1981.

SYMBOLS

The interpretation of the symbols used in the tables throughout this publication is as follows:

- nil or zero… not applicable
.. figures not available– amount too small to be expressed
not yet available—space left blankx revised

METRIC SYSTEM

The conversion of the system of weights and measures used in New Zealand to metric units was substantially completed by the end of 1976.

As far as possible, statistics in this issue have been converted to the metric system, but for various reasons, this has to be a gradual process extending over a number of years.

CONVERSION OF BRITISH (IMPERIAL) AND SI (METRIC) UNITS

Some relationships between common British units and common SI units are shown in the following table.

Length
     1 in, = 25.4 mm1 mm = 0.039 in.
          = 2.54 cm1 cm = 0.394 in.
     1 ft = 30.48 cm1 dm = 3.937 in.
          = 0.305 m1 m 39.37 in.
     1 yd = 0.914 m          = 1.094 yds
     1 mile = 1.609 km1 km 0.621 miles
Area
     1 sq ft = 0.093 m21 m2 10.764 sq ft
          = 929.03 cm2          = 1.196 sq yds
     1 sq yd = 0.836 m21 da 0.247 acres
     1 acre = 0.405 hectare (ha)1 ha = 2.471 acres
     1 sq mile = 2.590 km21 km2 = 247.1 acres
          = 259 ha          = 0.386 sq miles
Volume
     1 cu in. = 16.387 cm31 cm3 = 0.061 cu in.
     1 cu ft = 0.028 m31 m3 = 35.315 cu ft
     1 cu yd = 0.765 m3          = 1.308 cu yds
Capacity
     1 pt = 0.568 litres (1)1 litre = 1.760 pts
     1 qt = 1.1371          = 0.880 qts
     1 gal = 4.5461          = 0.220 gal
Weight
     1 oz = 28.35 grams (g)1 g = 0.035 oz
     1 lb = 0.454 kilograms (kg)1 kg = 2.205 lb
     1 cwt = 50.802 kg1 t = 2204.62 lb
     1 long ton = 1.016 kg          = 0.984 long tons
          = 1.016 tonnes (t)          = 1.102 short tons
Velocity
     1 mile per hour (mph)1.61 kilometres per hour (km/hr)
     1 kilometre per hour (km/h)0.621 miles per hour (mph)
Pressure
     1 pound per sq in. (psi)6.89 kilopascals (kPa)
     1 kilopascal (kPa)0.145 pounds per sq in. (psi)
     1 ton per sq in. (ton/in2)15.4 megapascals (MPa)
     1 megapascal (MPa)0.0647 tons per sq in. (ton/in.2)
Temperature
     Degree Fahrenheit (°F)9 × °C/5 + 32
     Degree Celsius (°C)5/9 (°F-32)

Chapter 1. Section 1 GEOGRAPHY

Table of Contents

New Zealand is in the south-west section of the Pacific. To the west, beyond the Tasman Sea, is Australia, 1600 kilometres away. From its position on the rim of the Pacific basin, New Zealand is a little' over 10000 kilometres from San Francisco and Panama and a similar distance from Tokyo and Singapore. In area 27.1 million hectares, it is similar in size to the British Isles and Japan.

One of the chief charms of the New Zealand landscape is its infinite variety. Such level lowlands as exist are small in area; contrasts between coastal plain and bordering hard-rock mountains are abrupt. High mountains make up most of the South Island area—often stark and bare or mantled in permanent snow. By contrast, most of the North Island is weak-rock hill country. From Cook Strait to the Bay of Plenty a hard-rock mountain core dominates the North Island scene, forming an effective barrier between east and west: the only low level gap across it is at the gorge cut by the Manawatu River near Palmerston North.

A peculiar and special feature of the North Island is the volcanic country of the interior. Here are the largest North Island lakes and in a line from Ruapehu to White Island, most of the still active volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers.

The most spectacular mountains are in the South Island; high mountains, deep and narrow valleys, swift rivers, and glacial lakes, large and small, give infinite variety to the scene. It is in this high country that ice has left its special mark in glacial troughs and fiords and, above all, the noble southern lakes. There is little weak-rock hill country in the. South Island; the lowlands are mainly bordering plains, basin plains, and valley plains. Of these the most extensive are the plains of Canterbury and Southland.

New Zealand has large areas of luxuriant forests which are the delight of trampers, campers, and hunters. Forests cover just over a quarter of the total land area, of which national parks and scenic reserves set aside as permanent forest or recreation areas form 2.4 million hectares.

The indigenous forests may be grouped broadly into two main formations: mixed temperate evergreen forest and southern beech forest. The former is a mixed community of many species of broadleaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of southern beech. Generally, the mixed temperate evergreen forests are the forests of the north and of the warm, wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes. The beeches form the forests of the south, of the high mountains, and of the drier lowlands. But there are extensive areas where the types mingle in forests of extremely varied composition.

Mountains, forests, lakes, rivers, and beaches have influenced the characteristics of the people. New-Zealand society has been shaped and subtly tempered by a number of factors—geographical, historical, social and psychological—during more than a century of growth as a nation. New Zealand today represents both an extension and a modification of the European tradition. In addition to its Maori population, New Zealand has experienced in recent years a considerable inflow of Polynesians from its associated territories and elsewhere in the Pacific. Auckland has become the major city of Polynesia, and as such a focal point of the South Pacific. The Polynesian (including Maori) population is of greater significance than its relatively small numbers would suggest. Outside the Pacific area New Zealand may present a basically European face to the world, but the preservation of distinctive life-style by the Maori, together with a close compatibility (extending to frequent intermarriage) between the two races, has doubtless been a determining factor in the evolution of New Zealand society.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION—The islands of New Zealand have been shaped from the projecting crests of earth folds which rise as broad ridges from the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, 1600 kilometres east of the continent of Australia. There are three main islands—North, South, and Stewart separated only by relatively narrow straits—with adjacent islets and a small group called Chatham Islands, 850 kilometres to the east of Lyttelton. Dating from 1842 the administrative boundaries of New Zealand, including the minor islands, extend from 33 degrees to 53 degrees south latitude and from 162 degrees east longitude to 173 degrees west longitude. Inhabited outlying minor islands are Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group, 930 kilometres north-east of the Bay of Islands, and Campbell Island, 590 kilometres south of Stewart Island.

The Ross Dependency, some 2300 kilometres to the south, has been under New Zealand's jurisdiction since 1923 and comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160 degrees east and 150 degrees west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60 degrees south. The land area of the Ross Dependency is estimated at 414400 square kilometres.

The area of New Zealand can be classified as follows:

AREA OF NEW ZEALAND (1 April 1980)
 Area in Square Kilometres
North Island
    Districts18498
    Counties96072
    Cities and boroughs (less pt Porirua City in harbour, 2 km2)3084
    Town districts8
    Adjacent Islands not included in a territorial local authority—
        Three Kings7
        Little Barrier28
        Mayor14
        White4
        Other islands (Browns, Mokohinau, Motiti, Motuhora (Whale), etc.)16
    Reclamations1
    Other offshore islands—Kermadec33
                    Total, North Island117765
South Island
    Counties150141
    Districts263
    Cities and boroughs602
    Stewart Island1746
    Adjacent islands not included in a territorial local authority (Solander, etc.)4
    Other offshore islands—
        Inhabited—Campbell106
        Uninhabited—Auckland (612 km2), Snares (2 km2), Antipodes (22 km2), Bounty (2 km2)638
                    Total, South Island153500
                    Total, North and South Islands271265
Ross Dependency (land area only)414400
                                Total, including Ross Dependency685665

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: Coastline—Since the combined length of the North and South Island extends over 1600 kilometres, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 450 kilometres at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coastline in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand land mass lies along a southwesterly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

In the North Island, Whangarei, Auckland, Tauranga, and Wellington are natural harbours which have been developed into ports for extensive use by overseas ships. At Napier and Gisborne artificial harbours have been made. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several other deep and sheltered harbours exist, but production from the hinterland is limited. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and Fiordland form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and the rugged nature of the terrain they have—with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound—little or no commercial utility. By dredging and by breakwater construction, ports capable of accommodating overseas vessels have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff Harbours and on the coast at Timaru. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, although an overseas port has been developed at New Plymouth, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents.

Mountains—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 200 m contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (2518 m), Ruapehu (2797 m), Ngauruhoe (2290 m), and Tongariro (1968 m), they do not exceed an altitude of 1800 m. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe have been particularly active from time to time. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Turakirae Head, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa Ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto Ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group. In the east the Moehau Range parallels the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only area above 1200 m on the west coast of this Island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (3764 m), while 19 named peaks exceed 3000 m. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell Range? and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa Range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Richmond Ranges, while to the north-east are the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern breaks into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland egro.

There are at least 223 named peaks of 2300 m or more in altitude. Below is a list of the pe restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 2740 m in the South Island.

Mountain or PeakHeight (metres)
NORTH ISLAND
Ruapehu2797
Egmont2518
Ngauruhoe2290
Tongariro1968
SOUTH ISLAND
Kaikoura Ranges
    Tapuaenuku2884
    Alarm2865
Southern Alps
    Cook3764
    Tasman3500
    Dampier3440
    Silberhorn3279
    Lendenfeldt3201
    Mt. Hicks (St. David's Dome)3183
    Malte Brun3176
    Torres3163
    Teichelmann3160
    Sefton3157
    Haast3138
    Elie de Beaumont3109
    Douglas Peak3081
    La Perouse3079
    Haidinger3066
    Minarets3066
    Aspiring3036
    Hamilton3022
    Glacier Peak3007
    De la Beche2992
    Aiguilles Rouges2966
    Nazomi2961
    Darwin2961
    Chudleigh2952
    Annan2947
    Low2942
    Haeckel2941
    Goldsmith2905
    Conway Peak2901
    Bristol Top2898
    Walter2898
    Grey2893
    Green2836
    Hutton2834
    D'Archiac2828
    Ronald Adair2827
    Earnslaw2823
    Hochstetter Dome2822
    Nathan2804
    Barnicoat2799
    Sibbald2798
    Arrowsmith2795
    Spenser2794
    The Footstool2765
    Rudolf2755
    The Dwarf2751
Darran Range
    Tutoko2756

Glaciers—In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman Glacier has a length of 29 km and a width of 9 km. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (17 km), the Mueller (13 km), the Godley (13 km), and the Hooker (11 km), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 600 m. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 15 km and 13 km respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 200 m and 210 m.

The glaciers are fed by snow brought to the Southern Alps by the prevailing winds off the Tasman Sea. Total yearly snowfalls at the higher elevations (1800–2500 m) vary from 3 m to 6 m. The steeper West Coast glaciers have little moraine (rock debris) carried on their surfaces and have shown a marked terminal retreat in recent decades. The large glaciers on the eastern side of the Southern Alps are mantled with moraine and show some terminal retreat.

In the North Island there are 7 relatively small glaciers on the slopes of Mount Ruapehu compared with more than 360 in the Southern Alps. However, during the ski-ing season the Whakapapa Glaciers, near the Chateau Tongariro, are visited by several thousand people each week.

Rivers—New Zealand rivers, owing to the high relief of the country, are mostly swift-flowing and difficult to navigate. As sources of hydro-electric power the rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. The Waikato and the Rangitaiki in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, Clutha, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes.

Following is a list of the more important rivers. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system, whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

RiverLength (kilometres)
* Cook Strait is defined as follows: northern limit is a line between northern point of Stephens Island and Kapiti Island: southern limit is a line between Cape Palliser and Cape Campbell.
NORTH ISLAND
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean
    Piako90
    Waihou (or Thames)175
    Rangitaiki193
    Whakatane105
    Waipaoa (from source, Mata River)121
    Waiapu (from source, Waipapa Stream)113
    Wairoa (from source, Hangaroa River)137
    Mohaka (from source, Taharua River)172
    Ngaruroro154
    Tukituki113
Flowing into Cook Strait*
    Ruamahanga124
    Hutt56
Flowing into the Tasman Sea
    Otaki48
    Manawatu182
    Rangitikei241
    Turakina137
    Whangaehu161
    Wanganui290
    Waitotara108
    Patea143
    Waitara98
    Mokau158
    Waikato (from source, Upper Waikato River)425
    Wairoa (from source, Waiotu Stream)132
    Hokianga (from source, Waihou River)72
RiverLength (kilometres)
SOUTH ISLAND
Flowing into Cook Strait
    Pelorus64
    Wairau169
    Awatere126
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean
    Clarence209
    Conway48
    Waiau-uha (or Waiau)169
    Hurunui138
    Waipara64
    Ashley97
    Waimakariri161
    Selwyn95
    Rakaia145
    Ashburton90
    Rangitata (from source, Clyde River)121
    Opihi80
    Pareora56
    Waihao64
    Waitaki (from source, Hopkins River)209
    Kakanui64
    Shag72
    Taieri288
    Clutha (from source, Makarora River)322
Flowing into Foveaux Strait
    Mataura240
    Oreti203
    Aparima (Jacobs River)113
    Waiau (from source, Clinton River)217
Flowing into the Tasman Sea
    Hollyford76
    Cascade64
    Arawhata68
    Haast64
    Karangarua37
    Cook32
    Waiho (from source, Callery River)32
    Whataroa51
    Wanganui56
    Waitaha40
    Hokitika64
    Arahura56
    Taramakau80
    Grey121
    Buller (from source, Travers River)177
    Mokihinui56
    Karamea80
    Heaphy35
    Aorere (from source, Spee River)72
    Takaka (from source, Cobb River)72
    Motueka108
    Waimea (from source, Wai-iti River)48

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the early economic development of the country.

With the very successful acclimatisation of freshwater fish, notably trout, many rivers now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while some of the larger ones of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, have their own particular beauty. As reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the rivers and streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, Manapouri, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect. A series of narrow man-made lakes have been produced in connection with hydro-electric development along some of the rivers. In 1965 Lake Benmore, New Zealand's largest artificial lake, was created. It lies on the Waitaki River in North Otago and covers 75 sq km in area and consists of two arms, the main arm being 30 km in length and the Ahuriri Arm 18 km in length.

Some particulars of the more important lakes are given in the following table.

LakeLength in KilometresGreatest Breadth in KilometresArea in Square KilometresDrainage Area in Square KilometresApproximate Volume of Discharge in Cubic Metres per SecondMaximum Height Above Sea Level in Metres (Range in Brackets)*Greatest Depth in Metres
* The range in lake levels is not available for all lakes.
NORTH ISLAND       
Natural       
Taupo40.227.46063289130357 (1.5)159
Rotorua12.09.780526 280 (0.6)26
Rotoiti16.14.83464224279 (0.6)70
Tarawera11.28.9361868299 (0.6)87
Rotoaira4.82.81612933564 (0.9) 
Waikaremoana19.39.75434718614 (13.7)256
Wairarapa19.36.4803201 820
Rotoehu4.83.2844 295 (1.2) 
Rotoma5.23.61231 316 (1.8) 
Okataina6.44.81065 310 (2.7) 
Okareka2.42.0321 354 (1.2) 
Rotomahana6.42.8970 340 (6.7) 
Rerewhakaitu4.02.88  439 (1.2) 
Tikitapu1.61.21  416 
Rotokakahi4.01.65281396 
Artificial       
Matahina  3 70  
Otamangakau  2 14613 
Te Wharau
Moawhango  4 12853 
Ohakuri33.80.4134791155287 
Atiamuri6.40.425128158252 
Whakamaru21.70.875581176226 
Maraetai7.20.856190195188 
Waipapa9.70.426475207127 
Arapuni16.10.896876211111 (0.6) 
Karapiro24.10.48745922654 
Whakamarino0.80.4136918274 
SOUTH ISLAND       
Natural       
Rotoiti8.92.81018412616 (1.8)76
Rotoroa14.53.22337627446 (1.5)152
Brunner8.98.939414 85109
Kaniere9.72.01628 131197
Coleridge17.73.236559 510207
Sumner9.72.414337   
Tekapo17.75.688142479713 (12.0)189
Pukaki15.38.01691355132534 (15.8) 
Ohau17.74.861119180524 (4.8) 
Hawea30.68.0141138963348 (20.0)392
Wanaka45.14.81932575188280 (3.8) 
Wakatipu77.24.82933067155312 (2.7)378
Te Anau61.29.73443302267205 (4.0)276
Manapouri28.98.01424623401181 (6.4)443
Monowai19.31.63124114196 (4.0) 
Hauroko35.42.47158331156 (1.8) 
Poteriteri28.92.4474143029 
Waihola6.42.085698 (Tidal)16
Ellesmere22.512.91811930 (Tidal)2
Artificial       
Cobb4.80.42695811 (15.2) 
Waitaki4.80.869774327232 
Aviemore  299701327269 
Roxburgh32.20.4615857486133 
Mahinerangi14.51.6213117391 
Benmore—
    Ahuriri Arm18.54.475853231936296
Main Arm29.8

GEOLOGY—The islands of New Zealand are part of the unstable circum-Pacific Mobile Belt. This is a region where volcanoes are active and where the Earth's crust has long been buckling and breaking at a geologically rapid rate. The interplay, in the past, of earth movements and erosion has made the sedimentary rocks that cover almost three-quarters of New Zealand. Land areas that the earth movements have raised have been attacked by erosion, and the sand, mud, shingle, and other debris thus formed has been carried away to the sea, where it has accumulated in great thicknesses to form rocks such as sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, and conglomerate; the shells and other skeletons of sea creatures have accumulated to form thick layers of limestone. Many of the sedimentary rocks are in distinct layers called strata. Earth movements have later raised them above the sea to form land, and the strata have in many places been tilted and folded by pressure. Seas have advanced and retreated over the New Zealand area many times and these sedimentary rocks represent almost every geological period since the Cambrian (see Time Scale). Their age is revealed by the Molluscan shells, foraminifera, and other fossils that they contain, as well as by various radioactive techniques.

As well as sedimentary rocks, and volcanic rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure schist, gneiss, marble and other metamorphic rocks, and granite, diorite, gabbro, serpentine, and other intrusive igneous rocks. Most of these metamorphic and intrusive rocks are hundreds of millions of years old. They were formed at depth in the Earth's crust early in New Zealand's history, in the “roots” of ancient mountain ranges, long ago destroyed, and are visible at the land surface today only because erosion has removed thousands of metres thickness of other rocks that once covered them. The metamorphic rocks developed by the action of heat and pressure on the thick sediments (up to tens of thousands of metres) deposited in huge, elongated sea basins (geosynclines), which continued to sink as the deposits accumulated. When these geosynclines were slowly compressed during major mountain-building episodes the deeper sediments were subjected to great pressure and shearing stress, which caused new minerals and structures to develop, changing the sediments into metamorphic rocks. The granites and other intrusive rocks are coarsely crystalline, and are usually considered to have intruded into the outer crust in a molten state during mountain building; some, however, may be the products of an intense metamorphism of sediments.

GEOLOGICAL TIME-SCALE
ErasPeriodsApproximate Time Since Period Began (Years)
CenozoicHolocene (Recent)Quaternary10 thousand
Pleistocene2 million
PlioceneTertiary11 million
Miocene25 million
Oligocene38 million
Eocene60 million
Paleocene70 million
MesozoicCretaceous 135 million
Jurassic 180 million
Triassic 225 million
PaleozoicPermian 270 million
Carboniferous 350 million
Devonian 400 million
Silurian 440 million
Ordovician 500 million
Cambrian 600 million

Geological History—Evidence of the earliest-known events in New Zealand's history is given by ancient rocks in Nelson, Westland, and Fiordland that were formed in the early Paleozoic era, perhaps as long as 600 million years ago (some in Westland may be older). They include thick, geosynclinal sedimentary rocks. This suggests that a large land mass existed nearby at that time to yield the great volume of sediments, but little has been deduced about its shape or position.

The history of the later part of the Paleozoic era, and the Mesozoic era, is rather better understood. For a vast span of time from the Carboniferous period—probably until the early Cretaceous period—an extensive geosyncline occupied the New Zealand region. At first, during much of the late Paleozoic time, huge quantities of submarine lava and volcanic tuff were included in the materials that accumulated in the geosyncline, but in the later Permian and Mesozoic times the sediments were mainly sand and mud, derived probably from some land west of present New Zealand; they were compacted into hard greywacke (a type of sandstone) and argillite (hard, dark mudstone).

In the early Cretaceous period one of the main mountain-building episodes in New Zealand's history took place. Although geosynclinal sedimentation continued through the Cretaceous period in eastern New Zealand the geosyncline elsewhere was compressed, and the sediments were intensely crumpled and broken and raised above the sea, probably forming a large, mountainous land mass. Some of the geosynclinal deposits, now exposed over much of Otago, alpine Westland, and parts of Marlborough Sounds, were metamorphosed into schist and gneiss by high temperatures and the tremendous deforming pressures to which the geosyncline was subjected.

The time that has elapsed since the intense folding of the strata in the New Zealand geosyncline in the mid-Cretaceous period may be considered as the later geological history of this country, embracing roughly 100 million years.

During the early part of this late history, erosion slowly were down the mountains that had risen, producing a land of low relief. Over these worn-down stumps of the Mesozoic mountains the sea gradually advanced, beginning its transgression earlier in some areas than in others. In the early Cretaceous period it began to submerge land in the region of present North Auckland and the eastern margins of the North and South Islands, and thick deposits of mudstone and sandstone accumulated in some parts of these areas. At the close of the Mesozoic era, and in the very early Tertiary era, land became so reduced in size and relief that little sediment was formed, and only comparatively thin deposits of fine bentonitic and sulphurous muds, and fine white foraminiferal limestone accumulated. In some areas New Zealand's main coal deposits accumulated in swamps on the surface of the old land. These became buried by marine deposits as the sea continued its transgression in the Eocene period.

By the Oligocene period, most of the land was submerged, and in shallow waters free of land sediments, thick deposits of shell and foraminiferal limestone accumulated. (Scattered remnant patches of this Oligocene limestone furnish most of New Zealand's cement and agricultural lime.)

After the Oligocene submergence earth movements became more vigorous; many ridges rose from the sea as islands, and sank or were worn down again; sea basins formed and rapidly filled with sediments. New Zealand's late Tertiary environment has been described as follows: “The pattern of folds, welts, and troughs that developed was on a finer scale than in the Mesozoic … the land moved up and down as a series of narrow, short, interfingering or branching folds … . We Can think of Tertiary New Zealand as an archipelago … A kind of writhing of part of the mobile Pacific margins seems to have gone on …”. The thick deposits of soft, grey mudstone and sandstone that now make up large areas of the North Island, and some parts of the South Island, are the deposits that accumulated rapidly in the many sea basins, large and small, that developed in the later Tertiary.

Very late in the Cenozoic era—in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods—one of the greatest episodes of mountain building in New Zealand's history took place. Earth movements became intense, and slowly pushed up the Southern Alps and other main mountain chains, and determined the general shape and size of the present islands of New Zealand. Much of the movement during this mountain-building period (the Kaikoura Orogeny) took the form of displacement of blocks of the Earth's crust along fractures called faults. The total movements of the Earth blocks adjacent to major faults amounted to thousands of metres. It must have been achieved very slowly, probably by innumerable small movements, each less than a few metres. The blocks adjacent to “transcurrent” faults moved not only vertically but also laterally along the faults. The New Zealand landscape today in some regions shows well preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault-scarps—steep faces hundreds or even thousands of metres high. Fault movements continue to the present day, and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century. Many minor but revealing landscape features such as scarplets, fault ponds, and shutter ridges show where movement has been occurring in recent centuries.

Erosion during this time has eaten into the major landscape forms that the earth movements buil., carving detailed landscape patterns of peaks, ridges, valleys, and gorges, and the deposition of the debris has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans, and other construction forms. At the coast, waves have driven back the headlands and built beaches, spits and bars. The Pleistocene period was the time of the Ice Age, and in the high mountains of the South Island glaciers carved deep valleys and carried huge loads of rock, dumping them in the lower parts of the valleys as moraines. The late Pleistocene glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the basins occupied by most South Island lakes; there were small glaciers also on Ruapehu, where remnants survive, and on Mount Egmont and the Tararua Range. Sea-level changes accompanied the formation and later melting of the land ice, affecting the erosion or deposition of the rivers and thus being responsible for the formation of the many prominent river terraces in this country.

Volcanic activity of the past few million years has played an important part in making the rocks and shaping the landscape of parts of the central and northern North Island. Banks Peninsula, a twin volcanic dome in Canterbury, also achieved much of its growth then. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times in New Zealand have been in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty Coast: andesite lava, scoria, and ash were erupted in the Pleistocene period and later to build the huge volcanoes, Ruapehu, Tongariro, and Ngauruhoe. More than 8000 cu km of molten rhyolitic magma was erupted in the form of ignimbrite, pumice, and rhyolite lava, building up the Volcanic Plateau. This is one of the largest and youngest accumulations of acid volcanic rocks in the world.

Mount Egmont is a huge, conical, andesite volcano, with the remnants of two other volcanic cones nearby; all are of Pleistocene age. In the Waikato there are eroded Pleistocene cones of approximately basic andesite composition. The largest is Pirongia, some 900 m high. Auckland city and the area immediately to the south has been the scene of many eruptions of basalt lava and scoria in late Pleistocene and Holocene times; and many small scoria cones can be seen in the locality. Late Tertiary and Quaternary basaltic eruptions in North Auckland have built lava plateaus and many young cones.

EARTHQUAKES: Geophysical Background—An earthquake occurs when energy is suddenly released from a volume of rock within the Earth's outer layers, and is radiated outwards in the form of elastic waves that can be felt at places near the origin, and detected by sensitive instruments at greater distances. Earthquakes are most common in certain geographically limited regions, one of which includes New Zealand. Within these disturbed zones, young fold mountains, oceanic trenches, volcanoes, anomalies in the Earth's gravitational field, and active geological faulting are also usual, and like the earthquakes have their ultimate cause in the internal processes incidental to the major structural development of the Earth, and as yet imperfectly understood.

The seismically active zones define the margins of a system of stable blocks or plates which are not completely inactive, but experience large earthquakes only infrequently, and are thought to be the primary units of the Earth's crust. Two of these units, the Pacific and Indian Plates, abut in the vicinity of New Zealand, forming a triple junction with a third, the Antarctic Plate, south of Macquarie Island. As a result of thermally generated convective movements in the deeper levels of the earth, relative displacement of the plates is occurring and this provides the continuing source of the energy that is intermittently released as earthquakes.

Instrumental records have shown that at the time of an earthquake large shearing movements take place at the source. It seems probable that all major earthquakes are the result of the breakage of rock under strain, but other factors such as the presence or absence of liquid in the pores and fractures of the rock are also of primary importance in determining the time and place at which a shock occurs.

In large shallow earthquakes a rupture may appear at the surface, forming or renewing movement on a geological fault. In regions where the majority of earthquakes are very shallow, such as California, there is a tendency for the earthquake origins to cluster near geological fault traces, but in regions where there is deeper activity, such as New Zealand, this is not so. For example, there is little activity near the Alpine Fault, which stretches for some 500 km from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti, and is considered one of the world's largest and most active faults. Conversely, instances of fault movement that have not been accompanied by earthquakes are known. Practical assessments of earthquake risk must therefore be based upon the statistics of known earthquake distribution and the broader geological setting of the origins.

New Zealand Seismicity—Compared with some other parts of the Pacific margin, such as Japan, Chile, and the Philippines, the level of seismic activity in New Zealand is moderate: It may be roughly compared with that prevailing in California. A shock of Richter magnitude or above occurs on the average about once a year, one of magnitude 7 or above once in ten years, and one of about magnitude 8 perhaps once a century, but in historic times only one shock (the south-west Wairarapa earthquake in 1855) is known to have reached this magnitude.

Other natural disasters and accidents are together responsible for more casualties than earthquakes, the most serious seismic disasters in New Zealand having been the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 1931 in which 255 deaths occurred, and the Buller earthquake of 1929 in which there were 17. The total resulting from all other shocks since 1840 is less than 15 deaths. The last earthquake to cause deaths occurred at Inangahua in 1968, when 3 people died.

Regarded broadly, the zone of seismicity within which New Zealand lies extends continuously from the triple junction south of Macquarie Island to Samoa. When looked at more closely, breaks in continuity and changes in the character of the activity become apparent. There are changes in direction, in the positional relationship of the deeper and shallower activity, and in its association with the other geophysical and geological features of the region.

Within New Zealand itself, at least two separate systems of seismic activity can be distinguished. The Main Seismic Region, which is the larger, covers the whole of the North Island apart from the Northland peninsula, and the South Island north of a line passing roughly between Banks Peninsula and Cape Foulwind. The Southern, or Fiordland, Seismic Region includes Southern Westland, Western Southland, and Western Otago. Less clearly defined activity covers the remainder of the two main Islands', and extends eastwards from Banks Peninsula to include the Chatham Islands.

Shallow earthquakes, which are the most numerous, originate within the Earth's crust, which in New Zealand has an average thickness of some 35 km. These shocks are responsible for almost all damage to property, and now and in the past they have been widely scattered throughout the country. In historically recent times, the Main and Fiordland Seismic Regions have been significantly more active than the rest of New Zealand, but neither the Central Seismic Region that lies between them nor the Northland peninsula has been free from damaging shocks. The details of the present pattern are not necessarily unchanging, and could alter significantly after the occurrence of a major earthquake. Because of this, because of the broader geophysical setting, and because of the distance to which the effects of a large earthquake extends, it would be highly imprudent to treat any part of New Zealand as free from the risk of serious earthquake damage.

Many active regions of the Earth have only shallow earthquakes, but in others shocks have been known to occur at depths as great as 700 km below the surface. It is thought that these deep shocks originate within the edges of crustal plates that have been drawn down or thrust beneath their neighbours. Such deep events are common in both the Main and Fiordland Seismic Regions of New Zealand, but their relative positions with respect to the shallow activity and to other geophysical features are rough mirror images. This is believed to indicate that in the North Island, the edge of the Pacific Plate lies below that of the Indian Plate, while in the south of the South Island the Pacific Plate is uppermost and the Indian Plate has been thrust beneath it.

The most important system of deep shocks in New Zealand lies in a well-defined zone beneath the Main Seismic Region, stretching from the Bay of Plenty to Nelson and Marlborough. The maximum depth of occurrence is about 400 km at the northern end, and decreases smoothly to a depth of about 200 km before the southern boundary of the region is reached. Along the whole of the system, there is also a decrease in maximum depth from west to east. In northern Taranaki, near the western limit of this activity, a small isolated group of shocks at a depth of about 600 km has also been recorded. In the Central Seismic Region only shallow shocks are known.

The maximum depth of the earthquakes in the Fiordland Region appears to be only about 160 km, but it is only recently that instrumental coverage has been adequate for a proper study of this area. Here, the deep activity is more concentrated than in the north, lying close to Lakes Te Anau and Manapouri.

Both earthquakes and volcanoes are found in geophysically disturbed regions, but although small earthquakes usually accompany volcanic eruptions, large ones are rare. Regions of active volcanism are also subject to periodic outbreaks of small earthquakes, all of similar magnitude, and very numerous. These events are known as “earthquake swarms”. Although the number of shocks may cause alarm, it is unusual for even minor damage to result. There is not often a simultaneous volcanic outbreak, but swarms do not seem to occur in non-volcanic regions. In New Zealand they have occurred in the volcanic zone that includes Mt. Ruapehu and White Island, in the Coromandel Peninsula, in parts of Northland, and near Mt. Egmont.

Seismological Observatory—Each year the Seismological Observatory, Wellington, a section of the Geophysics Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, publishes the analyses of many hundred earthquakes originating in the New Zealand region, using data obtained from its own network of recording stations, and from stations in other countries. The instrumental data are supplemented by information about felt effects, supplied by a large number of voluntary observers, who complete a standard questionnaire.

The network of recording stations controlled by the Observatory is now one of the world's largest and most extended, covering the main islands of New Zealand, a large part of the south-west Pacific, and the Ross Dependency. The 33 permanent stations now operating are:

Afiamalu, Apia (Western Samoa); Nadi (Fiji); Niue; Rarotonga (Cook Islands); Raoul Island (Kermadecs); Cape Reinga, Onerahi, Great Barrier, Auckland, East Cape, Karapiro, Whakatane, Gisborne, Wairakei, Tuai, Tarata, Taradale, Mangahao, Castlepoint, Cobb River, Wellington, Kaikoura, Kaimata, Cashmere, Chatham Islands, Milford Sound, Oamaru, Roxburgh, Borland Lodge, Oban; Campbell Island; Scott Base (Antarctica).

At Afiamalu, Rarotonga, Wellington, and Scott Base the equipment includes instruments of internationally standardised pattern designed to record both local and distant activity. At the other stations, many of which record more than one component of the ground motion, the instruments are primarily intended for the study of shocks within about 1000 km. At Wellington there is also a modem Seismic Research Observatory with digital recording, one of only 12 of its kind in the world. Scott Base and several of the island stations provide preliminary readings by radio, but all final analyses are made at the Observatory in Wellington.

Two networks of more closely-spaced stations, connected to central recorders by radio links or land lines, provide for detailed studies of small earthquakes in particular regions. One, for general research purposes, is centred on Wellington, and the other, near Lake Pukaki in the South Island, is primarily intended to monitor any change in earthquake activity associated with the development of a hydroelectric power scheme. These networks also provide valuable readings of New Zealand and overseas earthquakes. Portable equipment is available for more intensive study of aftershock sequences, earthquake swarms, and micro-earthquakes, and for other research projects. In association with the observatory the Geophysical Survey of DSIR operates 3 seismographs in the Tongariro National Park, Victoria University of Wellington operates an instrument on White Island, and the University of Otago has a further instrument in Dunedin. In addition, the Department's Physics and Engineering Laboratory maintains a network of strong-motion recorders intended to provide data on large shocks for engineering purposes.

The information collected and published by the Observatory covers all significant earthquakes in the New Zealand region. It is made freely available to the public and the press, as well as to seismologists, engineers, and other specialists. In addition, a very large number of distant earthquakes are recorded, and readings of these, as well as of the local activity, are regularly sent to international agencies and to overseas seismologists who have a need for them. The Observatory itself carries out a vigorous programme of research into problems of seismicity and earthquake mechanism, and into the structure and constitution of the Earth's crust and its deep interior.

EARTHQUAKES DURING 1980—The largest earthquake in New Zealand during 1980 occurred on 23 December, just north of Tauranga, but no reports have been received of its being felt there or in Whakatane. The heaviest shaking reported was in Gisborne, and it was felt as far south as Wellington. The reason for the lack of strong shaking near the epicentre of a large earthquake (its magnitude was 6.3) is that it occurred at a depth of 300 kilometres. Deep earthquakes under the North Island occur on a plane which meets the surface along the East Coast, and dips under the volcanic region and the Bay of Plenty. The energy which spreads outwards from the earthquake travels easily along this plane but strikes a buffer zone directly above the focus. So the East Coast area was shaken strongly and the Bay of Plenty hardly at all.

The earthquake which caused the most damage during the year occurred very close to the city of Napier at 3.30 a.m. on October 6. It was of magnitude 5.9. Goods were shaken off shelves in shops throughout the city, and windows were broken in a few buildings. Windows were also reported cracked in Hastings, and the strong rolling motion woke people as far away as Gisborne and Wanganui. The Earthquake and War Damage Commission has received some 2000 claims, mostly minor.

This earthquake was the largest of a number of moderate shocks which jolted the North Island during the year but left the South Island largely untouched. Nelson and Marlborough, subjected in the past to some of New Zealand's major historical earthquakes, were relatively quiet during 1980 while the East Coast of the North Island experienced several moderate shocks. Napier city had earthquakes of magnitude 5.2 and 5.0 on July 3 and 4, and there was another of magnitude 5.3 off the mouth of the Porangahau river on July 3. A further shock, much smaller, shook Napier again on November 25.

Inland and further south, a magnitude 5.6 earthquake occurred near Hunterville at 4.45 a.m. on Tuesday June 24. It was felt over much of the Central North Island, waking people from New Plymouth to Napier. Two smaller shocks, both about magnitude 4.5, occurred near Kapiti Island on July 15 and 20, causing some alarm in the Wellington area and north to Wanganui.

There was a swarm of small earthquakes near Palmerston North from late August to mid-September. About a dozen were felt, and many more were detected by the sensitive seismograph which operates continuously at Mangahao Dam, in the Tararuas. Earthquake swarms are a common phenomenon, often causing alarm to the people in the immediate vicinity, but they usually taper off without the occurrence of any large event.

There has been only very limited volcanic activity throughout the year. White Island ash and steam eruptions have declined from 1979, and the volcanoes of the central North Island have been quiet.

WEATHER INFORMATION—The New Zealand Meteorological Service maintains networks of meteorological stations within New Zealand, on its outlying islands, at Scott Base and, by arrangement, in Tonga, Tuvalu, Kiribati, and the Cook Islands. The weather observations are transmitted regularly to Wellington for international exchange, for the preparation of weather forecasts and special warnings, for compiling climatological statistics, and for providing a general weather information service for Government departments, industry, and the general public. All weather observations are preserved in the Meteorological Archives, Wellington. The Meteorological Service also has a programme of atmospheric research.

Observations recorded at a few selected stations in 1979 are summarised in tables which follow but for further detailed climatological statistics reference should be made to the annual publications of the New Zealand Meteorological Service; Miscellaneous Publications No. 109 Meteorological Observations, and No. 110 Rainfall Observations. Current statistics appear monthly in the New Zealand Gazette. Special reports are published from time to time to supplement the regular data publications.

Most weather data are now held in computer accessible-data files, and several kinds of output are available to provide an alternative means of dissemination of information to the printed publications.

CLIMATE—Situated between 34°S and 47°S the main islands of New Zealand lie just south of the subtropical mean high pressure belt and penetrate into the hemispheric westerly airstream which is usually strongest in the New Zealand region between 50°S and 55°S. The daily weather patterns are dominated by eastward-moving anticyclones and troughs of low pressure whose frequencies and intensities vary substantially. The troughs normally have a north-west to south-west orientation and are associated with deep depressions centred far to the south. A typical weather sequence commences with a low-pressure trough approaching from the west. Freshening north-westerly winds prevail with increasing cloud, followed by rain for a period during which winds may reach gale force. The passage of the trough, with its associated cold front, is accompanied by a change to cold south-westerly or southerly winds and showery weather, occasionally with some hail and thunder. The barometer then rises with the approach of the next anticyclone from the west. Winds moderate and fair weather prevails for a few days as the anticyclone moves across the country.

While the sequence just described is very common the situation is frequently much more complex. The troughs are very unstable systems where depressions readily form. Some of these develop into vigorous storms that may pass over New Zealand at any time of the year. Occasionally in summer a cyclonic storm of tropical origin accompanied by gales and heavy rain passes over or near New Zealand, affecting mainly northern and eastern districts of the North Island. The anticyclones vary in size, intensity, and rate of movement. Their centres, on the average, follow a track across the North Island but individual centres may pass either north or south of the country, the more northerly tracks being favoured in spring and the southerly tracks in autumn and winter. At times when little development occurs within the troughs the anticyclones follow each other at intervals of about 6–7 days.

The other main factors which influence the climate of New Zealand are, first, its position in the midst of a vast ocean, and second, the shape and topography of the country itself.

Hot air masses from the interior of Australia in summer or freezing air masses from the Antarctic, which occasionally reach New Zealand, retain little of their original characters after their long ocean passages. Since abundant supplies of moisture are supplied by evaporation from the ocean, and depressions are frequent and vigorous, the average precipitation is high.

The chain of high mountains, which extends from south-west to north-east through the length of the country, rises as a formidable barrier in the path of the prevailing westerly winds. The effect is to produce much sharper climatic contrasts from west to east than in the north-south direction. In some inland areas of the South Island just east of the mountains the climate is distinctly continental in character, despite the fact that no part of New Zealand is more than 130 km from the sea.

Winds—Winds from a westerly quarter prevail in all seasons although in individual months easterlies may predominate. In the North Island winds generally decrease for a period in the summer or early autumn. However, in the South Island, July and August are the least windy months. Important modifications to the wind pattern are caused by mountain ranges and by the heating or cooling contrasts between land and sea. The north-westerly föhn wind in eastern areas of both islands gives rise to a characteristic weather type. The blocking effect of the mountain ranges decreases wind strength on the upwind side but increases it in the mountain passes and in Cook and Foveaux Straits and about the Manawatu Gorge. Sea breezes are frequent and in many parts of New Zealand are almost certainly coupled with the mountain winds. North of Taranaki the general air flow is from the south-west and there is a noticeable reduction of windiness in the summer.

An indication of the variation in the frequency of strong winds from summer to winter, and in different parts of the country, is given in the next table. These figures were all obtained by the use of anemographs at airports.

StationAverage Number of Days with Gusts ReachingYears of Data
63 km/h or more96 km/h or more
Nov–AprMay–OctYearNov–AprMay–OctYear
Kaitaia1632480.71.62.321
Whangarei1626420.81.42.28
Auckland2131520.90.81.79
Tauranga1523380.50.71.222
Rotorua1116270.30.20.59
Hamilton913220.60.68
Gisborne2127480.40.91.329
New Plymouth3348812.14.76.822
Napier1721380.60.51.123
Wanganui3742192.74.47.116
Palmerston North2622481.10.81.918
Wellington909818818.822.741.58
Nelson2014340.50.30.830
Blenheim2315380.70.51.230
Westport1420340.41.01.423
Hokitika1420340.31.31.68
Christchurch3123541.51.32.829
Timaru1512270.70.61.315
Dunedin2832602.62.85.411
Gore2920490.90.95
Invercargill5345985.85.010.827

Rainfall—The distribution of rainfall is mainly controlled by mountain features, and the highest rainfalls occur where the mountains are exposed to the direct sweep of the westerly and north-westerly winds. The mean annual rainfall (see map) ranges from as little as 300 mm in a small area of Central Otago to over 8000 mm in the Southern Alps. The average for the whole country is high, but for the greater part it lies between 600 and 1500 mm, a range regarded as favourable for plant growth in the temperate zone. The only areas with under 600 mm are found in the South Island to the east of the main ranges. These include most of central and north Otago, and South Canterbury. In the North Island, the driest areas are central and southern Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu where the average rainfall is 700–1000 mm a year. Of the remainder, much valuable farm land, chiefly in northern Taranaki and Northland, has upwards of 1500 mm. Over a considerable area of both Islands rainfall exceeds 2500 mm a year but, with the exception of Westland, this is mountainous and unoccupied, much of it being forest-covered.

For a large part of the country the rainfall is spread evenly through the year. The greatest contrast is found in the north, where winter has almost twice as much rain as summer. This predominance of winter rainfall diminishes southwards. It is still discernible over the northern part of the South Island but, over the southern half, winter is the season with least rainfall, and a definite summer maximum is found inland due to the effect of convectional showers. The rainfall is also influenced by seasonal variations in the strength of the westerly winds. Spring rainfall is increased in and west of the ranges as the westerlies rise to their maximum about October, while a complementary decrease occurs at the same time in the lee of the ranges.

Areas which are exposed to the west and south-west experience much showery weather, and rain falls on roughly half the days of the year. Over most of the North Island there are at least 130 rain days (days with at least 1.0 mm of rain) a year except to the east of the ranges where there are in places fewer than 110 rain days. Those areas of the South Island with annual rainfall under 600 mm generally have about 80 rain days a year. In the far south the frequency of rain increases sharply; in Stewart Island and Fiordland rain days exceed 200 a year.

On the whole the seasonal rainfall does not vary greatly from year to year, the reliability in spring being particularly advantageous for agricultural purposes. It is least reliable in late summer and autumn, when very dry conditions may develop east of the ranges, particularly in Hawke's Bay.

The highest daily rainfall on record is 582 mm which occurred at Rapid Creek, Hokitika Catchment, where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 6000 mm. Other areas with considerably lower rainfall are also subject to very heavy daily falls; such areas are to be found in northern Hawke's Bay and in northeastern districts of the Auckland Province. By contrast, in the Manawatu district and in Otago and Southland daily falls reaching 80 mm are very rare.

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL (MILLIMETRES) (1941–70)
StationJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
Kaitaia Aerodrome799484119152157150165122112102941430
Kerikeri76124112142178178183196142114991041648
Dargaville6684791041321501321379710984791253
Auckland (Albert Park)6494861141271351371429410784841268
Tauranga Aerodrome8484114114137132137137107114841041348
Rotorua991141171171501501421371271221041321511
Taupo8194769110912211710984102841121199
Hamilton (Ruakura)718184991121321171179710791891197
Taumarunui8999841091321521351241171371241301432
New Plymouth Aerodrome1071021021171631681631471121351171321565
Masterton (Waingawa)645876711021071029174746976964
Gisborne Aerodrome74619191109112112117747158641034
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)1501401681802111881982261501501471522060
Napier515866618489798151534364780
Wanganui696461748691817658816989899
Palmerston North84697474869991846989791041002
Wellington (Kelburn)8184949713213514012410211284861271
Westport Aerodrome1551681571912011881831701701832011852152
Hokitika Aerodrome2312512392342722292412362392572772342940
Milford Sound5315696305264834193784245385466385546236
Nelson Aerodrome7474818911279919476817474999
Blenheim514351537658666153534851664
Hanmer Forest8681919911799104114899789991165
Lake Coleridge616158767971817974767671863
Christchurch514658588456585346464656658
Lake Tekapo514348535348534856515151606
Timaru585858484836413841485869601
Dunedin (Musselburgh)746176747166564648587171772
Queenstown746676717966646176767664849
Alexandra463838282820151520283330339
Gore766976797679564853698179841
Invercargill Aerodrome897994104911076966748694891042

Thunderstorms—Thunderstorms are not numerous. Their frequency is greatest in the north and west where thunder is heard on 15 to 20 days a year; east of the ranges (except in Gisborne) the figure is five or less.

Hail—Hail is most frequent in the south-west where it is reported on about 20 days a year, but for the greater part of the country it occurs on about 5 days a year or less. Most of the hailstones are small, but occasionally large stones cause local damage to glasshouses, and to orchards and market gardens, chiefly in Canterbury and Hawke's Bay.

Temperature—Mean temperatures at sea level decrease steadily southwards from 15°c in the far north to 12°c about Cook Strait, then to 9°c in the south. With increasing altitude, temperatures drop about 2°c per 30G m. January and February, with approximately the same mean temperature are the warmest months of the year; July is the coldest. Some temperature statistics for selected places are included in the table on climatological averages. Highest temperatures are recorded east of the main ranges, where they exceed 30°c on a few afternoons in most summers, usually in association with a north-westerly föhn wind. The extremes for New Zealand (measured in a standard thermometer screen) are 42°c, which has been recorded in three places: Jordan (Marlborough), Christchurch, and Rangiora (Canterbury); and −19°c at Ophir (Central Otago).

As is to be expected, there is a small annual range of temperature (difference between mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months). In Northland and in western districts of both Islands the annual range is about 8°c. For the remainder of the North Island, and east coast districts of the South Island, it is 9°–10°c. Further inland it exceeds 11°c in places, reaching a maximum of 14°c in Central Otago where there is an approach to a continental type of climate.

Frost—It is well known that local variations in frostiness are considerable, even within quite small areas. On a calm, clear night the cold air in contact with a sloping surface gravitates slowly downhill to collect in valleys and depressions, and it is these “katabatic” drifts which are mainly responsible for local temperature variations at night. Gently sloping ground with a northerly aspect tends to be least affected by frost. Favourable sites in coastal areas of Northland are free of frost, although further inland light frosts occur frequently in the winter months. At Albert Park, Auckland, the screen minimum thermometer (1.3 m above the ground) has registered below 0°c only once in 65 years, yet up the harbour at Whenuapai Aerodrome there are eight screen frosts per annum on the average. Excluding the uninhabited mountainous areas, the coldest winter conditions are experienced in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains of inland Canterbury, and on the central plateau of the North Island. Even in these areas night temperatures as low as −12°c are rarely recorded. Elsewhere over the North Island the winters are very mild and pastures maintain continuous growth. In both Islands sheep and cattle remain in the open all the year round.

Snow—The majority of New Zealanders rarely see snow except on the mountains. The North Island has a small permanent snow field above 2500 m on the central plateau, but the snow line rarely descends below 600 m even for brief periods in winter. In the South Island snow falls on a few days a year in eastern coastal districts, and in some years may lie for a day or two even at sea level. In Westland it does not lie at sea level. The snow line on the Southern Alps is around 2000 m in summer, being slightly lower on the western side where the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers descend through heavy bush to within 300 m of sea level. In inland Canterbury and Otago, where there are considerable areas of grazing lands above 300 m, snowfalls are heavier and more persistent and have caused serious losses of sheep during severe winters in the past. However, only rarely does the winter snow line there remain below 1000 m for extended periods.

Relative Humidity—Humidity is commonly between 70 and 80 percent in coastal areas and about 10 percent lower inland. It varies inversely to the temperature, falling to a minimum in the early afternoon when temperature is highest and frequently lying between 90 and 100 percent during clear nights. As the following table shows, the diurnal variation is greater than the difference between summer and winter.

StationMean Relative Humidity
JanuaryJuly
3 a.m.3 p.m.3 a.m.3 p.m.
  percent 
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)85639074
Gisborne85578769
Ohakea Aerodrome87628972
Wellington89718777
Christchurch83578870
Hokitika94768770
Invercargill87689077

Very low humidity—from 30 percent down to about 5 percent—occurs at times in the lee of the Southern Alps where the föhn effect is often very marked. In summer the hot, dry “Canterbury Nor'-wester” is generally a most unpleasant wind. Cool south-westerlies are also at times very dry when they reach eastern districts. In Northland the humid mid-summer conditions are inclined to be rather oppressive though temperatures rarely reach 30°c. Dull, humid spells are generally not prolonged anywhere, but their frequency shows a marked increase in the south.

Sunshine—The sunniest places are near Blenheim, the Nelson-Motueka area, and Whakatane, where the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 2350 hours a year. The rest of the Bay of Plenty and Napier are only slightly less sunny. A large portion of the country' is favoured with at least 2000 hours. Even Westland, despite its high rainfall, has 1800 hours. Southland and coastal Otago, where sunshine drops sharply to about 1700 hours a year, lie on the northern fringe of a broad zone of increasing cloudiness. Four hundred miles further to the south at Campbell Island the sunshine has the extremely low value of 650 hours a year. A pleasant feature of the New Zealand climate is the high proportion of sunshine during the winter months. To eliminate the effect of varying day-length the summer and winter sunshine at a few selected stations has been expressed as a percentage of the possible sunshine.

StationSummerWinter
 percent
Auckland5447
Hamilton5443
New Plymouth5446
Napier5650
Wellington5341
Nelson5957
Hokitika4645
Christchurch4746
Dunedin4042
Invercargill4135

As these figures indicate, there is a marked increase in cloudiness in the North Island in winter, but little seasonal change in the South Island, except in Southland.

Climatological Averages—The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

StationAltitude (metres)Annual AveragesAir Temperatures (Degrees Celsius)
Rain Days (1.0mm or More)Rain Days (5.0mm or More)Bright Sunshine (Hrs)Days of Screen Frost (min. air temp. less than 0°C)Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumMean Annual
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
Kaitaia Aerodrome80138722138015.52415158282
Kerikeri73135722014115.12515136290
Dargaville20147722011314.6231514729−2
Auckland (Albert Park)49140672140015.42314168273
Tauranga Aerodrome4118642285814.2241414529−2
Hamilton (Ruakura)401317220541713.2231312329−3
Rotorua3071236819332512.5231212329−3
Gisborne Aerodrome4113552224614.0241413432−2
Taupo3761236620683911.8231111229−4
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)643164100 611.120911328−1
Taumarunui1711408317243912.9241312231−5
New Plymouth (Aerodrome)27142832102013.12113135260
Napier292432262614.1241314432−2
Wanganui22117592092413.5221214529−1
Palmerston North341276218261513.0221213428−3
Masterton (Waingawa)1141235720072912.2241211231−4
Wellington (Kelburn)126124682014012.52011136261
Nelson Aerodrome2965424034111.9221212128−3
Blenheim4843924703612.6231212232−4
Westport Aerodrome21691111937112.11912124250
Hanmer Forest3871156519238510.12299−232−9
Hokitika Aerodrome3916811818832511.3191111326−2
Lake Coleridge3649852 7010.121910−131−7
Christchurch7853719853711.7221112132−4
Timaru17813318103911.0211011032−4
Milford Sound3183145 2710.318910225−3
Queenstown329935019315310.122810−130−5
Alexandra141642020478110.623711−232−8
Dunedin (Musselburgh)2119481695810.9191011330−2
Gore721376016984010.12199031−5
Invercargill Aerodrome0157691627489.61899028−5

NOTES: (1) Averages of sunshine 1941–70; mean temperature, mean daily maximum and mean daily minimum 1941–70; other temperature data, rain days, and days of screen frost, various periods—all exceeding 10 years.

(2) For normal monthly and annual rainfall for these stations, see table under subsection on Rainfall.

(3) At Hanmer, Queenstown, and Alexandra the possible sunshine is considerably reduced by hills or mountains, by amounts varying from 3/4 hour per day at Alexandra to 1 1/2 hours per day at Hanmer and 3 1/4 hours per day at Queenstown. The reductions in actual sunshine are less than this—mainly between half and three-fifths of the above amounts.

Brief Review of 1980General Survey—Until the end of July the regime of high pressure anomalies to the south of the country and low pressure to the north, with comparatively light winds and above normal rainfalls in the eastern districts, continued to predominate. This regime had been dominant in the New Zealand region since 1974.

There was a marked change to a westerly wind regime early in August with a reversal of the pressure anomalies to the north and south of the country. From August until the end of the year strong westerlies affected many regions and there were high rain and snowfalls in southern Westland with very dry warm weather in the east of both main islands.

Over the whole year, western North Island and all South Island districts had above average rainfall, and below normal temperatures. Due to the fine weather in late Spring and Summer when the daylight hours are long, the year's sunshine in the east of the South Island was mainly above average.

There were 3 major flood events during the year. These were in eastern Southland and Otago (January), the Taieri Plains (June), and the Hastings area (December).

Monthly Notes—Throughout January pressures were lower than normal over the whole of New Zealand, but slightly above average to the north and south of the country. There was an exceptionally high frequency of north-west winds in all districts, with a greater number of days than usual with high gusts in the Wellington region. Conditions were wetter and cloudier than usual in most areas, with temperatures slightly warmer than normal. Gales on the 2nd and 3rd, with winds gusting to 122 km/h, disrupted ferry and aircraft movements in Wellington.

Most farmers reported that grass growth had been very good for this time of the year. Wet weather had delayed shearing and haymaking in some districts, but stock condition was good, although in parts of the South Island lambs were slow to fatten.

February was the third consecutive month with pressures below normal over the whole of New Zealand, although they were higher than usual to the south of the country. There was a greater frequency than usual of south-west winds over the North Island, but in the South Island both wind direction and speed frequencies were about normal for the month. Apart from Northland conditions were dry in most districts, and cooler than average in the South Island. From the 14th to the 16th a depression lying to the north-west of Northland caused north-easterly winds gusting to more than 130 km/h (70 knots). Many yachts in the Around the North Island race had to shelter in bays in the area north of Mangonui.

Most farmers throughout the country reported good grass growth and stock in good condition. Milk production was higher than in February last year in many areas, but lamb fattening was slow. Shearing and haymaking were delayed by rain towards the end of the month.

During March pressures were below normal over the whole of New Zealand for the fourth consecutive month. Strong westerly winds were more frequent than usual in the north of the North Island. In the south of the South Island there was a greater frequency than usual of north-easterly winds. Over most of New Zealand March was a wet, cloudy, and cool month. From the 1st to the 3rd a depression of tropical origin moved across central New Zealand bringing rain and gale force winds to many districts. In the Auckland area, winds gusting to more than 83 km/h (45 knots) caused yachts to break their moorings and run aground, and many houses lost roofs and had windows smashed. A further storm on the 15th–16th caused damage to yachts, houses, and power lines when winds gusting to 106 km/h (57 knots) were recorded in Auckland. The associated rain caused slips which blocked the railway north of Auckland.

Although grass growth was good in most areas ground conditions had become very wet by the end of the month. Stock was in good condition, apart from some cases of bloat in dairy cattle and grass staggers in sheep. Milk production was higher than last year, but lambs were slow to fatten.

Throughout most of New Zealand April was slightly wetter and cooler than usual, and the month was notable for the absence of strong winds. For example, the mean daily wind run of 245 km at Kelburn, Wellington, was the lowest in April since 1928 when recordings began. Mean monthly pressures were above normal over the whole of New Zealand for the first time since November 1979.

The majority of farmers throughout the country reported that grass growth had been very good during the month. Stock in general was in good condition, apart from lambs which need more sunshine and drier pastures.

May was considerably drier and milder than usual throughout most of New Zealand. Mean monthly pressures were the highest over the whole country since June 1979, and on the 9th, Kelburn, Wellington, recorded 1036.4 millibars, its highest May 9 a.m. pressure since 1934. There was a marked absence of strong winds over the North Island, but westerly winds were stronger than usual in southern areas of the South Island.

Mild drier conditions produced good grass growth in most districts, and stock was reported to be in excellent condition. Some farmers had experienced one of their best dairying seasons for many years.

Throughout New Zealand June was generally wetter and milder than usual. This was the third consecutive month with mean monthly pressures above normal. Pressures were especially high to the south and east. There was a greater frequency than usual of easterly winds.

Grass growth was good at the beginning of the month in most districts, but severe frosts during the latter half of the month retarded growth significantly. The majority of farmers reported that stock condition had remained good. Some heavy stock losses were reported in Otago at the beginning of the month, when heavy rain caused major flooding of the Taieri Plains area.

Throughout the country, July was generally a little dryer than normal, and temperatures were near the average. Pressures were considerably lower than usual in all districts and there was a greater frequency of south-westerly winds.

Many farmers reported little pasture growth, but stock was in good condition with some early lambing and calving under way.

Tornadoes accompanied by hail and thunder affected parts of Taranaki during the month causing widespread damage to a number of farms. Hailstones up to 6 cm long were reported on one occasion.

Throughout New Zealand, August was generally windier than usual with the result that western and southern areas of the country were considerably wetter than normal. Sea-level pressures were higher than normal to the north and lower to the south-east, resulting in a greater frequency than usual of south-westerly winds.

Many farmers reported little pasture growth, but that lambing and calving were well under way. Stock was generally in good condition, but in parts of Otago and Southland poor stock health was reported. Stock losses were reported as being relatively light during the month.

During the 15th to 17th of August, there were reports of gale force winds and heavy rain from many areas of New Zealand, including Wellington, Central Otago, Buller, Nelson, Marlborough, Wairarapa, Gisborne, and Taranaki. A tornado in Onehunga (Auckland) caused considerable damage and resulted in the death of a woman.

September in New Zealand was windier and milder than usual with an exceptionally high frequency of north-westerly winds. Consequently, western and southern areas of the country were considerably wetter than normal.

Farmers in the north of the country generally reported seasonable pasture growth, but in most other areas growth was poor. In the wettest areas stock and crop losses occurred, but in many eastern areas farmers were pleased by high lambing percentages.

During the early hours of the 10th, violent thunderstorms were reported in western North Island areas, and a tornado in north Taranaki caused considerable damage to farm buildings, power blackouts, and loss of stock.

Snow avalanches had been cutting the Milford Sound to Te Anau highway since the middle of August, and a further 5 major ones were reported in September. There was an estimated drop of 25 to 35 percent in tourist traffic to these areas.

Over most of New Zealand, October was a windy, sunny, and mild month with below-average rainfall. There was a high frequency of north-west winds although in the north, north-east winds predominated.

Good pasture growth and high dairy production were reported by many farmers despite the below-average rainfall. In the east of the South Island spring crops had not been striking well because of depleted soil moisture. During October, areas of Canterbury had a calculated soil water deficiency on at least 10 days.

The Milford Sound - Te Anau road was reopened to tourist traffic by the middle of the month, after having been closed by avalanches since mid-August.

Early in the month gale force winds fanned fires in Otago and Canterbury. These caused the loss of about 8000 hectares of tussock land in Otago and more than 1300 hectares of beech forest at Mount Thomas Forest.

November in New Zealand was generally wetter, windier, and cooler than usual with a very high frequency of south-westerly winds.

Farmers reported reasonable stock health despite slow to moderate pasture growth. In the South Island frosts during the month caused damage to the orcharding areas, and some observers noted that it had been a poor season for whitebait.

Thunderstorms during the 4th and 5th affected western parts of the North Island from Northland to Taranaki. Hailstones to 3-cm diameter were reported in New Plymouth. In Auckland the storm disrupted power, caused faults to fire alarms, and extensive damage to orchards and vineyards.

On 3 separate occasions during the month heavy snow falls were recorded in the mountains of both islands, and reached low levels in Otago and Southland.

Pressures during December were below average over northern districts, but elsewhere were above with large anomalies being recorded in the area south of the country. Winds from the westerly quarter predominated over New Zealand except in the far north.

Many farmers reported reasonable grass growth but exceptional growth was obtained in the East Coast of the North Island due to mild wet conditions. In many areas of the country, haymaking was behind schedule.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for 1980—The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1980 were made at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time, i.e. 2100 hours Greenwich mean time, except during January, February, November, and December, when they were made at 0900 hours N.Z. daylight time (2000 G.M.T.).

StationRainfall (mm)Rain Days (1.0 mm or more)Bright Sunshine (hours)Screen Frost Days*Air Temperature (Degrees Celsius)
Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumExtremes
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
* Minimum air temperatures less than 0.0°C.
Dargaville131316217020614.623.714.814.36.927.6−1.7
Whangarei150513718290114.924.415.514.76.030.0−0.2
Albert Park Auckland115314019870015.523.314.616.48.027.63.2
Tauranga116011519650414.222.913.714.44.627.4−1.2
Whakarewarewa128812920012212.522.111.312.72.628.4−3.0
Taupo121013018232711.723.010.711.71.930.1−3.5
Ruakura, Hamilton117913117582013.423.412.912.53.728.0−3.9
Taumarunui159616514733112.624.111.712.11.730.6−4.3
New Plymouth Airport151814119900113.421.113.014.35.326.1−1.0
Waingawa, Masterton118614917472112.223.111.612.02.530.3−3.1
Gisborne Airport108111221800514.224.513.614.23.733.6−3.2
Onepoto, Waikaremoana2352165-1010.921.19.111.73.031.5−1.5
Napier9609821151113.515.13.6−2.8
Palmerston North DSIR105612813880613.021.912.213.54.529.4−1.5
Kelburn Wellington131712919150012.519.711.113.46.224.91.3
Wanganui87912318460213.922.012.814.15.130.5−0.8
Westport247918416950212.119.812.112.34.224.7−0.2
Hokitika267317117411711.519.511.511.72.627.5−2.4
Milford Sound70301873310.118.78.810.31.125.8−3.1
Nelson9079723202712.321.711.612.51.326.7−3.5
Blenheim7568622542512.923.712.612.51.431.2−2.9
Hanmer Forest147213216989310.022.39.69.0−1.932.6−6.5
Lake Coleridge10011066010.221.69.49.4−1.532.7−7.0
Christchurch6499319856411.522.310.611.3−0.332.1−6.8
Lake Tekapo715862126679.120.06.58.4−2.028.0−6.8
Timaru6948319073111.421.210.111.71.331.4−3.0
Musselburgh, Dunedin102113214960711.118.59.411.53.827.7−1.5
Queenstown115311417724310.421.27.110.3−0.229.8−3.4
Alexandra4687518697910.822.78.810.8−1.931.5−6.9
Gore11361571529349.919.17.49.40.827.9−5.1
Invercargill Airport111916114982910.119.19.19.11.727.5−5.5

For 1980 the mean sea level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time were: Auckland, 1015.5; Kelburn, Wellington, 1012.8; Nelson Airport, 1013.2; Hokitika Airport, 1013.1; Christchurch, 1011.1; and Dunedin Airport, 1010.2.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on the geography and climate of New Zealand will be found in the following publications.

New Zealand Atlas—Government Printer.

Encyclopaedia of New Zealand—Government Printer.

New Zealand Gazette—Government Printer.

New Zealand Seismological Report—Geophysics Division, DSIR.

Rainfall Observations—New Zealand Meteorological Service.

Meteorological Observations—New Zealand Meteorological Service.

Chapter 2. Section 2 HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Table of Contents

The early history of the people of New Zealand and the coming of the Maoris is shrouded in myth and based on orally-transmitted traditions and the knowledge won from midden heaps, burial grounds, and the sites of early settlements by the spade of the archaeologist. It seems probable that the country was sparsely settled by a Polynesian people, ancestors of the present-day Maoris, by about the tenth century A.D. Certainly, by the thirteenth or fourteenth century there were well-established settlements and the early stages of exploration were over.

It is generally accepted that the ancestors of the Maoris came originally from South-east Asia, whence, as proto-Polynesians, they moved eastwards from island to island until they reached the eastern Pacific, where they settled the islands now known collectively as Polynesia. From Polynesia they sailed south-west in ocean-going canoes to reach New Zealand. These voyages were probably spread over several generations, perhaps several centuries. Oral Maori history and genealogy support the view that there was a final wave of migration of considerable magnitude about A.D. 1350. Adapting themselves to a new physical environment, in isolation from the outside world, the Maoris produced forms of social and economic organisation and material culture which were significantly different from their Polynesian prototypes.

Coming from tropical latitudes, the Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island, and when discovered by Europeans were in a high state of neolithic civilisation, with marked superiority in the arts of wood carving and military engineering. Their principal social unit was the family group, and from combinations of the numerous groups were formed the subtribes and tribes. They had highly developed social and ritualistic customs, and their system of land tenure and methods of cultivation were communal within the subtribes. Inter-tribal and intra-tribal warfare was common, and as individuals Maoris displayed exceptional courage and intelligence.

The introduction of European diseases and firearms, and the impact of European civilisation on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have been reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However, the virility of the race gradually asserted itself, and from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing.

Discovery by Europeans—On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Staten Land, and which later became known as “Nieuw Zeeland”. Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north, he had the misfortune to come into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that, though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain (then Lieutenant) James Cook sighted land on 7 October 1769 near Gisborne. Cook and a party of men from the Endeavour landed at Gisborne on 9 October 1769. On his first voyage Cook spent 6 months exploring the New Zealand coastline, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can best be described by saying “he found New Zealand a line on a map, and left it an archipelago”. Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, 1774, and in 1777. His careful observations made New Zealand known to the western world; the accounts of his voyages were translated into a dozen languages.

The 15 islands forming the Cook Islands group were discovered piecemeal over a period of 240 years, the first by the Spanish explorer, Mendana, in 1595, several by Captain Cook during the period 1773 to 1777, and the last, Nassau, in 1835.

The European discovery of Niue was made by Captain Cook in 1774. It was formerly believed that the first recorded discovery of the Tokelau group was made by the Spanish explorer Pedro Fernandez de Quiros in 1606. However, it is now thought that it was one of the northern Cook Islands that he sighted, and that the first European to visit Tokelau was Commodore Byron. R.N., who sighted Atafu in 1765.

First European Settlements—Whaling stations sprang up along the New Zealand coast from 1792 onwards and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the Governor of New South Wales, was responsible for the establishment of the first mission station in the Bay of Islands.

The growing white population in the Bay of Islands, and the lawlessness of crews of visiting ships led to the appointment by the British Government of James Busby as British Resident at Waitangi in 1833. The Governor of New South Wales in 1837 sent Captain William Hobson, in command of HMS Rattlesnake, from Sydney to the Bay of Islands to report on New Zealand. Among other things, Hobson suggested a treaty with the Maori chiefs and the placing of British subjects under British law. On 29 January 1840 Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands as Governor to proclaim British sovereignty.

By 1840 numerous mission stations had spread through the northern half of the North Island. Conversion of Maori tribes to Christianity was accompanied by the introduction of new crops and methods of cultivation and the pacification of warring tribes.

Early Constitutional Developments—On 29 January 1840 Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived in the Bay of Islands. His instructions from the British Government required him to take possession of the country with the consent of the Maori chiefs, this policy being designed by the Colonial Office, strongly influenced by missionary opinion, to safeguard the well-being of the native people, Hobson read his commission at Kororareka on 30 January and on 6 February 46 chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, a compact whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights were secured to the chiefs and their tribes (with the Crown having the sole right of purchase) and in return the Queen extended her protection and all the rights and privileges of British subjects. Other chiefs throughout both Islands later adhered to this Treaty.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty over the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and over the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it, provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division or the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and Superintendent. (The provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950.) In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

One aspect, that of Native Affairs, was withheld from the responsible Ministers, and the Governor, as representative of the Crown, continued to act independently of his elected advisors in this sphere. In 1861 Grey attempted unsuccessfully to hand over this responsibility but the Ministers were unwilling to assume responsibility for the cost of the growing hostilities between Pakeha and Maori. Finally in 1864 Sir Frederick Weld instituted the “self-reliant policy” whereby the colony accepted responsibility for the settlement of difficulties with the Maoris and consented to the withdrawal of troops by the Imperial Government.

Colonisation—The first body of immigrants to reach New Zealand under a definite scheme of colonisation arrived at Port Nicholson, Wellington, on 22 January 1840 to found the initial settlement of the New Zealand Company. The colonists were in the main sturdy resourceful people seeking a better future than was offering in nineteenth century industrial England.

The guiding genius of the company, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, aware of the intention of the British Government to annex New Zealand, had earlier (in 1839), dispatched his agents in order to purchase large areas of land from the Maoris before the Crown could assume a monopoly of land purchase.

Wakefield's scheme of colonisation was based on the sale of land to investors or men of wealth for development by labouring class immigrants. With the profit from land sales the company could bring out more immigrants. Wakefield aimed at a balance between landowners and labourers; in effect he aimed to transplant a cross-section of English society. But, ignorant of the system of tribal ownership of Maori land, the company had bought land from individual Maoris; then Hobson provided that all European land titles should derive from the Crown which would be the only purchaser of land from the Maoris. Title to land remained a difficulty for some years and was a cause of distress to the colonists and, combined with a considerable degree of absentee ownership and land speculation, made most precarious the existence of the early company settlements of Wellington, Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson. The company had brought nearly 10000 persons to New Zealand by 1848. The later settlements of Otago, in 1848, and Canterbury, in 1850, organised under the aegis of the New Zealand Company in co-operation with the Free Church of Scotland and the Church of England respectively, achieved a much greater measure of success owing to the absence of any large Maori population and to satisfactory land purchase arrangements.

The non-Maori population in the main settlements in 1842 totalled 3801 in Wellington, 2895 in Auckland, 2500 in Nelson, 895 in New Plymouth, 380 in Russell, 263 in Hokianga, and 198 in Akaroa. By 1862 the non-Maori population had reached 125000 (as against 55000 Maoris) and by 1866 it had jumped to 200000 with men from Australia joining in the gold rush to Otago. Migration then dropped away until 1874 when there was a high inflow for several years from Britain under the Vogel policy of assisted immigration and public works development.

War Over Land—After the death of Hobson in 1842, subsequent governors, through lack of funds and weak administration, found themselves unable to protect the small and helpless settlements from threatening Maori aggression engendered by strong feelings on land ownership. The response of the Colonial Office was to appoint Captain George Grey as Governor and to provide him with adequate funds and troops so that he soon restored order and won not only the confidence of the Maoris but also for a time that of the settlers. Grey, through his chief land purchase officer, Donald McLean, endeavoured to buy up land in advance of the settlers' needs in order to prevent conflict between settlers and Maoris. By 1858 the census revealed that the settlers outnumbered the Maoris who, fearful that they were being swamped by the settlers, became increasingly reluctant to sell their land. At the same time the intensified settler pressure for more land led McLean to negotiate only with those Maoris still favourably disposed to land sales. This practice alarmed the other Maoris and finally the war broke out in 1860 over a land dispute at Waitara in Taranaki where settler demand for land was strongest. The return of Grey as Governor did not solve the problem for, as an autocrat, he could not work with elected ministers nor could he regain the confidence of the Maoris, and finally he quarrelled with the commander of the Imperial troops. Widespread confiscation of Maori land by the settlers' government in order to pay the cost of the war included land belonging to friendly as well as hostile Maoris and aroused further resentment. The war had died down by 1870 and during the term of Donald McLean as Native Minister some measure of reconciliation began. However, although a substantial portion of the confiscated land was subsequently purchased or returned, land transactions remained a source of bitterness and potential hostility between Maori and settler.

Public Works and Farm Development—The absence of hostilities and the discovery of gold had allowed the South Island to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover, with the subsequent agrarian expansion especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self-sufficient agriculturally and began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool.

By 1870 the gold boom had ended in the South Island. To remedy the situation of economic stagnation, Sir Julius Vogel began a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction and for immigrant labour. The results of this policy were to double the population to 500000 by 1880, to immensely improve transport and communications, and to encourage industry in the towns where most of the immigrants had congregated.

With the introduction of refrigeration in 1882 and steam navigation in the late 19th century, the development of exports of frozen meat and dairy products assured the dominance of the United Kingdom in New Zealand's external trade. These developments, with a continued substantial investment of British capital, particularly in farming and food processing industries, established that degree of specialisation to meet the needs of the British market, which shaped the entire New Zealand economy during its first hundred years.

The depression of the 1880s, a consequence of a fall in world price levels, resulted in unemployment and large emigration but export prices recovered in the nineties. From 1880 onwards the natural increase of births over deaths exceeded the net inflow from migration.

In 1891 John Ballance, as leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier to be followed on his death in 1893 by Richard John Seddon, who remained Premier until his death in June 1906. The Government pursued a vigorous legislative programme in which the main emphasis was on social justice.

The expansion of the exports in dairy produce and frozen meat during the 1890s produced more intensive settlement and the rise of a new farming class in which the “cow-cockie” was the dominant figure. These farmers, having benefited by the spread of prosperity, were in 1911 mainly responsible together with the city businessmen for the overthrow of the Liberal regime. The new Reform Government under William Massey introduced measures to strengthen the primary producer, of which the extension of rural credit was typical.

Three years after the advent of the Reform Party, the First World War, 1914–1918, broke out, leading to a coalition Government and an Imperial commandeer of exports which created the precedent for the establishment after the war of central boards to regulate the exports of pastoral products. War activities were marked by heavy casualties in proportion to the population while the landing at Gallipoli signified the growing awareness of a sense of nationhood.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921–24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reduction, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilise economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and on the administrative side, the period was characterised by extensive public works expenditure, with particular attention to hydroelectric schemes and highways.

Land values rose steeply, accelerated by Government efforts to settle returned servicemen on the land, and between 1915 and 1925 forty percent of the occupied land had changed hands. New Zealand was extremely vulnerable to the overseas price fluctuations of pastoral products. With the advent of the depression by 1930, farmers, despite greatly increased production, were faced with a serious decline in income (over forty percent) together with heavy mortgage commitments on land bought at high prices so that many were faced with foreclosure. In the towns, tradesmen and shopkeepers faced bankruptcy, and wage earners unemployment or reduction in wages. A Coalition Government was formed in 1931 to meet the crisis. Partly as a result of measures taken by this government and partly as a result of a rise in overseas price levels a general economic revival was taking place by 1935. The election of a Labour Government, under the leadership of Michael Savage, in 1935 led to changes in administrative policy and a renewed emphasis on social problems.

War and Post-war—The financial needs of the Second World War from 1939 onwards were met with virtually no overseas borrowing. Financing the war by taxation and internal borrowing also assisted in the achievement of a successful stabilisation policy. Full employment in war was followed by full employment in peace. Expansion and diversification of manufacturing and servicing industries provided avenues of employment for the growing labour force.

At the 1949 election the Labour Government was defeated after holding office since 1936. It was succeeded by a National Government, under the leadership of Sidney Holland.

In 1957, the Labour Party gained a narrow victory at the polls under the leadership of Walter Nash. Budgetary policy to meet a recurrence of the balance of payments crisis proved unpopular and at the 1960 election, the National Party under the leadership of Keith Holyoake was returned to power, as it was in subsequent elections in 1963, 1966, and 1969. At the 1972 election the Labour Party swept back into power under Norman Kirk. Following Kirk's untimely death in 1974 W. E. Rowling became Prime Minister. At the 1975 election there was a dramatic reversal of the position 3 years earlier, and the National Party under Robert Muldoon was returned to power with a substantial majority. The new Government faced growing economic difficulties and rising unemployment as a result of economic recession overseas, steep rises in oil prices, and the loss or shrinkage of traditional markets for agricultural products. At the 1978 election the National Party narrowly retained power with a greatly reduced majority.

Later Constitutional Developments—In 1907, in recognition of an emerging sense of nationality and an increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters, New Zealand had been given the title of Dominion in lieu of Colony.

A further step in the evolution of New Zealand into full nationhood came in 1947, when New Zealand belatedly adopted the Statute of Westminster, which had been passed by the United Kingdom Parliament in 1931. The draft of this statute had been submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing member countries, but it did not automatically apply to Australia or New Zealand. Its operation in the latter self-governing members of the Commonwealth was declared to require specific adoption by the legislatures of those countries.

Some surviving doubts concerning the authority of the New Zealand Parliament over the Constitution were resolved when, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, the United Kingdom Parliament passed a Constitution Amendment Act authorising the New Zealand Parliament to amend any of the provisions of the Constitution Act of 1852.

In 1950 the Prime Minister, Sidney Holland, initiated a constitutional change when the Legislative Council, the “second house” of the General Assembly, was abolished on the grounds that it no longer possessed any effective function.

The present Constitution and recent developments are dealt with later in this section under the heading, “The Constitution of New Zealand”.

DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS—The emergence of a distinctive and independent New Zealand foreign policy is usually regarded as dating from 1935, following the election of a Labour Government under Michael Savage. While this did indeed mark a turning point in the development of a more vigorous and assertive New Zealand foreign policy the origins of the foreign service itself can be traced much earlier. Soon after New Zealand became a British colony, following the enactment of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, the New Zealand colonists, finding themselves excluded from a system of government in which official business with Great Britain was transacted by correspondence between the Secretary of State for the Colonies and a Governor empowered to act as sole representative of colonial views to the Imperial Government, began to appoint their own colonial agents to make representations on their behalf in London.

Charles Clifford, a Wairarapa farmer, was the first such agent. Deputed by the Wellington Settlers' Constitutional Association, he travelled to England in 1848 to press the case for self-government for the new colony. In 1851 he was followed by William Fox, bearing the title “Honorary Political Agent”.

In 1852 the British Parliament enacted legislation providing for a limited form of self-government for the new colony. The provincial councils that were established in New Zealand as a result of this legislation soon found it necessary to appoint their own business agents in Britain for the explicit purpose of “promoting immigration (and) for protecting and advancing in Great Britain the political or other interests of the said Province” (Otago ordinance). These agents, appointed during the 1850s, though few in number and of doubtful political status in the eyes of the British Colonial Office, can be seen in every respect to be the earliest forerunners of today's unified overseas service which, some hundred and thirty years later, actively promotes New Zealand's political, economic, trading, and security interests around the world.

The provincial agents represented the interests of the individual provinces which, being relatively isolated at the time, were still developing along independent lines. The day-to-day interests of the Central Government, sited first in Russell, then Auckland, and later Wellington, were represented by the British Colonial Office itself. From time to time the Central Government felt the need for more direct representation, and on these occasions ministerial missions were dispatched to London. The most significant of these early missions was in 1870, undertaken against the background of a popular uprising of anti-British feeling and talk of secession. The Imperial Government had moved to withdraw the last British troops at a time when Te Kooti was still active. Two prominent New Zealand politicians, Francis Dillon Bell and Dr Isaac Earl Featherston, were given full representative powers under a Colonial Act passed for the express purpose of securing the status of their mission (the New Zealand Commissioners Act of 1870, in some ways the forerunner of the External Affairs Act of 1943) and were sent to London to persuade the Imperial Government to stay its hand. They failed.

The following year the Vogel ministry moved to consolidate its representation arrangements in London. In 1871 Featherston was sent back to London as a resident Agent-General, a new post designed principally to under-pin the ambitious programme of immigration and public works initiated by Julius Vogel the year before. From 1871 to 1904 a succession of able New Zealanders, amongst them Featherston, Vogel, Francis Dillon Bell, Perceval, and William Pember Reeves, acted as Agents-General, performing all the functions (despite the ambiguity of the title and the nature of the colonial relationship) of diplomatic representatives of a sovereign power.

In 1904 the post of Agent-General was elevated to High Commissioner. In Seddon's eyes, the change was a necessary reflection of the need to ensure the respect and influence due to the New Zealand representative “in the heart of the Empire”. Seddon's definition of the High Commissioner's role, “a diplomat to be in close touch with the Colonial Office, British statesmen, and people, and at the same time financial and commercial representative, ambassador, and courier … the eyes, ears, and voice of the New Zealand Government in Great Britain … (able to) simply voice the desire of the people of the colony”, is sufficiently close to the letters of instruction provided to our present-day representatives that in these early beginnings one can clearly see the origins of the New Zealand foreign service as it is today.

What of the country's broader interests? Strictly speaking, a dependent colony, by definition, has no foreign policy and no international relations. But the colony, even before it was raised to Dominion status in 1907, exercised a vigorous interest in the affairs of the Empire and, on occasions, did not hesitate to prosecute an independent line. For example, from 1870 to the close of the century, New Zealand politicians (notably Vogel, Stout, and Seddon), as Governor Grey had before them, bombarded London with arguments in favour of annexing territories in the Pacific for the creation of a Pan-Pacific Empire based on New Zealand. In 1883 the New Zealand Parliament, at Grey's initiative, enacted a Bill to enable the colony to establish relations with such Pacific peoples as might desire them. The Bill provided for a Pacific Federation and claimed for the colony the power to annex any unappropriated islands. On the advice of the British Colonial Office, Royal assent was not forthcoming and the Bill therefore failed to become law.

The final collapse of these plans in 1899 (when the British Government renounced its rights in Samoa in favour of Germany and America) and 1900, when Seddon's repeated proposals that the administration of Fiji be entrusted to New Zealand were finally rejected, marked the end of a consistent thread in New Zealand foreign policy that had been elaborated since the 1840s. Though the policy that New Zealand's nineteenth century statesmen had vigorously advocated was perhaps over-ambitious, given the colony's limited resources of manpower and wealth, it did at least have the advantage of resting on a sound appreciation of New Zealand's geographic position.

Following Seddon's death in 1906, and with the collapse of its Pacific vision, interests, and ambitions, New Zealand entered a period in which for a generation it was generally content to have its foreign policy laid down by the Imperial Government: “having lost contact with their own area, New Zealanders no longer had anything unique to contribute to Imperial policy. It is not without significance that the first flowering of New Zealand nationalism had been expressed in terms of New Zealand's place in the South Pacific”. Paradoxically, the opening of this quieter period in the development of New Zealand's international relations coincided with the elevation to Dominion status in 1907.

The passing of Seddon in 1906 marked the end of an era of vigorous self-assertion and the beginning of a relatively quiescent period in the development of an independent New Zealand foreign policy, a period that was destined to continue until the Savage Government came to power in 1935. But in the intervening years, and notwithstanding the prevailing sentiment that where Britain led in the development of foreign policy we would willingly follow, there were some developments of considerable significance to the later history.

After the First World War, New Zealand participated in the Versailles Conference and was a signatory in its own right to the Treaty of Versailles which came into force in January 1920. A mandate was acquired over Western Samoa. In 1926 a small Imperial Affairs Section, forerunner to the External Affairs Department, was established in the Prime Minister's Department to deal with treaty matters, the League of Nations, and international questions generally. This followed the Imperial Conference of 1926 at which the equal status of members of the British Commonwealth was recognised (the Balfour Declaration). The Imperial Affairs Section remained, however, for some time to come the only practical manifestation of New Zealand's newly acquired freedom to deal directly with other countries: the Dominion took no immediate steps to establish direct relations with foreign governments or—apart from Britain—with other members of the Commonwealth. In 1928 New Zealand entered into its first direct trade agreement with a foreign power, Japan. This was, for all practical purposes, the first such occasion in which the negotiations had been conducted directly rather than through the medium of the British Foreign Office.

The contrast between the policies followed in the 1920s and those adopted under the Savage Government from the close of 1935 is most clearly illustrated by the New Zealand attitude to the League of Nations. From the foundation of the League following the Peace Conference at Versailles, Massey and those who followed took the view mat the League was no place for a loyal Dominion to voice views that contradicted Imperial policy. With the coming to power of the Savage Labour Government there re-emerged a willingness to take an independent line that had lain largely dormant since the death of Seddon. New Zealand spoke strongly for the principle of collective security and collective police action on a succession of issues (Abyssinia, Spain, China) at a time when the United Kingdom and other powers were following a policy which would later be described as appeasement.

Despite these differences there was no suggestion that New Zealand was departing from its historically close association with Britain. The course it would follow in the event of war was never in doubt. When war broke out the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, expressed New Zealand's position in terms which reflected New Zealand's sovereignty as well as its ties with Britain:

“Behind the sure shield of Britain we have enjoyed and cherished freedom and self-government. Both with gratitude for the past, and with confidence in the future, we range ourselves without fear beside Britain. Where she goes, we go. Where she stands, we stand. We are only a small and young nation, but we are one and all a band of brothers, and we march forward with a union of hearts and wills to a common destiny.”

The Second World War changed the pattern of power in the world. The New Zealand Government established (in effect from 1943) a career foreign affairs service, and made a beginning in stationing its own diplomatic representatives in countries where New Zealand's interests made their presence necessary. In particular, New Zealand sought to foster good relationships with its neighbours in the Pacific and Asia and to increase the measure of security and welfare in these areas.

Woven into post-war policy was the traditional New Zealand belief in the principles of collective security and international justice, which the United Nations was pledged to support. There was also the belief that the international community should give high priority to the welfare and political advancement of dependent peoples and to the elimination of poverty, disease, and other economic and social causes of international tension.

There have been several periods of expansion in the establishment of New Zealand posts overseas. Aside from the three posts set up during the Second World War (Washington, Ottawa, Canberra) to maintain consultations with our closest allies, the first main period of expansion came in the 1950s as a consequence of the recognition that our security was closely bound up with that of South-east Asia. Following the signature of the ANZUS Treaty, which came into force in 1952, and the Manila Treaty in 1954, diplomatic relations were established with a growing number of Asian countries. By the end of the 1950s five New Zealand posts had been set up in Asia and the substance of our bilateral relations had broadened considerably.

A second period of expansion in the 1960s led to the setting up of a number of diplomatic posts in Western Europe in response to the need to defend New Zealand's essential economic and political interests as Britain negotiated its terms of entry into the European Economic Community. At the same time a more gradual expansion was underway in the Pacific. As island states became independent and as the extent of New Zealand's economic and political relations in the South Pacific increased, a number of South Pacific posts were opened. A fourth phase, now underway, is closely related to New Zealand's search for new trading opportunities as the degree of dependence on traditional markets in Western Europe is gradually reduced. The diversification both in the range of goods exported and in markets has led to the strengthening of posts in certain areas—particularly in Asia and the Pacific—and the opening of new posts in the Middle East, Latin America, and Eastern Europe. Over recent years posts have been opened in China and reopened in the Soviet Union and an extensive network of multiple accreditations arranged to allow New Zealand's overseas representatives to cover several countries from the one base.

As at December 1980, New Zealand had 47 posts overseas, details of which are given in the Official Section of this Yearbook.

New Zealand in the Commonwealth—As a member of the Commonwealth, New Zealand is able to consult and co-operate with 43 other countries in a wide variety of activities, both governmental and non-governmental. The value to New Zealand of its Commonwealth links is derived not only from the practical benefits of what the Commonwealth does, but also from the heterogeneous composition of the association. Its 44 members take in the 6 continents and the 5 oceans of the world. The Pacific region is now well represented in the Commonwealth: Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Kiribati, and Vanuatu are full members, along with Australia and New Zealand, and Nauru and Tuvalu have special membership status. The Cook Islands and Niue are not eligible for full membership because of their continuing constitutional association with New Zealand. They cannot therefore attend Commonwealth heads of government meetings, but they are entitled to participate in Commonwealth meetings dealing with those subjects for which their governments are responsible.

As the Commonwealth has grown and changed, its relationships have taken on a new scope and emphasis. This was affirmed by the Commonwealth heads of government in the Commonwealth Declaration adopted at their meeting in 1971 which stated that the association “provides many channels for continuing exchanges of knowledge and views on professional, cultural, economic, legal and political issues among member states. These relationships we foster and extend for we believe that our multinational association can expand human understanding and understanding among nations, assist in the elimination of discrimination based on differences of race, colour, and creed, maintain and strengthen personal liberty, contribute to the enrichment of life for all, and provide a powerful influence for peace among nations.” New Zealand, itself a country where different races live in harmony, sees in the Commonwealth a special opportunity for multiracial co-operation and understanding.

The value of the association in providing a forum for the exchange of views between a large number of diverse nations, as set out in the declaration, is illustrated at the heads of government meetings, most recently in 1977 in London and in 1979 in Lusaka, Zambia. Discussions are frank, informal, and private, ranging over topics which include changing power relationships, trade, monetary, and other economic issues, security, nuclear testing, development assistance, foreign investment, international transport, and South African questions. The last two meetings have paid special attention to the world economic situation, especially the problems of developing nations. Periodic meetings of Commonwealth ministers of finance, trade, health, law, and education promote the exchange of views and functional co-operation in diverse fields of national activity. Ministerial meetings are supported by conferences and seminars of officials and professional and technical specialists.

The belief of member countries in the potential of the Commonwealth led to the establishment of a permanent Commonwealth Secretariat in London in 1965 to be the main agency for multilateral communication among Commonwealth governments. The Secretariat promotes consultation and disseminates information on matters of common concern, organises meetings and conferences, and coordinates many Commonwealth activities. Prominent among these is the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, financed by voluntary contributions to promote economic development through self-help and mutual assistance.

Besides contributing to the budget of the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, New Zealand provides financial support to a number of other intergovernmental Commonwealth organisations which promote co-operation in specific areas New Zealand also contributes to the Commonwealth Foundation, which was established at the same time as the Secretariat to promote close links in the professions throughout the Commonwealth. It has sponsored official and non-official Commonwealth professional organisations and strengthened the links between administrators, engineers, lawyers, accountants, scientists, and private individuals in the different Commonwealth organisations. Like the Secretariat it has provided a focus for Commonwealth activities and a basis for extending international co-operation.

Relations with Western Europe—New Zealand's relationship with the countries of western Europe has had a strong economic bias because of the crucial importance of continuing access to the European Community for New Zealand's agricultural exports.

However, the wider political and economic aspects of New Zealand's relations with the states of western Europe, with which New Zealand shares many common interests, have come to assume greater significance, as the benefit of exchanges and co-operation on international issues of mutual concern have become apparent. The European Community is playing an increasing role in international affairs, while the economic and strategic importance of New Zealand's region of the world, including as it does Southeast Asia, the South Pacific, and Antarctica, is more widely recognised.

New Zealand has a great deal in common with the countries of Western Europe in terms of historical experience, democratic political systems, shared values, and related lifestyles. New Zealand's membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the International Energy Agency (IEA) underlines the community of broad economic interests. The range of bilateral contacts between New Zealand and individual countries of Western Europe, in all fields, steadily expands, their continued development being one of the main aims of New Zealand's foreign policy.

Relations with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe—New Zealand's relations with the countries of Eastern Europe have developed considerably in recent years, especially in the field of trade. This growth has been reflected in the expansion of New Zealand's diplomatic representation in the area. New Zealand's Ambassador in Vienna is accredited to five East European countries, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and the German Democratic Republic. New Zealand's Ambassador in Rome is accredited to Yugoslavia. Relations with the U.S.S.R. have been adversely affected by the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan in 1979, but the Soviet Union remains an important market for New Zealand's exports.

Relations with the Middle East—New Zealand's association with the Middle East has developed greatly within the past decade. New Zealand watched with concern, if from a distance, the Arab-Israeli conflict, and—recognising the implications for world peace—this country contributed personnel to United Nations truce observation teams. New Zealand has consistently upheld Israel's right to exist and, equally consistently, the rights of the Palestinian people to self-determination.

Since 1973, when Middle East members of the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) emerged as a major economic force in the world, the area has increasingly assumed a direct and immediate importance for this country, if only because oil imports come almost entirely from the countries around the Persian Gulf. The growing wealth of the region, stemming largely from substantial increases in the price of oil, has created new markets for New Zealand exports, especially agricultural products considerably aiding the diversification efforts being made for such key commodities as sheepmeats and dairy products. In 1981 the region is expected to absorb one-third of New Zealand's total lamb exports. The Middle East, moreover, represents a significant source of investment finance.

New Zealand in recent years has made continuing efforts to broaden its range of contacts with Middle Eastern countries. At the same time, those countries have themselves taken a closer interest in New Zealand and the South Pacific and have expanded their diplomatic representation in the area. Egypt and Israel have embassies in Wellington, while Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon have cross-accreditation from Canberra. New Zealand established resident missions in Iran and Iraq in 1975, and in 1977 established a consulate-general in Bahrain, with commercial responsibilities in Saudi Arabia, the Gulf emirates, and the Yemens. The pattern of representation is rounded out by the cross-accreditation of the ambassador in Rome to Egypt and to Saudi Arabia.

In Bahrain the New Zealand Government is a partner with the Bahraini Government in a coolstore project that provides tangible evidence of New Zealand's commitment to the expansion of trade flows. In 1980 the Saudi - New Zealand Capital Investment Company, with the New Zealand Development Finance Corporation and private shareholding, was established to promote Arab investment in selected New Zealand projects.

Closer relations between New Zealand and the Middle East have been marked by a growing appreciation of each other's concerns. This has been fostered by visits in both directions by ministers, officials, and businessmen. A growing number of tourists, students, and trainees are coming to New Zealand, a trend that is expected to continue.

New Zealand and Africa—During the 1970s the pattern of contact with African countries broadened, in both the United Nations and Commonwealth contexts. During the 1980s, New Zealand will be seeking to expand its political and economic association with Africa. Although, for reasons largely of geography, the practical links are limited, New Zealand recognises the importance of the newly-independent African countries and their influence in the world community, and also the dangers inherent in the tensions between South Africa and her neighbours. On many occasions and in many forums, New Zealand has expressed abhorrence of the apartheid system in force in that country; and in 1977 the Prime Minister joined his colleagues in endorsing the Commonwealth statement on apartheid in sport (the “Gleneagles Agreement”).

Following the Commonwealth heads of government meeting in Lusaka in 1979 and the success of the London negotiations which made possible an independent Zimbabwe, New Zealand contributed to the Commonwealth ceasefire monitoring force and sent observers to the elections held in February 1980. In November 1980 New Zealand made a grant towards the cost of sending a Commonwealth observer team to the elections in Uganda.

While New Zealand's total trade with African countries represents only a modest percentage of its global trade, there has been a continued growth in the volume of both exports and imports. Trade surveys have been undertaken in East, North, and West Africa to identify commercial opportunities. New Zealand has provided assistance to Tanzania in the development of its dairy industry, and elsewhere in Africa has offered a limited number of project-related training scholarships in New Zealand for African students. Six training awards have been offered to the authorities in Zimbabwe, to be taken up in the course of 1981.

Relations with Asia—Since the Second World War, and particularly since 1955, there has been a noteworthy growth in New Zealand's relations with the countries of the Asia/Pacific area. New Zealand has a direct interest in the maintenance of peace and the growth of prosperity in the area. It enjoys a close relationship with Japan, the Republic of Korea, and with the countries which make up the Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN): Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and the Philippines. Since the normalisation of relations with the People's Republic of China in 1972, New Zealand's contacts with China have been increasing. New Zealand also enjoys long-established ties with the countries of South Asia (particularly through the Commonwealth connection) and Burma.

Trade with Asia is becoming more and more important to New Zealand. Private initiative, with Government assistance, has been able to develop new markets, new products, new selling processes, and new economic and commercial relationships. A pattern of regular economic consultations with our main trading partners has been developed; bilateral economic agreements have been concluded.

New Zealand's growing interests and involvement in Asia are reflected in the changing pattern of its diplomatic representation. Prior to 1955, when New Zealand opened a post in Singapore, it had only one diplomatic mission in the region, in Tokyo. Representation has now been established in all of the ASEAN countries, in New Delhi, Peking, Hong Kong, and Seoul. Several of these missions are accredited to other Asian capitals. The network thus created enables New Zealand to assess external events in the light of this country's own interests and needs, and to work directly with other countries in areas of common concern. New Zealand has also developed its political contacts with countries of the area in other important ways. Exchanges of visits by heads of state and government ministers and parliamentarians have increased, and the development of regular bilateral consultations has also been encouraged.

New Zealand has placed particular emphasis on supporting regional organisations for co-operation and consultation in both the political and economic fields. It is one of a group of nations closely associated with ASEAN, which it sees as a force for stability and economic development in South-East Asia. It has initiated a number of joint projects with ASEAN for development and trade co-operation. Recent developments in Indochina have had major implications for the stability of the region and have been of particular concern to New Zealand. The massive outflow of refugees from Viet Nam and Kampuchea, and the political uncertainties stemming from the continued presence in Kampuchea of Vietnamese forces have together posed difficult problems for the countries of the region. New Zealand has consulted closely with the ASEAN countries over these developments.

The degree of cultural interchange between New Zealand and the countries of Asia has increased steadily. Where once New Zealanders looked largely to Britain for cultural inspiration and experience, now their horizons have broadened. Increased contacts with Asia have brought with them an awareness of what the cultural background of the countries there can offer New Zealand. Professional bodies, sporting associations, cultural groups, and universities today have links with similar organisations in Asia, as well as with more traditional partners such as Britain and Australia. The development of civil air links, and the concurrent growth of tourism, have also helped to bring a wider range of contacts.

Nowhere within the Pacific Basin has New Zealand's adaptation to changed circumstances been more complete than in its relationship with Japan. Today that association is one of the most important that New Zealand has and it is friendly and rewarding for both sides. Its elements are varied—trade, fishing, and a growing range of cultural, educational, sporting, and personal ties. In many ways, the conditions for a developing trading relationship are ideal, for the two countries are located in different hemispheres, their economies are complementary, and each has in abundance some things that the other needs. Despite these advantages, commercial exchanges have not been completely straightforward, and New Zealand continues to seek improved conditions of access for certain important commodities, including dairy products. On both sides there are expectations of continued and expanding trade and of closer involvement together in other settings. Meanwhile, the steady growth in the extent and cordiality of New Zealand's relations with the People's Republic of China further illustrates New Zealanders' changing perceptions of Asia. China is now our second largest market there and is important to New Zealand as a major power with a leading role in Asia.

New Zealand and the South Pacific—New Zealand has a long history of interest and involvement in the South Pacific. In the latter part of the 19th century Prime Minister Richard Seddon harboured ambitions of a South Pacific empire controlled by New Zealand, and as a result of pressure from Seddon the administration of the Cook Islands and Niue, which were British colonial possessions, was handed over to New Zealand in 1901. The number of New Zealand Pacific dependencies increased when, following the establishment of the League of Nations, Western Samoa, which had been occupied by New Zealand troops at the outbreak of the First World War, became a mandated territory under the administration of New Zealand. In 1925 the Tokelau Islands (now known as Tokelau) then part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, were ceded by the United Kingdom to New Zealand.

Despite its geographical situation, the acquisition of overseas dependencies in the South Pacific, and the ethnic kinship of the Maori and the Polynesian peoples, New Zealand's present identity as a South Pacific country was slow in developing for a number of reasons. Culturally, New Zealand has been closer to Western Europe than to the Pacific. For many years almost all of New Zealand's exports went to the United Kingdom. Politically, New Zealand's outlook was oriented towards Europe and, more recently, South-east Asia. Also the Pacific Islands were, and in some cases still are, administered by other countries.

But during the 1960s there was a dramatic emergence of new nations in the South Pacific. New Zealand led this development with moves in its own territories.

In Western Samoa, which had become a United Nations Trust Territory administered by New Zealand, political and constitutional development was carried forward in accordance with the wishes of the Samoan people. This culminated in the establishment of the independent State of Western Samoa on 1 January 1962. The Cook Islands voted under United Nations supervision in 1965 to become a self-governing state in free association with New Zealand. Niue achieved a similar status in an act of self-determination in 1974. Under their respective constitutions the Cook Islands and Niue governments have full legislative and executive competence over all their affairs. The constitutional relationship provides for the exercise by New Zealand of certain responsibilities for the defence and external relations of the Cook Islands and Niue (in the former case, in consultation with the Cook Islands Premier). This does not confer upon the New Zealand Government any rights of control: the Cook Islands and Niue governments retain legislative and executive powers in these fields as in all other matters.

The relationship between the Cook Islands and New Zealand was elaborated in the 1973 Exchange of Letters between the then New Zealand Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. Norman Kirk, and the Premier of the Cook Islands, Sir Albert Henry. The Prime Minister's letter described the relationship as “one of partnership, freely entered into and freely maintained”. The central features of the partnership are common citizenship and the same head of state. The Cook Islands can at any time amend its constitution to end the “free association” status in favour of complete independence. These points apply equally to the relationship with Niue.

The Cook Islands and Niue not only have full constitutional capacity to conduct their own external relations and to enter directly into international arrangements and agreements, but they also in fact directly conduct certain aspects of their external relations. Their capacity to do so is limited only by the extent to which the governments of other states will accord them recognition and deal with them. In practice, the Cook Islands and Niue have participated on an equal basis with sovereign states in the South Pacific. They are members of the South Pacific Forum, the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation (SPEC), the South Pacific Commission, and the Forum Fisheries Agency. They have associate membership of ESCAP, and the Cook Islands has joined the Asian Development Bank. The Cook Islands has recently concluded on a bilateral basis with the United States a maritime boundary delimitation treaty and it has applied to accede to the Lome Convention.

Tokelau is still included within the boundaries of New Zealand and is administered under the authority of the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 and its amendments. Tokelauans are New Zealand citizens.

In accordance with United Nations resolutions on non-self-governing territories, New Zealand has committed itself to assisting Tokelau towards a greater degree of self-government and economic self-sufficiency. New Zealand has stated that it will be guided by the wishes of the Tokelauan people regarding political developments in the territory and the pace at which greater self-determination is introduced.

The developments in New Zealand's territories are part of a wider pattern of political evolution in the region. In 1968 Nauru became an independent republic; in 1970 Fiji became independent; and in the same year Tonga rejoined the Commonwealth. In 1975 Papua New Guinea became fully independent after being self-governing since December 1973. In 1978 the Solomon Islands and Tuvalu (formerly the Ellice Islands) became independent. Kiribati (formerly the Gilbert Islands) attained independence in 1979, and Vanuatu (formerly the New Hebrides) in 1980.

It is natural that New Zealand and its South Pacific neighbours should have become very closely associated. One important reason has been the movement of Pacific peoples into New Zealand. Cook Islanders, Niueans, and Tokelauans are New Zealand citizens and move freely back and forth. New Zealand's historical association with Western Samoa, which is reflected in the Treaty of Friendship signed in August 1962, and its close association with the Kingdom of Tonga, have resulted in a flow of immigrants and visitors from both countries.

New Zealand has also played an active role in building up regional co-operation in the South Pacific. A major step in this direction was the creation of the South Pacific Forum, which now comprises the independent and self-governing countries of the South Pacific: Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Kiribati, and Vanuatu, together with Australia, the Federated States of Micronesia, and New Zealand as observers. The first session comprising 5 of the present island members (Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, Western Samoa, and the Cook Islands), as well as Australia and New Zealand, met at the invitation of New Zealand, at Wellington in August 1971. Since then meetings have been held in Canberra (Australia), Suva (Fiji), Apia (Western Samoa), Rarotonga (Cook Islands), Nuku'alofa (Tonga), Nauru, Port Moresby (Papua New Guinea), Niue, Honiara (Solomon Islands), and Tarawa (Kiribati).

The South Pacific Forum provides the opportunity for the leaders of the South Pacific states to discuss common problems, exchange views, consider priorities, and plan programmes for mutual and regional benefit. The topics considered include such matters as regional trade, shipping, civil aviation, telecommunications, education, the law of the sea, fishing, disaster relief, and nuclear testing.

At the Canberra session of the South Pacific Forum in 1972 members agreed to establish the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation (SPEC) to deal with trade and related matters. The main purpose of the SPEC is to advise Forum members on ways of promoting regional trade and free trade among Island members and to encourage collaboration in areas such as regional transport which will assist the economic development of the Island members. The headquarters of the SPEC are in Suva, Fiji.

At the Niue session of the South Pacific Forum in 1978 members agreed to set up the South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency, which is an organisation designed to facilitate the rational utilisation and conservation of the region's marine resources. The headquarters of the Agency are in Honiara, Solomon Islands.

Recognising that the development of the South Pacific island countries was largely dependent on the existence of regular and reliable shipping services, the governments of the Cook Islands, Fiji, Kiribati, Nauru, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Tonga, and Western Samoa established the Pacific Forum Line (PFL) in 1977. Subsequently the Solomon Islands and Tuvalu joined the Pacific Forum Line while both Australia and Niue, although not shareholders, have made financial contributions to it.

The Pacific Forum Line presently charters three vessels, the Forum New Zealand, the Forum Samoa and the Fua Kavenga, owned respectively by New Zealand, Western Samoa, and Tonga. The headquarters of the line are in Apia.

The Pacific Forum Line has yet to establish its viability as a regional venture and has incurred substantial losses since it began operations in 1978. Together with other governments in the region, New Zealand has made additional contributions, amounting to $3.5 million in the 1980–81 financial year, to help the line overcome its financial difficulties. Despite these difficulties the line has made an important contribution to trade and economic development in the South Pacific. Accordingly, it was agreed at a special meeting of Forum members held in New Delhi in September 1980 that the line should continue to operate and that funds would be provided to meet the line's deficits in the meantime; up to the end of 1981 these were expected to amount to $9 million.

The South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Co-operation Agreement (SPARTECA), which provides that Australia and New Zealand will grant duty-free and unrestricted access on a non-reciprocal basis for most of the products exported by the Forum island countries, was signed at the Forum meeting held in Tarawa in July 1980. The agreement has since been ratified by New Zealand and a number of other Forum countries and entered into force for these countries on 1 January 1981. SPARTECA also includes provisions relating to economic, commercial, and technical co-operation, aimed at enhancing the export capabilities of the Forum island countries. A Regional Committee on Trade will be set up under the agreement to review its operation regularly.

The South Pacific Commission, created in 1947 by the Canberra Agreement of which New Zealand is a signatory, is the other major regional body. Representatives from 27 governments and territorial administrations from within the South Pacific Commission comprise the South Pacific Conference. The Conference which meets annually decides the work programme of the Commission. Since its establishment the Commission, which is primarily a technical assistance organisation has accomplished much in promoting the economic and social welfare of the South Pacific peoples as well as in helping to build a sense of regional identity. The commission's annual budget (which totalled approximately $4.5 million in 1980) is financed for the most part from proportional contributions by participating governments—Australia, the Cook Islands, Fiji, France, Nauru, New Zealand, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Western Samoa. Other member governments contribute on a voluntary basis.

The United Nations and its specialised agencies are also an important source of technical assistance in the South Pacific. The independent countries of the region are members of various UN bodies, and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has offices in Fiji and Western Samoa.

New Zealand and Australia—New Zealand's most comprehensive bilateral relationship is with Australia. Geographical proximity reinforces the important historical, cultural, and Commonwealth ties between the two nations that have given rise to this unusually close and mutually beneficial relationship. New Zealand established a diplomatic office in Australia in 1943, very early in its diplomatic history, and in 1944 the Canberra Pact was signed. This paved the way for a tradition of joint consultation and co-operation that reflects the interdependence of the two nations' interests and the goodwill and friendship of their peoples. In matters of foreign policy, in defence and in the economic field, the degree of co-operation also reflects the importance of each country to the other and a need for continuing close working contacts. Regular and increasingly frequent ministerial and official meetings have taken place, with a minimum of formality, to cover almost the entire range of government activity. Moreover, the two countries are bound together by innumerable personal contacts, and by institutionalised links in business, finance, education, the professions, and in nearly all fields of national activity.

New Zealand and Australia share a common foreign policy objective in acting to promote stability and development in the South Pacific and South-east Asian regions of their immediate vicinity, as well as a more general interest in co-ordinating their positions on major international political and economic questions of current concern, in the United Nations, the Commonwealth, GATT, and elsewhere. In the economic context, Australia is a major trading partner for New Zealand, Australia's largest single market for manufactured exports. Trade has significantly expanded and the two economies have become increasingly related under the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), dating from 1965–66. In the defence field, the former ANZAC partners continue to co-operate closely, both in relation to training programmes and exercises and the provision of equipment and other supplies, and in terms of the broader issues of defence policy, especially in their common membership of ANZUS.

In 1978 the Deputy Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. B. E. Talboys, paid an extensive visit to Australia. During the visit, Mr Talboys and the Prime Minister of Australia made a joint press statement (the Nareen Declaration) which underlined the determination of both governments to co-operate and consult closely in many fields. The Nareen Declaration also provided for the establishment of an Australia - New Zealand Foundation in both countries to promote the bilateral relationship publicly.

The foundation was set up in 1978 with an annual budget of $50,000 and has sponsored, as part of its work, two studies on closer economic relations between Australia and New Zealand, a workshop on trans-Tasman migration, and a number of other research projects and publications. It has also provided financial support for cultural exchanges between Australia and New Zealand: in 1980, for example, it assisted the Impulse Dance Company on a visit to Australia and sponsored the visit to New Zealand of Australian historian, Professor Manning Clark.

On 6 August 1979 at Lusaka, during the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, the Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, met the Australian Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. Malcolm Fraser, and agreed that further investigation would be made into broad areas of economic co-operation as well as specific fields where the two countries could work more closely together. A second meeting of the two Prime Ministers took place in March 1980 when agreement was reached on a set of principles outlining the direction of future economic co-operation. Intensive investigations by officials into the possibility of concluding a closer economic relationship (CER) building on, but superseding, NAFTA are continuing.

New Zealand and the Americas—Continuing and close contact with the United States is an essential part of New Zealand's foreign policy. The United States remains New Zealand's principal security guarantor, is a major trading partner, and has an important influence on the New Zealand way of life. The two countries share a common English-speaking heritage and a friendship of long standing, both in peace and war.

Since the opening in Washington in 1941 of New Zealand's second diplomatic mission, close consultations have been held with the United States on many bilateral questions and international issues of common interest. Basic similarities in political philosophy and social and economic processes have encouraged the development of close governmental relations, which have been supported by increasing contacts, both official and non-official, across a broad range of activities.

This comprehensive bilateral relationship finds expression in political, strategic, economic, and cultural fields. Under ANZUS New Zealand looks to the United States for assistance in the maintenance of its national and regional security. In turn, where national interests coincide, New Zealand is able to offer the United States active support for constructive international and regional diplomatic efforts. On the economic side, bilateral trade has expanded to the extent that the United States is now the second largest market for New Zealand's exports and the third largest source of imports. Regular intergovernmental consultations are held to review the trading relationship. Programmes for scientific and technical co-operation, and academic and cultural exchanges, serve to maintain an awareness of New Zealand in the United States and to promote a vigorous and beneficial interchange of ideas and experience.

New Zealand and Canada, through a common British heritage and long association in the Commonwealth, have traditionally enjoyed a close and special informal relationship, with long-established bonds of friendship between the New Zealand and Canadian people. Since New Zealand established diplomatic representation in Canada in 1942, there have been many ministerial and official exchanges in a broad range of fields in which the two countries' basic compatibility and similarity of attitude have provided invaluable opportunities for bilateral consultation and co-operation. In 1980 the visit of the Deputy Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. B. E. Talboys, to Canada provided a valuable opportunity to review this relationship at the highest level. New Zealand and Canada have also built up a record of co-operation on many international issues, particularly in Commonwealth and United Nations contexts. New Zealand's particular interest and involvement in the South Pacific, and Canada's in the Caribbean, have provided a useful basis for the exchange of experience, and both countries take a close interest in the affairs of the Pacific Basin.

Canada is one of New Zealand's major trading partners, being at present the second largest market for New Zealand beef and a growing market for lamb. Regular intergovernmental consultations help to keep the trading relationship under review and provide a basis for negotiation on specific difficulties. They also facilitate co-operation on economic and financial policy matters of wider international importance.

New Zealand's relations with the Caribbean have been concerned largely with mutual Commonwealth interests and with a useful export trade, mainly in dairy products. Since September 1974, the New Zealand High Commissioner in Ottawa has been cross-accredited to Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, Guyana, and Barbados. The sole resident representation is in Port of Spain (Trinidad and Tobago). New Zealand's assistance is being extended to these four Commonwealth countries and to the multilateral Caribbean Development Bank under a modest aid programme.

New Zealand's contacts with the countries of Latin America, limited in the past because of geographical orientation and widely different historical and cultural backgrounds, developed considerably in the 1970s. A substantial growth in trade preceded the establishment of New Zealand representation in Chile and Peru in 1972, and in 1974 diplomatic relations were entered into with Mexico. In 1978 the resident Ambassadors in Lima and Santiago were accredited to Ecuador and Brazil respectively, and in 1979 the resident Ambassador in Lima was accredited to Colombia, and in 1980 to Venezuela. In recent years Latin America has been a major destination for New Zealand dairy products, the most significant markets being Peru, Mexico, Venezuela, Argentina, Ecuador (from which New Zealand imports bananas), and some of the Central American republics (notably El Salvador and Costa Rica). In recognition of the growing political importance of the region as a whole and particularly of the largest countries, Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina, opportunities are also being taken to enhance bilateral relations. Several official visits have taken place in recent years, including, in 1980, that of the Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, to Mexico at the head of a major economic mission. At the private level, New Zealanders have long been interested in, and frequent travellers through, the countries of South America.

In the field of overseas assistance; New Zealand maintains a modest but important technical cooperation programme in Peru, under which New Zealand experts are helping in the development of key areas of Peruvian agriculture.

New Zealand in the United Nations—Successive New Zealand Governments have strongly supported the development of the United Nations as a major instrument for maintaining peace and security, for developing friendly relations among countries, for promoting international co-operation aimed at solving economic and social problems, and for ensuring respect for human rights.

New Zealand has consequently played an active and prominent role in the various areas of United Nations activity.

International Security—At San Francisco in 1945 the New Zealand Prime Minister, Peter Eraser, argued forcefully but unsuccessfully for the elimination of the Security Council veto and for a strengthening of the collective security provision of the Charter. Since then New Zealand has actively supported the development of the United Nations' capacity for peacekeeping activities and worked consistently for international arms control and disarmament measures. New Zealand contributed forces to the United Nations Command in Korea, military observers to the United Nations Observer Groups in Palestine, Kashmir, and the Lebanon, and a civilian police unit to the United Nations peacekeeping force in Cyprus. In recent years New Zealand has been closely involved in moves to promote the cessation of all forms of nuclear testing, as a key step towards halting the nuclear arms race. In 1973 the Government instituted legal action against France in the International Court of Justice over the programme of atmospheric nuclear testing in the South Pacific being conducted by that country. New Zealand has also lent particular support to international measures to prevent the proliferation of a nuclear weapons capacity.

New Zealand served a 2-year term on the Security Council in 1954–55 and a 1-year term in 1966.

Economic and Social Activities—There has been increasing emphasis in recent years on making use of the United Nations as a forum to help resolve the formidable economic and social problems that face the world. This has been done both in the regular organs of the United Nations, such as the General Assembly, and the Economic and Social Council and its functional and regional commissions, and at special conferences, such as those on the environment (at Stockholm in 1972), population (at Bucharest in 1974), food (at Rome in 1974), the role of women (at Mexico in 1975), water (at Mar del Plata in 1977), racism (at Geneva in August 1978) and refugees (at Geneva in July 1979). Special sessions of the General Assembly were held in 1974, 1975, and 1980 specifically to discuss development issues. The 1974 session enunciated the Declaration and Programme of Action on the Establishment of a New Economic Order. The 1980 session adopted a new International Development Strategy for the Third UN Development Decade.

During 1980 New Zealand served on the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Governing counsel of the United Nations Development Programme, and the Commission on the Status of Women.

International Legal Issues—The third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea held 2 meetings in 1980, the first in New York during March and the second in Geneva during August. At the end of the Geneva session a draft convention containing 320 articles and eight annexes was produced. This text, which is informal in character and does not possess the status of a formal conference document, was to be the subject of attention when the conference resumed in March 1981. New Zealand continues to participate actively in the work of the conference.

Amongst the 25 members of the International Law Commission (ILC) is a New Zealander, Professor R. Q. Quentin-Baxter. Elected to the International Law Commission in 1971 and re-elected for a second 5-year term in 1976, Professor Quentin-Baxter has been appointed by the commission to be its special rapporteur for one of the principal items on its agenda, “International Liability for Injurious Consequences Arising out of Acts Not Prohibited by International Law”.

Specialised Agencies—New Zealand is a member of all the specialised agencies, and is also a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which, though not strictly a specialised agency, exists under the aegis of the United Nations. New Zealand's contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, which are based for the most part on a scale of assessment similar to that used in the United Nations itself, in total considerably exceed our contribution to the United Nations' regular budget. In 1980, for example, our contributions to the budgets of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the World Health Organisation (WHO), and the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) alone totalled US$1,700,000.

Convinced of the value of the form of international co-operation that the agencies represent, New Zealand participates actively in their work. In the case of the technical agencies, there are direct benefits to New Zealand in membership. Membership of the Universal Postal Union, for example, is essential to facilitate the efficient international movement of mails to and from this country; and the International Telecommunication Union works to promote the most rational and efficient operation of world-wide telecommunications services. The World Meteorological Organisation is the medium for establishing a world-wide network for the rapid exchange of meteorological information, which is of particular value to remote island countries like New Zealand. The ILO is concerned with protecting the basic dignities and freedoms of the wage earner and brings together representatives of governments, employers, and workers to frame international conventions on working and living conditions.

In addition to its contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, New Zealand gives voluntary assistance in the form of further monetary grants, the services of experts to developing countries (for example in agriculture, physiotherapy, police work, forestry, and education) and donations of equipment or commodities.

New Zealand's membership of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Finance Corporation allows this country to participate in international efforts to increase the stability of international trade and promote the economic development of the underdeveloped areas of the world. It also serves to strengthen New Zealand's own economic position by providing access to more varied sources of capital for capital projects or for balance of payments purposes. The Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, served as chairman of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank during 1980.

New Zealand is also a foundation member of the Asian Development Bank, established in 1967 under the auspices of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) to foster economic growth and co-operation in the Asia/Pacific region.

New Zealand has supported United Nations agency activity which will help the social and economic development of the Pacific Islands. Examples of such projects are the work of WHO in eradicating yaws and tuberculosis; FAO's efforts to control the rhinoceros beetle which ravages much of the islands' coconut crops, and its support for a regional fisheries development agency; the establishment by UNESCO of a curriculum development unit at the University of the South Pacific; the placement in Suva of a development advisory team backed by ESCAP and the specialised agencies; the operation of a telecommunications training school set up under UN Development Programme (UNDP) auspices in Suva; and the joint venture under the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) in conjunction with regional organisations to establish a comprehensive environmental management programme in the region.

During 1980 New Zealand served on the governing bodies of UNESCO and WHO.

New Zealand's Defence Policies—After the Second World War the international scene was clouded for many years by the Cold War. New Zealand was affected by the tensions of the period and took steps to provide for its defence in concert with its allies. As a country with limited resources, New Zealand alone could not expect to defend its extensive but isolated territory against aggression by any militarily significant power. It therefore supported efforts to give effect to the provisions of the United Nations Charter which looked to the creation of a universal system of collective security. In the meantime it accepted that it should act in concert with like-minded countries in order to strengthen its security in its own region.

Developments in the South-east Asian region, especially the conflict in Indochina, have led to some increase in tensions in the area. The interests of all countries involved, however, would seem to rule out the possibility of a wider conflict, at least in the immediate future. United States policy continues to emphasise that primary responsibility for long-term stability in South-east Asia rests with the countries of the area. These countries have taken this responsibility seriously. Although no new defence alliances have been established, political and economic co-operation and collaboration on a regional basis, particularly among the members of ASEAN, have grown. While security considerations are important, New Zealand's relations with the countries of the region now encompass a full range of economic and political activities.

By means of training programmes, exercises, staff exchanges, and the provision of training facilities under its Defence Mutual Assistance Programme, New Zealand co-operates with several countries in the South Pacific and South-east Asia in building up one another's defence capabilities, thereby contributing to regional security. The central objective for New Zealand is the maintenance of stability and peaceful development in the South Pacific, New Zealand's immediate strategic neighbourhood.

ANZUS —There is no overt military threat to New Zealand's security. Should a threat develop, New Zealand would be able to turn for assistance to its partners in the ANZUS Pact. The tri-partite security treaty between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States came into force on 29 April 1952.

ANZUS should be seen as a durable expression of a strongly-based community of interest and attitude among the three democracies that are parties to it. The close relationship among the three countries is reflected in the informality and ease of their consultation under the ANZUS Treaty. Meetings of the Council of Ministers are generally held once a year.

The Five Power Defence Arrangements—The basis of the Five Power Defence Arrangements is not a formal treaty but a statement incorporated in the communique of the meeting of Ministers of the five powers (Britain, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand) held in London in April 1971. At that meeting the Ministers declared, in relation to the external defence of Malaysia and Singapore, “that in the event of any form of armed attack externally organised or supported or the threat of such attack against Malaysia or Singapore, their governments would immediately consult together for the purpose of deciding what measures should be taken jointly or separately in relation to such attack or threat”.

Under these arrangements the Australian Government maintains an RAAF presence in Malaysia, while the New Zealand Government maintains a contingent in Singapore (known as New Zealand Force South-east Asia).

The New Zealand Government has decided that, although the Singapore Government has indicated that the Force is welcome to remain, as a matter of principle the Force should return home to New Zealand as soon as practicable. No date has been set however.

SEATO—Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States signed the South-east Asia Collective Defence Treaty, or the Manila Treaty, on 8 September 1954. The South-east Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) established under the treaty, in addition to military planning, undertook activities intended to foster the security and stability of the regional member countries.

The ending of the Vietnam war in 1975 and other developments in the region naturally led Governments in South-east Asia to reassess many of their attitudes and policies. The SEATO Council of Ministers decided at its annual meeting in New York on 24 September 1975 that, while the Organisation had over the years made a useful contribution to stability and development in the region, it should be phased out. This process was completed on 30 June 1977. No move was made, however, to abrogate the Treaty.

Defence Policy Review —In 1978 the New Zealand Government completed a comprehensive review of defence policy objectives. These as summarised in the Defence Review White Paper are to:

  • Develop our defence activities with emphasis on the preparedness to respond to low-key emergencies in our own region;

  • Provide practical assistance to the governments of the South Pacific if required;

  • Further strengthen relationships within ANZUS;

  • Work towards an enhanced combined defence capability with Australia, including defence supply;

  • Develop, as far as limited resources permit, mutually beneficial military training and exchange programmes with countries of the Pacific and (to a degree) South-east Asia;•

  • Supply defence capabilities in support of the needs of New Zealand society.

NEW ZEALAND'S AID AND OTHER RESOURCES FLOWS TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES—During 1979–80 Official Development Assistance (ODA) amounted to $55.5 million (0.27 percent of estimated GNP), compared with the previous year's figure of $55.6 million. Bilateral and regional assistance totalled $43.6 million, with $10.1 million going to multilateral institutions.

The following is a summary of 1979–80 ODA expenditure:

Vote: Foreign Affairs$(m)$(m)
    Bilateral—
        Country41.887 
        Other1.68643.573
    Multilateral 10.095
  53.668
Vote: Transport
    Pacific Civil Aviation 0.826
    Meteorological Services 0.087
Vote: Permanent Legislative Authority
    Asian Development Bank, acquisition of shares 0.913
    World Bank capital contribution 0.050
              Total 55.544

The geographic distribution of the assistance, virtually all administered by the External Aid Division of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, followed a similar pattern to the previous year, with more than 60 percent of bilateral aid disbursed in the Pacific region. Approximately a quarter of the bilateral and regional assistance went to South and South-east Asia. The total programme involves the skills and experience of hundreds of New Zealanders, together with New Zealand technical and capital back-up, all carefully geared to respond to the aid partners' own developmental priorities.

The total transfer of resources from New Zealand to developing countries in 1980 was estimated, with some margin of allowance for unconfirmed data, at $76 million—a figure which includes Government-backed export credits, direct investment by New Zealand interests, and transfers by New Zealand voluntary agencies.

Government assistance to voluntary agencies in 1979–80 amounted to $315,924. This comprised the annual grant to Volunteer Service Abroad (VSA) plus disbursement of funds under the voluntary agency support scheme. Under this scheme the Government provides a subsidy for approved projects undertaken by New Zealand private agencies in developing countries.

Bilateral ODA 1979–80—Under its bilateral (government-to-government) aid programmes, New Zealand responds to the developmental priorities established by developing countries themselves, mainly in the Pacific and South and South-east Asian regions, with small programmes also in Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Hundreds of projects are undertaken with inputs of New Zealand expertise and/or material and capital resources. The projects can vary considerably in expenditure and duration, with emphasis on productive sector development such as livestock and pasture improvement programmes and assistance with crops and the development of forestry, fisheries, and energy resources. Advisers may be assigned to projects for varying times, from a few weeks to several years. During 1979–80 the bilateral aid programme used some 600 advisers on assignments averaging approximately 3 months. The transfer of New Zealand expertise to developing countries is supplemented by the provision of training awards under the bilateral aid programme for training within New Zealand or at “third country” institutions. There were about 979 holders of New Zealand training or study awards in 1979–80. This training is linked with specific requirements in the recipient countries. Bilateral programmes in the Pacific and South-east Asia are supplemented by programmes promoting regional development co-operation, particularly in the fields of afforestation, education, livestock development, transport, communications, and trade promotion. Bilateral assistance also includes emergency and distress relief.

The following country breakdown of bilateral ODA disbursements in 1979–80 shows the direction and scope of New Zealand assistance:

BILATERAL ODA 1979–80
PacificNZ$
    Cook Islands6,722,388
    Fiji4,039,333
    Kiribati267,763
    New Hebrides123,839
    Niue3,127,618
    Papua New Guinea2,623,875
    Solomon Islands699,832
    Tokelau1,431,148
    Tonga2,770,188
    Tuvalu179,566
    Western Samoa4,123,204
    Regional3,765,544
    Head of Mission Fund143,956
    Administration55,604
                Total Pacific30,073,858
South and South-east Asia
    ASEAN
        Indonesia2,944,446
        Malaysia869,886
        Philippines1,731,603
        Singapore99,919
        Thailand2,022,868
        Regional476,965
        Head of Mission Fund29,188
                Sub-total8,174,875
    OtherNZ$
        Bangladesh156,317
        Burma37,552
        India279,298
        Korea (South)138,302
        Laos4,020
        Maldive Islands280
        Nepal540,655
        Pakistan7,046
        Sri Lanka41,730
        Viet Nam1,136
        Regional (non-ASEAN)678,526
        Head of Mission Fund34,067
                Sub-total1,918,929
                Administration43,020
                Total Asia10,136,824
    AfricaNZ$
        Egypt5,555
        Malta8,930
        Malawi58,691
        Sierra Leone22,852
        Tanzania1,010,316
        Uganda100
        Regional25,311
        Administration86,785
                Total Africa1,218,540
    Latin America
        Chile1,500
        Peru308,594
        Head of Mission Fund5,444
        Administration14,691
                Total Latin America330,229
    Caribbean
        Barbados8,007
        Jamaica106,399
        Guyana10,992
        Administration2,540
                Total Caribbean127,938
                Total country aid41,887,389
    Other Bilateral Programmes
        Students and trainees1,026,161
        Emergency and distress relief135,701
        Distress relief: Indochina159,210
        Voluntary agencies315,924
        Publicity48,822
                Total other1,685,818
                Total Bilateral43,573,207

Multilateral ODA 1979–80—The multilateral programme enables New Zealand to make a contribution to development work which would usually be beyond the scope of the bilateral aid programme, either in terms of the scale of the projects or in their ability to help countries beyond the regions of concentration of the bilateral aid effort.

Multilateral disbursements made under Vote: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, amounted to $10.1 million in 1979–80. Major recipients included the United Nations Development Programme ($1.25 million), the Asian Development Bank ($1.1 million), International Development Association ($1.0 million), the World Food Programme ($700,000), United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund ($700,000), and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation ($600,000).

MULTILATERAL ODA 1979–80
United Nations institutionsNZ$
    United Nations Development Programme1,250,000
    United Nations Disaster Relief Office10,000
    World Food Programme700,000
    United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF)700,000
    United Nations Fund for Population Activities350,000
    United Nations Relief and Works Agency120,000
    United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)75,000
    United Nations Education Training Programme for Southern Africa16,000
    United Nations Trust Fund for Southern Africa8,000
    United Nations Trust Fund for Namibia5,000
    ODA portion of contributions to other UN agencies42,000
    Special refugee assistance—
        UNICEF/Kampuchea refugees325,000
        ICRC/Kampuchea refugees50,000
        UNHCR/Kampuchea refugees25,000
        UNHCR/Zimbabwe refugees100,000
        UNHCR/Afghanistan refugees50,000
                Total United Nations3,826,000
Commonwealth programmes
    Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation600,000
    Commonwealth Youth Programme70,000
    Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau31,214
    Zimbabwe Students Trust Fund30,000
                Total Commonwealth731,214
South Pacific institutions
    South Pacific Commission726,591
    South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation210,839
    Pacific Forum Shipping Line1,660,000
    Regional Fisheries Agency50,000
                Total South Pacific2,647,430
Development finance institutions
    IDA-4th Replenishment567,000
    IDA-5th Replenishment433,000
    ADB—Asian Development Fund1,000,000
    ADB—T.A.S.F.75,000
    Caribbean Development Bank50,000
    I.M.F.—Oil subsidy account360,000
    International Fund for Agricultural Development100,000
                Total development finance2,585,000
Other contributions
    Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research25,000
    International Planned Parenthood Fund250,000
    International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)25,000
    Miscellaneous multilateral/regional institutions5,722
                Total other305,722
                Total multilateral aid10,095,366

THE CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: Introduction—The history of the present constitution dates back to the declaration of British sovereignty in 1840. By the Treaty of Waitangi, certain Maori chiefs ceded their sovereignty to that of the British Crown in exchange for guarantees contained in the Treaty. Territory not included in the Treaty was claimed on the ground of discovery. Somewhat surprisingly, the constitution was, and is, wholly Anglo-Saxon in its origin and took no account of Maori custom and usage.

From 1840 until the grant of responsible government in 1856 the colony was subject to gubernatorial rule. Attempts to persuade the Imperial government to establish representative institutions bore fruit in 1846 with the enactment of a Constitution Act (never fully implemented) superseded by a further Constitution Act in 1852 which created a bicameral General Assembly with limited powers and 6 provinces each with its own executive and unicameral legislature or provincial council. The system of government was unitary however—the General Assembly could legislate in areas in which the provinces had jurisdiction and could amend or annul provincial ordinances.

The 1852 Act constituted the governor as part of the General Assembly with the power to summon, prorogue, and dissolve it and to assent or refuse the assent to legislation passed by it, but the actual form of the executive government was omitted from the Act and left to the will of the governors and the Colonial Office. Moreover, the Act was silent about the appointment and tenure of the judges, and matters normally contained in a constitutional document were left to be decided by ordinary legislation.

Amendments to the 1852 Act stemming from political development reflect New Zealand's transition from colonial to fully-independent status within the period 1840–1974. Contemporary concern about the constitution centres on the operation of, and the balance between, the legislature and the executive rather than in the broader context of the merits of monarchy or republic. The result of the 1978 General Election gave impetus to the argument for a system of proportional representation in elections for members of Parliament and it seems likely that New Zealanders will concern themselves for some time with the fine tuning of existing political institutions rather than with the system itself.

The Constitution—The constitution is not a single written instrument granted to, or by, the people but a miscellany of statutory and customary law welded together and given coherence by the operation and observance of formal unwritten rules known as the conventions. The constitutional framework is erected on, and maintained by, the ordinary law as opposed to a supreme or basic law such as that found in most jurisdictions.

Certain statutes and statute-derived law have important constitutional significance. Among the more important are:

Constitution Act 1852—creation of Parliament;

Bill of Rights 1688;

Habeas Corpus Act 1679;

Electoral Act 1956—election of members of Parliament;

Legislature Act 1908—declaration of powers, privileges of Parliament;

Economic Stabilisation Act 1948—wide-ranging powers of the Government to affect socioeconomic activity;

Public Safety Conservation Act 1932—states of emergency, powers of executive;

Letters Patent and Instructions 1917–1919—exercise of prerogative powers by Governor-General.

Such laws exist by force of the ordinary legislative process because of the basic canon of the legislative primacy of Parliament—the legal capacity of the legislature to make and unmake laws and the self-imposed collateral incapacity of any court or forum to impeach the validity of the legislature's exercise of that power when expressed as an Act of Parliament.

Although not as important in New Zealand as they are in the United Kingdom, the personal, i.e., prerogative powers of the Crown, almost all of which are exercisable by the Governor-General, remain part of constitutional law. A prerogative power may be abrogated only by statute.

On the foregoing basis, it is open to Parliament to change or abolish the constitutional framework on which it rests its primacy, and for a later Parliament to reverse that change, one aspect of the rule being that one Parliament cannot bind its successors. Consequently, the five provisions of the Electoral Act are entrenched by section 189 in a political, rather than a strict legal, sense. The section could not act as a bar to the repeal of itself by simple majority, and thereafter the repeal or amendment of one or more of the five sections, also by simple majority.

On paper, major changes to the constitutional framework could be effected with comparative ease and speed, but constitutional history shows that those changes which have been made reflected shifts in social or political attitudes already evident.

PARLIAMENT AND THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES—The Constitution Act created a bicameral General Assembly empowered to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of New Zealand. Legislative competence was restricted, e.g., laws enacted were not to be repugnant to those of England; laws did not have extra-territorial effect; certain laws needed the Sovereign's assent; and all were subject to Royal disallowance. It was only with the passage of the Constitution Amendment Act 1947 (U.K.) and the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947 (N.Z.) that the New Zealand Parliament obtained plenary legislative power, any residual doubts on the matter having been removed by a further amendment to the 1852 Act in 1973.

Until 1950, Parliament consisted of the Governor-General, the Legislative Council, and the House of Representatives. Despite repeated proposals for reform the council remained an appointive chamber, and the decline in its capacity as a curb on the lower House and the Government was accelerated by the partisan nature of the appointments made. Each ministry sought to ensure that its supporters were in a majority. The council's demise was assured when the National Party, which had campaigned for abolition, was returned as the Government in the 1949 General Election. The necessary legislation was passed by both Houses and the council ceased to exist on 1 January 1951. Although it was intended that the council should be replaced by an elected second chamber nothing came of the idea and it is highly unlikely that New Zealand will revert to bicameralism.

Parliament now consists of the Governor-General (the Queen when resident in New Zealand), and the 92–member House of Representatives. The role of the Governor-General, as part of the General Assembly, is purely formal and for all practical purposes “Parliament” is synonymous with “House of Representatives”.

The principal functions of Parliament are to enact laws, supervise the Government's administration, vote supply, provide a government, and redress grievances by way of petition.

The Constitution Act forbids the House to allocate public funds for any purpose unless first recommended by the Governor-General. Although the reasons for this provision are historic, it is also used by governments to defeat legislation brought forward by individual members which ministers are unwilling to support or adopt. On the other hand, the law forbids the Crown to tax citizens without express parliamentary approval.

Constitutional law includes the law and custom of Parliament, itself derived from a variety of sources. The Bill of Rights saves any proceeding in Parliament from being questioned in any forum, other than the House itself, and the Legislature Act 1908 provides that the powers, privileges, rights, and immunities of the House (and its committees and members) are those possessed by the British House of Commons on 1 January 1865. One aspect of the powers of the House is the ability to make rules for the conduct of its business. Most of these are contained in the Standing Orders although some are made on a sessional, and others on an ad hoc, basis. The traditional three readings given to a bill are part of Standing Orders, but it is open to the House to alter or suspend its rules at any time. The House has retained the right to punish breaches of its privileges, whether by members or citizens, from which there is no appeal (although the courts could be asked to decide whether the privilege claimed is one recognised by law).

Perhaps the most important privilege of the House is that of freedom of speech, guaranteed by the Bill of Rights, and claimed by the Speaker upon confirmation in his office by the Governor-General.

The House meets, as Parliament, in answer to a summons from the Governor-General. Sessions of Parliament are marked by a formal opening (the Government's legislative programme is described in the Speech from the Throne read by the Governor-General) and a closing prorogation by proclamation. Unless the House, by resolution made under the authority of the Legislature Act (1977 Amendment), carries forward business to the next session, all business before the House on prorogation lapses. Parliament is dissolved by the Governor-General rather than have it expire by efflux of time.

Because control of the House's business lies with the Government, many of the rules and customs of the House are designed to ensure that members of the House are given a full opportunity to debate any aspect of a government's proposals. Control of the debates and the conduct of members is vested in the Speaker, whose rulings are binding unless overturned by the House.

Detailed scrutiny of legislation and facets of executive activity, e.g., expenditure of public money, is carried out by select committees consisting of a small number of members, usually 7, which report their findings and recommendations to the House. Since 1980, all government bills stand referred to a select committee unless certified by the Speaker as “money Bills”. The change was recommended by the Standing Orders Committee (see Parliamentary paper I. 14,1979). This is intended to enable the public and interested bodies to make submissions, in the expectation that better laws will result.

In the context of the party system, it is very unlikely that the Opposition would be in a position to bring down a government by means of a no-confidence vote—there is one recorded instance of a successful no-confidence vote in the history of the New Zealand Parliament, and that was before the development of the party system as it is now. The strength of the parties, especially that of the National and Labour Parties, is so great that many of the rules and customs of the House are based on there being two parties only in the House. The presence of third party members, as at present, has raised a number of problems in relation to speaking times, membership of select committees, and so forth.

Because of the growth of a largely two-party system and the importance that the parties have assumed within the political framework, the party caucus (a meeting of each party's members of Parliament in closed session at regular intervals, once a week when Parliament is in session) is a primary means of developing policies and tactics. Caucus committees of both the National and Labour Parties travel around the country frequently, investigating issues of interest or concern to them. Although the existence of the caucuses and their committees is not recognised by the law, indirect recognition has been given, e.g., travelling allowances are payable to members when travelling as members of a caucus committee.

In the exercise of their functions and powers, the Speaker and the Chairman of Committees are assisted by permanent officials, headed by the Clerk of the House, charged with the administration of the House and the provision of advice on parliamentary law and custom.

The procedure for fixing the salaries and allowances of members and ministers was changed in 1977. Responsibility now rests with the Higher Salaries Commission established by the Act of the same name. The following table lists the salaries payable from 10 November 1980:

OfficeYearly Rate of Salary Payable On and After 10 November 1980
Members of the Executive$     
Prime Minister67,602
Deputy Prime Minister52,701
Each Minister of the Crown holding a portfolio or portfolios (other than the Prime Minister or the Deputy Prime Minister)46,739
Each Minister of the Crown without portfolio37,798
Each Parliamentary Under-Secretary36,307
Officers of the House of Representatives
Speaker of the House of Representatives43,386
Chairman of Committees of the House of Representatives37,427
Leader and Deputy Leader of the Official Opposition
Leader of the Official Opposition46,739
Deputy Leader of the Official Opposition36,307
Whips
Chief Government Whip34,275
Chief Opposition Whip34,275
Junior Government Whip31,977
Junior Opposition Whip31,977
Members of the House of Representatives
Each member of the House of Representatives to whom the foregoing provisions of this Schedule do not apply28,145

The following allowances are also paid:

OfficeYearly Rate of Expenses Allowance
 $     
Prime Minister12,334
Deputy Prime Minister5,376
Each Minister of the Crown holding a portfolio or portfolios (other than the Prime Minister or the Deputy Prime Minister)5,060
Each Minister of the Crown without portfolio3,985
Each Parliamentary Under-Secretary3,985
Minister of Foreign Affairs (Additional)4,428
Speaker4,428
    (Additional allowance as Speaker; plus electorate allowance at appropriate rate)4,048
Chairman of Committees4,428
    (Additional allowance as Chairman plus electorate and day allowances at appropriate rates)2,404
Leader of the Opposition5,060
    (Plus house and travelling allowances) 
Deputy Leader of the Opposition5,819
    (Plus additional allowance as Deputy and electorate, night, and day allowances at appropriate rates)2,024
Members5,819
    (Plus electorate, day, and night allowances at appropriate rates) 

The rate at which an electorate allowance is paid depends on the nature of each member's electorate, e.g., urban, rural, or semi-rural.

In addition to the foregoing allowances, a once-only setting up allowance is paid to members elected for the first time. The current rate is $250.

The Crown and the Governor-General—Constitutional law vests the executive power in the Crown i.e., the Monarch acting through, or with the advice of, responsible ministers. Primarily because of political developments within the British Empire and, later, the Commonwealth, changes in the substantive law have left the constitutional position, but not the role, of the Monarch in some doubt. By virtue of the Royal Titles Act 1974, the present Monarch is styled “… Elizabeth the Second … Queen of New Zealand” which, taken together with changes made to the Constitution Act in 1973, tend to suggest that the Queen of New Zealand is a separate legal entity from that of the United Kingdom, a suggestion which has found support in a 1976 Supreme Court decision. If such is the case, English or Imperial law which was thought to be part of New Zealand's law, e.g., the Regency Act 1937–53, may have ceased to be so.

Although not a viceroy, the Governor-General (appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the New Zealand Prime Minister for a 5-year term) may lawfully exercise most of the Royal powers and functions, whether derived from the general law or statute. The 1917 Instructions, reinforced by a strong convention, require him to accept and act on the advice of his New Zealand ministers, although a reserve power retained by the instructions would enable him to reject advice if he believed that a government was intending to act improperly or unconstitutionally. Events in Australia in 1975 have demonstrated how controversial the use of the reserve powers can be, and it is likely that a Governor-General would seek a political, rather than a legal, solution.

As part of the General Assembly, the Governor-General summons, prorogues, and dissolves Parliament, and his assent to Bills passed by the House is necessary to transform them into Acts. As the Monarch's representative, he is the head of the Executive and his participation, albeit formal in nature, is required to give legal effect to decisions made by the Government or individual ministers.

The Executive Government—The governance of New Zealand is executed by Ministers of the Crown in the name of, and on behalf of, the Monarch. The dual conventions that ministers are responsible to Parliament for their official acts and those of their officials and that the Government is responsible for its acts have been translated, indirectly, into statute. The Civil List Act 1979 provides that no person may be appointed or remain a minister or member of the Executive Council unless he is, concurrently, a member of Parliament.

Following a General Election, the leader of the party which has, or is most likely to secure, a majority of seats in the House is invited by the Governor-General to accept the office of Prime Minister and form a ministry. Although the selection process has varied between the two major parties, the respective leaders have final responsibility for the allocation of portfolios. Acting on the new Prime Minister's advice, the Governor-General appoints a number of members of Parliament as ministers with responsibility for one or more areas of government administration (portfolios), although in rare cases ministers are appointed without portfolio. In addition, a few members are appointed as parliamentary under-secretaries to assist ministers in specific areas. Under-secretaries are neither ministers nor members of the Executive Council.

The Executive Council, constituted under the 1917 Instructions, consists of the ministers, any two of whom together with the person presiding (normally the Governor-General) form a quorum. The council is the legal vehicle for the promulgation of a government's decisions which are intended to form part of the law. It is also one of the primary means whereby the Government tenders formal advice to the Governor-General.

The membership of the council at 8 December 1980 became 20.

Unlike the council, the Cabinet owes its existence solely to convention. Although both institutions have the same membership (the Governor-General is a member of neither), their respective functions differ markedly. It is the Cabinet which determines or approves a government's legislative and administrative proposals and policies and co-ordinates the work of ministers.

To facilitate this process, a number of Cabinet committees have been set up, consisting of ministers whose responsibilities are related to the subject matter covered by the committees. Present committees include those dealing with economic affairs, expenditure, communications, Government works, legislation and parliamentary questions, social affairs, state services, and transport. Each committee has power, within its terms of reference, to make decisions and some are supported by inter-departmental groups of officials.

One important feature of the Cabinet is the informality of its proceedings and their confidentiality, thus allowing for a consensus of views to emerge without the need, in most cases, to take a vote. Cabinet discussion and agreement ensures the Government's support in the House for a minister's legislative or other proposals and supports the convention of collective responsibility.

The Cabinet Office is responsible for the servicing and co-ordination of the Cabinet and its committees to ensure their smooth functioning, as well as providing liaison and advice within the interdepartmental framework. The Secretary of the Cabinet is also Clerk of the Executive Council.

The Judiciary—New Zealand has inherited the strong British tradition of an independent judiciary seen as a bulwark against unnecessary intrusion by the State in the lives of citizens. One means of maintaining that tradition is to provide superior court judges with security of tenure. Accordingly, the law provides that High Court judges are appointed “during good behaviour …” and are removable by the Governor-General in answer to an address from the House. Moreover, the salaries of High Court judges cannot be reduced while they remain in office. High Court judges must retire at the age of 68.

As from 1 April 1980 the name of the superior court of New Zealand, hitherto known as the Supreme Court, was changed to the High Court. At the same time, magistrates were renamed District Court Judges and their courts, District Courts. Appeals from the Court of Appeal to the Privy Council were not affected by the changes made.

District Court Judges are appointed, as with High Court judges, by the Governor-General on ministerial advice and are removable by him, without the need for an address from the House, for misbehaviour or inability. Although a District Court judge's security of tenure is not as entrenched as that of a High Court judge, nevertheless, the convention against arbitrary removal ensures his independence of action in the exercise of his judicial functions.

Judicial officers of specialist courts enjoy the tenure provisions of High Court judges or District Court judges depending on the ranking of their court within the judicial structure.

New Zealand courts apply the primacy of Parliament doctrine which, in the judicial context, means that a court will not question the validity of what purports to be an Act of Parliament. However, the doctrine has never prevented them from declaring legislation made by the Executive Council, under delegated authority from Parliament, outside the powers of the council or Governor-General, as the case may be, on the grounds that, in fact, no power to make that particular piece of subordinate legislation exists.

In the constitutional context, the growth and proliferation of tribunals and other administrative bodies as an answer to the complexities of modern administration, and the increasing regulation by successive governments of socio-economic affairs, has challenged the traditional, original, and supervisory jurisdictions of the High Court. In answer to parliamentary attempts to oust or restrict the Court's jurisdiction, the superior courts of many common law countries have dusted off hitherto unused writs and remedies and adapted them to meet modern demands.

The balance between the courts and the administrative agencies has been restored, partially, by the creation in 1968 of an Administrative Division of the Supreme Court (now the High Court) to hear appeals or review the law applied by these agencies, and the institution in 1972 of a simplified procedure to obtain judicial review. Conversely, New Zealand still lacks a coherent policy towards the role and ambit of the High Court's jurisdiction in the field of administrative law.

Because the High Court lacks the capacity to declare an Act unconstitutional or beyond the scope of Parliament's powers, the High Court judges have seen their supervisory jurisdiction over administrative acts as an important means of maintaining the balance of competing interests between the citizen and the State, and have taken steps to stem any erosion of that jurisdiction.

OMBUDSMEN—In 1962 the office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for Investigations (Ombudsman) was created by an Act of Parliament. The functions of the Ombudsman were and remain to investigate, either on receipt of a complaint or on the Ombudsman's own motion, decisions, recommendations, acts and omissions of those departments and organisations named or specified in the Act which relate to matters of administration. Legislation which was enacted in 1975 and which repealed and replaced the 1962 Act provides for the appointment of a Chief Ombudsman and an unspecified number of Ombudsmen, all of whom have equal and co-extensive jurisdiction.

These appointments, as in the case of the appointment made under the 1962 Act, are made by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the House of Representatives, and the Ombudsmen continue to fulfil their traditional role of Parliamentary officers. The present legislation extends the jurisdiction of the Ombudsmen to include not only the departments of Government and Government organisations which were originally within jurisdiction, but also local authorities.

The Ombudsmen have no power to make binding decisions, but are empowered to form an opinion on the merits of a complaint, and if appropriate to make a recommendation to the department or organisation for its resolution. If effect is not given to a recommendation, the Ombudsman may in the case of a department of Government or a Government organisation report the matter to the Prime Minister and thereafter to Parliament. In the case of a local organisation which declines to give effect to a recommendation, the Ombudsman may prepare a summary of his report and require the local organisation concerned to make that summary available to members of the public and to publicise locally the availability of that summary.

The Ombudsmen have been given wide powers to require the production of documents and the appearance of persons before them in connection with the investigation of complaints.

An analysis of complaints made to the ombudsmen and the resultant action is given in the Official section of this Yearbook.

PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS—The law on elections is contained in the Electoral Act 1956 and its amendments. Responsibility for the electoral process is shared between 4 Government departments. The Post Office maintains and prints electoral rolls and the Department of Justice is responsible for the conduct of the polls. The Departments of Statistics and Lands and Survey provide geographical referencing material and mapping services. Following the population census (every 5 years) the boundaries of General (formerly known as European) electorates are revised, and new boundaries come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

To assist this revision, the Government Statistician is required to supply electoral population figures to the Surveyor-General.

The term “General population” means total population with the following exceptions:

Maori electoral population—a figure based on the number of adult New Zealand Maoris registered in Maori electoral districts adjusted to include children. A Maori is defined in the 1980 Amendment as “a person of the Maori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person”:

  1. Persons residing on board any ship;

  2. Temporary guests in any guest house, hotel, or motel;

  3. Temporary residents in any defence area;

  4. Patients or inmates in any hospital or institution;

  5. Persons detained in any penal institution.

After the population figures are supplied by the Government Statistician it is then the responsibility of a Representation Commission to define new General electoral districts. The commission comprises eight members. Five of these are official members; the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer, the Director-General of the Post Office, and the Chairman of the Local Government Commission (who is without voting rights). Two are unofficial members, being persons nominated by the House of Representatives, one nominated to represent the Government and one to represent the Opposition. The eighth member is appointed, on the nomination of the official and unofficial members of the commission or a majority of them, to be the chairman of the commission. The chairman and unofficial members cease to be members on the date on which the first periodical census is taken after the date of their appointment.

The number of General electorates is based on population under a formula that allocates 25 seats to the South Island. The general electoral population of the South Island is divided by 25, and the quota thus obtained for each South Island electorate is then divided into the North Island general electoral population to give the number of electorates in the North Island.

The number of Maori seats is fixed at four.

When the boundaries have been provisionally determined, maps are prepared illustrating the proposed electoral districts, and descriptions of each electoral district are published in the New Zealand Gazette. A time limit of 1 month is given during which objections to the proposed boundaries may be lodged. These objections are then considered by the Representation Commission and a final decision is reached on boundaries which then define the new electoral districts.

All general elections and by-elections are held on a Saturday. Polling hours in all electorates are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.

Any member of the Armed Services aged 18 years or over serving overseas is qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which he or she last resided before leaving New Zealand.

Franchise—Since September 1974, persons 18 years of age and over have had the right to vote in the election of members of the House of Representatives. (From 1893 onwards all persons aged 21 years had voting rights and the qualifying age had been lowered to 20 years in 1969.)

Registration of Electors—Registration as an elector is compulsory, although it is not compulsory to vote. To be qualified for registration as a parliamentary elector in New Zealand a person must have attained the age of 18 years and must (a) be a New Zealand citizen or a permanent resident and, (b) at some period have resided continuously in New Zealand for at least a year, and (c) except in special cases have resided continuously for 3 months or more in the electoral district in respect of which application for registration is made, and not have subsequently resided for 3 months or more in any other electoral district. Maoris and persons of part-Maori descent may elect to be included on either the General or the Maori electoral roll but their options are renewable only at prescribed intervals.

Voting at parliamentary elections is by secret ballot. In general, only those persons whose names are lawfully on the main and supplementary rolls of electors compiled prior to an election may vote at that election.

A vote is normally cast by the elector at a polling booth within his district. An elector may, however, vote as a “special voter”, either at a polling booth outside his district or by post for reasons of distant travel on polling day, sickness, etc.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT: General—The present system of local government in New Zealand has evolved since the abolition of the provinces in 1876. Until fairly recently it has consisted of a structure of territorial local authorities—counties, boroughs, and town districts—and a further structure of ad hoc authorities, such as harbour boards, pest destruction boards, and electric power boards. Major changes were made by the Local Government Act 1974, which provided for the introduction of regional government, and for the establishment of district councils (as a new form of territorial authority) and “communities” (below territorial authority level). The Local Government Act also extended the role of the Local Government Commission in the reorganisation of local government. The Local Government Act as originally enacted has, however, undergone modifications, especially as a result of amending legislation. As from 1 April 1980 the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 and the Counties Act 1956 were repealed.

The Local Government Act contains all the provisions relating to the constitution of regional government (regional councils and united councils), territorial authorities (boroughs, counties, town districts, and districts), and communities. The Act also outlines all the provisions relating to the Local Government Commission.

Territorial Authorities—There are four kinds of territorial authorities in existence:

Boroughs—The Municipal Corporations Act 1876 provided for the incorporation of the 36 boroughs then in existence and for the creation of new boroughs. Boroughs provide for the needs of concentrated populations and until 1978 there had to be a population of at least 1500, with an average density of population of at least one person per 4000m2, before they could be constituted. A borough containing a population of 20000 or more may be proclaimed a city, but the corporation remains unaltered.

Counties—Counties were originally constituted by the Counties Act 1876. Generally counties are concerned with the needs of rural areas. Initially, there were 63 counties but with increasing settlement this number increased to 129 in 1920. Since then the number of counties has been reduced by mergers and at 1 April 1979 there were 91 counties, of which 90 were actively functioning, Fiord being a sparsely-populated county in which the Local Government Act 1974 is not wholly operative.

Fiord County is soon to be abolished and the area will be included in the adjoining district of Wallace County.

Town Districts—The town district represents a form of territorial local government intermediate between the county and the borough. It implies a certain concentration of population. There were two types of town district—dependent and independent. On the enactment of the Local Government Act 1974, the four existing dependent town districts became community councils. Town districts do not form part of the county within which they are situated, nor are they subject to any county council control. After 1 April 1978 no new town districts are to be constituted.

District Councils—This form of territorial local authority was introduced by the Local Government Act 1974 in recognition of the fact that nowadays many territorial authorities are neither “boroughs” nor “counties” in the sense that they are neither wholly urban nor wholly rural. District Councils may now be constituted either by Local Government Commission scheme or by a borough council or county council passing a special order to that effect. The Governor-General may proclaim a district under a district council to be a city if in his opinion it is predominantly urban and it has a population of not less than 20000. As at 1 April 1980 there were 9 District Councils: Waitomo; Thames-Coromandel; Whakatane; Waipukurau; Waipawa; Kawera; Rangiora; Otorohanga; and Rotorua. Except for Rangiora, all these districts comprise areas which at one time contained a separate county, borough, or city.

Communities—The Local Government Act provides for the establishment of “communities” within the districts of territorial local authorities. Since 1976 a community may be constituted, by Local Government Commission scheme or by special order of the territorial local authority, only in an urban area within the rural part of a territorial authority district that is predominantly urban in character, or in an urban area within a territorial authority district that is predominantly rural in character, or in the whole of the area of one or more off-shore islands forming part of a territorial authority district. This has brought the position nearer to that existing prior to the enactment of the Local Government Act, which superseded Parts III and IV of the Counties Amendment Act 1968 under which county towns and county boroughs were able to be constituted within counties.

Although not local authorities in the true sense, each community has either a “district community council” or a “community council” of not less than 5 nor more than 12 members, elected by residents and ratepayers for a 3-year term.

District Community Councils—By statute, except for certain reserved powers dealing with finance, staff, and planning, a district community council may exercise all the powers and functions of its parent territorial authority. A district community council may be established only in respect of a community having a population of not less than 1500.

Community Councils—These derive most of their powers by delegation from their territorial authority, at its discretion. Once again, powers dealing with finance, staff, and planning cannot be delegated. In addition to exercising such powers as may be delegated to it by the territorial authority, the general purpose of a community council is to co-ordinate and express to the parent territorial authority the views of the community on any matter of concern to it, after consulting and obtaining the consent of the territorial authority to take appropriate action in the interests of the community, and to undertake, encourage, and co-ordinate activities for the general well-being of the residents of the community.

Regional Government—Apart from the Auckland Regional Authority, which was constituted by a local empowering Act in 1963, the regional bodies being established under the Local Government Act will be new to local government in this country. Regions and united or regional councils are being determined by the Local Government Commission and established by Order in Council giving effect to a final regional scheme of the commission.

As at January 1980, there were 18 regions with a regional government structure. Sixteen of these regions have been constituted under united councils: Nelson Bays; West Coast; Wairarapa; Marlborough; Taranaki; Wanganui; Southland; Bay of Plenty; East Cape; Canterbury; Northland; Tongariro; Horowhenua; Thames Valley; Waikato; and Clutha - Central Otago. Wellington has a regional council and the Auckland Regional Authority is deemed to be a regional council.

Regional bodies possess their functions through several means. First, every united or regional council has two mandatory functions—regional planning (under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977) and civil defence. Besides these two mandatory functions, the Local Government Act provides, with qualifications in some cases, that a united or regional council may undertake functions relating to regional reserves, forestry, regional roading, and community services. The commission's regional scheme constituting a united or regional council may provide for the regional body to undertake the functions of any territorial authority or (where a special-purpose authority or the appropriate Minister concurs) a special-purpose authority. A united or regional council is empowered to undertake exclusively any new regional function which is not undertaken by any other local authority in the region; the commission, by scheme, can provide that that function may be one that other local authorities are not empowered to undertake under any other statute. A united or regional council may also enter into an agreement with a constituent authority to undertake any function of that authority where, in the opinion of either party, that function would be more effectively and economically undertaken by the regional body. Finally, united and regional councils may enter into agreements with the Crown whereby they may exercise any function or provide any service for or on behalf of the Crown.

The main differences between the two types of regional body are as follows:

United Councils—These are to be appointed by the constituent (territorial) authorities. To obtain finance they will make levies on their constituent authorities. One of the constituent authorities is to be appointed as the administering authority of the united council, that is, to staff and service the united council. The united council concept is designed to meet requirements of those regions where the range of functions, or the nature of the responsibilities involved, do not justify the setting up of an organisation of the scale implicit in a directly elected regional council.

In addition, a united council must have the prior consent of the majority of territorial authorities in its region (having sufficient weighting in capital value, population, and area) before it can take on any new function.

Regional Councils—These are directly elected. They function as a completely separate organisation and exercise direct rating powers.

Special-purpose Authorities—Special-purpose authorities differ from territorial authorities in that each is charged with only one major function. The need for the most efficient and economic discharge of the major function being the prime consideration, their boundaries may either extend beyond or fall within those territorial authorities in the same geographical area. Only rarely do the boundaries coincide. Sometimes, as is the case with a number of pest destruction boards and hydatids control authorities, territorial authorities themselves are also constituted as, and perform the functions of, special-purpose authorities. The more important special-purpose authorities are those administering harbours, hospitals, and the retail distribution of electricity. Others are engaged in water supply, urban drainage and transport, soil conservation and rivers control, pest destruction, nassella tussock control, hydatids control, and land drainage.

Number of Local Authorities—Local authorities actively functioning at 1 April 1980 were as follows:

Territorial Authorities—County councils, 91; borough (including city) councils, 129; town councils, 3; district councils, 9.

Communities—Also within the framework of territorial local government, although not local authorities as such, were: district community councils, 15; community councils, 114.

Regional Authorities—United councils, 12; regional councils, 2.

Special-purpose Authorities—River boards (2 boards also have the powers of land-drainage boards), 5; land drainage boards (including 1 territorial authority), 25; urban drainage boards, 4; catchment boards, 13; catchment commissions, 4; regional water boards, 1; water supply board, 1; valley authority, 1; electric power boards (including 1 electric power and gas board), 38; transport board, 1; harbour bridge authority, 1; independent harbour boards, 15; pest destruction boards (separately elected), 5.0; wallaby board, 1; nassella tussock boards, 2; plantation board, 1; forestry corporation, 1; crematorium board, 1; hospital boards, 29; town hall board of management, 1; museum trust boards, 3; and local railway board, 1. Borough and county councils also functioned as harbour boards in 8 cases, as county pest destruction boards in 37 cases, and as hydatids control authorities in 84 cases. In addition, there were 18 district roads councils of the National Roads Board constituted under the National Roads Act 1953. Although these district roads councils are not local authorities in the strict sense of the term they are intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, providing an advisory service to the National Roads Board concerning the roading needs and the allocation of national reading funds within their respective districts.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT COMMISSION—To promote reform of the structure of local government a Local Government Commission was first established, as a quasi-judicial body, in 1946. The present Local Government Commission, constituted by the Local Government Amendment Act (No. 2) 1977, comprises a chairman appointed by the Minister of Local Government and two other members, one appointed by the Minister on the nomination of the New Zealand Counties Association and the other on the nomination of the Municipal Association of New Zealand. Where the commission is to consider a proposal affecting a local authority other than a territorial authority, it may request the Minister of Local Government to appoint a person having special knowledge of the functions undertaken by that local authority, to be a temporary member of the commission.

The commission undertakes investigations, prepares schemes, and makes recommendations and reports for the purpose of ensuring that the system of local government in any local authority will best provide for the needs and well-being of its residents and the continued development of the district; that local authorities have such district boundaries and such functions and powers as will enable them to provide most effectively and economically essential or desirable local government services and facilities; that local authorities shall have such resources as will enable them to engage adequate services and to obtain and operate adequate technical facilities, plant, and equipment; and that districts shall be of such a size and nature as will promote efficient local government and avoid the necessity of uneconomic expenditure.

The legislation sets out procedures to guide the commission, with emphasis being placed on consultation on proposals at an early stage, prior to formulating a provisional scheme. After the hearing of objections to a provisional scheme, the commission may draw up a final scheme. There are two distinct kinds of schemes which the commission may prepare and issue.

Regional Schemes—A principal task of the commission continues to be the preparation of regional schemes for the constitution of regions and regional bodies (united councils or regional councils) throughout New Zealand. The Minister of Local Government may refer a final regional scheme back to the commission for reconsideration of any of its provisions.

Reorganisation Scheme—Consideration of a proposal for a scheme for the union of local authority districts, the constitution or abolition of any district, the adjustment of boundaries, or a transfer of functions from one local authority to another, may be initiated by the commission itself or at the request of the Minister of Local Government or of any local authority. A new feature is provision for the appointment of conciliators by the commission to inquire into and negotiate on a proposal for a reorganisation scheme.

The Local Government Act as originally enacted brought most special-purpose authorities (other than hospital boards and education boards) within the jurisdiction of the commission. An amendment in 1976, however, removed the automatic jurisdiction of the commission in relation to special-purpose authorities so that it may now act only in those cases where the appropriate Minister or the special-purpose authorities concerned agree to their inclusion in a scheme.

GENERAL POWERS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Act under which they are constituted. As mentioned above, the Local Government Act is the main governing Act for territorial authorities, as it is for united, regional, district community, and community councils.

There are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976 and the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. Other legislation applicable to territorial, regional, and various other type;: of local authority includes the Rating Act 1967, the Public Bodies Meetings Act 1962, the Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968, the Public Bodies Leases Act 1969, the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, the Public Works Act 1928, the Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963, and the Joint Council for Local Authorities Services Act 1977.

For most harbour boards there is, in addition to the general Harbours Act, a special Act for each board which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—urban drainage boards, the Christchurch Transport Board, the Auckland Regional Authority, the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority, and the Waikato Valley Authority—derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

A local authority has no legislative powers beyond the authority to make bylaws within limits defined in its constituting Act, but it can promote legislation on matters which affect the government of the area under its jurisdiction and which it is not already empowered to deal with. If the subject is transient and not contentious and is approved by Government, it is usually dealt with by the inclusion of an appropriate section in the annual Local Legislation Act passed by Parliament for this purpose. If, on the other hand, the local authority seeks powers of a permanent or major nature additional to those conferred on it by general Acts it must submit to Parliament a special Local Bill. Seven local Acts were passed in 1980.

Franchise—Under the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, local elections are held on the second Saturday in October every third year. They were last held on 11 October 1980. Enrolment of residential electors is compulsory. In a poll on any proposal relating to loans or rates, a ratepaying qualification is necessary.

Apart from a few special-purpose authorities, some of whose members are appointed by other local authorities or by Government, members of local authorities are elected triennially, any qualified elector being eligible to seek election. In general the franchise extends to all persons aged 18 years or over who either possess a rating qualification or who possess a residential qualification in the district of the local authority concerned. The right to vote for members of land drainage and river boards is, however, restricted to those who possess rating qualifications. In the case of regional councils the right to vote is limited to those who reside in the region.

A person who is an alien (other than an enemy alien) may vote in local authority elections but is not capable of election or appointment as a member of any local authority.

Voting Procedures—Under the provisions of the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, any local authority may determine whether an election or poll is to be conducted by personal attendance at a polling booth or by way of postal vote. Where the franchise is to be exercised by personal attendance at a polling booth, the local authority may decide to conduct the election or poll over a period of not more than 11 consecutive days instead of confining voting to a single day.

Remuneration of Members—The remuneration of members of local authorities is governed by the statutes constituting the various types of local authorities. Most special-purpose authorities pay their chairmen an annual allowance with a maximum fixed for each type of authority. The maximum payable to mayors of boroughs and cities and county council chairmen varies according to the population of the local authority. The chairman and members of a united or regional council may also be paid such annual allowances as may from time to time be approved by the Minister of Local Government with the concurrence of the Minister of Finance.

TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING—The Town and Country Planning Act 1977 provides for the making and enforcement of regional, district and maritime planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1978. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works and Development.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Books dealing with various aspects of the wide range of historical, constitutional, political, economic, and governmental matters touched on in this section will be found listed in the select bibliography of New Zealand books near the back of this Yearbook.

Parliamentary papers which may be found useful include the following:

Report of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Parl. paper A. 1).

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Report of the Local Government Commission (Parl. paper G. 9).

Report of the Ombudsmen (Parl. paper A. 3).

Chapter 3. Section 3 POPULATION

By world standards, New Zealand's population is small—less than 3.2 million at the end of 1980. New Zealand's first million of population was recorded in 1908, 68 years after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. In 1952, 44 years later, the second million was reached, and the third million late in 1973. Recent predictions are that the fourth million will not be reached until well into the twenty-first century.

Population has 2 sources of gain—natural increase (excess of births over deaths) and net migration (excess of arrivals over departures). In the early years in New Zealand the bulk of the increase was through migration. From the late 1870s natural increase permanently displaced immigration as the chief contributor to population growth. At the Census of 1881 the percentages of the total population born in New Zealand and born overseas were approximately equal (50.2 percent New Zealand-born to 49.8 percent overseas-born), and each succeeding census until 1951 recorded an increased proportion of New Zealand-born. Since 1951 (when the New Zealand-born made up 86 percent of the population) the proportion has fallen slightly, mainly because increased international travel and tourism have meant that at each census increased numbers of overseas-born tourists and travellers have been included in the population as enumerated on census date. At the 1976 Census 83.3 percent of the population was recorded as having been born in New Zealand.

During the present century, natural increase has accounted for over three-quarters of the growth of population. New Zealand's rate of natural increase has, until recently, been relatively high compared with other countries whose population is predominantly of European origin.

The natural increase rate has, in the main, closely reflected the changes in the birth rate with a low point of 8.63 per 1000 in 1935 and high points of 18 per 1000 in 1947 and 1961. In the 1960s the average rate was less than 14 per 1000, and the rate continued to fall throughout the 1970s, reflecting the continued fall in the birth rate, until it has now fallen below the previous low point recorded in 1935 (In 1980 the provisional natural increase rate was 7.62). The fall in the birth rate in the sixties and seventies is a feature that New Zealand shared with a number of other developed countries, and notably with Australia, Canada, and the United States.

The natural increase in recent years is shown in the following table. A 50-year series of vital statistics is included in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

PeriodMarch YearsCalendar Years
Births*DeathsNatural IncreaseBirths*DeathsNatural Increase
* Excluding Section 14 birth registrations which are “late” registrations. See Yearbook Section 4B Births.
   (thousand)   
1946–1950239.588.0151.5244.588.1156.3
1951–1955258.193.1165.1263.294.2169.0
1956–1960294.6101.5193.1300.1102.9197.2
1961–1965319.4110.5208.9317.3112.1205.2
1966–1970306.0118.6187.4307.5120.2187.3
1971–1975308.6124.8183.9304.4124.8179.6
1976–1980268.2127.5140.7263.1127.2136.0
    Total, 1946–19801994.4764.01230.62000.1769.51 230.6

Migration has continued to add to the population quite substantially except during depression and war periods, the recession conditions of 1968–69, and during the latest 5 years. Gains from external migration since the Second World War are shown in the following table. Movements of the armed forces are not included.

PeriodMarch Years*Migration GainCalendar Years Migration Gain

* March years ended in years listed.

Excess of departures.

 (000)(000)
1946–195027.432.5
1951–195566.669.0
1956–196049.243.9
1961–196563.970.2
1966–19706.06.5
1971–1975107.8116.9
1976–1980−78.7−119.3
Total, 1946–1980242.2219.7

In the past, most of the inward migration has been from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the Netherlands. In more recent years increasing numbers have come from the Pacific Islands, notably Western Samoa. A changed economic climate in the country brought a net migration loss to population for the years ended March 1968, 1969, and 1970, but these losses were more than compensated for by relatively heavy gains to the population from net migration during the years ended March 1973, 1974, and 1975. The net gain from migration fell sharply during the year ended March 1976. More recent years have witnessed substantial net losses.

Figures of the net inflow or outflow from migration during recent years are shown in the following table and in more detail later in this section.

Year Ended MarchNet Inflow or Outflow*From
Total MigrationPermanent and Long-term Migration
* A minus sign indicates outflow.
19743357627477
19752964322439
197665675300
1977−13727−19072
1978−22307−26708
1979−26906−40200
1980−22299−34417
1981−15328−24825

POPULATION STATISTICS—Population statistics are based primarily on the five-yearly population census. Intercensal population estimates are based on the most recent census data available, adjusted in accordance with later figures of births, deaths, and migration. Estimates of the populations of particular localities, e.g., cities and boroughs, also take into account local economic developments, housing schemes, the numbers on school rolls, changes in boundaries, and any other factors leading to, or indicating, changes in population.

The basis adopted for the population census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of population physically present in the place of enumeration at the time of enumeration. All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand. Though Tokelau is constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons it is administered separately. The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing but the islanders are New Zealand citizens.

The most recent Census of Population and Dwellings in New Zealand was taken this year, on 24 March 1981. The next will be taken in 1986.

The figures in the table following are intercensal estimates and exclude members of New Zealand armed forces who were overseas, and also members of the armed forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

YearTotal Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
Years Ended 31 March
1977156840015720003140400158000.53120700
197815719001574000314590055000.23128900
1979156920015755003144700x−1200x3129200x
19801570000157850031485003800x0.13124800x
Years Ended 31 December
1976157240015759003148300204000.73116200
197715740001577900315190036000.13127700
1978157280015786003151400−5003129400
1979157210015788003150900−5003124400
1980158110015830003164100132000.43131300

The following table shows the New Zealand Maori population, defined as persons of half or more New Zealand Maori origin.

YearNew Zealand Maori Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
Years Ended 31 March
197713820013660027480047001.8272400
197814070013880027950047001.7276800
197914350014170028520057002.0282000
198014500014320028820030001.1286500
Years Ended 31 December
197613780013600027380054002.0271200
197713980013790027770039001.4275700
197814290014090028380061002.2280500
197914470014260028730035001.2285600
198014610014400029010028001.0288600

INCREASE OF POPULATION—The growth of population has been substantial in each intercensal period. The lowest rates were those of 1926–36, which included some years of economic depression, of 1936–45, which included World War II, and of 1966–71, mainly attributable to a marked change in migration patterns. Totals from the population censuses taken in 1961, 1966, 1971, and 1976 are shown below. Provisional results from the 1981 Census of Population are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

Census DatePopulation*Increase or Decrease
IntercensalIntercensalAnnual Average
* Numbers of persons in New Zealand armed forces overseas are excluded.
 NumberPercent
18 April 1961241498424092211.082.12
22 March 1966267691926193510.852.11
23 March 197128626311857126.941.35
23 March 197631293832667529.321.80

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—The annual average percentage increases of population for the period 1975–78, are given in the following table for certain selected countries. (Source: United Nations: Demographic Yearbook, 1978 and Population and Vital Statistics Report, 1979).

CountryAverage Annual Percentage Increase
Australia1.8
Canada1.0
Denmark0.3
France0.3
Germany, West−0.3
India2.2
Japan.1.3
Netherlands0.8
New Zealand0.4
Sweden0.3
Switzerland−0.3
United Kingdom−0.1
United States0.7
U.S.S.R0.9

POPULATION PROJECTIONS—An indication of possible future growth of the total New Zealand population (including Maoris) up to 2011 is given by the detailed alternative projections which follow.

Projections of future population involve an element of uncertainty owing to an incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality, and migration levels. Also, difficulties in forecasting the future behaviour of these components of population change result from rapidly changing trends brought about by varying social, and especially economic, conditions.

It should be understood that, as with all demographic projections prepared by the Department of Statistics, these projections are not strict forecasts or targets, but conditional forecasts based on the stated assumptions. Presentation and use of the projections, therefore, cannot be divorced from consideration of the assumptions adopted.

These national population projections incorporate alternative short-term assumptions involving changing annual levels of net immigration as described in the footnotes to the table.

Age-sex-specific projections, equivalent to those in the table below, are available on application to the Demographic Specialist Studies Section, Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Christchurch.

At 31 MarchProjected Total New Zealand Population Assuming:*
Long-term Net Annual Migration of Zero and Short-term Migration Variant DesignatedLong-term Net Annual Migration of 5000 and Short-term Migration Variant Designated
LowMediumHighLowMediumHigh

* These projections have as base the estimated population at 31 March 1980. They are based on the following assumptions:

  1. That future fertility experience will be in accordance with the “medium” variant. (See () below).

  2. That future mortality experience will be in accordance with the 1975–77 Life Tables mortality rates (total population) with a decrease of 0.4 percent per annum in most ages (percentage decrease being higher for infants and lower for elderly age groups) until 1986, after which time mortality rates are assumed to remain constant.

Three alternative fertility assumptions—designated “low”, “medium”, and “high” have been derived in terms of age specific fertility rates to project future fertility experience. These rates are generally projected to decrease over the period 1981–1985, after which time fertility rates are assumed to remain constant. The “low”, “medium”, and “high” fertility variants imply approximate long-term average family size of 1.70, 1.91, and 2.12 children respectively.

  1. The “low” short-term migration variant assumes net annual migration for the years ending 31 March as follows:-20000 (1981), −15000 (1982), −10000 (1983), −5000 (1984) and zero (1985).

  2. The “medium” short-term migration variant assumes net annual migration for the years ending 31 March as follows:-15000 (1981), −10000 (1982), −5000 (1983) and zero (1984).

  3. The “high” short-term migration variant assumes net annual migration for the years ending 31 March as follows:-10000 (1981), −5000 (1982) and zero (1983).

   (thousand)  
1980 (Base)314831483148314831483148
1981315231573162315231573162
1982315931693180315931693180
1983317131863202317131863202
1984318732083224318732083229
1985320832303246320832353256
1986322932513268323532623283
1991333633593377336833973421
1996343334583477349535263550
2001351035363555360336353660
2006356135883608368537183745
2011359336203641375037843811

Note—A minus sign indicate net annual emigration.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION—Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census and are published in 3 parts as Volume 1, Location and Increase of Population, Part A. Population Size and Distribution, Part B. Population Density, and Part C. Usually Resident Population of the Census of Population and Dwellings.

North and South Islands—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration, and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of NZ Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population of the North and South Islands since 1901.

Census YearTotal PopulationPercentages
North IslandSouth IslandTotalNorth IslandSouth Island
190143147138439181586252.947.1
1911610599447713105831257.742.3
1921791918479750127166862.337.7
19361018038555774157381264.735.3
19451146315556015170233067.332.7
19561497364676698217406268.931.1
19661893326783593267691970.729.3
19762268393860990312938372.527.5

The 1976 Census revealed that the population of the North Island continues to increase at a greater proportionate rate than that of the South Island. At the 1976 Census the North Island population was 2268393, a 10.6 percent increase on the 1971 total of 2051 363. At the same census the South Island total was 860990, an increase of only 6.1 percent on the 1971 total of 811 268. However, between the 1971 and 1976 Censuses, births in the South Island totalled almost 78000 and deaths over 38000, giving a net natural increase of approximately 40000. The fact that the total population increase was nearly 50000 indicates a net migration inflow to the South Island during the intercensal period. This is in contrast to the previous intercensal period (1966–71) when a net migration outflow of approximately 16000 was indicated.

Statistical Areas—In the following table are shown the areas and enumerated populations of the statistical areas at the 1976 Census and the estimated population at 31 March 1980.

Statistical AreaArea (Square Kilometres)Population Census 23 March 1976Estimated Population 31 March 1980
Northland12649107013107600
Central Auckland5600797406808800
South Auckland -Bay of Plenty36775472083479700
East Coast108854814747400
Hawke's Bay11303145061146500
Taranaki9720107071106600
Wellington27715591612592700
  Total, North Island11464722683932289300
Marlborough108593503035400
Nelson180467556276000
Westland154152404923900
Canterbury43371428586428400
Otago37100188903187900
Southland29624108860107600
    Total, South Island154415860990859200
    Total, New Zealand26906231293833148500

Statistical Divisions and Main Urban Areas—Statistical Divisions and Main Urban Areas are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. Statistical divisions are a new concept. The basic criterion for a Statistical Division is a population of 75000 or more within the area of economic and social interests of a heavily populated centre. Seven Statistical Divisions have been established, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, Napier-Hastings, Palmerston North, Wellington (including Hutt), Christchurch, and Dunedin. The Division, like the Urban Area, does not have any administrative functions, but embraces areas of unified community, economic, and social interests. In addition to the central city or borough, Urban Areas include neighbouring boroughs and town districts and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population. Minor adjustments of Urban Area boundaries have been made because of the peripheral growth of population in some of the urban areas between 1971 and 1976.

The populations of the 7 Statistical Divisions and the 24 defined Urban Areas are as follows:

Statistical Division (S. Div.) and Main Urban Area (U.A.)1971 Population Census1976 Population CensusPercentage Increase 1971–1976Estimated Population 31 March 1980
Auckland S. Div.—
    Northern Auckland U.A.10797713742127.3142600
    Western Auckland U.A.8994810813920.2111600
    Central Auckland U.A.2867852891250.8283200
    Southern Auckland U.A.16504820810126.1215700
    Sub-total, Combined Auckland U.A.s64975874278614.3753100
    Remainder S. Div.486245462012.355600
                Total69838279740614.2808800
Hamilton S. Div.—
    Hamilton U.A.808129477717.398300
    Remainder S. Div.55194598298.460800
                Total13600615460613.7159000
Napier-Hastings S. Div.—
    Napier U.A.436015016415.151200
    Hastings U.A.455125081411.651800
    Remainder S. Div.782080322.78020
                Total9693310901012.5111000
Palmerston North S. Div.—
    Palmerston North U.A.570656387311.965300
    Remainder S. Div.23667248515.025100
                Total80732887249.990400
Wellington S. Div.—
    Upper Hutt Valley U.A.309863558414.836500
    Lower Hutt Valley U.A.92014971945.698000
    Porirua Basin U.A.478585569816.456200
    Wellington U.A.1367821389381.6135300
    Sub-total, Combined Wellington U.A.s3076403274146.4326000
    Remainder S. Div.163922221435.523000
                Total3240323496287.9349000
Christchurch S. Div.—
    Christchurch U.A.2759682952967.0295100
    Remainder S. Div.266423041414.231000
                Total3026103257107.6326200
Dunedin S. Div.—
    Dunedin U.A.1110591132221.9111700
    Remainder S. Div.668172047.87020
                Total1177401204262.3118700
Main Urban Areas Not in Any Statistical Division
Main Urban Area1971 Population Census1976 Population CensusPercentage Increase 1971–1976Estimated Population 31 March 1980
Whangarei340293906914.839700
Tauranga403494815319.349300
Rotorua397524665017.447600
Gisborne30161317905.432000
New Plymouth387804391413.244800
Wanganui37982396794.540000
Masterton20147210014.221200
Nelson379944243311.742900
Timaru28959299583.430100
Invercargill50681537626.153700
    Total, 24 Main Urban Areas1930249213475510.62153900
    Total, 7 Statistical Divisions1756435194551010.81963000

Cities and Boroughs—The population of cities and boroughs is now given.

City or BoroughEstimated Population at 31 March 1980Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—
    Kaitaia4660695
    Kaikohe3660544
    Whangarei (city)360004911
    Dargaville47001133
    Helensville1240532
    East Coast Bays (city)248001558
    Takapuna (city)642008670x
    Devonport10850445
    Northcote9990540
    Birkenhead (city)208001266
    Waitemata (city)8270037550
    Henderson7220517
    Glen Eden8770503
    New Lynn10600564
    Auckland (city)1460007472
    Newmarket132074
    Mt. Albert (city)28300983
    Mt. Eden19500598
    Mt. Roskill348001862
    Onehunga16650769
    One Tree Hill10550983
    Ellerslie5630301
    Mt. Wellington205001650
    Howick14100621
    Otahuhu10650560
    Papatoetoe (city)23200907
    Manukau (city)14530056561x
    Papakura (city)224001384
    Pukekohe90001405
    Waiuku3660593
    Tuakau2040442
    Huntly6100930
    Cambridge81501071
    Ngaruawahia4430450
    Hamilton (city)918006749x
    Te Awamutu7760713
    Taumarunui62701815
    Paeroa3850574
    Waihi3450539
    Te Aroha31801126
    Morrinsville4930476
    Matainata5190533
    Putaruru4330395
    Tokoroa192501359
    Mt. Maunganui105501910x
    Tauranga (city)345004020x
    Te Puke4000532
    Taupo132501446
    Kawerau80402174
    Murupara3000287
    Gisborne (city)301002628
    Wairoa5580649
    Napier (city)481003020x
    Hastings (city)356001949
    Havelock North8620563
    Dannevirke5650526
    Woodville1560427
    Waitara6210575
    New Plymouth (city)384002380
    Inglewood2690284
    Stratford5410816
    Eltham2350647
    Patea2010575
    Ohakune1490841
    Raetihi1230388
    Wanganui (city)377003392
    Taihape2800778
    Marton5040573
    Feilding11250855
    Foxton2790306
    Palmerston N. (city)591004302
    Levin151001298
    Otaki4350666
    Kapiti1535017428
    Upper Hutt (city)3150048428
    Lower Hutt (city)653008968
    Petone83101043
    Eastbourne47901273
    Porirua (city)427008383
    Tawa13000695x
    Wellington (city)13590026322
    Pahiatua2610291
    Masterton197001799
    Carterton4050512
    Greytown1940442
    Featherston2590307
    Martinborough1370442
        Total, North Island cities and boroughs1726900308463x
South Island—
    Picton3290426
    Blenheim175501770
    Nelson (city)332004762
    Richmond67201052
    Motueka44901021
    Westport4960308
    Runanga1430487
    Greymouth83201068
    Hokitika3540273
    Rangiora6200357
    Kaiapoi4940318
    Riccarton7250339
    Christchurch (city)16930010635
    Lyttelton33101036
    Ashburton144001227
    Geraldine2080301
    Temuka3800395
    Timaru (city)295002342
    Waimate3400312
    Oamaru136001161
    Port Chalmers3120410
    Dunedin (city)8100015685
    St. Kilda6330249
    Green Island7020781
    Mosgiel9420787
    Milton2210204
    Kaitangata1090518
    Balclutha4760509
    Tapanui960121
    Lawrence570249
    Roxburgh760208
    Naseby13076
    Alexandra4300987
    Cromwell2110740
    Arrowtown460134
    Queenstown3280416
    Gore9280946
    Mataura2300515
    Winton1960240x
    Invercargill (city)498005616
    Bluff2800866
    Riverton1600403
        Total, South Island cities and boroughs53620060250x
        Grand total, all cities and boroughs2263200368713x

Note: Because of rounding, individual figures in this table do not always add to give the stated total.

Districts—A new concept in local government—the district—appeared in the 1976 Census statistics in the form of the Thames-Coromandel District, constituted on 1 October 1975 and amalgamating the former Thames and Coromandel Counties and Thames Borough. Similar amalgamations occurred between 23 March 1976 and 1 April 1979, resulting in the constitution of 8 further districts, the largest of which is Rotorua, formed from Rotorua City and Rotorua County.

DistrictEstimated Population at 31 March 1980Approximate Area in Square Kilometres
Thames-Coromandel174502212
Otorohanga94501976
Waitomo111503407
Rotorua573002708
Whakatane276004310
Waipawa52501354
Waipukurau78902031
Hawera13000500
    Total, North Island14910018498
Rangiora4970263
    Total, South Island4970263
    Total, New Zealand15410018761

Town Districts—The population of town districts—i.e., those contained in the following table—is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located.

Town DistrictEstimated Population at 31 March 1980Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—
    Hikurangi1170389
    Manaia980206
    Waverley1180202
        Total, town districts3320797

Communities—The following table lists communities with estimated populations of 1000 or more at 31 March 1980. The parent local authority is shown in parentheses. The population of communities are included in the administrative county populations given in a later table.

CommunityEstimated Population at 31 March 1980Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island
    Kerikeri (Bay of Islands)1100347
    Moerewa (Bay of Islands)139075
    Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)1670229
    Paihia (Bay of Islands)1560232
    Raglan (Raglan)1350372
    Kihikihi (Waipa)1280212
    Whitianga (Coromandel Div.)1560293
    Whangamata (Thames Div.)1350485
    Thames (Thames Div.)68901653
    Waihi Beach (Ohinemuri)1300209
    Katikati (Tauranga)1450960
    Papamoa Beach (Tauranga)1320373
    Mangakino (Taupo)1470261
    Edgecumbe (Whakatane Dist.)1750172
    Ohope (Whakatane Dist.)1700544
    Foxton Beach (Manawatu)1050397
    Tairangi (Porirua City)7600225
    Cannon's Creek (Porirua City)11250292
South Island
    Kaikoura (Kaikoura)2160283
    Darfield (Malvern)1060233
    Halswell (Paparua)4950204
    Pleasant Point (Strathallan)1040378
    Brighton (Silverpeaks)1110138
    Fairfield (Silverpeaks)1760134x
    Wanaka (Lake)1260313
    Te Anau (Wallace)2510395

District Communities—The following table lists the estimated populations of district communities as at 31 March 1980. The parent local authority is shown in parentheses. The populations of district communities are included in the administrative county populations given in the following table.

District CommunityEstimated Population at 31 March 1980Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island
    Warkworth (Rodney)1630577
    Wellsford (Rodney)1710554
    Hibiscus Coast (Rodney)110006210
    Otorohanga (Otorohanga)2660227
    Ngongotaha (Rotorua District)2320513
    Turangi (Taupo)5610579
    Waipawa (Waipawa District)18301354x
    Bulls (Rangitikei)1990405
    Ashhurst (Oroua)1720173
    Waikanae (Horowhenua)46001076
    Shannon (Horowhenua)1640342
    Heretaunga-Pinehaven (Hutt)60004700
    Wainuiomata (Hutt)2000026614
    Total6260043324x
South Island
    Hornby (Paparua)8810491
    Sockburn (Paparua)64001066
    Total152001557
    Total, District Communities7780044881x

Extra-county Islands and Shipboard Population—In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, districts, cities and boroughs, and town districts, the New Zealand totals include shipboard population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised an estimated total of 3920 persons at 31 March 1980.

Counties—The following table gives the estimated population of individual counties at 31 March 1980 together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that “administrative counties” do not include boroughs or town districts, which are independent of county control, but include district communities and communities, which form parts of counties.

Administrative CountyEstimated Population at 31 March 1980Approximate Area, in Square Kilometres
North Island—
    Mangonui75402479
    Whangaroa2110622
    Hokianga42001585x
    Bay of Islands169502131
    Whangarei152002669
    Hobson50901929
    Otamatea60901108
    Rodney315002334
    Waiheke3160155
    Great Barrier Is.370285
    Franklin185501477
    Raglan95502411
    Waikato170001655
    Waipa155501129
    Taumarunui50404808
    Hauraki Plains5090603
    Ohinemuri4620624
    Piako106501168
    Matamata126002602
    Tauranga192001801x
    Taupo137007244
    Opotiki65603124
    Waiapu42302818
    Waikohu30802650
    Cook78302843x
    Wairoa52204126x
    Hawke's Bay201004838
    Dannevirke43302211
    Woodville1460404
    Clifton20501176
    Taranaki10900588
    Inglewood2840521
    Stratford47902157
    Egmont5360622
    Eltham2660509
    Waimate West1780215
    Patea27301527
    Waimarino13402147
    Waitotara28701226
    Wanganui26701189
    Rangitikei145004486
    Kiwitea1830930
    Pohangina1000671
    Oroua5350492
    Manawatu6460692
    Kairanga6510461
    Horowhenua147001420
    Hutt26700428x
    Pahiatua2110741
    Eketahuna1810862
    Masterton41302386
    Wairarapa South25201140
    Featherston29902471
    Total, North Island counties40710095108x
South Island—
    Marlborough1125010478
    Kaikoura35902344
    Golden Bay40602618
    Waimea166507511
    Buller35305035
    Inangahua21002440
    Grey46803957
    Westland597011440
    Amuri27404273
    Cheviot1280875
    Hurunui62103717
    Eyre3210459
    Oxford1720814
    Malvern67005046
    Paparua32000445
    Waimairi70000115
    Heathcote886034
    Mt. Herbert870171
    Akaroa1560437
    Chatham Islands580963
    Wairewa680438
    Ellesmere84601200
    Ashburton109006174
    Strathallan93902676
    Mackenzie79607456
    Waimate54703558
    Waitaki86306315
    Waihemo1770880
    Silverpeaks124503205
    Bruce33401350
    Clutha54402695
    Tuapeka40003560
    Maniototo22203477
    Vincent43907620
    Lake466010235
    Southland258009577x
    Wallace132509655
    Fiord707861
    Stewart Island5101746
    Total, South Island counties316900152850x
    Grand total, all counties724000247958x

Non-administrative Population Centres—For the first time in 1979 population estimates were prepared for other non-administrative centres with total populations of 1000 or more. Populations of these centres are included in the estimated figures for the parent local authority areas given previously. In the table which follows the estimated populations at 31 March 1980 are compared with the 1976 Census population counts.

Non-administrative Centre1976 Population CensusEstimated Population at 31 March 1980
North Island—
    Te Kuiti (Waitomo Dist.)48404810
    Rotorua (Rotorua Dist.)3722938100
    Whakatane (Whakatane Dist.)1154211850
    Opotiki (Opotiki Co.)26232620
    Waipukurau (Waipukurau Dist.)36323660
    Opunake (Egmont Co.)14631500
    Hawera (Hawera Dist.)85068620
    Waiouru (Rangitikei Co.)32303200
    Total, North Island Centres7306574300
South Island—
    Reefton (Inangahua Co.)12871250
    Lincoln (Ellesmere Co.)15951660
    Twizel (Mackenzie Co.)51854700
    Total, South Island Centres80677600
    Total, Non-Administrative Centres81132x81900

Urban Concentration of Population—The bulk of New Zealand's population is located in urban areas, where the most rapid growth rates are occurring. This is due largely to the development of both manufacturing and tertiary industries in urban areas, which provide employment for a growing labour force. Other factors, including better social, cultural, educational, and economic opportunities, serve to attract persons to these areas, while the majority of immigrants tend to settle in the larger urban centres. These factors, combined with amalgamation of farms, centralisation of dairy factories, and increasing agricultural mechanisation (resulting in less labour required), combine to produce a noticeable rural-urban drift. Urban concentration features are common to “developed” countries at advanced stages of economic development.

The 1976 Census figures showed that many rural areas and a number of small and intermediate sized towns located outside Main Urban Areas are continuing to decline in population, although there are indications that the rate of urbanisation is stabilising. Forty counties recorded smaller populations than at the previous census in 1971, compared with 72 between 1966 and 1971. Of 54 small towns (1000 to 4999 population) 12 had declined in population between 1971 and 1976 compared with 22 during the previous inter-censal period. Two intermediate towns (5000 to 9999 population) showed decreases in population compared with six at the previous census.

Of the 16000 rural gain recorded on 1976 boundaries between 1971 and 1976, approximately 10000 of the gain was within rural areas lying outside the main urban areas but within the 7 major population centres forming the Statistical Divisions, suggesting some form of urban expansion.

The following table shows the urban-rural distribution of the population. Urban population has been defined as that of the 24 defined Main Urban Areas plus that of all boroughs, town districts, communities, district communities, and townships with populations of 1000 or over.

CensusUrbanRural
NumberPercentNumberPercent
* Excludes shipping.
 Total Population*  
192694110267.146057232.9
1936105477567.251433832.8
1945121714271.648200328.4
1956161015274.255946225.8
1966212676479.654534420.4
1971234151081.951597518.1
1976259268083.053244317.0
New Zealand Maori Population*
1926990515.65371484.4
19361421217.36808782.7
19452541425.77331074.3
19564792635.08915665.0
196612377461.67732138.4
197116062470.76667429.3
197620568876.26426323.8

In the process of urbanisation some centres have grown more quickly than others. There is a tendency towards concentration of population in the largest centres and also a drift of population from the south to the north. Where the two tendencies reinforce each other, as they do in the case of the combined Auckland Urban Areas, the rate of growth has been very rapid. Likewise the Urban Areas of Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, and Rotorua, which had a combined population in 1926 of 40164, in 1976 comprised 228649 inhabitants.

The initial reason for the drift to the north lay in the change in emphasis of farming activities in which the development of dairying played an important part. The expansion of dairying in itself called for the development of factory processing facilities and service industries. These farming trends have been reinforced by the growth of forest processing industries in the North Island and compounded further by the general tendency for the large-scale manufacturing units to be located close to the biggest local markets.

In the larger cities a notable feature of recent decades has been a movement of population from the central or “inner” areas to the perimeter or “outer” areas; residential units in the city centres have been replaced by shops, offices, places of entertainment, and other commercial or industrial buildings. More recently, there has been an offsetting movement with the building of multi-storey flats in the inner areas.

The distribution of population by size of centres is shown in the following table.

Population of Centre (City, Borough, Town District, or Community)CensusCensus
19261961197119761926196119711976
 Number of CentresPercentage of Population in These Centres
1000–2499634543487.53.02.42.4
2500–4999234740396.27.25.04.7
5000–9999113435325.99.68.87.4
10000–249991221232513.315.012.812.5
25000 and over412222524.132.544.650.4
        Total11315916316957.067.373.677.4

In the South Island a higher proportion of the population is rural, that is, outside urban communities, than in the North Island, the proportion being 21.6 in the South Island against 15.2 percent in the North Island, at the 1976 Census of Population.

Males and Females—Statistics from the census of 23 March 1976 showed that females outnumbered males by 5299 in the total population (excluding Armed Forces overseas), there being 1562042 males and 1567341 females. The changing sex distribution of the population, recorded at successive censuses, is given below.

CensusMalesFemalesFemales Per 1000 Males
1881293973240057817
1901429108386754901
1926719642688497957
1936799091774721970
19458329098694211044
195610932111080851989
196613437431333176992
1971143085614317751001
1976156204215673411003

The table excludes members of the N.Z. Armed Forces overseas at census date.

There are marked differences in the sex composition of the population of different parts of New Zealand. Females tend to outnumber males in urban areas and to be outnumbered in rural areas. One important reason is doubtless the generally better employment and educational opportunities for women and girls in the larger industrial and commercial centres.

DENSITY OF POPULATION—Density of population refers to the relationship between population numbers and land area, and is expressed in terms of numbers of persons per unit of area. It presents a useful tool for the analysis of population distribution providing it is borne in mind that the land area used is the gross area, and includes mountain ranges, rivers, lakes, forests, and barren country. In the case of cities and towns it includes parks, reserves, roads and streets, and the commercial and industrial districts.

The total area of New Zealand, including inland waters, is 271 265 square kilometres, giving an average population density at the 1976 Census of Population of 11.6 persons per square kilometre. This is low by international standards (for example, the United Kingdom has 229 persons per square kilometre, and the Netherlands, 332) but it must be remembered that in New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, and also large areas of rough hilly country which cannot be closely settled.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The following table shows the density of population in the 24 main urban areas for the 1926, 1956, and 1976 Censuses of Population. Only 2 urban areas, those of Central Auckland and Wellington, have an overall concentration of population exceeding 10 persons per hectare, with respective densities of 19.8 and 12.8 persons.

Main Urban AreaArea In HectaresPersons Per Hectare at Census
192619561976
Whangarei110800.91.83.5
    Northern Auckland264610.92.05.2
    Western Auckland246220.41.54.4
    Central Auckland1460011.317.419.8
    Southern Auckland358520.51.55.8
Combined Auckland U.A's1015352.13.97.3
Hamilton258480.71.83.7
Tauranga121980.41.73.9
Rotorua77960.82.56.0
Gisborne85921.82.73.7
Napier91012.03.05.5
Hastings139861.22.23.6
New Plymouth107481.52.74.1
Wanganui101012.63.23.9
Palmerston North176121.22.33.6
    Upper Hutt54120.73.16.6
    Lower Hutt134301.65.27.2
    Porirua Basin142520.21.23.9
    Wellington108909.311.312.8
Combined Wellington U.A's439843.05.17.4
Masterton134680.71.11.6
Nelson142471.01.93.0
Christchurch510232.44.05.8
Timaru72522.33.44.1
Dunedin184244.85.46.1
Invercargill127481.82.84.2
                Total, 24 main urban areas3897432.03.45.5

Density of population as recorded at the 1976 Census is shown by type of local authorities in the following table.

Perhaps the most interesting feature is that South Island towns are, on average, more densely populated than those of the North Island, although the North as a whole had a considerably higher ratio of population to area.

Type of Local AuthorityPersons Per Hectare
North IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
* Excluding district communities and communities.
Cities5.19.65.7
Boroughs7.98.38.0
Districts0.070.07
Counties*0.030.020.02
District Communities1.39.71.6
Communities2.25.12.8
Town districts3.13.63.2

NEW ZEALAND MAORI POPULATION—For statistical purposes, all persons of half or more Maori ancestry have, in the past, been defined as Maoris. This differs from the wider definition introduced in the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1974. That Act states that “Maori” means a person of the Maori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person.

Because of these changes, a two-part question on ethnic origin was introduced at the 1976 Census of Population.

A total of 270035 persons either specified themselves as being of half or more Maori descent in the first part of the question or (without answering the first part) indicated in the second part of the question that they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand or descendants of such.

It is probable that some of the persons answering the second part of the question only were, in fact, of less than half Maori origin. The inclusion of this unknown number in the total of 270035 means that this total is not directly comparable with the 1971 Census total of 227414 persons of half or more Maori origin. It also means that the intercensal percentage increase figures are overstated as a result of the wider definition. It is considered, however, that the inclusion of these 65582 persons here and in later Maori figures from the 1976 Census with the 204453 persons who did specify half or more Maori origin will better preserve general comparability with Maori statistics from earlier censuses based on the former definition than would the omission of those who did not specify their degree of Maori origin.

On the wider definitional basis, including all persons of less than half-Maori descent as well as the 65582 persons who indicated Maori origin but did not specify the degree, the 1976 Census count was 356847. The 1971 Census count of those who specified some degree of Maori origin was 290501. Thus, on the broader definition, the increase in the Maori population during the 5 years 1971 to 1976 was 66346 or 22.8 percent.

The decline in the number of Maoris during the early years of European settlement and throughout most of the nineteenth century is a matter of history. The present century has witnessed a resurgence of vitality among the Maori people which has been reflected in a strikingly high birth rate.

The following table shows the N.Z. Maori population during the present century on the basis of persons of half or more Maori origin. Members of the Armed Forces overseas are excluded.

Census YearNew Zealand Maori Population*Intercensal IncreaseIntercensal IncreaseAverage Annual Increase
* Prior to 1976 comprises persons who specified themselves as half or more New Zealand Maori and in 1976 this group plus those who indicated they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand but did not specify the degree of Maori origin.
 numberpercent
19014554934368.161.59
190650309476010.451.98
19115272324144.800.96
1916529972740.520.09
19215698739907.531.62
192663670668311.732.24
1936823261865629.302.62
1945987441641819.941.93
19511156761693217.152.89
19561371512147518.563.46
19611670862993521.834.02
19662011593407320.393.84
19712274142625513.052.48
19762700354262118.743.49

The increasing urbanisation of the Maori population as younger Maoris seek better job opportunities in the cities and boroughs is a population trend of considerable sociological significance. At the 1926 Census the urban N.Z. Maori population totalled 9905 (15.6 percent). By the 1976 Census the comparable figure was 205688 (76.2 percent), the largest concentration being in the Southern Auckland Urban Area where 29222 were enumerated in 1976.

Urban population is defined as that of the 24 defined Main Urban areas plus that of all boroughs, town districts, communities and townships of 1000 or more.

Of the 270035 Maoris at the 1976 Census, 250677 were in the North Island.

AGE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION—The following table shows the estimated age distribution of population as at 31 December 1979. The relative youthfulness of the Maori population, mentioned in Section 4—Vital Statistics and elsewhere in this Yearbook, is apparent in comparing the percentage breakdown of the age groups in the total and Maori populations.

Age Group (Years)Total PopulationMaoris*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
NumberPercentageNumberPercentage
* Persons of half or more Maori origin.
Under 51313801265102578908.217140162303337011.6
  5–91533201474503007709.520420198604028014.0
10–141544301470803015109.620560197304029014.0
15–1916118015246031364010.020260197303999013.9
20–241359101305502664608.515060146202968010.3
25–291193601196302389907.61141011200226107.9
30–341175801177902353707.586909000176906.2
35–3996810937801905906.070407150141904.9
40–4481220808501620705.163806620130004.5
45–4977400730701504704.851005300104003.6
50–5481210769701581805.04260415084102.9
55–5972340734701458104.62910301059202.1
60–6459230642301234603.92190229044801.6
65 and over1306701750303057009.73310369070002.4
                Total157210015788003150900100.0144700142600287300100.0
Under 1543913042104086017027.3581205582011394039.7
Under 1647048045063092111029.2622005973012193042.4
Under 18536220514170105039033.3707406812013886048.3
Under 20600310573500117381037.3783807555015393053.6
18 and over10358201064700210052066.7739907446014845051.7
20 and over9717301005370197710062.7663506703013338046.4
60 and over18990023926042916013.655005980114804.0
80 and over1600034210502101.63003906900.2

NOTE—Because of rounding, figures for individual age groups do not always add up to the stated totals.

EXTERNAL MIGRATION—In recent years there has been a large increase in New Zealanders going overseas, seeking better employment opportunities, on business or pleasure trips, and on working holidays, resulting in much higher levels of migration. The arrivals include many New Zealanders returning from travel overseas, as well as growing numbers of tourists from overseas countries.

Total migration figures (excluding only movements of armed forces) are shown in the following table for the most recent available 5 years. (A later year is included in the Latest Statistical Information Section at the back of this Yearbook). “Long-term”, as used here, indicates arrivals or departures for an intended stay of 12 months or more. Conversely, “short-term” refers to less than 12 months.

Through passengers, not included in the “All Passengers” totals, are persons who arrive in New Zealand but do not pass through immigration controls and do not complete arrival declarations. Also described as transit passengers, they normally depart on the same flight or vessel within a few hours of arriving in New Zealand.

ARRIVALS IN NEW ZEALAND
Year Ended 31 MarchLong-term (Including Permanent) ArrivalsShort-term MovementsAll Passenger ArrivalsThrough PassengersCrewsTotal Arrivals
N.Z. Residents ReturningTemporary Visitors Arriving
197648460245618384586678664136927176379991970
197737020249982380222667224140920183786991930
1978369722878683909407157801627331821761060689
1979408083463244187448058761765861728251155287
1980416074391374451959259391768221758101278571
DEPARTURES FROM NEW ZEALAND
Year Ended 31 MarchLong-term (Including Permanent) DeparturesShort-term MovementsAll Passenger DeparturesThrough PassengersCrewsTotal Departures
N.Z. Residents DepartingTemporary Visitors Departing
197643160240658389654673472136927175004985403
1977560922449983824046834941409201812431005657
1978636802842843899727379361627331823271082996
1979810083437644076488324201765861731871182193
1980760244268054444249472531768221767951300870

A summary of arrivals and departures during the latest 5 years by sex is given in the following table. Crews of vessels, through passengers, and members of the armed forces, have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31 MarchArrivalsDeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Excess of departures over arrivals.
19763529803256846786643519503215226734725192
1977349324317900667224357650325844683494−16270*
1978378344337436715780388076349860737936−22156*
1979424848381028805876438504393916832420−26544*
1980484986440953925939495131452122947253−21314*

From 1968 to 1970 there was an alteration in the net migration flow. This is illustrated in the following diagram which covers all passenger migration, excluding through passengers and crews. The excess of departures over arrivals recorded during the March years 1967–68 to 1969–70 was a migration feature unknown since the depression of the 1930s. It was followed by 6 years of migration gains, but the four years, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1978–79 and 1979–80 each witnessed substantial losses.

Long-term Migration—The following table gives an analysis of long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for March years. (Short-term migration is analysed in Section 37: Travel and Tourism.) In the year ended March 1980 there was a net loss of 34417 from permanent and long-term migration. This represented a fall on the record net loss of 40200 reported for the year ended March 1979, but it remained a very substantial loss, even by comparison with net losses of 26708 in 1977–78 and 19072 in 1976–77.

Year Ended 31 MarLong-term (Including Permanent) ArrivalsLong-term (Including Permanent) Departures
New Permanent ArrivalsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Arrivals (Immigrants)Permanent Departures of New Zealand ResidentsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Departures (Emigrants)
AssistedSubsidisedTotal (Includes Others)N.Z. Residents Returning*Long-term Visitors*N.Z Residents Depart'g*Long-term Visitors Depart'g*
* Arrivals: after absence of, or intending to stay, 12 months or more respectively. Departures: persons intending to stay away for, or after stay in New Zealand of, 12 months or more respectively.
1976109339920046168301158448460730827384846843160
197743713400155228098370201304836164688056092
197814188156447140369721833639424592063680
19799960223288520408081968052952837681008
198010769235617277416072387546162598776024

The countries of origin and destination of these long-term (including permanent) migrants are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarAustraliaCanadaIndiaUnited KingdomCook Islands and NiueFijiWestern SamoaNetherlandsSouth AfricaUnited StatesAll Other Countries*Total
* Includes unspecified.
Immigrants by Country of Last Residence
197618234960250145541332123612627406202012726048460
19771344095626091561016116811065325761580723037020
197812352832144979210128609488127921432799636972
19791393690818089281048716104874444418601099640808
19801329280721099121018677100783030920051154041607
Emigrants by Country of Next Residence
19761809012601161213679686212324748122070531243160
19772825012581081339071488011106282882166730056092
19783442812281721406475281212168521842532744063680
197941760137618815992856792118071624030841482481008
198042910134517513549720737101562426525171216776024

Ages—The following table gives the age distribution of long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for the year ended 31 March 1980.

Age, in YearsLong-term ArrivalsLong-term DeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Under 154194409582897556737414930−6641
15–19159019473537330046857985−4448
20–24462349829605111811013321314−11709
25–449038729516333148391122926068−9735
45 and over191619273843303026975727−1884
    Total213612024641607399063611876024−34417

Occupations—The following table shows permanent and long-term arrivals and departures during the year ended 31 March 1980 by occupation major groups and by those occupations or groups of occupations which were the main contributors to the movement within each major group.

Occupation GroupsPermanent and Long-term
ArrivalsDepartures
* Protective service workers include fire fighters, policemen, detectives, security officers, night watchmen, etc.
Professional, technical, and related workers—Males
    Architects, engineers, and related technicians9241581
    Medical, dental, veterinary, and related workers574692
    Accountants320547
    Teachers815912
    Workers in religion282233
    Professional, technical, and related workers n.e.c.199413
    Other professional, technical, and related workers10091679
                Total41236057
Administrative and managerial workers—
    Managers6461432
    Other administrative and managerial workers3442
                Total6801474
Clerical and related workers8501503
Sales workers—
    Salesmen, shop assistants, and related workers286766
    Other sales workers441974
                Total7271740
Service workers—
    Cooks, waiters, bartenders, and related workers344590
    Protective service workers*336539
    Other service workers199505
                Total8791634
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forest workers, fishermen and hunters—
    Farmers450548
    Agricultural and animal husbandry workers273655
    Other agricultural, animal husbandry and forest workers, fishermen and hunters209405
                Total9321608
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators and labourers—
    Food and beverage processers238771
    Machinery fitters, machine assemblers, and precision-instrument makers (except electrical)11102417
    Electrical fitters and related electrical and electronics workers3761074
    Plumbers, welders, sheet-metal and structural metal preparers, and erectors4471147
    Painters285610
Bricklayers, carpenters, and other construction workers    8572475
    Material handling and related equipment operators, dockers, and freight handlers243677
    Transport equipment operators6041321
    Labourers n.e.c.8041753
    Other production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers17532265
                Total599114510
Occupation not classifiable or unspecified7551250
                Total actively engaged males1493729776
Not actively engaged642410130
                Total males2136139906
Professional, technical, and related workers—Females
    Medical, dental, veterinary, and related workers16842763
    Teachers12071637
    Professional, technical, and related workers n.e.c.189435
    Other professional, technical, and related workers7681216
                Total38486051
Administrative and managerial workers81240
Clerical and related workers—
    Stenographers, typists, and card and tape punching machine operators15042618
    Bookkeepers, cashiers, and related workers2971031
    Computing machine operators120436
    Clerical and related workers n.e.c.11043106
    Other clerical and related workers184388
                Total32097579
Sales workers—
    Salesmen, shop assistants, and related workers350875
    Other sales workers91247
                Total4411122
Service workers—
    Cooks, waiters, bartenders, and related workers424789
    Maids and related housekeeping service workers n.e.c.75152
    Hairdressers, barbers, beauticians, and related workers154390
    Service workers n.e.c.153400
    Other service workers100234
                Total9061965
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forest workers, fishermen and hunters86188
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators and labourers5021700
Occupation not classifiable or unspecified7071000
                Total actively engaged females978019845
Not actively engaged1046616273
                Total females2024636118
                Total males and females4160776024

NOTE: n.e.c. denotes not elsewhere classified.

Origin—The following table shows for the latest 3 years the birthplaces of long-term (including permanent) migrants.

Country of BirthImmigrants*Emigrants
1977–781978–791979–801977–781978–791979–80

* Persons arriving in New Zealand for a period of 12 months or more (including permanent arrivals). Plus New Zealand residents returning after an absence of 12 months or more.

New Zealand residents departing for a period of 12 months or more (including permanent departures). Plus overseas visitors departing from New Zealand after a stay of 12 months or more.

North America158016641517157217881373
    Canada496512398528580483
    United States1008109610669441132838
South America14811291528059
Europe959684648640113921288010356
    Netherlands816716796672732525
    United Kingdom7616662867899612107248482
Asia227219483222138822681647
    Malaysia640556511440856557
Africa788548474348432405
Oceania225402800827577488926332862129
    Australia564448324420454046204051
    Cook Islands and Niue808932910460596504
    Fiji548624544540612409
    New Zealand142521981219881412705552455618
Other Countries4864863623255
                Total369724080841607636808100876024

IMMIGRATION POLICY: Permanent Entry—New Zealand's immigration policy is designed to encourage the entry of skilled labour into New Zealand, and to protect domestic employment opportunities for New Zealand citizens and residents who have the right to reside here permanently. At the same time, considerable emphasis is placed on humanitarian considerations such as the reunification of families, and the provision of settlement opportunities for refugees.

Occupational Grounds—The New Zealand Government periodically determines the occupational skills in demand in New Zealand which warrant recruitment from overseas. The list of these skills, called the Occupational Priority List (OPL), has been published by the Department of Labour to assist employers who are unable to fill job vacancies from within New Zealand.

A further measure adopted to assist employers is the Immigration Placement Service (IPS), which began operation through the New Zealand High Commission in London and the Employment and Vocational Guidance Service of the Department of Labour on 1 September 1980. The service provides employers with information on suitably qualified prospective migrants in the United Kingdom.

In general, applicants for permanent entry on occupational grounds must be between the ages of 18 and 45 years, of sound mental and physical health and of good character, and, if married, have no more than 4 dependent children.

There is also provision for the entry of business people and entrepreneurs who can bring both skills and capital which the Government considers will benefit New Zealand, for example, by creating additional employment opportunities or by generating new exports.

Applications are also occasionally received from persons who have distinguished themselves in the arts or sciences, or in public or cultural life overseas, and who wish to settle in New Zealand. Although they could make a major contribution to New Zealand life, most of them do not qualify in terms of normal occupational criteria. In the same way, applications are sometimes received from persons who, although outside normal criteria, have been actively involved in promoting or protecting New Zealand's interests overseas. The Minister of Immigration may approve such applications in appropriate cases.

Humanitarian Grounds—Consideration is also given to people applying to enter on humanitarian grounds. The policy on family reunification provides for the entry of various categories of people who have immediate family members who are New Zealand citizens or permanent residents already living in New Zealand. The categories include the spouses and/or children of New Zealand citizens or permanent residents; and the parents of other immediate members of a family (e.g., brothers and sisters if they are single and have no dependants) if they are the sole surviving members of the family permanently resident in the country in which they live.

Western Samoan Citizens—Within the South Pacific region, immigrants from Western Samoa constitute by far the largest group entering New Zealand for permanent settlement under a special quota arrangement instituted in 1962. Applicants who seek entry under the quota are required to meet normal requirements in relation to age, family size, health, character, and accommodation, and to be in possession of a guarantee of employment in any occupation, prior to entry.

Refugees—The admission and resettlement of refugees who come within the mandate of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has been an important priority of the New Zealand Government. Refugees have been accepted in New Zealand since 1944 from Europe, Asia, South America, and Uganda. Refugee schemes are considered by the Government in response to requests from the UNHCR and following consultations with voluntary agencies in New Zealand—usually the Inter-Church Commission on Immigration and Refugee Resettlement (ICCI) which was set up on the initiative of the National Council of Churches, and which, as part of its function, helps to find sponsors for refugees. (Financial support is provided to the ICCI by the Government in the performance of this function). When selecting refugees emphasis is placed on the humanitarian circumstances of each case. The selection criteria may vary for different refugee situations but it is considered in the best interests of the refugees themselves that those selected can be expected to adapt quickly to New Zealand conditions. Account is also taken of any previous association with New Zealand, and of links with friends or relatives living in New Zealand.

The number of refugees who can be accepted at any one time is dependent on the availability of satisfactory long-term resettlement resources in New Zealand, e.g., reasonably-priced suitable long-term accommodation, suitable employment for the breadwinners (which must of necessity in many cases be unskilled easily-learned tasks not requiring fluency in English), educational opportunities for the teaching of English, retraining, etc. Before refugees can be accepted, sponsors must be available to help each family group with their resettlement.

Where refugees arrive in large groups (e.g., as in the Indo-Chinese Refugee Programme) the Government provides special assistance in the form of group orientation programmes for up to 6 weeks after arrival. During that period the refugees are accommodated in the Mangere Reception Centre and costs are met by various Government departments including the Department of Social Welfare, which pays a special emergency benefit to meet living expenses until the breadwinner begins working. Medical and dental checks are provided by the Department of Health, and the Department of Education organises general orientation and familiarisation courses (covering aspects of daily living in New Zealand) and instruction in the English language. After completing the orientation programme the refugee settlers are moved to their final destinations where they are helped by their sponsors and, where possible, by other persons from their country of origin, to overcome their early resettlement problems in a local community.

Resettlement committees have been set up throughout New Zealand at each of the district offices of the Department of Labour. Each committee consists of Government departmental representatives, and representatives from voluntary organisations and employer and employee groups. The committees assist refugee sponsors at the local level with employment and any other problems that the refugees may face, as well as following up each local group's progress.

Current policy establishes quotas of refugees who may be accepted for entry, and the quotas are kept under review. New quotas approved in September 1979 in the continuing programme of acceptance of East European, Russian Jewish, and handicapped refugees provide for the entry of 90 families. Some 1800 Indo-Chinese refugees arrived for resettlement during 1980, bringing the total of Indo-Chinese refugees settlers in New Zealand to almost 3400 at the end of 1980. A quota of 1000 Indo-Chinese refugees has been approved for entry between 1 January 1981 and 30 June 1982, with the emphasis on the selection of refugees with family connections in New Zealand. Once established in New Zealand, former refugee settlers may sponsor the entry of relatives to New Zealand for family reunification under normal family reunification policy.

Inter-Departmental Committee on Resettlement—The Inter-Departmental Committee on Resettlement (ICR) reviews the facilities available to assist new migrants and considers how best to ensure that existing agencies and services are related in a more direct way to the resettlement objectives of New Zealand's immigration policy, as set out in the committee's 1975 Report to the Minister of Immigration.The ICR, in consultation with other Government agencies and non-Government bodies, works to identify areas in which steps are not being taken to meet the reasonable requirements of new migrants, and as appropriate to develop proposals to satisfy these requirements.

Resettlement Unit—A resettlement unit has been established in the Immigration Division of the Department of Labour. The unit's role is to assess the range of resettlement services available to new-settlers and working visitors; to undertake research and provide advice to promote co-ordination amongst these services, and identify gaps and overlaps in these areas; to investigate other measures which may assist new settlers; and in general, to foster better understanding in New Zealand of the problems faced by new arrivals. The unit will provide essentially a forum where ideas can be raised and studied, and where recommendations to the ICR and other interested bodies can be formulated.

Migrant Films—As part of the ICR's long-term plan to present migrants with comprehensive predeparture information about New Zealand, the Asia Pacific Research Unit Ltd. has produced 2 migrant information films. Living In New Zealand concerns the adjustment to living in New Zealand by Pacific Islanders, and Working Together in New Zealand is a general information film for skilled applicants on various aspects of daily life in New Zealand.

Temporary Entry—Entry permits for people wishing to visit New Zealand on a temporary basis are generally issued for varying periods of up to 6 months, though further extensions may be granted to bona fide tourists and other visitors to allow a total stay of up to 12 months. Visitors who wish to work while in New Zealand, whether for a New Zealand employer or on behalf of an overseas company, must apply for a temporary work permit; otherwise visitors are prohibited from working here. This requirement does not, however, affect Australian citizens who wish to work while in New Zealand, nor does it affect persons born in the Cook Islands, Niue, or Tokelau, who are New Zealand citizens and therefore have unrestricted right of entry into this country.

South Pacific Work Permit Schemes—New Zealand has special work permit schemes in operation for citizens of Tonga, Fiji, and Western Samoa. Under these schemes, agreed upon after negotiations with the respective governments, workers may undertake employment in response to specific job offers from New Zealand employers. Employers are required to make financial and other commitments to ensure the welfare of Island workers while they are in New Zealand, and the Department of Labour checks that the conditions of employment offered are acceptable and that the accommodation provided is of a suitable standard. The maximum period of employment is 11 months. The long-term intention is to supplement these schemes with training and employment programmes aimed at improving the reserve of skills in the South Pacific countries concerned, along with programmes of economic development (for example, the Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme), to enable those countries to provide more local employment opportunities. Employees of Pacific companies involved in the Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme (PIIDS) may be sponsored to New Zealand by participating firms to undertake suitable training schemes.

From time to time New Zealand makes special arrangements on an ad hoc basis with other Pacific countries to provide employment opportunities as local conditions permit.

Student Entry—Entry may be granted to overseas students to undertake approved courses of study, provided they make prior application and meet a number of requirements (including producing evidence of the availability of the necessary funds). The primary intention is to provide opportunities for students from less-developed countries to train in New Zealand. Information on studying in New Zealand is available from the Secretary of Labour, or from New Zealand's overseas representatives.

Formalities: Passports—All persons who arrive in New Zealand are required by the Immigration Act 1964 to have a valid passport or some other acceptable and recognised travel document. There are, however, certain categories of travellers who are exempted from the passport requirements. These include New Zealand citizens, Australian citizens, and Australian permanent residents who are citizens of a Commonwealth country or the Republic of Ireland, provided they travel direct from Australia to New Zealand.

Entry Permits—Except for New Zealand citizens, all persons entering New Zealand are required to obtain entry permits under the Immigration Act 1964. All persons intending permanent residence in New Zealand require prior approval before setting out on their journey.

To obtain permission to settle in New Zealand, intending immigrants, other than Australian citizens, should first write to the nearest overseas representative of the New Zealand Government or to the Secretary of Labour, Private Bag, Wellington, New Zealand for the necessary application forms. Each application is considered on its merits.

The following categories of travellers, however, are exempt from prior authority and entry permit requirements (whether entering permanently or temporarily) under a special exemption:

  1. Australian citizens;

  2. Citizens of other Commonwealth countries or of the Republic of Ireland who have been granted the right to reside indefinitely without restriction in Australia, provided they are travelling direct to New Zealand from Australia. (Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island are treated as part of Australia for this purpose.)

Visitors from a number of other countries do not require visas or prior entry authorities, provided the purpose of entry is for tourism or to visit family and friends. Further details are available from the Secretary of Labour or from the nearest New Zealand overseas representative.

These arrangements do not, however, exempt such persons from the provisions of the Immigration Act 1964 relating to prohibited immigrants. The following categories of persons are prohibited from entry to New Zealand whether for permanent or temporary entry:

  1. Mentally disordered persons, or people suffering from tuberculosis, leprosy, or syphilis;

  2. Persons who have been convicted of an offence and sentenced to a term of imprisonment or other form of detention for 1 year or more or to any form of indeterminate detention for which they may be detained for a period of 1 year or more;

  3. Persons who have been deported from New Zealand (except for a certain class of ship deserter), or deported from any other country.

Those within any of the above categories who enter New Zealand without first obtaining special permission to do so commit an offence under the Immigration Act 1964.

Re-entry—People who have the status of permanent residence retain that status while they remain in New Zealand, unless they become liable to deportation by reason of criminal offences. If they leave New Zealand the status lapses, but may be reinstated if on their return to New Zealand they produce a re-entry authority. Such an authority can be obtained from any district office of the Department of Labour before departure. It is advisable to apply at least 2 weeks before departure.

Deportation—The Immigration Act 1964 makes provision for the deportation of the following persons: those convicted of certain offences against the Immigration Act; permanent residents who are convicted of an offence within specified periods of their arrival in New Zealand for which the Court has the power to impose imprisonment; those who have engaged in, or who belong to organisations which have engaged in, acts of terrorism; and any person who constitutes a threat to national security.

Appeals Against Deportation—Persons who have been convicted of offences against the Immigration Act may appeal in writing to the Minister of Immigration against deportation on the grounds that it would be unduly harsh or unjust to deport them. In addition, a Deportation Review Tribunal is empowered to hear appeals on humanitarian grounds from permanent residents against deportation orders following convictions for criminal offences.

Remaining in New Zealand Without a Permit—Section 14B of the Immigration Act enables the Minister of Immigration to grant temporary permits to visitors already in New Zealand without permits, or with permits which have been deemed by Court decisions to be invalid. Such people are in the situation of having no legal status in New Zealand, but their status can be regularised if they apply to the Minister of Immigration for a valid temporary permit. Holders of such permits may then apply to the Minister to remain in New Zealand permanently. If a person does not apply for a permit after being notified of a requirement to do so, he or she may commit an offence against the Immigration Act and be liable to be deported.

PASSPORTS—Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1980.

New Zealand passports are issued and renewed within New Zealand by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington, Auckland, Rotorua, Christchurch, and Dunedin, at Rarotonga and Niue by the New Zealand Representatives, and overseas by the representatives of New Zealand at Apia, Athens, Baghdad, Bahrain, Bangkok, Bonn, Brussels, Canberra, Geneva, The Hague, Hong Kong, Honiara, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Moscow, New Delhi, New York, Noumea, Nuku'alofa, Ottawa, Paris, Peking, Port Moresby, Port of Spain, Rome, San Francisco, Santiago (Chile), Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, Tokyo, Toronto, Vancouver, Vienna, and Washington.

United Kingdom, Canadian, Australian, Malaysian, Singapore, Fijian, Western Samoan, and Indian passports are issued and renewed in New Zealand by the respective High Commissioners for those countries.

During the year ended 31 March 1980 there were 103945 New Zealand passports issued, compared with 93740 during the previous year.

Entry into New Zealand—As from 1 January 1981 the Department of Labour is responsible for entry requirements into New Zealand.

Departure from New Zealand—It is normal for each person leaving New Zealand (except for British subjects including New Zealand citizens, travelling between New Zealand and Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories) to be in possession of a valid passport or other document for their onward travel.

CITIZENSHIP—The current basic law on New Zealand citizenship is the Citizenship Act 1977, which came into force on 1 January 1978. Previously, the relevant law was the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948.

Under the Citizenship Act 1977, New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways: (a) by birth in New Zealand; (b) by descent (i.e. birth outside New Zealand); (c) by grant of citizenship. Those persons who were citizens under the previous Act (whether by birth, descent, naturalisation or registration) at 31 December 1977, retain their status under the current legislation. The current legislation also allows for citizenship by descent through the female line. To be eligible for a grant of New Zealand citizenship a person (other than the spouse of a New Zealand citizen; or a person under 18 years of age) must—(a) have resided in New Zealand for the 3 years immediately preceding the date of application; (b) be entitled in terms of the Immigration Act 1964 to reside in New Zealand permanently; (c) be of full capacity; (d) be of good character; (e) have sufficient knowledge of the English language and of the responsibilities and privileges attaching to New Zealand citizenship; (f) intend to continue to reside in New Zealand or to enter or continue Crown service under the New Zealand Government, or service in the employment of a person, company, society, or other body of persons resident or established in New Zealand.

Under current legislation adults who acquire New Zealand citizenship by grant may be asked to swear allegiance to the Queen of New Zealand. British subjects or Commonwealth citizens whose country recognises Queen Elizabeth II as Head of State are asked to take the oath on the application form. Other persons whose country of birth does not give this recognition are required to swear allegiance at a public ceremony. The ceremonies, at which applicants are presented with their certificates granting them New Zealand citizenship, are held in an atmosphere of dignity and solemnity. During 1979–80 there were 139 ceremonies at which 1697 candidates took the oath.

New Zealand citizens may be deprived of New Zealand citizenship if they voluntarily acquire a foreign nationality by any formal act other than by marriage and have acted in a manner that is contrary to the interests of New Zealand or voluntarily exercised any of the privileges or performed any of the duties of another nationality or citizenship in a manner that is contrary to the interests of New Zealand. Citizenship obtained by fraud, false representation, mistake, or wilful concealment of relevant information may be withdrawn. Under certain conditions New Zealand citizenship may also be validly renounced.

Upon the introduction of the Citizenship Act 1977 the requirement that aliens be registered was abolished.

CENSUS OF POPULATION AND DWELLINGS 1976

The series of tables on the following pages contain statistics from the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings.

MARITAL STATUS—The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the Census of 1976 is summarised in the following tables.

Age Croup (Years)Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedWidowedDivorcedTotal*
* Including persons not specifying status.
Males
16–1911808223202146120649
20–248353346135122744202131644
25–344009917727452962542610226515
35–441319614602939377222963167616
45–5412541139488340823473825162327
55–648974107512197252243324127471
65–745600662949698706178983631
75 and over2405216542771036846635361
    Total, 19762844307067061710727669151851055214
    Total, 1971250372632108115982679811442937954
Females
16–1910377111703226139115829
20–2447895761892965172534127931
25–3420651189033730410763872222123
35–447379142378493029304310162112
45–547789130455351796234636156252
55–648869971881950246383972136943
65–7490124926282036978232398672
75 and over6816131612264061670361843
    Total, 197621218270936921938116046203591081705
    Total, 19711866196379221413910453314711959378

The percentage distribution aged 16 years or over according to marital status is given in the following summary.

Marital Status196619711976
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Never married28.120.826.919.527.119.6
Married66.866.167.866.667.265.7
Legally separated0.81.01.21.51.62.0
Widowed3.110.92.910.92.610.7
Divorced1.11.21.21.51.41.9
            Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

HOUSEHOLDS—There was a total of 923257 private households living in permanent dwellings at the Census in 1976. The following table analyses the type of household by the number of occupants. A complete one-family-only household consists of a husband and wife with or without unmarried children of any age who are living at home.

Type of HouseholdTotal Private Households*Number of Private Households' with Number of Members
1234567 or More
* Resident in permanent dwellings.
One-family-only—
    Complete54747118763893395131478805613504619353
    Incomplete with children absent30642690182577249429019651980
    Incomplete with one parent absent524712442814937767633241263843
    Incomplete with one parent and child(ren) absent476819931431706355147136
                Total635352220960118020147109885303842122312
Other family—
    One family plus other persons (non-family)747312065516626158281068410938
    Multi-family with or without other persons155782797310033306351
                Total903092065519423189281401417289
Non-family—
    Multi-person5370036818978845611706564263
    One person143896143896
                Total19759614389636818978845611706564263
                Grand Total923257143896257778484631710931091645299939864

In the following table complete one-family-only households at the 1976 Census are analysed by membership, and the employment status of the head of the household.

Employment Status of HeadTotal HouseholdsHusband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
* Includes heads working pan-time (1 to 19 hours weekly).
Number of Households
Actively engaged full-time in the labour force—
    Employer465469228768313186992844342087
    Own account worker5030011499831214085981445352055
    Salary or wage earner3665369924067812100525592562523614467
    Unemployed2489747485549305216187
    Relative assisting15888322396
    Not specified620195105125864960
            Total46664912099784429128493793983447618856
Not actively engaged full-time in the labour force*
    Retired743616360277972004564228166
    Student118579619311458213
    Household duties26521262421458256138117
    Other2624981555409285183211
                Total8082266641896629851163570497
                Grand total54747118763893395131478805613504619353

The following table shows the composition of one-complete-family-only households in 1976 analysed by the age group of the head of the household.

Age Group of Head (Years)Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife withTotal Households
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
Number of Households
Under 2066575394821522
20–24187409961600310631484335958
25–44345533657790676599152555212980260253
45–647315639244331081915891826203180051
65 and over605246860159741716412569687
              Total18763893395131478805613504619353547471
Percentage of Age Group
Under 2043.749.56.20.50.1100.0
20–2452.127.716.73.00.40.1100.0
25–4413.314.134.823.09.85.0100.0
45–6440.621.818.410.65.13.4100.0
65 and over86.99.82.30.60.20.2100.0
All ages34.317.124.014.76.43.5100.0

The following 2 tables show, for one-complete-family-only households, the income group analysed by the membership of the household. The income given in the first table is the income of the head of the household, while in the second table the total household income is shown. In a considerable proportion of households, the total household income was substantially above the income of the head of the household, indicating at least 1 other income recipient in the family.

Income of Head*Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife withTotal
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
$     Number of Households  
Nil249603914156670538839331926
        1–1,9992601438372043101354439133842
  2,000–3,999232209521951758542992224753351
  4,000–5,99950039307913880022943104856565159623
  6,000–7,9993344323122383242230791074571130874
  8,000–9,999143761097020729129275386239666784
10,000–14,9991008576541449099103890169947728
15,000–19,99921811458272921589433409809
20,000 and over20101357239720979513929204
Not specified13107718836473603594330
                Total18763893395131478805613504619353547471
Income of Household*Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife withTotal
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
* Estimated income before tax, other than social welfare benefits, for the year ended 31 March 1976.
$     Number of Households  
Nil21962102242022514813723914
        1–1,99922256148889943825620725544
  2,000–3,999169855929549334071562120334579
  4,000–5,999256611875923919132845831349590949
  6,000–7,999220481852029979168536877335997636
  8,000–9,999227051474323469141755739281983650
10,000–14,9994218321972301961933681794185126051
15,000–19,99982036182965567263268175035784
20,000 and over36013196542045572268130420346
Not specified20341584202815609188949018
                Total18763893395131478805613504619353547471

The following tables show persons living alone in 1976 by age, sex, and marital status.

Age Group (in Years)Marital Status
Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedDivorcedWidowedTotal*
* Including those of unspecified marital status.
 Males Living Alone  
Under 20982221008
20–2435815121502154287
25–44836123632136125612314325
45–647531271919272808290717976
65 and over316319705081022919615944
                Total236187586472151071223153540
 Females Living Alone  
Under 207684791828
20–24195738216136122560
25–4443498838047842837139
45–6462222377147032811429827708
65 and over6805215955517384076952121
                Total201015848299958395536390356

GROUP-LIVING QUARTERS—The following table shows the number of inmates and total occupants of various types of group-living quarters at the time of the 1976 Census. In comparing the numbers of inmates with the total number of occupants (especially in the case of prisons and penal institutions) it should be borne in mind that only those staff who actually live in the group-living quarters are included in the table. Those occupying separate residences outside the group-living quarters will have been enumerated in their own homes, even though they may have been on duty in the boarding school, hospital, prison, or other group-living quarters on the night of the census.

Type of Group-living QuartersNumberNumber of Group-living Quarters By Number of InmatesTotal InmatesTotal Occupants Including Staff
Below 2020–99100 and Over
Hotels, motels, hostels, boardinghouses, and motor camps31942738419373969147043
Educational institutions350127155682136122284
Welfare institutions (children's homes, etc.)634444179111211713953
Medical institutions (hospitals, etc.)454252135672794129050
Religious institutions3022782424192718
Armed forces (including naval base and naval vessels)6826251747574780
Works and construction camps and police camps, etc.507318168211233212968
Prisons and penal institutions5431131029522987
Seasonal workers' quarters397394315201858
Vessels (excluding naval vessels)16710362229963764
Other institutions649484146191138912132
                Total677651951329252139475153537

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS—The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the 1966, 1971, and 1976 Censuses.

Religious ProfessionNumber of AdherentsPercentage
196619711976196619711976
* Associated Pentecostal Churches of New Zealand.
Anglican (Church of England)90170189583991520233.731.329.2
Presbyterian58297658370156656921.820.418.1
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)42528044997447853015.915.715.3
Methodist1862601827271735267.06.45.5
Christian n.o.d.2154833187524780.81.21.7
Baptist4674847350494421.71.71.6
Latter Day Saints (Mormon)2556429785361301.01.01.2
Ratana2757030156350821.01.11.1
Protestant n.o.d.4609037475333091.71.31.1
Brethren2313925768244140.90.90.8
Salvation Army1773719371220190.70.70.7
Atheist54749291142830.20.30.5
Agnostic49609481141360.20.30.5
Jehovah's Witness745510318133920.30.40.4
Seventh Day Adventist955110477119580.40.40.4
Church of Christ10301893080870.40.30.3
Congregational12101770466000.40.30.2
Lutheran5730593062970.20.20.2
Ringatu5605563562300.20.20.2
Assemblies of God*2028359955810.10.10.2
Hindu3599384552030.10.10.2
Pentecostal*1110185948460.10.2
Undenominational3069370942220.10.10.1
Eastern Orthodox3605431941530.10.20.1
Hebrew4104380339210.20.10.1
Union Church279115430450.1
Apostolic*1841236126930.10.10.1
Undenominational Christian1968190325540.10.10.1
Buddhist652137023820.1
Spiritualist843101517310.1
Christadelphian1628166716860.10.10.1
Mohammedan5517791415
Reformed Church of N.Z.1242162813580.1
Society of Friends8879661074
Humanitarian2415101060
Orthodox11005801047
All other religious professions1945116428346260.70.61.1
No religion (so returned)32780574851012111.22.03.2
Object to state2108512470194385117.98.614.0
Not specified19300103533393800.73.61.3
                Total267691928626313129383100.0100.0100.0

The category “All other religious professions” includes also cases of facetious answers and those which were not specified in sufficient detail to allow precise classification. Figures under “Object to state” represent those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject.

AGE DISTRIBUTION—Census age-group figures are shown in the following table. Later estimates of age distribution are shown earlier in this section.

Age (Years)1971 Census1976 CensusPercentage of Total Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal19711976
* Under 20 years.
  0–415191614594629786215108614501929610510.49.5
  5–915831015149430980415918715258631177310.810.0
10–1415428614767130195716386915645832032710.510.2
152839027286556763268631573642591.92.0
16–191047261003872051131206491158292364787.27.6
20–241194471155122349591316441279312595758.28.3
25–2994622926901873121256681234722491406.58.0
30–348418182509166690100847986511994985.86.4
35–39769977419215118989717873801770975.35.7
40–44832517844516169677899747321526315.64.9
45–49808797848815936784161787171628785.65.2
50–54691417165814079978166775351557014.95.1
55–59652646691913218366547706391371864.64.4
60–64555975826011385760924663041272284.04.1
65–6942700479149061449805566431064483.23.4
70–742846237221656833382642029758552.32.4
75–791675426612433661994230136500781.51.5
80–8499231730127224951118425279361.00.9
85–89454282041274643479491138380.40.4
90 and over1468306645341561379153520.20.2
                Total143085614317752862631156204215673413129383100.0100.0
Under 15 years46451244511190962347414245406392820531.829.7
15–64 years8624958463461708841968908952763192167159.761.4
65 years and over1038491403182441671189921605152795078.58.9
Minors*5976285727841170412627477601465122894240.939.3
Adults8332288589911692219934565965876190044159.160.7

ETHNIC GROUPS—The following table displays the broad ethnic origins of the New Zealand population.

Ethnic CroupCensus
196619711976

* Covers persons who specified themselves as half or more New Zealand Maori, plus those who indicated they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand, but did not specify the degree of Maori origin.

Half or more of given descent group, except for 1966, where figures cover persons of full descent and those of mixed, both European (all degrees) and Maori (where less than half Maori descent).

European242635225685322693186
Maori*201159227414270035
Other origins
    Pacific Island Polynesian—
        Samoan118421954027876
        Cook Island Maori86631291318610
        Niuean284641265688
        Tongan138914723980
        Tokelauan 11831737
        Other153116843463
        Sub-total, Pacific Island Polynesian262714091861354
    Chinese102831247014860
    Indian684371409247
    Fijian132311511548
    Syrian, Lebanese, and Arab1099890754
    Other ethnic groups358941166424
            Sub-total, others231372576732833
Not specified71975
            Total267691928626313129383

COUNTRY OF BIRTH—From 1945 to 1961 the New Zealand-born population remained at about 86 percent of the total population: since 1966 the proportion has dropped slightly, mainly because increased numbers of New Zealanders have been overseas at census date and increased numbers of overseas tourists have been in New Zealand. At the 1976 Census, 83.4 percent of those enumerated gave New Zealand as their birthplace, 9.3 percent gave the United Kingdom, 2.0 percent Australia, 1.0 percent the Cook Islands and Western Samoa, and 0.7 percent the Netherlands.

The next table shows the duration of residence in New Zealand of persons born overseas.

Years of Residence1966 Census1971 Census1976 Census
Number Born OverseasPercentage of Specified CasesNumber Born OverseasPercentage of Specified CasesNumber Born OverseasPercentage of Specified Cases
* Includes overseas-born short-stay visitors.
0–4*10303026.59013322.215608331.3
5–95686114.66729316.65905211.6
10–146133615.85296813.16446712.9
15–193893810.05537813.7486919.8
20 and over12921133.213943234.416979234.1
Not specified5567675210040
                Total394943100.0411956100.0508125100.0

INTERNAL MIGRATION—At the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings the questions on internal migration related to place of usual residence 5 years prior to the census, and number of years resided at usual residential address.

The following table (in percentages) gives a summary by statistical areas of the usually resident New Zealand population by their residence 5 years ago (i.e., at 1971 Census). In New Zealand, as a whole, 51.5 percent of the population were living at the same address as 5 years previous. The areas of greatest stability were the East Coast statistical area with 58.4 percent unchanged, Westland with 57.8 percent unchanged, and Southland with 55.0 percent unchanged.

Movement within statistical areas was greatest in South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, where 31.8 percent of the population had moved from their address of 5 years ago but had remained within the statistical area. Other statistical areas whose percentage was higher than the overall New Zealand figure of 29.6 percent were Wellington, which recorded 30.9 percent; Southend, 30.8 percent; Canterbury, 30.4 percent, and Central Auckland, 29.9 percent.

Persons who had shifted to a different statistical area between the 1971 and 1976 Censuses comprised 10.9 percent of the usually resident New Zealand population. Marlborough statistical area contained the highest proportion of persons who had shifted to the area from elsewhere in New Zealand (21.1 percent), followed by Westland (17 percent), Northland (16.8 percent), and Nelson (16 percent).

Persons whose address 5 years prior to the 1976 Census had been overseas, comprised 5.7 percent of the usually resident New Zealand population.

The highest proportion of these overseas migrants were located in the Central Auckland and Wellington statistical areas where 9.1 percent and 6.1 percent respectively of the usually resident population belonged to this category.

In arriving at the percentages in the following table, children under 5 years of age were, of course, excluded.

Usual Residence on Census Night 1976*Usual Residence 5 Years Prior to Census (1976)
UnchangedChanged But Within Statistical AreaElsewhere in New ZealandNew Zealand Residents No Settled Abode or Not SpecifiedPacific IslandsUnited Kingdom and IrelandAustraliaOther Countries Including Not Specified OverseasTotal
* Excludes no settled abode or not specified.
Percentage
Northland52.923.916.82.10.41.81.20.8100.0
Central Auckland49.929.98.62.51.74.01.91.5100.0
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty48.831.812.72.30.31.91.20.9100.0
East Coast58.423.213.32.50.21.10.80.5100.0
Hawke's Bay54.626.113.62.20.31.70.90.6100.0
Taranaki54.028.812.01.30.11.81.10.8100.0
Wellington50.830.99.82.40.62.81.21.5100.0
        Total North Island50.729.810.72.30.92.91.41.2100.0
Marlborough51.622.621.11.60.11.50.90.6100.0
Nelson52.724.216.02.50.22.11.50.8100.0
Westland57.818.917.04.00.10.70.80.6100.0
Canterbury53.430.49.71.90.22.11.31.1100.0
Otago54.428.811.02.20.21.51.00.8100.0
Southland55.030.810.01.80.21.00.80.4100.0
        Total South Island53.828.911.22.10.21.81.10.9100.0
        Total New Zealand51.529.610.92.30.72.61.31.1100.0

Statistics on years resided at usual address, together with more detailed statistics on residence 5 years ago, will be found in the 1976 Census Volume 11, Internal Migration.

STATISTICS OF WORLD POPULATION—The area and estimated population of the major areas and selected countries at mid-year 1979 are shown in the following table. (Source: U.N. Population and Vital Statistics Report). The UN report should be consulted for further information and greater detail.

Major Areas and CountriesAreaPopulation

* World and major area figures are provisional totals for mid-1980.

Includes Central America, the Caribbean, and Hawaii.

 km2 
Major Areas(000)million
    Africa30319469
    America—North24249370
    America—South17832245
    Asia275802558
    Europe4937484
    Oceania851023
    U.S.S.R.22402267
        World total1358304415*
Selected Countries
Africa
    Algeria238219.1
    Angola12476.9
    Egypt100141.0
    Ethiopia122230.4
    Ghana23911.3
    Kenya58315.3
    Morocco44719.5
    Mozambique78310.2
    Nigeria92474.6
    South Africa122128.5
    Sudan250617.9
    Uganda23613.2
    Zaire234527.9
America—North
    Canada997623.7
    United States9363220.6
    Argentine27678512
    Brazil26.7118.6
    Chile75710.9
    Colombia113926.4
    Peru128517.3
    Venezuela91213.5
Asia
    Afghanistan64715.5
    China9597975.2
    Hong Kong14.9
    India3288651.0
    Indonesia1904148.5
    Iran164836.9
    Iraq43512.8
    Israel213.8
    Japan372115.9
    Jordan983.1
    Korea—North12117.5
    Korea—South9837.6
    Lebanon103.1
    Malaysia33013.3
    Nepal14113.7
    Pakistan80479.8
    Philippines30046.6
    Saudi Arabia21508.1
    Singapore0.62.4
    Sri Lanka6614.7
    Syrian Arab Republic1858.3
    Thailand51446.1
    Turkey78144.3
    Austria847.5
    Belgium319.8
    Bulgaria1119.0
    Czechoslovakia12815.2
    Denmark435.1
    France54753.5
    Germany—East10816.7
    Germany—West24961.3
    Greece1329.4
    Hungary9310.7
    Ireland, Republic of703.4
    Italy30156.9
    Luxembourg30.4
    Netherlands4114.0
    Norway3244.1
    Poland31335.2
    Portugal929.9
    Romania23822.1
    Spain50537.2
    Sweden4508.3
    Switzerland416.3
    United Kingdom24455.8
    Yugoslavia, Republic of25622.2
Oceania
    Australia768714.4
    Fiji180.6
    New Caledonia190.1
    New Zealand2693.1
    Papua New Guinea4623.1

FURTHER INFORMATION—Other publications containing data on population include the following. Department of Statistics bulletins may be obtained from the Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington. Most other official publications may be obtained from Government Bookshops in the main centres.

Population and Migration—Department of Statistics (Annual)

Pt A—Population

Pt B—Migration

Census of Population and Dwellings 1976—Department of Statistics.

Vol. 1—Location and Increase of Population.

Pt. A—Population Size and Distribution.

Pt. B—Population Density.

Pt. C—Usually Resident Population.

Vol. 2—Ages and Marital Status.

Vol. 3—Religious Professions.

Vol. 4—Labour Force.

Vol. 5—Incomes and Social Security Benefits.

Vol. 6—Education and Training.

Vol. 7—Birthplaces and Ethnic Origin.

Vol. 8—Maori Population and Dwellings.

Vol. 9—Dwellings.

Vol. 10—Households, Families, and Fertility.

Vol. 11—Internal Migration.

Census bulletins: A series of nearly 30 Census of Population 1976 bulletins deal with population distribution and characteristics by statistical areas and with individual subjects such as ages and marital status, dwellings, incomes, education and training, Maori population and dwellings, religious professions, internal migration, and the composition of the labour force.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Demographic Bulletin—Department of Statistics.

New Zealand Sub-national Population Projections 1976–1991 (Series of 20 bulletins)—Department of Statistics.

Pocket Digest of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Miscellaneous Bulletin Series—Department of Statistics.

No. 1—New Zealand Males and Females—A Statistical Comparison.

No. 7—New Zealand Maori and Non-Maori Populations.

No. 10—Family Statistics in New Zealand.

No. 12—New Zealand Children 1979.

Social Trends in New Zealand—Department of Statistics (1977).

The New Zealand People 1971 (Summary of data from 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings)—Department of Statistics.

Maps of Statistical Boundaries—Department of Statistics.

Chapter 4. Section 4 VITAL STATISTICS

4 A—NATURAL INCREASE

The major components of population growth are natural increase and any gain from migration. The slowing-down of New Zealand's population growth in recent years has been a result of a fall in increments from both components. The balance of migration has, in fact, showed an annual loss of population for the March years 1976–77 to 1980–81, and the continued fall in the birth rate has reduced the excess of births over deaths.

The following table shows the numbers and rates of natural increase for the latest 5 years, and emphasises the relatively high rate for the Maori component of the population.

YearTotal PopulationMaorisNatural Increase Rates per 1000 Mean Population
BirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseBirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseTotalMaori
19765510525457296486626132053069.5119.56
19775417925961282186785141653699.0219.47
19785102924669263606580121553658.4219.13
19795227925340x26939x66541306x5348x8.62x18.73x
19805054226676238666420133950817.6217.61

In the 5 years to 31 December 1980 New Zealand gained by natural increase of population a total of almost 135000.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—An international comparison of birth and natural increase rates for certain countries is made in the following table. The rates, taken from the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, are for 1978 or 1979.

CountryRate per 1000 of Population
BirthsDeathsNatural Increase
* 1978
New Zealand16.78.18.6
Japan14.25.98.3
Australia*15.77.68.1
France14.110.23.9
Italy*12.59.43.1
Canada*15.37.38.0
Norway12.610.12.5
United States15.88.77.1
Netherlands12.58.04.5
United Kingdom*12.311.90.4
Switzerland*11.39.12.2
West Germany9.511.6−2.1

4 B—BIRTHS

REGISTRATION—The law regarding the registration of births is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. A birth is normally registered at the office of the Registrar nearest the place of birth.

Birth statistics are compiled by the Department of Statistics from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year. The figures do not include still births, except where multiple births are discussed. A special classification of still births is given later in this subsection.

Under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, provision is made for births not registered in the ordinary way to be recorded at a later date in a special register kept by the Registrar-General. Such cases include elderly people requiring evidence of age for social welfare purposes. Until 1971 these late registrations were included in published live-birth statistics but they are now excluded. The numbers are normally relatively small; in 1979 they totalled 339.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The following table shows the numbers of births and the rates for the latest 5 years. Late registrations (see above) have been excluded from all these figures. The birth rate, which fell in the early 1960s and then appeared to stabilise at 22 to 23 births per 1000 of mean population in the later 1960s, resumed the decline in the 1970s and, as the decade ends, may be reaching a new stability at a lower level.

YearNumbersRates per 1000 of Mean Population
TotalMaoriTotalMaori
197655105662617.6824.43
197754179678517.3224.61
197851029658016.3123.46
197952279665416.7323.30
198050542642016.1422.25

In the following table the New Zealand birth rate is compared with that of Australia, Canada, and the United States.

CountryBirth Rate per 1000 Mean Population
19721973197419751976197719781979
New Zealand21.720.419.618.317.717.316.316.7
Australia20.518.918.418.416.716.115.715.5
Canada15.915.515.415.415.815.515.315.0
United States15.715.015.014.814.715.315.315.8

Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics and Statistical Yearbook.

REFINED BERTH RATE—“Crude” rates of the number of births per 1000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age, do not take account of variations in the proportion of women of the childbearing ages. Refined rates are provided by computations of the nuptial birth rate per 1000 married women of 16–44 years of age, or the total birth rate per 1000 of women aged 15–44 years. The following table gives both rates for census years (on the basis of the births registered in that year and the population as at the census) together with the “crude” rate for the year.

Census YearBirth Rate per 1000 Women“Crude” Birth Rate per 1000 Mean Population
Married Women 16–44 YearsTotal Women 15–44 Years
1956191.7128.125.93
1961199.3140.626.99
1966155.5114.422.37
1971149.2112.922.51
1976108.583.517.68

The percentage of married women among women in the child-bearing age groups was 66.8 in 1976 compared with 51.6 in 1926. A study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age composition of married women within the child-bearing ages; as the birth rate varies with age, the change in age composition over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

The following diagram shows numbers of births and deaths and indicates the relatively high rate of natural increase in New Zealand.

REPRODUCTION INDEX—The reproduction index is based on the fact that the future size of a population is related to the number of women in the reproductive age groups at any given time. The gross rate is based on the number of female children born, and the average number of girls that will be born to a woman during her reproductive period, while the net rate takes into account fertility rates at different ages and the percentages of female survivors at those ages, obtained from life tables. A net rate of 1.0 indicates zero population growth if the population is closed to migration, and a higher rate a rising population.

Reproduction rates during 6 recent years were as follows:

YearCross RateNet Rate
19741.2671.231
19751.1791.146
19761.0961.065
19771.0841.053
19781.0210.995
19791.0481.021

SEX OF CHILDREN BORN—The numbers of boys and girls born during the latest 5 years are given in the following table.

In each year more boys than girls are born, a necessary disparity on account of the higher death rates of males at every age level. The death rate per 1000 live births for babies under 12 months of age in 1979 was 14.74 for boys and 10.15 for girls; for children of from 1 to 4 years of age it was 0.77 for boys and 0.66 for girls; for children aged 5 to 14 years it was 0.37 for boys and 0.27 for girls; and the pattern repeated itself for each age group through adolescence and adult life.

The following table illustrates the disparity in the numbers born.

YearNumber of Births ofMale Births per 1000 Female Births
MalesFemales
197628544265611075
197727788263911053
197826062249671044
197926670256091041
198025938246041054

MULTIPLE BIRTHS—In 1979 there were 51762 confinements which resulted in live births; of these, 510 cases resulted in live multiple births, 12 in which 1 twin was stillborn, and one in which both twins were still-born.

The likelihood of still births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases.

YearSingle BirthsTwin BirthsTripletsTotal CasesStill Birth Rate per 1000
LiveStillBoth LiveBoth StillOne Live One StillAll LiveTwo Live One StillSingleMultipleSingle CasesMultiple Cases
1975554644385685245559026027.848.2
1976540454035151184544485387.435.3
19775310538051861952534855507.149.1
19784996234651131211503085376.927.9x
1979512403345031127515745236.524.9

AGES OF PARENTS—Information on the relative ages of parents of nuptial living children whose births were registered in 1979 is shown in the following table. Registrations of births under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 are excluded.

Age of Mother, in YearsAge of Father in Years
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445–4950–5455–6465 and OverTotal Cases
* Including 7 cases of triplets, all live-born, and 1 case of twins, both still-born.
Single Births
Under 203651337260501474212040
20–24113530461811192183501462113046
25–29569684015801916225642516116150
30–346987538201859363115371557158
35–39678279764415129401321726
40–442728541286121111313
45 and over133479128
        Total4837415158051117037931192394140591040461
Multiple Births
Under 20313218
20–2414250102105
25–2989670142190
30–34114503161103
35–391296220
40–441124
45 and over
        Total464163132571541440*
        Grand total4877479159681130238501207398141591040901

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS—The following table gives for 1979 the number of previous issue, i.e., children born alive, in conjunction with the age of mother.

Age of Mother in YearsNumber of Previous IssueTotal Nuptial Cases
0123456–910–1415 and over
* This number represents 40461 single cases and 440 multiple cases.
Number of Mothers
Under 2015195023432058
20–2464054757163729949413151
25–295295600136001067285722016340
30–341457215321309873241238617261
35–39316319382309172113122131746
40–4457464035532748101317
45 and over5323435328
            Total15054137817825270388734228127140902*

In the following table the total issue and average issue are shown for mothers by age groups where a birth occurred in 1979.

Age of Mother in YearsTotal MothersTotal IssueAverage Issue
Under 20205826571.29
20–2413151223991.70
25–2916340345562.11
30–347261192192.65
35–39174660103.44
40–4431713554.27
45 and over281455.18
    Total40901863412.11

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz, the average number of children (including those registered in 1979) born up to the present time to those mothers of nuptial children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years have been as follows: 1974, 2.23; 1975, 2.19; 1976, 2.17; 1977, 2.13; 1978, 2.11; and 1979 also 2.11.

FIRST BIRTH—Statistics of nuptial first confinements show that in recent years there have been reduced proportions occurring within 1 year after marriage and within 2 years after marriage.

YearTotal Nuptial CasesTotal Nuptial First CasesProportion of First Casts to Total CasesFirst cases within 1 Year After MarriageFirst cases within 2 Years After Marriage
NumberProportion to Total First CasesNumberProportion to Total First Cases
1975467391670935.75515330.84892153.39
1976450751583135.12447228.25802850.71
1977434541575136.24421326.74748447.51
1978403391479236.66381225.77680445.99
1979409011505436.81379825.23674944.83

The following table gives the duration-of-marriage factor in first confinements over a longer time series. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern births of non-Maoris only.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197419781979
Under 146.2538.4742.6449.8532.3825.7725.23
126.7926.3030.5626.4223.2120.2219.60
210.2411.2811.5611.4218.4816.2716.37
36.167.885.955.0711.9213.4913.21
43.967.183.302.826.949.499.10
5–95.497.365.053.566.5213.9415.69
10 and over1.111.530.940.860.550.790.80
                Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

In the following table first confinements occurring to mothers in different age groups are expressed as a percentage of the total first confinements. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern confinements of non-Maoris only.

Age of Mother, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197419781979
Under 208.907.339.0819.6417.9611.2210.09
20–2440.3941.7947.7152.6748.1444.1742.55
25–2932.7929.5427.7918.2826.7433.3635.17
30–3413.1014.6110.396.005.519.019.68
35–393.795.363.922.571.341.902.10
40–440.991.341.020.810.300.290.38
45 and over0.040.030.090.030.010.020.03
                Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child were as follows: 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; 1954, 25.32; 1964, 23.65; 1974, 23.29; 1978, 24.38; and 1979, 24.64 years. These figures refer to nuptial births only.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS—The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the latest 6 years, with the percentage they bear to total births registered, are given in the following table. Comparisons of the ratio of ex-nuptial births to all live births (either on a year-to-year basis or on an international basis) should be made with caution. Some of the difficulties were discussed in supplements to the January 1967 and November 1975 Monthly Abstracts of Statistics. For example, the ex-nuptial ratio as a true indicator of ex-nuptial fertility is of limited value because it is influenced by extraneous favors. Ex-nuptial ratios may change not so much because of changing numbers of ex-nuptial births but because of a change in nuptial fertility experience as measured by nuptial birth numbers. This situation is well illustrated by experience during the 1962–79 period when ex-nuptial births increased from 5227 to 10942 while nuptial births showed an overall fall from 59787 to 41337, resulting in the ex-nuptial ratio exaggerating the “real” rise in the ex-nuptial fertility level. Again, a social factor to be borne in mind is that unmarried mothers are not infrequently de facto wives with comparatively stable relationships.

YearNumberRatio*
* Ex-nuptial births as a proportion of total births.
1975940716.61
1976959717.42
19771026518.95
19781025420.09
19791094220.93
19801085721.48

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movements in the proportion of ex-nuptial births per 1000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. Up to 1961 the statistics relate to non-Maoris only; from 1966 Maoris are included. The figures for census years are as follows;

Census YearUnmarried Women 15–44 Years of AgeEx-nuptial BirthsEx-nuptial Birth Rate per 1000 Unmarried Women
1945156326182511.67
1951130343193514.85
1956129877231017.79
1961138018333224.14
1966183996694037.72
1971199147898145.10
1976224185959742.81

In 1979 the total number of ex-nuptial confinements resulting in live births was 10861. Of these, 10779 cases were single births and 81 cases were twins. There was 1 case of twins where 1 child was stillborn. The total number of ex-nuptial live births was 10942. From the following table, it can be seen that of the 10861 mothers, 4283 or 39.44 percent were under 20 years of age.

AgeNumber of Mothers
112
122
137
1441
15203
16590
171025
181219
191194
201049
21824
22718
23679
24–292256
30–34710
35–39276
40–4461
45 and over5
                Total10861

Reregistration—An ex-nuptial child whose parents have later married may be reregistered from birth by reason of such marriage. Applications for registration must be made within 3 months after the date of the marriage.

The number of reregistrations in each of the latest 6 years were as follows: 1974, 1517; 1975, 1433; 1976, 1478; 1977, 1284; 1978, 1288; and 1979, 1075.

The Children and Young Persons Act 1974 requires that all ex-nuptial births be notified to a social worker so that inquiries may be made concerning the circumstances of each mother and child for the purpose of offering advice and assistance.

The following table shows the outcome of the inquiries made in recent years. Inquiries relate to some births from the preceding year and do not cover all births in the year stated.

Location of Infants19781979
No.%No.%
Reregistered after marriage of parents25032303
Remaining with mother (parents cohabiting)387040316741
Remaining with mother (parents not cohabiting)373439291338
Placed with relatives24922073
Placed with strangers with view to adoption90896608
Placed with strangers, no expressed wish to adoption1612
In children's home or other institution on a long-term basis298
Committed to care of Social Welfare29120
Not traced51354396
Died931751
                Total96911007731100

ADOPTIONS—The following table shows the number of adoptions which have been registered during recent years.

YearTotal
19743366
19753322
19762942
19772523
19782380
19792050

In 1972, for the first time for many years, there was a substantial drop in the number of adoption orders made by the Court and this trend has continued. Of the 2050 adoptions finalised in 1979, social workers of the Department of Social Welfare were concerned with 1954 or 95 percent. Maori welfare officers handled most of the others.

The following table, which relates only to cases handled by the department, shows the number and status of children adopted over the last 4 years.

Status of Children Adopted1976197719781979
* These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Ex-nuptial1902153615261375
Nuptial593537523374
Not known*594381205
                Total2554211621301954

In 1979, 70 percent of the children adopted were born out of wedlock. Of these children born out of wedlock, 74 percent were aged less than 1 year at the time of placement for adoption. Forty-three percent were placed with strangers.

The next table shows the age at placement according to the status of the children adopted in 1979.

AgeNuptialEx-NuptialNot KnownTotal
* These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Under 1 year1771023581258
1–5 years2758691
6 years and over101222
Not known*160282141583
                Total37413752051954

The following table shows the original relationship between adopted children and their new parents.

Relationship1976197719781979
Strangers134710521067845
One parent and spouse913792782773
Relative or close friend294272281336
                Total2554211621301954

STILL BIRTHS—Although it is compulsory to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths, Particulars of causes of still births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue”. Still births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths.

The following table shows for the latest 6 years the numbers of still births and the rate per 1000 total births.

YearNumberRate
19754728.26
19764237.62
19774137.57
19783647.08
19793486.61
19803496.86

4 C—DEATHS

The death rate (by which is usually meant the crude death rate, the number of deaths per 1000 of total mean population) is less subject to fluctuation man the birth rate. In the absence of wars, epidemics, and other large-scale disasters, it changes slowly. The New Zealand crude death rate was 8.80 in 1930 and 50 years later, in 1980, it was 8.52. In between, it had reached a peak of 11.05 in 1942, during the Second World War, and a low point of 7.88 in 1978. In contrast, the birth rate (19.30 in 1930 and 16.14 in 1980) had been as high as 27.64 in 1947 and is now falling below even the level of the 1930s Depression years. Depressions, wars, peace, prosperity, changing social attitudes, and the popularisation of improved methods of birth control have all left their mark on the birth rate.

Under normal conditions the most important factor affecting the crude death rate is the age structure of the population, which (like the death rate itself) changes slowly. An ageing population will tend to have a high death rate, while a young one (provided that infant mortality is not abnormally high) will have a low one.

The following table sets out the numbers of deaths and the crude death rates per 1000 of mean population. (Maoris are defined as persons with half or more Maori ancestry and the term non-Maori covers all other persons.)

YearNumbersCrude Rate per 1000 of Mean Population
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
1976241371320254578.484.878.17
1977245451416259618.615.148.30
1978234541215246698.234.337.88
197924034x1306x25340x8.47x4.57x8.11x
1980253371339266768.914.648.52

The chief merit of the crude death rate is that it is easily calculated, requiring only the number of deaths and the size of the population “at risk”. However, it is very misleading when comparisons are being made between two or more populations with different age structures, such as the Maori and non-Maori populations of New Zealand. The Maori population is a “young” one, with a high proportion of children and young people in those age groups in which the death rate is normally very low, and relatively few elderly people in those age groups in which the death rate is normally high. The non-Maori population is older, with a considerably smaller proportion of children and young people and a larger proportion of elderly people. The result is that a comparison of crude death rates gives a false picture of Maori mortality as compared with non-Maori.

In the following table, based on 1973 figures, adjustments made to effect a truer comparison show that mortality for Maoris is relatively higher than for non-Maoris; in addition, a comparison is supplied in age-specific rates for the two races in each sex (age-specific rates are the number of deaths per 1000 (or per 10000, etc.) of the population in the specified age groups).

Ethnic GroupAll Ages Rates per 10000 Mean PopulationAge-specific Rates per 10000 of Population at Ages
Crude RateMaori Rate Adjusted to Non-Maori PopulationUnder 5 Years5–14 Years15–24 Years25–44 Years45–64 Years65 Years and Over
Males
Maori68.3152.460.16.529.547.3239.0943.1
Non-Maori95.6 4.14.816.917.3127.9741.9
Females
Maori47.0142.637.34.510.333.1178.3738.2
Non-Maori79.0 32.72.45.610.768.0552.5
Both Sexes
Maori57.0149.648.95.520.040.2209.1843.4
Non-Maori87.4 38.53.611.414.197.8632.9

For both Maoris and non-Maoris the death rate in males exceeds the death rate in females by a considerable margin. The following table sets out the number of deaths and the respective crude death rates for each sex separately for the latest 5 years.

 Deaths of MalesDeaths of FemalesTotal DeathsMale Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths
NumberRate*NumberRate*NumberRate*
* Deaths per 1000 of mean population.
1976139848.98114737.36254578.17122
1977143179.16116447.43259618.30123
1978136008.70110697.07246697.88123
197913942x8.9611398x7.2825340x8.11x122
1980143209.16123567.88266768.52116

Deaths of Maoris, included in these figures, in 1980 totalled 1339, of whom 748 were males and 591 females.

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR—In 1979 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were August and July, with totals of 2426 and 2352 respectively. December had the least number of deaths, 1262, followed by February with 1810.

AGES AT DEATH—Deaths registered during the year 1979 are shown according to age in the following table.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
* Excludes adjustments by the National Health Statistics Centre as a result of analysis and collation of registration forms and death certificates.
Under 1*393260653
  1–48268150
  5–9534497
10–14613798
15–1924080320
20–2422082302
25–2915985244
30–3416269231
35–39169115284
40–44238147385
45–49419246665
50–547193831 102
55–599995551554
60–6413847802164
65–69185111342985
70–74214315053648
75–79205416793733
80–84139316713064
85–8978213932175
90–943257811106
95–9989242331
100 and over74249
        Total139421139825340

The Maori population is a very young one compared with the non-Maori and as a result there is a considerable variation in the proportions of deaths of Maoris and non-Maoris which take place at various ages. The following table illustrates the position for the year 1979.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total DeathsPercentage of Maori Deaths in Total Deaths per Age Group
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
Under 56661372.7710.4917.06
  5–14165300.692.3015.38
15–24536862.236.5813.83
25–449711734.0413.2515.12
45–64503045520.9334.848.29
65 and over1666642569.3432.542.49
                All ages240341306100.00100.005.15

In the following table is given a time series for rates of death per 1000 of mean population by age groups. Health measures have achieved an immense saving of young life and a prolongation of life, especially among elderly women.

YearUnder 1*1–45–1415–2425–3435–4445–5455–6465–7475 and Over

* Per 1000 live births in this case.

Non-Maori figures only as Maori at ages not available for these years.

(Rates per 1000 of mean population in each age group)
 Males
190178.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59141.67
192153.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17128.60
194143.654.391.362.532.933.959.2021.1347.44140.27
196125.861.340.491.281.472.687.3919.6547.33126.31
197816.190.810.391.631.342.497.0818.7345.33114.89
197914.740.780.371.551.352.297.1718.1143.70118.41
 Females
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32127.98
192142.314.491.312.343.38.4.468.0014.8836.81120.23
194137.753.841.201.942.443.506.9015.0438.60118.92
196119.501.160.350.530.871.954.5911.2229.89104.74
197811.250.610.250.580.711.734.579.7123.9986.66
197910.150.670.280.570.651.504.199.7024.5086.30
 Both Sexes
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87135.71
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.90124.84
194139.814.121.282.222.673.728.0218.1643.04129.15
196122.761.250.420.911.182.316.0015.4137.67114.01
197813.780.710.321.121.032.115.8514.0933.8197.00
197912.490.730.321.071.001.905.7213.8133.3198.13

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of the total population by sex is shown in the following table. Prior to 1974 the data relates to the non-Maori population only.

YearMalesFemales
 age (years)
190141.6437.68
192148.4546.97
194158.6559.60
196163.8067.32
197164.7570.04
197562.8769.00
197663.7869.54
197763.0669.27
197863.4269.69
197964.1270.36

The average age of death of Maoris in 1979 was 49.40 and 49.74 years for males and females respectively. The younger age composition of the Maori population is an important factor to be borne in mind.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE—Life tables, depicting the pattern of mortality over the age span of life for particular calendar periods for the non-Maori component of New Zealand's population, have been constructed at regular intervals since 1880. The most recent tables prepared by the Department of Statistics are based on the 1976 population census, together with mortality statistics for 1975–77.

Life tables contain a measure of the degree of longevity of the population called the “expectation of life”. The expectation of life at any age is the average remaining lifetime for persons of this age, assuming that mortality rates at each age continue at the level shown by the life table. The life expectancy at selected ages at the present time, for the non-Maori population in New Zealand, is shown in the table below. The overall longer span of life enjoyed by females, compared with males, is evident.

Further details concerning life table methodology and construction and trends in New Zealand life expectancies can be obtained from New Zealand Life Tables 1975–77, obtainable from Government bookshops.

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
069.3775.88
169.5375.80
268.6174.90
367.6873.96
466.7372.99
565.7872.02
1060.9267.13
1556.0462.24
2051.4857.40
2546.9352.56
3042.2247.72
4032.7938.14
5023.9229.04
6016.1720.55
709.9813.07
805.667.27
902.803.38
1001.111.20

The long-term trend since 1880 for non-Maoris has been a steady improvement in life expectancy for both sexes. The improvement has been striking for the younger ages but relatively small for the advanced ages. Progress in medical science, coupled with improved social conditions, has resulted in substantial reductions in mortality for all ages up to middle age. This trend has continued up to 1975–77 for females. The decrease in male mortality experienced between 1965–67 and 1975–77 up to the age of 80 years was sufficient to offset the increase in mortality between 1960–62 and 1965–67, and male life expectancy returned to about the 1960–62 level at all but the youngest ages. The following table displays the life expectancy for non-Maoris revealed by each life table compiled during the past 60 years for the 3 exact ages of 0, 20, and 60 years.

Life TableLife Expectancy (Years)
Males Aged ExactlyFemales Aged Exactly
0206002060
1911–1560.9647.6115.5463.4849.1416.72
1921–2262.7648.6616.0365.4350.3617.29
1925–2763.9948.9315.7966.5750.9617.23
193165.0449.6116.2267.8851.2817.30
1934–3865.4649.8916.0668.4552.0217.49
1950–5268.2951.1516.1972.4354.6418.53
1955–5768.8851.4416.1973.8855.8719.16
1960–6269.1751.5316.0974.5156.3319.39
1965–6768.6750.8915.8274.8456.4619.68
1970–7269.0951.1615.8275.1656.7419.91
1975–7769.3751.4816.1775.8857.4020.55

The expectation of life at various ages for the Maori population is shown in the following table. These expectations are taken from New Zealand Life Tables 1975–77.

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
063.3567.75
163.6267.76
262.7266.90
361.8065.99
460.8665.05
559.9164.09
1055.1159.22
2045.6649.59
3036.7440.09
4027.7730.94
5019.982280
6013.5516.23
709.0411.12
805.506.87

Life expectancy at birth for Maori males increased by 2.39 years between 1970–72 and 1975–77 while that for Maori females increased by 2.79 years. These increases in Maori life expectancy are, however, slightly overstated because of problems of classification of ethnic origin and non-response to the relevant question at the 1976 Census of Population. These led to an overstatement of the Maori population exposed-to-risk of mortality during 1975–77, and Maori life-expectancy at all ages was consequently overstated. The opposite is true for non-Maoris.

The expectation of life of Maoris is shorter than that of non-Maoris at all except the highest ages. A comparison at age 0 shows that life expectancy is 6.02 years greater for non-Maori males and 8.13 years greater for non-Maori females. For the period 1970–72, the differences were 8.13 years and 10.20 years respectively.

The table below compares the life expectancy at birth for the total population of New Zealand with that for selected overseas countries. Sources: United Nations Demographic Yearbook 1977, Population and Australia, and Mortality Statistics 1976—England and Wales.

CountryPeriodLife Expectancy at Birth (Years)
MalesFemales
Australia197268.1974.99
Canada1970–7269.3476.36
Denmark1975–7671.176.8
England and Wales1974–7669.675.8
France197469.076.9
Netherlands1971–7571.277.2
New Zealand1975–7769.0175.45
United States197568.776.5

REGISTRATION OF DEATH, BURIAL, AND CREMATION—Deaths are required to be registered by the funeral director within 3 days after the day of burial. The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Burial and Cremation Act 1974. The registration by local authorities of funeral directors and mortuaries operated by them is provided for in the Health (Burial) Regulations 1946. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision exists for the disposal of the dead. Cremation may be carried out if the deceased is not known to have left any written direction to the contrary.

The rate of cremation for every 100 deaths registered doubled between 1950 and 1970, and has continued to increase. The following table relates cremations to the number of deaths since 1950. Prior to 1970 the statistics concern deaths of non-Maoris only.

YearDeaths RegisteredCremationsRate per 100 Deaths Registered
MalesFemalesTotal
19501671517991454325319.46
19601952429582582554028.38
19702484054184474989239.82
197725961671255001221247.03
197824669664554621210749.07
197925410682757461257349.48

DEATHS BY CAUSES—The selection of cause of death recommended by the World Health Organisation's International Classification of Diseases is based on the concept of selecting the underlying cause of death.

The certifier's statement largely determines the cause but to obtain more accurate data the nosologists also refer to all autopsy reports received, cancer case registrations, coroners' reports, and hospital case summaries.

Medical practitioners certified 81 percent of deaths registered in 1978 and 19 percent were certified by coroners. Of the deaths certified by doctors, 13 percent were subject to autopsy whilst 99 percent of deaths certified by coroners were subject to autopsy. Overall, 30 percent of all deaths had autopsies performed.

Detailed information about causes of death is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre in New Zealand Health Statistics Report—Mortality and Demographic Data.

The following table is a summary of causes of death, numbers and rates per million of mean population for the years 1976 to 1978.

Cause of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
197619771978197619771978
Enteritis and other diarrhoeal diseases313539101112
Tuberculosis of respiratory system252722897
Other tuberculosis including late effects374437121412
Infectious hepatitis11169453
Syphilis and its sequelae524211
All other infective and parasitic diseases756679242125
Malignant neoplasm514552505211165116791665
Benign neoplasm and neoplasm of unspecified nature434041141313
Diseases of thyroid gland282515985
Diabetes mellitus466426342150136109
Avitaminoses and other nutritional deficiency11812434
Anaemia48442615148
Alcoholic psychosis and alcoholism716069231922
Meningitis291723957
Multiple sclerosis2031276109
Paralysis agitans857366272321
Epilepsy413738131212
Chronic rheumatic heart disease271224214877268
Hypertensive disease344359314110115100
Ischaemic heart disease724074726972232323892228
Other forms of heart disease789818813253262260
Cerebrovascular disease3074316229959861011957
Diseases of arteries, arterioles, and capillaries732673709235215227
Acute respiratory infections including influenza25510660823419
Pneumonia9969241072320295343
Bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma113812731207365407386
Other diseases of respiratory system244182171785855
Peptic ulcer154140136494543
Appendicitis10610323
Intestinal obstruction and hernia11410594373430
Cirrhosis of liver15017941485745
Diseases of gallbladder565341181713
Nephritis and nephrosis120112125393640
Infections of kidney558242182613
Hyperplasia of prostate54442017146
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and puerperium6105232
Rheumatoid arthritis626335202011
Congenital anomalies296291253959381
Birth injury, difficult labour, other anoxic and hypoxic conditions, and other causes of perinatal mortality279273229908773
All other diseases8539901094274317350
Motor vehicle accidents663889688213284220
All other accidents948874776304279248
Suicide and self-inflicted injury29136532293117103
All other external causes859680273126
                Total254502596624678816783027886

Source: National Health Statistics Centre.

PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATH—Heart disease, malignant neoplasms (cancer), and cerebrovascular disease were again the leading causes of death in 1978 (the latest year for which data are available). These 3 causes accounted for approximately 62 percent of all deaths in 1978—ischaemic heart disease accounted for approximately 28 percent of deaths, malignant neoplasms (cancer) for 21 percent, and cerebrovascular disease for 12 percent.

Death rates per million of mean population from leading causes of death are shown in the following table.

Cause of Death1975197619771978
Deaths per million
All heart disease2643274928152630
Malignant neoplasms (cancer)1622165116791665
Cerebrovascular disease10489861011957
Accidental causes533508548457
Pneumonia288320295343

Heart Disease—Heart disease as a group of diseases is still the leading cause of death in New Zealand but death rates from this cause have fallen in recent years. The standardised mortality ratios for all forms of heart disease show that for both sexes the rates have fallen by 13 percent between 1970 and 1978.

The numbers of deaths and standardised mortality ratios for heart disease, excluding acute rheumatic forms and congenital malformations, during recent years are shown below.

YearAll Forms of Heart Disease
MalesFemales
NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*
* Base years 1950–52 = 100.
19654710100339479
1970488699340572
1975484592331564
1976501291355464
1977514792365665
1978484385338759

The standardised mortality ratio shows the number of deaths registered in the year of experience expressed as a percentage of those which would have been expected in that year had there operated the sex-age mortality of a standard period (the 3 years 1950–52 were chosen). The standardised mortality ratio has been adopted to eliminate the distorting effect of the changes which take place over a period in the age-structure of the population.

Cancer—In New Zealand 1 death in 5 in 1978 was caused by cancer. The cancer crude death rate has increased in each of the latest 5 years for which figures are available from 163.8 per 100000 population in 1974 to 166.5 in 1978.

A detailed report on cancer mortality and morbidity in New Zealand is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. These reports cover mortality from cancer and also survey all cases reported to the National Cancer Registry by hospitals, and by the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the Cancer Society of New Zealand.

A summary of numbers of deaths from cancer, crude death rates, and standardised mortality ratios is provided in the following table.

YearNumber of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100000Standardised Mortality-Ratios*Number of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100000Standardised Mortality Ratio*
* Base years 1950–52 = 100
  Males  Females 
19601724144.31011566132.592
19702436173.01262024143.599
19742682176.11292284150.3103
19752726176.91292281147.6101
19762815180.81302330149.4101
19772848182.31302402153.4102
19782801179.21252410153.9102

A classification of cancer deaths during 1978 according to age and sex is shown below. Ninety-three percent of deaths from cancer during 1978 were at 45 years of age or above, and 59 percent were at 65 years of age or above.

Age Group in YearsDeaths of MalesDeaths of Females
NumbersRate per 100000 of Population at Ages GivenPercentage of Total Deaths at Ages GivenNumbersRate per 100000 of Population at Ages GivenPercentage of Total Deaths at Ages Given
* All ages crude rate.
Under 585.81.61712.94.9
5–14154.812.1134.317.1
15–24237.84.8176.110.4
25–4414736.419.815037.732.9
45–64938326.626.6822285.740.8
65 and over16701343.420.31391835.417.4
    All ages2801179.2*20.62410153.9*21.8

Cancer of the lung continues to be the major site in male deaths from cancer. Almost 6 percent of all male deaths in 1978 were caused by lung cancer. Breast is the major cancer site in females and accounted for almost 4 percent of all female deaths.

The following table shows deaths from cancer (malignant neoplasms) by sex and selected sites, registered in New Zealand during 1977 and 1978.

SiteSexNumbersRates per Million Mean Population
1977197819771978
Buccal cavity and pharynxM64744147
 F29301919
OesophagusM83775349
 F50473230
StomachM213201136129
 F1261248079
Large intestineM270267173171
 F343326219208
RectumM1471339485
 F1151287382
Bronchus, trachea, and lungM827811529519
 F220237141151
BreastM4634
 F469431300275
Cervix uteriF931055967
Corpus uteriF60613839
Ovary, fallopian tube, and broad ligamentF1511539698
ProstateM270249173159
Bladder and other urinary organsM14917995115
 F78615039
Skin, all formsM89745747
 F62594038
BrainM81835253
 F61493931
Lymphosarcoma and reticulum-cellsarcomaM54353522
 F38382424
LeukaemiaM115987463
 F74804751
All other and unspecified sitesM482514309329
 F433481277307
                Total cancer deathsM2848280118231792
 F2402241015341539

Cerebrovascular Disease—Cerebrovascular disease, the third of the principal causes of death in New Zealand, affects mainly the late-middle-aged and the elderly. In 1978, 2995 persons died of the disease. Of these, only 111 were below 50 years of age, and 2884 were 50 years of age or above.

The World Health Organisation defines cerebrovascular disease as follows:

“Cerebrovascular diseases are diseases of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) of vascular origin. The term covers a wide range of clinical manifestations, varying from subarachnoid haemorrhage resulting from a rupture of Berry aneurysm on the one hand to arteriosclerotic Parkinsonism and dementia on the other.”

The incidence of deaths from cerebrovascular disease over a series of years is shown in the following table. After reaching a peak in 1972 the rate declined each year until 1976. The 1978 rate of 957 per million of mean population is 5 percent lower than the 1977 rate but is probably only a random variation.

YearDeathsRate*
* Rate per million of mean population.
196327761092
196427571061
196528751086
196630671143
196728251035
196831101128
196930701104
197032131140
197133101156
197234471182
197335131179
197434581136
197532351048
19763074986
197731621011
19782995957

INFANT AND PERINATAL MORTALITY—The following table shows New Zealand perinatal mortality numbers and rates for three recent years. An infant death is defined as a live-born infant dying before the first year of life is completed. A neonatal death is defined as the death of a Jive-born infant before the 28th day of life; a post neonatal death as the death of a live-born infant between the 28th day and the first year of life.

Perinatal Mortality—Perinatal deaths comprise still births and deaths in the first week of life. The late fetal death (still births) and the perinatal mortality rate are calculated per 1000 total births (still births plus live births), while the death rate for neonatal and infant death is calculated per 1000 live births.

DeathYearMaoriNon-MaoriTotal Population
No.RateNo.RateNo.Rate
Late fetal1976466.93817.84277.7
 1977476.93697.74167.6
 1978446.63187.13627.0
Early neonatal1976639.53116.43746.8
 1977649.43056.43696.8
 1978507.62575.83076.0
Perinatal197610916.369214.280114.4
 197711116.267414.178514.4
 19789414.257512.866913.0
Neonatal19767110.73657.54367.9
 19777511.13587.64338.0
 1978599.03187.23777.4
Post neonatal19767511.32635.43386.1
 19777711.32605.53376.2
 1978599.02676.03266.4
Infant197614622.062813.077414.0
 197715222.461813.077014.2
 197811817.958513.270313.8

In a review of neonatal and postnatal deaths, issued by Department of Health in November 1976, it was shown that 8 countries, selected on the basis of their having one million or more population and on their reporting of data regarded by World Heath Organisation as complete, had a lower mortality rate than New Zealand. These 8 were Sweden, Finland, Japan, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, France, and Switzerland. The following table shows infant mortality rates for selected countries (including some of the 8) during 1977. The figures represent deaths per 100000 live births.

CountryAge of Child
Under 1 YearUnder 1 Day1 and Under 7 Days7 and Under 28 Days1 Month and Under 1 Year
Deaths per 100000 Live Births
Sweden80222927575223
Japan893213282119279
Netherlands952235301122294
New Zealand1421388293118622
Australia1247506233129378
England and Wales1377418346163450
United States1412530307151424

Source: World Health Statistics Annual.

Causes of Infant Mortality—Deaths from the principal causes of infant mortality, and the rate per 1000 live births, are shown for the Maori, non-Maori, and total population in the following table. The data refer to 1978.

Cause of DeathMaoriNon-MaoriTotal Population
Number of DeathsRate Per 1000 Live BirthsNumber of DeathsRate Per 1000 Live BirthsNumber of DeathsRate Per 1000 Live Births
Infective and parasitic diseases101.5240.5340.7
Malignant neoplasms10.260.170.1
Diseases of the nervous system30.5150.3180.4
Diseases of the circulatory system10.280.290.2
Diseases of the respiratory system132.0781.8911.8
Diseases of the digestive system10.2150.3160.3
Congenital anomalies213.21393.11603.1
Perinatal causes—      
    Birth injury10.2100.2110.2
    Hyaline membrane disease20.3130.3150.3
    Other anoxic and hypoxic conditions253.8811.81062.1
    Immaturity71.1370.8440.9
    Other perinatal causes50.8481.1531.0
Other ill-defined and unknown causes (sudden infant death syndrome)203.0912.01112.2
Accidents, poisonings, and violence (external causes)60.9120.3180.4
Remainder (all other causes)20.380.2100.2
              Total, all infant deaths under one year11817.958513.270313.8

Source: National Health Statistics Centre.

The 1978 data for infants shown in the previous table are not strictly comparable with those for previous years. In 1978 New Zealand adopted a new Medical Certificate of Causes of Fetal and Neonatal Death, as recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO). This provided for a dual emphasis on both the main disease or condition in the fetus or infant and on the main maternal disease or condition affecting the fetus or infant. In the table, the cause of death has been selected according to the main disease affecting the neonate.

Although all causes of death in this table have been classified according to the eighth revision of the WHO International Classification of Diseases, neonatal coding has been influenced by the rules for classification required by the ninth revision. All 1979 data will be classified according to the ninth revision provisions.

MATERNAL DEATHS—The Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968 defines a maternal death as “a death that occurs during pregnancy or within a period of 3 months after the date of termination of a pregnancy”. Deaths from complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium numbered 5 in 1978 with a rate of 1.0 per 10000 live births. Deaths occurring during pregnancy or within 3 months of delivery but not due to complications of pregnancy or childbirth or the puerperium numbered 11 in 1978 with a rate of 2.2 per 10000 live births.

DEATHS OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN—Recent Yearbooks have included a review of mortality rates among children aged 1 to 4 years in New Zealand and in selected overseas countries. New Zealand's ranking has been disappointingly low. A review based on 1974 data gave New Zealand's age-specific mortality rate for children aged 1–4 as 83 per 100000 compared with (for example) 44 per 100000 in Sweden, 65 per 100000 in England and Wales, and 74 per 100000 in the United States.

The main cause for New Zealand's poor showing is the relatively high rate of mortality among preschoolers from accidents and violence, especially motor-vehicle accidents and drowning. In 1974 New Zealand's mortality rate from accidents 'and violence among 1–4 year-old children approached 3 times the Swedish rate and was more than twice the rate in England and Wales. Various explanations have been attempted, but the fact remains that New Zealand pre-schoolers are at higher risk of accidental death than pre-schoolers in many other countries with similar standards of living.

The following table shows the number of deaths of pre-school children from accidents and violence in New Zealand during 1978. The leading causes, accounting for 47 of the 70 deaths, were accidents involving motor vehicles and drowning.

Causes of DeathSexAges (In Years)Total
1234
Motor vehicle accidentsM535114
 F334212
DrowningM352313
 F12148
HomicideM11
 F1113
MachineryM314
FireM112
 F11
Mechanical suffocationM1113
ScaldsM112
Hit by trainF11
Water transportF11
PoisoningM11
FallF11
Excessive coldM11
Inhalation of stomach contentsM11
Electric currentM11
                  TotalM11158943
 F676827
 Total1722141770

DEATHS AMONG TOTAL POPULATION FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES—Accidents, poisonings, and violence caused approximately 8 percent of the total deaths in each of the years 1976 to 1978.

The following table shows deaths from external causes for the latest 3 years. In this table, falls on board ship and from horseback (if any) are classified as transport accidents.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
197619771978197619771978
* Includes drowning from water transport.
Motor-vehicle accidents663889688213284220
Other transport accidents604759191519
Accidental poisoning31254810815
Accidental falls43740226314012984
Accidents caused by machinery29353591111
Accidents caused by fire and explosion of combustible material434447141415
Accidents caused by firearms71115245
Accidental drowning and submersion*161135161524351
Suicide and self-inflicted injury29136532293117103
Homicide335558111819
All other external causes232216170746954
Total deaths from accidents, poisoning, or violence198722241866638711596

Procedural Change in 1977—The number of deaths as a result of accidents involving motor vehicles increased sharply from 663 in 1976 to 889 in 1977, an increase of 3 percent. This increase in registrations can be attributed to changes in registration procedures introduced by the Registrar-General's office in 1977. Prior to 1977, the registration of deaths referred to coroners for investigation was delayed until all investigations were completed. In 1977 this practice was amended to permit interim registration pending the outcome of coroners' investigations. The numbers of deaths registered as being due to other accidental or violent causes also increased as a result of this procedural change. Consequently, 1978 mortality data show a pattern more comparable with 1976.

An analysis of deaths registered during 1978 by the principal external causes and by sex and age group is given in the following table and in the notes following it.

Age Croup (In Years)Motor Vehicle AccidentsAccidental DrowningsAccidental PoisoningsAccidental Falls
MFMFMFMF
Under 1541302514234
15–242107028288123
25–34601918185103
35–4443152821110
45–544519182611
55–64271972436
65–7433167231139
75 and over221941144132
                Total481207135263315106157
Age GroupSuicide and Self-inflicted Injury,HomicideAll Accidents, Poisonings, and Violence'
MFMFMF
* Includes causes other than those shown in table.
Under 15215812465
15–2447893369101
25–3437147517851
35–4427168215245
45–543123714851
55–64303218666
65–742213119755
75 and over127197181
                Total20811438201251615

Accidental Drowning—During 1976 a review of classification procedures in use at the National Health Statistics Centre was held. This resulted in slight modifications to the coding guidelines for causes such as accidental deaths from falls and drowning. It was decided to give greater weight to drowning. The 1976 and subsequent figures reflect this decision. It is likely that figures of drownings were a little understated for 1970–1975.

Accidental Falls—There were 263 deaths from accidental falls in 1978. This is one accident area in which the total female mortality exceeds the male. However, as shown in the preceding table, there is an excess of male deaths over female deaths between the ages of 15 and 54 years and 65 and 74 years. At 75 years of age and above the higher life expectancy of females ensures that more elderly women than elderly men are exposed to the risk of fatal falls.

In 1978 the home was the place of occurrence of 36 percent of fatal accidental falls and, in fact, falls are the chief cause of death in home accidents.

Site of Non-transport Accidents—The place of occurrence of fatal non-transport accidents (excluding surgical and medical misadventure and late effects of accidental injury) is shown in the following table. As mentioned previously, falls are the chief cause of accidental fatalities in the home, exacting a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. Accidents occurring at home and in residential institutions (rest homes, hospitals, etc.) accounted for 58 percent of all fatal non-transport accidents in the 3–year period 1976 to 1978.

Place of OccurrenceNumber of AccidentsRate per Million of Mean Population
197619771978197619771978
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)3562942551149481
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)30362910129
Mine and quarry857322
Industrial places and premises353640111213
Places for recreation and sport10713324
Street and highway291615955
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)161623557
Residential institution (homes, hospitals, etc.)141144107454634
Other specified places138142130444542
Place not specified74722824239
                Total837768647269246207

Approximately 39 percent of fatal non-transport accidents in 1978 occurred in or about the home.

Water Accidents by Location—The following table, prepared by the New Zealand Water Safety Council, shows drownings by location and age group during the year ended March 1980.

LocationAge in Years
Under 55–1011–1516–2021–3031–4041–5051–60Over 60Total

* Includes 1 of unspecified age.

Includes 3 of unspecified age.

Rivers, streams, and other running water3122111214*
Seas and beaches338134328
Harbours111115
Lakes and lagoons112
Swimming pools—
    Private527
    Public1*
    Thermal11
Dam11
Drains and ditches11
Sewage pond11
Pools and ponds44
Ornamental pond11
Home bath11
Scuba diving122117
Private paddling pool11
Abseiling11
Duck shooting22
Boating accidents—
    Rivers2221411
    Seas25111314*
    Harbours224
    Lakes and lagoons3115
              Total131461220128129112*

4 D—MARRIAGES

Marriage may be solemnised in New Zealand either by a celebrant included in the list of marriage celebrants under the Marriage Act 1955, or before a duly appointed registrar or deputy registrar of marriages. A licence must be obtained from a registrar of marriages before a marriage by a marriage celebrant can be solemnised. Marriage by a marriage celebrant may be solemnised at any time between 6 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a registrar can be solemnised at any time during the hours the office of the registrar is open for the transaction of public business; notice of intended marriage must be given to a registrar of marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage.

The Marriage Amendment Act 1976 extended the right of solemnising marriages to nominated members of approved organisations of a non-religious character. Justices of the Peace may also be nominated to act as marriage celebrants.

In the case of a person under 20 years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parents or guardian is necessary. Consent of a District Court judge may be sought in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

Since 1933 the minimum age for marriage has been 16 years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to be void, however, by reason only of an infringement of the minimum age.

Since 1 April 1952 it has been required under the Maori Purposes Act 1951 that every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be solemnised in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a non-Maori.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The numbers of marriages and rates during recent years are shown below. The marriage rate, like the birth rate, has been declining in recent years, but 1980 shows a slight increase.

YearNumberRate per 1000 of Population
1975245357.95
1976241547.75
1977225897.22
1978224267.17
197922326x7.15x
1980229817.34

Comparison with Other Countries—Marriage rates for certain countries for 1979 are given below. (Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.)

CountryRate per 1000 of Mean Population
*1978
Australia7.2
Belgium6.6
Canada7.6
France6.4
West Germany5.6
Italy5.7
Japan6.8
Netherlands6.1
New Zealand7.1
Sweden4.5
United Kingdom7.5*
United States10.5

MARITAL STATUS PRIOR TO MARRIAGE—The following table gives marital status prior to marriage for the latest available 5 years.

YearSingleWidowedDivorcedTotal Persons Married
BridegroomBrideBridegroomBrideBridegroomBride 
197520863209658909582782261249070
1976200612023794110213152289648308
1977183291866198310363277289245178
197818206183838429193378312444852
197917909181928449283'573320644652

The nature of the marriage according to the marital status of persons prior to marriage is given next.

YearMarriages Between Bachelors andMarriages Between Widowers andMarriages Between Divorced Men and
SpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced Women
197519338250127517843627614492721061
197618470256133518845429915793111262
197716875195125918850229315983391340
197816607215138415340828116232961459
197916379190134016543224716483061619

In the period 1975–79 more male divorcees than female divorcees remarried.

Forty years ago during the 1938–40 period, remarriages of widows totalled only 67 to every 100 remarriages of widowers. In the changed social climate of 1975–79, 108 widows remarried to every 100 widowers who did so.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED—Until recently, the proportion of minors among persons marrying had been increasing over a fairly long period of years but it is now declining slightly. On 1 January 1971 the age of majority was lowered from 21 to 20 years of age. In 1979, 1 bride in every 4 was under 20 years of age. Bridegrooms were usually older than their brides; only 1 in every 21 was under 20 years of age.

Of the persons married in 1979, 5812 or 13.02 percent were under 20 years of age; 20619 or 46.18 percent were returned as 20–24 years; 8594 or 19.25 percent as 25–29 years; 5356 or 11.99 percent as 30–39 years; and 4271 or 9.57 percent as 40 years of age and over.

The following table relates to the 1979 calendar year.

Age of Bridegroom, in YearsAge of Bride, in YearsTotal Bridegrooms
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and Over
Under 207802631821063
20–24327562435528218210172
25–2957330081391295581855348
30–349370180543512330132200
35–392014929028919370221033
40–442491121421529753607
45 and over6347812920529011611903
Total brides47491044732461374749505125622326

The following table shows the percentage distribution by age group of males and females marrying. It refers to the 5–year period 1965–69 and to recent individual years.

PeriodUnder 20*20–24*25–2930–3435–3940–4445 and OverTotal
* Under 21 and 21–24 respectively before 1971.
Males
1965–6915.2344.7921.246.313.462.346.63100.00
19757.6648.9922.427.243.642.347.71100.00
19766.1648.2223.427.803.902.408.10100.00
19775.4747.1722.938.874.152.708.68100.00
19785.2546.6823.319.164.592.728.30100.00
19794.7645.5623.959.854.632.728.52100.00
Females
1965–6945.3333.629.083.052.101.815.01100.00
197529.2643.9312.524.732.401.845.32100.00
197626.9344.3813.414.922.791.925.66100.00
197724.6944.8613.535.713.081.986.12100.00
197823.0546.2113.626.063.291.995.78100.00
197921.2746.7914.546.153.352.265.63100.00

The average ages (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females are shown in the following table.

YearAverage Age at Marriage
BridegroomsBrides
197426.7823.94
197527.0524.16
197627.4524.52
197727.9024.93
197827.8724.95
197928.0625.07

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the latest 5 years according to marital status were as shown in the next table.

YearBridegroomsBrides
BachelorsDivorcedWidowersSpinstersDivorcedWidows
Age in Years
197524.2138.7856.7321.5935.0950.54
197624.2938.5957.4321.7034.9050.93
197724.3438.8557.7021.9134.8151.78
197824.5138.5857.7421.9434.9451.17
197924.5938.6157.0422.0634.7350.96

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or most popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides in 1979 was 20 years. In the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied and for recent years it has been 21 to 24; in 1979 it was 22 years.

Marriages of Minors—Of every 1000 men who married in 1979,48 were under 20 years of age, while 213 in every 1000 brides were under 20. Since 1 January 1971 the age of majority has been 20 years. In 780 marriages in 1979 both parties were given as under 20 years of age, in 3969 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 283 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

As already stated, the proportion of minors among persons marrying now appears to be levelling off or even falling. The main reason for this is the changing age structure of the population, with a slowly diminishing proportion consisting of minors of marriageable age.

In the table below figures are given for the latest available 5 years.

YearAge in YearsTotal Minors and 20–Year-olds
161718192016–20 Years16–19 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16–20 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16–19 Years
Bridegrooms
197537164542113722074087188016.667.66
19761211339097219923479148714.406.16
1977179033679317272963123613.115.47
1978157430878116062784117812.415.25
1979107325772315022565106311.494.76
Brides
1975495115222523279347010648717843.4029.26
19763879492032313633819885650440.9226.93
19772787181831275230838662557938.3424.69
19782446861661257730378205516836.5823.04
19791745781523247430037752474934.7221.27

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES—Of the 22326 marriages performed in 1979, Anglican clergymen officiated at 4363, Presbyterian at 4109, Roman Catholic at 2729, Methodist at 1354, and clergymen of other churches and marriage celebrants at 5147, while 4624 marriages were solemnised by registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before registrars in each of the 6 latest years.

ChurchPercentage of Marriages
197419751976197719781979
* Including marriage celebrants other than ministers of religion.
Anglican23.7722.6222.5222.3220.6819.54
Presbyterian21.4521.4921.7620.9419.7118.40
Roman Catholic14.3513.6813.4813.0612.5212.22
Methodist6.896.716.526,846.086.06
Others*8.359.229.4712.5919.1823.05
Before registrars25.1926.2826.2524.2521.8320.71
              Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population at the 1976 Census of Population, 29.2 percent were recorded as adherents of the Anglican Church, 18.1 percent Presbyterian, 15.3 percent Roman Catholic, 5.5 percent Methodist, 18.5 percent were of no religion, or objected to stating their religious profession, or did not specify any religious profession.

NUMBER OF MARRIAGE CELEBRANTS—The number of names on the list of marriage celebrants under the Marriage Act was 5230 at 1 April 1980. The principal churches to which they belonged are shown hereunder.

ChurchNumber
* Includes Justices of the Peace and members of approved organisations nominated to act as marriage celebrants.
Roman Catholic Church884
Anglican (Church of England)831
Presbyterian Church of N.Z.700
Methodist Church of N.Z.352
Baptist287
Salvation Army277
Latter Day Saints197
Brethren179
Ratana Church of N.Z.150
Jehovah's Witness130
Assemblies of God92
Ringatu Church83
Seventh Day Adventist53
Associated Churches of Christ51
Apostolic Church44
Congregational Church of Samoa29
Liberal Catholic Church22
Other religious bodies468
Other401*
                Total5230

DIVORCE—Before the coming into force of the Family Proceedings Act 1980, a petition for divorce could be presented to the High Court on one or more of several grounds, which included adultery, desertion, separation by agreement for not less than 2 years, separation by decree of separation or separation order for not less than 2 years, and the parties living apart for 4 years and not likely to be reconciled. Where the parties were separated or living apart one of the parties must have been resident in New Zealand for at least 2 years immediately preceding the filing of the petition. The Court was required to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation of the parties to the marriage.

The Family Proceedings Act 1980 lays down only one ground on which an order dissolving a marriage can be made—that is, that the marriage has broken down irreconcilably. The parties must be living apart, and to have been doing so for the previous 2 years. The provisions for counselling and the promotion of conciliation have been strengthened.

Petitions filed for dissolution or nullity of marriage and decrees granted by the High Court in recent years are shown in the following table.

YearPetitions FiledDecree NisiDecrees Absolute
Number GrantedRate per 100 Marriages During YearRate per 10000 of Mean Population
197661535615540122.3617.33
197762655488538123.8217.20
197866586014577225.4918.45
197968606270610127.3319.53
198074266515649328.2520.78

The next table gives the grounds of petitions and decrees during the 2 years, 1979 and 1980.

GroundPetitions FiledDecrees Absolute Granted
Husbands' PetitionsWives' PetitionsHusbands' PetitionsWives' Petitions
19791980197919801979198019791980
Adultery540474473387509464443392
Desertion7363706271748268
Separation by agreement18192097188622031640175316411872
Separation by Court Order540539763834432506641716
Having lived apart for 4 years or more342368327365302329308293
Non-consummation88616105127
Other3210823811
              Total33253551353538752966313431353359

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year. A decree nisi normally applies for at least 3 months before a decree absolute is granted.

The following table shows the duration of marriage by age's of husbands and wives at the time of marriage, for cases in which decrees absolute were granted in 1980.

Duration of Marriage (in Years)Age (in Years) at Marriage
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and Over (including Not Stated)Total
Husbands (All Petitions)
Under 543175832122736387
5–929011183291005936902022
10–14209834287933423571537
15–1998604192642915251027
20 and over958294131162510321520
              Total73535601304394169912406493
Wives (All Petitions)
Under 51501334416101024387
5–9898800152612220692022
10–14671638117332413411537
15–194214706736123181027
20 and over48480315529204251520
              Total2624284453517588501776493

Dissolution of a Voidable Marriage—A decree of dissolution of a voidable marriage puts an end to the marriage from the date of the decree. On average there are only about 20 such decrees in New Zealand each year. The principal ground is non-consummation.

MARRIAGE GUIDANCE—A National Marriage Guidance Council was established in 1950 as a voluntary agency to assist with social problems arising from unhappy or maladjusted marriages. With the support and advice of the Department of Justice, the council is now largely responsible for the provision and administration of educational services in the field of marriage and family life. Over 163 tutors have been trained to lead courses in the community on such topics as marriage enrichment, parent education, human relations and communication.

The 24 councils affiliated to the National Marriage Guidance Council provide counselling centres staffed by 247 accredited counsellors. During the past year these people have provided skilled professional assistance to 5228 couples who have approached the service on their own initiative and in addition they have assisted the Courts by serving as conciliators under the Domestic Proceedings Act. They have dealt with 1885 cases in this way. All in all, 21720 counselling interviews were provided during the year.

The National Marriage Guidance Council employs a full-time director to organise and co-ordinate the work of affiliated councils. At the local level the work of 602 trained volunteers in the fields of counselling and marriage education is supported and co-ordinated by 5 full-time and 11 part-time directors, 5 visiting supervisors, and 30 receptionists or secretaries. The 5 visiting supervisors mentioned above represent an important extension of marriage counselling services into provincial towns. Supervisors from neighbouring councils are funded 1 day a fortnight to travel to smaller centres in order to stimulate and supervise the development of local volunteers. This has the effect of placing professional services in marriage education, counselling, and conciliation services closer to the people in rural communities.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on vital statistics will be found in the following publications.

Department of Statistics publications—
    Vital Statistics (Annual).
    Monthly Abstract of Statistics.
    Family Statistics of New Zealand 1978 (Bulletin, 1978).
    New Zealand Children 1979 (Bulletin, 1979).
    Justice Statistics 1978: Divorce and Domestic Proceedings (Bulletin, 1979).
    Life Tables 1975–77 (1979).
    Demographic Bulletin.
    Social Trends in New Zealand (1977).
    New Zealand Males and Females: A Statistical Comparison (Bulletin, 1980).
    Pocket Digest of Statistics (Annual).
Department of Health publications—
    Trends in Health and Health Services (3-yearly).
    Mortality and Demographic Data (Annual).
    Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data (Annual).
    Cancer Data (Annual).
Department of Health Special Report Series—
    Infant and Foetal Loss in New Zealand (1964).
    Occupational Mortality Among Male Population Other than Maori, 20 to 64 Years of Age (1967).
    Maori-European Comparisons in Mortality (1972).
    Cancer of the Lung in New Zealand (1973).
    Bibliography of the Epidemiology of New Zealand and its Island Territories (1969).
    Diseases of the Ear, Nose, and Throat in Maori Children (1965).
    Trends in Notifiable Disease (1964).
    Domestic Accidents (1970).
    Lung Function and Chronic Bronchitis in New Zealand (1978).
    Perinatal Mortality in New Zealand, 1972–73 (1977).
Parliamentary papers—
    The Public Health (Annual report of the Department of Health, Parl. paper E. 10).
    Report of the Department of Social Welfare (Parl. paper E. 12).

Chapter 5. Section 5 HEALTH AND HOSPITALS

5 A—HEALTH AND MEDICAL SERVICES

The nation's health services are the responsibility of a partnership of Central and local government, private medical practitioners, para-medical workers, charitable and religious organisations, and private citizens, with the Central Government providing encouragement, financial assistance and incentives, and assuming final responsibility. This has been a deliberate policy of successive Governments, although emphases have varied from time to time according to political and economic conditions and demands for specific services. Growing urbanisation and industrialisation, with consequent intensification of the problems of pollution of water, air, and land, have in recent years resulted in a renewed emphasis on the importance of environmental health.

Public health services in the Department of Health have recently been reorganised to reflect growth and development in 2 distinct and identifiable areas; viz, environmental factors affecting health, and the promotion of personal good health in the community. The Division of Public Health continues to be responsible for environmental health, quarantine, occupational health and toxicology, radiation protection, and the quality of food.

A new division, the Division of Health Promotion, now gives greater emphasis to disease prevention and better personal health through the expansion of family health, health education, nutrition, and public health nursing services. Dental health services, principally to the school child population, are provided by the Division of Dental Health.

ADMINISTRATION—The functions of local authorities are defined by statute and regulation. Elected local authorities must appoint a sufficient number of health inspectors qualified under the Health Inspectors Qualifications Regulations 1975. Where a local authority is too small to need a separate, full-time inspector, the Act permits two or more to combine to share the cost. In some smaller sparsely-populated districts where a local authority does not employ its own inspector, the departmental inspectors of health do the work and the authority pays for it. Only 25 percent of inspectors are employed by the department.

In each of the 18 health districts, the medical officer of health, who is a medical practitioner with special qualifications in community medicine, is the adviser to all local authorities in his district; in some cases his approval is required before action can be taken by a local authority, and in others he is the first line of appeal against its decisions. He is required to keep the Director-General of Health and the Board of Health informed of local authority deficiencies in their responsibilities under the Health Act.

Diseases which are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 must be notified by doctors and hospitals to the medical officer of health who is responsible for control measures; within this area the local authority health inspector is subject to his direct supervision and control. New programmes of immunisation are undertaken by the department and, when these have been established, vaccines are provided free to general practitioners who are encouraged in this work. Quarantine arrangements for both aircraft and ships comply with obligations under the International Health Regulations. Medical officers of health administer this service. The broad objective is the control of communicable and chronic diseases in man and the keeping of New Zealand free of quarantinable diseases.

Accident prevention and the health of industrial and agricultural workers is the care of the Department of Health in conjunction with the Department of Labour. The aim is to prevent occupational disease, control toxic hazards, raise standards of first-aid services, and ensure the safe use of agricultural chemicals. Food and nutrition standards aimed at protecting the consumer are laid down. An extensive programme, backed by legislation, governs the packaging, labelling, storage, and sale of poisons. Special environmental problems, such as radiation protection, occupational health, and atmosphere pollution, are also the responsibility of the Department of Health.

The objectives of health education programmes are to increase understanding of the value of health, to inform people of health services available, and to equip them with knowledge and skills they can use to solve health problems.

Family health responsibilities include medical and nursing supervision of infant, pre-school, and school children; the inspection of schools and child care centres; and the immunisation of infants against poliomyelitis, etc.

A dental service, directed by dental officers and staffed by dental nurses, provides regular dental treatment for all pre-school, primary and intermediate school children. Arrangements with private dental practitioners ensure similar treatment for adolescents up to the age of 16 years and for dependants up to the age of 18 years. Dental health education is also undertaken.

The Department of Health is responsible for the organisation and control of nursing services to the public in general; in hospitals (public or private); in homes for the aged, incapacitated, or infirm; and in any other places where the Department of Health has responsibility. Considerable delegation has taken place, mainly to hospital boards whose chief nursing officer is responsible for the administration of the services provided. The department keeps its nursing services and those provided by hospital boards under continuous review. Basic nursing education is provided in 26 hospital schools of nursing and 9 technical institutes. Formal post-basic nursing education at diploma/degree level is available from Victoria and Massey Universities, and 4 technical institutes have post-basic diploma courses. Short post-basic courses in learning and teaching are available from 2 teachers' colleges, and similar short courses in community health nursing are available from 4 technical institutes. “Bridging” courses to enable registered nurses to gain comprehensive registration are available from 2 technical institutes.

Within its public health nursing service, the department employs nearly 500 qualified nurses. Their work includes supervising the health of babies and small children, taking part in child health (including health education) programmes, providing a service to small industries and people in “at risk” occupations, taking part in disease control programmes, and assisting elderly people and people with mental health problems.

The Department of Health works closely with and seeks the advice and help of boards, committees, and councils such as the Board of Health, the Medical Research, Dental, Hospitals Advisory, Pharmacy, Nursing, and Radiation Protection Advisory Councils, the Hospital Works, and Medical Services Advisory Committees, and the Dietitians, Physiotherapy, Occupational Therapy, Opticians, and Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Boards. In all, officers of the department serve on over 100 boards, committees, and other organisations concerned with health.

In addition, there are very close working relationships with professional and other associations, voluntary health and welfare agencies, the universities, and other Government departments.

The department is responsible for the administration of a number of Acts dealing with health and social welfare. These will be found listed under Public General Acts in the Official section of this Yearbook.

Expenditure of the Department of Health in the 3 latest years is given in the following table.

Activity Programme1977–781978–791979–80

* Mostly grants to hospital boards.

From 1 April 1979 all expenditure is funded from Consolidated Account.

From 1 April 1978 combined with public health and environmental protection and medical and pharmaceutical services

§ See Works Programme.

  $(thousand) 
Administrative services5,5106,8658,511
Dental services19,76421,60928,824
Hospital services*572,701703,135827,693
Family health services9,667
Medical research4,0204,3425,037
Medical and pharmaceutical services153,580190,326213,497
Public health and environmental protection27,49232,64340,451
Welfare services6,4558,3838,414
Data processing services7,1237,4475,109
Funded from Consolidated Revenue Account806,312974,7501,137,536
Psychiatric hospital buildings3,1685,090§
Public buildings construction2521,210§
Funded from Works and Trading Account3,4206,300
          Total809,732981,0501,137,536
          Less departmental receipts1,2791,0861,322
          Net expenditure808,453979,9641,136,214

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH: Local Authority Control—The provision and proper maintenance of public water supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, and the hygiene of premises (including eating houses) in which food is manufactured and sold, are primarily the responsibility of local authorities, but the Department of Health exercises general supervision. In the case of some of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental inspectors on behalf of, and by arrangement with, the local authority. The department undertakes the basic training of health inspectors employed by local authorities and conducts specialist and refresher courses for them.

Department of Health Control—The objectives of the Department of Health in environmental health control are: (a) to create and maintain a healthy environment for the general public by the application of the principles of preventive medicine and the administration of legislation directly and indirectly related to this end; (b) to conserve hearing through the control of excessive noise from occupational and other environmental sources; (c) to control air pollution; (d) to provide scientific services and undertake research on all aspects of the use of ionising radiation with special emphasis on the medical applications and public health aspects. To monitor public exposure to radiation from all sources and to take action to reduce this where necessary. To promote general understanding of the nature of the hazards involved in radiation exposure in their current perspective.

Environmental Noise Control—The Department of Health's long-standing responsibilities in the field of occupational noise control have in recent years been extended to environmental noise control. District offices, together with the National Acoustics Centre, undertake noise surveys for local authorities, and advise local bodies on conducting their own noise surveys. Training courses dealing with the fundamentals of noise measurement and control are conducted, and programmes of monitoring the noise climate in selected cities and towns are conducted.

The National Acoustics Centre offers a complete noise data analysis system whereby any local authority, district office, or consultant can have noise tapes promptly analysed.

Air Pollution Control—Air pollution, once accepted as the natural accompaniment of city dwelling and industrial production, is now recognised as a health problem. The Clean Air Act 1972 provides for the control of existing and potential sources of air pollution. It places considerable emphasis on cooperation between Central Government, local authorities, industry, and the public, and in effect places on the occupier of any premises an obligation to keep air pollution to a minimum. Under the Act, the Clean Air Council gives advice, co-ordinates activities, promotes research, and evaluates control equipment. It also publishes reports, advice and information on the prevention and control of air pollution.

A wide range of industrial processes are required to be licensed and are subject to supervision.

The first clean air zone under the Act was established in Christchurch. A 3–year study of air pollution in Christchurch showed that the main source of smoke pollution is still the domestic fire, although motor vehicle emissions are an increasingly significant pollutant. This is particularly so where photochemical smog (which has been detected in Auckland and Christchurch) is concerned.

CONTROL OF DRUGS—The definitions of “drug” in the Food and Drug Act 1969 established groups to which differing provisions apply. Therapeutic drugs (that is, those substances or mixtures used internally or externally for the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of any illness or injury of the human body or for modifying any physiological process or desires or emotions, and chemical contraceptives) are required, before being introduced commercially, to be “acceptable”, according to a procedure under the Food and Drug Act 1969. No new therapeutic drug may be distributed in New Zealand without the consent of the Minister of Health, under sections 12 and 13 of the Act.

This Act also requires that any drug which has been changed in any way in use, strength, or labelling must not be distributed until 90 days after notice of the change has been given to the Director-General of Health, who may consent to earlier distribution of a changed drug if he is satisfied of the drug's safety. If the Director-General considers the change to be of such character or degree that the drug ought not to be distributed without the consent of the Minister, the drug is referred to the Minister and may not be distributed until the Minister's specific consent has been obtained. A therapeutic drug is also restricted to sale from pharmacies only, unless special authority is given for general distribution in a schedule to the Therapeutic Drugs (Permitted Sales) Regulations 1978.

A cosmetic, dentifrice, detergent, disinfectant, or antiseptic does not have to be “cleared” for marketing unless claims in labelling or advertising bring it within the definition of a “therapeutic drug”.

The Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis of any drug which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any drug intended for sale. Measures provide for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where drugs are manufactured or packed. Control over medical advertisements is also incorporated in this legislation.

Under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964, certain drugs may not be sold to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. This legislation also requires specific warning statements to be included in the labelling of certain drugs such as the antihistamines, aspirin, paracetamol, and hexachlorophane.

Controlled Drugs—Under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 the import, export, cultivation, production, possession, distribution, supply, and administration of a wide range of narcotic and other drugs is strictly controlled. Except for medical practitioners, dentists, pharmacists, veterinary surgeons, those having the care of patients being lawfully supplied with drugs, the patients themselves, and other specified persons, or those who have been issued with a licence under the Act, the procuration, manufacture, possession, consumption, supply, or offer to supply controlled drugs is a serious offence.

Controlled drugs are divided into three classes. The heaviest penalties are for offences involving drugs in Class A, which include heroin, lysergide, desomorphine, and cantharidin. Offences involving the possession or use of drugs in Class C, which include cannabis plants, fruit, and seeds, are to be punished with fines but not by imprisonment unless by reason of previous convictions or exceptional circumstances.

Illegal dealing in controlled drugs is subject to heavy penalties.

To curb drug abuse, the Departments of Health, Customs, and Police jointly set up a National Drug Intelligence Bureau in 1972.

FOOD AND NUTRITION—The Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any articles of food or drink which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food intended for sale. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where food is manufactured or packed. Regulations lay down minimum standards for many classes of food, control additives of all kinds, and deal with labelling of food packages. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with food. Regular sampling of foods is undertaken by departmental inspectors and the samples are analysed in the Chemistry Division (DSIR) or its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity whereby a purchaser of any food would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of that food, whether or not it is standardised by regulations.

A Food Standards Committee, composed of highly qualified persons, meets regularly to discuss the latest technical advances in food production and to make appropriate recommendations for amendments to the legislation.

The nutrition section of the Department of Health provides advice on nutrition and dietetics to dietary departments of hospitals, and food service departments of welfare and other institutions. It is responsible for nutrition education programmes and provides a nutrition information service for Government departments, organisations concerned with the production and marketing of food, and the public. The section also carries out dietary research projects, generally in liaison with medical research teams concerned with nutrition research.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY—Since 1957 medical officers of health have been responsible for occupational health. The objective of the occupational health programmes is to work with labour, management, the medical profession, and other groups to assist in improving the health of workers.

The Department of Labour, which is responsible for accident prevention, hours of work, employment of women and children etc., calls to the attention of the Department of Health any health problems which factory inspectors may encounter. The Factories Act 1946 gives to medical officers of health or other authorised officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authority as inspectors of factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Act. The suspension of workers on health grounds, approval of respirators and similar protective equipment and the arrangements for medical examinations are undertaken by the Department of Health. A series of regulations deal with hazards, many of them being administered by the two departments, each in its own sphere.

A similar understanding has been established with the Waterfront Industry Commission and New Zealand Railways, and illustrates the general pattern of arrangements between the Department of Health and other Government departments. There is an occupational health laboratory in Wellington. Teams of specialist doctors, nurses, and scientists reinforce the usual staff available to medical officers of health to investigate particular occupational health problems occurring in districts. These teams also study problems arising in industries such as forestry, which are to be found throughout the country.

Occupational Diseases—Notifiable occupational diseases are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 and details of diseases notified are published annually in the report of the Director-General of Health.

Commercial, Household, and Agricultural Poisons—The advertising, distribution, use, labelling, and packing of all poisons and toxic substances are controlled under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964. A manufacturer or importer must notify the Registrar of Poisons before importing or putting on the market any new substance which might be toxic, be it a chemical, household preparation, cosmetic, or drug. Special safeguards are provided for certain hazardous chemicals, used in agriculture or horticulture. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. Labels for “Restricted Poisons” must bear statements of the precautions to be taken in use, the symptoms of poisoning and the remedial treatment, and must be approved by the Registrar of Poisons.

In 1979 the Toxic Substances Act was passed. This will replace the Poisons Act and will come into force after the Toxic Substances Regulations have been promulgated.

Control of Health Hazards—An increasing number of specific health hazards are formally controlled, namely: asbestos, lead processes, electroplating, spray painting, sand blasting (siliceous blasting agents in factories are prohibited), fumigation, aerial application of poisons (where, in conjunction with the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport, a special rating is required by pilots), and agricultural chemicals. A number of other specific hazards are currently receiving consideration.

Medical, Nursing, and First-aid Services—Minimal first-aid requirements have been laid down by the Department of Health, which generally endeavours to encourage both the development of medical and nursing services and the raising of first-aid standards throughout industry generally. While there are no statutory obligations on industry to provide medical and nursing services, an increasing number of factories do provide such services. To meet the needs of small plants the department has developed occupational health centres with financial support from the Waterfront Industry Commission in the case of harbour areas, and the Accident Compensation Corporation in the case of general industry.

Pre-employment Examinations—Pre-employment medical examinations are required for young workers before entering factory employment.

National Acoustics Centre—The National Acoustics Centre assists with the early detection of deafness and conservation of hearing. The centre conducts and promotes research into noisy industries, occupational deafness, and other forms of deafness. An advisory service is provided for those working with deaf people and training is given to those responsible for testing groups for hearing loss. Investigations into environmental noise are also undertaken—often to assist local authorities to combat unacceptable noise originating from various sources.

Radiation Protection—The National Radiation Laboratory provides the administrative and technical services required by the Radiation Protection Act 1965 and Regulations 1973 and the Transport of Radioactive Materials Regulations 1973. Prior approval must be obtained for the import or export of any radioactive material. Each owner of irradiating apparatus (source of X-rays) or radioactive material must ensure that they are used only under the control of a person specifically licensed for the purpose.

The laboratory provides the licensees with free monitoring, advisory, calibration, or other services which will assist in achieving radiation safety. Trained officers regularly visit all places where sources of ionising radiation are used. A service is available for measuring the exposures received by radiation workers.

The laboratory advises the requirements for the transport and disposal of radioactive materials and is responsible for monitoring a wide range of environmental samples for natural or man-made radioactivity.

FAMILY HEALTH—Medical practitioners give ante-natal, neo-natal, and post-natal attention under the Social Security Act. Free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with all public maternity hospitals and maternity wards. Ante-natal classes to prepare mothers for the baby's arrival are also being developed, and doctors can refer patients to these to supplement their own ante-natal instructions.In the case of women living far away from the main centres of population, ante-natal work is supplemented by the public health nurses employed by the Department of Health, or by district nurses employed by hospital boards.

Approximately 99 percent of confinements take place in maternity hospitals or in maternity units of public hospitals. The medical care of the mother and child is based on co-operation between the Department of Health, hospital boards, and the medical and nursing professions. All private maternity hospitals are licensed under the Hospitals Act 1957 and the Department of Health has responsibility for ensuring that regulations regarding buildings, equipment, and staff are observed. Medical officers of health, through their senior nursing staff, exercise general supervision over the work of private hospitals in the local areas.

Family Planning—Family planning advice can be obtained from general practitioners, private specialists, and from any one of the 40 clinics operated by the N.Z. Family Planning Association (Inc.) in various centres throughout the country. The Government provides a grant to meet the cost of salaries of doctors, nurses, and health assistants (clinical) employed by the association in approved clinics.

In addition, the Government also provides a grant to the N.Z. Association of Natural Family Planning (Inc.) to meet the payment of the salary of the national co-ordinator, an initial 1–week residential training course for up to 70 teachers each year, and an annual 3–day training course for up to 100 teachers.

A number of hospital boards have established family clinics within their obstetrics and gynaecology departments to provide additional facilities for the public and training for doctors, medical students, and nurses, and other boards are being encouraged to provide these facilities.

Child Health—The Department of Health offers a preventive child health service. Babies are normally examined at about 6 weeks of age and again at 9 months. Additional examinations are given whenever there is anxiety over physical, mental, or emotional development. Public health nurses undertake supervision of infants and pre-school children although the major proportion of this service is provided by the nurses of the Plunket Society. A comprehensive examination including vision and hearing testing is recommended for all children between the ages of 3 and 4 years. When necessary the children are referred to family doctors or medical officers of the Department of Health.

A consultative service is provided for schools, with special emphasis on the health supervision of handicapped children, both in the normal schools and in special education classes. Nursing staff make regular visits to all schools and, in consultation with teachers and parents, investigate children who appear to be in need of support and refer them if necessary for the appropriate services. All new entrants to school receive a health assessment by the public health nurse. Parent participation is encouraged. Correspondence School children are kept under health supervision as necessary and any school child requiring treatment is referred to the appropriate family doctor. Vision and hearing testing is carried out by trained staff for pre-school children, and again in Junior I and Form I. These tests are available on request to any child suspected of either defect. Tests are also offered to pupils in secondary schools where it is known that parents of pupils with difficulties are not taking any action.

The Government supports the Children's Health Camps Board which maintains six permanent camps for the short-stay placement of children convalescent after illness, for those whose physical health is unsatisfactory, and for those suffering from minor emotional disorders. Medical officers select children for admission and undertake general health supervision of the camps. Children derive benefit from the ordered routine of camp life which provides a diet designed to improve nutrition and a balance of free activity, rest, and sleep. The Department of Education maintains school classes with emphasis on remedial teaching.

Immunisation Programme—Immunisation, which is free, is usually done by the family doctor. The course of injections should be commenced as soon as possible after babies are 3 months old. Protection by oral vaccine for poliomyelitis is available to all infants. Protection against diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus is a routine procedure and a triple vaccine is used at 3 months and 5 months of age together with an oral vaccine for poliomyelitis. Arrangements can be made for mothers who do not have family doctors to attend with their children at departmental clinics. If necessary, in country areas the public health nurse will visit the home to immunise the child. Booster doses (against diphtheria, tetanus, and polio) are given at 18 months and an additional polio vaccine at 5 years of age. Further booster doses against tetanus only are given at 15 years of age and recommended at 20–yearly intervals and on injury. Measles (Morbilli) vaccination is available from family doctors for infants from 12 months of age onwards. Rubella vaccination is available from family doctors for women and girls in the childbearing age groups. Rubella immunisation is also offered to 11–year-old girls at school.

HEALTH HAZARDS AND HEALTH EDUCATION: Alcoholism—In New Zealand alcoholism rates as a major public health problem. There is no accurate measure of the number of alcoholics but experts in the field suggest that there are at least 53000 chronic alcoholics, and that an average of 10 people (family, friends, and working colleagues) are affected in each case. The figure for chronic alcoholics does not include excessive drinkers, estimated to number over 200000.

The Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council Act 1976 provided for the establishment of the Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council, which was created in 1977. The Council's primary objectives are to encourage and promote moderation in the use of liquor, to discourage its misuse, and to reduce the personal, social, and economic evils resulting from this misuse of liquor. In its first 3 years the council received an income of $1.4 million, $1.8 million, and $1.9 million, mainly from levies on alcohol, to meet its wide range of functions. During this period, the Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council has carried out surveys on the drinking habits and attitudes to alcohol of 10000 adult New Zealanders, and the extent of (and attitudes to) alcohol use among 3000 school pupils; established a multi-disciplinary alcohol research unit in association with the Medical Research Council and the University of Auckland School of Medicine and supported independent research projects; established an alcoholism counsellor training course and aided in the establishment of 14 basic treatment facilities by hospital boards; developed with the Department of Education a Health Education Resources Project to provide resource material on alcohol-related matters for use in all secondary schools; provided financial assistance and advice to a wide range of voluntary agencies working in alcohol-related fields; established a library and information resource centre; initiated programmes in industry for intervention and treatment of alcohol problems; developed a medical handbook on alcoholism for general practitioners and provided guidelines for paramedical alcoholism counsellors; promoted a series of education and awareness programmes through T.V., radio, magazines, newspapers, pamphlets, and poster material; and, as applicable, provided advice to the Government and other agencies on control policies, treatment methods and facilities, statistical data, and other alcohol-related matters.

Smoking—Smoking, especially cigarette smoking, is an acknowledged public health hazard. It is implicated as an important causative factor in lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema, and it greatly increases the risk of heart disease and certain pregnancy-related and neo-natal disorders.

The following table showing the smoking habits of New Zealanders by sex and age group is derived from the 1976 Census of Population. It is based on the results of a survey that covered more than 2 million men and women of 15 years of age and above. Over 51 percent of male smokers and over 34 percent of female exceeded 20 cigarettes a day.

Smoking PracticeAge Croups (Years)Total
15–1920–2930–3940–5960 and over

* Never smoked cigarettes regularly or never smoked them at all.

Do not smoke now, but used to smoke regularly (one or more cigarettes a day).

Smoke regularly (one or more cigarettes a day).

 Percentage Males
Never smoked*61.744.236.427.026.337.5
Not smoking5.312.318.528.037.721.0
Smoking28.441.142.642.231.838.3
Not specified4.62.52.52.84.23.2
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
 Females
Never smoked*61.449.249.951.265.654.8
Not smoking5.611.212.112.812.111.2
Smoking29.237.635.633.016.730.7
Not specified3.82.02.52.95.73.3
              Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
 Total Population
Never smoked*61.546.743.139.048.246.2
Not smoking5.511.715.320.523.416.1
Smoking28.839.439.137.723.434.5
Not specified4.22.22.52.95.03.2
              Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The census results established that over one-third (35.6 percent) of the population 15 years of age and over were regular smokers and that comparatively more males than females smoked. Against this, almost twice as many males as females were recorded as having stopped smoking. Statistics also indicated a substantially higher level of smoking in the Maori population—particularly amongst Maori women—than is found in the population overall.

The smoking habits of regular smokers, as measured by the number of cigarettes smoked by respondents on a designated day, i.e., 22 March 1976, the day before census day, are the subject of the next table. The figures exclude 2635 regular smokers (1310 males and 1325 females) who smoked no cigarettes on the day specified.

Age Croups (Years)Number of Cigarettes Smoked DailyTotal (Incl. not Specified)
1–910–1920–2930–3940–4950 or More
Males
15–19120841491699601279105349743256
20–24865017914177282751198799953363
25–3412127283103621766124426180695215
35–447786184852726658994538177970790
45–547240181492617258654896189270093
55–64648914904160603103249196548655
65 and over8287124207917113182629534486
        Total6266312509814132026640202178,233415858
Females
15–1914930149408276101769122242834
20–241140218656133481616101028248710
25–341725630567243263186182944181765
35–441074819956170102255155534955329
45–541035719939150441828135929552905
55–64918515012838484254713837371
65 and over7639758530812872326821143
        Total81517126655894691103172231795340057

Whilst the number of cigarettes smoked varied according to both age and sex of smoker, at least a quarter of both sexes in each age group smoked 20 or more cigarettes per day—the single exception being women 65 years and over (19.4 percent).

Cigarette smoking in New Zealand is probably less prevalent than in the past and the figures compare favourably with those of other countries. However, the high levels of smoking among young people, particularly women, is a major health problem.

Health Education—It is being increasingly recognised that the individual must be encouraged to take a more active interest in, and responsibility for, his or her own health. This is particularly relevant where alcoholism and diseases arising from smoking are concerned, but it is also relevant in other areas. For example, immunisation, ante-natal care, and venereal disease. All these topics have been covered by the health education programme of the Department of Health.

Medical and dental officers, public health nurses, dental nurses, and inspectors of health all devote some of their time to health education. The health education officer acts as a co-ordinator and stimulates and extends health teaching and health programmes in the district. Advertisements on health subjects are screened on television and published in national periodicals. Leaflets, pamphlets, and posters are available on many health topics from district health offices.

The Department of Health's official bulletin Health has a circulation of over 95000 and is issued free to the public four times a year. It gives health information and publicises various aspects of the department's work.

Officers are available for lectures and discussions on health with schools and community groups.

DENTAL HEALTH—New Zealand's dental health service combines a school dental service for children, dental benefits for adolescents, and private practice for adults. There are 15 dental districts, three schools for dental nurses in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and the dental school at the University of Otago.

School Dental Service—The objective of the service is to improve the dental health of the pre-school and school children by regular and systematic treatment at 6–monthly intervals, commencing at the age of 2 1/2 and continuing through the highest class at primary or intermediate school.

The school dental nurse, after completing the two-year training course, is posted to a school dental clinic where she provides routine dental care for children. Regular visits are made to the clinic by the Principal Dental Officer and the Supervising Dental Nurse, who assist the dental nurse to maintain a high standard of performance in all aspects of the work. The School Dental Service Gazette is published bi-monthly as a medium for continuing education.

The dental care comprises examination, cleaning, application of sodium fluoride, fillings in temporary and permanent teeth, extraction of deciduous teeth, and dental health education. Some children are referred to dentists for additional care.

In 1980, 1178 school dental nurses provided dental care for 580,819 children. The treatment included 1036190 fillings and 31 326 extractions. Indicators of the success of the service are the acceptance (66 percent of pre-school children aged 2 1/2 to 5 and 95 percent of the primary school children are enrolled) and the small number of extractions.

Adolescent Dental Service—Dental care for adolescents up to 16 years of age and, if dependent, up to 18 years of age is provided by private dentists as dental benefits under the Social Security Act, the dentist being reimbursed on a fee-service basis. Children who remain at school after their sixteenth birthday and qualify for the extended family benefit, or who are otherwise dependent upon parents for support, continue to receive dental benefits to their eighteenth birthday.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at 6–monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

At 31 March 1980, a total of 255601 children were enrolled for general dental benefits. Private practitioners completed 393009 treatments under the scheme during the year ended 31 March 1980.

Dental Health Education—Dental health education is an integral part of the school dental service and includes activities in the clinics and the classroom. Educational materials are produced by the Department of Health for the school dental service and for general use in the community. Materials specifically for dentists are produced by the Dental Health Committee of the New Zealand Dental Association.

Dental Research—The Dental Unit of the Medical Research Council carries out research in a wide range of dental problems. Further research is undertaken by the Dental School of the University of Otago and there is also a small research unit within the Division of Dental Health of the Department of Health.

Fluoridation—Approximately 64 percent of all persons living in water-reticulated areas are drinking fluoridated water, which reduces the need for dental treatment. This represents approximately 54 percent of the population of New Zealand.

REHABILITATION OF DISABLED CIVILIANS—The rehabilitation of disabled and handicapped persons has received increasing emphasis over recent years in New Zealand. Public hospitals provide a medical rehabilitation service, with co-operation from the Government and voluntary agencies.

Rehabilitation centres for the treatment of the severely disabled are established at Otara in Auckland, Palmerston North, and at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Rotorua. For the rehabilitation of persons suffering from spinal injuries and paraplegia, specialist spinal injury centres are provided at Auckland and Christchurch. Rehabilitation activities are also carried out in the physical medicine departments of general hospitals, and in psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

The Rehabilitation League is the principal agent of Government in vocational rehabilitation. The main function of the League is to provide facilities for work assessment and work experience for the disabled. Policy is decided by a central board of management and district committees administer the centres which are established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Napier.

A National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, comprising representatives from the Departments of Labour, Social Welfare, Health, and Education, and the Accident Compensation Corporation, advises the Government on steps to co-ordinate and promote rehabilitation in New Zealand.

PHYSICAL MEDICINE—Physical medicine is concerned with potentially disabling conditions such as rheumatic diseases, cerebral palsy, and other disorders of the locomotor system.

The national centre for the treatment of rheumatism is established at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, which has approximately 100 beds set aside for diagnosis, research, and treatment of these diseases. Full physiotherapy and occupational therapy facilities are provided and active steps towards rehabilitation of patients are carried out. A large number of outpatients are referred from all parts of New Zealand and a few from overseas are seen every year.

Physiotherapists and occupational therapists work together in preventing and controlling deformity, and teaching people how to overcome their disabilities. Social workers assist in bridging the gap between rehabilitation and vocational and social resettlement.

A child potential unit is situated at Queen Elizabeth Hospital, providing residential accommodation for 20 children. At this unit the activities of a team of nurses, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists are co-ordinated by the supervisor of the unit working under a physician. Patients can be referred by their doctors to the physician in charge of the unit for assessment only, or for admission and treatment. Cerebral palsy visiting therapist services are operating under hospital boards. Post-graduate courses are given to physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists.

Cerebral palsy day schools have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Parents of cerebral palsy cases who seek their children's admission first apply to the appropriate medical officer of health or education board. The schools are administered by the education boards, but close liaison exists between the schools, the Rotorua unit, and the visiting cerebral palsy therapists.

HEALTH STATISTICS—The National Health Statistics Centre is responsible for the annual publication of Health Statistics Reports on mortality, morbidity, mental health, cancer, and hospital management as well as the publication of Trends in Health and Health Services every 2 years.

The Centre also prepares special statistics for the various divisions of the Department and for research workers in different fields both in New Zealand and overseas. A constant liaison is maintained with the World Health Organisation (WHO), which is supplied with statistical material giving a picture of health trends in New Zealand. In addition, from time to time, special statistical investigations are made into important aspects of public health and diseases that warrant specific study.

Since July 1975 the Centre has been monitoring the incidence of selected congenital malformations reported by medical practitioners to the Department of Health.

NATIONAL HEALTH INSTITUTE—The Institute is the Department of Health's centre for the scientific study of public health problems. It contains an epidemiology section and public health laboratories (microbiology, virology, serology, and environmental health).

The epidemiology section conducts field research into matters of public health interest.

The public health laboratories provide diagnostic and reference services in bacteriology, virology, and mycology for medical officers of health, hospital and private laboratories, and general practitioners, as well as for the other sections of the institute. The Institute is the national centre for those reference services which are organised on an international basis, such as salmonellosis, leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis, influenza, and staphylococcal phage typing.

Public health laboratories have been established at 5 public hospitals in main centres to assist the department with the examination of food, milk, and water and of public health specimens.

MANAGEMENT SERVICES AND RESEARCH UNIT—This unit provides health care administration and health service managers with advice, where possible on a quantitative basis, for decision-making on the use of health care resources.

Survey research undertaken provides the means by which relative levels of needs and demands can be identified, as well as a basis for the promulgation of alternative proposals to meet those needs and demands. The unit is actively involved in health planning at national, local, and community levels, encouraging both providers and consumers of health care to participate in the development of their own services.

In the health services, manpower is the major resource. Projections based on special surveys and regular statistical collections are being developed for many categories of health workers. The implications of these are evaluated at workshops and through other channels so that action can be taken to meet identified needs.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL—The Medical Research Council of New Zealand has the following functions:

  1. To initiate, foster, and support medical research;

  2. To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons and organisations concerned with medical research;

  3. To collect and disseminate scientific information, including the publication of reports.

At the end of 1980 research was in progress in most fields of medicine including the pre-clinical, clinical and para-clinical sciences. Increased emphasis was also being placed on the fields of social medicine and community health, and on research into health services, and the earlier work of the council on medical research in the South Pacific through its South Pacific Medical Research Committee was being continued.

The council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by private medical research foundations and societies such as the Cancer Society of New Zealand, and regional medical research foundations established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Palmerston North, Hawke's Bay. Otago, and Southland.

The council administers the Medical Research Endowment Fund, from which an annual expenditure of 56.5 million is incurred in supporting research projects at the medical and clinical schools, and other university departments, and at the institutions of the Auckland, Wellington, North Canterbury, and Otago Hospital Boards.

The council employs a staff of about 50 full-time workers. A further 300 workers are employed by other institutions under project and programme grants from the council.

The council awards scholarships and fellowships to selected graduates and undergraduates who wish to engage in medical research.

The council is empowered to receive bequests and donations to the fund for furthering the objects of the council as set out in the Medical Research Council Act 1950.

MEDICAL COUNCIL—The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, consists of the Director-General of Health, the deans of the faculties of medicine in the Universities of Otago and Auckland, and eight registered medical practitioners appointed on a representative basis.

The council deals with all applications for registration under the Act. Until an applicant is able to satisfy the council that he has obtained house officer experience, in a resident medical capacity, of not less than 12 months or has otherwise obtained comparable experience, registration is on a conditional basis. Persons registered conditionally may practise only in an approved hospital. A medical education committee responsible to the council exercises general supervision over the training of persons conditionally registered. The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30 June 1980 was 8120, but not all are in active practice in New Zealand.

The Medical Council is vested with certain disciplinary powers. Right of appeal to the High Court is provided.

DOCTORS AND DENTISTS—The following table, based on figures in the World Health Statistics Annuals 1978 and 1980, shows for selected countries the number of inhabitants per doctor and per dentist. The years are the latest available and range from 1974 to 1978.

CountryInhabitants
Per DoctorPer Dentist
New Zealand7312920
Australia6502460
England and Wales6593460
Denmark5121150
Sweden5631160
France6132010
Netherlands5832990
West Germany4901930
Canada5632440
United States5951910
Japan8452600
U.S.S.R.2892510
Iran257116410
India365264900
Kenya11417134260
Brazil16473120

The definition of doctor (physician) used in compiling this table included ail graduates of a medical school or faculty actually working in a country in any medical field (practice, teaching, administration, research, laboratory work, etc.). A similar definition referring to graduates or qualified personnel of a dental faculty or school applied to dentists.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDS: Dentists—The Dental Council was constituted under the Dental Act 1963. The functions of the council are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists.

The number of practising dentists holding annual practising certificates at 31 May 1980 was 1191. Under provisions of the Dental Technicians Regulations 1968, a Registration Board for Dental Technicians was constituted. In 1980 there were 434 registered dental technicians.

Nurses—The Nursing Council of New Zealand was constituted under the Nurses Act 1971. Its functions include making recommendations on nursing programmes to be undertaken by candidates for examinations in relation to minimum standards required for registration; the conduct of examinations; the granting of approval of Schools of Nursing, subject to Ministerial concurrence; the enrolment and registration of overseas nurses; and the exercise of disciplinary powers.

The Nurses Act 1977, effective from 1 January 1978, repealed the 1971 Act and 1975 Amendment Act and removed the minimum age for the sitting of State Examinations for all classes of students except those for enrolment. It also required male students to undertake the obstetric part of the general and obstetric programme and enabled male persons to undertake midwifery training.

Programmes currently provided for registration or enrolment are as follows: 3–year student-based courses at 9 technical institutes leading to comprehensive nurse registration; 3–year hospital-based courses leading to either general and obstetric, psychiatric, or psychopaedic nurse registration; 1–year hospital-based courses leading to enrolment as nurses; 6–month hospital-based obstetric courses for general nurses leading to general and obstetric nurse registration; 1–year student-based midwifery courses for general and obstetric nurses or for comprehensive nurses; and 2–year hospital-based programmes for nurses holding a basic qualification. A number of student-based “bridging” programmes have been introduced.

These programmes offer the general and obstetric nurse, psychiatric or psychopaedic nurse curriculum. This further qualification entitles a nurse to comprehensive registration.

The Nurses' Regulations following the introduction of the 1977 Act became effective in 1980.

During the year 1979–80 there were 29818 registered and enrolled nurses holding a valid annual practising certificate; the council's total register/roll exceeds 90000; of these, 999 are registered comprehensive nurses.

Physiotherapists—The New Zealand Physiotherapy Board is constituted under the Physiotherapy Act 1949. The board's functions are the examination and registration of candidates for physiotherapy practice, the issuing of special licences, and the conduct of those registered under the Act.

The training period for physiotherapists is 3 years. Full-time training is conducted at the Physiotherapy Department, Auckland Technical Institute, and at the School of Physiotherapy, Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin. From 1 February 1976 the control of this school was transferred from Otago Hospital Board to Otago Polytechnic Council. All students are required to pass the State Examination in Physiotherapy to qualify for registration.

During 1980, 29 physiotherapists were registered, bringing the total on the register (which includes some no longer practising) to 3248.

Occupational Therapists—The Occupational Therapy Board is constituted under the Occupational Therapy Act 1949. The board is concerned with the registration and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy.

The Central Institute of Technology, Upper Hutt, conducts the 3–year course of training and clinical experience is gained at hospitals. Students who successfully complete the course are awarded a diploma in occupational therapy and then registered. There are some 400 occupational therapists in active practice.

Dietitians—The Dietitians Board, constituted under the Dietitians Act 1950, is concerned with the training, examination, and registration of persons engaged in the practice of dietetics.

The training period for a dietitian is, in the case of the holder of a degree of bachelor of home science conferred by the University of Otago or of the holder of a diploma in home science of the University of Otago, 12 months in a hospital training school. In 1979 there were 584 registered dietitians.

Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians—The Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Act 1976 provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of four registered optometrists to be appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Optometrical Association Incorporated, one registered optometrist who is actively engaged in teaching optometry to be appointed on the nomination of the Council of the University of Auckland, two registered dispensing opticians to be appointed, on the nominations of the Association of Dispensing Opticians and Optical Dispensers of New Zealand Incorporated, two ophthalmological specialists who are registered in respect of that speciality under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, to be appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Medical Association, and one other person being an officer of the Public Service employed in the Department of Health.

Three hundred and forty Annual Practising Certificates were issued for the year ended 31 March 1981. This included optometrists and dispensing opticians.

Chiropodists—The Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966 provided for the constitution of a Chiropodists Board. The Chiropodists Regulations 1967 specify that the board shall consist of one officer of the Department of Health, and three persons entitled to registration as chiropodists who have been nominated by the New Zealand Society of Chiropodists, and a medical practitioner who has been nominated jointly by the Medical Association of New Zealand and the Executive Committee of the New Zealand Orthopaedic Association. The board's functions include the promotion of high standards of education and conduct among persons engaged or intending to become engaged in chiropody, the exercising of disciplinary powers in accordance with the Act in respect of registered chiropodists and the conducting of special examinations. The board also deals with all applications for registration under the Act.

There are approximately 248 registered chiropodists, but not all are engaged in active practice. A significant number of those in active practice work only part time. In pursuance of the Government's policy, a number of hospital boards are establishing community-oriented chiropody services, principally intended for the elderly.

Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers—The Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Board consists of 13 member/representatives from the Municipal and Counties Association, the Gas Association, the New Zealand Drainlayers Association, an engineer employed by a local authority or drainage board, the Master Plumbers Society (2), the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Related Trades Industrial Union of Workers (2), Department of Labour, Department of Education, Department of Health, and one other person, to be appointed by the Minister.

The board is concerned with the registration of plumbers, gasfitters, and drainlayers. It issues annual licences to craftsmen and registered plumbers, gasfitters, and drainlayers and limited certificates. It has also authority and responsibility for disciplinary action against craftsmen plumbers and gasfitters if it is established they have done unsatisfactory work.

Drainlaying may be carried out only by registered drainlayers, and gasfitting may be carried out only by craftsmen gasfitters or by registered gasfitters and holders of limited certificates working in the employment, or under the supervision, of craftsmen gasfitters.

Except in specially exempted areas, all sanitary plumbing defined in the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Act 1976 can only be performed by craftsmen and registered plumbers and holders of limited certificates working in the employment or under the supervision of craftsmen plumbers.

Specifications and standards of workmanship and materials in plumbing work are prescribed in the provisions of the Drainage and Plumbing Regulations enacted under the Health Act.

Pharmacists—In November 1980 there were 2911 names on the Pharmaceutical Register in New Zealand. All registered pharmacists, except those who notify the registrar that they have conscientious objection to membership, automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the society's affairs being managed by a council constituted by the Pharmacy Act 1970.

The council consists of 12 members, 11 being pharmacists, and 1 a barrister appointed by the Minister of Health. Seven members are elected on a district basis by registered pharmacists who are proprietors of pharmacies and four by members of the Pharmaceutical Society who are not in the previous category. The main function of the council of the Pharmaceutical Society is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the public interests.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all times maintained under the immediate supervision and control of a registered pharmacist.

The present system for pharmacy education requires a minimum of 3 years' attendance at the School of Pharmacy, Central Institute of Technology, Upper Hutt, at which the diploma in pharmacy is obtained. There is also a 4-year degree course in pharmacy at the University of Otago. Graduates from both courses are required to gain 52 weeks pre-registration experience before becoming eligible for registration as pharmacists.

Any pharmacist or company in which not less than 75 percent of the share capital is owned by a pharmacist or pharmacists may establish one pharmacy. Unqualified persons or companies in which less than 75 percent of the share capital is pharmacist-owned must, however, secure the consent of the Pharmacy Authority, set up under the Act, before commencing business, and in all cases the establishment of more than one pharmacy under the same ownership, or the holding of an interest in more than one pharmacy by any person, is subject to the consent of the authority. All pharmacies must be registered with the society. There are about 1135 pharmacies in New Zealand. A recent survey showed that on average there were 1.44 pharmacists per pharmacy; about 250 pharmacists work outside community pharmacies in hospitals, Government departments, and the pharmaceutical industry.

MEDICAL, HOSPITAL, AND OTHER RELATED BENEFITS—Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, administered by the Department of Health and dealing with medical and like benefits, is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Medical Benefits—Medical benefits apply to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, these being principally:

  1. Medical services in maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading.)

  2. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate.

  3. Medical services other than anaesthetic services, involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner.

Every general practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services is entitled, on behalf of the patient, to receive from the Department of Health a fee of $1.25 for a service provided in normal hours and up to $4.00 for a service rendered at night or on Saturdays, Sundays, or holidays; for social welfare beneficiaries, pensioners and their dependants, and for patients approved as “chronically ill”, the benefit ranges from $3 to $7; in the case of all children and young persons up to their sixteenth birthday, and those for whom family benefit continues to be paid, the benefit ranges from $4.75 to $8. For initial consultations with recognised psychiatrists, paediatricians, neurologists, and neuro-surgeons and general physicians, the Department pays a benefit of $20; with all other specialists, the benefit paid for children and young persons is $10, and the benefit paid for all other patients is $5. These rates apply only to the first occasion on which a patient is referred by a general practitioner to a specialist, and, in the case of an inter-specialist referral, with prior concurrence of the original doctor. For subsequent visits, the fee paid by the Department reduces to $1.25 for each visit, except in the case of Social Welfare beneficiaries and pensioners and their dependants, and the “chronically ill” for whom the fee is $3, and $4.75 in the case of children and young persons. In designated rural areas, an incentive bonus is payable to general practitioners. In 1977, the immunisation benefit was increased to $2.25 when the vaccine is administered by the doctor or a registered general nurse in his employ and under his direction. The immunisation benefit is in full settlement and no extra charge should be made. Most doctors make a claim directly from the Department of Health and ask patients for the balance of their fees. A minority require their patients to pay the whole fee and make personal claims on the Department of Health.

The number of medical practitioners providing general and specialist medical services in 1978 was 4377. During the year ended 31 March 1980, the cost per head of population was $14.98. The average population per active general practitioner in 1979 was 1758.

Pharmaceutical Benefits—Persons receiving medical attention under the Act are entitled, generally without cost to themselves, to those medicines, drugs, approved appliances, and materials, prescribed by their medical practitioners and which are included in the Drug Tariff.

Prescriptions passed for payment in the year ended 31 March 1980 totalled 24130000 or 7.7 per head of population. The average cost per prescription was $5.50, the cost per head of population for the year $42.43.

Hospital Benefits—Treatment is provided free by public hospitals where a patient is entitled to hospital benefits under the Act. In the case of private hospitals and other approved institutions benefits paid are in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients. The rates from 1 July 1980 are as follows:

  1. For surgical treatment $21.00 a day, with a minimum of $30.00.

  2. For medical (including psychiatric) treatment $16.00 a day.

  3. For geriatric treatment $18.50 a day.

  4. Hospital treatment for maternity patients $21.00 a day.

  5. For long-stay medical patients, $18.50 per day.

Free treatment is accorded outpatients at public hospitals; this also covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses, hearing aids, artificial limbs, surgical footwear, wheelchairs, orthopaedic implants in private hospitals, ileostomy and colostomy appliances, and urinals. It does not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. The patient is required to make a part-payment for surgical footwear.

A subsidy is also provided under the geriatric hospital special assistance scheme to assist geriatric patients in private hospitals where the patient requires hospital care and cannot be placed in a public hospital bed. The patient must contribute from his income to the payment of fees. In the case of a married patient the income left in the hands of the spouse who is not hospitalised must be not less than the rate of National Superannuation for a married couple.

Psychiatric Hospitals—Treatment of patients in public psychiatric hospitals is also free. A licensed (private) psychiatric hospital may be recognised and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment are payable accordingly.

Maternity Benefits—Maternity benefits cover ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere. Recognised specialists may make a charge on the patient over and above the benefit. Licensed maternity hospitals are entitled to receive fees of $21.00 in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding 14 days.

X-ray Diagnostic Services—These X-ray diagnostic services on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, attract a health benefit:

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen.

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs.

  3. The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance, visas, emigration permits, and examinations for the sole or primary purpose of obtaining medical certificates for production to some other person, are not included in the free services. Eligible X-ray examinations at public hospitals are free, but those undertaken by private radiologists are limited to a specified benefit. Additional charges are the patient's responsibility.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services—The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and associated medical services. The following services are not included:

  1. Examination of specimens for public health.

  2. Post-mortem examinations.

  3. Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life insurance.

  4. The preparation of sera and vaccines.

Physiotherapy Benefits—Physiotherapy treatment afforded by contracting physiotherapists is the subject of a benefit under the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The standard benefit is $1 for each recommended treatment, but a higher rate of $1.50 is payable for beneficiaries and their dependants who qualify for the higher medical benefit. Where patients are treated in groups the benefit is 40 cents per patient.

To qualify for the benefit, physiotherapy treatment must in all cases be recommended by a registered medical practitioner. Treatment is limited to 6 weeks on a single recommendation but in the case of certain specified illnesses the Director-General of Health may extend the period of treatment on any one recommendation up to 6 months.

Home-nursing Services—Under the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1944, home-nursing services are provided free where the services are afforded by a registered nurse, midwife, or obstetric nurse in the employ of the Department of Health, a hospital board, or an organisation recognised for the purpose.

Domestic Assistance—Monetary assistance is given to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic help in the home, where it is required because of age and infirmity, or to support family situations in which the mother is incapacitated or needs help on account of family commitments.

Dental Services—The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960 provide for free dental treatment. These benefits are confined to persons who are under 16 years of age or under 18 years if still attending school or otherwise dependent. Treatment may be provided in a State dental clinic, by a contracting dentist for whom there is a prescribed scale of fees, or in the dental department of a public hospital.

Artificial Aids—The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids, such as artificial limbs, hearing aids, and contact lenses.

Breast Prostheses —Women undergoing a mastectomy on or after 29 July 1976 are entitled to a benefit of up to $30 to meet the cost of an initial breast form. Patients entitled to the benefit are issued with a certificate of eligibility prior to discharge from hospital for presentation to the supplier.

Contact Lenses —These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities; (a) conical cornea, (b) high myopia, where the degree of myopia present in the greatest axis of the better eye is not less than—10 diopters, (c) monocular aphakia, if the restoration of binocular vision is highly desirable by reason of the patient's occupation or other circumstances and binocular vision cannot be restored without the use of contact lenses. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an approved ophthalmologist.

Lenses may also be supplied in respect of any other ocular condition which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacles; in these cases recommendation by two ophthalmologists is necessary.

Hearing Aids—A free aid may be supplied, or a subsidy of $70 is payable towards the purchase of a hearing aid, where the patient suffers a hearing loss which renders the use of an aid necessary.

Eligibility on medical grounds for the provision of a hearing aid is to be determined by an otologist employed or engaged by a hospital board or the Department of Health.

Normally a patient will be eligible for the payment of the full benefit only once every 5 years. However, if in the opinion of the authorising otologist, a patient's existing aid is inadequate after less than 5 years from the date of its issue, and a new aid is required to improve hearing ability, the hearing aid benefit at full rates is to be payable.

Artificial Limbs—The free supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1956 or under the provisions of the Accident Compensation Act 1972.

  2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an approved orthopaedic surgeon.

  3. The limb is of an approved type and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopaedic adviser, be satisfactorily fitted.

For the purposes of the regulations “artificial limb” includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes limb socks for such limbs and for female amputees, replacement understockings.

Orthopaedic Implants —Artificial hips and similar implants also qualify for benefit under the arrangements for artificial aids.

Wheelchairs—Manually operated wheelchairs are available through hospital boards on a free loan basis to disabled persons who require them on medical grounds. Motorised wheelchairs are fully subsidised in approved cases.

Acrylic Artificial Eyes—A benefit of up to $50 is available to all patients who have had an eye removed on and from 22 July 1977. For adults, the benefit is available towards the cost of the initial prosthesis only, Children and young persons are also entitled to a benefit of up to $50 towards the cost of replacement artificial eyes prior to their sixteenth birthday.

Wigs—A benefit of up to $100 is available to meet the cost of wigs required on cosmetic grounds by patients suffering from: (a) congenital dystrophy of the skin; (b) alopecia areata, severe and longstanding; or (c) in cases of illness or treatment of illness where baldness is not permanent but is likely to be prolonged. For adults the benefit is available towards the cost of the initial wig obtained. Children are entitled to “reasonable” replacements at intervals considered suitable by the medical officer of health.

The following table gives details of expenditure on the various classes of health benefits during the 5 latest financial years.

Item1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80

* Long-stay benefit introduced 1 July 1978.

Benefit introduced 1 April 1978.

Benefit introduced 1 June 1978.

 $(thousand)
Maternity benefits—
    Medical practitioners' fees5,1484,8664,8925,9526,832
    Medical practitioners' motor vehicle allowance152139156198205
    Obstetric nurses' fees817193340
 5,3085,0225,0676.1837,077
Medical benefits—
    General medical services28,18028,39429,44935,79834,950
    GMS motor vehicle allowance125118124200188
    Specialist medical services2,6352,6683,0084,3604,416
    Rural practice bonus and other incentives587594606764749
    Immunisation benefit457496540647577
    Practice nurse subsidy6491,2572,2574,1835,985
    Social workers in general practice22534
 32,63333,52735,98645,97746,890
Private practice and post-graduate grants2140325955
Special area and other arrangements—
    Section 117, Social Security Act152129198156149
 173169230215204
Hospital benefits—
    Treatment in private hospitals—maternity benefits336351281258209
    Treatment in private hospitals—medical, surgical, and Karitane3,2614,1203,9353,7354,100
    Treatment in private hospitals—geriatric benefit8,58911,72812,59913,65820,178
    Treatment in private hospitals—long stay benefit*216449
    Treatment in approved institutions8251,1991,2821,2091,790
 13,01117,39818,09719,07626,726
Pharmaceutical benefits—
    Drugs supplied—
    By chemists68,91683,65496,362111,812130,665
    By medical practitioners and Department of Health;164140149185204
    To institutions and private hospitals7871,0571,2021,4271,909
    Non-disposable syringes and •needles for diabetics2519
 69,86784,85197,713113,449132,797
Supplementary benefits—
    Dental services5,3345,1585,3166,3596,082
    Laboratory services10,72812,13613,48317,10618,438
    Artificial aids37766583105
    Physiotherapy services1,0011,2381,3471,5301,502
    Radiological services1,7061,7521,8101,8942,113
    Breast prostheses7202319
    Hair pieces3148
 18,80620,36822,04227,02628,307
                Total139,798161,336179,134211,926242,002

WELFARE SERVICES—Government assistance is offered to religious and voluntary organisations and local authorities in providing housing, accommodation, and services for elderly people and others whom it is considered are in special need. Under this partnership with Government, the social service agencies of all the major religious bodies, as well as other welfare organisations, have established additional accommodation for the aged, frail, and sick who need residential care in either an old people's home or a geriatric hospital. Where it is not possible to meet the need of elderly people through these agencies, the provision of residential care for the aged becomes a hospital board responsibility. At 31 March 1980 religious and welfare organisations provided 8992 home and hospital beds for the elderly. Hospital boards maintain 923 old people's home beds.

Other measures which are of importance in assisting elderly people to remain in their homes as long as possible are receiving increased attention. Chief amongst these are the provision of district nursing services, home aid, meals-on-wheels, laundry services, and occupational therapy. In general the services are provided by hospital boards with voluntary organisations and old people's welfare councils assisting in various ways. The importance of old people's clubs and social centres, with an adequate range of services, also receiving increasing recognition. Government lottery funds are being used to assist in providing suitable premises and assisting welfare councils with administrative costs. During the year ended 31 March 1980 a total of 1,470,406 meals-on-wheels were delivered. The total number of meals-on-wheels supplied per day is 6166. The service is operated by 28 hospital boards with the assistance of voluntary drivers.

Old People's Homes and Hospitals—Subject to maximum subsidies of $16,000 per bed for old people's homes and $19,000 for geriatric hospital beds, and certain other conditions, religious or welfare organisations providing accommodation for old people may be granted 100 percent of the approved building cost. Since October 1974, the policy has been widened to provide an 80–percent subsidy towards the cost of approved improvements and the upgrading of existing accommodation, and 100 per cent for fire protection work as required by the local authority. The administration of policy is a Department of Health responsibility.

During the year 1979–80, subsidies amounting to $326,479 were approved. From April 1950 to 31 March 1980 subsidies totalling $67,283,987 have been approved, and buildings erected as a result will accommodate 8370 old people.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANISATIONS—Over the years voluntary welfare organisations have made valuable contributions to certain aspects of the field of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from the public funds. Among the more important are the Royal N.Z. Plunket Society, the Children's Health Camps Board, the New Zealand Red Cross Society, the St. John's Ambulance Association, the New Zealand Crippled Children Society, the Hearing Association, the Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind, the Family Planning Associations, the Neurological Foundation; the Rehabilitation League, the Laura Fergusson Trust for Disabled Persons, the New Zealand Society for the Intellectually Handicapped, the Cancer Society, and the National Heart Foundation. A fuller list of voluntary organisations in the field of health was published in the 1976 and earlier editions of the Yearbook.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Other publications dealing with health and medical services include the following:

The Public Health (Parl. paper E. 10), Department of Health (Annual).

Health, Department of Health bulletin (Quarterly).

Report of the Medical Research Council of New Zealand (Parl. paper E. 11).

Trends in Health and Health Services, Department of Health (2–yearly).

Health Expenditure in New Zealand—Trends and Growth Patterns, Department of Health (1979).

Accommodation and Service Needs of the Elderly, Department of Health (1976).

Health Manpower Resources 1978, Department of Health (1978).

Census of Population 1976; Bulletin 24—Cigarette Smoking, Department of Statistics.

Social Trends in New Zealand, Department of Statistics (1977).

Alcoholism: Challenge to Industry, Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council (1979).

Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 12—New Zealand Children 1979, Department of Statistics (1979).

Annual Report of the Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council (Parl. paper E. 26).

Report of the Clean Air Council (Parl. paper E. 22).

The Department of Health has published a considerable number of reports in its Special Report series in recent years. Inquiries concerning these should be addressed to:

Management Services and Research Unit,

Department of Health,

Private Bag,

Wellington.

5 B—HOSPITALS

The Hospitals Act 1957 requires the Minister of Health to ensure the provision and maintenance by hospital boards of hospitals and hospital services and to encourage the provision and maintenance of private hospitals. The Department of Health advises the Minister on, or determines in respect of boards, the extent and standard of hospital and allied services, the building requirements to provide these services, the numbers and levels of the main groups of professional staffs to be employed, the appropriate annual financial grants, the salaries and conditions of employment of about 60 percent of staff, and the measure of financial assistance to be given to private hospitals, including loan finance. The department also licenses and supervises private hospitals, inspects the work of all hospitals, and compiles financial and statistical data about them. There are 29 hospital boards and 163 private hospitals.

Since 1 April 1958, the cost of hospital treatment in public hospitals has been borne entirely by the State. Private hospitals, which provide about one-sixth of the available beds, receive partial payment from the Government for hospital treatment of patients; additional fees may be claimed from the patients. Hospital and home nursing services involve the Department of Health in establishing and assisting to maintain minimum standards of nursing service in general hospitals, in homes for the aged, etc.; in advising, inspecting, and reporting on such services in hospitals; and in generally advising the Minister on nursing.

Experience has been that, generally speaking, advisory boards, committees, and councils play a most valuable part in helping to formulate health policies and programmes, and, in certain cases, in administering policies or programmes laid down by Government. The setting-up of such agencies enables the Minister and the Department of Health to draw upon expert advice and wide experience and ensures that non-departmental people with up-to-date knowledge, day-to-day working experience, 1 responsibility in particular areas of health play a worthwhile part in health administration. A partners of this kind is particularly important in the case of public hospitals, which are run by democratically elected boards. Recognition of this is seen in the requirements of the Hospitals Act that the Minister of Health may not act in certain public hospital matters without a recommendation from the Hospitals Advisory Council.

The department's objectives in the case of physical medicine and rehabilitation are to stimulate interest and co-ordinate treatment of diseases such as chronic arthritis, poliomyelitis, and cerebral palsy; to promote and maintain a unified rehabilitation service; and to maintain and develop physiotherapy and occupational therapy services. It supervises physiotherapy and occupational therapy training, licensing and services, and supervises the provision of rehabilitation services in public hospitals. (See Section 5A.)

A major development affecting hospital boards since 1977–78 is the injection of special funds from receipts of alcohol and tobacco duty to assist them in moving their services out into the community. This should eventually have a significant effect on the level of provision of beds by the larger hospital boards.

The welfare services involving the department include the medical and social care and general welfare of the aged. The department advises the Minister on subsidies to be paid to religious and welfare organisations which provide homes and hospital beds for the elderly, and it also administers legislation governing the standards and oversight of old people's homes.

HOSPITAL BOARDS—General and psychiatric hospitals (except for Lake Alice Hospital) are controlled by locally elected hospital boards. A hospital board of 8 to 14 members is elected every 3 years for each hospital district. It is the duty of every hospital board to provide, maintain, and staff such institutions, hospital accommodation, and medical, nursing, and other services as the Minister of Health considers necessary.

In recent years there has been a pressure of activity, replanning, and development in all medical services for which hospital boards are responsible. This replanning of medical services has been undertaken against a background of Governmental efforts to restrain the rapid growth in health expenditure. To this end, hospital boards were required to accept a 1–percent reduction in their allocation of funds in 1979–80 and again in 1980–81.

More rapid and comfortable transport is encouraging the build-up of specialist diagnostic and therapeutic resources in regional centres. To help meet the cost of these, boards have been allocated growth expenditure amounting to J percent of their base allocation.

The Director-General of Health is authorised to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint assistant inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act.

Hospital boards are required to operate their own ambulance services unless they enter into some arrangement with a subsidised voluntary agency. In this regard the Order of St. John and organisations such as the Wellington Free Ambulance perform valuable services.

HOSPITAL ACCOMMODATION: Public Institutions—The number of beds in public institutions available at 31 March 1980 and the average number occupied during the year are set out in the following table. These statistics relate to patients and inmates in all institutions (general, maternity, special hospitals, old people's homes, and psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals) including institutions under the control of the Department of Health.

Type of BedBeds AvailableAverage Number of Occupied Beds per Day
NumberProportion per 1000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1000 of Population
General149384.7112623.6
Maternity25790.812550.4
Psychiatric and psychopaedic88282.875882.4
Total hospital beds263458.4201056.4
Non-hospital beds9230.38230.3
                Total272688.7209286.6

In addition to the 26345 hospital beds in public institutions at 31 March 1980 there were 5139 beds (5080 general and 59 maternity) in the 163 licensed private hospitals. If the beds in licensed private hospitals are included, the ratio of beds per 1000 of population becomes 6.4 for general beds and 0.8 for maternity beds.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public institutions for the year ended 31 March 1980 was 186, comprising 103 general hospitals, 49 maternity hospitals, 18 old people's homes, and 16 psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

A total of 407967 persons were treated or maintained in public hospitals or similar institutions during the year ended 31 March 1980. This figure, which included persons in maternity beds, psychiatric and psychopaedic beds, and non-hospital beds in old people's homes but not hospital outpatients, was equivalent to 13.0 percent of the population. The 1977–78 figure was 392688, and the 1978–79 figure, 405021.

Outpatient attendances at public hospitals (including dental but excluding X-ray, laboratory, and pharmacy) totalled 3838701 during the year ended 31 March 1980, compared with 3754524, the previous year.

Waiting Lists—At 31 March 1980 there were 37621 names on waiting lists for admission to public hospitals, a rate of 11.95 persons per 1000 residents. This compares with 37924 on waiting lists at 31 March 1979, a rate of 12.06 persons per 1000 residents.

STAFF: All Hospitals—The number of staff employed by hospital boards hospitals as at 31 March in three recent years were as follows:

Category of StaffAs at 31 March
197819791980

* Note changes in category of staff.

Figures based on full-time equivalents.

Professional staff—
    Medical21532225.72221.6
    Dietitians130132.3115.9
    Laboratory technicians575548.9549.4
    Occupational therapists333360.3295.6
    Physiotherapists422464.2460.6
    Radiographers347364.8380.6
    Hospital scientific officers48.379.6
    Other professional and technical9392164.42423.5
Social workers352338.1353.9
Nursing staff15668**
Nursing staff (qualified)*11782.512069.2
Nursing staff (unqualified)*4474.74374.0
Students8356**
Nursing students*7003.26439.2
Students, other*721.6720.3
Administration/managers1730**
Administration, central offices*3953.64025.5
Clerical support2254879.6892.3
Managers/supervisors*472.1366.5
Other1456912953.812763.9
 4782848888.148531.6

FINANCE: Loans—Boards have been authorised by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme. The position of loan liability is set out in the following table.

YearAmount UpliftedRepayment*Balance Owing
* Includes payments from sinking funds.
$(thousand)
1977–7863,65514,762292,928
1978–7972,68718,183348,116
1979–8078,98519,910407,103

Payments—Hospital board expenditure is subject to control by the Minister of Health. The sum provided by Government for public hospital maintenance expenditure is allocated to the individual hospital boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of known increases in salary and wage rates and prices plus an allowance for growth. A portion of the total is, however, held in reserve, to enable allocations to be made to boards having to meet the cost of commissioning major capital works reaching completion during the year. Additions' grants are also made, when necessary, for general wage increases which may be approved after the basic allocation has been made. Grants for minor capital works and equipment are made to boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of price increases plus an allowance for growth. In general, major works over $20,000 are financed by loans raised by hospital boards, interest and principal repayments being met by Government grants.

Expenditure for both public and psychiatric hospitals during recent years was as follows:

Grants to Hospital Boards1977–781978–791979–80
 $(thousand)
Grants Allocated Directly
Operating grant—
    Salaries and wages369,978404,843482,129
    Other operating101,401119,522131,334
    Minor capital11,46512,08512,205
                  Total482,844536,450625,668
Supplementary Grants
Reserve for salary and wage increases28,98485,80191,149
Loans—Repayments and payments into sinking fund13,77917,14519,958
        —Net interest16,92123,21630,874
Community care—
    General2,0855,8508,747
    Family health counselling services71244448
    Health centres3903491,346
Geriatric hospital patient assistance2,4634,7106,701
Special capital16378765
Special items (including wheelchairs, hearing aids, orthopaedic implants)7711,2512,733
                  Total65,627139,353162,021
                  Grand total548,471675,803787,689

PRIVATE HOSPITALS—At 31 March 1980 there were 163 licensed private hospitals, providing a total of 5139 beds. Private hospitals are shown by type and by number of beds in the following table as at 31 March of the years stated.

Type of HospitalNumber of HospitalsLicensed Beds
197819791980197819791980

* Included with other entries.

Beds for psychiatric patients in Calvary Hospital, Christchurch.

Maternity76611199x59
Medical and surgical3434x35154214711460
Medical and/or geriatric109112x11932473401x3576
Medical and children's (Karitane)63208105
Maternity, medical, and surgical22x1***
Psychiatric22114444
              Total158159x16351195120x5139

The Government assists private hospitals by the provision of loan money for new hospitals and the upgrading and extension of existing hospitals. Amounts paid under this scheme during the last 3 years were as follows: 1977–78, $96, 189; 1978–79, $216.550; and 1979–80, 5206,419.

PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—Under the Mental Health Act 1969 the control of psychiatric hospitals (with the exception of Lake Alice Hospital, Marton, which continues to make national provision for security patients) was transferred from the Department of Health to local hospital boards from 1 April 1972. From 1 April 1978 the funding of psychiatric hospitals was fully integrated with that of public hospitals, and therefore separate financial data is no longer available.

A detailed report Mental Health Data is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. The report contains administrative and clinical data about first admissions and readmissions (including replacements from leave), transfers, discharges, and deaths for all inpatients under psychiatric care. The report also presents information about psychiatric disorders in terms of age and sex, domicile, race, and length of stay.

The following table gives the annual averages and the rates per 100000 mean population for those in psychiatric hospitals and psychiatric patients in public hospitals.

YearResident in Psychiatric HospitalOn Leave from Psychiatric HospitalTotal for Psychiatric HospitalsPsychiatric Patients in Public Hospitals
Average NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRate
All Patients
19748930294.5180159.410731353.91846.0
19758475274.5170955.410184329.92006.5
19768171262.2180557.99976320.12056.6
19777877250.8177456.59651307.32678.5
19787619243.5x180957.8x9428301.3x2467.9x

Admissions and Readmissions—The provisional total of admissions to psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals during 1979 was 8786, compared with 8567 during the previous year. This total was made up of 3254 first admissions and 5532 readmissions (comparable figures for 1978 were 3021 and 5546). These figures exclude psychiatric units in general hospitals, The Bridge (Wellington, Auckland, and Christchurch), and Rotoroa Island.

A readmission is a person admitted as an inpatient for psychiatric care who has previously received psychiatric care in a New Zealand hospital.

The readmission rate is not necessarily an indication of therapeutic failure and may in many respects be a more accurate index of therapeutic vigour. It is still possible to encounter grossly over-simplified ideas with regard to the operations of psychiatric hospitals. For example, it is sometimes assumed that discharge from hospitals is, or should be, an indication of final and complete cure.

In certain respects the long-established practice of publishing readmission rates for psychiatric hospitals (no similar figures appear for general hospitals) seems to perpetuate this misconception. Readmission figures are sometimes quoted as evidence that psychiatric hospitals “do not actually cure people”. As with many other types of illness, psychiatric disorders may require more than one hospital admission before the condition is stabilised.

Admissions to psychiatric hospitals for alcoholism and drug addiction under the Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act 1966 during 1979 are shown in the following table. The figures are provisional.

HospitalSection 8Section 9Total
Carrington142135
Oakley71320
Kingseat15823
Tokanui342862
Cook33
Porirua33
Sunnyside8816
Cherry Farm122739
Rotoroa Island881098
The Bridge (Wellington)131023
The Bridge (Auckland)617
The Bridge (Christchurch)617
      Total203133336

Admissions under section 8 of the Act are made as a result of applications from the patients themselves; applications under section 9 are a result of applications made on the patients' behalves by reputable persons. Rotoroa Island and The Bridge, Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, are conducted by the Salvation Army.

General Trend—The average number of occupied beds in psychiatric hospitals in 1979 was about 2.4 per thousand of population, the same as the previous year. This is the lowest figure recorded since 1881. No absolute conclusions can be drawn from a low bed-occupancy rate; but a consistently falling rate, despite substantial admission rates, can fairly be assumed to indicate an active philosophy of treatment and successful therapeutic programmes.

Discharges—There are 3 principal ways of being discharged from psychiatric hospital: (a) outright discharge, which means being formally discharged at the time of leaving hospital; (b) discharge on leave; and (c) discharged “not committed”, which means being discharged from a psychiatric hospital on the grounds that the patient's mental condition does not warrant his being detained. All people discharged from a psychiatric unit of a public hospital are discharged outright.

There were 6876 outright discharges from psychiatric or psychopaedic hospitals during 1979, compared with 6965 during 1978. An additional 716 patients were discharged or died while on leave.

Diagnoses—Numbers and rates of first admissions, readmissions, and discharges of patients under psychiatric care during 1978 are shown by diagnosis in the following table. This information was not available for later years at the time of going to press.

DiagnosisFirst AdmissionsReadmissionsDischarges
No.Rate*No.Rate*OutrightLeaveNot CommittedTotal
* Per million of mean population.
Senile and pre-senile dementia2668512239168591228
Alcoholic psychosis4213110355915134
Other organic psychoses1324218659215905310
Schizophrenia and paranoid states48315422667241789889212699
Depressive psychosis43213883626711949431291
Other functional psychoses2688681826181721361036
Depressive neurosis68922068922013222541351
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders2598320064448201469
Alcoholism88128217685652228278112517
Other personality disorders5141649112911166155841405
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children2407714747351188377
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition652111637128272157
Mental retardation1655386327677718812977
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)1565011537206280288
              All cases459214679147292310868213323813239

Deaths—During 1979, 378 patients died in psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals, compared with 359 in 1978.

PUBLIC HOSPITAL PATIENTS: Principal Diseases and Disabilities—Detailed statistical information is supplied to the Department of Health about every patient, except normal maternity cases, discharged from or dying in public hospitals in New Zealand.

The following summary shows the principal diseases and injuries treated in public hospitals in 1979, together with the number of deaths and the fatality rate percent of total cases. The disease headings are the subtitles of the International Classification of Diseases. More detailed information is available in Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data, Health Statistics Report.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in mortality statistics. Congestive heart failure, for instance, is comparatively highly ranked in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but it is frequently only the consequence of some underlying disease, which would take precedence over congestive heart failure in the statistics of causes of death. Hospital returns show each disease for which the patient was treated while in hospital, but the; classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which the patient was admitted, regardless of what other unrelated diseases may have been present or developed during the stay in hospital. In mortality statistics, on the other hand, the underlying cause of death is of paramount importance. In the summary below a patient admitted on account of an injury is classified according to the nature of the injury. Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the injury, e.g., motor-vehicle accident, accidental fall, etc.

DISEASES AND DISABILITIES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1979 (INCLUDES READMISSIONS)
Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsDeaths in Public HospitalsFatality Rate Percent
Intestinal infectious diseases4305270.6
Tuberculosis747334.4
Zoonotic bacterial diseases41
Other bacterial diseases5145410.5
Poliomyelitis and other enterovirus diseases of central nervous system40210.2
Viral diseases accompanied by exanthema78991.1
Arthropod-borne viral diseases7656.6
Other viral diseases180660.3
Rickettsioses and other arthropod-borne diseases26
Syphilis and other venereal diseases167
Other spirochaetal diseases100
Mycoses11143.6
Helminthiases5811.7
Other infective and parasitic diseases27731.1
Malignant neoplasm of buccal cavity and pharynx549498.9
Malignant neoplasm of digestive organs and peritoneum374876520.4
Malignant neoplasm of respiratory system283163622.5
Malignant neoplasm of bone, connective tissue, skin, and breast40492345.8
Malignant neoplasm of genito-urinary organs45504008.8
Malignant neoplasm of other and unspecified sites321964320.0
Neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue269427010.0
Benign neoplasms4726240.5
Neoplasm of unspecified nature607172.8
Diseases of thyroid gland82091.1
Diseases of other endocrine glands39381453.7
Avitaminoses and other nutritional deficiency48261.2
Other metabolic diseases941303.2
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs2007391.9
Psychoses36122476.8
Neuroses, personality disorders, and other non-psychotic mental disorders5407521.0
Mental retardation23631.3
Inflammatory diseases of central nervous system397307.6
Hereditary and familial diseases of nervous system209209.6
Other diseases of central nervous system48682445.0
Diseases of nerves and peripheral ganglia193350.3
Inflammatory diseases of the eye75320.3
Other diseases and conditions of the eye524550.1
Diseases of the ear and mastoid process605960.1
Active rheumatic fever33230.9
Chronic rheumatic heart disease938636.7
Hypertensive disease16321056.4
Ischaemic heart disease11239149213.3
Other forms Of heart disease564472412.8
Cerebrovascular disease6414174527.2
Diseases of arteries, arterioles and capillaries365542211.5
Diseases of veins and lymphatics, and other diseases of circulatory system62761262.0
Acute respiratory infections (except influenza)521580.2
Influenza32510.3
Pneumonia487950310.3
Bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma119404273.6
Other diseases of upper respiratory tract8787
Other diseases of respiratory system1810975.4
Diseases of oral cavity, salivary glands, and jaws274320.1
Diseases of oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum43471212.8
Appendicitis520360.1
Hernia of abdominal cavity5679240.4
Other diseases of intestine and peritoneum57711713.0
Diseases of liver, gall bladder, and pancreas48291924.0
Nephritis and nephrosis13701239.0
Other diseases of urinary system4516751.7
Diseases of male genital organs4173180.4
Diseases of breast, ovary, fallopian tube, and parametrium344220.1
Diseases of uterus and other female genital organs12289100.1
Complications of pregnancy2812
Urinary infections and toxaemias of pregnancy and the puerperium3110.1
Abortion90
Delivery167420.1
Complications of the puerperium55810.2
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue2897120.4
Other inflammatory conditions of skin and subcutaneous tissue94960.6
Other diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissue180090.5
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever5373911.7
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bone and joint6450220.3
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system3423120.4
Congenital anomalies69241432.1
Certain causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality40781513.7
Symptoms referable to systems or organs19270830.4
Senility and ill-defined diseases35942346.5
Fracture of skull, spine, and trunk51621252.4
Fracture of upper limb460760.1
Fracture of lower limb83852933.5
Dislocation without fracture136410.1
Sprains and strains of joints and adjacent muscles1527
Intracranial injury (excluding those with skull fracture)8182720.9
Internal injury of chest, abdomen, and pelvis1054605.7
Laceration and open wound of head, neck, and trunk187480.4
Laceration and open would of upper limb266120.1
Laceration and open wound of lower limb1779
Laceration and open wound of multiple location245
Superficial injury39320.5
Confusion and crushing with intact skin surface251640.2
Effects of foreign body entering through orifice91240.4
Burn1860231.2
Injury to nerves and spinal cord63230.5
Adverse effect of medicinal agents3128210.7
Toxic effect of substances chiefly non-medicinal as to source106380.8
Other adverse effects3111321.0
Special admissions without sickness17144380.2
                      All conditions331369119533.6

Duration of Stay in Public Hospitals—The average duration of stay in public hospitals in 1979 was 13.0 days. Among sufferers from specified diseases and disabilities, the longest average stays were made by those with cerebrovascular disease (65 days), followed by patients with psychoses (62) days), hereditary and familial diseases of the nervous system (56 days), other diseases of the nervous system (44 days), diseases of the arteries, arterioles, and capillaries (29 days), and tuberculosis (also 29 days).

Accident Cases—Accident cases treated as inpatients in public hospitals during 1979 (including readmissions) are shown in the following table.

Type of AccidentTotal CasesPercentage of All Accident CasesAverage Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay as Percentage of Total
Transport—
    Railway670.116.110820.2
    Motor-vehicle traffic976217.911.511260118.2
    Motor-vehicle non-traffic6281.28.855260.9
    Other road vehicles17743.35.394761.5
    Water1860.37.513940.2
    Aircraft1110.213.715200.2
                Total transport1252823.010.513159921.3
Non-transport—
    Accidental poisoning16113.02.438830.6
    Accidental falls1334324.517.222984837.2
    Other accidents1382725.47.310134016.4
                Total non-transport2878152.911.633507154.2
Surgical and medical complications and misadventures542610.013.87491112.1
Late effects of accidental injury31375.815.9497708.0
Suicide and self-inflicted injury23394.36.7157012.5
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons19383.64.791101.5
Legal intervention61.38
Injury undetermined whether accidentally or purposely inflicted2670.58.121510.3
Injury resulting from operations of war812.096
                Grand total54430100.011.4618417100.0

The largest group comes under the heading “Non-transport—Other accidents”, which includes accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments, machinery, fig objects, fire and hot objects, and so on.

About a quarter of all accidents came in this group. The 2 next largest groups comprised accidental falls and motor-vehicle traffic accidents. Victims of accidental falls also had the longest aggregate stay in hospital. This was because of the long period spent in hospital by elderly people who have sustained fractures of the femur in falls. Almost 1 in every 4 patients had been injured in a fall of some kind.

Motor-vehicle traffic accidents comprised the third largest group and had the second largest aggregate stay. Traffic accidents on roads are analysed in tables in Section 12D Roads and Road Transport.

Accidents in the Home—A high percentage of non-transport accidents, especially those involving young children and elderly people, occur in the home. Accidents in the home in 1979 are included by type of accident in the previous section, but they are not separated out from accidents sustained elsewhere. The following table shows the number of patients discharged from, or dying, in public hospitals after treatment for accidents sustained in the home. It includes only inpatients in public hospitals; not, of course, the large numbers of home accident cases treated in outpatient departments, doctors' surgeries, and in the home itself.

Cause of AccidentTotal PatientsAggregate Duration of Slay in Hospital (Days)
Accidental poisoning by—  
    Drugs and medicaments6871762
    Petroleum products and other solvents204294
    Pesticides, fertilisers, and plant foods105192
    Noxious foodstuffs and poisonous plants6384
    Other solid and liquid substances223545
    Gases and vapours31136
Accidental falls5323102892
Struck by falling objects1101047
Accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments16978409
Accidental burns84812554
Accidents caused by foreign bodies5561047
All other and unspecified accidents224719090
                Total12094148052

Deaths in Public Hospitals—The percentage of deaths in public hospitals to all deaths are shown in the following table.

YearDeaths in Public HospitalsTotal DeathsPercentage of Deaths in Public Hospitals to Total Deaths
1974125632526149.7
1975125392511449.9
1976128932545050.7
1977126142596648.6
1978119582466948.5
1979119532541047.0

Age and Sex of Patients—The age and sex of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1979 are shown below.

Age CroupsMalesFemalesTotal
0–4 years211791546136640
5–9 years11779845920238
10–14 years8919659115510
15–19 years118151238024195
20–24 years107371531126048
25–29 years79331582623759
30–34 years67531374420497
35–39 years60141011916133
40–44 years5449794713396
45–49 years6421781414235
50–54 years8388821916607
55–59 years9799750217301
60–64 years9689765717346
65–69 years10584873419318
70–74 years9830836818198
75–79 years7456741714873
80–84 years402254389460
85 years and over256150547615
Total159328172041331369

FURTHER INFORMATION—Other publications containing data on hospitals include the following:

Hospital Management Data—Department of Health (Annual).

Mental Health Data—Department of Health (Annual).

Organisation of the Work of Hospital House Surgeons—Department of Health.

Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data—Department of Health (Annual).

Survey of Occupied Psychiatric Hospital Beds and Psychiatric Day and Outpatients, 1976—Department of Health (1979).

Bed Occupation Survey, 1976—Department of Health (1979).

Trends in Health and Health Services—Department of Health (2-yearly).

The Public Health (Parl. paper E. 10)—Department of Health (Annual).

A Health Service for New Zealand (Parl. paper H. 23 1974).

Chapter 6. Section 6 SOCIAL WELFARE

6 A—SOCIAL WELFARE AND SOCIAL WORK

Social services and the whole concept of state-supported or state-subsidised social welfare are continually evolving in response to the changing needs of society and the greater recognition of the responsibilities of that society towards its less-fortunate or more-vulnerable members.

The New Zealand social welfare system has grown pragmatically to meet local needs, and in the light of local experience, rather than under the influence of social or political theories. Even the 1938 Social Security Act, rightly regarded as a landmark in the history of social welfare in New Zealand, did not introduce any sweeping theoretical changes, and since then ideas have been refined and enlarged rather than radically altered.

Nowadays the Department of Social Welfare, formed in 1972 from an amalgamation of the Social Security Department and the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education, is the main Government agency in this field.

Also involved in social welfare are the Departments of Health, Education, Justice, Labour, and Maori Affairs.

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE—The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are to:

  1. Administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Children and Young Persons Act 1974; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; the Rehabilitation Act 1941; and the Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies for New Zealand.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Minister may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities in Government or voluntary organisations.

  5. Maintain close liaison with, and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among, any organisations and individuals (including departments of State and other agencies of the Crown) engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

  7. Provide administrative services to boards, councils, committees, and agencies.

The objects of the department's administrative services are to provide such administrative support, and advisory, training, and research services as are necessary for the efficient and effective administration of the department's functions. The department is a principal adviser to Government on matters of social welfare policy. It also has particular responsibilities to private and voluntary organisations. Units with special responsibilities for liaison with such organisations and for publicity and information have been established so that the public are kept abreast of developments.

The objectives of the policy for benefits and pensions are:

  1. To safeguard individuals in the community against loss of income or reduction in income brought about by age, incapacity, widowhood, orphanhood, unemployment, or other circumstances by providing income security at a level which will enable them to belong and participate in the community; and benefits for children as a contribution towards their maintenance.

  2. To provide assistance towards housing finance for families of moderate means by way of an advance of family benefit.

  3. To provide additional benefits for those whose income and financial resources are insufficient to meet their living costs and other commitments.

  4. To provide pensions on the death or disablement of members of the forces as recompense for physical loss, at a level reviewed and set each year at 1 April in accordance with movements in the Consumers Price Index; and to provide other allowances and concessions according to the nature and extent of disablement.

  5. To provide and maintain a service to ensure the rehabilitation and resettlement in civil life of former members of the forces.

The objectives of the policy for social work services are:

  1. To make better provision for the maintenance, care, and control of children who are under the protection of the State and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, maltreated, and delinquent children.

  2. To establish and maintain institutions, or arrange foster homes, for the care and control of children committed to the guardianship of the State.

  3. To promote and maintain a preventive work, social work, and general counselling service for persons and families facing social and economic difficulties.

  4. To promote and maintain an effective rehabilitation service to ensure that disabled persons are given encouragement, counselling, and assistance to restore them to a fuller and more meaningful life.

The social work services involve individual and family casework and general welfare work. Emphasis is given to the care and control of children including those with emotional or behavioural problems.

The residential programme includes the inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and the licensing and supervision of child care centres in order to ensure satisfactory standards are maintained. This division also has a responsibility for children in licensed foster homes.

Added emphasis is given in the programme to the rehabilitation of disabled persons. Co-ordination with other agencies which also have responsibilities in this work, such as the Department of Health and Department of Labour, is achieved through representation of the department on the National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, which also acts as an advisory body to the Government on rehabilitation.

MAIN FEATURES OF SOCIAL WELFARE SYSTEM—The present system cannot be characterised according to any single principle, theory, or formula. As already stated, it has evolved from changing needs and experience in dealing with them. For example, it looks like a form of community insurance, but is not financed, funded, or administered on an insurance basis. It is financed from general taxation; but a person's benefit bears no relation to his tax contribution. While basically income-tested and selective as to need within classes of benefit, it is also universally applied without regard to other income or means in 3 main cases (national superannuation, family, and medical benefits) and in the lesser miners' benefit. It transfers income from the more to the less affluent mainly on the basis of greatest help for those in greatest need. It reflects the traditional humanitarian, egalitarian, and pragmatic approach of New Zealanders and, most importantly, reflects an acceptance of community responsibility for social welfare.

The main features of the system are:

  1. Eligibility for benefits (other than emergency) is based on residence for varying qualifying periods and not on the amount of tax paid.

  2. Benefits (other than family, miners', national superannuation, and medical benefits) are subject to an income test with the amount of benefit being reduced if other income is over a prescribed level. Emergency benefits and additional benefits are subject to tests of both income and property.

  3. In paying national superannuation and family benefit without any tests of income or need it is assumed that for everybody over 60 years of age, and for all families with dependent children, a community-financed income supplement is necessary and desirable, irrespective of actual financial need or resources. Miners' benefit is not income tested, on the accepted assumption that if a person is disabled by disease arising from mining he needs to be compensated for losing income and enjoyment of life and that the income loss does not require to be established or tested.

  4. The concept of the family as the fundamental economic and social unit is recognised by the payments made in respect of the otherwise ineligible but dependent wife and children of a beneficiary; and the taking into account of the income of the husband or wife (legal or de facto) of a beneficiary when assessing the amount of those benefits subject to an income test.

  5. Contribution under a graduated income tax system and payment of benefits at a flat rate irrespective of contributions (that is, taxes paid) distinguishes the New Zealand system from many of those of other countries.

  6. The cash and medical benefits give a comprehensive coverage of need.

  7. Beneficiaries are given incentives to selfhelp and to work. From the start, amounts payable from standard benefits have been set below the average wages of low-earner groups; and small incomes, and most property, have been disregarded in assessing an individual's benefit. Conversely, national superannuation for people over 60 years, and the benefits for widows and domestic purposes beneficiaries with dependent children, or over a prescribed age, recognise these people's right to stop working if they want to.

  8. Funding is through taxation. The right to “contract out” on the grounds that the individual may not need, or qualify for, public aid is denied in the community interest, as it is with other State services such as education, defence, and police.

  9. The Social Security Commission has wide discretionary power to grant, withhold, or reduce benefits, and a general power of direction is given to the Ministers of Health and Social Welfare.

  10. With certain exceptions no person is entitled to more than one analogous benefit from either New Zealand or overseas.

  11. Standard rates with supplements, rather than differential rates according to the class of benefit, relate benefits to need rather than to the cause of need.

ADMINISTRATION—The Social Security Commission in the Department of Social Welfare administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Welfare, Part I of the Social Security Act 1964 dealing with cash benefits, while matters concerning medical, hospital, and other related benefits are administered by the Department of Health under the direction of the Minister of Health (see Section 5A).

The War Pensions Act 1954 is also administered by the Department of Social Welfare, which likewise handles ex-servicemen's rehabilitation.

Child welfare activities are governed by the Children and Young Persons Act and other legislation detailed later in this section.

FINANCIAL PROVISIONS—From 1 April 1964, when the Social Security Fund was absorbed into the Consolidated Revenue Account (now the Consolidated Account), the payment of medical benefits has been made by the Department of Health from money appropriated by Parliament for this purpose. From 1 April 1958, the cost of public hospital administration has been borne directly by general taxation; treatment in public hospitals is free. Details of medical benefits are set out in Section 5A—Health and Medical Services.

Payments—The New Zealand system has developed the following types of social welfare assistance.

Cash benefits as of right for those eligible by category, residence, and income, paid at flat standard rates (plus allowance for dependants) without regard to taxes paid.

Emergency benefits for those who need help but who are not, for any reason, eligible for standard benefits.

Additional benefit is available to beneficiaries who have limited income and assets and who pay relatively high accommodation costs.

Medical and pharmaceutical benefits for all members of the community; free public (and subsidised private) hospital care.

Universally applied benefits (with no means test) for dependent children, and for those over 60 years of age.

Particulars of payments under the Social Security Act during the last 5 financial years are contained in the following table.

Item1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80

* Expenditure on additional benefit which replaced supplementary assistance from July 1975, is included with expenditure for the related standard benefit.

National superannuation came into effect from 9 February 1977. The amount shown is for the period 9 February to 31 March 1977. Expenditure on superannuation and age benefits which were replaced by national superannuation is for the period 1 April 1976 to 8 February 1977.

Cash benefits—$(thousand)
    National superannuation114,980926,5061,162,8891,334,115
    Superannuation165,781159,432
    Age311,795326,879
    Widows34,42839,04541,94947,21853,342
    Domestic purposes48,90380,774111,793143,533169,449
    Orphans400516596692778
    Family164,695156,614183,148153,555220,854
    Invalids18,14623,13028,39233,91240,924
    Miners859711511376
    Unemployment8,49313,42919,86554,23666,077
    Sickness18,46724,41426,35230,32633,236
    Benefit on death2,5983,9543,3592,9672,919
Supplementary assistance2,045*****
Advances for repairs to homes276272273286265
Aid to families caring for disabled persons8164325614894
Employment subsidy for disabled civilians3231
Capitalisation of family benefit8,1614,7703,6747,9689,094
                Total cash benefits784,284948,4721,346,3511,638,3101,932,023
Health benefits—
    Maternity5,3085,0225,0676,1837,077
    Medical32,80633,69736,21446,19247,094
    Hospital13,01117,39818,09719,07626,726
    Pharmaceutical69,86784,85197,713113,449132,797
    Supplementary18,80520,36822,04227,02628,307
                Total medical benefits139,798161,336179,134211,926242,002

About one-half of the total expenditure on cash benefits (including supplementary assistance advances for repairs to homes, and employment subsidy for disabled civilians) is paid without an income test.

The following table summarises social welfare expenditure according to type of benefit and per head of mean population, and also relates expenditure to gross domestic product (GDP).

Year Ended 31 MarchGross Domestic ProductExpenditure*
Health BenefitsFamily BenefitsOther BenefitsTotalPer Head of Mean Population

* Excluding capitalised family benefits.

Provisional.

 $(million)$     
Amount
197510,086111.0153.2464.7728.9239.22
197611,627139.8164.7611.4915.9295.70
197713,792161.3156.6787.11,105.0354.09
197815,217179.1183.11,159.51,521.8486.37
197917,504211.9153.51,476.81,842.3588.74
198020,908242.0220.91,702.22,164.9692.82
Percentage of Expenditure to Gross Domestic Product
19751.101.524.637.23
19761.201.425.267.88
19771.171.145.718.01
19781.181.277.6210.00
19791.210.888.4410.53
19801.161.068.1410.35

Government expenditure on social services (including health and education) is shown in relation to total Government expenditure in a table in the Statistical Summary at the back of this Yearbook.

Benefits and Pensions in Force—The total number of social welfare cash benefits in force at 31 March 1980 was 964326. Particulars of the various social welfare benefits in force at 31 March for the 5 latest years were as follows:

Class of Benefit19761977197819791980

* Supplementary assistance was replaced by additional benefit from 2 July 1975. Figures are included with related benefits.

Replaced by national superannuation from 9 February 1977.

 Number in Force
National superannuation371697387439397010405834
Superannuation111738
Age188459
Widows'1672616211161031617316120
Domestic purposes2304728401314653538537040
Orphans'411420382422413
Family463006464156465485462651460897
Invalids'991710707113651227215647
Miners'4137342621
Unemployment51273651174841789420850
Sickness90778367762676577504
                Total827549903647937383949490964326

Relationship to Wages—In the following table, based on one compiled originally for the Royal Commission on Social Security 1972, standard weekly benefit rates are related to nominal award wages and average weekly earnings.

YearStandard Benefit Rate*Percentage of Nominal Award Wage§Percentage of Average Total Weekly Earningsx
UnmarriedMarriedUnmarried BenefitMarried BenefitUnmarried BenefitMarried Benefit

* Standard rate includes widows, miners, invalids, sickness, and unemployment benefits (except that a lesser rate is payable to unmarried invalids and sickness beneficiaries under 18 years and unemployment beneficiaries under 20 years)

Relates to adult males only up to and including 1977 and to all adults from 1978. It is the average of a comprehensive survey of the wages of occupational groups used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index compiled by the Department of Statistics. The average is determined after occupations are “weighted” according to their relative importance in the survey.

In the half-yearly survey, weekly wage payout and hourly earnings relate to all employees, males and females, adult and juvenile combined. Salaried executives are included but no working proprietors. Earnings include overtime, bonuses, and all allowances and special payments.

§ From 1978 onwards the all adults survey gives a slightly higher level of average wage rates than the previous survey covering adult males only.

 $     $     %%%%
197530.7551.2632.954.930.050.0
197636.2260.3634.256.931.452.3
197741.3068.8434.357.231.552.5
197846.3777.2833.5x55.8x31.652.6
197952.1386.8832.5x54.2x30.250.5
198061.48102.4632.554.130.350.4

CASH BENEFITS—The rates of benefits have been increased from time to time, mainly as a result of the increased cost of living. More recent increases for invalids', widows', and miners' benefits are shown in the following table.

Date of IncreaseAmount of Increase per Week
Married CouplesUnmarried Beneficiaries
 $     $     
27 Jul 19783.482.09
10 Jan 19794.002.40
25 Jul 19795.603.36
9 Jan 19807.824.69
23 Jul 19807.764.66
7 Jan 19817.544.52

The list below gives a summary of the weekly rates for cash benefits. The term Unmarried includes those widowed or divorced. Later rates may be included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

BenefitWeekly Rare
9 January 198023 July 19807 January 1981

National superannuation is not subject to an income test but is taxable. Rates shown are gross.

Unemployment benefits are taxable where no child supplement is being paid for dependent children. Rates shown are gross.

Invalids* and sickness* —
    Unmarried—$$$
        18 and over56.8261.4866.00
        Under 18 without dependants43.2346.7750.21
    Married—
        Husband or wife separately47.3551.2355.00
        Husband (wife included)94.70102.46110.00
Widows*56.8261.4866.00
Domestic purposes—
    Solo parent or woman alone56.8261.4866.00
    Caring for sick or infirm—
        Unmarried and 18 or over56.8261.4866.00
        Unmarried and under 1843.2346.7750.21
        Married47.3551.2355.00
Unemployment
    Unmarried person—
        Twenty years and over56.8261.4866.00
        Under 20 years without dependants43.2346.7750.21
    Married man (wife included)94.70102.46110.00
* Any of the above benefits with dependent children
    Solo parent and 1 child88.7096.46104.00
    Solo parent and 2 children92.70100.46108.00
    Increased by $208 a year ($4 p.w.) for each subsequent child
    Married couple with 1 child98.70106.46114.00
    Increased by $208 a year ($4 p.w.) for each subsequent child
Miners—
    Unmarried person56.8261.4866.00
    Married man (wife included)94.70102.46110.00
    Miner's widow55.2259.8864.38
Orphans28.1630.4532.65
Family—
    Each dependent child6.006.006.00
Additional benefit is available to beneficiaries with limited incomes and assets to assist them with accommodation costs.
Emergency Benefits—According to circumstances
National superannuation
 (26 Aug 1980)(10 Feb 1981)(24 Mar 1981)
 $     $     $     
    Married person66.7467.7372.70
    Single person80.0981.2887.24
    Married couple133.48135.46145.40

Payment Whilst in Hospital—Married couples benefit is continued at the current rate during the period of hospitalisation where one party of a married couple is admitted to hospital.

Unmarried person benefit is continued at the current rate for the first 13 weeks of hospitalisation. The benefit is then reduced to $9 a week for a further 13 weeks, but this may be increased, if necessary, to meet continuing expenses.

Entitlement to benefit following a period of 26 weeks is dependent on the beneficiary's financial and personal circumstances, his or her needs, and the capacity to appreciate and understand any payment that may be made.

In general, where the beneficiary has no income or commitment, apart from the usual expenses or comforts, the rate of benefit is $4.50 a week.

Basic Income Exemptions—The basic income exemptions at the end of 1979 were as follows:

Widows', invalids and domestic purposes benefits, $1,300 a year.

Sickness, and unemployment benefits—$25 a week (but see below regarding unemployment benefits and personal earnings).

Orphans benefit—$260 a year.

National superannuation is taxable and is paid to qualified persons, regardless of income. It the inclusion of a non-qualified spouse is sought, an income test applies. The income exemption in this case is $1,300 a year.

Family and miners benefits are paid regardless of the financial circumstances of the beneficiary.

Adjustment of Benefit for Income Above Exemption—Invalids, widows, and domestic purposes benefits are reduced by 40c for every complete $1 a year of gross income over the appropriate income exemption of $1,300 a year and up to $2,080 a year, then 80c for every $1 a year.

Sickness benefits are reduced by 8c for every 20c over $25 a week up to $40 a week, then 16c for every 20c a week of income.

The benefit to a married applicant is assessed having regard to the total income of both parties. However, benefit is paid at half the married couple rate for a maximum period of incapacity of 13 weeks, regardless of the spouse's income. Both parties must have been in full-time employment for at least 20 hours per week for a 12–month period immediately preceding the incapacity.

Unemployment benefits are reduced by 10c for every 10c of personal earnings in excess of $10 per week, the first $10 per week of any personal earnings being added to other income. The benefits are then reduced by 8c for every 20c of other income over $25 and up to $40 per week, then by 16c for every 20c of weekly income over $40.

Orphans benefits are reduced by $3 for every complete $4 a year of income over $260 a year.

National Superannuation—National superannuation, for persons aged 60 or over, replaced age and superannuation benefits from 9 February 1977. It is subject to a 10–year residence test and is taxable, but is not subject to an income test unless payment is claimed for unqualified spouse. There are no special contributions required as national superannuation is financed from ordinary government revenue.

The rates of national superannuation represent a percentage of the average ordinary-time weekly wage after tax. At the introduction of the scheme on 9 February 1977 the rate was 70 percent of the average ordinary-time weekly wage after tax and rose to 80 percent from 30 August 1978. The single rate is 60 percent of the married rate. Rates are adjusted every 6 months in line with the results of a survey carried out by the Department of Labour. The review dates for national superannuation are different from those for other social welfare benefits.

Widows' Benefits—Subject to an income qualification every widow who is the mother of one or more dependent children under 16 years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of a dependent child under 16 years of age who satisfies certain conditions is also entitled to the benefit.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' benefits in force at 31 March 1980, according to the number of dependent children. (Deserted wives are also included.)

Number of Dependent ChildrenWidows' Benefits
Nil10529
  12985
  21532
  3653
  4263
  5 or more158
                Total16120

Domestic Purposes Benefits—Persons who qualify for domestic purposes benefit are:

  1. A woman with a dependent child or children who is living apart from and has lost the support of, or is inadequately maintained by, her husband, or who is divorced from her husband, or whose husband is a prisoner;

  2. An unmarried mother of one or more dependent children;

  3. A father of one or more dependent children who has lost his wife by death, divorce, or some other cause.

  4. Women without dependent children who come within the definition of “a woman alone”, which is a woman who has never been married or who has lost the support of her husband, and who has cared for dependent children or for incapacitated relatives.

  5. Other persons qualifying for the domestic purposes benefit are those required to give full-time care and attention at home to a person who would otherwise have been admitted to hospital.

In the case of both a solo parent and a woman alone, de facto marriages are considered as marriages.

Orphans' Benefits—A benefit in respect of orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under 16 years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was ordinarily resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than 3 years preceding the date of his or her death.

The number of benefits in force at 31 March 1980 was 413 (in respect of 503 children).

Family Benefits—The rate of the benefit is $6 a week for each child, until he or she reaches 16 years, or, if a full-time school pupil, the end of the year in which 18 years is reached. The rate was increased to $6 a week from 17 October 1979.

A family benefit or portion of a family benefit may be paid in a lump sum in advance for a period not exceeding 52 weeks in respect of the first child or a child who has commenced his first year of intermediate or secondary education.

A family benefit may be paid in cash, or to the credit of a bank account of the mother. The number of family benefits being paid to bank accounts at 31 March 1980 was 359222. The total number of benefits in force at 3.1 March 1980 was 460897 covering 965520 children, compared with corresponding figures of 462651 and 983173 at 31 March 1979. At the end of the 1979 school year there were 84182 children over 16 at school in respect of whom benefits were being paid.

The average number of children in respect of whom benefits were paid was 2.09 per family at 31 March 1980.

Under the provisions of the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964, family benefits may be capitalised and paid in advance to assist parents with the erection or purchase of house properties, whether previously occupied or not, additions or alterations to existing homes, or in certain circumstances the repayment of mortgages and other obligations on family homes. In outline, the measure provides for the capitalisation of up to $3.00 of the weekly family benefit in respect of each of 1 or more children from the age of 1 year up to the age of 16 years, provided that the total of the advance or advances in the case of any one family is not less than $400 nor more than $3,000. The maximum income limit for eligibility is $125 a week for a family with 1 child, rising by $5 a week for each additional child.

Details of family benefit capitalisation in recent years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchApplications for Capitalisation ApprovedCapitalised Value of Benefits
  $(000)
197678168,161
197726634,770
197827643,673
197965917,968
198037109,094

Invalids' Benefits—An invalid's benefit is payable if a person aged 15 years or over—(a) is totally blind; or (b) is permanently and severely restricted in his capacity for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

In computing the income of any blind person no account is taken of his personal earnings. In addition, the benefit of a totally blind person may within certain limits be increased by up to 25 percent of his personal earnings. The personal earnings of a severely disabled beneficiary may be disregarded in whole or in pan in computing his benefit.

Miners' Benefits—A miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted pneumoconiosis or any other occupational disease and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, provided that compensation in respect of the same disability is not being received.

Unemployment Benefits—An applicant for unemployment benefit is required to satisfy the commission: (a) that he is unemployed; (b) that he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work; (c) that he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment.; (d) that he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months at any time. A person is not entitled to an unemployment benefit if he is a full-time student, or if he is not employed because of a strike either by him or by fellow members of his union at the same place of employment.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first 7 days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. The commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding 6 weeks, the commencement of the benefit if the applicant: (a) has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason; or (b) has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker. The benefit may be terminated it the beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit—e.g., national superannuation.

If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a spouse, an allowance may be paid in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

Benefits were granted to 87107 persons in 1978–79 and 94096 persons in 1979–80.

The following table shows the position regarding unemployment benefits and emergency unemployment benefits during the year ended 31 March 1980. Emergency benefits may be granted on grounds of hardship to persons who do not qualify for the ordinary unemployment benefit. The average duration of unemployment benefits (not including emergency benefits) which ceased during the 1979 calendar year was 14.7 weeks (14.2 weeks for men and 15.7 weeks for women).

 UnemploymentEmergency Unemployment
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Numbers obtained from a monthly count of benefits in force.
Benefits granted630373105994096210012193319
Applications declined19760898828748586397983
Benefits in force at 31 March 1980115477716192639216661587
Average number in force during year*122266811190378036591462

Sickness Benefits—A person over the age of 15 years who is incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and as a result suffers a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, may apply for a sickness benefit.

The number of persons granted sickness benefit was 33000 in 1978–79, and 31854 in 1979–80.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1979 are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit (based on a 20 percent sample of the estimated 32000 benefit which ceased).

Period on Benefit (Weeks)Number of Benefits
MalesFemalesTotal
Up to 5360019105510
5–8399023906380
9–12195015203470
13–25378045608340
26–38189013703260
39–518904601350
52–7711704301600
78–103460220680
104 and over8705401410
        Total186001340032000

Benefit on Death—As from 1 April 1975 a lump sum benefit is payable following the deaths of persons under 60* years of age, who leave dependants not entitled to lump sum payment under the Accident Compensation Act. A dependent widow or widower (including a party to a de facto relationship) will receive $1.000, and subject to a maximum of $1.500 for children, each dependent child will be paid up to $500.

Emergency Benefits—An emergency benefit may be granted on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit other than family benefit.

Additional Benefit—Additional benefit is for people whose income and cash assets are limited and who are paying accommodation costs in excess of a certain amount. The maximum amount of additional benefit is $16 a week for both married couples and single people.

Since 1973 a telephone rental concession equal to one-half of the amount of the rental may be granted to persons in receipt of invalids', widows', or related benefits. Since 1 January 1975 a concession equivalent to one-half of a television licence fee has also been available for these beneficiaries.

Disability Allowance—A disability allowance of up to $8 a week was introduced from 10 October 1975 for disabled persons receiving an income tested benefit or for persons whose income is such that they could qualify for an income tested benefit. The allowance can also be paid in respect of the disabled wife or child of such a person. The purpose of the allowance is to meet special expenses arising from the person's disability, such as transport costs, special diet, domestic help, or medicines not on free list, etc.

Handicapped Child's Allowance—From 18 October 1978 legislation provided for the payment of a nontaxable allowance of $8 a week to the parents of seriously physically or mentally handicapped children other than those already being cared for in full-time residential institutions.

Reciprocity with Australia—The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948 provided for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1 July 1949. (A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.)

For the purpose of any application for a benefit (except the New Zealand miners, orphans, or domestic purposes benefits) residence in Australia or birth in Australia is regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for invalids' or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive national superannuation unless he has attained the age of 65 years and, if under 70, he will be required to establish that he would have been able to qualify on income grounds for an Australian age pension had he remained in Australia. The act also provides that the department shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1980 comprised 611 national superannuation benefits; 34 widows' benefits; 56 invalids' benefits; 1 domestic purposes benefit ; and 16 unemployment benefits—a total of 718 compared with 702 a year earlier.

Reciprocity with United Kingdom—The Social Security (Reciprocity with United Kingdom) Act 1969 provides for reciprocity in a comprehensive range of benefits between New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The general principle of the agreement is that persons migrating from one country to the other will be taken into the social security scheme of the receiving country and paid benefits by the receiving country under the laws and conditions applicable to other residents of that country. No male person applying for national superannuation under the agreement is entitled to receive payment unless he has attained the age of 65. The qualifying age for women is 60 years.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1980 comprised 13654 national superannuation benefits; 131 widows' benefits; 2 orphans' benefits; 114 invalids' benefits; 1 sickness benefit; 4 unemployment benefits; and 2 domestic purposes benefits —a total of 13908 compared with 14053 a year earlier.

* •Reduced to 60 from 65 years of age from 1 October 1976.

These are beneficiaries who were transferred to domestic purposes benefit from age benefit on the introduction of national superannuation.

New Zealand Residents in the United Kingdom —In the United Kingdom the agreement applies to former residents of New Zealand who claim retirement pensions, widows* pensions, widowed mothers' and guardians' allowances, family allowances, sickness and unemployment benefits under the National Insurance Act.

The qualifying age for retirement pensions under the National Insurance Act is 60 years for women and 65 years for men.

It is to be noted that, although a man may have been in receipt of national superannuation when he left New Zealand, he is not entitled to retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless he is 65 years of age. Special provisions apply to married women arriving in the United Kingdom from New Zealand as far as entitlement to the United Kingdom retirement pension is concerned.

Statistics from Census of Population 1976—In addition to the traditional census question on taxable income, information was sought for the first time at the 1976 Census of Population on the type of social welfare benefits held by persons aged 15 years and over. Respondents were required to specify the nature of all cash welfare benefits or pensions received during the year ended 31 March 1976. A summary of the results is given below. The figures apply only to persons normally resident in New Zealand, i.e., temporary visitors have been excluded. Total recipients of each type of welfare benefit have been shown.

The table indicates that 39.3 percent of the population aged 15 or over—or 2 in every 5—were in receipt of at least 1 social welfare cash benefit in the year ended 31 March 1976.

Class of Benefit or PensionTotal Beneficiaries*Percentage of Total Population 15 years and overt
MaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotal

* Each beneficiary is included under every type of benefit or pension held.

Excludes cases where benefit(s) was not specified.

Includes War Veterans' Allowance.

No benefit or pension882179x435721x1317900x82.339.760.7
Family87784366044453820.839.720.5
Age706191255361961556.611.49.0
Universal superannuation51572560221075944.85.15.0
War pension2944414355437992.71.32.0
Sickness2215710312324692.10.91.5
Additional/Supplementary assistance724417429246730.71.61.1
Domestic purposes59619592201880.11.80.9
Widows' 1890418904 1.70.9
Unemployment72515488127390.70.50.6
Invalids'5130457597050.50.40.4
Other (e.g., emergency)2620496475840.20.50.3
Not specified272428295553   

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES—Friendly societies or lodges had a membership of 53329 at the end of 1978 compared with 113000 in 1938 before the introduction of social security. They provide sickness and death benefits for members. The funds of the societies (including central bodies) totalled $50.5 million as at 31 December 1978.

Specially Authorised Societies—The majority of new societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act in recent years have been specially authorised societies in the form of credit unions; the number of such societies registered is now 260 and their funds totalled $42.6 million in 1978.

Medical Care Societies—The provisions of benefits to provide part or all of the costs of medical or surgical attendance in return for voluntary contributions may be administered through a separate fund of a traditional friendly society or through a society providing only such benefits, including the costs of private hospital treatment. The latter type of society may be registered under the Friendly Societies Act 1909, but at least 2 are known not to be so registered. It is, therefore, not possible to give comprehensive statistics of either membership or funds related to such benefits. The number of individuals covered for such benefits is approximately 460000 in societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act solely for the purposes and could be in excess of this figure in respect of traditional societies.

SOCIAL WORK—The establishment of the Department of Social Welfare from 1 April 1972 resulted in a widening of the scope of social work formerly undertaken by the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education and the Social Security Department. Although much of it is still concerned with the care, protection, and control of children and young persons, it now includes counselling work with the mentally and physically disabled, solo parents and their children, and the aged. The department now maintains a team of social workers and other staff who provide a general, individual, and family welfare counselling and guidance service for all age groups as well as undertaking general field investigation and inquiry work.

Services for Community Care—Assistance is given to community organisations providing care and training in the community for the handicapped, both physically and mentally, and for socially deprived children and pregnant women.

Financial assistance is given by way of subsidy to establish and operate residential homes, day care centres, and sheltered workshops. At 1 July 1980 the range and levels of available subsidies were as follows:

  1. Socially deprived children (i) 66 2/3 percent of capital cost of establishing residential accommodation and $32.00 per week for each child in residence, (ii) 66 2/3 percent of capital cost of establishing day care centres and $13.50 per week per child attending.

  2. Mentally handicapped persons: $7.00 per day for each child in residence.

  3. Physically and/or mentally handicapped persons: 80 percent of capital cost of establishing day care, sheltered workshop, and training facilities and 75 percent of cost of staff salaries.

  4. Field services: Annual grants to organisations providing field services, particularly for preventive work with children at risk.

Other assistance to organisations in this field include:

  1. An advisory service covering a wide range of activities from forward planning to details of administration and design;

  2. The engagement of Ministry of Works and Development in the search for, inspection of, and purchasing of suitable properties, on behalf of any organisation wishing to establish a subsidisable social welfare facility.

Standards of care and training are set by regulations, requiring residential and day care centres to be registered, and by periodic inspection to ensure that the standards are being maintained.

Social Work with Children and Young Persons—Besides clerical officers, social work services involve 563 social workers and 560 institutional workers. Casework duties include preventive work; investigations and reporting for the Children's and Young Persons Courts; supervision of children in their own homes; foster home, institution, and work placement; adoption and ex-nuptial birth inquiry work; the licensing of foster parents defined in the Act; reporting to courts on matrimonial proceedings affecting custody of children; registration of child care centres; inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and examination of requests made by them for financial subsidies; and the oversight of immigrant and refugee children. Social workers receive assistance from about 1000 social welfare volunteers who are members of the community. These people give their time and talent to receive brief training and to become involved, under the close supervision of the department, in giving support and assistance to individuals or families encountering difficulties.

Institutional care facilities include long-term training centres for difficult and delinquent children, short-term facilities providing classification, emergency, and temporary care for both infants and older children, and family homes which provide care for children of all ages either on a short-term or long-term basis.

Social workers undertake a wide variety of miscellaneous investigations and inquiries concerning the welfare of children. Cases may be referred by neighbours, police, teachers, employers, doctors, solicitors, etc., or by parents themselves who are seeking advice and guidance. Some of these cases will respond quickly to help. Others may need preventive oversight and guidance over several months or even 2 or 3 years. Financial help can be given in special cases. In a relatively small number of cases preventive help is not sufficient and court action is the outcome of inquiries.

Social workers, on receiving from the registrars notifications of ex-nuptial births, make confidential inquiries and assist the mother as necessary in making provision for her child. From figures in the Births section of this Yearbook, it will be seen that about 82 percent of children born ex-nuptially remain with their mothers, whether or not she is living with the father, and only 9 percent are made available for adoption. Placements in adoption homes are made by social workers for those children (about three-fifths) for whom placements have not been made by private persons and other organisations. The smaller proportion of children being offered for adoption is thought to reflect the beginnings of a changing pattern in society, with an increase both in de facto liaisons and in the proportion of mothers wanting to undertake the sole care of a child.

Under the Adoption Act 1955 a social worker must give prior approval to the placement for adoption of a child or young person under 20 years of age, or alternatively, the applicants must apply for an interim order of adoption from the court. The court is required to obtain a social worker's report on such a placement before granting an order. A waiting period of at least 6 months is normally required, during which the placement is supervised by a social worker, before a final order can be made.

Any person who is not a close relative and who undertakes to care for a child under the age of 6 years apart from its mother for a period of more than 28 consecutive days for payment or reward must have her home licensed by a social worker. At 31 December 1979 social workers were visiting 83 children so placed.

Inspecting children's homes operated by private organisations and administering schemes of Government financial assistance to these homes is another important social welfare function. Financial assistance is given by payments of $32.00 per week for each child in care and subsidies of up to 66 2/3 percent on expenditure for extension or replacement of buildings or additions to facilities. A similar capital subsidy is available for private organisations to help in providing accommodation for unmarried mothers and their children.

Regulations for the registration and licensing of child care centres (e.g., day nurseries, creches, etc.), have been in force since 1961.

The Department of Social Welfare has built up a considerable body of knowledge on new trends and methods in the fields of both residential and day care for children. As a result it has become an important point of reference for information and advice.

Children and Young Persons Proceedings—The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, which came into effect on 1 April 1975, introduced substantial changes in the procedures under which the department carries out its functions in relation to juvenile offending and other problems concerning the welfare of children.

The main thrust of the Act was to extend the provisions for young offenders to be dealt with through care, protection, and control proceedings rather than through criminal prosecutions and to provide for such proceedings to be dealt with by newly-created Children's Boards rather than by courts.

Prior to the coming into force of this Act, children or young persons coming to the notice of the police for offending were dealt with either by the Youth Aid section of the New Zealand Police or by prosecution in the Children's Court. Children and young persons considered to be in need of care, protection, or control were generally dealt with by way of complaint to the Children's Court under the provisions of the Child Welfare Act 1925.

Under the provisions of the Children and Young Persons Act 1974, a legal distinction is made between children (defined in the Act as persons under the age of 14 years) and young persons (defined as persons aged 14 years but less than 17 years).

Where a young person comes to notice for offending, the matter may be dealt with by the Youth Aid section of the New Zealand Police by way of consultation between the police and a social worker.

Children's Boards deal with children coming to official notice either for offending or because they are considered to be in need of care, protection, or control.

The Youth Aid section and the children's boards can deal with cases coming to their attention in several ways. These include warnings by the board or Youth Aid section, oversight by a social worker or Youth Aid officer, counselling of the child or young person, and counselling of the parents or guardian.

Both the Children's Boards and the Youth Aid section have the option of referring any matter to a Children's and Young Persons Court.

Children's and Young Persons Courts—The Children's and Young Persons Courts were established by the Children and Young Persons Act 1974 and began operation on 1 April 1975. Figures in the following table are for the year ended 31 December 1979.

Children's and Young Persons CourtsNumber of Appearances
Appearances involving complaint under Children and Young Persons Act 19742760
Appearances involving charges for offences11391
                Total appearances14151

Total Cases Coming to Notice—The table below gives total numbers of cases coming to official notice each year during the period 1975 to 1979.

YearYouth Aid Cases Not Referred to Court or Children's BoardsChildren's Board Cases Not Referred to CourtCourt AppearancesTotal NumberPercentage Increase on Previous Year
197512679225112760276907.0
1976529330721288921254−23.2
1977518731571288621230−0.1
1978378327811327619840−6.5
1979262827211415119500−1.7

The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, by making legislative provision for the Youth Aid scheme and by creating the Children's Boards, has increased the range of formal provisions by which cases can be resolved without court action. It might be expected, therefore, that virtually all disposals not involving court action will now appear in the statistics while in the past there were undoubtedly a number of informal disposals which escaped the statistical net. Thus, even in the absence of any increase in the number of cases being dealt with, the new procedures might be expected to produce an increase in the statistics for disposals not involving the courts. This in fact is what is observed; while the number of court appearances remains essentially static at around 13000 to 14000, the number of non-court disposals at first increased, going from 12588 in 1974 to 14930 in 1975. The latest figures, however, show a sharp decline, especially in Youth Aid cases. Non-court disposals in 1979 totalled 5349, approaching a third of the 1975 figure.

Appearances finalised in the Children's and Young Persons Court up to 31 December 1979 numbered 14151.

Decisions of the Children's and Young Persons Court during 1979 are summarised in the following table.

DecisionNumber
Discharged, or admonished and discharged2593
Admonished with some other penalty (fine, costs, restitution, forfeiture of driving licence, etc.)3398
Admonished and returned to the care of Director-General327
Placed under supervision of a social worker3825
Placed under guardianship of Director-General1003
Referred to District Court or High Court and given an adult sentence2045
Other order made960
                Total14151

It can be seen from the table that the Children's and Young Persons Court resulted in a total of 1003 children and young persons being placed under the guardianship of the Director-General during 1979. The corresponding figure for 1978 was 1030. A further 3825 children and young persons were placed under the supervision of a social worker. This compares with 3719 in 1978.

State Wards—State wards are children and young persons who, for a variety of reasons, have been subject to an order made by the Children's and Young Persons Court placing them under the guardianship of the Director-General of Social Welfare. The events leading to the making of such orders are as diverse as the people concerned, but they can be roughly divided into 2 broad categories. The first is parental inability or failure to provide a stable, permanent home or to meet a particular child's special needs. This would include cases of neglect, ill-treatment, and desertion as well as serious family problems beyond parent's control.

The second category is that of seriously disturbed or anti-social behaviour on the part of children and young persons which is beyond the capacity of their parents to amend or control.

The placement and oversight of wards is a major responsibility of social workers acting on behalf of the Director-General, and it is no light task. In addition to children placed under the Director-General's guardianship or in his temporary custody by court order, there are increasing numbers coming into care by way of voluntary agreement with parents. Such children are treated in almost every way as though they were wards. Parents seeking the department's help in this way do so for a variety of reasons, such as their own serious ill health, family break-up, and other pressures within the family or their desire to seek special care for a disturbed or difficult youngster. In 1979 there were 5973 state wards and 611 children in care under voluntary agreements.

At 31 December 1979 a total of 7031 children and young persons were under the care and control of the department. The reasons for their being placed were as follows:

Placed under guardianship of the Director-General by court order5973
Under control by virtue of an agreement with parents611
On court remand, postponement, warrant, etc.447
          Total7031

Children and young persons may come into care at any time from soon after birth to the age of 16 years. (Guardianship orders under the Children and Young Persons Act 1974 are not made in respect of young people over the age of 17 years.) Wards are automatically discharged at the age of 20 years but in practice, and depending on their circumstances, most are discharged with the approval of the Director-General at a much earlier age. Many return, after a period away from home, to the care of parents or members of their extended family and are discharged as soon as the Director-General is assured that they are no longer in need of supervision.

The majority of wards are cared for in the community and in 1979, 41 percent were living in foster homes, departmental family homes, or in the homes of relatives and friends. Almost 14 percent were with their own parents as a trial to possible discharge. Of the remainder, 10 percent were at work.

A proportion of wards, especially those in older age groups, come into care because of anti-social, even criminal, behaviour. With help and guidance, some of these settle in the community but some have to be admitted to the department's various training institutions, usually after assessment and trial in boys' and girls' homes. A proportion go on to institutions under the control of the Department of Justice. In all, 20 percent of the wards in care are in institutions.

Details of children and young persons under the control and supervision of the department at 31 December 1979 are shown in the following table.

Placement of ChildrenNumberPercentage
In foster homes289141.1
Placed with parents for trial period96713.8
Living with and supported by relatives1842.6
In employment (excluding those with relatives, etc.)6879.8
In residential colleges1722.4
Receiving tertiary education50.1
In Government short-stay homes4075.8
In Government family homes77811.1
In private institutions4276.1
In Department of Education special schools330.5
In hospitals220.3
In psychiatric hospitals450.6
On probation390.6
In Social Welfare and Department of Justice residential training centres3565.0
Absent without leave160.2
In police custody2
                Total7031100.0

COMMUNITY SERVICE FOR MAORI PEOPLE AND PACIFIC ISLAND POLYNESIANS—The legislative basis of the Maori community services programme is the Maori Community Development Act 1962 and the aim is the social and economic advancement and the promotion and maintenance of the health and general well-being of the Maori community and the facilitation of full integration of the Maori race into the social and economic life of the country. An important feature of the programme is that it does not seek to impose standards from without; rather, it calls upon the Maori and Pacific Island people to exercise the control and direction of their own communities in the essentials of good citizenship and civic responsibility.

The Maori organisations consist of 2 statutory groups and various voluntary groups. The statutory groups are:

  1. Maori associations comprising the New Zealand Maori Council, the district Maori councils, Maori executive committees, and the Maori committees. All are democratically elected and work independently of the department.

  2. The Maori Affairs Department, which works closely with all Maori groups as it realises that its main objectives cannot be achieved without full acceptance and participation by the people themselves.

The Maori Affairs Department, through the activities of its community services division in particular, collaborates with and gives Maori associations and other groups such assistance and advice as may be necessary or helpful so that the members themselves may find and apply their own solutions to their problems and develop and achieve the utmost satisfaction from their own culture. The department also collaborates with appropriate social welfare agencies, State and voluntary, in helping individuals and families who are experiencing difficulties in adapting themselves to their social and economic environment, accepting the full responsibility where a need is not being met. The department actively encourages these State and voluntary organisations to understand and to communicate successfully with the Maori so that they can work more effectively with the Maori people.

The Maori Affairs Department, again primarily through its community services division, assists Pacific Islanders of New Zealand nationality to adjust to the New Zealand situation and provides advisory services to individuals or groups facing difficulties.

The primary functions of the New Zealand Maori Council are to encourage Maoris as individuals and in groups to take the initiative in matters affecting their own welfare and that of their kinsfolk, and to be a forum of discussion in which they can crystallise their ideas and gain the co-operation of others in actively pursuing mutually agreed objectives and eventually achieving progressive improvement in the various spheres of welfare. By its own request it is charged with the duty of maintaining and promoting harmony between Maori and non-Maori.

Maori wardens carry out special functions. They are appointed by the Minister at the initiative of Maori committees to whom they are responsible. Their function is to assist in the maintenance of order and in stamping out mischief before it becomes crime. Wardens do not usurp the duties of the police but are an influence among the people in maintaining law and order.

The Maori Women's Welfare League was formed in 1951 and has branches throughout the country. Its membership approximates 3000. Special tribal groups, social, sports, and cultural clubs, church groups, and women's organisations are some of the many other groups which have their own spheres of action promoting and furthering the physical, social, spiritual, and moral well-being of the people.

The primary function of the Maori Women's Welfare League is to educate the mothers of the race to an appreciation of higher standards of attainment on the home front. It also interests itself actively in education, particularly at the pre-school level.

The Act provides for subsidies to be paid on moneys raised by Maori people through their associations for the promotion of community services.

Maori and Pacific Island community officers are intended to carry out quite a different range of functions from those of other social workers. They are not intended to replace child welfare officers, probation officers, or truant officers. Although they are available when other social workers encounter problems which are peculiarly Maori, their primary functions is to work with groups rather than individuals. For example, it is not strictly a Maori community officer's duty to deal with a' Maori child playing truant from school, but if truancy is a common problem amongst Maori students in any locality, it is the community officer's duty to hold discussions with parents and try to convince them of the importance of ensuring that their children attend school regularly. A great deal of time of the community services staff is occupied in informing Maori and Island parents of vocational opportunities open to their children, in recruiting and organising vocational training groups for school leavers, stimulating the formation of play centres and other pre-school groups, and in dealing with youth problems in the cities. The whole emphasis is on youth and community development and the revitalisation of the family unit.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Other publications dealing with social welfare include the following:

Report of the Department of Social Welfare (Parl. paper E. 12)—(Annual).

The Public Health (Parl. paper E. 10)—Department of Health (Annual).

Accommodation and Service Needs of the Elderly—Department of Health (1976).

Home Help Services in New Zealand—Department of Health (1978).

The Welfare State?—Social Policy in the 1980s—New Zealand Planning Council (1979).

Family Statistics in New Zealand—Department of Statistics (1978).

Survey of Persons Aged 65 Years and Over, 1973–74–Departments of Social Welfare and Statistics.

Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 6—New Zealand Children and Young Persons Court Statistics—Department of Statistics (1979).

Justice Statistics—Department of Statistics (Annual).

Social Trends in New Zealand—Department of Statistics (1977).

Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 12 New Zealand Children 1979—Department of Statistics (1979).

The Prediction of Juvenile Offending: A New Zealand Study—Joint Committee on Young Offenders.

Trends in Health and Health Services—Department of Health.

Report of the Registrar of Friendly Societies (Parl. paper B. 18).

Report of the Department of Maori Affairs (Parl. paper E. 13).

6 B—WAR PENSIONS AND REHABILITATION

The war pensions programme is largely the outcome of New Zealand participation in two World Wars in which large numbers of citizens served as members of the forces. It applies also to service in Korea, South-east Asia, and in any emergency, including obligations undertaken under the charter of United Nations and service with the Regular Force prior to 1 April 1974.

The war pensions scheme has developed from one which initially gave limited compensation for those returned from active service to one of comprehensive coverage for ex-servicemen who are disabled or incapacitated at any time of their lives as a result of their service, and for their dependants and also for the dependants of those who have died as a result of service.

The war pensions legislation is designed to provide (a) basic pensions to compensate for disablement or death, which provide for physical loss and are therefore compensatory in character, and (b) supplementary pensions, in appropriate cases, to meet loss of income. The latter depend on the means of the pensioner and are economic in character, acting as income maintenance and being therefore similar to social security benefits.

ADMINISTRATION—For many years social security monetary benefits and war pensions have been administered by the same department.

The authority for paying war pensions is vested in the War Pensions Board, an independent body appointed by the Minister in Charge of War Pensions, with a chairman, a medical member, and a representative of the members of the forces appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Returned Services Association. The administration of the War Pensions Act is, however, the responsibility of the Secretary for War Pensions who acts under the general direction and control of the Minister.

It is laid down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted than or within the first 2 months of service. This presumption does not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The boards are not bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

RATES AND ALLOWANCES—The list below summarises the rates of war pensions and allowances. The pensions for war disablement and war widows are now adjusted annually on a cost of living basis.

PensionWeekly Rate
9 January 198023 July 19807 January 1981

* Adjusted annually at 1 April in relation to movements in the consumers price index.

Subject to means test on income.

 $     $     $     
Disablement pension*
    Total disablement37.3544.2244.22
    Special additional pension for blindness or serious disablement22.4526.5426.54
Economic pension
    Unmarried person56.8261.4866.00
    Married person47.3551.2355.00
Wife's pension47.3551.2355.00
War widow's pension—
    Basic pension*27.5532.6232.62
    Economic pension56.8261.4866.00
    Mother's allowance—
        One dependent child31.8834.9838.00
        Two dependent children35.8838.9842.00
            Increased by $4.00 a week for each subsequent child
Orphan's pension29.2031.5033.70
Child's pension6.006.006.00
Widowed mother's pension (totally dependent)—
    Basic pension*27.5532.6232.62
    Economic pension56.2261.4866.00
Widowed mother's pension (partly dependent)—
    Basic pension*4.004.004.00
    Economic pension54.5759.23 
War service pension and war veteran's allowance
    Unmarried56.8261.4866.00
    Married male47.3551.2355.00
    Married female47.3551.2355.00
    Age supplement (each)1.501.501.50
    Gratuity (veteran's widow)84.3794.1098.62
Dependent children (replacing the rates shown where there are dependent children)
    Solo parent and one child88.7096.46104.00
    Solo parent and two children92.70100.46108.00
            Increased by $4.00 a week for each subsequent child
    Married couple and one child98.70106.46114.00
    Increased by $4.00 a week for each subsequent child

Economic pensions, war service pensions, and war veterans' allowances are subject to a means test on income and are reducible if income from other sources exceeds $25 a week or $1,300 a year. In the computation of a wife's pension, the income of the husband only is taken into account.

Travel grants and other concessions may be made to severely disabled persons.

The social security legislation permits basic war disablement and war widows' pensions to be paid concurrently with any social security benefit and to be entirely disregarded for income tests.

Pensions for Dependants—From 1 April 1971 wives' pensions have not been payable in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 unless such pension was already payable at that date. From 1 April 1971 the wife of a member of the forces pensioned for total blindness in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 may receive a war service pension but not an age supplement. In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family.

Economic Pensions—An “economic pension” is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension a War Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property, the cost of living, and other relevant matters.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disablement do not receive economic pensions.

Servicemen pensioned in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 have not, from 1 April 1971, been eligible to receive an economic pension unless already in receipt of an economic pension at that date. At 31 March 1980 there were 2926 economic pensions in force.

War Veterans' Allowances—These make provision on economic grounds for ex-servicemen, mainly of the First World War, who have become unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical incapacity. At 31 March 1980 there were 3402 allowances in force.

War Service Pensions—From 1 April 1971 the war service pension is payable on economic grounds in respect of overseas service in the Second World War or any subsequent war or emergency in which members of the New Zealand forces have served. Payable subject to an income test, the pension is designed for disabled or prematurely retired ex-servicemen who saw service overseas after 3 September 1939. Ex-servicemen of other Commonwealth countries may also qualify for the pension.

An applicant must also fulfil one of the following conditions: (a) be in receipt of a war disablement pension of not less than 70 percent of the maximum pension payable for total disablement; or, (b) being in receipt of a war disablement pension of less than 70 percent satisfy the War Pensions Board he is unable by reason of physical or mental infirmity to undertake permanent employment or (c) not being in receipt of a disablement pension and not having attained the age of 65 years, satisfy the War Pensions Board he is unable by reason of physical or mental infirmity to undertake permanent employment.

There are residential qualifications of 5 years for an ex-member of New Zealand forces, or an ex-member of other Commonwealth forces, who was a bona fide resident of New Zealand at the commencement of the war or emergency in which he served, and 20 years for other applicants.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pension in determining the amount of the basic war service pension. A war service pension cannot be paid concurrently with a social security benefit other than a family benefit.

The war service pension will ultimately be the only war pension paid for economic reasons. The rates and income exemption for this pension are similar to social security benefits and, by agreement with the War Pensions Board, the same general rules of treatment of income and assets are applied. In most respects, therefore, the war service pension is similar to its civilian counterparts, the sickness or invalids' benefit as appropriate.

Where any war service pensioner and/or his wife has attained the age of 65 years, an age supplement of a maximum of $78 a year each is added to the basic war service pension. At 31 March 1980 there were 5267 war service pensions in force.

EMERGENCY RESERVE CORPS PENSIONS—These pensions are payable where death or disablement was suffered by a member of the Emergency Reserve Corps in the course of service (including training), or was directly attributable to such service.

MERCANTILE MARINE PENSIONS—Pensions and allowances are paid in respect of death or disablement of members of the mercantile marine which are directly attributable to the Second World War.

ADDITIONAL BENEFIT—Additional benefit, which replaced supplementary assistance from 2 July 1975, is available to recipients of income-tested pensions and allowances, on a similar basis to social security additional benefit. At 31 March 1980, 3047 additional benefits were being paid to recipients of war pensions.

WAR BURSARIES—Bursaries for educational purposes are available to children of ex-servicemen in receipt of war service pension or 70 percent disablement pension and of deceased ex-servicemen in respect of whose deaths war pensions are paid.

During the year ended 31 March 1980,618 bursaries were granted, expenditure being $120,000 for the year.

WAR PENSIONS MEDICAL RESEARCH TRUST BOARD—When a pensioner dies, any unpaid pension money not paid to dependants in the normal way may be paid to the War Pensions Medical Research Trust Fund for research into mental disorders or other fields of medical research beneficial to former members of the forces. This Medical Research Trust Fund is administered by a trust board which ensures that the money is applied to research beneficial to former members of the forces.

STATISTICAL REVIEW OF WAR PENSIONS, ALLOWANCES, ETC.—During the year ended 31 March 1980 the department dealt with 3206 applications for war pensions. Of these; 2723 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, war veterans' allowances, war service pensions, and pensions in respect of peacetime forces. The total for the previous year was 3887. Of these, 2948 were in respect of the applicant's own disability.

The number of appeals to the War Pension Appeal Board dealt with in 1979–80 was 268, of which 142 were upheld.

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force, except peacetime forces and war service pensions, at the end of March in each year and the expenditure during the years given.

Year Ended 31 MarchFirst World War (1914–18)Second World War (1939–45)K ForceWar VeteransSouth African WarMercantile MarineEmergency Reserve CorpsTotal
Number in Force
19784362217772665788119432217
19793916218512794703119430773
1980356022069274387420429801
Expenditure $(000)
19788,80638,65418619,778429867,465
19799,49846,12924019,8784381475,801
19809,20247,07829816,957401473,589

The foregoing figures of expenditure include the following:

  1. Travelling allowances of $5.33 a week, paid to 563 pensioners at 31 March 1980

  2. Clothing allowances, of which 950 were being paid at 31 March 1980

  3. Gallantry awards, of which 161 were being paid at 31 March 1980.

The following are not included.

  1. Costs of certain medical treatment not available under social security, amounting to $259,793 in 1979–80

  2. Railway and bus concessions to pensioners with severe disablement and locomotive disabilities, costing $47,196 in 1979–80

  3. Funeral grants, which cost $188,167 in 1979–80.

Administration costs in connection with war pensions and allowances are included in the administration costs of the Department of Social Welfare which are given Section 6A.

The number of pensions paid in respect of all wars and types of service are shown by class in the following table.

At 31st MarchDisablement PensionsDependants of Disabled Ex-membersOn Account of DeathTotal
WidowsParents and Other Dependants
First World War, 1914–18
1978185688241534362
1979156062229133916
1980133648217333560
Second World War, 1939–45
197818909209253412521777
197918934179262311521851
19801914815326719722069
K Force
1978258341266
1979270342279
1980267232274
Vietnam Force
197819712200
197922112224
198024312246
Peacetime Forces
19781233463101310
19791288362111364
19801372359101444
Other
197841111154
197944111157
198045111158

Resettlement assistance is available to men who have served in South-east Asia for 6 months prior to 1 April 1972 and for 12 months after that date.

Application for housing loans, which attract a 3 percent concession rate of interest, must be lodged within 5 years from the date of return to New Zealand after qualifying service or 2 years after discharge from the forces whichever is the later. Application for interest-free furniture loans must be lodged within 5 years of date of return to New Zealand after qualifying service. These loans are now administered by the Housing Corporation of New Zealand.

Applications for subsidised trade training and education assistance must be lodged within 2 years of return to New Zealand. Limited preferences in farm ballots are also available to ex-servicemen with a farming background.

Special provisions exist to ensure that rehabilitation assistance will continue to be available to all ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be interrupted or become necessary as a result of disability arising from service.

Expenditure—Rehabilitation expenditure for the 3 latest years ended 31 March was as follows:

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197819791980
 $(thousand)
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowance81011
Trade training—
    Salary subsidy844
    Training of blinded ex-servicemen283040
                Total444455

Rehabilitation loan assistance, now administered by the Housing Corporation, is shown in the following table.

Purpose of LoanYear Ended 31 March
19791980
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
Housing4026.883746.20
Furniture750.04990.08
                Total4776.924736.28

Further information on war pensions will be found in the annual report of the Department of Social Welfare (Parl. paper E. 12), and on rehabilitation loans in the annual report of the Housing Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 13).

6 C—SUPERANNUATION AND PROVIDENT FUNDS

GENERAL—For many years the Government, local authorities, and increasing numbers of private employers have operated superannuation schemes to enable employees to make provision for their retirement in addition to the benefits provided under national schemes.

The Government Superannuation Fund in its present form was established on 1 April 1948, amalgamating funds which had been in existence since the early 1900s. Its revenues consist of members' contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated Account, trading departments, and other bodies, and interest earned on investments. The National Provident Fund was established on 1 March 1911, with the object of providing a superannuation scheme for the general public. It also provides superannuation for the employees of local authorities and other approved bodies, and maintains an investment pool in which local bodies invest their surplus funds and which provides an important source of their loan finance.

A scheme under which National Superannuation is payable to all New Zealanders over 60 years of age who meet a 10-year residential qualification was introduced from 9 February 1977. More details of this scheme are given in Section 6A—Social Welfare and Social Work.

GOVERNMENT SUPERANNUATION FUND—The Government Superannuation Fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as statutory chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury as deputy chairman, the Chairman of the State Services Commission, the General Manager of Railways, the Directors-General of Education and the Post Office, the Commissioner of Police, and 5 members appointed on the nomination of various employee organisations and one on the nomination of the Minister of Defence.

Membership—All State employees may belong to the fund and this covers those in departments under the control of the State Services Commission, the Education Service, the New Zealand Railways, and the Post Office. Membership is compulsory for permanent members of the armed forces, the Police, the Prison Service, judges of the High Court, Maori Land Court judges, District Court judges, members of Parliament, and members of the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau public services. In addition, from 1 January 1964 membership has been compulsory for permanent employees of the Government from age 17 to age 24 years.

Contributions—Deductions are made from basic salary on a sliding scale according to the age from which membership of the fund dates. These are at the rate of 6 percent for those joining when below 30 years of age, increasing by 1 percent steps each succeeding 5 years of age until a maximum rate of 11 percent is payable from the age of 50 years. From 1975 a flat rate contribution of 6 percent has been available for older members as an alternative to the standard rates. The benefit at retirement is proportionately reduced for these contributors.

Credit may be purchased in certain circumstances for periods of Government service not currently ranking and for full-time study or periods of training outside Government service and which resulted in a qualification being gained. Certain intervals in Government service may also be purchased for superannuation purposes. The costs of buying credit for these periods varies according to age and salary at the time of purchase.

Benefits—The principal objective of the fund is the payment of an allowance on retirement, which is usually between the ages of 60 and 65 years, but may be earlier with the consent of a contributor's controlling authority and of the board where retirement is because of medical unfitness for further duty. Standard retiring allowances are calculated at one one-hundred-and-twentieth of the average of a contributor's salary over the final 5 years of service, for each year of contributory service, plus an equal amount for the first 40 years of service. Up to a quarter of the annual allowance may be surrendered on retirement in return for a cash payment of 9 times the amount commuted.

On death before or after retirement an allowance at the rate of half the allowance a contributor would have received had retirement occurred on the date of death, or half the allowance actually being paid at the time of death, is payable to any surviving spouse, for life or until remarriage. The surviving spouse, if under the age of 61, may also surrender up to one-quarter of the annuity for a cash payment. An allowance of $78 a year is paid for children below 16 years of age (or 18 years where schooling is extended) or possibly to a higher age in the case of inability to earn a living because of physical or mental reasons.

All allowances are paid in advance in instalments each 28 days and no recovery is made where an entitlement ceased during a benefit period.

A cost-of-living adjustment scheme was introduced in 1969 providing for allowances to be increased relative to movements in the Consumers Price Index. Those already retired at the time the scheme was introduced receive an ex gratia adjustment based on 70 percent of price movements. Those who were already contributors in 1969 receive the basic 70 percent adjustment plus the proportion of the remaining 30 percent that the period paying the extra contributions bears to their total superannuation service. The adjustments reflect price rises that occur from the age of 60 years for superannuitants and the age of 55 years for widows. A recent variation to this scheme provides for adjustments to be made before the age of 60 if the retired contributor has completed 40 years actual or notional service.

Special Conditions—Armed forces contributors may qualify for a retiring allowance after completing their engagements with not less than 20 years' service. A special variation of the cost-of-living adjustment scheme allows this group to receive adjustments following the fifth anniversary of their retirement. The cost is 1 percent more than that required under the main scheme.

Female contributors who were employed before the introduction of equal pay for women in the State Services in 1962 still retain some special conditions related to the former entitlement of women to retire on completion of 30 years' service or on reaching age 55 years, but those joining the fund since 1962 have the same conditions as males.

The Government Superannuation Fund Amendment Act 1980 provides a new single superannuation scheme for all members of the Judiciary and the Solicitor-General. This replaces the two schemes previously provided under the Act, one for District Court Judges, Maori Land Court Judges, and the Solicitor General; and one for High Court, Compensation Court, and Arbitration Court Judges. The new scheme is compulsory with contributions ranging from 7 to 8 percent of salary, dependant upon age at appointment. The normal retirement age will be 68, though there are provisions for early retirement. The maximum retiring allowance payable is two-thirds of the final salary and a refund of contributions may be taken in lieu of a pension. The standard provision for spouses and children apply.

Members of Parliament contribute at the rate of 11 percent of an ordinary member's salary for an allowance based on one thirty-second of an ordinary member's salary at the point of retirement for each year of service, up to two-thirds after approximately 21 years' service. They qualify for an allowance from 50 years of age on retiring from Parliament after not less than 9 years' service or not less than 8 years if this covers the duration of at least 3 sessions. The standard provisions for spouses and children apply.

Police and Prison Service contributors are obliged to retire at 60 years of age and to enable older entrants to attain additional superannuation service their service is counted as 1 year and one-seventh if they join the fund after the age of 25 years. A lesser fraction is added for those joining between 20 and 24 years of age. Increased rates of contributions are payable by those whose service is scaled up. The standard benefits apply.

Statistics—As at 31 March 1980 there were 127524 contributors to the Government Superannuation Fund. They paid $86,336,221 into the fund during the year. At 31 March 1980 there were 33958 superannuitants who were entitled to $102,390,598 a year, made up as follows:

Qualifications for AllowanceMalesFemalesTotalAnnual Allowances
  Number $(000)
Retired for age or length of service1892934322236185,255
Medically unfit89319910922,767
Total retiring allowances1982236312345388,022
Widows 9448944814,285
Children547510105782
        Total allowances203691358933958102,390

Total assets at 31 March 1980, which amounted to $605,269,181, included investments in Government stock, $588,687,600.

The average effective interest earning of the fund for the year ended 31 March 1980 was 7.42 percent.

As at 31 March 1980, contributors to the Government Superannuation Fund were distributed as follows:

Branch of ServiceNumberPercentage of Total
Armed Services1278810.03
Education Service3235925.37
Police54034.24
Post Office2042516.02
N.Z. Railways114678.99
Public Service4132332.40
Other employers37592.95
        Total127524100.00

The following table gives a summary of financial statistics, together with the numbers of contributors, for the latest available 3 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of ContributorsAnnual Contributions*Interest Received From InvestmentsSubsidy From Government Trading Departments and OthersAnnual Value of AllowancesAccumulated Fund at 31 March

* Includes transfers from National Provident Fund.

Based on retiring and other allowances at end of year. Actual total paid during year ended 31 March 1980 was $99,475,001, plus $20,729,731 for retiring allowances capitalised.

    $(thousand)  
197812964366,12725,63572,82777,294454,401x
197912641777,61331,95690,94690,095529,230x
198012752486,33640,48093,563102,390602,499

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND—The National Provident Fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as statutory chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and up to three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The fund now provides service? in a number of separate areas:

  1. Public Fund—The 2 oldest pension schemes have catered for the general public on an individual basis, sometimes with encouragement from their employer or as members of a group.

  2. Local Authorities Superannuation—Three schemes cover employees of all local bodies, quasi-government and other approved organisations, firemen, and nurses.

  3. National Superannuation Schemes—Two employer-subsidised schemes are available, one for farm employees and the other for any employees of companies, firms, Government departments, or local authorities willing to become contributing employers. A further scheme is available for the self-employed.

  4. Local Authorities Investment Pool—This ancillary activity enables local authorities to invest surplus funds at interest. The State guarantees the benefits payable under all the schemes and meets all administration expenses. There are some elements of State subsidy in the public fund and local authority schemes, and a guarantee of minimum interest earnings in the national schemes.

Public Fund—Membership was available to any resident of New Zealand over the age of 15 years.

The first scheme of the fund, the Level Premium Scheme, available since 1911 and now closed to new members, enables contributors to purchase a pre-determined weekly pension from age 60 years by paying fixed regular contributions according to age on joining. For the first $20 per week a State subsidy of 25 percent is built into the contribution rates and after 5 years' membership contributors qualify for incapacity, widows', and dependent children's allowances.

The Annual Single Premium Scheme, which has been available to individuals and the self-employed since 1958, accepts contributions of any amount from members at any time. The contributions paid during each year are applied at the end of that year towards the purchase of a pension from age 60 years according to the contributor's then age. Only the first $1,000 contributed each year attracts State subsidy and this ceases once the aggregate pension purchased reaches $20 per week. There is a widow's benefit.

These 2 schemes, along with the Post 60 Scheme introduced in 1965, are now being phased out in favour of the Cash Accumulation Scheme introduced in 1975.

Cash Accumulation Scheme—This scheme is being very widely used by individuals. It enables them to pay when and whatever amount of contribution they so desire, and also allows them to choose their own date of retirement on superannuation. It is based on a cash accumulation principle and is highly regarded as the ultimate retirement benefit since it reflects the significance of changing interest rates and the impact of inflation. This scheme now provides the vehicle for superannuation previously provided by the Annual Single Premium, Level Premium, and Post 60 Schemes.

During 1978–79 the scheme was amended to allow a contributor to nominate a beneficiary, in the event of his or her death before becoming entitled to receive a pension. Belonging as they do to a scheme on a personal, rather than a group employee basis, it should be possible for contributors to direct that their superannuation proceeds be paid to anyone they may prefer.

Additional Benefit Plan—This provision was introduced in 1975. It allows an existing contributor to one of the fund's schemes to increase the estate or spouse benefit otherwise provided in the scheme by such amount as is required by paying an extra stipulated contribution. Most of the fund's schemes limit the benefit payable in the event of the contributor's death to a level no greater than the equity in the fund. This usually means that in the earlier years of a contributor's membership, the estate or spouse benefit could be much less than a prudent man would require. The Additional Benefit Plan satisfies this need.

National Superannuation Scheme—An employer-subsidised superannuation scheme was introduced in 1964 for farm workers, and in 1969 was expanded and made available to other employee organisations. It is now the largest single scheme in the fund. In 1975 more than 200000 employees used it as an alternative to the New Zealand Superannuation Scheme for compulsory superannuation purposes, and although many withdrew when the New Zealand Superannuation Act 1974 was repealed, the scheme is still flourishing. It has useful and simple provisions, is easy to understand and requires simple accounting and administrative procedures. During periods of non-employment it provides for the holding of credits and contains the modern facilities of portability.

Local Authorities Superannuation—The National Provident Fund continues to provide for superannuation for local authorities, and for employees of quasi-government organisations, and charitable and religious institutions. Under section 44 of the Act all local authorities are deemed contributors to the fund on behalf of their permanent employees who, qualified by age, elect to become contributing employees. Under section 58 of the Act other approved bodies are accepted under similar conditions by completing a special agreement with the board. The Standard Scheme is the main scheme, but variations thereof with special terms and conditions are available for use by firemen, nurses, harbourmasters and harbour board pilots, and aircrew employees of Air New Zealand. Contributory service is transferable between these schemes and with the Government Superannuation Fund, because of their great similarity.

Modification to the Capitalisation Option—One of the options available to a contributor on retirement is to surrender up to one quarter of the retiring allowance in return for a lump sum equal to nine times the portion of the allowance surrendered, and a reduced pension of the balance of the allowance. The Board has extended this provision to enable any surviving spouse who becomes entitled to an allowance on or after 12 April 1979 to exercise on the same basis the capitalisation option in respect of the spouse's allowance, provided that the surviving spouse is under age 61 on qualifying to receive the allowance.

Investment Pool—The Local Authorities Investment Pool continues to be the main avenue for the temporary investment by local authorities, and other approved bodies, of surplus loan moneys and reserve funds. For the year ended 31 March 1980, the interest credited amounted to $17.5 million compared with $15.5 million for the year ended 31 March 1979. The balances of the pool account as at 31 March of 3 recent years are shown below.

As at 31 March$(million)
1978273.0
1979295.2
1980257.7

Investments by Fund—The fund's lending to local authorities in recent years is shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchNo. of ApplicationsAmount Considered $(million)Amount Approved $(million)
1978607111.4109.8
1979626121.5117.4
198051896.091.6

Approvals to the various local authorities during the year ended 31 March 1980 were as follows:

Class of Local AuthorityApplicationsAmount Applied ForAmount ApprovedAmount Deferred or Declined
 No. $(thousand) 
Cities and boroughs24025,22223,9241,298
Counties463,2552,914341
Electric power boards637,1047,05450
Fire service64,1301,4302,700
Harbour boards527,8147,814
Hospital boards5532,39232,392
Sundry local authorities5616,07816,078
        Total51895,99691,6064,389
1978–79626121,553117,4594,094

Comparative Survey—The following table provides a survey of financial and other statistics of the National Provident Fund for 3 recent years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197819791980
New contributors during yearNo.716366106489
Total contributors at end of yearNo.123094123723124707
Local authority scheme—
    ContributorsNo.173541600915235
    Contributions$(000)31,18537,05739,640
Public Fund—
    ContributorsNo.105740107714109472
    Contributions$(000)25,20228,20332,564
    Pensions and allowances at end of yearNo.112881195712378
Income—
    Contributions$(000)56,38865,26072,204
    Interest$(000)30,65841,56553,078
    Government subsidy$(000)6,9276,6807,775
            Total income$(000)93,972113,506133,056
Outgoings—
    Pensions and allowances$(000)14,69117,98020,116
    Other benefits$(000)9,7809,2629,310
            Total outgoings$(000)24,47227,24229,426
Investment pool at end of period$(000)273,046295,175257,724
Funds at end of period$(000)466,021552,284655,916

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information for potential members is available on request from the boards of the 2 funds. Further financial data is included in the following 2 Parliamentary papers:

Report of the National Provident Fund Board (Parl. paper B. 19).

Report on the Government Superannuation Fund (Parl. paper B. 20).

Chapter 7. Section 7 EDUCATION, SCIENCE, AND THE ARTS

7 A—EDUCATION

For a period of some 30 years from 1945 education in New Zealand was marked by rapid growth. In 1945 school, college, and university enrolments combined were 328000 or 19.3 percent of the population but by 1980 the combined enrolments totalled 991071 or almost 32 percent of the population. This growth is accounted for by increased births for the major part of the period; a marked tendency for pupils to stay on longer at school and also to undertake further education after leaving school; and the development of new educational services. In the 30 years from 1950 to 1980 the number of pupils in primary schools almost doubled (actually, by 1980, the number was falling from earlier levels because of the continued fall in the birth rate) and pupils in secondary schools increased more than fourfold, as did the number of students in universities.

At the same time education grew more intensive and education expenditure rose from about 8 percent of total Government expenditure in 1948–49 to 13.3 percent in 1979–80.

The strongly egalitarian temper of New Zealand society—a product of historical, geographical, and economic factors—is reflected in the policy of making education at all levels freely available.

In recent years difficult economic conditions and restricted employment opportunities in the short term, and revolutionary technological advances in the long term, have posed new problems for education in all the developing countries. School leavers in New Zealand are entering a more challenging and difficult labour market than at any time since the Second World War. There is no longer a full-employment situation in which young people could readily find work irrespective of their educational or other qualifications. A substantial proportion of those unemployed are people in their teens, particularly those with low or non-existent educational qualifications. The increased problems involved in the transition from school to work have led in the schools to an increased emphasis on vocational training and guidance; on career-orientated education; and on assisting “low-achievers” in the academic sense to develop their own particular skills and abilities.

In 1978–79, 48 schools introduced modified courses for pupils who had returned to school reluctantly because they had been unsuccessful in finding jobs. Generally these were fourth-year students with limited chances of success in formal examinations. The courses catered for 2100 such students. By the end of the year, 1500 had been placed in permanent employment. For 1980 the Government approved the equivalent of 33 full-time teachers to extend the courses to enable 67 secondary schools to offer courses of this kind.

A scheme to assist young unemployed people introduced in 1978 with the co-operation of the Department of Labour has continued with some modifications as the Young Persons Training Programme. There are 3 categories of courses:

  1. pre-employment—general courses designed to improve both job-finding and employability;

  2. specific skills—aimed at providing skills necessary for local employment;

  3. work-based—where employers undertake work-based operator training of young people.

A new scheme, introduced in March 1981 and known as the First Job Programme, was intended to apply from March to September 1981. It involved the payment of a wage subsidy to private employers taking on young school-leavers seeking a first permanent job. At the same time, the subsidy for “each genuinely additional apprentice” was increased.

ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION—The Education Act 1964 provides for free and secular education in State primary and secondary schools. For all children between the ages of 6 and 15 years, education is compulsory. University education is provided under the Universities Act 1961, and funds for universities are distributed by the University Grants Committee.

The central administrative body directing education is the Department of Education, whose permanent head is the Director-General of Education. The department consists of professional and administrative officers. The head office is in Wellington and there are regional offices in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, each under the control of a superintendent.

The Department of Education, in discharging its responsibility to the Minister of Education for the administration of the system, advises the Minister on policy and development, controls the expenditure of money voted, ensures that schools are built and equipped when and where required and that teachers are recruited and trained, checks that standards are maintained in all schools (both State and private), and assesses the efficiency of teachers. An important professional function of the department is to conduct curriculum revision and development and to recommend curriculum changes to the Minister.

The control and management of State primary schools is the responsibility of the 10 education boards. State secondary schools are controlled by local secondary school boards. These boards are the employing authorities of the teachers. They disburse the grants received from the Department of Education for the maintenance of schools and building of new schools and for equipment and teaching materials. No local rates are levied for education either by municipal or local education authorities.

The Department of Education directly administers the Correspondence School and State special schools. It controls the inspectorate, supervises the staffing of schools, and conducts the School Certificate Examination. All State and registered private schools are visited regularly by inspectors who give assistance and guidance to teachers in educational matters. The department also administers the capital expenditure voted for school buildings.

The Department of Education has official contacts with the National Council of Adult Education and the University Grants Committee but the universities are independent in their educational activities.

Education Boards and School Committees—The members of education boards have in the past been elected solely by members of school committees on a ward system, but provision has now been made for the appointment to each board of a teacher to represent all teachers employed by the board.

Each State primary school controlled by an education board has its school committee elected by the parents of pupils and adults resident in the school district. It is a statutory body charged with management of property and other matters on behalf of the board. The members of school committees form the electorates for electing education board members.

A school committee's essential function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide, along with voluntary parent-teacher associations, a focusing point for local opinion on educational matters.

Secondary School Boards—Secondary schools are controlled and administered by their own boards of governors. The local boards controlling secondary schools (either singly, or several schools in the same town) are made up of representatives of the parents of pupils, of the education board of the district, and of other local groups and organisations, and provision has recently been made for the election of teacher representatives. The boards are constituted by the Minister and published in the New Zealand Gazette. In some metropolitan areas, groups of secondary schools have been linked together for administrative purposes under secondary school councils, but each school still retains its own board of governors which has a large measure of autonomy in the control and management of its own school.

Technical Institute Councils—Technical institutes, including the Technical Correspondence Institute, are controlled by councils with members representing business and industry, local authorities, the universities, and governing bodies of secondary schools.

Community Colleges—Amendments to the Education Act in 1974 created a new category of institution, community colleges, designed to meet continuing education needs particularly in provincial centres. They are governed as technical institutes. The first community college was opened in Hawke's Bay in 1975. In 1978 community colleges were established at Whangarei and Rotorua, and Southland Polytechnic changed its status to Southland Community College.

Teachers College Councils—Teachers college councils have the usual administrative functions, combined with some professional responsibility for the training of teachers. They include representatives of education boards, of the Department of Education, the universities, and of the teachers' organisations.

Private Schools—There are a substantial number of private primary and secondary schools conducted by religious bodies or private individuals. These schools are required by the Education Act 1964 to comply with defined standards of accommodation and teaching as a pre-requisite for compulsory registration under the Education Act. Financial assistance is provided by the State subject to certain conditions. Academic bursaries, secondary school bursaries, and Maori scholarships may be tenable at private secondary schools. Assistance for transport by rail and road and (in some cases) a boarding allowance may also be given to pupils attending private schools, whether primary or secondary. School publications are supplied to private schools. From February 1970 the Government has made grants to private schools on the basis of teachers' salaries. For the first year the proportion was 20 percent and the estimated cost $2.5 million; the proportion rose by stages to 50 percent in 1976. Associated government controls are applied before new private schools can be built, and there is a requirement that after a transitional period, new teacher entrants to private schools must possess certain minimum qualifications.

In October 1975, the Private Schools Conditional Integration Act was passed to enable the voluntary integration of private schools into the State system. Forty schools have now integrated and other private schools are entering into negotiations. All Roman Catholic schools have expressed their intention to integrate.

Co-education—Co-education applies at all stages of the school system. All State primary schools and some private primary schools teach boys and girls together. At the secondary level more than three-quarters of the State schools have both boys and girls on their rolls. The rest of the State schools and most of the private schools are single-sex. Over the last 2 decades, there has been a trend toward the provision of more co-educational than single-sex schools.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION—The following table shows the net expenditure (actual expenditure less recoveries) from public funds on each branch or service of education for the year ended 31 March 1980.

ItemNet ExpenditurePercentage of Total
Administration and general—  
 $(000)%
    General administration10,6701.1
    Examinations448
    Research1,0720.1
                Sub-total12,1901.2
Pre-school education—  
    General administration5440.1
    Free kindergartens12,6791.2
    Playcentres1,5480.2
    Other pre-school agencies215
                Sub-total14,9861.5
Education support services—  
    General administration1,3900.1
    School inspection service4,4080.4
    Advisory and guidance service10,9001.1
    Curriculum development and resources3,6690.4
    School transport25,8962.6
    Recruitment of teachers138
                Sub-total46,4014.6
Operations of schools—  
    State primary schools301,23029.8
    State secondary schools194,42819.3
    Correspondence school5,4330.5
    Integration of private schools5,8270.6
    Assistance to private schools26,2572.6
    Special education16,3431.6
    School buildings66,2076.6
                Sub-total615,72561.0
Teacher education—  
    General administration210
    Pre-service training50,0685.0
    In-service training3,5220.3
    Teachers college buildings1,1030.1
                Sub-total54,9035.4
Senior technical and community education—  
    General administration5150.1
    Technical institutes and community colleges56,4495.6
    Assistance to students6,5110.6
    Other continuing education agencies and programmes6,3900.6
    Technical institute and community college buildings10,2771.0
                Sub-total80,1427.9
University education—  
    Operations of universities124,83312.4
    Assistance to students28,8152.9
    University buildings24,4882.4
                Sub-total178,13617.7
National Library—  
    Operation of National Library6,8040.7
    National Library buildings6
                Sub-total6,8100.7
                Total1,009,293100.0

The following table shows Government net expenditure on education and relates it to total Government expenditure in national accounting terms. The share of public expenditure devoted to education has increased significantly in relation to other forms of Government expenditure in recent decades (although there has been a decline since 1974). Much of the increased spending in earlier years was a direct consequence of roll growth.

In recent years, school rolls have begun to decline—initially in the primary schools but the decline is now reaching the secondary schools—because of the fall in the birth rate.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet Education ExpenditureAs Percentage of Total Government Expenditure
Current (Salaries, etc.)*BuildingsTotalCurrent Education ExpenditureTotal Education Expenditure
* About 66 percent of current expenditure is on salaries of teachers and other staff
  $(million) percent
1976505.3121.7627.012.615.8
1977580.9118.5699.412.715.3
1978684.0123.5807.512.114.2
1979812.2117.1929.311.913.6
1980907.2102.11,009.312.013.3

The following figures relate Government net expenditure on education to gross national product and mean population.

Year Ended 31 MarchExpenditure from Public FundsExpenditure as Percentage of Gross National ProductExpenditure per Head of Mean Population
 $(000)percent$     
1975526,6305.3172.08
1976627,0055.5202.42
1977699,4135.2224.12
1978807,5375.4258.09
1979929,3345.3296.99
19801,009,2935.0325.55

An international comparison of public expenditure on education as a percentage of gross national product is given in the following table for selected countries. Educational expenditure in many countries has been rising twice as fast as national income. These figures are taken from the UNESCO Statistical Yearbook.

CountryYearPublic Expenditure on Education as Percentage of G.N.P.
* As percentage of net material product.
Australia19766.3
Austria19775.5
Canada19778.0
Denmark19758.2
France19765.8
Germany, West19755.2
Italy19765.1
Japan19765.3
Netherlands19768.5
New Zealand19805.0
Switzerland19775.2
United States19776.4
United Kingdom19766.2
USSR19777.4*

International comparisons need to be treated with reserve because of the differing education systems and measures of expenditure.

SCHOOL BUILDINGS—During the year ended 31 March 1980, 10 new primary schools were opened, all of these in the North Island and the majority in the Auckland area. In addition, 3 new intermediates and 1 secondary school were opened in the Auckland district.

Building expenditure for 1979–80 was as follows:

 $(million)
Universities (including equipment)24.7
Education buildings67.1
Technical institutes10.3
Teachers colleges3.0
Pre-school buildings1.6

Pre-School—The number of free kindergartens and playcentres has increased rapidly in the last decade. There are now 511 free kindergartens and 694 playcentres in operation compared with 305 kindergartens and 542 playcentres in 1970. This increase reflects the priority given by successive governments to preschool education. The demand for new centres is now abating in line with the lower birth rate and the increased facilities provided.

Primary—The need for additional accommodation has continued to decline and greater emphasis has been given in education board building programmes to the upgrading, remodelling, and replacement of older school buildings to meet the standards laid down in the 1970 building code. Many of the older schools are being remodelled to provide flexible teaching spaces incorporating resource and withdrawal areas.

Secondary—With the stabilisation of secondary school rolls, few completely new schools will be built in the foreseeable future. Consequently, the use of standard plans, long a feature of secondary school design, is being discontinued. Standard room layouts and basic designs for facilities such as libraries, gymnasiums, and auditoriums will continue to be used but these will be adapted to meet the specific needs and site conditions of individual schools. Increasing use is being made of good-quality relocatable buildings, particularly in areas where it is uncertain if present roll levels will be sustained. A complete new school in this type of construction is being built at Leeston. Remodelling or replacement of older buildings at existing schools make up a considerable portion of the department's activity in the secondary sector.

Tertiary—During 1980 approval was given by the government to build new accommodation for Palmerston North Technical Institute on the same site as the existing teachers college and sharing common facilities. This approval followed a similar scheme for a rebuilt Otago Polytechnic on a site adjacent to the Dunedin Teachers College with shared facilities, for which planning commenced in 1979. Continuing the trend towards the wider use of education buildings, the New Zealand School of Library Studies became a joint user of the Wellington Teachers College accommodation. The North Shore Teachers College is being closed as a result of the lessening demand for trained teachers and will be remodelled as a health science training complex attached to the Auckland Technical Institute.

Senior technical divisions were established during 1978 in temporary accommodation in Tauranga, Gisborne, Wanganui, and Timaru. The construction of permanent buildings is now well in hand at Tauranga and Gisborne, and planning is well advanced for Wanganui. Construction is underway for a workshop at Taranaki Polytechnic to teach welding techniques especially suited to energy-related projects.

Major buildings at technical institutes completed in 1980 include a 4-storey teaching block at Nelson, a library and complex for health professions at the Central Institute of Technology, a 7-storey tower block at Petone, and a general teaching block and a lecture theatre at Christchurch. In addition the first of several new design workshops for technical institutes was completed at Northland Community College, as were building construction units for carpentry training at Northland Community College and Manukau.

UNIVERSITY BUILDINGS—Buildings and other capital requirements of universities are handled through the University Grants Committee. This committee prepares for approval of the Government an annual programme of projected expenditure on university capital works buildings, land purchase, furniture, and equipment, and subsidies on halls of residence. Expenditure in recent March years has been:

 $(m)
1976–7728.5
1977–7828.8
1978–7924.7
1979–8024.7

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS—The numbers of scholars and students receiving instruction in educational institutions are shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers at 1 July.

Type of Institution197819791980

* Provisional.

Includes 4 Secondary Senior Technical Divisions.

Pre-school
    Playcentres1940117765x16448
    Kindergartens368123859539074
 5621356360x55522
Primary
    Primary schools under board control390064387118379558
    Intermediate schools740967325873127
    Forms 1 and 2 at Form 1 to 7 schools583059465862
    Chatham Islands schools169169207
    Correspondence school139916541632
    Departmental special schools360363297
    Department of Social Welfare schools12911894
    Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind978878
    Private primary schools488934847645746
 521037517190506601
Secondary
    State secondary schools198467193860x190851
    District high schools and area schools283127472753
    Correspondence school920912920
    Departmental special schools216250235
    Department of Social Welfare schools322355x331
    Private secondary schools322873200431256
 235043230128x226346
Technical
    Technical Correspondence Institute264042941528566
    Other technical institutes and community colleges—
        Full-time students57606286x6842
        Part-time students3428238755x37659
    Technical classes at other institutions—
        Full-time students200--
        Part-time students7512462313x72008
 141770136769x145075
Teacher training
    Teachers colleges623458205919
University institutions
    Full-time internal students296772989430989
    Part-time internal students121581264412944
    Extra-mural students64886612x7366
    Agricultural short courses17323175*
    Medical short courses1515134*
 485.1149188x51608
            Total1008808995455x991071

TEACHING STAFF—Statistics of full-time teaching staff at all educational institutions are shown in the following table.

Institution19791980
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

* Includes manual training assistants employed at manual training centres.

Provisional.

Kindergartens411121116611271133
Primary—
    State  1892864671273819205
    Private3671527189438013581738
   2082268471409620943
Secondary—
    State*75244729122537453484512298
    Private63450311376985311229
 81585232133908151537613527
Technical institutes and New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute1653420207317375192256
Teachers colleges388141529400139539
University institutions2662341300327093653074
        Total  40933198502162241472

The levelling-off in the growth of primary school rolls, combined with a higher retention rate of teachers in the service, has resulted in a favourable staffing situation in primary schools. This has enabled all primary schools from 1977 to be staffed on a ratio of 1 teacher to every 31 pupils.

Improved pupil-teacher ratios have also been implemented for secondary schools.

Overseas Students—Overseas students attending New Zealand institutions at 1 July 1980 totalled 3367, of whom 1125 were from the South Pacific area (excluding Australia) and 1608 from South-east Asia.

Projected Students—A projection of education rolls, made in 1980 by the Department of Education and based on policies and trends at the time, is set out in the following table.

PeriodRolls
KindergartenTotal PrimaryTotal Secondary
Actual198039100506600226300
Projected—198549000451900235600
 199053000424800212400

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS: School Certificate—The School Certificate Examination conducted by the Department of Education is taken by the majority of pupils at the end of 3 years of secondary education. The course of each candidate must include English, history or geography or a foreign language, mathematics or science. A candidate may enter the examination in any number of subjects up to 6 and is credited with passes in the individual subjects in which he or she is successful.

In 1979, 77966 candidates sat 339780 papers or subjects and passed in 168440, a pass rate of 49.6 percent. This includes extra-mural and Pacific Island candidates. Entrants from State and private schools in New Zealand sat a total of 284893 papers or subjects and passed in 149119, a pass rate of 52.3 percent. The most popular (or widely-taken) subjects among school entrants were English (58152 entries, 51.0 percent passed), mathematics (47971 entries, 53.4 percent passed), science (33262 entries, 52.7 percent passed), and geography (29904 entries, 50.3 percent passed).

Sixth Form Certificate—These are awarded to pupils who have satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year on a single-subject basis—to a maximum of 6 subjects—beyond the level of School Certificate.

University Entrance—Pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a 4 years' secondary school course. Pupils not accredited for entrance to university may qualify by passing the University Entrance Examination which is conducted by the University Entrance Board.

The University Bursaries Examination and the University Entrance Scholarship Examination, taken by secondary school pupils usually in Form 7, are also conducted by the University Entrance Board; they are competitive examinations for supplementary awards for study at a university.

Higher School Certificate—Higher School Certificates are awarded after a 5-year course to pupils who have been accepted for entry to the Sixth Form and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 2 years; and to pupils who have obtained a qualification recognised by the University Entrance Board for admission to a university in New Zealand and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year.

Examination passes at other than university examinations are set out in the following table.

YearSchool Certificate*OtherUniversity EntranceUniversity Entrance ScholarshipUniversity Bursaries A and B

* Includes Certificate of Attainment.

The number includes Trained Teachers Certificate, Diploma of Teaching, Technical Teachers Certificates, City and Guilds of London Institutes Examination. Technological, Engineers, and Surveyors Assistants and Public Service Shorthand Typists Examination are not now administered by the Department.

Includes both accredited passes and passes by examination.

197552346844153341383858
197654880804166561594269
1977545701118176221704477
1978577671026186341824693
1979546921146192772025286
1980534321530192231865255
YearTechnician Certificate 3-year CourseN.Z. Certificate 5-year CourseCertificates Issued
Intermediate*FinalTradeAdvanced TradeIndustrial Practice
* The issuing of the Intermediate T.C.A. certificate was discontinued from 1977.
19753187529742241621125
197638662010881475647229
1977630*10812132653437
1978825x*12152580785258
1979622*10322619956461
1980434*10422440976622

Comparative figures for the number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination and the number of passes by accrediting and by examination are given in the following table.

YearCandidatesPasses
AccreditedBy Examination
197628329135913065
197730085140453577
197831901148893745
197932944150724205
198032958149694254

SPECIAL EDUCATION—Whenever possible, handicapped children are enrolled with other children at ordinary pre-school services and in ordinary classes at their local primary or secondary school. When necessary, buildings are modified, special equipment is provided, and ancillary staff are appointed to assist their teachers, who are advised on suitable teaching programmes by the Department of Education inspectors of schools and psychologists, and by other specialist advisers.

A comprehensive range of special education services has been developed for those handicapped children whose special needs cannot be met in ordinary classes through these measures. Small part-time groups for handicapped pre-school children are attached to selected kindergartens and playcentres. Education boards provide special classes and resource centres at primary schools or separate special schools for pupils who are backward (mildly or moderately mentally-retarded), intellectually handicapped (more seriously mentally retarded), deaf, visually handicapped, physically handicapped, or maladjusted.

The education boards also administer special classes in hospitals, special schools in psychiatric hospitals, speech clinics and reading clinics, and employ itinerant teachers to assist children in ordinary classes who have a hearing handicap or serious reading difficulties.

Special classes for deaf, backward, and maladjusted pupils are provided at selected secondary schools.

The Department of Education itself administers 6 residential schools—2 for deaf children (which also admit day pupils), 2 for backward children and 2 for maladjusted children. The Department also provides the teaching services in Department of Social Welfare institutions for socially maladjusted children, and the education service in penal institutions administered by the Department of Justice.

This network of special schools and classes is supported by 3 specialised guidance services which also assist children in ordinary classes. The Hearing Assessment and Guidance Service offers guidance to the parents and teachers of deaf children. The Visiting Teacher Service provides liaison between teachers and the parents of pupils whose progress at school may be hampered by home difficulties. The Psychological Service provides a comprehensive diagnostic and advisory service for children who have learning or social difficulties. It maintains a close liaison with all secondary school guidance staff and with all health, education, and welfare services for children. These 3 services assisted approximately 34000 pre-school and school age children in 1980.

In 1980 some 1751 teachers were employed in the special education and guidance services. A total of 13082 children were enrolled in special classes and schools, and 18523 children were enrolled at speech or reading clinics.

The following table shows the number of pupils receiving full-time special education at primary and secondary schools (including intermediate, correspondence, and special schools) and pre-school pupils receiving part-time special education at 1 July 1979 and 1980.

Group19791980
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Visually handicapped2011793807256128
Hearing handicapped468405873451349800
Speech handicapped550324317934456420836647
Physically handicapped202161363206149355
In health camps166126292127112239
In hospitals362263625364243607
Intellectually handicapped117474519199527241676
Backward1489852234115237452268
Pre-school191153344140129269
Maladjusted54432887212396751914
Educationally retarded419142561434273707
Others128183921207875271314
                Total1200066241862410859606516924

The Department of Education co-ordinates the administration and development of the special education services for handicapped children through the district senior inspectors of primary and secondary schools.

PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION—Children below the age of 5 are not enrolled in State primary schools except in a few areas. Pre-school education is provided mainly by 2 national voluntary organisations which receive substantial support from the State. Assistance from the Government is also available to voluntary educational organisations for handicapped pre-school children, to voluntary social welfare agencies for children needing full day care, and to selected community-based, non-profit-making, preschool groups. Other institutions include informal family play groups, private and community kindergartens, and playcentres which operate independently and receive no direct Government financial assistance.

The Government pays the full cost of new sites for free kindergartens and recognised playcentres, a subsidy of $4 to $1 for buildings, and a subsidy of $2 for $1 for approved equipment. The maintenance of the buildings is the financial responsibility of the Government. In areas of special need, the cost of building and equipment may be met in full by the Government. Grants are made available to approved services for administration and day-to-day running costs.

In July 1980 there were 39074 children enrolled at 524 free kindergartens and 20851 children (including 4403 under 2 1/2 years of age) at 684 recognised playcentres. A further 4074 children attended other pre-school groups.

Kindergarten teachers are now trained in 7 of the teachers colleges and the Government gives training and student allowances on the same basis as for primary and secondary teachers. Playcentre supervisors are trained part-time within their own associations and work on a part-time voluntary basis.

Some other training courses, mainly for day-care personnel, are provided through some technical institutes and through the correspondence school. A pre-school advisory service provides support and advice to all pre-school centres.

PRIMARY EDUCATION—Entry into a primary school is compulsory at 6 years of age, but it is the common practice for children to start formal schooling at the age of 5 years. If living in an isolated area, a child must be enrolled with the primary department of the Department of Education's Correspondence School. The top 2 years of the primary course, Forms 1 and 2, may be taken at a full primary school, an intermediate school, or a Form 1–7 school. On completing instruction in Form 2, usually after 8 years' school attendance, a child normally enters Form 3 of a secondary school, or alternatively the secondary department of an area school or a district high school. All children are required to attend school until they reach the age of 15 years.

The curriculum of the primary and intermediate schools, as set out in the syllabuses of instruction, covers oral and written language (including reading and handwriting), mathematics, social studies, art and crafts, science, physical education (including swimming), health education, music, and, for some children in Forms 1 and 2, French. At the Forms 1 and 2 levels, Maori language teaching and creative crafts such as woodwork, metal work, homecraft, and sewing are available to both girls and boys.

Teachers have the assistance of advisers in a variety of fields, including science, physical education, art and crafts, reading, mathematics, music, Maori language programmes, and English language programmes for Maori and Pacific island children. Itinerant advisers are also available to help teachers in small rural schools and teachers of infant classes. Specialist assistance in helping children with special needs is provided by the psychological service, speech therapists, visiting teachers, and advisers on deaf children.

The Basic Equipment Grant enables all schools to build up an adequate supply of teaching equipment and is supplemented by free textbooks, basic primer readers, and art, craft, and physical education equipment. Schools also receive a book grant to purchase additional textbooks and other reading materials.

State Primary Schools—The figures set out in the following table refer to all pupils in State primary schools and intermediate schools and departments, including Chatham Islands schools, but exclude special schools.

YearSchools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments)Pupils at 1 JulyPupils at 30 September
19762194467811484395x
19772149466200481331x
19782153464329476790
19792167460545472009
19802179452892 

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the State primary schools, Chatham Islands schools, and Forms 1 and 2 at intermediate schools at 1 July in each of the years shown.

Age in Years19791980
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
5286042691755521264142534451758
6286792731455993277872639654183
7296582855758215283462707155417
8300962926959365298792862358502
9292452782857073297392887958618
10290672760956676289662757356539
11267042505351757267022528851990
12253572462749984257732442850201
1383306307146378084645414538
14470313783385306691
15103761798262144
16 and over186176362189122311
    Total236499224046460545232346220546452892

Size of Classes—The sizes of classes at state primary schools at 1 July are shown in the following table.

YearPupils in Class
19 or less20–2425–2930–3435–3940 or moreTotal
1976211526774038618824364017494
1977179420684431684219623117128
1978184222714654680316553617261
1979220726104663618814111917098
1980258826354833594611762117199

NOTE—Special classes are included in this table. Before 1380 the size of classes was recorded at 30 September. The table includes intermediate schools and departments and Chatham Islands schools.

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1980 there were 78376 Maori children attending State primary schools and 3387 attending private primary schools. Staffing is more liberal in schools with a large proportion of Maori or Pacific island children.

Intermediate Schools—Pupils on the rolls of the 144 intermediate schools and 1 intermediate department at the end of 1980, numbered 73127. Of all children in Forms 1 and 2 at State primary schools at 1 July 1980, 66.85 percent were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1 July of each of the latest 2 years were as follows:

Age in Years19791980
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
10 and under315422737217279496
11129941298925983130691354126610
12181151730935424182841730235586
1359594656106155614455910173
14276204480127124251
15448358
16 and over1233-3
    Total376643558673250373173581073127

Private Schools—The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools, including primary departments in private secondary schools.

YearNumber of SchoolsPupils atTeachers (Full-time)
1 July30 SepMaleFemaleTotal
* Not now received.
1976327498995120129615431839
1977324493095063328914551744
1978325488935011937515351910
1979327484764970736715271894
198031445746*38013581738

The majority of the schools are Roman Catholic Church schools.

SECONDARY EDUCATION—The secondary syllabus is based on a common core, consisting of English, social studies, general science, elementary mathematics, music, arts and crafts, and physical education, to be followed by a degree of specialisation within a wide range of subjects that may be taken to the School Certificate and University Entrance stage. All types of secondary schools are required to give all pupils during the first 2 years of their secondary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the common core subjects.

The following table shows the number of secondary schools for each of the latest 5 years (figures exclude the secondary department of the Correspondence School).

YearState Secondary SchoolsSecondary Departments of District High Schools and Area SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsTotal
197624839108395
197725437107398
197825636102394
197925936100395
19802653596396

In 1980, 30 of the State secondary schools enrolled only boys and 33 schools only girls, with 234 schools co-educational. Most of the private schools are single-sex schools. At 1 March 1980 there were 93 secondary schools with over 1000 pupils.

The inspection of secondary schools is carried out by inspectors attached to the Department of Education. In 1980 there were 62 inspectors. The numbers of each sex attending schools providing secondary education at 1 July 1980 were: State secondary schools, 98396 boys and 96649 girls; secondary departments of district high schools, area schools, and reorganised district high schools, 1342 boys and 1411 girls; private secondary schools, 16148 boys and 15108 girls; full-time pupils in the secondary department of the Correspondence School numbered 328 boys and 592 girls. In addition, 350 boys and 216 girls received secondary education in 18 special schools.

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1980, 29805 Maori pupils were receiving secondary education. This number comprised 27458 pupils attending State secondary schools and 2347 pupils attending private secondary schools. Some 190 Maori boys and 108 Maori girls received secondary education at 18 special schools, and 167 Maori students were being educated by correspondence.

Secondary School Hostels—In 1980 there were 47 hostels for State secondary schools. A programme for 5-day hostels at certain rural secondary schools is being developed to strengthen rural secondary education.

Attainment Levels of State and Private Secondary Schools—The following table gives particulars of pupils who left schools providing secondary education, classified according to years of attendance and attainments.

Year of AttendancePupils
19781979
First689655
Second53955391
Third1815617848
Fourth2327722851
Fifth1382314447
Sixth and over531594
        Total6187161786
AttainmentsPupils
19781979
University scholarship195215
University bursary45504956
Higher School Certificate34013228
University Entrance93609365
Sixth Form Certificate88248738
School Certificate (three or more subjects)67616407
School Certificate (one or two subjects)78677569
No attainments2091321309
        Total6187161787

Probable Destination of State and Private Secondary Pupils—An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils who left secondary schools during 1979 is contained in the next table.

Probable DestinationBoysGirlsTotal
Further full-time education at:
    University386725426409
    Teacher training:
        Attending university full-time105334439
        Others (including kindergarten)150752902
    Technical institutes114529664111
    Other full-time education104336440
To join labour force:
    Professional, technical and related workers—
        Technicians8664831349
        Health services10818391947
        Others441437878
    Clerical work168056967376
    Sales work130425643868
    Service work (including Armed Forces)—
        Entering apprenticeships23784932871
        Others11088601968
    Agriculture, fishing, hunting—
        Entering apprenticeship9601731133
        Others29346253559
    Production, transport equipment operators, and labourers—
        Entering apprenticeships30592493308
        Others305214034455
No occupation or unknown8523825016773
                Total317843000261786

CURRICULUM AND RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT—The principal functions of the Development Division of the Department of Education are to develop, co-ordinate, and revise curricula and syllabuses at all school levels; to provide handbooks and resource materials for teachers; to initiate pilot schemes of new courses and methods; to bring new or revised methods to the attention of teachers; and to assist teachers themselves in developing curricula at the local school level. Professional officers in the division have responsibility for development in subjects including science, mathematics, English, social studies, Maori language and studies, foreign languages, music, drama, physical education, reading, health education, technical education, home economics, arts and crafts, libraries, and audio-visual media and evaluation.

The division also contains the School Publications Branch, the Visual Production Unit, and the National Film Library.

MAORI LANGUAGE TEACHING—During 1980 a total of 181 secondary schools taught Maori to more than 14747 pupils. Some 2071 pupils sat the School Certificate Examination in Maori. A further 8 Maori language teachers completed training as secondary teachers of Maori in 1979, and 6 began training in 1980.

In the primary schools in 1980 the 40 itinerant teachers of Maori continued their work in 232 schools involving 1290 classroom teachers with an estimated number of 43087 children. The 9 advisers, who worked in a wider area, promoted the teaching of Maori language to a further estimated 20000 children, bringing the total number of primary school children learning Maori to an estimated 60000. The teaching of Maori language in primary schools continues to progress steadily. An evaluation of the programmes was made during the year.

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools—In order to give children in country districts the advantage of special equipment and more specialised teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been a feature of the last 30 years. Composite schools have been developed in recent years to bring together larger concentrations of children from Form 1 and above. These are known as Form 1 to 7 schools and area schools.

The first Form 1 to 7 school was opened in 1962 and by 1980 there were 38 of these schools. This type of school usually developed from the translation of the secondary department of a district high school with the addition of Form 1 and 2 pupils from neighbouring primary schools. They receive improved staffing, accommodation, and equipment in the endeavour to promote equality of educational opportunity for country children.

However, a large number of Form 1 and 2 children remain in the country districts too small to support a Form 1–7 school. In these districts, area schools have been established. The area school is a unified school providing education from the infant stage to Form 7 for all children in the immediate vicinity, and from Form 1 upwards for children from contributing schools over a wider area. The first area school was opened in 1969, and more recently a number of district high schools have been reorganised and are operating on the same basis. At 1 July 1980 there were 34 of these schools.

Transport Assistance and Boarding Bursaries—In recent years school transport facilities have been steadily developed until now just under 16 percent of the total school population receive assistance in one form or another. Most of these pupils are conveyed by buses under contract to education boards or operated by the Department of Education.

The trend towards consolidating small country schools and improving educational facilities in larger rural centres has been paralleled by the continuing movement of families into provincial towns and cities. These factors are contributing to a relatively small decrease in transport services.

During the 1980 school year 114596 pupils were carried daily by school transport facilities on 3173 separate transport services. These services travelled a total of more than 45000000 kilometres during the year, at a cost of over $24 million.

School boarding bursaries and course bursaries were increased in 1980 from $600 to $700 a year. The number of pupils receiving boarding bursaries during 1980 was 3078 compared with 3070 the previous year. A total of 997 course bursaries were awarded in 1980 compared with 1046 in 1979.

The next table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding bursaries as at 1 July 1980, according to the type of school attended.

Type of SchoolPupils on RollPupils Transported to SchoolPupils Receiving School Boarding BursariesPupils Receiving Course Boarding Bursaries
State primary schools4608556387973-
State secondary schools (including district high schools)195090490431788579
Private primary schools45746113260-
Private secondary schools312565421157418
              Total7329471145963078997

CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOL—Correspondence classes are conducted for students in 4 major categories:

  • full-time students obtaining all their education through the school.

  • students enrolled in New Zealand secondary schools but doing 1 or more subjects with the correspondence school.

  • part-time adult students who wish to continue their basic education.

  • teachers who wish to obtain additional qualifications at a tertiary level.

The school roll on 1 June 1980 was 19390, made up of 295 pre-school; 877 primary; 462 special-needs section (pupils with significant educational handicaps); 885 individual programme section (pupils needing remedial tuition, of whom 152 were in primary, 132 secondary, and 601 were adults); 944 secondary; 3561 students at secondary schools; 10111 part-time adult students; and 2258 undertaking advanced studies for teachers.

The 944 full-time secondary students were enrolled for a variety of reasons—229 for isolation, 108 medical, 186 New Zealand children living overseas, 126 pregnancy, 98 in institutions, 75 remedial, 45 school suspensions, 44 school phobia, and 30 adult full-time.

For full-time students the school provides daily radio lessons, club activities, the publication of a school magazine, periodical exhibitions of work, and active parents' and ex-pupils' associations.

The personal link between student and school is strengthened by 5 resident teachers, based in major centres, who visit families regularly. Visits are also made by teachers from the school. At a district level, school day and school week gatherings are held periodically. A residential school for invited pupils is conducted each year to enable the children to gain the opportunity for social education by working in a classroom. This school is of 3 weeks' duration.

The total staff of the correspondence school in 1980 was 425. Of this number, 275 were secondary teachers, 71 primary (including those in special-needs and individual programme sections), 9 preschool, 11 tutors for teaching diplomas and certificates, and 54 administrative staff.

The teachers training courses had the following enrolments: diploma of teaching and service increment courses, 1754; trained teachers certificate, 122; teaching the intellectually handicapped certificate, 14; early childhood and child care courses, 368.

Agricultural Clubs—More particularly in rural schools, practical interest in agriculture has been stimulated by the widespread formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The pupils undertake projects in livestock rearing and crop growing which are judged annually on the club field day, usually held at the school or local centre.

The advisers on school science employed by the education boards play an important part in the formation of the clubs, and by giving technical advice do much to assure the successful completion of the various projects. The clubs receive active support from parents, teachers, and the farming organisations.

HEALTH SERVICES—Information on the medical and dental inspection of school children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5A (Health and Medical Services) of this Yearbook.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS—In 1980 there were 8 teachers colleges: North Shore, Auckland, Auckland Secondary, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch (primary and secondary), and Dunedin, with full-time staffs totalling 539 (400 males and 139 females). At 1 July 1980 there were 7627 students in training This number includes 1390 holders of secondary teacher studentships (Division U) and 275 holders of primary teachers studentships (Division S) who were attached to teachers colleges while attending universities as full-time students as part of their training for teaching, and 749 graduates undertaking training for secondary teaching.

Secondary training is also available at teachers college outposts established in the Hutt Valley, Rotorua, Hawke's Bay, Palmerston North, and Invercargill.

The minimum entry qualification for admission to primary teacher training (Division A) and for entry to the secondary 3-year commercial course and the 3-year home-economics course, is Sixth Form Certificate with acceptable grades in four subjects. University Entrance is required for the 3-year Division B course in general secondary subjects and the 1-year Division C course is for graduates. Other specialist secondary training courses of 1 year's duration for adults include woodwork and metalwork, commercial, music, and Maori language and these courses have various minimum entry requirements.

The following table shows the number of students in these three divisions at 1 July.

YearDivision ADivision BDivision C
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
197613064188213189332344
197710703929161202357359
19789723596161185303351
19798823366153153263344
19807913340148220323426

The normal course of training for Division A students is a period of 3 years at a teachers college, followed by a further period of 1 year as a probationary assistant attached to a state primary school. The primary teachers' studentship scheme which was introduced in 1965 enables a number of selected students to attend university full time as part of the primary teaching course. Specialist studentships are available to selected students who wish to become speech therapists or teachers of deaf children.

Although the normal period of training for teaching is 3 years, courses may be shortened to 2 years for students partway through degree courses and to 1 year for university graduates and specialists' courses such as are mentioned above for secondary teaching as well as those courses for speech therapists or teachers of the deaf or children with handicaps.

A concurrent secondary teacher training course (Division B) was introduced in 1966. The course provides for up to 3 years of concurrent training at a university or a technical institute and at a teachers college, and is available at Auckland Secondary Teachers College and at the secondary division of Christchurch Teachers College.

Successful Division B students may complete the teachers college course with 6 units of a degree or equivalent and apply for a Teachers University Studentship for a year of full-time university study in order to complete a degree. Under the provisions of this concurrent course a successful student may commence his career of teaching as a teacher-trained university graduate in 4 years. This is the same period of time taken by students who are awarded a studentship for 3 years full-time university study (Division U) followed by the 1-year course of teacher training for graduates in Division C.

The ages and classification of students at teachers colleges at 1 July 1980 are shown in the following table. Division E students are included in this table; Division E is a 2-year course for kindergarten student teachers.

CourseAge of Students (in Years)TotalTotal
Under 171718192021–2425 and over
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMFCombined
Division A—
    First year5162637250556147285437532011022911371366
    Second year220280694176013377983911926510491314
    Third year21122566373123242491122499541203
Specialist21121311721492393116
Graduate (1 year-course)31263134125107132
    Total5162659278913780115457625047314243179133404131
Division B—
    First year479209225597464067107
    Second year1759158151812134855103
    Third year24831385212116098158
        Total4710271635284462772830148220368
Division C total1517202297115112323426749
Division E—
    First year11261552192162236151157
    Second year20291251252214120124
        Total11261755013434144410271281
Other courses1165261432137738694296390
        Total 1980721314103943154947188714538925362703136645535919

NOTE—The following students on studentships and bursaries were enrolled at teachers colleges in 1980.

 MFT
Division S (primary teacher studentship)63212275
Division U (secondary teacher studentship)5698211390
Division B (secondary bursar studentship)232043

FREE TEXTBOOKS IN SCHOOLS—Free textbooks are supplied to all primary and secondary pupils in both State and private schools. Under the free textbooks scheme, the books remain the property of the school controlling authorities and are issued on loan to pupils. The school authorities have a wide discretion in their choice of suitable books.

SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE—This service, which is administered by the National Library of New Zealand, aims at giving children access to the best literature. Books for children and young people are sent on repository loans or on exchange to approximately 2943 schools. All schools are served—primary, intermediate, area, and secondary. Pupils of the Correspondence School also receive books regularly.

All schools receive additional books on request. Nearly 2 million requests were filled during the year ended 31 March 1980.

AUDIO PRODUCTION UNIT—With the transfer of the former broadcasts to schools function from Radio New Zealand to the Department of Education late in 1979, there has been a change in emphasis from live broadcasts to the development of a tape-bank service to schools.

Pre-school and current events programmes are maintained by Radio New Zealand. The department will have 2 studios commissioned in the Correspondence School complex during 1981. These will produce a wide range of audio cassettes, as part of learning packages in support of many curriculum subjects. The studios will also produce tapes for the Correspondence School.

NATIONAL FILM LIBRARY—The National Film Library was founded in 1942. It is now the responsibility of the Department of Education. Films are distributed to the north half of the North Island by the Auckland branch, to the South Island by the Christchurch branch, and to the remainder of the country by the Wellington branch. In addition, the Wellington office also offers a service to the Chatham Islands and to Western Samoa, Tokelau, Niue, Pitcairn, and the Cook Islands.

Each year the library spends substantial amounts on films, and stocks have been further augmented by valuable gifts from many of the diplomatic missions, from other Government departments, from various organisations, and from commercial enterprises. In fact, the National Film Library now holds most of the diplomatic film libraries, which are supplemented by the embassies as they deem necessary.

In its 16 mm film section the library has over 46000 prints of some 11000 titles, and each week over 12000 films are issued to some 3000 educational institutions and over 4000 community organisations. In addition to films, the Wellington branch also offers a record and cassette loan service, an audio-tape reel/cassette copying service, and a sample sheet music service. These services at present are limited to educational institutions only.

Since its inception the National Film Library has been active in developing film archives and now holds over 2000 films of historical interest dating back to the turn of the century. Many older films were made on nitrate stock and are now deteriorating fast so private collectors are invited to contribute so that precious items may be preserved. Items in the National Film Library archives are made available to scholars and researchers, including film and television producers.

The record and cassette library has in stock some 11000 items, comprising 6000 titles. Issues during 1979 totalled over 11000. The tape duplicating section each year issues 50000 copies of the 3000 masters at present held by the library and sells recorded cassettes to schools at cost. The library also holds full copying rights on a further 25000 masters.

MUSEUMS—To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers college in each of the 4 main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

SCHOOL PUBLICATIONS—The School Journal, an illustrated magazine, is published in 4 separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. Parts 1 and 2 are published 5 and 6 times a year, while Parts 3 and 4 for the senior classes appear 4 times a year. Bulletins dealing mainly with literature and language, social studies, science, history, and geography (particularly of New Zealand) are published every year for primary and secondary schools. These and other publications are prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education and issued free to all primary and intermediate schools, both State and private.

A wide range of syllabuses, textbooks, and handbooks is published for secondary and primary schools.

Te Wharekura, a bulletin in the Maori language published 3 times a year, and Te Tautoko a supplementary reader, are issued free to secondary pupils studying the Maori language. He Purapura is a publication for primary pupils who are learning Maori.

The Education Gazette is published by the department twice a month. It is a medium for the dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State and private schools.

Education, a magazine for teachers, is published 6 times a year.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE—On 1 April 1978 the Vocational Guidance Service was transferred to the Department of Labour and so became part of the new Employment and Vocational Guidance Service created to provide an educational, social, and occupational guidance and counselling service available to students and adults throughout the country (See Section 32—Employment).

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION—There are 6 separate universities and a university college of agriculture. These are the University of Auckland, the University of Waikato (at Hamilton), Massey University (at Palmerston North), the Victoria University of Wellington, the University of Canterbury (at Christchurch), and the University of Otago (at Dunedin), with Lincoln College a constituent agricultural college of the University of Canterbury.

At the centre there is the University Grants Committee, which functions under the Universities Act 1961. The primary function of the University Grants Committee is to advise the Government of the needs of New Zealand for university education and research. It determines the allocation of grants of money which it recommends for appropriation by Parliament to meet these needs, and reviews the expenditure by the universities of money appropriated by Parliament. The University Grants Committee is also responsible for the award of scholarships, and through its statutory sub-committee, the Research Committee, for the distribution of a Government grant for research. Another statutory subcommittee of the University Grants Committee, the Curriculum Committee, has responsibility in respect of regulation of courses for degrees and diplomas. In the performance of its duties it is required to have regard to the comparative equivalence of courses.

The Universities Entrance Board was established on 1 January 1962 to maintain a common educational standard for admission to the universities. The board prescribes the conditions of examinations for University Entrance, Entrance Scholarships, the University Bursaries Examination, and Fine Arts Preliminary.

The special problems of legal education are the province of the Council of Legal Education which prescribes the examination requirements of candidates for admission as barristers and solicitors of the High Court.

The test which applies for entrance to university is not financial but achievement at secondary school. In a country where equality of opportunity for self-improvement still counts for much, the right to a university education is conferred by qualifying for University Entrance. It is true that the relatively open system of admission entails some uncertainties about student numbers and planning university facilities for them. It also leads to higher failure rates arising from the mixed quality of the first-year intake; but this situation is improving in some respects without depriving the universities of their characteristics of open entry. Seventh Form work is now taken by the majority of entrants to the universities, and the fees charged and bursaries paid are now more closely geared to successful study after entry. It is likely, too, that the strengthening and diversifying of courses offered in the technical institutes will enable them to cater better for some students and improve the efficiency of tertiary education as a whole. In the meantime, however, relatively ready access to university education associated with flexible degree structures meets the national needs well and at a cost which is modest by overseas standards.

Apart from the income from students' fees and the relatively small amounts now available to some of the universities from endowments, the block grants from the Government determine the income of the universities to meet their running costs for each 5 years. Under the block grant system, grants have been calculated and approved 5 years in advance to enable the universities to plan their activities ahead in the knowledge of what their income from the Government will be. They are block grants in the sense that they are not itemised and their detailed calculation is not disclosed to the universities. This has the effect of making the governing bodies—the university councils—not only responsible for arranging their budgets within their incomes, but also free to make their own decisions about the allocation of new expenditure among the many competing academic proposals which arise within the institutions. With these grants the university councils have an obligation to expand existing classes as necessary where student numbers increase and, subject to the scrutiny of the Curriculum Committee, to offer such courses as they see to be warranted by the demands put on them by the students and by the New Zealand community in which they exist.

The universities offer courses in the usual faculties of arts, science, and commerce, and some in law and music. Most specialise in certain fields. The University of Otago provides courses in medicine, dentistry, mineral technology, home science, physical education, and pharmacy; the University of Canterbury in forestry, engineering and fine arts, and Lincoln College specialises in topics related to agriculture; the University of Auckland provides courses in architecture, fine arts, engineering and medicine; and Victoria University of Wellington provides courses in architecture, public administration, and social work. Massey University provides courses in agriculture, horticulture, food technology, and veterinary science, as well as extramural tuition in a number of subjects to students throughout New Zealand. Joint courses leading to the degree of bachelor of education are available at Waikato, Massey, Canterbury, and Otago universities in association with the local teachers colleges.

Free University Education: Scholarships —The most important awards for those entering university are the University Junior Scholarships. These scholarships are tenable for 3 to 6 years, depending upon the minimum time in which the holder, studying full-time, could complete the recognised course taken under the scholarship. The University Junior Scholarship provides a scholarship allowance of $400 a year and is tenable with a tertiary study grant (see below). These scholarships, together with private endowed scholarships, are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

Scholarships awarded during degree courses include senior scholarships awarded by the individual universities and Lincoln College (and of a value to be determined by them). The various university institutions also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. Scholarships awarded at the end of the university course are listed in full in the university calendars. Most of the postgraduate scholarships and post-doctoral fellowships are tenable in New Zealand.

Tertiary Study Grants—The grant and bursary provisions for students entering upon tertiary courses of education were substantially revised for 1980.

Fees Bursaries are awarded to students following part-time or full-time courses who have qualified for entrance to the university. These bursaries provide payment for 75 percent of tuition fees.

Tertiary Study Grants are awarded to students who hold University Entrance and Higher School Certificate, or certain Sixth Form qualifications, and are tenable for any recognised course at a university in each year of the grant. Also, a student who is credited with 2 units in any year or 3 units over a period of years will qualify for a tertiary study grant.

A tertiary study grant may be held with a fees bursary. It provides for a basic grant of $23 a week, but students may apply for a supplementary hardship grant of up to $20 a week to bring the allowance up to $43 a week. Special rates are available for married students with dependants.

The tertiary study grant is also tenable for full-time courses at technical institutes and teachers colleges.

A and B Bursaries of $150 or $100 a year are awarded to students who gain A or B passes in the University bursaries examinations.

All these grants are subject to strict rules as to terms and suspension. A student who in any year does not pass a prescribed number of units or subjects will have his grant suspended and it will not be reinstated unless in a subsequent year of study he is credited with a prescribed number of passes.

Further details of the amounts payable and other conditions for these grants and bursaries are available from university liaison officers and from the Head Office of the Department of Education, Wellington.

Students—In 1980 there were 43933 students actually in attendance at the universities. In addition, there were 7366 students attached to the various universities, but exempt from lectures, and 309 students who were taking short courses. Comparable figures for the latest 5 years are given in the following table. Students now exceed 1.6 percent of the population.

YearStudents Attending LecturesExempt StudentsTotal
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
197624437154592883342846207
197724695161542782331746948
197824982168532843364548323
197925082174562838377449150
198025554183793092427451299

The following table gives particulars of courses taken by all internal students in 1979 and 1980.

Course19791980
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Agriculture and Horticulture1574420199417105202230
Architecture and Town Planning601166767593170763
Arts43987577119754281782112102
Commerce and Business Administration508714246511527716226899
Divinity/Theology622082701282
Education7161889260573820212759
Engineering22706523352341752416
Fine Arts121170291115153268
Forestry102101129613109
Home Science3183181324325
Law216310143177214511113256
Medicine and Dentistry1784865264917748502624
Music145228373127210337
Optometry371451391655
Pharmacy71711427755132
Philosophy562985562379
Physical Education146153299146164310
Regional Planning352358443579
Science454217986340469920096708
Social Sciences309432741304410714
Social Work8727135875256331
Surveying16581731465151
Technology2869237829992391
Valuation8412969819117
Veterinary Science293177470302177479
Others103673317699967901786
                Total261701797944149265491895345502
Adjustment for students enrolled in more than 1 course108852316119955741569
                Total250821745642538255541837943933

Students on the books of the university institutions in 1980 are shown in the following table.

 AucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Universities
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMF
* Included in the Massey figures are those students already shown as taking a course through Massey but from their own university. To give the correct count per university these 798 students are shown twice in the body of the table but to avoid a double count have been eliminated from the final totals.
Internal students—
    Full-time5129288211988252788168026631777348917881157313311321871953711452
    Part-time18401916399907456761149412249661201621480090460176927
    All internal students69694798159717323244244141573001445529891219327391330912555418379
External students—
    Taking courses at Massey University7913424482854*104*941527989239672854*4104*
    Taking courses at own university257891636361915399238170
    All external students104141325728544104110188115108219216630924274
    All students70734939162917896098654542673189457030971221327410532572864622653
    Overseas students included in total368133109522351233141503971368919134621646675

Internal students by years of university study in 1980 are shown in the following table.

Year of University StudyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Internal StudentsOf These, Overseas Students Numbered
MFTotalMFTotalMFTotalMFTotal
First530234058707817189627136119530111420254149403
Second4246246267085921263185548383725856326385348
Third3546234958955169251441406232747336209133342
Fourth2634142840627308371567336422655629254110364
Fifth16617802441900663156325611443400425995354
Sixth or later214810283176246213433805461023716981407103510
        Total195371145230989601769271294425554183794393316466752321

The ages of internal students at universities in 1980 are shown in the following table.

Age in Years at 1 JulyFull-time Student.Part-time StudentsAll Internal Students
MenWomenTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenTotal
Under 18342411753442482923866591045
18314622955441170641811331629366252
19369323356028231608839392429436867
20334720245371323528851367025526222
21269612963992484512996318018084988
2217807502530543399942232311493472
231147417156446330777016107242334
24780280106043425568912145351749
25–2915587082266147110592530302917674796
30–346023929948408231663144212152657
35–392212334544555259806767581434
40 and over2253115365591022158178413332117
        Total1953711452309896017692712944255541837943933

Internal university students receiving direct government assistance in 1980 are shown in the following table.

Form of AssistanceSo of Students
Tertiary fees grants (full time)13185
Tertiary fees grants (part time)1113
Tertiary study grants23192
Supplementary hardship grants2243
Special hardship grants31
Supplementary allowance A8001
Supplementary allowance B5553
Teachers university studentships483
Secondary teacher studentships995
Teachers bursaries35
Teachers college students fees2811
Rehabilitation and war bursaries26
State Service study awards389
Post Office study awards143
Railways study awards11
Government employees on leave with pay to complete degrees119
Medical bursaries19
Maori National and Maori and Polynesian scholarships46
Other116
              Total58511

NOTE—This table does not include overseas students.

The nature of residence of full-time students at universities in 1980 is shown in the following table.

Nature of ResidenceAucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Full-time StudentsOf These, Overseas Students Numbered
MFTotalMF
Living at home463939073023722523191112976044370119748529
In halls of residence5454049324248264891283312517784903320174
Boarding48114741713019482771048480152817179
Sharing flat or house with others201210512095901172662927286847429511142747278
Other or not known334312946138798391352914427125
              Total80112023446844405277147053001953711452309891394585

Occupations of part-time university students in 1980 are shown in the following table.

OccupationMalesFemalesTotal
No occupation other than study592401993
University staff522366888
Teacher414552966
Teachers college student58920662655
Government employee10466981744
Local body employee371212583
Private employment20599903049
Self-employed person203118321
Housewife or housekeeper1112621273
Full-time student at technical institute212748
Other occupations189235424
                  Total6017692712944

Total of assisted overseas students at New Zealand universities in 1980, by the nature of the assistance, are shown in the following table.

Nature of AssistanceMalesFemalesTotal
Assisted by the New Zealand Government—
    Bilateral aid and assistance23082312
    Island Territories Scholarships224
    Commonwealth Scholarships261238
    Foreign Affairs Exchange Students99
    Others8412
 275100375
Other assistance from—
    Fijian Government19221
    Other Governments (Brazil, Brunei, Iraq, Western Samoa)10111
    WHO, FAO, Fulbright, World Bank1111
    Lee Foundation271037
    Other17926
 8422106
    All assisted overseas students359122481

Graduates—The numbers of degree graduates from New Zealand universities for the years ended with the graduation ceremony in 1979 and 1980 are shown in the following table.

CourseFirst DegreePost-graduate
1979198019791980
Agriculture2042113025
Architecture999813
Arts17361694453416
Commerce and business administration8458925956
Dentistry565274
Divinity/Theology515104
Education1732062626
Engineering3854404050
Fine arts1423110
Forestry343031
Home science16241
Horticulture304464
Law4184141710
Medicine31636155
Music60451613
Pharmacy192212
Philosophy34220188
Physical education57
Regional planning14
Science10921081246233
Social sciences1041123124
Social work928
Surveying2227
Technology/mineral technology415643
Town planning302041
Veterinary science586133
                Total5774598111831082

Time Taken to Complete First Degrees—The following table shows the time taken to complete first degrees for the year ended with the graduation ceremonies in 1980.

DegreeMinimum TimeMinimum Time + One YearMinimum Time + Two YearsMinimum Time + Over Two YearsAll Students
TotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomen
Bachelor Honours:
    Agriculture/Horticulture/Forestry37861439
    Arts/Music433041114832
    Commerce and Business Admin.1141124
    Engineering195221972
    Law271093354413
    Science13338164211115244
    Technology17611187
    Others18631115278
            Total481104421173111541119
Bachelor:
    Agriculture/Horticulture/Forestry13930771514212124248
    Architecture481251172029015
    Arts/Music7795274803011459328715816911079
    Commerce and Business Admin299693155581292213716880165
    Education7555453427185934206141
    Engineering15675912372458
    Law179561242646921337094
    Medicine and Dentistry376116323321413120
    Science4971612726694236610929260
    Social Sciences5636301116610711260
    Technology/Mineral Technology2351131385
    Veterinary Science4917743216122
    Others1055539111574116374
            Total27811146149653153518062823454402091

Staff—The staffing of university institutions in 1980 is shown in the following table.

PositionsFull-time StaffPart-time Staff
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Filled teaching posts—
    Full professors38093893535
    Senior lecturers, associate professors, readers, lecturers in-charge1530123147334716363
    Lecturers614114728751792
    Junior lecturers144752198615101
    Instructors and demonstrators engaged in teaching109451548132331046
                Sub-total2777366314313562811637
Vacant teaching posts—
    Filled temporarily....48....33
    Not filled....96....22
                Sub-total....144....55
                Total established teaching posts....3287....1692
Other staff—
    Technicians, research assistants, and other technical staff not engaged in teaching8693041173247195
    Library staff9732442153195248
    Administrative staff, clerical and office staff377972134912169181
    Groundsmen, tradesmen, cleaners, etc.6116167243205248
                Total non-teaching staff195416613615132640772

TECHNICAL EDUCATION—In 1945 technical education was a variant form of secondary education. It was provided by separate technical high schools and technical departments in other secondary schools, and was avowedly vocational in purpose. During the past 15–20 years technical education has been transferred from the secondary to the tertiary sector of the educational system. Technical high schools as such no longer exist. Vocational education and training is now provided by 13 technical institutes and 4 community colleges supported by apprentice and other tertiary vocational courses provided in 4 senior technical divisions of secondary schools.

This transformation is the result of a number of policy decisions which have created a demand for types of education and training in the post-secondary phase of a person's career.

The passing of the Apprenticeship Act 1948 made it compulsory for apprentices to undertake technical classes; the establishment, in 1949, of the Trades Certification Board and of national trades examinations gave point and direction to apprentice studies; the passing of the Technicians Certification Authority Act 1958 and the introduction of New Zealand Certificates gave encouragement to technician studies; the approval by the Government, in 1969, of the establishment of technical institutes in centres where there is sufficient technical work to occupy 10 tutors full-time advanced the opening of minor institutes in provincial centres by several years; the approval by the Government, in 1972, of the establishment of community colleges allows traditional technical education to be provided in conjunction with other educational services meeting the specific circumstances of the local community, particularly in the non-metropolitan provincial centres. There has been increasing investment in technical institute buildings: more than $10.0 million was spent in the 1979–80 year alone. Technical institute bursaries, which were introduced first in 1965, have now been discontinued and from 1976 technical institute students on full-time year-long courses are eligible, along with university students and teacher trainees, to receive the tertiary assistance grant.

Technical education in New Zealand is still developing and expanding at a very rapid rate. It is being developed through national and regional technical institutes as well as smaller technical institutes or community colleges in provincial centres. The Central Institute of Technology, which gives a predominantly national block course service but also provides some special courses of a national character such as pharmacy, chiropody and occupational therapy, opened in 1960. In 1972 the institute moved to its permanent accommodation at Heretaunga. Technical institutes have been opened in the 6 main centres of population, and, with the opening of Manukau Technical Institute in 1970, the first of a number of suburban institutes was opened to serve the Greater Auckland area. The second, Carrington, opened in 1976. Since 1971, institutes have also been opened in the provincial centres, Invercargill, Nelson, and New Plymouth.

The full list of technical institutes is as follows; Auckland, Manukau, Carrington, Waikato, Taranaki Polytechnic, Palmerston North, Central Institute of Technology, Petone Technical Institute, Wellington Polytechnic, Nelson Polytechnic, Christchurch, Otago Polytechnic, and the New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute. In addition, Hawke's Bay Community College was opened in 1975, both the Northland Community College and the Waiariki Community College at Rotorua opened in 1978, and also in 1978 Southland Polytechnic changed to a community college. There are also 4 senior technical divisions at Gisborne, Wanganui, Tauranga, and Timaru. More community colleges or technical institutes are likely to be opened in the next 10 years in Porirua, Wanganui, Timaru, and Tauranga.

A standing committee on relationships in tertiary education has been set up to consider the problems of placement of courses and the rationalisation of tuition in the technician, semi-professional, and professional fields.

Trade and Technician Courses—The beginnings of technician training date from the early 1950s and were a result of the efforts of the engineering profession to specify a role for a highly-trained person whose qualifications were derived, not from study in a university school of engineering, but from theoretical studies taken in conjunction with industrial experience. The New Zealand Certificate of Engineering was introduced in 1954. This led, in 1960, to the establishment of the Technicians Certification Authority to prescribe courses and syllabuses and conduct examinations for technicians, and to grant diplomas or certificates. In 1979 further recognition of the scope of the work of the TCA was given, its base broadened and it was renamed the Authority for Vocational Awards. Both 5-year New Zealand certificates and 3-year technicians certificates are offered in the following subjects:

New Zealand Certificate: advertising, building, commerce, computer technology, data processing, draughting (architecture), draughting (survey/town and country planning), engineering, forestry, land surveying, quantity surveying, science, statistics, and town planning.

Technicians Certificates: garage management, automotive, civil, draughting, electrical, engineering, mechanical, radio, survey, telegraph and data, telephone, and hospital officers certificate.

The instruction for New Zealand Certificate courses is part-time, or by regular intermittent periods in full-time classes, or by correspondence from the Technical Correspondence Institute supplemented in science and workshop subjects by short practical courses at an institute. In a few cases, study can be taken at full-time courses in a technical institute, but for the first 2 or 3 years only. All New Zealand certificates require students to be suitably employed during the last 2 stages of the course.

During the last 15 years there has been a spectacular increase in the range of technician courses and the number of students studying for New Zealand Certificates. New Zealand Certificates awarded annually have increased from 29 in 1960 to a provisional total of 1048 in 1979.

Apprenticeship training accounts for over 40 percent of the enrolment load of technical institutes. Examination prescriptions for a full range of trade courses and shorthand typing are prescribed by the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, which conducts 2 qualifying and trade certificate examinations for apprenticeship, and usually an advanced trade certificate examination to be taken at about the end of the apprenticeship. Up to 31 March 1980, this board has issued 52755 New Zealand trade certificates and 14058 Advanced Trade Certificates.

Apprentices in almost all trades are obliged to spend at least 3 years in vocational part-time studies. However, the long established pattern where apprentices attend evening theory classes and short block or day release courses for practical training, is undergoing a radical change. An incentives scheme, approved by Government in 1974, subsidises the wages of apprentices on block training and encourages the adoption of lengthened block courses, particularly in the first year of training.

In addition to the national trade and technician courses, there are a large number of courses available which have been organised regionally to meet local demands. These include courses in commerce, work study, electronic data processing, journalism, and in industrial and commercial design. In addition, instruction is given on the examination syllabuses devised by independent organisations such as the New Zealand Society of Accountants, the Chartered Institute of Secretaries, and the New Zealand Institute of Valuers.

Health Services Education—Health-related education accounts for approximately 14 percent of the technical education load and has been a major growth area over the last 5 years. With the transfer of nurse training to the education vote there are now some 700 students enrolling each year in nursing programmes alone. There are currently some 10 diploma and certificate programmes in the health-related areas.

Statistics of students taking full-year courses in technical education at 1 July in 1979 and 1980 are shown in the following table. Courses are classified according to the International Standard Classification of Education.

Full-time Courses: As at 1 July19791980
MalesFemalesTotal StudentsMalesFemalesTotal Students
Level 3
    Fine and applied arts17323941247114161
    Commercial and business15190419191519841999
    Health-related38383838
    Trade, craft, and industrial407113520476287763
    Others1078882684110
              Total6052372297756425073071
Level 5
    Fine and applied arts482775
    Commercial and business427342769405396801
    Data processing47651123966105
    Medicine and paramedical2541495174925517241979
    Engineering29383013226328
    Science293766334679
    Draughting235532477
    Surveying3423633336
    Others12868196213153366
              Total126220473309135324183771
              Grand total186744196286191749256842

Students taking pan-time courses as at 1 July 1980 are shown by the type and level of course in the following table.

Part-time Courses: As at 1 July 1980Students takingTotal Students
Day or Day and Evening CoursesEvening Courses OnlyCorrespondence CoursesMalesFemalesTotal
* Formerly Technicians' Certification Authority.
Level 3
    Authority for Vocational Awards*397268170021681972365
    Apprentice139356911360119212147320685
    Vocational2341213447747114801995231432
Level 5
    Authority for Vocational Awards*4512139048608392237010762
    Professional and advanced technical3258295260108931328912220
Level 9—
    Non-vocational6574540814255171504776064910
        Total1847585726381736733375041142374

New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute—The Department of Education established the Technical Correspondence School (now the Technical Correspondence Institute) in 1946, and from small beginnings, with a staff of a half dozen or so, this institute now employs over 530 full-time staff. With nearly 35000 students on the roll, the Technical Correspondence Institute is easily the biggest single educational institution in the country. It teaches one-third of all students enrolled at technical institutes in New Zealand. The institute writes, illustrates, and prints the material for all the courses offered by it, as well as writing and publishing authoritative textbooks on technical subjects with accent on New Zealand law, practice, and conditions. The 8 text books at present in print are widely used not only by Technical Correspondence Institute students but also by all other technical teaching institutions, tradesmen and technicians, and even the general public.

The Technical Correspondence Institute parallels the teaching standards of other technical institutes, and also provides instruction in many subjects not taught elsewhere. Of the apprentices who sit the annual examinations of the Trades Certification Board, some 40 percent are directed to enrol at the Technical Correspondence Institute.

The institute also prepares a large percentage of candidates for the Authority for Vocational Awards examinations in engineering, building, commerce, draughting, and science as well as for other professional and industrial examinations. Voluntary students studying for advanced trade, technician or professional qualifications comprise about two-thirds of the roll. The Technical Correspondence Institute offers over 900 subjects, from ladies' hairdressing, plumbing, and agriculture to airline pilots' licence and professional accountancy. To enrol at the Technical Correspondence Institute students must be engaged in the vocation relevant to their course of study, hence their correspondence studies are supported by practical experience. In some cases, laboratory work or practical instruction is required as pan of the course. In such cases students attend short block courses at the Central Institute of Technology or other institutes.

EDUCATIONAL ATTENDANCE LEVELS OF ADULT POPULATION—The 1976 Census of Population included a question on the post-primary places of learning attended by those 15 years of age and above. An analysis of data obtained is set out below in 2 separate tabulations. The first gives details of attendance at general educational establishments including teachers colleges and technical institutes. The second table covers the remaining vocational institutions. Each person has been included in only 1 category in each table, although in some instances they may appear in both tables. The figures include those currently attending the institutions. Cases of nil or not specified post-primary attendance have been omitted.

InstitutionMalesFemalesTotal
Secondary school only6036417056241309265
University8289935574118473
Technical institute14386942806186675
Teachers college101193875848877
University and technical institute14933364118574
University and teachers college158272294638773
Technical institute and teachers college339518885283
University, technical institute and teachers college147713502827
        Total8761608525871728747
Vocational InstitutionMalesFemalesTotal
* Not hobby class.
Nursing school20733973641809
Vocational training centre10195140511600
University extension, W.E. A. course*4719556310282
Armed forces school68523647216
Business college186648876753
Theological college, seminary352513794904
Professional institute43323824714
Dental nursing school940934102
Secretarial, etc., school10835073615
Music, art, drama school79219212713
Other tertiary9483693916422
        Total4395470176114130

NEW ZEALAND COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH—The Carnegie Corporation of New York was instrumental in founding the New Zealand Council for Educational Research in 1933 and supported it with grants for 10 years. Since 1945 the council has been supported principally by State funds, the remainder coming from contributions from educational bodies, philanthropic foundations, business organisations, and its own trading operations. It has remained, however, under independent control as provided for in the New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1945 (updated in 1972).

In its research programme, the council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and its main publications (more than 60 research reports and numerous shorter studies in education) include critical surveys of major policy issues in New Zealand education and accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. These have brought about or helped reshape major developments in such areas as secondary, university, and adult education, intermediate schools, consolidation of rural schools, and care of children with special needs. The council also publishes a number of periodical publications, newsletters, the New Zealand Journal for Educational Studies, and a special research information package for teachers.

Since the 1930s, the council has served as the main source of supply for overseas and locally standardised educational and psychological tests used by universities, Government agencies, hospitals, business firms, and schools. In 1965 the council established a special Test Development Division to produce achievement tests designed specifically to suit the curricula of New Zealand schools. Known as the Progressive Achievement Tests, they are now used extensively in schools throughout this country, and also in Australia.

The council employs its own permanent research staff as well as temporary research fellows or project assistants, and it also assists honorary research workers in other institutions such as universities, teachers colleges, and schools. Its current research programme includes major projects related to educational planning, the supply of qualified people in the community, teaching practices, Maori and pre-school education, and services for children with special needs. The council also acts as a clearing house for information on educational matters and maintains 8 local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Palmerston North, Hamilton, Manukau, and Suva (Fiji).

MAORI EDUCATION FOUNDATION—The Maori Education Foundation Act 1961 established the Maori Education Foundation for the general purpose of promoting and encouraging the better education of Maoris and of providing financial assistance for that purpose. The capital resources of the foundation are $2,407,755. The principal purpose for which the Board of Trustees is empowered is to apply the income of the foundation to the educational and vocational training of Maoris. This includes the provision of grants to pre-school groups and the employment of a pre-school officer; sponsorship of the 2 annual speech contests; grants to secondary school pupils, and to students attending university or other tertiary institutions of similar status; the provision of scholarships and fellowships to students undertaking graduate and post-graduate study at New Zealand and overseas universities; and grants to students undertaking research or study which will be of ultimate benefit to the Maori people.

In the 1980 academic year a total of $432,000 was expended on grants. Of this, $17,000 was for preschool activities; $360,000 was for grants to secondary school pupils; $44,000 was for grants at undergraduate level; and $11,000 on grants at graduate and post-graduate level.

PACIFIC ISLANDS POLYNESIAN EDUCATION FOUNDATION—In 1972 the Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation was established to assist Pacific Islands students who reside permanently in New Zealand. The aims and objectives of the foundation are similar in most respects to those of the Maori Education Foundation, and assistance is also given at all levels of education. In the 1980 academic year $27,000 was expended on grants and a total of 88 students were assisted.

CONTINUING EDUCATION—The development of technical education has already been described. The functions and powers of the National Council of Adult Education are set out in the Adult Education Act 1963. One of the council's most important functions is to take an overall cognizance of the development of adult education in New Zealand. In practice the council seeks to encourage complementary activities, and provision in a wide and growing range of institutions, agencies, and organisations which provide learning opportunities to the community in the post-compulsory phase of learning.

The council advises the Director-General of Education and various organisations on adult education, it co-ordinates and conducts pilot projects and experiments, maintains a national library and documentation centre on adult education, and publishes magazines, and occasional papers as well as a periodical entitled Continuing Education in New Zealand.

UNIVERSITY EXTENSION—Although full responsibility and control of their continuing education activities rest with the universities, they use various systems to ascertain the views of (and in some cases to seek advice from) various community interests.

A typical centre for continuing education in a university has a director in charge and a staff of lecturers in a range of academic disciplines. In addition to teaching, the lecturers may plan and develop sections of the department's programme or have special responsibility for a geographical area and its programme. All 6 universities now carry out extension work, but they show marked differences in their approaches and systems of organisation. A large number of university academic staff are co-opted in order to supplement the activity of the full-time staff (totalling about 30). The work is carried out by various methods—lecture courses, study conferences, seminars, schools of varying length (both residential and non-residential), and correspondence courses. While most universities continue to provide for the general public with substantial extension programmes in the liberal studies area, there has been a significant increase in programmes designed for specialised groups, largely occupational. Some of these are national in scope.

SECONDARY SCHOOLS—Most organised adult education is being done by evening classes in secondary schools. Since the revision of the School Certificate regulations to allow single subject passes, there has been some increase in adult classes leading to the School Certificate examination, but there is a very wide range of other examinable and non-examinable courses. A provision to the Education Act in 1975 allowed adults to return full-time or part-time to secondary schools, in day classes. There followed for the next few years a rapid increase in the number of adult admissions to day classes. Although the momentum has not been maintained, today the number of adult admissions to day classes in secondary schools has increased to approximately 2500. This is in addition to the evening class programmes.

TECHNICAL INSTITUTES AND COMMUNITY COLLEGES—There has also been an increase in the number of technical institutes which cater for a wide variety of education interests. The community colleges have as a prime function catering for the continuing education needs of the local community as well as their technical education.

CORRESPONDENCE EDUCATION—The main agencies in the field of education by correspondence are the Correspondence School (over 10,000 adult student enrolled), the extramural studies of Massey University (7000), and the Technical Correspondence Institute (approximately 35,000 enrolments in 1980).

Voluntary Agencies—Many voluntary organisations make some provision for continuing education. For most of them, such as the Play Centres Federation, continuing education is incidental to other purposes. The following 2 organisations, however, have continuing education as their primary purpose.

Workers' Educational Association—District councils of the Workers' Educational Association exist in Auckland, West Auckland, New Plymouth, Kapiti Coast, Wellington, Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, and are funded annually through the Department of Education. There are also branches of WEA in East Auckland, Upper Hutt, and South East Christchurch. In Auckland, Wellington, and Canterbury there is a full-time organising tutor, funded by local technical institutes. District councils organise courses, summer schools, public forums and seminars, and adult literacy schemes. The coordinating body is the New Zealand Workers' Education Association which also publishes the WEA Review, and operates a postal book discussion scheme on a national basis. It also, with the Federation of Labour and the National Council of Adult Education, conducts a postal education service for trade unionists and their families.

Countrywomen's Co-ordinating Committee—This national liaison committee of the Countrywomen's Institute and the Women's Division of Federated Farmers has regional committees at Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin and over 50 district committees. The organisation co-operates with other adult education organisations and also arranges classes of special interest to women.

There are a number of other locally-based continuing education programmes supported by the government. The Rural Education Activities Package has led to full-time community education organisers being appointed in Taihape, Gisborne and Blenheim with Kaitaia, Taumarunui, and Greymouth due in 1980.

Community Centres—Community centres which opened experimentally some 40 years ago in Feilding, Christchurch, and Westport were the forerunners of the newly established school-based community learning centres. Generally the centres receive professional and ancillary staffing and an annual grant. In effect, 11 community learning centres have been established.

Several other schools which have developed large community programmes have been given lesser levels of support in the meantime.

Still another group of schools have developed successful programmes within their own resources, or with additional support from the Ministry of Recreation and Sport.

All these schools have developed community education programmes which aim at increasing the community involvement in continuing education by making a wider use of schools for expanded extension programmes and, by using the resources of the community, to enrich the programmes of pupils still at school.

The Community Action Programme (CAP) in the Wairarapa region is partly supported by the Government to provide a range of continuing education programmes to meet a wide variety of learning needs in the area. The Community Education Service (CES) in the Nelson region is a similar organisation supported by the Government to provide for the learning needs of people in the Nelson area.

Special Employment Scheme—A scheme to assist young unemployed people was introduced in 1978. Special advisory committees co-operating with the Department of Labour's district offices assess local needs and employment opportunities in their area and courses ranging from a few days to 6 weeks are provided in the skills and pre-employment fields.

INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION—The Directorate for International Education provides technical advice to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on education activities under New Zealand's Overseas Aid Programme in South-east Asia and the Pacific and in Commonwealth countries outside that region. It provides advice to the Government on academic questions affecting the education and training of private overseas students in New Zealand. It also provides advice on New Zealand participation in the activities of international educational organisations, including the Commonwealth and the South-east Asian Ministers of Education Organisation.

In the Pacific, the directorate on request fills about 50 teaching and educational administrative positions. Officers and teachers serving in the islands have their service, grading, and superannuation rights protected. Advisory visits are made to most of the islands and supplies of resource material and apparatus are sent regularly to some countries.

The administration of a scholarship system which gives island students education and training not otherwise available is, at present, being transferred from the directorate to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Under this scheme, in 1980, 192 students attended New Zealand schools, trade centres, teachers colleges, universities, Government departments, private firms, and technical institutes. In 1979 there were 10008 candidates from 124 island schools compared with 10600 from 120 schools in 1978 entered for the New Zealand School Certificate Examination and 3446 candidates from 67 schools entered for the New Zealand University Entrance Examination compared with 2808 from 57 schools in 1978.

The directorate is responsible for bilateral educational and cultural exchanges programmes such as the New Zealand - Japan Exchange Programme. This programme, funded by the New Zealand and Japanese governments, provides financial and administrative support for a wide range of activities for school teachers, artists, and scholars. Since the programme began operation in 1975, a primary objective has been the development of Japanese language learning and teaching in New Zealand.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development—Membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1973 enabled New Zealand to participate in the activities of its Education Committee. In 1975 New Zealand also became a member of OECD's Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI) and the programme on educational building.

Further Information—A small selection of the many books on education is included in the Bibliography near the back of this Yearbook. The following official publications deal with statistics and administration rather than with pedagogy.

Report of the Department of Education (Parl. paper E.1).

Education Statistics of New Zealand—Department of Education.

Reports of the University Grants Committee and University Institutions (Parl. paper E.3).

Report of the Maori Education Foundation (Parl. paper E.24).

Report of the Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation (Parl. paper E.21).

UN Statistical Yearbook—United Nations.

7 B—SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC SERVICES

“… We remain convinced, despite our acute awareness of some of the hazards with which our countries are confronted, of the enormous potential of science and technology to alleviate the human condition and improve the quality of life for most of the inhabitants of this planet.

We do not subscribe to the denigration of technical change as such. We are convinced that technological opportunities have not been exhausted. Not only in the obvious fields of microelectronics, communication, and information systems, but in other areas too, such as biotechnologies, energy technologies, and materials technology there is continuing scope for rapid technical advance. Nor do we see immediate limits to scientific enquiry per se.”

(OECD Group of Experts. Technical Change and Economic Policy: Science and technology in the new economic and social context. 1980. Paris, OECD.)

THE SCIENTIFIC VIEWPOINT* —The year just completed has seen the beginning of an exciting upsurge in development within New Zealand. The formulation of plans and the decision to proceed with projects associated with the energy requirements of the country are, of course, central to these activities. The extension of the oil refinery and the building of methanol and synthetic gasoline plants will have an enormous impact on the economy of the country. In addition, plans have been announced for major new developments in manufacturing, forest utilisation, and horticulture. Industries based on the use of the country's abundant electric power and mineral resources appear likely to proceed.

Science in New Zealand has already done much to place us in a position to go ahead with these developments. Also, science has a vital and continuing part to play in these developments over the next several decades. It is true that at present most New Zealand industries are small in scale and heavily dependent on overseas technology. With the advent of these major industries the introduction of overseas technology will continue and the need for Government scientific research and problem-solving services will grow at a more rapid rate. The National Research Advisory Council (NRAC) has accepted the Government's direction to intensify its endeavours to guide scientific work along lines that are relevant to economic development. Criteria which have been defined during the year are concerned with the growth of exports, the reduction of imports, and the development of new industries that will provide work opportunities. In giving effect to these directions, NRAC has endeavoured to maintain and in some cases to expand the more important research programmes in the environmental and social sciences. This has not been easy as, in common with other Government activities, there have been restraints on research expenditure. Greater attention has therefore been paid to assessing priorities and emphasis has been placed on flexibility in procedures in order to enable priorities to be changed. Attention has also been drawn to the importance of research contracts to make use of the widest possible range of scientific resources.

* Adapted from the annual report of the National Research Advisory Council (NRAC).

The council believes that now more than ever there is an opportunity for science and technology to make a great contribution to the economic well-being of the country. It is time for re-examination of objectives and programmes by individual science departments and for redirecting effort where this may be necessary. It is vital that all scientific resources be used, that departments work closely with universities, and that both make their work known to the “science users” in the private sector.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) was formed with the purpose of co-ordinating and applying scientific research to foster the development of the primary and secondary industries. From its inception the department has sustained a constant philosophy of co-operation with other sectors in the community, even as the directions of research and the forms of collaboration have altered to anticipate or respond to the changing opportunities and needs of new and established industries.

Today, the search for solutions to such questions as energy supply, the diversification of agricultural production, greater local processing of indigenous natural products and raw materials, and the effects of the electronics revolution fore-shadowed in the growing power of micro-processors, all present great challenges but equally great opportunities to improve the economic and social well-being of the community.

Many of the current problems amenable to the application of scientific research and development are of such scope and complexity that to solve them completely, with respect to research, development, commercial evaluation, and marketing, is beyond the capability of any one organisation. Solutions to problems of national importance can only be found by drawing on and integrating the accumulated knowledge and experience, the skills, and resources of many sections of the community.

Even within DSIR itself, the variety of scientific work required for projects of national importance necessitates inter-divisional collaboration. For example, DSIR involvement in the development of geothermal energy resources has required an input from geologists, geophysicists, chemists and chemical engineers, metallurgists, mathematicians, and ecologists, and no single division contains the range of skills represented by these disciplines. The work has nevertheless been done by integrating the specialised contributions of staff from at least 6 different divisions.

In all such developments of national importance a comparable co-operative effort using the expertise of government departments, industry, the business community, the universities, and the research associations is essential if major economic opportunities, particularly for increasing exports or replacing imports, are to be successfully planned and implemented.

In this wider context, DSIR, as the largest single scientific organisation in the country, has a role to play at many stages in the development process and, because of its diversity, in many different fields.

In the field of energy alone, different divisions have been working on a variety of projects related to the supply of alternative liquid fuels. Research and development has included testing of different blends of methanol and petrol in test vehicles, and the running of fleet vehicles in everyday operation in collaboration with other organisations. The department has also completed a study determining the feasibility of local manufacture of compressed natural gas conversion kits and cylinders for cars. Assessments have been made of possible alternative methods for the manufacture of synthetic petrol from natural gas, coal, and wood. Much of such work is based on reviews of overseas technology. Arising from this is another important function of the department, namely maintaining an overview of overseas developments and adapting them to New Zealand conditions. Still related to liquid fuels, the department also provides geological services to support the Petrocorp drilling programme. It played a considerable part in assessing and defining the extent of lignite deposits in Southland and Otago which could be a future source of liquid fuels. With respect to other future resources, the possibilities of biomass conversion—wood or crops grown specifically for processing into fuel—are being looked at in collaboration with other organisations. In addition, DSIR representation on the Liquid Fuels Trust Board and the initial secondment to and later employment of officers on, the board's staff ensure close collaboration between the department and the board.

As with energy and liquid fuels research, a similar broadly-based approach to problems is evident in the other main fields of DSIR activity.

In agriculture, much effort is still being devoted to such traditional fields as pastoral production, with emphasis on improving hill country productivity.

Horticulture is very much a growth industry and there is widespread appreciation of the potential for increased exports of horticultural produce to new markets. The export of kiwifruit is the most often quoted success story, but there is a real awareness that other fruits and vegetables could make a significant contribution to export earnings.

To provide research and development support for the rapidly growing horticultural industry, the department formed a new division of horticulture and processing, which came into being on 1 April 1980. The division will continue the established work on horticulture which has been carried out for many years, but its formation acknowledges that the potential of horticulture to increase export earnings is so great as to justify a separate division responsible for research and development on horticulture production and processing. The new division will also investigate fish processing as part of a general responsibility to develop processing of natural products. By providing a focal point for DSIR horticultural research and by maintaining a close liaison with other research organisations and the growers, the new division will help ensure that research effort is not duplicated and that findings of direct benefit to growers are made available for prompt application.

Also in support of horticultural exports, the department is setting up a research programme on fumigation of fruit. Initially this is being done in response to the requirement that apples and pears will only be allowed on the North American market if they are free from infestation by leaf roller and have been treated with acceptable and proved methods of eliminating the insect pest. A pilot-plant fumigation system to meet this market's requirements is being developed in co-operation with the Apple and Pear Marketing Board.

However, it is evident that other markets will impose similar requirements for the elimination of insect pests from other fruits, and a series of projects to develop fumigation methods which do not affect the quality of the fruit but guarantee that it is insect-free are being designed.

Although individual projects in the main fields in which DSIR is involved—agricultural production and processing, energy, manufacturing, the natural environment, transport, building and construction, and the provision of scientific services to other organisations—may seem relatively modest in scope, collectively in each field they add up to a major resource of information and expertise within the community.

The diversity of projects and services outlined in the body of this report indicates the depth and breadth of the resources which DSIR can contribute to these and other areas of national importance. But this resource of scientific and technical expertise can only be fully productive if it is linked to the complementary resources of industry, such as production capability, management, and marketing skills, and to the special capabilities of other research organisations such as universities and research associations.

DSIR is therefore fully committed to the necessity for optimising our total national science and technology resources, and for ensuring that the results of such work are put into practice to assist the economic and social development of New Zealand and to improve our quality of life.

Agricultural Production—Producers of agricultural products are faced with both adverse trading conditions in many markets and rising internal costs. As summarised in the Government's recent publication Growth Opportunities in New Zealand, however, there are clear opportunities for substantial expansion and diversification of both pastoral agriculture and horticulture. The contribution of scientists and technologists in aiding farmers and growers to maximise outputs of a more diverse range of products and, at the same time minimise inputs of capital, labour, fertiliser, and energy, is of first-order importance in a rapidly changing world.

In pastoral farming research, emphasis is placed on improving production from the major grassland regions by the selection, breeding, and management of better pasture varieties selected for all-round agronomic superiority in particular grassland environments, such as Northland, Southland, dryland hill country, etc. Particular attention is being given to the efficiency of utilisation of fertiliser phosphorus, to improved fixation of nitrogen by pasture legumes, and to greater resistance to pasture pests and diseases. The control of pests and weeds by biological predation and parasitism is also emphasised.

The strong trend to crop and horticultural diversification and expansion is involving DSIR in close association with the various industry sectors. During the last few years, useful formal consultative procedures have developed with the viticultural and kiwifruit industries. These enable the salient problems to be clearly defined and research resources to be deployed to best effect. A significant development is the delineation by several DSIR Divisions and the Meteorological Service of the suitability on the basis of soil and climate of various land areas for different crops. Emphasis in research is being given to integrated control of pests using a combination of biological predators and chemical treatments; to the breeding of varieties with resistance to various pest/disease complexes; and to retention of product quality to the market place.

Processing of Agricultural Products—It is now appreciated that further processing of New Zealand agricultural products can considerably increase our export income. Many processing industries are supported by strong research associations—the Dairy Research Institute, Meat Industry Research Institute, Wool Research Organisation, and Leather and Shoe Research Association (see section on Grant-aided Research). As well as supporting the research associations financially, DSIR assists the particular industries with research where special expertise or equipment is available. This is done in close co-operation with research association and industry staff. DSIR also contracts with universities for particular research or services, e.g., it provides funds to the Food Technology Centre at Massey University to enable full-time staff to be employed on technical inquiry work and in developing new products. There is collaboration with the programmes of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (see later in this section).

The quality of export produce at the market place and the factors controlling it are receiving increasing attention. Work is being undertaken on the optimum conditions of storage and transport of food and vegetables in order to improve and preserve the keeping quality and freedom from infestations. For example, there have been recent projects with the Apple and Pear Board on the bulk treatment of apples to prevent “bitter-pit” and on fumigation procedures.

DSIR has pilot-plant facilities at Lower Hutt, Palmerston North, and Auckland which are available to industry and to Government departments in developing the further processing of agricultural products. An agreement has been entered into with Massey University to develop joint pilot-plant facilities for the biochemical processing of agricultural materials. Some examples of recent pilot-plant projects include pectin production from citrus wastes, lanoline recovery from woolscour effluents, improvements in rennin extraction, solasodine recovery, seed oil extraction, and fruit juice preparation.

Processing industries are helped to raise their efficiencies by automation, mathematical modelling techniques, and improved processes.

Energy—During the past year, energy has continued to be of key importance in New Zealand and DSIR research activities. Foremost among the areas of interest has been the search for alternatives to imported liquid fuels. DSIR is represented on the Liquid Fuels Trust Board, and the board's technical management group was initially staffed by DSIR engineers and scientists on secondment. The situation where DSIR builds up expertise in an area of increasing national interest and supplies staff to a newly-created research/investigational organisation is by no means uncommon, and parallel examples in the past have occurred with the establishment of research associations. The process is accepted as an essential DSIR function.

DSIR has itself undertaken contract work for the Liquid Fuels Trust Board in the areas of vehicle engine testing and transport fuel modelling. It has continued its work in road testing of vehicles using 10 percent and higher blends of methanol in a gasoline fuel. Associated projects include investigating the engine modifications necessary with these fuels, and with methanol substituting wholly or partly for gasoline and diesel.

Background research to ensure the minimum levels of knowledge are available in New Zealand is being undertaken in the fields of the catalysts used in processes to produce appropriate synthetic fuels.

Coal exploration continues at a high level, both to ensure adequate future supplies to traditional markets, and to cover the possibility of its future use as the feedstock for a synthetic liquid fuels plant. The recently drilled South Island lignite deposits could well be used for liquid fuel production in the future, and Geological Survey officers are continuing their detailed appraisal of drilling results in eastern Southland. Current North Island drilling programmes cover Huntly and the area north of there, the southern parts of the Waikato coalfield, and the Taranaki coalfield. DSIR provides detailed geological services to all these operations, as well as advice on geophysical techniques.

Petroleum exploration is again gaining momentum, and the past 3 years' work of reorganising and reassessing oil company and allied geological reports is now available to geologists of exploration companies that are interested in New Zealand licence areas. Microfossil determination services have again been supplied for Petrocorp on a day-by-day basis in their drilling of the Toko and McKee wells in Taranaki.

Geothermal research for the projected Broadlands power station has centred principally on pilot plant work to determine, for example, ideal design for condensers (which is now complete), and on reinjection trials for waste water (which are continuing). The DSIR exploration team, with a wide range of specialist capabilities, has been associated with the drilling and testing of new successful wells at both Kawerau and Ngawha. The geographic location of Ngawha, north of the narrow isthmus at Auckland, makes it of key future importance. During the year, DSIR convened meetings at which a detailed monitoring programme was drawn up for the Rotorua geothermal system, aimed to determine the extent to which hot water can be safely utilised without affecting the key tourist attractions at Whakarewarewa. It also assisted the Rotorua District Council and the Ministry of Energy in establishing guidelines for approving applications for geothermal drilling permits in the interim period until the monitoring programme results are available. DSIR continues to assist New Zealand consulting firms in their international geothermal operations by supplying specialist staff. This, and assignments for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the United Nations, has involved work in India, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Ethiopia, and teaching at the Auckland Geothermal Institute (set up as an overseas aid project).

Wood is becoming increasingly important in the energy field. DSIR's work on two-chamber domestic stoves that gasify wood is now complete, and New Zealand industry has begun manufacture. Work is proceeding on larger-scale equipment, and, more importantly, on the large-scale gasification of wood as an essential preliminary to consideration of synthetic liquid fuel production from wood in New Zealand.

Manufacturing—DSIR assistance to the manufacturing industry continues to expand. This work covers many facets and involves close co-operation with individual companies, industry associations, and Government departments. Specific elements of the DSIR effort include maintenance of standards and calibration services; advice on new or existing processes; investigation of industry capabilities, efficiencies, and problems of operation; availability of pilot-plant processing facilities; studies of effective transfer of technology into and within New Zealand; advice on quality control procedures; and the practical development of New Zealand inventions.

Rapid developments in electronics and in data processing technology have many implications in New Zealand's industrial future. DSIR is intensively studying microprocessor and automation technology and is assisting with practical applications in several industries.

The first of the new buildings at Lower Hutt for the National Pilot-plant Centre of the Industrial Processing Division is now complete, and this will facilitate co-operative work with industry on trials of new processes and product development.

Some manufacturing industries are supported by their own research associations, e.g., pottery and ceramics, building, fertiliser, logging, heavy engineering, and concrete. These research associations, which are backed by DSIR support and Government subsidy, stimulate industries to accept a greater responsibility for forward-looking research in their fields.

In the last 3 years the Physics and Engineering Laboratory has established a number of industry study programmes aimed at identifying the strengths and weaknesses of manufacturing in New Zealand. One such programme was based on the uses made of a technical information service set up for the metal finishing industry. This indicated diverse attitudes towards technology and ways in which DSIR could help to solve the diverse problems of this small industry group.

Machine tools are basic to a successful manufacturing industry. Although the New Zealand machine tool manufacturing industry concentrates on comparatively simple machines, interviews with those manufacturing metal-working machines (about 55 altogether) indicates a flair for innovation. This flair is particulary evident within a small group of manufacturers producing special purpose machines for New Zealand and export markets.

To succeed against international competition a small firm is forced to be innovative and adaptable just to survive. Although New Zealand has many small firms, the main contrast with other countries is the small number of very large firms. This, and the low level of research and development in industry, are characteristics of New Zealand manufacturing that are being considered in the strategy for manufacturing development.

The requirements for success in technological innovation have been evaluated, and calculations show that the limited amount a small firm is able to invest in research and development is a major constraint. A survey of 2000 manufacturers carried out by the Physics and Engineering Laboratory indicates that increasing costs are the major problem of the industry. Government regulations are also of considerable concern, although many companies feel Government should have the major responsibility for areas that in other countries are traditionally the responsibility of private enterprise. Of particular note in this regard are the activities of gathering information on Market conditions and opportunities, profitable exports, and development finance. They have also a widespread acceptance that the quality of products produced in New Zealand is quite satisfactory.

The information from all these studies is being used to improve the DSIR services available to manufacturing. For example added emphasis is being given to assistance with quality control, obtaining the technology that best satisfies manufacturers' needs, and above all, helping the manufacturer to help himself, and thereby strengthening the whole industrial base.

Natural Environment—As in previous years, the trend has continued for demands for information to be made on DSIR by other Government departments, e.g., Ministry of Works and Development, New Zealand Forest Service, Department of Lands and Survey; by local bodies such as catchment boards; by national authorities such as the Water and Soils Council and the Commission for the Environment; and by the private sector. The information is used in assessments of land resources, planning erosion control, and so on. It is usually required urgently, clients being unwilling to wait for data to be gathered. DSIR's work relating to New Zealand's natural environment therefore has to be far wider than what is commonly understood as “Environmental research”. In the field of environmental reporting and auditing, DSIR scientists are asked to make practical comments based on the best available information. In answering such requests, full use is made of a considerable volume of basic scientific information, gathered over many decades, regarding the land, sea, and air surrounding New Zealand as well as its fauna and flora.

Gathering this basic information is an essential part of every nation's scientific effort, involving the disciplines of geology, geophysics, soil science, oceanography, atmospheric physics, zoology, botany, and ecology. The work is recorded in scientific papers, bulletins, and maps, which axe published both in New Zealand—principally by DSIR itself—and overseas. It is vital that this fundamental work continues, so that the best decisions can be made about matters affecting the environment.

There are many uses for this basic information, in addition to the assessment of environmental impact. It provides a reservoir of information on reserves, forests, lakes, and coasts, and it has considerable relevance to such practical questions as the effect of effluent disposal on soils and on freshwater and estuarine ecology, and the causes and effects of soil erosion. It provides an essential input for decisions on land use and management. Thus, most of the scientific background information required under the Town and Country Planning Act is provided by DSIR for the Department of Lands and Survey. As a general guide to land management issues and research needs, a working party of DSIR scientists drawn from pastoral and horticultural science, general ecology and botany, soil and geological science wrote a third paper in the DSIR Discussion Paper Series entitled Land Alone Endures. This paper studies the complex interactions between urban living, agriculture, horticulture, forestry, mining, conservation, and recreation, and gives practical recommendations by which planning authorities might obtain improved usage of available scientific information.

The Abbotsford landslide of August 1979 occurred in a district where there have been many previous landslips. It has resulted in a much increased public awareness of the problems of slope stability, and of the part that geological investigations can play in urban development.

The landslide took place at a time when Geological Survey had begun relatively large-scale mapping for an urban geology map of the south-west Dunedin district. The first map of this series, published in November 1979, was of the Nelson urban area. Such urban geological mapping by DSIR provides the first step towards the detail needed by identifying the main problem areas. Fully adequate surveys for regional planning purposes would in many places include detailed investigations of the ground subsurface.

As the slide progressively developed to the point of catastrophic failure, Geological Survey geologists co-operated with the official group in siting drillholes and interpreting the data. After the failure, the main responsibility for the programme of investigation into causes lay with Geological Survey; the drilling and field measurements of water levels were carried out by the Ministry of Works and Development. In the later stages of investigations, the Soil Bureau, DSIR, was involved in the collection and testing of samples.

A greater appreciation of geology and geological hazards in town and country planning may prevent future loss of property and facilities by recognising potential hazards and by planning to avoid their more serious effects. Nevertheless, the number of geologists in New Zealand suitably qualified in engineering geology to undertake and evaluate this type of work is limited, and the surveys of all important areas likely to be affected will take many years.

Pauatahanui Inlet has been the subject of a multidisciplinary Study of the effects of accelerated land developments, which appeared to be adversely affecting its recreational facilities. A wide range of scientific studies have been carried out both on the estuary itself and on the surrounding catchment. As well as scientific results which are reported in various scientific journals, the information obtained has been published as a book Pauatahanui Inlet: An Environmental Study, providing information for planners, developers, and the community. This book outlines the background data obtained for the inlet, and also examines planning implications arising from the findings.

Underground nuclear tests at Mururoa Atoll are regularly detected by the seismograph at Rarotonga and the micro-earthquake networks at Wellington and Pukaki. At Rarotonga the “signature” on the seismograms is quite unique and is clearly identifiable as the “T phase”, the sound wave which travels in the ocean. The quite separate “P wave” is picked up by the micro-earthquake networks in New Zealand, particularly on the Pukaki network which is more sensitive than that at Wellington.

Seismograph readings are used to confirm that tests have taken place, and to estimate the yield. Approximate relationships between yield and trace amplitude, and also duration of signal, have been developed. At the request of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the department has represented New Zealand at the meetings in Geneva of the Ad Hoc Group of Scientific Experts to Consider International Co-operative Measures to Detect and Identify Seismic Events.

Scientific Services—A large part of DSIR work is carried out in fields other than those described above; it covers a wide range of topics. Often, scientific assistance is given to a Government department which has primary administrative responsibility in an activity, such as human health, forestry, transport, communications, social science, and the administration of justice. Centralised DSIR laboratories enable high-level scientific services to be provided economically to meet administrative needs, including forensic services for the police, chemical services for the Department of Health on food and water quality, and assistance to coroners and commissions of inquiry. In particular, the forensic work for the police has expanded rapidly in recent years, with increasing numbers of cases involving illicit drugs and crimes against the person.

DSIR maintains the primary standards of physical measurement in the country. An increased need for calibration and standardisation services has resulted from the expansion of the manufacturing industries.

Specialist advice and assistance is given to many private and government organisations dealing with the forestry, fishing, mineral, and building industries.

DSIR publishes seven research journals, open to contributions from scientists in other government departments, universities, museums, and other scientific establishments.

Among DSIR's many publications is included an annual Seismological Report containing detailed analysis of all New Zealand earthquakes. When Geophysics Division, which analyses the seismological records, acquired its own, small, in-house computer, means were sought of converting the data, at the time of analysis, into a form that could be input to the Government Printer's Linotron phototypesetting system. In a joint project the department and the Government Printing Office have developed a Fortran program to convert the codes used internally by Geophysics Division's computer into the inverted TTS code used by the Linotron phototypesetter. It is being applied in the establishment of an editorial processing centre at Science Information Division for producing the seven New Zealand research journals; it is also being used to provide legends for maps and illustrations produced in Science Information Division. It will not only assist DSIR's publishing needs, but will have widespread application throughout the Public Service. Tests are being made of its applicability to the production of Hansard.

The department's reputation for expertise and standards of service is high with the general public and overseas, as well as in scientific circles in New Zealand. Its activities, achievements, and organisation are described in its annual report to Parliament, available from the Government Printer.

Grants paid in 1979–80 to research and allied institutions by DSIR are shown in the following table.

InstitutionAmount
 $(000)
Universities (Auckland, Canterbury, Lincoln, Massey, Otago) and University Grants Committee371
Research associations—
    Building Research Association414
    Coal Research Association242
    Concrete Research Association98
    Dairy Research Institute1,055
    Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association195
    Heavy Engineering Research Association21
    Leather and Shoe Research Association136
    Logging Industry Research Association94
    Meat Industry Research Institute720
    Pottery and Ceramic Research Association128
    Research Institute Textile Services54
    Wool Research Organisation658
New buildings460
Overseas institutions—
    Common wealth Agricultural Bureaux94
    International Atomic Energy Agency176
    Others50
New Zealand institutions—
    Carter Observatory143
    Cawthron Institute366
    Royal Society of New Zealand186
    Testing Laboratory Registration Council148
    Others25
                Total5,834

Staff numbers and expenditure by DSIR for 1979–80 in scientific activity classifications are given in the following table.

ActivityStaff as at 31 March 1980Departmental ExpenditureGrantsTotal
 No. $(thousand) 
Agriculture—Production79915,36250015,862
Agriculture—Processing771,5792,7824,361
Energy2204,5073454,852
Manufacturing2825,6324256,057
Natural environment4028,9734969,469
Other activities3837,7881,2869,074
Public building construction 5,8035,803
                Total216349,6445,83455,478

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—Almost all agricultural research within the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is conducted by the Agricultural Research Division.

The division has 270 scientists, 570 science technicians, and 230 other support staff. The activities of the division are administered from its head office in Wellington by the director and three assistant directors through the 5 regional directors and the director of Wallaceville Animal Research Centre. Work is carried out at 7 main stations, 34 smaller stations and areas, and on farmers' properties throughout the country.

Most of the division's work is concerned with increasing the sustainable output, quality, efficiency, and profitability of agricultural and horticultural production. Other responsibilities include developing new products and agricultural equipment, monitoring product and environmental contamination, and providing services to producers such as comprehensive soil and plant analyses and associated fertiliser advisory schemes. Consequently, the division's research programmes relate closely to important objectives for agricultural growth and development, both nationally and regionally.

Agricultural research takes an integrated approach, looking at harvesting, processing, and marketing, as well as production. For example, because of New Zealand agriculture's pastoral base, the ability to grow grass well is important.

The aim of pasture research is to achieve maximum pasture production with minimum inputs of energy, labour, fertiliser, and capital. Maximum use is made of this production by matching animal requirements as closely as possible to pasture growth.

The use of nitrogen-fixing legumes, such as white clover, obviates the need for nitrogen fertilisers on pasture. Legumes get their nitrogen-fixing ability from rhizobia, bacteria which infect the legumes roots. Research involves identifying the most efficient rhizobia strain for each legume species and ensuring that the legume is infected with the right strain.

Mychorrhizal fungi in the soil can also infect plant roots, stimulating clover and ryegrass growth, and resulting in more efficient use of phosphate fertiliser. Methods of establishing efficient strains in pastures are being studied.

The use of new legume cultivars adapted to certain conditions may increase production without large inputs of fertiliser, for example, Grasslands Maku lotus will out-produce white clover on acid, low fertility, soils. Scientists from the division are involved in evaluating new cultivars and species and developing management techniques for them.

New Zealand perennial-pasture species and lucerne produce large quantities of protein, surplus to the requirements of grazing ruminants. Techniques for exploiting this have been developed at Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre. The excess protein and associated pigments are extracted and dried. This concentrate has a high biological value, especially for egg and chicken production, and fetches a good price in the United States and Japan.

The partially deproteinised forage residue is a suitable diet for growing and finishing cattle, or it can be converted to ethanol for use as an energy source.

Insect pests cause large losses in pasture and crop production each year. Integrated pest management systems offer the most effective and economical control and are being developed for the major pests. Procedures include relating pest numbers and stages of development to plant damage; monitoring changes in pest populations; identifying, selecting, and propagating plant species which are either pest tolerant or resistant (e.g., lotus is resistant to grass grub); screening insecticides and identifying the most cost-effective dose levels amongst these; identifying and evaluating the significance of natural pathogens; and establishing the nature and extent by which varying farm management procedures can contribute to control.

Fertiliser is an increasingly expensive input in pasture production. Research emphasis is on investigating more efficient ways of applying it.

A dramatic increase in the price of cobalt (added to fertiliser applied in the Central Plateau - Bay of Plenty area to prevent “bush sickness”) prompted a survey into the need for annual applications. It was found that, on properties where cobalt has been applied for a number of years, the rate of application can be lowered, or cobalt can be omitted entirely for a number of years.

The Agricultural Research Division provides a comprehensive chemical soil-testing service for farmers. Factors such as plant species grown; farming system used; soil type; pasture composition and yield potential under grazing; grazing management system; previous fertiliser history; aspect and topography of the farm; and the intensity of farming affect fertiliser requirements. The Agricultural Research Division is considering the effect each of these variables will have on fertiliser requirements, and including these in a new fertiliser recommendations bulletin for advisory officers. Computer models are being developed to derive equations to predict fertiliser needs for desired plant yields.

The accuracy with which soil and plant chemical analyses are recorded, collated, and processed will be improved by the use of computers.

Several scientists are involved in research into chemical, cultural, and management systems of weed control. Some of the weeds studied are gorse, thistle, ragwort and hieracium (hawkweed), as well as weeds affecting crops.

Animal production can be improved by genetic selection of the best animals, and research is being carried out at Ruakura, Templeton, Invermay, and Woodlands. The Agricultural Research Division has established a new animal breeding research station at Rotomahana, with the aim of assessing the sheep genetic resources now within the country, and of developing breeding strategies by which they can be best exploited to improve national production.

Improvement can be made by selecting the best animals from within a breed, or by crossing breeds, e.g., the high fertility Booroola Merino can be crossed with other breeds to increase lambing percentage.

The overfat lamb problem can be overcome by selecting rams whose progeny are fast-growing but lean.

Management is also important in getting high production levels. There are several techniques which can be used; such as mating beef heifers or ewe hoggets, at less than 2 years' old. Good feeding is vital for high production, and management systems have been developed at many of the research centres to ensure that animals are fed well at critical stages of development and reach certain “target weights” necessary for good reproductive performance.

Close contact between farmers, advisers, and scientists has a significant role to play in improving dairy production. Scientists from Ruakura have combined with advisers on 2 commercial properties to identify factors that are limiting dairy production from these farms. Experience gained at Ruakura is passed on to farmers through field days, or through visits to the dairy units throughout the season by organised groups of farmers.

Animal diseases cause large losses in animal production, and methods of overcoming diseases are under continuous study.

Sheep have varying resistances to facial eczema, enabling them to be genetically selected for resistance. The biochemical basis of this resistance is being investigated in the hope of developing a simple test for identifying resistant animals.

Pneumonia and pleurisy have important economic consequences as causes of death, carcass downgrading or condemnation, and perhaps slower growth rates. A wide variety of micro-organisms have been isolated from field cases of the diseases, but the exact causes remain poorly understood.

Recently, however, researchers at Wallaceville have managed to reproduce the diseases in experimental animals, allowing the development and testing of vaccines.

Irrigation research is carried out at Winchmore Irrigation Research Station. There are large areas of potentially irrigable land in the South Island, with some already under irrigation. The most effective use of the water applied must be made for the most economic return on investment in irrigation. This can be done by applying programmed systems of cropping, involving combinations of crops which individually have different peak water requirements. Water requirements of various crops are studied as well as the efficiency of methods of applying the water, and responses of different soil types to irrigation.

Crops are studied at most of the division's stations, depending on the district needs. Cultivar comparisons are carried out, as are trials examining fertiliser requirements, yields, management systems and the suitability of a new crop for a district.

Horticulture has become increasingly important in New Zealand primary production. Northland, in particular has a large potential for horticultural production because of its climate and soils. Consequently the Agricultural Research Division is establishing a horticultural research and development station at Kerikeri to look at developmental, cultural, management, harvesting, processing, and marketing aspects of existing and new crops in Northland.

The main horticultural research centre of the division is at Levin, where the following aspects of horticultural production are investigated: husbandry and management; pest, disease, and weed control; soil and plant analysis, harvesting; and post-harvest physiology. Regional horticultural research stations at Pukekohe and Hastings collaborate in this research.

Container-grown plants are becoming more common, necessitating research into plant nutrient requirements, and evaluation of soilless media, for example, peat, sand, and timber wastes such as sawdust and bark. A rapid “soil” test kit has been developed to enable growers to measure the nutrients in these soilless substrates, and adjust the concentrations to get maximum plant growth.

As well as research into the more traditional forms of farming, the Agricultural Research Division studies areas such as deer, opossum, and goat farming; rabbit farming and control; animal behaviour, apiculture; environmental contamination; aquatic weed control; energy farming; forest farming; greenhouse design and construction; fencing; and development of agricultural and horticultural equipment.

OTHER GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries are responsible for about 69 percent of the total Government science expenditure. An increasing number of other departments do, however, undertake or sponsor research. The departments concerned and the expenditure involved are listed later in this section and more details of their research activities are contained in the appropriate departmental sections.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH OUTSIDE GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—The bulk of university funding comes direct from the Department of Education's Vote but university research is funded through the University Grants Committee. A number of Government departments are, however, substantially increasing their contact with the universities by granting research contracts for specific programmes of research.

There are 12 industry research associations which are funded jointly by Government and the industry they serve. The present associations are the Building Research Association, the New Zealand Coal Research Association, the New Zealand Dairy Research Institute, the New Zealand Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association, Heavy Engineering Research Association, the Research Institute Textile Services (formerly Launderers, Drycleaners and Dyers) the New Zealand Leather and Shoe Research Association, the Logging Industry Research Association, the Meat Industry Research Institute of New Zealand, the New Zealand Concrete Research Association, the New Zealand Pottery and Ceramics Research Association, and the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand. The total cost of the government funding for 1979–80 was $3,814,400. A new scheme which involved the classification of the associations into categories, with differing subsidies, was introduced from 1 April 1975 and has been recently revised.

The only major endowed research organisation in New Zealand is the Cawthron Institute at Nelson which was established in 1920 with a bequest of $500,000 under the will of Thomas Cawthron. As the value of the investment of the bequest had declined the institute has received increasing income from other bequests, chemical services earnings, and from a Government grant which comprises about 41 percent of the institute's income.

The organisation of medical research is described in Section 5A, Health and Medical Services, under the headings Medical Research Council and National Health Institute.

THE PRESENT ORGANISATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH—Decisions on national scientific policies are made by the Minister of Science and Technology and the Cabinet, subject to the guidance and control of Parliament during the annual consideration of the Estimates.

Scientific research in New Zealand is carried out by the research divisions of Government departments, universities, joint Government/industry-funded research associations and private organisations, including the Cawthron Institute, which receive government assistance. Accurate statistics on proportionate expenditure on research are not yet available but means of obtaining the necessary information are being studied, as the data are needed both for internal use and for OECD comparative purposes. It is certain, however, that the majority of research in New Zealand is funded by Government departments, of which 68.6 percent is expended by DSIR and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Advising the Government on a co-ordinated national policy for scientific research, which takes into consideration the work of all these agencies, is the role of the National Research Advisory Council (NRAC), which was established on 1 April 1964 to advise the Minister of Science and Technology on:

  1. the promotion and development of scientific research in New Zealand;

  2. the planning and co-ordination of scientific research and services in New Zealand, including:

    1. the determination of priorities among activities of Government departments having regard to research done by other organisations;

    2. the provision of scholarships and fellowships and the promotion of the training of research workers;

    3. the association of Government with industry in the promotion of fundamental and applied research, including the promotion of research associations;

    4. the collection and dissemination of scientific information including the publication of reports and journals;

  3. the promotion of co-operation with the governments of, or organisations in, other countries, or with international organisations, in scientific matters;

  4. any other matters that are appropriate for the carrying out of any of the above-mentioned functions, or that are referred to it by the Minister.

The National Research Advisory Council Act 1963 provides for 6 to 9 members, including the chairman, to be appointed by the Governor-General and for 3 ex-officio members, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Director-General of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Secretary to the Treasury. The council is assisted by 4 advisory committees (each chaired by a council member), covering the fields of primary production, manufacturing and processing, environmental and energy, and social services research.

By Government directive, all departmental proposals involving the estabishment of new scientific activities or the major expansion, reduction, or modification of existing activities are referred to the council for evaluation, as are proposals likely to make substantial demands on scientific manpower or other scientific resources.

The following tables show the Government expenditure and manpower by department and scientific activity. Expenditure on research contracts ($1,032,000 in 1979–80) and on public buildings is excluded.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY DEPARTMENT
DepartmentGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants*
1977–781978–791979–801977–781978–791979–80

* Included in gross expenditure in previous columns.

Added to Science Budget for 1979–80.

  $(thousand)  $(thousand) 
Agriculture and Fisheries20,72728,28727,5727511,7891,142
Defence1,8742,4294,382
Education1,2971,6021,6611,1361,3851,408
Energy439421,1625800911
Forest Service6,7278,0729,255363867
Internal Affairs9059821,020476
Justice8472140203240
Labour412495860375943
Lands and Survey15617335156272
DSIR35,35443,09949,4233,9265,0965,582
Social Welfare14317134578125
State Services Commission80103130
Trade and Industry2,8882,719
Transport6,1187,6598,540478695
Works and Development2,5583,3424,48045
              Total76,47897,272112,1936,1709,36912,404
GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITY
Scientific ActivityGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants*
1977–781978–791979–801977–781978–791979–80

* Included in expenditure in previous columns.

Includes elements from other activities such as Manufacturing and Minerals.

  $(thousand)  $(thousand) 
Agriculture32,50441,82343,7422,9933,6804,531
Forestry6,7968,3329,522117137166
Fisheries2,4433,8864,28591542
Minerals8609561,0057228
Manufacturing4,2665,0908,9162622853,114
Building and construction1,6571,9931,969582875819
Transport1,1771,6911,9527910
Natural environment17,57221,03723,255553481566
Social sciences2,0832,5053,1941,2011,4851,617
Human health1,3171,3521,668364853
Energy3,4786,0569,6052701,1771,244
Other scientific services2,3252,5513,080142255234
                Total76,47897,272112,1936,1709,36912,404

NOTE—The Government expenditure on buildings solely for scientific use is not included in the above tables. The figure for 1977–78 was $3,681,971, for 1978–79 it was $4,530,281, and for 1979–80, $4,031,900.

SCIENCE BUDGET MANPOWER: STAFF CEILINGS
Activity1977–781978–791979–50
Agriculture205019201923
Forestry469469462
Fisheries120130135
Minerals595450
Manufacturing280284303
Building and construction1066667
Transport828993
Natural environment104510501037
Social sciences101103105
Human health838480
Energy218267270
Other scientific services138139149
                Total475146554674
GOVERNMENT RESEARCH EFFORT
Year Ended 31 MarchGross Expenditure on Science*Percentage of Total Government ExpenditureTotal Staff Employed
* Including expenditure on public buildings for science.
 $(00)  
197663,4391.174635
197768,3601.174725
197880,1601.184751
1979101,8021.214655
1980116,2251.234674

The figures of Government expenditure are not complete. They include expenditure on scientific, technical, and support staff of the main science units within the Public Service; grants by these departments to research associations and other agencies; and expenditure on the science buildings and equipment of these departments. They do not include expenditure on scientific research and servicing in the trading areas of the State services such as New Zealand Railways and the Post Office or by the Reserve Bank; in the universities; the grants made to the non-government sector by the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee; the assistance to industry for research provided by the Development Finance Corporation ($3,533,000 in 1979–80); the allocation of Golden Kiwi lottery funds for scientific research ($350,000 in 1979–80); and the revenue foregone through taxation concessions to individuals and companies for expenditure on research or donations to research foundations (Income Tax Act 1976).

From the most recent figures available, OECD has calculated research and development expenditure as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) to give the following country comparison.

CountryYearPercentage of GDP
Australia19771.0
Austria19721.0
Belgium19771.3
Canada19781.0
France19771.8
Japan19781.9
Netherlands19762.1
New Zealand19780.9
Norway19771.4
United Kingdom19762.1
United States19772.4
West Germany19772.1
Source: OECD Member Countries, 1980.

FURTHER INFORMATION—A number of publications in which research is published are mentioned in the text. Titles of research papers and other information on research are included in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Parl. paper G. 21).

Report of the National Research Advisory Council (Parl. paper G. 20).

DSIR's First Fifty Years—DSIR (1976).

Many of the research institutions grant-aided by DSIR and some DSIR divisions publish their own annual or periodical reports.

7 C—SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN THE ROSS DEPENDENCY

The Ross Dependency comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160° east and 150° west longitude, together with the islands between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60° south.

Within these boundaries there are an estimated 400000–450000 square kilometres of land and 330000 square kilometres of permanent ice shelf. Apart from the mountainous regions and some coastal areas, the land is entirely covered by ice. The only human population consists of scientific and support personnel involved in research programmes.

By Order in Council of 30 July 1923 under the British Settlements Act 1887 (Imp.) the territories of the Ross Dependency were brought within the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Government. From time to time laws for the dependency have been made by regulations promulgated by the Governor-General of New Zealand. The Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977 makes provision for the implementation of a 200–mile EEZ in the Ross Dependency by Order in Council.

Administrative powers are vested in the Governor-General of New Zealand. Since 1956 the leader of the New Zealand Expedition at Scott Base has been vested with the powers of Justice of the Peace, and Coroner. The officer in charge has jurisdiction over all New Zealand nationals in Antarctica and is responsible for the implementation of the Antarctic Research Programme as directed by Antarctic Division, DSIR.

The Ross Dependency Research Committee formulates the annual scientific programme for approval by the Minister of Science and Technology, and the Antarctica Division, DSIR, then has the responsibility for the detailed planning and implementation of this programme.

The division employs staff and obtains supplies and equipment for all Government projects. University projects are financed and equipped from university sources. The operation and control of all projects is directed by the Antarctic Division through the officer in charge, Scott Base.

New Zealand's international relations on Antarctic affairs are conducted at the political level by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Whilst scientific contact with other countries and institutions engaged in Antarctic research is maintained at all levels, the primary channels are the Ross Dependency Research Committee, which reports to the Minister of Science, and New Zealand's National Committee on Antarctic Research (NCAR).

Antarctic Treaty—In 1959 New Zealand was one of the 12 nations to sign the Antarctic Treaty which requires that Antarctica be used for peaceful purposes only, and promotes international co-operation, freedom of scientific investigation, and exchange of information and scientific personnel. The treaty specifically provides that it does not prejudice existing territorial claims in Antarctica. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties, increased to 13 by the accession of Poland in 1977, meet regularly in full consultative meetings to consider questions of mutual interest within the treaty framework. Questions of resource management have assumed considerable significance in recent years and a series of special meetings has been convened to discuss these issues which pose a significant challenge to the stability of the treaty. Several countries, not all members of the Antarctic Treaty, are already harvesting the protein-rich krill, and there is considerable interest in the hydro-carbon potential of Antarctic waters.

After some years of preparation a Convention was opened for signature in 1980 in Canberra for the protection and proper exploitation of Antarctic marine living resources. All Antarctic Treaty parties have signed the Convention which will enter into force when it has been ratified by eight of them. The Antarctic Treaty powers have now turned their attention to problems associated with mineral resources.

The Antarctica Amendment Act 1970 provides means of onforcing the regulations contained within the Antarctic Treaty (known as the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora) and the prevention of pollution to the Antarctic continent and surrounding waters.

New Zealand Bases—Scott Base, located at Pram Point near Cape Armitage on Ross Island, was established for the first New Zealand expedition which was involved in the Antarctic Scientific Research programme during the International Geophysical Year 1957. Since then Scott Base has been continuously occupied by support staff and scientists. Over the past 10 years, the New Zealand scientific programme has been progressively expanded. In order to adequately provide for the increasing numbers of personnel participating in research activities, a base-rebuilding programme was commenced in 1976, which includes construction of a new laboratory, power house, and administration and accommodation facilities. This project is expected to be completed in the mid-1980s.

Up to 12 staff members stay over the winter at Scott Base to sustain important continuous scientific observations. The base is one in a chain of international observatory stations used for the study of the upper atmosphere and earth sciences. At nearby Arrival Heights, studies are maintained in auroral physics, micropulsations, and ionospheric absorption.

Vanda Station, situated near the shores of Lake Vanda in the Dry Valleys region, is the only New Zealand Station on the Antarctic continent. Operated only during the summer season, Vanda Station functions as a support base for field parties conducting research activities in the Dry Valleys and as a centre for meteorological, hydrological, and glaciological studies designed to further understanding of the peculiarities of the region.

Cape Bird, situated 100 kilometres north of Scott Base on the northern tip of Ross Island, serves as a summer base for biological field parties conducting annual projects in terrestial and marine biology.

Emergency huts, fully provisioned, are also maintained at Lake Fryxell, Asgard Range, Lower Wright Valley, Cape Evans, and Cape Royds.

Scientific Programme—For the past 23 years New Zealand has been a direct participant in Antarctic scientific research. Each summer season, October to February, expeditions involving scientists from Government departments and New Zealand universities conduct research programmes involving such disciplines as geology, geomorphology, geochemistry, biology, glaciology, hydrology, volcanology, and seismology. The Dry Valleys region continues to attract the close attention of scientists, both national and international, and valuable environmental investigations are conducted in this ice-free area. From Vanda Station, studies are made in co-ordination with Scott Base programmes in upper air physics and earth sciences. Synoptic weather observations are made and other meteorological data collected at the base and at satellite stations in the Wright Valley. Geological surveys of little-known areas such as Marie Byrd Land, the Darwin Mountains, and Northern Victoria Land are features of current and planned research programmes.

International co-operation is today a major feature of the New Zealand Antarctic Research programme. Co-operative examples include the Dry Valleys and McMurdo Sound drilling projects. Mt. Erebus gas and lava sampling expeditions, and biological and geological projects which have been carried out together with scientists from West Germany, France, Japan, Australia, and the United States of America.

Biological studies continue each year at various locations where scientists conduct population census counts and tagging of seals and penguins. Marine plankton sampling takes place near Scott Base and further marine research is being concentrated in the Cape Bird area. Studies are also continuing of penguin and skua gull behaviour at Cape Bird and Cape Royds.

During the 1980–81 season, scientists from Geophysics Division DSIR and the New Zealand Oceanographic Institute conducted seismic and marine survey studies in the Ross Sea-McMurdo Sound regions.

Whaling—Regulations dated 24 October 1929 prohibit whaling in the territorial waters of the Ross Dependency without licence. New Zealand is a member of the International Whaling Commission, which enforces conservation of whale stocks.

Transportation—New Zealand is one of the few remaining countries involved in the Antarctic to continue with the limited use of dog teams and sledges for transportation within the immediate vicinity of Scott Base.

However, the main transport requirements of the New Zealand research programme rely on a logistics support agreement jointly operated by the United States and New Zealand, utilising C141 Starlifter and C130 Hercules aircraft and helicopters. Bulk cargoes for the New Zealand operation are shipped via the U.S. supply vessel which annually visits McMurdo Sound.

Flight time between Christchurch and McMurdo Sound is usually between 6 and 10 hours, depending on the type of aircraft being used. During the 1980–81 season, RNZAF Hercules aircraft contributed 12 flights to the US/NZ logistics pool. Australia again participated in the flight programme from Christchurch under a tripartite agreement allowing Australian personnel to be transported by US ski-equipped Hercules C130 aircraft from McMurdo to the ANARE Casey Station.

Within Antarctica, movement and support of field parties is usually facilitated by helicopter and motorised toboggans. With the formation of metal- and snow-compacted roads around Scott Base and McMurdo, conventional wheeled vehicles are able to operate satisfactorily.

Under the terms of the logistics agreement with the United States, New Zealand provides facilities and RNZAF cargo handling services at Christchurch International Airport and cargo handling personnel in Antarctica.

The Future—Whilst basic scientific studies continue in the Antarctic there is developing emphasis being directed toward meeting the more specialised demands of man's increasing knowledge of the region and the balanced utilisation of resources.

Antarctica has retained its IGY status as a unique natural laboratory from whence man can study the earth and surrounding space. Equally important, the continent continues to be the last relatively undisturbed area on earth from which may also be monitored the effect of man on the remainder of our global environment.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on New Zealand's role in Antarctica will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Parl. paper G. 21).

DSIR's First Fifty Years—DSIR (1976).

Report of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Parl. paper A. 1).

7 D—SUPPORT OF THE ARTS AND CULTURAL ACTIVITIES

The quality of life depends not only on economic and material considerations and a pleasant unpolluted environment, but also on social and cultural advances. In other words, on the development and appreciation of literature and the arts.

Patronage has always been part of the history of the arts. In less egalitarian times it was usually royalty or a wealthy aristocracy that provided this; in modem times it is the State that must increasingly provide assistance if the arts are to flourish.

In New Zealand, as in most other countries, both the Government and local authorities have recognised the importance of the arts in the life of the community and have provided increasing support.

The traditional sources of assistance to the arts in New Zealand are the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, which had its origins in 1947 as a cultural fund; the New Zealand Literary Fund, administered by the Department of Internal Affairs, which was established in 1946; the New Zealand Historic Places Trust; and the National Art Gallery and Museum. More recently established are the New Zealand Authors' Fund, which compensates authors for the loss of royalties through having their books loaned out by libraries; a fund to assist art galleries and museums; and a lottery profits scheme to assist art organisations with capital projects. All 3 are administered by the Department of Internal Affairs.

The following table shows grants made in 1980–81 by the Government and from the lottery profits scheme.

GroupGovernment AssistanceLottery Grant
 $(thousand)
Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council2,4001,200
New Zealand Literary Fund82.531.2
National Art Gallery and Museum1,392
New Zealand Historic Places Trust525
New Zealand Authors' Fund200
Cultural facilities400
Art Galleries and Museum Scheme200
                  Total4,074.51,356.2

The Department of Education has also played an important role in the support of cultural activities, giving new impetus through community colleges and such schemes as “Performers in Schools”, which is operated jointly with the Arts Council. Another major contributor to cultural activity in New Zealand is the Broadcasting Corporation, the most notable contribution being made by the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra.

The financial contributions made to arts organisations through the Ministry and Council of Recreation and Sport are also a significant item.

In addition, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs has been involved in fostering the arts through its Cultural Exchange Programme, established in 1974. Modest in financial terms, the programme's objective is to facilitate exchanges in all branches of the arts, including music, theatre, painting, crafts, sculpture, and writing, so as to enable New Zealanders to gain a closer first-hand knowledge of the culture of other countries. At the same time, it is hoped that the programme will stimulate the already active cultural scene in New Zealand and through tours and exhibits abroad extend overseas knowledge of New Zealand's cultural achievements. In planning and implementing the programme the Ministry of Foreign Affairs works closely with such organisations as the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, art galleries, and other groups and individuals.

QUEEN ELIZABETH THE SECOND ARTS COUNCIL—The Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council was formed in 1964 to encourage, foster, and promote the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, to make accessible to the public of New Zealand all forms of artistic and cultural work, to improve the standard of execution of the arts, and to foster and maintain public interest in the arts and culture of New Zealand.

In pursuit of its principal objective of raising the standard of both the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, the council assists individuals working in the arts, and incorporated and non-profit making organisations, which have the capacity to work at a consistent level of artistic achievement so as to maintain sound standards of management and promotion, and which can offer career opportunities to trained and gifted people. Activities which are professional in character and standard thus receive priority of consideration for financial support.

During 1979–80 the council received funds totalling $3,100,000, of which $800,000 was provided from New Zealand Lottery profits. This assistance included training awards, maintaining training schools, annual grants for theatre, ballet, and orchestral activity, assistance with touring exhibitions, aiding arts festivals, fostering experimental work in the arts, and assisting national arts organisations. The council maintained its policy of encouraging professional activity in the arts as a matter of priority. With this assistance, the country's professional theatres continued to maintain their high standards of performance; the New Zealand Ballet Company continued to tour throughout the country; and the council was able to assist in the development of orchestral activity of a high standard in each of the main centres. The council made special allocations from additional lottery money: $80,000 for community art projects; $23,000 for crafts development in association with the New Zealand Crafts Council; $25,000 for New Zealand Drama School accommodation; and $188,000 to opera.

The Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council Act 1974 provides for greater emphasis on regional development of the arts through 3 regional arts councils, the Council for Maori and South Pacific Arts, and through community arts councils.

NEW ZEALAND FILM COMMISSION—The New Zealand Film Commission was established on 13 November 1978, its functions, powers, and duties being defined in the New Zealand Film Commission Act 1978. Administration expenditure is met by the Department of Internal Affairs, but the Commission's main source of funds for assisting the film industry is grants from the Lottery Board (for the period ended 31 March 1980 it received $500,000).

Up until 31 March 1980, the Film Commission offered financial assistance to a considerable number of film projects, both for development and for production. Details are provided in its annual report.

INTERIM CONSERVATION COMMITTEE—In September 1979 an Interim Advisory Committee for the Conservation of Cultural Property was appointed to advise the Minister for the Arts on all conservation matters for cultural property. Specific areas include paintings and words of art, books and documents, films, photographs, machinery, and textiles.

ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS—In 1973 a fund was set up to subsidise capital works of art galleries and museums. Subsidies are made available by the Minister of Internal Affairs on the recommendation of an advisory committee. A small proportion of the fund is made available each year to the 6 major metropolitan art galleries and museums in Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, to enable them to assist smaller art galleries and museums in their areas with approved non-capital expenses.

AWARDS IN LITERATURE AND ARTS—The following awards are available:

New Zealand Literary Fund—This fund is financed by a yearly appropriation on the vote of the Department of Internal Affairs. Assistance from the fund is granted by the Minister for the Arts, who is advised by the Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

Scholarship in Letters—The scholarship of $9,000 is awarded annually to an established New Zealand writer by the Minister for the Arts, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. Applications are made to the Secretary, New Zealand Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

Victoria University of Wellington Writer's Fellowship—Funded jointly by the New Zealand Literary Fund and Victoria University, the fellowship is to enable a writer to work on a literary project at the university for 12 months. Details on the fellowship are available from the Registrar, Victoria University of Wellington, Private Bag, Wellington.

Robert Bums Fellowship in Literature—This fellowship in literature is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. The fellow shall be resident for the academic year. The fellowship is open to New Zealand writers, preferably under 40 years. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

Maori Writers' Awards—The Maori Purposes Fund Board annually makes available one award of $1,000 for creative writing in the English language, and another of $1,000 for creative writing in the Maori language. Applications from persons of Maori descent should be sent to the Secretary of the Maori Purposes Fund Board, Box 2390, Wellington.

New Zealand Book Awards—Annual awards of $2,000 are made by the Minister for the Arts with the support of the Literary Fund and the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, for the best books published each year in the categories of poetry, fiction, non-fiction, and book production.

Award for Achievement—The Award for Achievement, of $500, recognises the contribution of one person to New Zealand literature. The award is granted each year by the Minister for the Arts, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. (Applications are not called for.)

Esther Glen Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually to the author of the most distinguished children's book written by a New Zealander. (Applications are not called for.)

Russell Clark Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually to the illustrator responsible for the most distinguished illustrations for a children's book. The illustrator must be a citizen or resident of New Zealand. (Applications are not called for.)

Hubert Church Prose Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, is available annually for the best first book of prose writing by a New Zealand author. (Applications are not called for.)

Jessie Mackay Poetry Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund is available annually for the best first book of poetry written by a New Zealand author. (Applications are not called for.)

Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award—The Bank of New Zealand, in association with the New Zealand Women Writers' Society (Inc.), sponsors a biennial prestige memorial award for the short story.

Bank of New Zealand Young Writers' Awards—Concurrently with the Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award, the Bank of New Zealand sponsors 2 awards for young writers. These are the senior award, for entrants aged 24 years and under; and the junior award for secondary school students. Both awards are for short stories.

Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship (Winn-Manson Menton Trust)—The fellowship is to allow a New Zealand writer to write and study at Menton in the South of France. Applicants must be serious writers who would use the fellowship to further their literary studies and endeavours. The fellow will receive not less than $4,000, return airfares, and a contribution towards living expenses. Applications should be made to the Hon. Secretary, Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship, P.O. Box 10–256, Wellington, before 18 August each year.

Young Writer's Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, the New Zealand Book Council, and the Department of Education, is available annually for writing by people under 20 years of age. There are categories for prose and poetry. Applications should be made to the Secretary, P.O. Box 2283, Wellington.

James Wattie Book of the Year Award—This award is made each year by Wattie Industries Limited. Full conditions of entry for the James Wattie Book of the Year Award, which is aimed mainly at encouraging the growth of publishing in New Zealand, are available from the Director, BPANZ, P.O. Box 78071, Grey Lynn, Auckland.

One-act Playwriting Competition—In this annual competition the winning play is workshopped and produced with the Theatre Federation assistance. Applications should be made to the Secretary, New Zealand Theatre Federation, P.O. Box 6158, Wellington.

Biennial Playwriting Competition—This competition is for full length plays. Applications should be made to the Secretary, New Zealand Theatre Federation, P.O. Box 6158, Wellington.

Professor J. C. Reid Annual Award for Excellence in Arts Critisism—The Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council of New Zealand sponsors an annual award to journalists for excellence in arts criticism in conjunction with the New Zealand Journalists' Union. The competition is administered by the New Zealand Journalists' Union, Box 6545, Te Aro, Wellington 1.

Frances Hodgkins Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand painters and sculptors, preferably under 40 years. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

Mozart Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand musicians who are serious composers. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Applicants should be at least 27 years old. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

ICI Writers' Bursary—The bursary of $5,000 is jointly funded by ICI New Zealand Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. Its purpose is to enable a writer with potential, but not necessarily with a well established publication record, to work full time for up to 1 year on a particular project. The bursary effectively replaces the writing bursary offered by the Literary Fund in previous years, but the advisory committee is prepared to recommend that a second bursary, valued at $4,000, be offered entirely from the Literary Fund allocation should the standard of applications received warrant this.

AHI Literary Research Award—The award of $7,000 is jointly funded by Alex Harvey Industries Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. The award is offered annually to writers for research towards the publication of literary, historical, or critical works.

Choysa Bursary For Children's Writers—The bursary of $5,000 is jointly funded by Quality Packers Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. The bursary is offered annually to writers of imaginative work for children.

Canterbury University Writer-in-Residence— Funded jointly by the New Zealand Literary Fund and Canterbury University, the scheme is to enable writers to work for 6 months at the university. Details of the Writer-in-Residence scheme are available from the Registrar, Canterbury University, Christchurch.

A. W. Reed Memorial Book Award—An annual award of $5,000 is offered to the author of the best non-fiction manuscript. Inquiries to Mr Paul Bradwell, Reed Publishers, P.O. Box 14029, Kilbirnie, Wellington.

Air New Zealand's International Competition for Short Story Writers—An annual award for short stories of up to 2500 words. Judged by PEN (New Zealand Centre). Successful stories are published in Air New Zealand's Inflight magazine. Inquiries to Air New Zealand, Private Bag, Auckland.

IBM Writer's Award—An annual award of an IBM Selectric typewriter to a full-time New Zealand writer. Inquiries to the Secretary, N.Z. Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

University of Auckland Literary Fellowship—The award is funded jointly by the N.Z. Literary Fund and the University of Auckland to enable a writer to work for 6 months at the university. Details from the Registrar, University of Auckland, Private Bag, Auckland.

PROTECTION OF ANTIQUITIES AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES—The Antiquities Act 1975, which came into force on 1 April 1976, includes provisions controlling the sale of Maori artifacts within New Zealand, and all artifacts found after 1 April 1976 are deemed to be prima facie the property of the Crown. In addition, there are export controls on a wide range of items of historical significance: Maori artifacts; chattels relating to the European discovery, settlement or development of New Zealand; certain written and printed matter; certain works of art, reproductions, prints, films and sound recordings; type specimens of animals, plants and minerals; meteorites; remains of extinct fauna; and certain items of shipwreck.

Whereas the Antiquities Act is essentially concerned with “portable” objects, a companion measure, the Historic Places Act 1980, deals more specifically with the protection of archaeological sites. It is necessary to obtain the consent of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust before damaging, destroying, or modifying any archaeological site or undertaking a scientific archaeological investigation of any site.

To enable the purchase of Maori artifacts and historic paintings, the Government continues to make grants to the National Museum and to the National Art Gallery.

NATIONAL ARCHIVES—The Archives Act 1957 established a National Archives to provide for the custody and preservation of the public archives of New Zealand. The Chief Archivist, appointed under the Act, has certain statutory powers, No public archives, as defined in the Act, can be destroyed without her approval and she has powers of inspection and direction in respect of the keeping of public records. Government records of permanent value are deposited with National Archives, and are widely used for original research by scholars, students, officials, and the public. As well as the public archives (i.e., public records out of current use) there are small holdings of semi-official and private papers of Governor Sir Thomas Gore Browne and some political figures, including Sir Frederick Weld, W. P. Reeves, Sir James Allen, W. Lee Martin, C. F. Skinner, and T. P. Shand. The papers of the New Zealand Company, R. J. Seddon, Sir Walter Nash, and Norman Kirk provide larger collections. The Nash collection is one of great significance covering his life and times. Some of the more note-worthy public documents are to be found amongst the archives of the Governor, Colonial Secretary, Maori Affairs Department, Samoan administrations, the armed forces (both in peace and war) and Legislative Department papers, 1854–1969.

National Archives has a records centre in Lower Hutt and one in Auckland. These provide storage for semi-current Government records as well as public archives. The total staff, including that of records centres, is 18. Officers of the National Archives collaborate with departmental records officers and occasionally with the State Services Commission on assignments on the management of current records. Some public archives of regional interest are deposited with certain non-government repositories approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs, such as the Hocken Library in Dunedin, the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch, the Hawke's Bay Art Society Gallery and Museum in Napier, the Auckland Institute and Museum, the New Plymouth Public Library, and the Marlborough Historical Society Museum in Blenheim.

During 1974 the Government approved the transfer of Cabinet Office papers to National Archives on a regular basis. The regular transfer of this group of papers is considered to be of great significance for the future of archives and historical research in New Zealand.

National Archives and the Alexander Turnbull Library have joined in establishing a War History Documentation Centre to gather and preserve documentary material about New Zealand's part in the two World Wars.

National Archives publishes an annual Summary of Work, including a list of new accessions to its holdings. A cumulative list of holdings to 1 April 1976 was published in 1977. The archives co-operates with the Alexander Turnbull Library in editing the National Register of Archives and Manuscripts. Since 1977 the National Archives, under the Local Government Act 1974, has assumed responsibilities for furthering the preservation of local authority archives.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST—The New Zealand Historic Places Trust is empowered under the Historic Places Act 1980 to foster public interest in historic places, and to assist and undertake their protection and preservation. It has restored a number of properties and has also assisted in preserving many others by financial grants and technical advice. The board of Trustees represent various areas of interest related to the trust's functions. Regional committees operate locally and the associate members, over 8000 of them, provide both financial and practical support.

The trust's main concern is to preserve sites and buildings. Thirteen properties open to the public are the Mission House at Waimate North, Kemp House at Kerikeri, Pompallier House at Russell, Clendon House at Rawene, the Mission House of Mangungu, Highwic, Alberton, Ewelme Cottage and the Melanesian Mission Museum at Auckland, Hurworth House at New Plymouth, Old St. Paul's in Wellington, the Timeball Station at Lyttelton, Hayes Engineering Works at Oturehua, and the Post Office at Ophir. The trust owns additional properties and is also involved in the administration of some which are owned by other organisations, as well as in the management of a number of historic reserves.

The legislation gives the trust powers to protect buildings of national interest through a system of protection notices and repair notices.

The 1980 Act introduced new provisions regarding historic areas and traditional sites. These can now be classified and recorded by the trust, which can also recommend protective measures to the appropriate authorities.

Since 1971 the trust has been engaged in the inspection and classification of historic buildings throughout New Zealand and is now nearing the end of that task in so far as significant 19th century buildings are concerned. It hopes shortly to publish its classification lists.

The trust has marked many historic places with plaques and noticeboards, and historic sites are sometimes protected by some form of reservation. It has published several books, including the major work Historic Buildings of New Zealand (North Island) as well as a number of booklets and leaflets.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on support for the arts and cultural activities will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper. G. 7).

Report of the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council of New Zealand (Parl. paper G. 11).

Report of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust (Parl. paper G. 10).

Report of the Board of Trustees, National Art Gallery, National Museum, and National War Memorial (Parl. paper G. 12).

Report of the New Zealand Film Commission (Parl. paper G. 19).

Report of the New Zealand Lottery Board (Parl. paper G. 7B).

7 E—LIBRARIES

In general, New Zealand is well served with libraries and the book stocks and circulation figures compare favourably with those of other English-speaking nations. In most centres the local authority maintains a public library.

Under the auspices of the New Zealand Library Association, a comprehensive system of inter-library co-operation has been developed, particularly in the use of resources by means of inter-library loans.

NATIONAL LIBRARY OF NEW ZEALAND—By the National Library Act 1965, the Alexander Turnbull Library, the General Assembly Library, and the National Library Service were combined to form the National Library of New Zealand.

A comprehensive collection of New Zealand material within the requirements of the Act is maintained by the Alexander Turnbull Library.

The National Library is responsible for maintaining and developing a central reference and lending collection as a national resource in many subjects and as support stock for major subject collections, such as medicine, where there is no national subject library. User Services hold major reference material and has access through OASIS to overseas data bases. The SATIS service, with regional offices in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, has its headquarters in User Services and the National Library is steadily increasing its stock of technical material for business and industry. On 31 March 1980 the central collections of the National Library comprised over 477000 volumes, together with 91000 volumes of periodicals, and 431000 microfiches.

The library also acts as purchasing agent for most Government department libraries operating within the Public Account and provides a cataloguing, reference, and library advisory service for departments.

The library has facilities for the preservation and restoration of items of intrinsic value. Microfilming and photographic programmes ensure preservation of items primarily of information value.

General Assembly Library—The General Assembly Library was established in 1858 and provides library services for Parliament. The chief librarian is guided by a committee of members of Parliament headed by the Speaker.

Since 1903 the library has been the depository for books, periodicals, etc., published in New Zealand. It receives regularly copies of all New Zealand newspapers and about 1700 New Zealand periodicals. Back files of both are very extensive. It also has one of the largest collections in the country of books or pamphlets relating to New Zealand. Several New Zealand newspapers are indexed daily.

The library has its strongest collections in subjects necessary to provide information for members of Parliament in their legislative duties. These include economics, politics, administration and law, biography, and history. It has a good collection of Government documents, mainly from English-speaking countries—particularly parliamentary papers and debates—as well as publications of international organisations such as United Nations and its subsidiary organisations, the OECD, and the EEC.

During the parliamentary recess, the library, which holds about 425000 volumes, is open to the public on the recommendation of a member of Parliament.

Alexander Turnbull Library—The Alexander Turnbull Library is a research library responsible for maintaining a comprehensive collection of library material relating to New Zealand, together with other specialist research collections. The original collection of 55000 volumes bequeathed by Alexander Horsburgh Turnbull (1868–1918) has been increased to approximately 237000 volumes of books and periodicals, 1700 metres of manuscripts, 34000 pictures of which 19000 are original paintings and drawings, 19000 maps, 380000 photographic prints and negatives, and 10000 reels of microfilm. The collections are augmented regularly by purchases, bequests, and donations from individuals and organisations.

The Trustees of the National Library in 1966 designated the Turnbull as the national collection of printed materials relating to New Zealand, and the library now receives all New Zealand publications under the compulsory deposit provision of the Copyright Act and prepares the current and retrospective New Zealand National Bibliography. Supporting the collections of printed books, periodicals, and newspapers are extensive collections of private papers and archives, paintings, drawings and prints of historical and topographical interest, maps, photographs, and sound recordings. The library also possesses research collections on the Pacific and the Antarctic with particular emphasis on history, early voyages, and ethnology. The general collections are strong in English literature, early printed books, and the development of the art of printing. The collection on John Milton and the mid-seventeenth century, a particular interest of Alexander Turnbull, is of international standing.

Extension Service—The Extension Division, known from its start in 1938 as the Country Library Service and later combined with School Library Service has recently changed its name and functions. Its services are provided through centres at Hamilton, Palmerston North, and Christchurch, supported by a Wellington headquarters unit. Bulk loans of books are made free of charge to libraries controlled by local authorities which operate a free library service locally and maintain it at a reasonable standard of efficiency. To towns and small cities loans are made from bookvans, subject collections are sent and books and periodicals are supplied in response to requests for information and individual titles. Libraries in cities receive bulk loans made direct from the centres instead of, or in addition to, loans from bookvans. Outside the boundaries of boroughs and cities groups of people may have books at the rate of $20 for 50 changed at regular intervals. Nine specially equipped bookvans, each carrying over 2000 books, travel the country.

Advisory services to public libraries, a spoken words cassette service, and collections of books for adult new readers are also available.

Libraries receiving books and services from the Extension Service at 31 March 1980 included 163 free public libraries, 737 small community libraries and groups, and 150 other libraries and institutions. The number of books lent to these libraries totalled 402654, and 150453 books were lent on request and in loan collections during the year.

School Library Service—Established in 1941, this section of the National Library is responsible for providing a library service to all schools throughout New Zealand.

The School Library Service operates from a total of 12 centres. There are the 3 in joint National Library centres in Hamilton, Palmerston North, and Christchurch, and district centres in Auckland, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Hastings, Wellington, Nelson, Greymouth, Dunedin, and Invercargill.

Larger primary and intermediate schools receive repository loans which remain in the schools to become part of local stocks, while smaller schools receive regular book exchanges for their libraries. A request and information service operates for all schools, and nearly 2 million books are sent out each year to satisfy requests. Books for use in schools are evaluated, selected, and ordered by the staff of School Library Service headquaters in Wellington. Annotated lists of books especially recommended are issued regularly to serve as guides for teachers in schools and staff in children's sections of public libraries, and material on school library organisation is prepared.

Library advisers work out in schools helping with library organisation, and special courses are held on aspects of library work for teachers and teacher-librarians, and their assistants.

Library School—From 1946 to 1979 the New Zealand Library School offered to university graduates a full-time 1-year course. It led to a diploma and to library posts at the professional level. Some 886 students had successfully completed the course by the end of 1979. Students on the course received the same allowances as students at teachers colleges. The school also conducted the block course for library assistants with University Entrance leading to the New Zealand Library Association Certificate and to library posts at the intermediate level. Students attended on a full-time basis, usually on leave with pay from their libraries, for 3 blocks of tuition spaced at intervals of about 9 months and each taking 4 weeks.

The courses held in 1979 were the last to be given by the school. Since 1980, library education has been given by two schools at Victoria University of Wellington and at Wellington Teachers College.

CENSUS OF LIBRARIES, 1979—The 5-yearly Census of Libraries for the year ended 31 March 1979 covered a total of 2044 libraries. These comprised 276 public libraries, of which 67 were suburban branches; the National Library; 39 libraries of tertiary education institutions; special libraries comprising 88 libraries of Government departments, 12 special/public libraries of the Armed Forces, and 141 other libraries attached to local bodies (mostly medical libraries), commercial firms, learned societies, interest groups, and charitable organisations; and finally, 1487 school libraries.

The 1979 Census recorded the establishment of computer technology in New Zealand library services. This has brought new dimensions to these services, with its facilities for computerising various facets of library administration and for accessing overseas and local bibliographic data bases.

In the period 1974 to 1979, the number of volumes held by public libraries increased by 37 percent, membership by 11 percent, and circulation by 32 percent. During the year 1978–79, public libraries had an average of 5 books in stock per member and an average circulation of 23 books per member. In addition to books and periodicals, public libraries had gramophone records, tapes, cassettes, art prints, and music scores available to borrowers. The number of library staff increased to 2469 from 1860 in 1974, and those holding library qualifications numbered 409 compared with 353 five years previously.

Tertiary institution libraries included the libraries of 6 universities (with one closely associated special library), 8 teachers' colleges, 7 theological colleges, and 12 technical institutes, of which 4 were polytechnics and 4 community colleges. The number of books and periodicals held by these libraries increased by 39 percent to 3.8 million in the intercensal period, and staff from 819 to 988.

The number of books and periodicals held by Government department libraries increased only from 1.4 to 1.5 million in the 5–yearly period and staff from 271 to 281.

The remaining special libraries held a similar-sized stock of books and periodicals to that in the 1974 Census, but their staff numbers showed an increase of 78 percent to 453, nearly half of them working part-time.

In addition to books and periodicals, the National Library, tertiary institution libraries, and special libraries held stocks of microforms, photographs, maps, research reports, pamphlets, filmstrips, films, and slides. Some libraries held items specific to the function of their controlling body, such as patents, standards, and art originals.

In 1979 the coverage of school libraries was extended to smaller primary schools, those designated Grade VA (minimum 156 pupils). As in 1974, Grade VI and above primary schools, as well as intermediate and secondary schools were surveyed. Coverage was extended because Grade VA primary schools had become entitled to a library/multi purpose room under the Department of Education building code in the intercensal period. The number of primary schools surveyed increased to 963 from the 1974 figure of 581. Similarly, there were more intermediate schools (141 compared with 126) and secondary schools (383, up from 360). Books and periodicals held by schools numbered 8.2 million at 31 March 1979 compared with 4.8 million at the same date in 1974. As well as books, library stock of schools included tapes, cassettes, gramophone records, films, and filmstrips.

The census of book clubs or commercial libraries carried out in 1973–1974 was not repeated in 1979, mainly because of response difficulties and the comparatively small number of volumes recorded.

The following tables summarise the results of the 1979 Census. The full results are given in a report Census of Libraries 1979 available from the Government Printer.

PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AT 31 MARCH 1979
Class of LibraryNumber of Library SystemsOwn StockTotal*For Reference Only (Included in own stock)Country Library Service Stock
AdultJunior
RentalFree FictionFree Non-fictionFiction and Non-fictionAdultJunior

* A number of libraries could not separately identify categories of adult and junior bookstock and their holdings are represented in the total column only.

Includes 10 Christchurch suburban libraries.

Includes only the recreational sections of special/public libraries located at RNZAF bases.

§ 209 library systems covering 276 libraries.

In centres with an estimated population served of—(thousand)
    50000 and over2240538115377853384665171
    20000–499992214816551534612284913613
    10000–199993110611227420069376378
    5000–9999441356411598412345513
    3000–499923412230271289214
    Under 300041773626271688195
              Sub-total183912780249714836013128318544
Armed forces and penal institutions2636146264177
              Grand total209§948794250314856077130019244
PUBLIC LIBRARIES—CIRCULATION DURING YEAR ENDED 31 MARCH 1979
Class of LibraryNumber of LibrariesIssues from Own StockIssues from Country Library Service StockLibrary Interloans
AdultJuniorTotal*Lent to Other LibrariesBorrowed from Other Libraries
RentalFree FictionNon-fictionPeriodicalsAdultJunior

* A number of libraries could not break down circulation figures into categories shown and these are absorbed into total circulation figures.

Includes 10 Christchurch suburban libraries.

209 library systems covering 276 libraries.

In centres with an estimated population served of—
 (thousands)
    50000 and over2223011082213918832651509536624
    20000–499992213507851650463186167331092322
    10000–19999319776419201241102376518135119
    5000–99994473034137337474200621371114
    3000–49992320772874137520761825
    Under 300041159394018033663214
    Sub-total1835724296052098176919284556771691088
Armed forces and penal institutions2640622153124
    Grand-total209 57645764296652118196920285086891691092
NATIONAL, TERTIARY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AND CIRCULATION
Class of LibraryNumber of LibrariesBook Stock at 31 March 1979Circulation During Year Ended 31 March 1979
BooksPeriodicalsTotalItems Lent to Library UsersItems Lent to Other LibrariesItems Borrowed From Other Libraries
* Special and public libraries located at army camps and navy bases and technical sections of libraries located at RNZAF bases were classified as special libraries.
 (thousand)
National Library1448631748032553211
Libraries in universities, etc.392874942381624213836
Special libraries—
    Learned societies, local bodies, commercial firms, etc.1415183578754471324
    Government departments and associated organisations8860488014842936046
    Armed forces*1215261588413
                Total28186342502111365798132111
SCHOOL LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AND CIRCULATION
School TypeNumber Of SchoolsBook Stock at 31 March 1979Circulation During Year Ended 31 March 1979
BooksPeriodicalsEducation Department PublicationsTotal
 (thousand)
Primary (Grade VA and above)963443418140459213968
Intermediate1418844219092934
Secondary383292412629424295
                  Total1487824234167844321197

NOTE: Because of rounding, totals in the previous 4 tables may differ slightly from the sum of the individual items.

PUBLIC LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation in Year of Library Census (million)YearNumber of LibrariesBook Stock Number of VolumesNumber of BorrowersCirculation, Number of Volumes
* 191 systems covering 268 libraries.
    (thousand) 
New Zealand3.01974191*4660103221839
Australia13.31974847476  
Canada22.5197378031282 99334
United States211.919748337387565 892854

International Statistics on Libraries—The following tables compiled from published UNESCO and other statistics show New Zealand's position in relation to other English-speaking countries as regards library resources, borrowers, and book circulation.

NATIONAL, TERTIARY, SPECIAL, AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation in Year of Library Census (million)YearType of DataCategory of Library
NationalTertiary*SpecialSchool

* In all countries except New Zealand, “Tertiary” covers universities only.

UNESCO Statistical Yearbook 1978–79.

In 1973.

§ In 1971.

|| In 1972.

In 1971. Libraries serving Federal Government only.

New Zealand3.01974Libraries1341741067
   Volumes (000)4245274325524829
Australia13.31974Libraries117....
   Volumes (000)14007897....
Canada22.51973Libraries1§245..7064
   Volumes (000)20133193..34972
United States211.91974Libraries4||3421||35574625
   Volumes (000)1956740679026794507000

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on libraries will be found in the following publications. The select bibliography of New Zealand books, at the end of this Yearbook, may also be found informative.

Census of Libraries 1979—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Trustees of the National Library of New Zealand (Parl. paper G. 13).

UNESCO Statistical Yearbook.

Chapter 8. Section 8 LAW AND ORDER, AND PUBLIC SAFETY

8 A—JUSTICE

SOURCES OF LAW—The law of New Zealand consists of the common law, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament, statutes of the New Zealand Parliament, and regulations, bylaws, and other forms of subordinate legislation made under statutory authority.

The Common Law—The common law, sometimes referred to as case law or judge-made law, has been built up over the centuries by the courts in England and, later, in New Zealand and other countries where it was introduced. Like any living law, the common law continues to develop.

In New Zealand the policy of the courts has been to preserve uniformity with the common law in England. This is partly for reasons of convenience and partly because of the assumption prevailing in New Zealand that there is a single common law, the law of England, and that there are not separate, though similar, common laws in different countries.

United Kingdom Statutes—United Kingdom statutes in force in New Zealand comprise those passed before 1840 which were applicable to the circumstances of the colony at that date, and those passed between 1840 and 1947 which extended to New Zealand expressly or by necessary implication. Many of these statutes have, of course, since been repealed.

New Zealand Statutes—In 1947 New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster, and our Parliament has since been the sole authority with inherent power to legislate for the country. There are no constitutional restrictions on the laws Parliament can pass.

LAW REFORM—In any progressive society the law requires alteration from time to time if it is to reflect the life of the community and adequately give effect to the needs of the people. As in other countries in modern times, legislation is by far the most important means by which the law of New Zealand is adapted to changing circumstances. The responsibility for bringing before Parliament proposals for the revision of the common law and that part of the statute law not administered by other departments of State is in the hands of the Minister of Justice. The Minister is assisted in carrying out his responsibilities by 5 standing committees, each specialising in a particular area of the law. These committees consider topics referred to them by the Minister and report thereon to him. Until recently the Law Revision Commission, a large advisory body, also assisted the Minister of Justice. In 1975 it was replaced with a smaller and more informal Law Reform Council. The council comprises the Minister of Justice, the chairmen of the 5 standing committees, and the permanent heads of the State agencies involved in law reform. Its aim is to provide a means of communication among the committees and with those involved in the implementation of their reports.

Public Acts and regulations are drafted in the Parliamentary Counsel Office.

COURTS: Changes to the Court System—From 1 April 1980 the Supreme Court became the High Court, Magistrates' Courts became District Courts, and the Court of Appeal was reorganised. The High Court shed much of its civil jurisdiction, leaving High Court judges more time to deal with major crimes, the more important civil claims, appeals, and reviews.

District Court judges hear civil claims cases up to $12,000. Additional criminal jurisdiction has been conferred on District Courts from 1 April 1981. Certain District Court judges have been specially warranted to preside over jury trials, although trials on charges of murder, rape, drug-trafficking, and other more serious offences continue to be heard in the High Court.

The Family Courts, which were established as a division of the District Courts from 1 October 1981, have jurisdiction over most family matters including divorce and are presided over by specially warranted District Court judges known as Family Court judges.

Hierarchy of Courts—The hierarchy of courts in New Zealand now comprises the Court of Appeal, the High Court, and the District Courts. All exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, particular District Court judges are appointed by the Governor-General to exercise the domestic jurisdiction of the District Courts and, in practice, almost all District Court judges have been so appointed. The Children and Young Persons' Courts hear cases against those under 17 years of age.

As constituted by the Judicature Amendment Act 1957 the Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice by virtue of his office as head of the judiciary and of a president and 4 judges of the Court of Appeal appointed by the Governor-General. An additional judge or judges of the High Court may be nominated by the Chief Justice to sit on the Court of Appeal. The judges of the Court of Appeal are also judges of the High Court, but have seniority over all other judges of that court except the Chief Justice or the acting Chief Justice.

The Court of Appeal may from time to time appoint ordinary or special sittings or may sit in divisions and may make rules in respect of places and times for sittings and similar matters. This court, unlike other courts, exercises an appellate jurisdiction only. In addition to ordinary appeals from the High Court, certain other proceedings in inferior courts may, on an order from the High Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. The Court of Appeal also determines criminal appeals under the Crimes Act 1961.

All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final except where an appeal lies to Her Majesty in Council (the Privy Council). In cases where the amount at issue exceeds $5,000 there is an appeal as of right. In other cases leave to appeal is required. This leave may in most cases be granted either by the Court of Appeal or by the Privy Council itself. The Privy Council thus remains the final court of appeal in almost all civil cases and may also occasionally hear appeals in special criminal cases.

The High Court, which was first established by the Supreme Court Ordinance 1841, is now constituted under the Judicature Act 1908. The members of the court are a Chief Justice and 25 other judges, the number being fixed by statute. An additional judge or judges may be appointed whenever the Governor-General deems it necessary by reason of absence or anticipated absence of any of the judges on leave prior to retirement, each appointment being a permanent one from the time when it is made. The fixing of the number of judges, together with the provision that the salary of a judge shall not be diminished during his term of office, is an important safeguard for the principle of judicial independence. Judges, who must retire at 72 years, are appointed to hold office during good behaviour and may be removed only by the Queen upon an Address by the House of Representatives.

In 1968 a separate administrative division of the High Court was created. It consists of not more than 4 judges of the High Court assigned to the administrative division by the Chief Justice. The administrative division determines disputes over the valuation of land and hears claims for compensation when land is taken for public purposes. It hears appeals from administrative tribunals under the following Acts: War Pensions Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Cinematograph Films Act, Animal Remedies Act, Land Act, Medical Practitioners Act, Pharmacy Act, Nurses Act, Trade Practices Act, Distillation Act, Mining Act, Coal Mines Act, Town and Country Planning Act, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, and Clean Air Act. Other classes of applications may be referred to it by the Chief Justice.

District Courts are set up under the District Courts Act 1947 and possess an extensive jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases and domestic proceedings. The jurisdiction of the court is exercised by District Court judges, whose number is limited by statute to 68. A Chief District Court Judge has been appointed to oversee the running of the District Courts in addition to himself sitting in court. Justices of the Peace can sit as a District Court to hear a limited number of minor criminal charges. Justices of the Peace now deal with many prosecutions brought under the minor offences scheme. This is limited to offences that do not carry any liability to imprisonment, nor to a fine of more than $500.

District Court judges must have been qualified as barristers and solicitors of the High Court for at least 7 years. They are appointed by the Governor-General, and may be removed by the Governor-General for inability or misbehaviour only. They retire at 68 years of age.

Apart from these courts of general jurisdiction there are in New Zealand several courts with specialist functions. These include the Maori Land Court and Maori Appellate Court, which have jurisdiction in respect of questions relating to Maori land.

There are also numerous administrative tribunals exercising functions of a judicial nature and performing an important and increasing role in the legal system.

JURIES—The institution of the jury is regulated in New Zealand by the Juries Act 1908. Subject to certain exceptions, every British subject between 20 and 65 years of age and resident within 30 km of a High Court centre is liable to serve on a jury. The former right of women to exemption on request was removed in 1975, but there is a new exemption available to persons with continuous responsibility for the day-to-day supervision of a child under 6 years of age.

The list of exempted persons is contained in the Juries Amendment Act 1951. The following is a summary of the persons now exempted from jury service:

Members of the Executive Council and of the House of Representatives; judges of the High Court; judges and members of the Arbitration Court; judges and commissioners of the Maori Land Court; District Court judges; visiting prison justices and members of parole boards; coroners; the chairman of the Local Government Commission; the chairman and members of the Licensing Control Commission; officers of Parliament; clergymen; members of religious orders; persons wholly engaged in teaching and school inspectors; barristers and solicitors; medical practitioners, nurses, ambulance drivers, and dentists; registered chemists; members of the armed forces; Police and traffic officers; pilots, masters, and crews of vessels; members of fire brigades; certain Civil Defence personnel; members of an Inland Revenue Board of Review; and certain officers of the Department of Justice, including those engaged in court or prison work, and wives of prison officers.

Special juries are provided for in section 71 of the Juries Act. That section provides that in a civil action in the High Court triable by jury either party may, by leave of the court or a judge thereof, procure trial by a special jury instead of a common jury. Except with the consent of all the parties, however, no action may be tried with a special jury unless in the opinion of the court or a judge difficult questions in relation to scientific, technical, business, or professional matters are likely to arise.

A new Juries Bill is at present being considered by Parliament. If passed in its present form, this will abolish special juries, talesmen, pretrial views, and the Crown's right to stand aside jurors, and the list of persons who are not eligible for Jury service will be substantially revised.

LEGAL PROFESSION—In December 1980 there were 4016 members of the New Zealand Law Society holding practising certificates.

PENAL SYSTEM—The penal system exists to protect the community against those who would break the laws which are laid down so that citizens may live harmoniously together and the common good be promoted. This purpose is achieved principally through the processes of deterrence and reformation; in modern times in New Zealand as in other countries emphasis is placed wherever possible on the rehabilitation of the offender.

The paramount policy is to ensure first that those who, by reason of the nature of their offences or character of their offending, are a serious danger to society are removed from the community. Subject to that, the goal is to deal with offenders within the community wherever possible—that is, to impose sanctions that do not involve imprisonment. Where prison or other forms of detention are necessary the aim is to do as much as possible during the sentence to rehabilitate the offender and to bridge the gap between institution and free society. The interest of the community as well as of the offender is promoted by his reformation.

Treatment of Offenders Within the Community—The principal penalties available to the courts in dealing with offenders outside of prison are fines, probation, periodic detention, and community service.

Fines—Fines are by far the most common sentence imposed by the courts in New Zealand, even if traffic offences are not taken into account. For very minor offences the imposition of a fine is the only sanction available to the courts, but even where there is power to sentence the offender to a term of imprisonment the courts often content themselves with fining him.

Probation—The legislation on probation is contained in Part I of the Criminal Justice Act 1954. The court may release on probation any offender guilty of an offence punishable by imprisonment either on indictment or summarily. Probation is a conditional suspension of punishment and provides the opportunity for an offender to rehabilitate himself in the community. An offender may be released on probation for a period of not less than 1 year or more than 3 years and during this time he must accept the supervision of a probation officer and observe conditions imposed regarding employment and residence, associates, and general behaviour. These conditions are automatic, but the courts have power to impose further conditions at their discretion on granting probation. This power makes probation a very flexible type of treatment and it is coming to be more freely and imaginatively used. Where the offence consists of the destruction or damage of property, restitution of the whole or part of the loss is commonly required as a condition of probation. Some courts have in suitable cases made it a condition of probation that the offender do particular work of value to the community in his spare time. The probation method is widely used.

Persons on probation at 31 December of recent years were as follows: 1975, 7268; 1976, 7299; 1977, 7349; 1978, 7734; and 1979, 9533. In December 1979, of all offenders on probation and in penal institutions, 82 percent were on probation.

Community Service—The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1980 provided the court with power to impose a sentence of community service on convicted offenders instead of sending them to prison. The offender so sentenced continues to live and work in the community, but during leisure hours gives unpaid service to some community group. The sentence can be from 8 to 200 hours' service. Before imposing this sentence the court takes into account the character and history of the offender and the public interest.

For community service to succeed there are two other elements needed—

  1. The offender must agree to do community service.

  2. The community must produce a number of groups prepared to guide an offender into useful community activities for the number of hours required by the court.

Community service is an addition to the existing range of non-custodial sentences, such as fines, probation, and periodic detention. The court may impose a fine or probation in addition to community service.

The emphasis is on the active participation of the local community, and on the benefits to both sponsor and offender. The offender works not only for but with the local sponsor group. The group accepts the services of the offender and treats the offender as a member of the group.

Periodic Detention—The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1962 made provision for sentences of periodic detention. Pursuant to this legislation, work centres have been set up in Auckland, Otahuhu, Hamilton, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. These are available for offenders of all ages. Where the Act applies, any person of the ages specified who is convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment or who wilfully refuses to pay a fine may be sentenced to periodic detention for any term up to 12 months. Under the sentence the offender is required to attend a work centre on a certain number of occasions each week and while in custody must attend classes or groups, undergo physical training, or perform work either in the centre or outside it. Work outside a centre may be at a hospital or school, at the home of an elderly or infirm person, or on Crown or local authority property. Centres have also been opened at New Plymouth, Papakura, North Shore, Taupo, Hastings, Levin, Masterton, Whangarei, Tokoroa, Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Palmerston North, Wanganui, Tauranga, Nelson, Dunedin, and Invercargill. At 31 March 1980 there were 2177 detainees reporting.

Other Powers of the Court—Although not sentences in the strict sense, various other means are available to the courts in dealing with offenders whose offences are not serious. They include conviction and discharge, the effect of which is that the offender has a conviction recorded against him but no sanction is imposed, and conviction coupled with an order that the offender come up for sentence if called upon within a specified period. This is a suspension of punishment conditional upon good behaviour but is not subject to the positive conditions of a probation order.

Finally the court, although it may find an offender guilty, may discharge him without conviction if it considers the offence to be of a trivial or technical character.

Detention in Penal Institution—The sentences of detention which the courts may impose from 1 April 1981 are as follows:

  1. Corrective training, the term fixed by statute being 3 months. The offender must be between 15 and 20 years of age, and he may earn up to 1 month's remission of his sentence by good conduct. After his release the offender is on probation for 12 months.

  2. Imprisonment for a stated number of years or for life. An offender sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term may earn remission of up to one-quarter of his sentence, or, in exceptional circumstances, up to one-third.

  3. Preventive detention, which means detention in prison for an indefinite term to be decided by the Prisons Parole Board, but in any event not less than 7 years. This sentence may be imposed on conviction for certain sexual offences if the offender has been convicted for a sexual offence on at least one previous occasion. The offender must be 25 years of age or over. After serving 7 years of his sentence the offender may be released on probation on the recommendation of the Parole Board, provided the board is of opinion that he is not likely to resume his criminal career. The period of probation in each case extends for life. Preventive detention was restricted to sexual offenders by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967. Hitherto, it had been available for persistent offenders in a number of other cases.

Restrictions on Imprisonment—The policy is to restrict the use of detention of offenders in an institution as far as is practicable, consistent with the protection of the community from dangerous criminals.

In 1975 a restriction on detention prohibited a sentence of detention (other than a sentence of periodic detention) being imposed on any person not legally represented at some time before conviction unless he had the means to pay for legal representation but declined to employ a solicitor, or he was offered legal aid and refused it.

A court in dealing with any one convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment is now required in each case to have regard to the desirability of keeping the offender in the community so far as is practicable and consistent with the safety of the community.

CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: Court of Appeal—The law relating to criminal appeals from the High Court is contained in the Crimes Act 1961.

If it allows an appeal, the Court of Appeal may quash the conviction, vary the sentence, or order the case to be retried in the High Court.

Applications lodged in criminal cases and the results of the appeals are shown in the following table.

YearAppeals LodgedAppeals Heard
AllowedRefusedOther*Total
* Reserved decisions or cases adjourned.
1977210521166174
197820669145214
1979230511751227
1980299851973285

High Court—Criminal cases in the High Court (previously the Supreme Court) are of 2 classes—those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the District Court and has been committed to the High Court for sentence or has been committed for trial and subsequently changed his plea to guilty, and those actually tried in the High Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the High Court (or the Supreme Court as it then was) during each of the latest available 5 years. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender and this serves to explain the distinction between total cases and distinct persons.

YearTried in High CourtSentences in Case of Committal for SentenceTotal SentencesTotal
Indictments and InformationsConvictions
MFMFMFMF
 Total Cases
19751956201    12271243879316142171831
19761884139126488616101880981978
1977179721711061484811315871611748
1978185818911161174685915841761760
1979210917413171106373119541412095
 Distinct Persons
1975749585473283763039669
19767425956637100766644710
19777046152645113363948687
197870277528471351566362725
197973263514411481166252714

Of the 795 distinct persons indicted during 1979,555 were convicted, 14 were still awaiting trial at the end of the year, 116 were acquitted, 5 were found insane, and the prosecution was not proceeded with in the remaining 105 cases.

The next table summarises the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the High Court during each of the latest 5 years.

YearTotal Convictions and SentencesDistinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced
Offences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, and ForgeryOther OffencesTotalOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, and ForgeryOther OffencesTotal
197547410912661831270223176669
197655111882391978306260144710
197745510162771748282235170687
19785308733571760339205181725
19796429305232095311172231714

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in the High Court during each of the latest 5 years classified according to the principal types of offences.

Type of Offence19751976197719781979
* Includes persons charged with murder but convicted of manslaughter.
Murder813131410
Attempted murder21363
Manslaughter*1525162116
Traffic offences involving death or injury35139
Assaults and wounding153149174199164
Sexual offences771047493108
Other offences against the person129131
Burglary, breaking and entering, and stealing from the person7595726550
Theft, receiving, and fraud12614814111592
Other offences against property1912182324
Forgery and uttering35426
Drug offences9083103121163
Other offences8661676068
                Total669710687725714
Per 10000 mean population2.172.282.202.312.29

Sentences imposed in the High Court during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

Sentence19751976197719781979
* Also includes persons committed into the care of the Department of Social Welfare.
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)6071617056
Ordered to come up for sentence2018191721
Discharged58224
Fined9391959068
Imprisoned383422381443468
Detention centre (includes periodic)*6568996967
Borstal training3329232628
Preventive detention14
Detained in mental institution103642
                Total669710687725714

The death sentence for murder was abolished in 1961. On conviction for murder a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment is imposed.

District Courts—As already stated, from 1 April 1980 Magistrates' Courts were renamed District Courts, and magistrates became District Court judges.

District Court judges deal with the majority of indictable offences. They have jurisdiction over all crimes against property and all but the most grave of other crimes, such as treason, homicide, rape, and perjury. A District Court judge may, however, decline to deal with an offence summarily, in which case the accused is committed for trial in the High Court in the ordinary way. The accused person has, moreover, the right to claim jury trial if he is charged with any offence, indictable or summary, punishable by imprisonment for more than 3 months.

A defendant may be prosecuted at a court hearing for several charges of one or more offences. All are included in “total charges”, which will therefore exceed the number of persons charged. The principal charge (i.e., that for which the heaviest sentence is imposed), for each person at each court appearance is selected to arrive at the “distinct case” classification. As a person may appear before a court on more than one occasion during the year, the number of distinct cases will not necessarily correspond with the number of individual persons involved.

With the introduction in 1977 of centralised computer processing of criminal and traffic offence data, offence and other variable groupings were revised to provide information in a form for which there is now a demand. The following District Courts table, which shows provisional totals for 1977 only, will therefore not be directly comparable with the corresponding table shown as a time series in previous Yearbooks. The figures refer to total charges convictions for each offence group, followed by total distinct case convictions.

Type of offence1977
* Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person was charged simultaneously with 2 or more offences.
Offences involving violence or threats of violence5623
Sex offences618
Other offences against the person2376
Unlawful taking of property (includes conversion of vehicles)25104
Fraud and false pretences6085
Wilful damage and trespass3403
Forgery, uttering, and currency offences1805
Drug offences2612
Offences against the administration of justice2920
Drunkenness and drunken driving of fences15128
Other imprisonable traffic offences6887
Other offences against good order8111
Offences against decency216
Maintenance and Social Welfare offences2880
Offences against the Sale of Liquor Act8553
Other offences16357
                Sub-total108678
Minor traffic offences258184
                Total366862
Distinct cases*295653
Rate per 10000 mean population for convictions, excluding minor traffic offences347.4

The next table classifies the result of hearings in all distinct cases heard in 1977. Details of the type of offences involved are not at present available.

Result of HearingTotal Offences

* Minor traffic offences accounted for most of the cases where fines were imposed.

Mostly orders made.

Committed for trial or sentence521
Imprisonment4063
Detention in detention centre670
Periodic detention5148
Detention in borstal institution, etc.944
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)4768
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence if required2282
Fined*267274
Convicted and discharged (or pay costs)8174
Suspended imprisonment (maintenance cases)1488
Miscellaneous842
Dismissed, withdrawn, or struck out26787
Discharged under section 42 of Criminal Justice Act2796
Total distinct cases325757

Traffic Offences—Traffic offences form a large proportion of summary convictions. The most frequent traffic offences dealt with are breaches of parking regulations and excessive speed. Since 1 April 1969 parking infringements which result merely from overstaying a time limit have been dealt with outside the criminal law and from 1 July 1971 some local authorities and the Ministry of Transport have imposed speeding infringement penalties.

The following table analyses all traffic convictions dealt with in District Courts for the latest available 5 years. A list of traffic offences resulting in convictions reported by officers of the Ministry of Transport will be found in section 12 D Roads and Road Transport.

Offence19721973197419751976
* Excludes trailers and caravans.
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing death981089111495
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing injury215221240301351
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing death91914611
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing injury620202516
Failing to stop motor vehicle after accident involving bodily injury242349303236147
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use18981879187822462458
Driving, or in charge of, motor or other vehicle under the influence of drink or drug66367897870295899381
Exceeding speed limits3280839068425115596859525
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle3313835761391653415538586
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of other vehicle11189838979
Incorrect lighting of vehicles58416054651859576138
Offences relating to the registration, etc., of motor vehicles968511906128391108813654
Offences relating to driver's licence1759720561233632568328287
Breaches of parking regulations3407239253439024328548858
Other traffic offences3320541194510145514366897
                    Total175561204379230643243885274483
Convictions per 1000 of mean population60.3068.8276.0879.0188.09
Convictions per 1000 motor vehicles*130.14142.13152.20154.90168.27

The previous table excludes charges for which persons were sent up from the District Courts to the High Court for trial or sentence. In 1976 there were 8 such charges for driving offences causing injury or death, 66 for converting a motor vehicle, and 24 for other traffic offences.

Disqualifications of drivers by length of disqualification are shown in the following table. The years shown are the latest available.

Period for which Driver Disqualified19721973197419751976
* Amended procedures for the processing of 1975 and 1976 data resulted in more accurate statistics. Short-term disqualifications for earlier years had been overstated.
Under 3 months21183192368719841160
3 months and under 6 months46386877644433282594
6 months and under 1 year54117230761777857786
1 year and under 2 years50267099737674508107
2 years and under 3 years11281392186719821524
3 years and under 4 years408431553488449
4 years and under 5 years3431515353
5 years and over140162213173177
                Total disqualifications18903264142780823243*21850*

Drunkenness—The following table shows the number of convictions for all types of drunkenness (except driving with excess blood alcohol), together with the rate per 1000 of mean population, for each of the latest 5 years. Children and Young Persons' Courts, in which there were 84 convictions for drunkenness in 1976, are not included in this table.

YearConvictions for DrunkennessPer 1000 of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
1972294416731112.020.111.07
1973288913230211.940.090.97
1974428320544882.810.131.47
1975583330661393.780.201.99
1976681839272104.380.252.31

Repeated (or duplicate) convictions against the same person are included in the statistics shown in the preceding table.

In 1976 there were 7944 distinct case convictions for driving with excess blood alcohol concentration compared with 8319 cases in 1975. In addition 619 distinct case convictions were recorded for failing to take blood tests.

Offences by Women—Of the 404526 charges dealt with in the District Courts in 1976, 51464 or 12.72 percent, were preferred against females. This figure showed an increase of 10467 from the 1975 total of 40997.

Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against women are of a relatively trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations.

Convictions for more serious offences are set out in the following table.

Offence19721973197419751976
Common assault134138141151155
Drunkenness167132205306392
Burglary, breaking and entering, etc.109157141147226
Theft18842055222424732569
Fraud and false pretences46280170311201457
Offensive conduct or language245257333448386
Vagrancy14880809280

Women received into prison under sentence during 1979 numbered 345, compared with 275 in 1978.

Totals for each offence group in 1979 (with 1978 figures in parentheses), were: offences against the person, 33 (29); property offences, 165 (153); drug offences, 31 (17); offences against good order, 14 (5); traffic offences, 3 (10); breach of probation or periodic detention, 34 (25); breaches of Immigration Act, 35 (11); breaches of Social Security Act, 6 (6); and all other offences, 24 (19).

Assessment of Crime—One important index of crime in the community is the number of those who are convicted of offences. This gives a useful guide to the amount of crime, providing the proportion of crime reported and the proportion of known crime whose perpetrators are detected remains more or less constant. This, of course, may not be a justified assumption. A greater number of court convictions might mean merely more efficiency by the police and a greater willingness on the part of the public to report offences that previously went unreported. Care should therefore be taken to avoid reading too much into figures for court convictions.

Over the 10 years 1967 to 1976, the number of convictions in the District Courts (excluding minor offences), increased from a rate of 17.4 per 1000 mean population to a rate of 29.4 per 1000. Most categories of serious crime show an upward trend. Total convictions for offences against the person (of which common assault and assaulting, resisting, or obstructing the police form the major proportion), increased by 96 percent, property and forgery convictions increased by 95 percent.

History and current experience alike testify that crime almost invariably flourishes in large cities, particularly those that are growing rapidly and drawing large numbers of young people from a less sophisticated environment. This is less a penal problem than a social one. In New Zealand it has occurred to a marked degree only in recent years.

The following table gives an annual comparison by ages of the persons sentenced to penal institutions. In 1969, 38 percent of persons sent to penal institutions were 20 years of age or younger; in 1979 the proportion was 1 percent higher at 39 percent (a decline from the 42 percent in 1977). In 1969, 71 percent of those imprisoned were under 30 years of age, in 1979 the proportion had risen to 79 percent.

Age, in Years196519701975197719781979
15285660565666
16117223309278240250
17228380454473382391
18267454486421418406
19241427393434376399
20238437444357339378
21–2472210441091113811221191
25–29459600686679660708
30–34313387363327367350
35–39271253242211225217
40–44227222179118149162
45–49158196145111111104
50–541269588677265
55–59685844514741
60–64381633182618
65–69121213946
70 and over714332
              Total352048615034475145974754

PROBATION—The following figures show the number of persons placed on probation during the latest 5 years.

YearMalesFemalesTotal
1975576910006769
1976555210176569
1977548212966778
1978584213797221
1979510315976700

The next table gives the number of offenders in each age group placed on probation during 1979, together with the period of their probation.

Age, in YearsPeriod of Probation
MonthsYearsTotal
121518223
Males
Under 17252872514912642
1737985219462731
18–196031253607471169
20–2465412239795181277
25–293007919432 7612
30–392002912756 6418
40–499986216 5190
50–59265153 352
60–69622 10
70 and over11 2
              Total males252054016273742405103
Females
Under 175584311 117
17148115228 1240
18–19202179234 345
20–24223701164113454
25–2913096424 5232
30–397853822 5148
40–4930276 146
50–591011 113
60–6911 2
70 and over 
              Total females8771224141671161597
              Total, both sexes339766220415413566700

PRISONS AND PRISONERS—The New Zealand prison population is accommodated in 27 institutions comprising 19 prisons, 3 borstals, 3 detention centres, and 2 police jails. Any person serving a sentence of not more than 8 days may be detained at any police station, which is also deemed to be a prison for that period.

The prison population during the year 1979 is shown in the following table.

CategoryMalesFemalesTotal
* Not including persons on remand.
Persons in prison at 1 January 197924661282594*
Receptions during the year (including multiple receptions of the same person, but excluding transfers)996074710707
Discharges during the year (including multiple discharges of the same person, but excluding transfers)980275710559
Persons in prison at 31 December 197926241182742
Daily average number of prisoners26121362748

Not all prisoners received were actually persons undergoing sentence on conviction for criminal offences. Of the 10707 receptions, 5493 referred to persons who were remanded in custody pending a court hearing and who were later released after acquittal or on a successful application for bail, given a sentence not involving custodial detention, or sent after sentence to an institution other than that in which they were remanded. In 1979, 135 debtors were also received for non-payment of civil debt and 19 persons were transferred to mental institutions.

Persons received into penal institutions under sentence during 1979 are shown by age group and type of offence in the following table.

Age, in yearsOffences Against the PersonBurglary, Theft and Fraud*Conversion, Wilful Damage, etc.Drunken-nessOther OffencesTotal
Sexual OffencesViolent OffencesOther

* Includes forgery and currency offences.

Includes all other property offences.

Includes driving with excess blood alcohol or excess breath alcohol concentration.

Under 214327914804278194531890
21–24331781439483514381 191
25–292010042133157283708
30–39357161502448233567
40–49192175442105266
50–59913322932106
60 and over42518626
          Total16365238167442325415504754

The next table gives particulars of ages and length of sentence of distinct persons received into penal institutions under sentence during 1979.

Age, in YearsLength of Sentence
Under 1 Month1 Month and Under 3 Months3 Months and Under 12 Months*1 Year and Under 3 Years3 Years and Under 5 Years5 Years and OverOtherTotal

* Includes detention in a detention centre.

Includes life imprisonment.

Includes borstal detention and preventive detention.

Under 217313082314645136601890
21–249720356326338271191
25–29921133021393923708
30–39761132231102718567
40–4965461063584266
50–5933203716106
60 and over982726
Total4456332058716157856604754

The special types of detention (or imprisonment) imposed during 1979 are included in the previous table. The following table gives these special types of detention by age of detainee at the time when received into custody.

SentenceAge, in Years
15161718192021–2425–5455 and OverTotal
Borstal training—
    Males571031661547316569
    Females622212710591
Detention centre1161521166111456
Preventive detention

Of the total of distinct persons received into penal institutions in 1979,81 percent had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, and 56 percent had been convicted more than 6 times.

The number of prisoners received to serve a sentence imposed during the year 1979 for criminal offences was 5081, but deducting multiple receptions of the same prisoner, the number of distinct persons was 4754 (4409 males and 345 females). The corresponding total for 1978 was 4864, involving 4597 distinct persons (4322 males and 275 females).

An analysis of distinct persons received into penal institutions according to nature of sentence is given below for the 5 latest years.

Nature of Sentence19751976197719781979
Imprisonment36113794346034523638
Detention centre585600548460456
Borstal training837874742682660
Preventive detention113
        Total50345268475145974754
        Rate per 10000 of mean population16.3116.9115.1914.6915.22

The next table shows the number of persons in prison at 31 December in each of the latest 5 years.

At 31 DecemberPersons in PrisonProportion per 10000 of Population as at 31 December
Undergoing SentenceOn Remand and Awaiting Trial, etc.TotalUndergoing SentenceTotal in Prison
1975259315927527.978.80
1976271313028438.719.12
1977271114928608.679.14
1978259416927638.298.83
1979259314927428.308.78

Classification—The key to successful penal work lies in understanding the individual prisoner, and in order to assist the prisons administration to this end classification boards operate in the main reception prisons (Mt. Eden, Wanganui, Wellington, and Christchurch) and at Auckland Prison. Similar boards also function at the main reception youth institutions.

Special emphasis has been placed on the treatment of people in prisons for the first time. If it is considered that they are likely to reoffend, then they are transferred to Wi Tako Prison where individual treatment programmes and specialist attention can be focused on their needs.

A census of convicted persons under the jurisdiction of the Department of Justice was taken as at midnight on 4 July 1972. This included persons sentenced to probation, periodic detention, and all forms of custody.

The census revealed that a high proportion of persons included had had previous penalties. As would be expected this was most marked among prisoners. Seventy-two percent of male prisoners and 42 percent of females had been in penal custody before the present sentence.

The great majority of persons in the census were aged 24 years or less—72 percent of the total.

In general the level of education reached by the persons in the Department of Justice census was low. Only 22 percent of male and 24 percent of female sentenced persons remained at school beyond Form IV.

An ethnic breakdown of sentenced persons showed that of the males 57 percent were New Zealand born of non-Polynesian stock., 35 percent were Maoris, 2 percent were immigrant Polynesians, and 6 percent were other immigrants. The figures for females were 51 percent New Zealand born of non-Polynesian stock, 42 percent Maoris, 2 percent immigrant Polynesians, and 5 percent other immigrants. Of those males in penal custody, 50 percent were New Zealand born of non-Polynesian stock, 41 percent were Maoris, 2 1/2 percent were immigrant Polynesians, and 6 percent were other immigrants.

Measures Employed in Treatment: Vocational Training—Prisoners are put to work on some form of constructive employment, whether it be industrial production in a secure institution or food production on a prison farm. In addition, and particularly for the younger offender, an attempt is made to teach some particular skills.

Non-vocational Training—A variety of evening activities have been introduced into the prisons and training benefit is derived from these activities, whether they be recreational, educational, cultural, individual, or collective.

There are 18 full-time teachers serving in Auckland Prison, Mount Eden Prison, Christchurch Prison, Tongariro Prison Farm, Waikune Prison, Christchurch Women's Prison, Rolleston Prison, Wellington Prison, Wi Tako Prison; and in Waikeria, Manawatu, and Invercargill Youth Institutions. Part-time teachers provide a service for all other institutions. Teachers seek to help those prisoners whose educational attainment is such that they are disadvantaged in the community. They also assist those who are undertaking further education or technical courses either by correspondence or in prison classes. Such courses may be at any level ranging from illiteracy to university degree work. The interest thus shown by prisoners is encouraging, as in many cases it gives a prisoner better social and employment skills thereby reducing the chances of further offending.

All institutions receive at regular intervals a supply of well-chosen books from the National Library Service and, in addition, inmates are permitted a free use of the library's request service.

Psychological Services—Psychologists from the department's Pyschological Services are available to provide assessment and to assist the administration with decisions relating to an inmate's rehabilitation.

Not all assessments lead to psychological treatment. Of those that do, some will result in direct treatment by a specialist in the form of counselling, psychotherapy, group therapy, or behaviour therapy. Others are dealt with by the combined efforts of the institution staff to improve the offender's behaviour.

Referral may be through a classification or other committee of which a psychologist may be required to be a member but many inmates seek referral themselves.

Professional staff are expected to assist in developing programmes and in the in-service training courses for prison officers.

Earnings—All prisoners are credited with modest earnings based on a system of marks assessed according to diligence. A portion of the earnings may be spent on tobacco, confectionery, and toilet necessities in a prison canteen, and this provides an incentive to good work and conduct. At the same time the loss of this privilege is a useful disciplinary measure. The balance of the earnings is paid to the inmate upon his or her release to help meet financial commitments during the first few days of freedom.

Punishments—An inmate charged with one of the less serious offences against discipline appears before the superintendent, who may impose a penalty or in his discretion refer the case to a visiting justice or to the court. A visiting justice may deal with all cases of offences against discipline and must deal with those which are outside the jurisdiction of the superintendent, unless he thinks they should be brought before the court. His powers of punishment are wider than those of a superintendent. The provisions as to offences and punishments are the same for both prisons and youth institutions.

Pre-release Hostels—The setting up in 1961 of the first pre-release hostel at Invercargill for male borstal inmates was an important step forward toward the goal of bridging the gap between the wholly controlled life of the penal institution and the responsibilities and temptations of free society. Further pre-release hostels have been established for male borstal inmates at Auckland, Hamilton, and Wellington, and at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch for adult male inmates. Selected inmates are sent to these hostels during the last part of their sentence. They live at these hostels and spend their leisure time there under supervision while working in the community. A pre-release hostel for women has been established in Auckland.

Release to Work—Inmates may be released during the day to engage in private employment. The selection of inmates for this privilege is made on the recommendation of the superintendent of a penal institution, by a special committee chaired by a magistrate. The inmates are required to contribute part of their wages towards the cost of their maintenance in the institution and part may also be withheld in satisfaction of outstanding fines or debts. The balance is made available to their dependants or is held by the Department of Justice for payment upon final release.

Post-release Care—Offenders serving a sentence of corrective training, preventive detention, or imprisonment for 12 months or more are discharged on probation. For a period of time they must be under the supervision of a probation officer and, during any part of that period falling within the maximum period they could have been detained in an institution, are subject to recall if their behaviour on release is not satisfactory. The period of supervision has a dual purpose—it is the protection of the community against further offending and it is at the same time an aid to the prisoner to re-establish himself. The step from custody to freedom is a difficult one for prisoners, many of whom require assistance, advice, and guidance during this period.

An offender serving a sentence of imprisonment of less than 12 months is on probation after release if the sentencing court so orders.

Parole System—The introduction of types of long sentences designed to protect society against the hardened criminal has created the need for a procedure to enable a person serving one of these sentences to be released as soon as he shows that he is fit to be returned to society.

This need is filled by the Prisons Parole Board which has the responsibility of reviewing the cases of all persons sentenced to imprisonment for 5 years or more preventive detention, or life imprisonment.

The Prisons Parole Board consists of a judge of the High Court as chairman, the Secretary for Justice, and at least 1 but no more than 5 other members, all except the Secretary for Justice being appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and being eligible for reappointment.

Categories of persons whose cases were considered by the Prisons Parole Board during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

YearImprisonmentPreventive DetentionLife Imprisonment
1975148818
1976128917
1977981124
1978881628
1979971616

JUVENILE OFFENDERS—Children's Courts were originally established in New Zealand under the Child Welfare Act 1925. The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, which came into force on 1 April 1975, renamed these Children and Young Persons Courts.

All offences, except murder or manslaughter on the one hand, and certain traffic offences not punishable by imprisonment on the other, committed by children under 17 years are dealt with in Children and Young Persons Courts, the procedure and rules of which differ widely from those of the ordinary courts. In addition, when an offender between 17 and 18 years comes before a regular court, the court may order his case to be heard in the Children and Young Persons Court.

Unless no other suitable room is available, sittings of the Children and Young Persons Court are not held in a courtroom. Proceedings in Children and Young Persons Courts are not open to the public, and no report of them may be published except with the consent of the presiding magistrate.

When a child is brought before a Children and Young Persons Court and charged with any offence, it is not necessary to record a conviction even if the charge is proved. The court has power without recording a conviction to impose any penalty or make any order as if a conviction has been recorded.

In the tables which follow, “Distinct Cases” relate to court appearances, the most serious or most heavily penalised of all charges for 1 person at 1 court hearing being selected as the distinct case.

The cases heard by Children's Courts and Children and Young Persons Court in the latest available 3 years resulted as follows:

DecisionTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
197519761977*197519761977*

* Provisional.

Includes periodic detention.

Dismissed or withdrawn219221642528117511481366
Admonished and discharged435435903403254621762124
Committed to care of Department of Social Welfare211716341795896911918
Placed under supervision616258666607288629273168
Committed to an institution242829472596700797686
Fined444940913977329930652899
Otherwise dealt with348634373501156615131681
                Total cases251882372924407130681253712842

The following table shows the number of cases dealt with in Children's Courts and Children and Young Persons Courts during each of the latest available 5 years. It is shown in 2 ways: i.e., total charges (meaning each offence counted once irrespective of the number with which a person is charged at the one time); and distinct cases (meaning only 1 charge, the most serious, is counted irrespective of the number a person is charged with at the time). All the Children's Court and Children and Young Persons Court tables are shown in this way.

YearTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Provisional.
19732281441832699710994261013604
19742360344142801710838272713565
19752067945092518810337273113068
1976195174212237299871266612537
1977*198984509244079988285412842

Detailed statistics for Children's Court and Children and Young Persons Court cases during each of the latest available 5 years are as follows:

Type of Offence19731974197519761977*
* Provisional.
Total Charges
Sexual offences182196161162108
Assaults10601012964833761
Other offences against the person8511372147187
Burglary, and breaking and entering62946207534347855195
Theft, receiving, and fraud75127892702363716300
Unlawful conversion42864579373636003768
Wilful damage10221150836772837
Other offences against property295319370252209
Offences against good order25922936283527642802
Indigent or delinquent child15721441162921872131
Other offences20972172221918562109
                Total2699728017251882372924407
Type of Offence19731974197519761977*

* Provisional.

Includes forgery and uttering.

Distinct Cases
Sexual offences13014611311481
Assaults851841759685633
Other offences against the person778053117140
Burglary, and breaking and entering26082565219321042197
Theft, receiving, and fraud34233613313429352982
Unlawful conversion of vehicles15761476151312331332
Wilful damage461476420358417
Other offences against property8398995356
Offences against good order15881666178817391719
Indigent or delinquent child14591255143819501879
Other offences13481349155812491406
                Total1360413565130681253712842

CIVIL JURISDICTION: High Court—The jurisdiction of the High Court (previously the Supreme Court) is twofold, original and appellate. It has by statute a general jurisdiction to administer the laws of New Zealand. One important aspect of this original jurisdiction is an inherent power to control inferior courts and judicial tribunals through the writs of certiorari and prohibition. This is essentially a power to determine the limits of jurisdiction of other courts and is to be distinguished from its appellate function by which the High Court reviews a case which was properly heard and determined by a lower court. An appeal to the High Court lies only where it is provided for by statute. With certain exceptions, all cases determined in the District Courts are subject to appeal to the High Court.

The next table shows the number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the amounts for which judgments were recorded in the civil jurisdiction of the High Court in the latest 5 years.

YearNumber of Actions CommencedCases TriedJudgments Recorded (Entered or in Cases Tried)
With JuryWithout JuryNumberAmount ClaimedAmount of Judgments
     $(000)$(000)
19755056713965287,8935,392
19763602634356165,5964,006
19773956674206919,7626,153
197840113548485311,7428,389
197943993648599017,24212,891

Court of Appeal—During the 5 years 1976 to 1980, 382 civil appeals were heard, of which 146 were allowed.

District Courts—Since 1 April 1980, District Courts (previously Magistrates' Courts) have been able to heat civil claims cases up to $12,000, but previously Magistrates' Courts could only hear claims up to $3,000. However, if the parties agree in writing that the court shall hear their case it has jurisdiction whatever the amount claimed. In the exercise of this jurisdiction it may grant the same remedies, legal and equitable, as the High Court.

The following table shows the number of plaints entered, cases disposed of, amounts sued for, and amounts for which judgment was recorded in the District Courts during the latest 5 years.

YearPlaints EnteredCases Disposed of
NumberTotal Amount Sued forNumberTotal Amount ClaimedTotal Amount for which Judgment Entered
  $(000) $(000)$(000)
197514493829,9247966313,57112,072
197614400533,8518438815,89114,331
197714430945,0578205920,89318,056
197814226245,7758308528,94719,892
197912351549,2907181223,76620,539

The average amount claimed in each plaint, cases disposed of, in 1979 was $331.

COMPENSATION FOR VICTIMS OF CRIME—The Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963 introduced the first statutory scheme in the world for compensation by the State to persons injured by crimes of violence and to the dependants of persons killed by such acts. The scheme is now administered by the Accident Compensation Corporation by virtue of section 12(4) (a) of the Accident Compensation Amendment Act 1974 in place of the Crimes Compensation Tribunal.

The availability since 1 April 1974 of compensation under the Accident Compensation Act 1972 has had a significant impact on the criminal injuries scheme, which should phase itself out. The accident compensation scheme caters for all personal injury by accident in New Zealand, and thus covers the whole range of listed criminal injuries, including pregnancy by rape and criminal infection with disease. The accident compensation scheme is designed as a fund of first resort and in practice the 2 schemes have merged in all but the residual area of property damage caused by escapers. In 1979 awards totalling $20,383 were made.

LEGAL AID—The Legal Aid Act 1969 introduced from 1 April 1970 a scheme of legal aid in civil proceedings for persons of small or moderate means, and gave effect to the principle that no persons should be prevented by lack of means from having their grievances heard and determined fairly by the courts of the land. The scheme applies to practically all civil proceedings other than divorce. In order to receive legal aid the applicant must have a sufficiently meritorious case. Except in special cases of hardship, every aided person is required to make a contribution of $15 towards the cost of proceedings, and he will be liable to make an additional contribution proportionate to his income and capital resources.

Of the applications received by the 19 district legal aid committees during the year ended 31 March 1980, 12199 applications were granted, 1537 were refused, 222 were withdrawn, and 1529 lapsed.

The amount paid out in legal aid in the year ended 31 March 1980 was $2,748,952. Set off against this were contributions of $245,578 from legally aided persons and recoveries of costs of $300,926.

Comparatively few problems have been presented to district legal aid committees. Such problems as do arise are referred to the Legal Aid Board which gives advice or makes a ruling as required in the particular case.

The Department of Social Welfare is responsible, in accordance with the Act, for investigating the resources of persons applying for legal aid; for assessing their “disposable income” and “disposable capital” within the statutory limits and reporting to district committees on the maximum contribution, if any, that applicants should be expected to pay towards the cost of the proceedings in respect of which legal aid is sought.

THE LAW AND THE FAMILY—The work of District Courts (previously Magistrates' Courts) used to be classified as civil and criminal. Domestic proceedings were procedurally and administratively an uneasy appendage of the criminal side. Following the passing of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, the domestic side of the work of District Courts ranked as a separate division alongside the civil and criminal divisions. There was, for instance, a separate domestic record book, separate domestic statistics, and, wherever practicable, special courtrooms designed for the hearing of domestic cases. The aim here was to achieve a procedure which, though informal, still preserved dignity. As already stated, Family Courts, a separate division of the District Courts, were established from 1 October 1981 to have jurisdiction over most family matters including divorce.

Domestic Proceedings—The basic objects of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968 are fourfold—

  1. To empower the court to ensure that a greater measure of justice is received by parties to domestic proceedings. The court is given much greater powers to ascertain the truth. It may call any person as a witness, and may require a lawyer to be provided—at public expense—to assist the court.

  2. To encourage by all practicable means the reconciliation of married couples. A duty is imposed on the court, and on the lawyers acting for each spouse, to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation, and to take all proper steps towards assisting a reconciliation. It is now possible to institute special legal proceedings for conciliation, quite separately from the other proceedings under the Act. On the other hand, the Act acknowledges as a fact of life that reconciliation procedures may fail, or be obviously hopeless. In such circumstances, separation orders are made available on broad and untechnical grounds. Legal recognition (in the form of a separation order) is now given to the fact that a relationship has actually and permanently broken down.

  3. To ensure that parents have an equal legal responsibility to provide for all their children, whether born in or out of wedlock. As an extension of this principle, the Act for the first time places on the father of ex-nuptial children a limited legal responsibility to maintain their mother. He may be required to maintain her for up to 5 years after the birth of such a child—in other words, till the child reaches school age. Previously, such men were liable to maintain the children only, leaving the mother to fend for herself.

  4. To deal with the perennial problem of maintenance, in such a way that both husbands and wives are dealt with as fairly as possible, and also to ensure that the person liable to pay such maintenance does not escape that obligation.

The basis for the making of maintenance orders has been much simplified and the courts have been given clear guidelines on the principles to be followed when making them. Also, the procedure for enforcing maintenance orders has been considerably tightened up.

The following tables give statistics for the year ended 31 December 1979 of applications and orders made under the provisions of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968.

Nature of OrderApplicationsOrders Made

* Custody, 2295; guardianship, 10; Custody order in favour of mother, 1968; in favour of father, 198; in favour of other parties and divided, 129.

Maintenance also granted in 1495 cases, 1350 of these in conjunction with a paternity order.

Separation52952200
Maintenance68852948
Custody or guardianship59242305*
Non-molestation2116158
Tenancy435173
Matrimonial home2974490
Paternity31061597
Consent to marry2719
Minor's contracts 51

The following were the grounds for the separation orders; serious disharmony, 2093, defendant's conduct, 62, disharmony and assault or defendant's conduct, 45. One hundred and forty-nine of the applicants were husbands.

Relative ages of parties when separation orders were made in 1979 are given below.

Age of Husband (in Years)Age of Wife (in Years)
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and OverNot KnownTotal
16–194127
20–24342092851277
25–29921224640521515
30–34236181199256449
35–39113913411430328
40 and over613511513591581
Not known124043
        Total49476509429296399422200

The next table shows, in the case of separation orders for 1979, the age of wife at separation and duration of marriage.

Duration of Marriage (in Years)Age of Wife (in Years) at Date of Separation Order
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and OverNot KnownTotal
Under 11113
113168514148
22366225674133
313902115361149
4973266122155
58340181073161
6626010661145
73871234102148
8237016772125
97641541127
10–1410522768 5433
15–1962147723284
20–2429963128
25 and over134134
Not known131351427
        Total49476509429296399422200

Numbers of children involved in custody orders granted in 1979 are shown below.

ItemNumber of Children InvolvedTotal
123456789 and Over
Numbers of orders70885843120061258312295
Total children70817161293800305150562495061

Appeals to the High Court against magistrates' decisions in the Domestic Proceedings Courts were tabulated for the first time in 1978. In that year 309 appeals were heard, of which 111 were allowed. For 1979 234 appeals were heard, of which 91 were allowed.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on justice crime, the Police, and kindred subjects will be found in the following publications:

Justice Statistics—Dept. of Statistics (annual).

Report of the Department of Justice (Parl. paper E. 5).

Report of the New Zealand Police (Parl. paper G. 6).

Crime in New Zealand—Dept. of Justice, 1974.

Juvenile Crime in New Zealand—Dept. of Social Welfare, 1973.

Royal Commission on the Courts (1978).

The New Zealand Policeman—N.Z. Institute of Public Administration.

N.Z. Supreme Court Criminal Statistics: Time Series to 1976 (Dept. of Statistics bulletin).

Report of the Prisons Parole Board (Parl. paper E. 5A).

Reports of Borstal Parole Boards (Parl. paper E. 5B).

Annual Report of the Legal Aid Board (Parl. paper E. 7).

Social Trends in New Zealand—Department of Statistics, 1977.

Family Statistics in New Zealand—Department of Statistics, 1978.

The Prediction of Juvenile Offending: A New Zealand Study—Joint Committee on Young Offenders.

8 B—POLICE AND FIRE SERVICE

NEW ZEALAND POLICE—New Zealand's national police service dates, as a civil law-enforcement body, from the passing of the Police Force Act in 1886. Previously police work had been in the hands of the New Zealand Armed Constabulary raised in 1846, and again in 1867, and provincial police forces.

The Armed Constabulary were raised to fight in the Maori-Pakeha Wars as well as to maintain civil order. The abolition of the provincial police forces because of a requirement for centralised control coincided with the demise of the Armed Constabulary and pre-dated the introduction in 1886 of the New Zealand Police as a civil force.

Today the Police service is a national one and is controlled under the Police Act 1958. This Act amended the title to New Zealand Police, the word “force” being discarded.

Organisation—The national administrative and operational control of the Police service is vested in a Commissioner who is responsible to the Government through a Minister of Police.

For operational purposes New Zealand is divided into 16 police districts. Auckland District, by virtue of its greater population, is controlled by an assistant commissioner. Other districts, because of their varying size, are commanded by officers ranging in rank from chief inspector to deputy assistant commissioner. Police district commanders are responsible for the general preservation of peace and order, for the prevention of offences, and for the detection of offenders in their areas of command.

Policing is maintained by a system of mobile patrols and foot “beats” co-ordinated by an effective communications network which permits cohesion and direction of operations.

In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the Police Offences Acts, there are various statutes of a regulatory nature which the members of the Police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Gaming and Lotteries Act, Misuse of Drugs Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers Act, and the Secondhand Dealers Act. They also undertake certain inquiries and other duties on behalf of other departments of the Government service.

Police in country districts in some cases hold additional appointments such as registrars and bailiffs at District Courts, probation officers, and honorary fishery officers.

Recruiting—Recruit applicants for the police must be between 19 and 34 years of age. Cadet applicants must be between 17 1/2 and 19 years of age. All applicants must meet certain minimal physical qualifications, otherwise they are ineligible to lodge an application. Different physical requirements are made for female applicants, but otherwise all applicants must meet the same strict educational, character, and medical standards. These are designed to ensure that only the best and most suitable personnel are selected for training. The police always receive more applications than vacancies, and many applicants miss selection.

On appointment, recruit trainees attend an 18–week training course at the Police College. This course was recently extended to include additional training to assist police officers to cope with the changing role of society.

The large recruit intakes of 3 a year have now been replaced by a “trickle” system. This new scheme allows for the recruitment of smaller numbers of new trainees on a more regular basis as and when required.

Examinations for promotion to non-commissioned and commissioned ranks are aimed at selecting members who have shown the necessary potential to become effective supervisors and administrators.

Members who show a particular aptitude for the various specialist sections within the Police receive additional training at the Police College and in the field.

Strength—The effective strength of the Police at 31 March 1980 was 4932 sworn personnel, including 210 policewomen who have equal status and opportunity with their male counterparts. In addition to these members the department employed 665 civilian staff.

Transport—At 31 March 1980 the Police vehicle fleet totalled 914, including 726 cars, 111 vans of various types and landrover-type vehicles, estate cars, omnibuses, trucks, motor cycles, and other vehicles.

Crime Situation—Since 1970 the number of offences reported to the police during the year has increased from 165859 to 314096.

Today's criminal takes full advantage of modern technology, organisation, and transport in the commission of crime and also in circumventing detection.

Crime statistics do little to reveal the very substantial profits the criminal element extracts from the community by way of illegal drug trafficking or in the promotion of vice or in gambling. Profits from these sources provide the base for highly organised and lucrative criminal ventures. Again, where large amounts of money are the prerequisite to the successful criminal operation, there are those in the community who are prepared for large profits to make finance available, providing their remoteness from the more obviously criminal aspects of the activity is assured.

Coincidental with the duties crime imposes upon the police, the ebb and flow of quite normal public activity produces added pressure for police services. Little more than a decade ago a more leisurely social pace required a concentration of police effort mainly in major centres. Today, the need for police service is far more widespread and general. Rural areas which were formerly free from the scourge of lawbreakers can no longer accept with certainty their remoteness as a guarantee against offenders.

Police presence is required at holiday resorts, at numerous sporting fixtures such as cricket, football, boxing, car rallies, horse racing, motorcar and motor cycle events, and at pop concerts and many other promotions. Roving gangs must be kept under surveillance and public demonstrations need to be supervised.

The pattern of criminal behaviour in New Zealand is changing. So called “white collar” crime has escalated in recent years, calling for new dimensions in police professionalism to deal with it. This aspect of police work is occupying more and more time.

To all these and other criminal activities must be added the overt challenge that violence and some “bikie” and kindred gang activities pose to social peace and tranquillity.

Crimes and Offences During 1979—Crimes and offences reported to the Police during 1979 totalled 314096, a 11.1 percent increase on the previous year's total of 282656. The most disturbing feature was the increasing incidence of offences of violence, which were up 21.7 percent in 1979 on the previous year. The increases covered every category of violent offending but more particularly robbery (up 31.7 percent), grievous assaults (up 110.3 percent), minor assaults (17.2 percent increase), and intimidation and threat (up 34.9 percent), while group assemblies increased sevenfold.

Other areas of offending which rose sharply included drugs (non-cannabis offences up 25.9 percent and cannabis offences up 54 percent), and offences involving public disorder, which rose 62.8 percent.

The following table shows figures of crimes and offences during 1978 and 1979. These are computer-generated statistics from the Wanganui Computer Centre, and are not directly comparable with data for earlier years.

Offence19781979
* Includes burglary (48000 offences in 1978 and 49 O00 in 1979) and theft (87000 offences in 1978 and 90000 in 1979).
Violence1253415253
Sex25042552
Drugs and anti-social behaviour3480948665
Dishonesty185762*191407*
Property damage1773520497
Property abuses1053415037
Administrative11521299
Traffic1762619386
                  Total282656314096

Youth Aid Section—The total staff employed on youth aid work throughout the country, as at 31 March 1980, was as follows:

General youth aid officers67
General youth aid officers (part-time)47
Youth aid education officers23
Boystown (Auckland)2
National Headquarters4

During 1979 general youth aid members spoke to 81786 children at schools, outside meetings, and at police stations. Additionally, in an effort to enlist the co-operation of parents and to explain the police role within the community, members spoke to over 19431 adults in group settings.

Education officers visiting schools addressed 214579 children, of whom 40564 were spoken to on more than one occasion in the course of study units.

National Drug Intelligence Bureau—During 1979, 5009 persons were charged with drug offences, which is the highest number ever recorded. The majority of these offenders were charged with cannabis-related offences. This drug still remains as the most popular controlled drug being used, and is causing the police considerable concern. Cannabis plantations have been located in every province in the country, particularly in the summer months. The amount of imported cannabis available continues to decline.

Heroin supplies and arrests by the end of 1979 were reaching an encouraging low ebb, and indications were that this trend would continue into 1980.

Search and Rescue—There were 779 police-controlled search and rescue operations during 1979–80, compared with 878 in 1978–79. In 685 of the 1979–80 operations the police were assisted by volunteers.

General—To ensure that they keep abreast with developments in other law enforcement agencies throughout the world the Police continuously review and experiment with new policing concepts and organisational changes. Technological improvements such as computerisation ensure that the New Zealand Police can be confident in their future ability to maintain a high standard of law enforcement.

Further Information—Further information on the police and crime will be found in the following publications: Report of the New Zealand Police (Parl. Paper G. 6.); Report of the Department of Justice (Parl. Paper E.5); Justice Statistics (Department of Statistics); Crime in New Zealand (Justice Department, 1974); Juvenile Crime in New Zealand (Department of Social Welfare, 1973); The New Zealand Policeman (New Zealand Institute of Public Administration). Section 8A Justice may also be consulted.

NEW ZEALAND FIRE SERVICE—The Fire Service Act 1975, which came into force on 1 April 1976, established an integrated fire service controlled directly by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission in place of the multitude of fire authorities that had previously existed. One of the main aims of the integration was the removal of the fire service's greatest problem—divided control spread unevenly over 277 fire districts administered by almost as many diverse local authorities, fire boards, and fire committees. However, the retention of the volunteer system is a central feature of the reorganisation The New Zealand Fire Service is organised in a 4-tier structure as follows:

  1. The New Zealand Fire Service Commission: The successor of the Fire Service Commission has 3 members, one (the chairman) with a special knowledge of administration, while the other 2 have senior operational experience in the fire services The term of office is not to exceed 5 years, but Commissioners may be reappointed.

  2. Fire Regions: There are 6 administrative regions based on Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Their primary task is to co-ordinate their operational units to work in a close-knit organisation.

  3. Fire Areas: The fire regions are divided into fire areas, of which there are 22 in all. They are responsible for developing the fire fighting resources of their areas and for the training and operational efficiency of the brigades in districts within them.

  4. Fire Districts: Every united urban fire district, urban fire district, and secondary urban fire district which existed immediately prior to the commencement of the Fire Service Act 1975, was declared a fire district under the new Act. There has been some adjustment of fire districts since 1976. As at 1 April 1980 they numbered 274.

The New Zealand Fire Service Since 1 April 1976—From 1 April 1976 the operation and administration of the New Zealand Fire Service became the total responsibility of the New Zealand Fire Service Commission dealing through duly appointed commanders of regions, areas, and districts. Twenty-five of the 274 fire districts are served mainly by permanent firemen but with a leavening of nearly 1000 volunteers. The remaining 249 fire districts are manned by volunteer firemen who are an essential integral part of the New Zealand Fire Service.

The assets taken over by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission comprised some 388 fire stations, 308 houses and flats, and 1226 assorted vehicles deployed throughout New Zealand.

The Fire Service Act 1975 revised the apportionment of costs for the annual estimates of the New Zealand Fire Service between the insurance industry (including the levy on fire insurance policies) and the Government in the ratio of almost 3:1.

Fire Safety—Under Part II of the Fire Service Act the Fire Service Commission is required to take an active and co-ordinating role in the promotion of fire safety. Giving effect to this is a Fire Safety Division at National Headquarters, with Fire Safety Departments in each of the fire districts served by permanent firemen providing a New Zealand-wide fire safety survey and advisory service.

Fire Calls—The total number of calls attended by brigades throughout New Zealand during 3 recent years are shown below.

Calls197719781979
Special services662574878292
Chimney fires362631993475
Gorse, grass, rubbish7518101397408
Property fires103131073710026
Assistance calls to property fires760510586
                  Total288423207229787
False alarms, non-malicious397642854088
False alarms, malicious224922601786
Accidental228123952552
Defective apparatus557461046144
                  Total false alarms140801504414570
                  Total all calls429224711644357

Loss of Life—Fifty-three lives were lost by fire during 1979 compared with 62 the previous year and 41 in 1977. The most common known causes were smoking in bed (7 deaths), fires deliberately lit (9 deaths), careless disposal of smoking materials (6 deaths), and electric heaters igniting room contents (4 deaths). Five deaths resulted from fires of which the causes were unknown, and 6 deaths were the result of self-immolation.

Further Information—Further detailed fire statistics are contained in the New Zealand Fire Service Commission's Annual Report to Parliament (Parl. paper G.8).

Chapter 9. Section 9 DEFENCE

Table of Contents

The maintenance of defence forces and a defence potential in New Zealand are related to the support of broad national objectives. Some of these objectives are relatively fixed because they reflect unchanging basic factors, such as resources, geographical remoteness, and dependence on overseas trade. Others are the products of history or circumstances. The objectives of New Zealand's defence policy may be summed up as the preservation of national security and control of our own area, including the Exclusive Economic Zone, and the promotion of security in the region around us.

EVOLUTION OF THE MINISTRY OF DEFENCE—Prior to 1 January 1964 there were 3 separate departments—Navy, Army, and Air—each responsible directly to the Minister of Defence. Although this system was reasonably effective in the immediate post-war period it had become clear by the early 1960s that there was a need for a more fully co-ordinated system which would also prevent the considerable duplication of activities between the various Services which had arisen. In order to overcome these problems, a small Department of Defence was established in 1962, and the following year it incorporated the 3 Service departments. The changes were given statutory authority by the Defence Act 1964. A small Defence Office was created under a Secretary of Defence and a Chief of Defence Staff, who were appointed principal advisers to the Minister. The controlling body of the new department was the Defence Council, on which sat the Minister of Defence as chairman, the Secretary of Defence, the Chief of Defence Staff, and the 3 Chiefs of Staff.

The Defence Council delegated back to the service boards most of the powers they had exercised previously. Thus, the service boards continued to command and control their respective Services and the Minister remained their chairman. The council was able to achieve some success in the integration of common functions in such fields as intelligence, communications, and public relations. The nature of the organisation, however, restricted the efforts of the ministry to gain the potential economies in manpower and resources that would be achieved by fully integrating the main support functions of supply, logistics, finance, and personnel administration. Above all, a change was essential if the proportion of defence finance spent directly on the operational capabilities of the Armed Forces, as against expenditure in the administrative support field, was to be maintained and improved.

A new organisation was designed to meet New Zealand's particular circumstances and also to incorporate many of the desirable features of overseas systems, which were carefully studied at this time. The new concept was implemented on 1 June 1970. Later the following year, the passing of the Defence Act 1971 gave statutory backing to the organisation. The service boards were disbanded and the formulation of policy, as well as administration of the Armed Forces in both the personnel and support fields, came under central management.

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION OF DEFENCE—The Governor-General as Commander-in-Chief is empowered to raise and maintain the Royal New Zealand Navy, the New Zealand Army, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. These forces, together with public servants appointed under the State Services Act 1962, constitute the Ministry of Defence, which is responsible under the Minister for the central control of the whole field of national defence.

The Secretary of Defence is permanent head of the ministry and principal civilian adviser to the Minister, responsible in particular for co-ordinating the business of the ministry as a whole, including long-term financial planning as well as supervision of defence expenditure. In accordance with the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, the Secretary of Defence prescribes the pay, allowances, expenses, and other conditions of employment of all servicemen.

The Chief of Defence Staff is principal military adviser to the Minister; he is convenor and chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and conveys its advice to the Minister. Like the Secretary of Defence, he carries out inspections of the services and reports to the Minister.

Defence Council—The Defence Council is responsible for the administration and, through the officers appointed for the purpose, the command of the New Zealand Armed Forces. The Defence Council consists of the Minister as chairman, the Secretary of Defence and the Chief of Defence Staff as deputy chairmen, and the Chiefs of Staff of the 3 services. The Secretary to the Treasury and the Secretary of Foreign Affairs are associate members. In addition, the council may from time to time co-opt officers of other departments of State. Without limiting the duties of the Secretary of Defence or the Chief of Defence Staff, the Defence Council assists the Minister in formulating defence policy or recommendations thereon.

MISSIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND ARMED FORCES—To achieve the objectives of New Zealand's defence policy, the armed forces have the following missions:

  1. To provide forces capable of quick response to any threat to New Zealand itself, of controlling the Exclusive Economic Zone, and at the same time of upholding New Zealand's wider national interests in the area of prime concern—the New Zealand region and the South Pacific.

  2. To demonstrate the force of New Zealand's commitment to ANZUS by participating effectively alongside allied units in military exercises.

  3. To maintain trained, mobile, and self-sufficient forces to provide, on request, military assistance, technical aid, surveillance of outside activities, search and rescue, and disaster relief services in the South Pacific.

  4. To maintain a capability for limited support of national research and other interests in Antarctica.

  5. To undertake limited joint training and exercises by invitation in South-east Asia, as a demonstration of continuing interest in stability and security in that region, and to continue to respond to requests from the ASEAN and South Pacific countries for limited military training in New Zealand.

  6. To provide a capability to contribute to international peacekeeping operations.

  7. To provide assistance to the New Zealand community.

CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—To facilitate exchanges on military matters, New Zealand defence liaison staffs are maintained in London, Canberra, Washington, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, Jakarta, and Bangkok. In addition, some members of these staffs are duly accredited to other countries. The United Kingdom, Australia, and Malaysia have service representatives attached to their respective High Commissions in Wellington and there are service attaches on the staffs of the French, Indonesian, and United States Embassies in Wellington. Several other countries have service attaches accredited to, but not resident in, New Zealand.

DEFENCE SCIENCE—The Defence Scientific Establishment, Auckland, carries out research in fields of concern to all three Services. The establishment also undertakes metallurgical and other specialised studies related to the adaptation of equipment to the New Zealand environment.

Co-ordination of defence science policy is achieved through the Ministry of Defence, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the National Research Advisory Council. Commonwealth and allied co-ordination is achieved by membership of specialised bodies.

The Defence Scientific Establishment has been responsible for useful savings of foreign exchange, both in the rejection of faulty equipment as a result of metallurgical testings, and in enabling tasks previously carried out overseas to be undertaken in New Zealand. Electronic equipment produced by the Defence Scientific Establishment which has commercial potential has been made available to New Zealand industry for development and production and the work of defence scientists could result in the introduction into industry of new techniques bringing more economical production.

DEFENCE EXPENDITURE—Expenditure on defence in the 3 latest years ended 31 March was made up as follows:

Item1977–781978–791979–80
  $(million) 
Personnel142.32179.02203.32
Travel, transport, and communications10.6012.0413.07
Maintenance, operation, upkeep, and rental18.7123.0727.03
Materials and supplies45.5547.6661.36
Services5.436.088.32
Other operating expenditure2.091.832.68
Grants, contributions; subsidies0.200.590.78
Capital works5.399.239.15
Capital equipment21.8819.9920.38
                Total252.17299.51346.09

About 75 percent of the Defence Vote is spent within New Zealand, mainly on salaries, capital works, servicing, and general operating costs, so that there is an important feedback into the economy. There is a deliberate policy to encourage greater logistic self-sufficiency both within New Zealand and in conjunction with Australia.

Defence expenditure is related to Government expenditure and gross domestic product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchDefence ExpenditurePercentage of Government Expenditure*Percentage of Gross Domestic Product
* Excludes repayment of public debt.
 $(m)percentpercent
1976193.474.11.7
1977214.834.21.6
1978252.174.11.7
1979299.514.11.7
1980346.094.21.7

STRENGTH OF ARMED FORCES—The following table gives the strengths of the regular forces of the 3 services over the last 6 years.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceTotal
197528505523429712670
197627345432425412420
197727265441428912456
197828255722421712764
197928275670424212739
198027565666421912641

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY—The Government in New Zealand has since the earliest days made provision for naval forces in its defence measures. Royal Navy vessels regularly visited New Zealand waters, but these were soon supplemented by a number of Government-owned vessels, the first of which was the Australia, a schooner purchased from India in 1842. In addition, in 1877 the New Zealand Government began regular financial contributions towards maintaining Royal Navy ships in New Zealand waters. In 1921 the naval forces became the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy, and in 1941 they became the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Naval Staff exercises command and control of the Royal New Zealand Navy assisted in the performance of his functions by the Naval Staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence headquarters.

State of the Navy—Seagoing ships:

* On loan from U.S. Navy.
Frigates (Leander class)Waikato 
Canterbury 
Frigates (Otago class)Otago 
TaranakiResource Protection/Training
Survey shipMonowai 
Research shipTui* 
Patrol craftHaweaResource Protection
Taupo
Rotoiti
Pukaki
Inshore survey craftTakapu 
Tarapunga 
RNZNVR motor launchesKoura 
Mako 
Paea 
Kahawai 
Kuparu 
Diving tenderManawanui 
Dockyard service craftArataki 

Shore Establishments—The naval base at Devonport, Auckland, consists of the office of the Commodore Auckland (the operational authority of the RNZN), HMNZS Philomel (the naval barracks and base support establishment), the Royal New Zealand Naval Hospital, the Naval Supply Depot, and the Dockyard.

HMNZS Tamaki is the training establishment for the Navy and is located at Narrow Neck, Devonport, Auckland.

The Dockyard is under the charge of a Captain Superintendent and is capable of refitting all units of the RNZN. The RNZN Armament Depot is situated at Kauri Point and the RNZN Hydrographic Office is at Takapuna.

HMNZS Irirangi is the naval radio receiving and transmitting station and is situated at Waiouru.

HMNZS Wakefield is the administrative unit for RNZN personnel in the Wellington area.

Strength of the Navy
CategoryAt 31 March 1978At 31 March 1979At 31 March 1980
Regular Forces
    Officers (male and female)295307316
    Ratings (male and female)253025202440
                Total282528272756
Non-regular Forces
    Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve (officers)656060
    Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve (all ranks)347431293
    Royal New Zealand Naval Fleet Reserve (ratings)131515471712

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve—There is a division of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve in each of the 4 main centres—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—where reservists are given the basic elements of naval training.

THE NEW ZEALAND ARMY—The Army is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the Defence Act 1971, and the policy outlined in the 1978 Defence Review. It comprises a Regular Force, Territorial Force, and Reserve elements. It is structured to provide:

  1. a group of Regular Force units available for rapid deployment on military operations or civil assistance tasks;

  2. a framework of integrated Regular Force/Territorial Force units as a basis for expansion as and when required.

New Zealand has maintained militia forces since the passing of the Militia Act of 1845. The first regular forces were the Armed Constabulary formed in 1846. The oldest continuously serving unit in the Army traces its history to February 1864.

Formed Army units have been dispatched overseas on active service in the South African War, World War I, World War II, occupation forces in Japan, plus Korea, Malaya and Borneo and subsequently Malaysia, and Viet Nam. Units have been stationed in Malaysia and subsequently Singapore since the termination of active service in Malaysia in 1966.

Command and Administration—The Chief of General Staff commands the Army, assisted by the General Staff and the staffs of Defence Headquarters. Command is exercised through a Headquarters; Land Forces, 3 Regional Headquarters, and the Army Training Group. Located at Waiouru is the Army Museum.

  • State of the Army

  • Major Integrated Regular Force/Territorial Force Units—

  •     6 infantry battalions

  •     2 artillery regiments

  •     3 armoured squadrons (1 cavalry, 2 armoured personnel carrier)

  •     6 engineer squadrons

  •     5 signals squadrons

  •     1 SAS squadron

  • Major Weapons and Armoured Fighting Vehicles—

  •     5 light tanks

  •     72 M113 APC type vehicles

  •     105.5 inch medium guns

  •     44105 mm guns/howitzers

  •     19106 mm recoiless rifles

Strength of the Army
CategoryAt 31 March 1978At 31 March 1979At 31 March 1980
Regular Forces
    Officers (male and female) 768701717
    Other ranks (male and female) 495449694949
              Total 572256705666
Non-regular Forces
    Territorial Force (all ranks) 585259036004
    Officers Reserve 520581631
    Class A ReserveOther ranks11
Class B Reserve141613731412

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE—The Royal. New Zealand Air Force was constituted as a separate armed service by the Air Force Act 1937 and its administration was vested in an Air Department which was reponsible for military aviation and the regulation of civil aviation in New Zealand. With the passing of the 1964 Defence Act the Air Department was absorbed into the Ministry of Defence.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Air Staff exercises command and administration of the Royal New Zealand Air Force assisted in the performance of his functions by the air staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—The RNZAF in New Zealand is divided into 2 Groups and 1 independent base; in addition, 1 support unit with rotary winged aircraft forms part of the New Zealand forces based in Singapore. Operations Group, with Headquarters at RNZAF Base Auckland, is responsible for all operational functions and operational flying training, and Support Group, with Headquarters at RNZAF Base, Wigram, is responsible for all formal individual training (except advanced pilot training) and certain support functions. RNZAF Base, Shelly Bay, acts as the supporting administrative and domestic base for all RNZAF personnel assigned to Wellington for duty in Air Staff and Defence Headquarters.

The RNZAF provides support for the search and rescue organisations in New Zealand and the South Pacific area, and for the New Zealand civil defence organisation. In addition, the RNZAF provides support to civil and government agencies, which cannot be provided by civil aviation facilities.

The operational units of the RNZAF comprise: a utility helicopter support unit based in Singapore as part of the New Zealand Force, South-east Asia; maritime, long- and medium-range transport and helicopter squadrons based at RNZAF Base Auckland; and offensive support and medium-range transport communications squadrons at RNZAF Base, Ohakea. Flying training units are located at RNZAF Bases Wigram and Ohakea, while ground training is carried out at RNZAF Bases Auckland, Woodbourne, and Wigram. The RNZAF Museum is also located at Wigram.

Engineering—Direction of RNZAF engineering services is co-ordinated by Air Staff, Defence Headquarters. Specific levels of aircraft maintenance are assigned to bases and squadrons. A range of overhaul and repairs and some manufacture of aeronautical equipment is carried out at No. 1 Repair Depot, RNZAF Base Woodbourne. A proportion of repair and overhaul work is contracted to civil industry in New Zealand and overseas.

Strength of the Air Force
CategoryAt 31 March 1978At 31 March 1979At 31 March 1980
Regular Forces
    Officers (male and female)655654662
    Airmen and air women356235883557
              Total421742424219
Non-regular Forces
    Territorial Air Force158164147
    Active Reserve7579161009
    General Reserve534470314
State of the RNZAF
PlanesPrincipal Role
16 StrikemastersAdvanced flying training, strike-role training
13 SkyhawksOffensive air-support operations
5 C 130 HerculesAir transport
5 P 3 B OrionsAir transport
10 AndoversAir transport
1 FriendshipAir transport
10 DevonsNavigation and air electronics training
14 Iroquois helicoptersTactical air transport
10 Sioux helicopters
3 Wasp helicopters
4 AirtourersInitial pilot training
13 Airtrainers

ARMED FORCES OVERSEAS: Five Power Defence Arrangements—The Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement, under which New Zealand had maintained forces in Malaysia as part of a Commonwealth Strategic Reserve was terminated in October 1971. It was replaced by the Five-power Defence Arrangements, effective November 1971, by which Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom separately concluded agreements with Malaysia and Singapore. Within the framework of these arrangements, and at the request of the governments of Malaysia and Singapore, the 3 first-mentioned nations agreed to station elements of their armed forces in these countries. These elements were initially grouped into an ANZUK force, but the decision by Australia in 1973 to withdraw a substantial portion of its ground forces from the region led to a decision by New Zealand and the United Kingdom to establish separate national command arrangements. Accordingly, with effect from 31 January 1974, command of the New Zealand elements of the ANZUK force was transferred to the Commander, New Zealand Force South-east Asia. This New Zealand contribution to stability in the area currently comprises an infantry battalion, a utility helicopter support unit, a headquarters, periodic deployment of RNZAF strike aircraft to the area, and sundry supporting units. The withdrawal of British Forces from the area was completed in 1976.

United Nations Observers—New Zealand currently has 4 United Nations observers stationed in the Middle East.

Commonwealth Peace-keeping Force—During the early months of 1980 a small number of New Zealand troops were included in the Commonwealth Peace-keeping Force in Zimbabwe-Rhodesia.

MUTUAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME—Since 1973 bilateral military assistance and co-operation activities, which had been conducted with several countries over a number of years, have been developed and administered as a mutual assistance programme involving all the ASEAN countries (Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia) plus Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and Tonga. The main aim of the programme is to help the countries concerned to improve the capability of their armed forces and at the same time to provide New Zealand with training experience and deployment opportunities in these countries. Activities within the programme include training in New Zealand for personnel on an individual basis, or for small groups or, upon occasion, for units up to company size. Courses given range over a wide spectrum of military training limited only by the availability of places on particular courses and by the requirements of the countries to whom the assistance is available. Small numbers of New Zealand personnel are sent to these countries as instructors or on appointments arranged by way of interchange with officers coming to New Zealand. Senior officers are invited to this country on familiarisation and planning visits, and as opportunity offers, gifts of equipment are made.

Antarctica Support—During November-December 1979 RNZAF Hercules aircraft flew 9 return flights to McMurdo Sound, transporting 123 personnel and 252887 lb of equipment; RNZAF and Army personnel provided cargo handling assistance at Harewood and McMurdo Sound in support of the DSIR Antarctic research programme. The DC10 disaster on Mt. Erebus called for a further 4 flights for police and accident investigation teams and the recovery of the bodies of the victims to New Zealand. Four RNZAF helicopter pilots and 2 helicopter crewmen were attached to the United States Navy VXE-6 Squadron (Operation Deep Freeze) to assist in the air support of the United States Antarctic summer programme.

COMMUNITY ASSISTANCE: Hydrographic Survey—The RNZN has undertaken marine surveys since 1949 and is the sole authority for the production of nautical charts in New Zealand. The area of charting responsibility covers a wide area of the South-west Pacific from Tuvalu in the north to the Ross Sea in Antarctica. To undertake this task HMNZS Monowai which entered service in 1978 carries out oceanic and off-shore surveys, and the two inshore survey craft, Takapu and Tarapunga carry out inshore and minor surveys around the New Zealand coast.

Fishery Protection—The introduction of the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone on 1 April 1978 increased the need to maintain a surveillance and policing effort. To undertake this task, the frigate HMNZS Taranaki and the 4 patrol craft are employed full time on fishery protection patrols. Surveillance flights are undertaken by RNZAF Orion and Andover aircraft.

Search and Rescue (SAR)—The RNZAF flew a total of 378 hours in search and rescue operations during the year ended 31 March 1980. Twenty-one people were brought to safety in 69 incidents. Two major searches, in which RNZN vessels were also involved, were mounted without success for missing yachts. A third major ocean search was successful. The RNZAF, in conjunction with the Army and the Police, provided SAR training assistance during the year in the form of demonstrations, lectures, and static displays to local SAR organisations. RNZN vessels took part in 8 SAR operations, most of which were mounted for missing vessels.

Miscellaneous—Other assistance provided to the community includes fire-fighting and co-operative tasks with the Forest Service, NZR, NZED, and Meteorological Service; explosive ordnance disposal; assistance in civil emergencies; participation in ceremonial occasions; and the carriage of supplies and personnel to New Zealand's offshore islands on behalf of other Government departments.

NEW ZEALAND CADET FORCES—The Cadet Forces were established under the Defence Act 1971 and comprise the Sea Cadets, Air Training Corps, and School Cadet Corps. Previously these forces were part of the armed forces.

The Cadet Forces are primarily community-based youth training groups aimed at teaching leadership, comradeship, self confidence, and good citizenship to boys and girls between the ages of 13 and 18 years. Sponsorship is jointly provided by the community, the Government through the Ministry of Defence, the Navy and Air Cadet Leagues, and the schools in which cadet units are established.

On 31 March 1980 the Cadet Forces comprised 1160 sea cadets led by 102 officers in 15 town and 3 school units, 3399 Army school cadets led by 97 officers in 16 school units, and 2920 Air Training Corps cadets led by 186 officers in 44 town and 3 school units.

STRENGTHS OF ARMED FORCES IN WAR: South African War—Approximately 6500 troops from New Zealand served in the South African War.

First World War, 1914–18—A total of 124211 persons (including 91941 volunteers) were called up for overseas and home service prior to 12 November 1918. Of these, 100444 went overseas.

Second World War, 1939–45—The net intake of men to the armed forces—i.e., exclusive of transfers between the services and of re-entries—during the Second World War was 194000, equivalent to 67 percent of the male population between the ages of 18 and 45 years. In addition, approximately 10000 women served in the forces. It is estimated that approximately 140000 persons served overseas.

CIVIL DEFENCE—The planning, organisation, co-ordination, and implementation of the measures necessary for the safety of the public (except for those emergencies which can be dealt with by the normal emergency services) are described as civil defence. Communities using their own resources and drawing upon volunteers have an obligation to take the steps necessary to prevent or reduce loss of life or distress. Assistance to territorial local authorities in meeting their obligations and the co-ordination of the support of Government planning and resources are the responsibilities of the Ministry of Civil Defence. The declaration of a state of “civil defence emergency” grants special powers to territorial local authorities, to civil defence controllers appointed by them, to the Police, and to the Director and Regional Commissioners of the Ministry of Civil Defence.

The Ministry of Civil Defence was established in April 1959 as an integral part of the Department of Internal Affairs. Three Regional Commissioners of Civil Defence were appointed in June of the following year, 1 each to the Northern and Central Regions dividing the North Island and 1 to the Southern Region covering the whole of the South Island together with Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands. The current concept of civil defence dates from December 1962 when the Civil Defence Act 1962 came into force. The setting up of regional and united councils under the Local Government Act 1974, each with a mandatory responsibility for civil defence, has led to a significant change in local government responsibilities and overall civil defence organisation. The 3 Ministry of Civil Defence Regions (Northern, Central and Southern) will, in due course, be replaced as each local government region is constituted a civil defence region.

Every territorial local authority has an obligation to prepare a civil defence plan, to set up a civil defence organisation, and to appoint a Local Controller of Civil Defence for the purpose of dealing with a disaster in its district should the use of civil defence measures be warranted. Neighbouring local authorities may unite for civil defence purposes and then together they have an obligation to prepare a joint local civil defence plan, to set up a combined civil defence organisation, and to appoint a Group Controller of Civil Defence. At 31 December 1980 there were 115 local and combined civil defence organisations (i.e., excluding regional organisations).

Every regional or united council has an obligation to prepare a civil defence plan, to appoint a Regional Controller of Civil Defence, and to set up the organisation necessary for dealing with a disaster in its region beyond the capability of any one particular local or combined civil defence organisation. Those regions in existence under the Local Government Act 1974, the Auckland Regional District, and the Chatham Islands County are constituted as Civil Defence Regions in the charge of a Regional Commissioner of the Ministry of Civil Defence located at Auckland, Palmerston North, or Christchurch. Each Regional Commissioner has several civil defence regions in his charge grouped for administrative convenience into the Northern, Central or Southern Civil Defence Zone. By 31 December 1980 the following civil defence regions had been constituted:

AucklandEast CapeNelson Bays
Bay of PlentyTaranakiMarlborough
NorthlandWanganuiWest Coast
WaikatoWairarapaCanterbury
Thames ValleyHorowhenuaSouthland
TongariroWellingtonClutha-Central Otago

Each Regional Commissioner exercises powers and functions established in the Civil Defence Act 1962 under the general direction of the Director of Civil Defence in Wellington. The National Civil Defence Committee comprising the permanent heads of 14 Government departments most closely involved in disaster relief measures, together with the Chief of Defence Staff and the Chairman of the Fire Service Commission, has a responsibility to advise and assist the Minister and Director of Civil Defence in the planning and implementation of civil defence measures. Representatives appointed by members of this committee form regional civil defence advisory groups at Auckland, Palmerston North, Wellington, and Christchurch to provide a like service for Regional Commissioners.

A National Civil Defence Operational Headquarters is established in the sub-basement of the executive wing of Parliament Buildings and is in the charge of the Director of Civil Defence. This headquarters is ready for use but is activated only when required. It provides the means for coordinating the use of all Governmental and non-Governmental resources and, where necessary, for the control of the overall civil defence effort where a disaster situation makes demands which cannot be met by a Regional or United Council and the appropriate Regional Commissioner of Civil Defence. Each Regional Commissioner has an established operational headquarters (Auckland, Palmerston North, and Christchurch) to enable him to meet his operational responsibilities towards each civil defence region in his zone.

SECURITY INTELLIGENCE SERVICE—The New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969 gave statutory recognition to the New Zealand Security Service, which was established on 28 November 1956.

Subject to the control of the Minister in Charge of the Security Intelligence Service, the functions of the service are to obtain, correlate, and evaluate intelligence relevant to security; to advise Ministers on security matters; to co-operate as far as practicable and necessary with State Services and other public authorities in New Zealand and abroad in the performance of its functions; and to inform the New Zealand Intelligence Council on any new area of potential espionage, sabotage, terrorism, or subversion in respect of which the Director has considered it necessary to institute surveillance.

It is not a function of the Security Intelligence Service to enforce measures for security or to institute surveillance of any person or class of persons by reason only of his, her, or their involvement in lawful protest or dissent.

There is a Commissioner of Security Appeals, to whom complaints may be made in writing at the office of the Supreme Court in Wellington.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Ministry of Defence (Parl. paper G. 4)

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Abbotsford Landslip Disaster (Parl. paper H. 7).

Chapter 10. Section 10 LAND DEVELOPMENT AND USE

10 A—PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

Planning for economic development and growth is the concern of a wide range of sectors, including agriculture, manufacturing, transport, forestry, building, mineral development, and energy production. New Zealand is at present undergoing complex structural change with high resource costs and pressure on financial resources, and therefore a need for more careful selection of investment, even though demand has slackened. Within the urban areas themselves, competing demands for industrial, commercial, residential and recreational land have arisen as proponents of each particular use have sought their most suitable available location. Left unchecked, these conflicts of interest could lead to unsatisfactory and uneconomic patterns of development. This has necessitated a planning framework within which competing demands can be resolved.

In recent years, world opinion has had forced upon it an appreciation of the damage to the environment, in the form of pollution and the destruction of natural resources, that can result from uncontrolled economic development. New Zealand, during the early years of the last century, suffered what is now recognised to have been irreparable damage from the destruction of native forests and wildlife. However, during the last decade New Zealand has taken warning from the unfortunate experiences of some more highly developed countries. Concern for possible future effects of economic growth on the environment led to the holding of the Physical Environment Conference in May 1970 and has resulted in the enacting of what is, by world standards, advanced environmental legislation.

LAND USE—With just over 27 million hectares of land and a population of 3.2 million, New Zealand has not in the past been conscious of the problems of resource utilisation experienced in the more densely settled countries. An extensive coastline (approximately 15000 km), great variety of landscape and responsive soils, and a generally favourable climate at lower altitudes are some of the assets which, because of the small population, have been utilised without any serious detrimental effects on the social and economic fabric. In retrospect, however, it is apparent that some of the land and other resources have been wastefully exploited. Maori settlement brought significant ecological changes, largely through fires and hunting. The impact of European settlement was much greater, measured by the large areas of indigenous forest cover destroyed, the extensive native grasslands burnt for sheep grazing and ploughed for crops and sown pasture, the wetlands drained and reclaimed, the unsightly tailings left after gold mining, the increase in soil erosion, and the general loss of wildlife habitats.

The growth and changing distribution of the population have been strongly influenced by the distribution of the most productive soils. In the nineteenth century, when the population was small, the ultimate results of preferential settlement of the best agricultural land were not appreciated. Generally, the most productive areas became the most prosperous when the towns within them grew, and it was at the expense of the most productive soils. Liter, manufacturing and tertiary industries tended to be located in these towns because of the labour, markets, and services they offered

Between 1949 and 1964 urbanisation claimed about 15800 hectares of good farming land, End expansion up to 1984 could require another 30000 hectares of land. Considering that the total area of good farming land includes approximately 8300000 hectares of first-class pastoral land and 500000 hectares of first-class cropping land and that agricultural production derives benefits from urbanisation, this is not considered a serious problem on a national scale. In certain localities, however, unrestricted urban expansion could have serious limiting effects on agricultural production in the future. The problem is most acute around Auckland, the population of which is now over 800000. It is not possible to reverse the historical factors that have determined the present population distribution, but the national policy for the protection of the soils potentially most productive may avoid this in future. In the past, economic growth has been pursued with scant regard for its impact on the environment. Single and immediate use rather than balanced long-term use of resources has been the common practice, and has tended to place the advocates of exploitation and protection in opposing camps.

The problem now is how to combine the economic and social pressures on soil, water, plant, and fauna resources with the maintenance of ecological and aesthetic qualities.

The general purpose of regional or district planning schemes under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 is the wise use and management of the resources, and the direction and control of the development of a region, district, or area for the overall benefit of the whole community.

Emphasis is given to the conservation, protection, and enhancement of the physical, cultural, and social environment, the wise use and management of New Zealand's natural resources, and the preservation of the natural character of the environment.

In New Zealand the provision of extensive national parks and smaller reserves has done much to preserve (at least in selected areas) the characteristic beauty of the landscape, and to make it accessible to the general public for recreation and enjoyment.

Development schemes causing modification of natural features can, in the planning stage, make provision for restraint, restoration, and even the addition of compensating amenities. The rate of development in New Zealand must make this an essential ingredient of planning. But it must be stressed that there will be no more completely unmodified or true wilderness country. Once it is destroyed, wilderness is gone forever. Wilderness is extremely fragile, and soil erosion, degradation of vegetation, and destruction of animal species can come about through any alteration of the environment, even the most innocent access road.

Scientific investigations and research have reinforced the validity of the beliefs based on sentiment and aesthetics that there are dangers in any disturbance of natural equilibrium of air, water, soil, plants, animals, and stabilised land-forms, or in the pollution of any of them. Changes in the balance of dominance of even obscure organisms or a slowly declining water-table can be factors in the deterioration of countryside. It is essential to retain reference areas from which the changes in soils, plants, and animals resulting from man's activities can be assessed. A whole catchment will usually be the desirable minimum effective area.

Conservation, however, means much more than the preservation of scenic and scientific values. It implies the maintenance without diminution of the basic land resources on which New Zealand's economy and way of life are so largely based. Of these resources the most important are soil, water, and vegetation, the last both natural and introduced, and both forests and grasslands. The concept of conserving soil, water, forest, and grassland resources is dynamic rather than static, and embodies the principle of preservation through wise use.

The problems are capable of solution provided there is a sufficient understanding by administrators and by the public of the importance (and often the interdependence) of the different values involved and of the ecological implications of any decision affecting land use. Conflicts between different demands on the countryside are inevitable, but with adequate planning and management they are mostly capable of resolution. For example, an agriculturally productive landscape can provide such rich and satisfying contacts with the diversity of nature that in many ways the man-made landscape based on agriculture or forestry need be little less interesting and satisfying than the wild one. Likewise, soil conservation practices not only restore vitality and health to the soil but also create pleasing patterns in the landscape.

The total area of New Zealand, excluding the Ross Dependency in the Antarctic, but including minor islands, is estimated to be 27126500 hectares.

The broad grouping of land use is shown in the following table.

Land UseHectares (million)
* Includes relatively small areas in cities and boroughs
Occupied farm land—
    Improved grassland9.33
    Tussock and other native grassland used for grazing4.66
                Total grassland13.99
    Land for crops, nurseries, and fallow0.45
    Plantations of exotic trees0.81
    Other land on farm holdings5.98
                Total occupied farm land21.23
Land in cities and boroughs0.37
National parks, reserves, and domains2.69*
Other land, including waste land, such as mountains, bare rock, water surfaces, roads, etc.2.84
                Total land27.13

Land Use Advisory Council—The Land Use Advisory Council has the task of developing criteria on which sound land use decisions can be made; and its order of reference requires it to have regard to physical, ecological, economic, social, environmental, and other relevant factors. Members of the council represent Maori, departmental, farming, scientific, and geographic interests. As its name implies, the council is an advisory body to the Government. In the first instance the criteria are intended to guide the use of lands of the Crown but it is anticipated that the criteria and related guidelines formulated will assist all who are required to make rural land use decisions. The council has reviewed the experiences of a number of overseas countries in planning land development, use, and management. Consideration has also been given to the various legitimate uses of the nation's land, including such nonproductive use (in terms of food or goods) as recreation, soil conservation and water management, the preservation of wildlife, and historic and ecological management; and some thought has gone into the means for determining which use shall take priority in the event of there being two strong competing claims.

The council has sponsored a series of “educational” meetings aimed not just at policy makers but also at encouraging wider community awareness of the physical, biological, economic, social, and environmental values which influence (or should influence) rural land use decisions. The findings from these meetings will assist the Government to formulate a national land use policy and guidelines.

FRAMEWORK FOR PLANNING—New Zealand's principal planning legislation, the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, provides a process by which needs, opportunities, and issues relating to land and water use can be identified and appropriate objectives and policies formulated. Measures can then be implemented and embodied in regional, district, and maritime planning schemes.

The purpose of planning is defined in the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 as being “the wise use and management of the resources, and the direction and control of the development of a region, district, or area in such a way as will most effectively promote and safeguard the health, safety, and convenience, and the economic, cultural, social, and general welfare, of the people and the amenities of every part of the region, district, or area”.

Opportunities for public participation in town and country planning were enhanced by the 1977 Act. The third-party rights of objection now include “any body or person representing some relevant aspect of the public interest”.

The revision of the Town and Country Planning Act also provided an opportunity for greater emphasis on environmental matters, and for the implementation of the Government's policy of integrating the procedures laid down in the various “environmental” statutes such as the Reserves Act, the Forests Act, and the Historic Places Act.

Matters to be dealt with in district schemes in particular include (to quote the Schedule to the Act):

“The preservation or conservation of—

  1. Buildings, objects, and areas of architectural, historic, scientific, or other interest or of visual appeal;

  2. Trees, bush, plants, or landscape of scientific, wildlife, or historic interest, or of visual appeal;

  3. The amenities of the district.”

In the administration of district planning schemes, there must be regard to section 3 of the Act which includes specific reference to the protection and enhancement of the environment as a matter of national importance.

In considering appeals against any public work the Planning Tribunal is required to have regard to criteria whether the site is suitable for the proposed work, and the economic, social, and environmental effects of the proposal.

All public bodies, including the Crown, are now required to adhere to the provisions of any approved regional planning scheme. All public works are subject to the procedures laid down in Part VI of the Act, which requires that all Crown proposals which are not in conformity with the provisions of the relevant district scheme are to be advertised and to be subject to rights of objection and appeal. In the case of Crown works, the Minister of Works and Development can (as an alternative to an appeal) request the tribunal to conduct a public inquiry which must take into account the “economic, social, and environmental effects of the proposal and such other matters as the Ministry may determine”.

National Planning—In the preparation, implementation, and administration of regional, district, and maritime planning schemes the following matters, which are declared to be of national importance, must be recognised and provided for:

  • the conservation, protection, and enhancement of the physical, cultural, and social environment;

  • the wise use and management of New Zealand's resources;

  • the preservation of the natural character of the coastal environment and the margins of lakes and rivers, and the protection of them from unnecessary subdivision and development;

  • the avoidance of encroachment of urban development on, and the protection of, land having a high actual or potential value for the production of food;

  • the prevention of sporadic subdivision and urban development in rural areas;

  • the avoidance of unnecessary expansion of urban areas into rural areas in or adjoining cities;

  • the relationship of the Maori people and their culture and traditions with their ancestral land.

The first two and the last two of these considerations were introduced under the 1977 Town and Country Planning Act.

Regional Planning—Regional planning is concerned with establishing policies and programmes at all levels of government which reflect the needs and desires of the people of each region, and which are reconciled with the national interest and competing demands for national resources. Urban centres and rural areas cannot be planned in isolation from each other or from the nation as a whole.

Under the 1977 Town and Country Planning Act regional planning has four main features, all of which are new:

  1. Regional planning is the responsibility of united and regional councils.

  2. Regional planning schemes are to be approved by the Government before they come into operation.

  3. Approved regional planning schemes must be adhered to by the Crown and every local and public authority.

  4. District and maritime planning schemes must conform with approved regional planning schemes.

Matters to be dealt with in regional planning schemes have been greatly expanded under the new Act to embrace social, economic, and environmental policies. Reference is made for example to “natural resources and environment—the identification, preservation, and development of the regions' natural resources including water, soil, air and other natural systems, farmlands, forests, fisheries, minerals … and areas of value for the enjoyment of nature and the landscape”.

Under the Local Government Act 1974 regional or united councils are being established for all regions of New Zealand, and these will all have regional planning responsibilities and powers given under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977. The combined effect of these Acts is likely to emerge as a major constitutional innovation. The regional planning process offers a means by which local and Central Government, representing the regional communities and the national interest respectively, can reach agreement on development and welfare policies and priorities for the allocation of resources for each region. Agreement can be expressed in the regional planning scheme, and changes of policy can be worked out within the process of changing the scheme.

The new system does not introduce another tier of government, rather it is aimed at giving a regional dimension to Central Government programmes and a common policy base to local government activity.

Regional Planning Process—The key provision of the new legislation will be the requirement that once regional schemes have been agreed to by the Central Government, all public authorities, both central and local, will be required to give effect to their provisions. The significance of this step lies in the practical necessity it creates for local and Central Government agencies to take a constructive part, along with the regional community, in the formulation of the objectives, policies, programmes, and other provisions of each scheme. Responsibility for initiating regional planning action lies with the regional and united councils, which will operate through regional planning committees that include a representative of the Crown.

What the new regional planning legislation aims to provide is a process that allows for the public evaluation of options and alternatives—the determination of objectives and policies, and the adoption of a programme of implementation that is related to community priorities and the resources available.

National policies, or changes in policy, on such matters as energy development, transportation, afforestation, or housing finance can have marked regional implications and significantly affect regional prosperity and well being. It is important therefore that expressed regional preferences and priorities are considered as an integral part of national policy formulation, and that the regional consequences of national policies are understood before they are adopted. Two-way communication between the Central Government and the regions must be a vital element in any new process. The new regional bodies and the regional planning system provide the opportunity for this, and for expressing agreed measures in regional planning schemes.

District Planning—Every district scheme under the Act is required to have as its general purpose the wise use and management of the resources of the district, and the direction and control of its development, in such a way as will most effectively promote and safeguard the economic, cultural, social, and general welfare of the people and the preservation of the amenities of the district. It must also recognise and provide for matters of national importance defined in the Act. Every city, borough, and county council or other authority responsible for the general administration of a district must provide and maintain a district scheme unless exempted by the Minister of Works and Development. Any such exemptions are likely to apply only to districts of small population where little change is expected. Almost the whole country, in terms of population or area, is covered by district schemes prepared under the previous Act of 1953, although not all such schemes have passed through all the legal stages necessary to be made operative.

Councils are now beginning to recognise the potential of the district planning scheme as an effective instrument for bringing about innovative change not only in land use control but also in environmental management and local administration in general. The key to this is the greater emphasis being placed on the scheme statement as a means of expressing policies which have been subjected to the formal approval procedures, including objection and appeal, that the Planning Act provides. A renewed concern for a more humane basis to planning has focussed on the destruction of areas of natural beauty near urban areas, the loss of historic areas of cities, and the destruction of neighbourhood communities as past errors which must not be repeated. With this in mind, a number of councils have recently made provision for Special Character Zones. These are zones which have a special character derived from the age, condition, or character of the buildings or general layout. In these zones the aim is to preserve the special character (using controls where necessary) by encouraging new buildings designed in sympathy with the existing environment, and by more liberal approaches to the rehabilitation and use of existing properties. Currently there are also moves towards allowing far greater social and economic diversity in rural areas.

The need to plan for areas below mean high water mark, which are subject to increasing pressures from various demands, led to the introduction of maritime planning under Part V of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977.

The provisions provide a statutory procedure to establish maritime planning areas on the joint recommendation of the Minister of Works and Development and the Minister of Transport; and to appoint maritime planning authorities.

Four maritime planning areas have been established covering the Waitemata, Manukau, and Wellington Harbours, and the Marlborough Sounds.

In each case the respective harbour board has been appointed the maritime planning authority.

In addition, under Part 1 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, the Minister of Works and Development may extend regional boundaries to include adjacent water areas and this provides for the planning of land rod water to be brought together under the same administration.

If the maritime planning area is within harbour limits, the appropriate harbour board becomes the authority, unless it declines the appointment.

The authority is required to set up a maritime planning committee with representation on it from the regional or united council, the regional water board, territorial local authorities, and the Central Government. Maritime planning schemes are not expected to cover the whole of the coast, but only those areas where there are problems of conservation and management or conflict between the use of the water and adjacent land areas. This will have the effect of requiring all public bodies involved in managing these areas to adhere to the regional planning scheme.

In addition, under Part I of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, the Minister of Works and Development may extend regional boundaries to include adjacent water areas and this provides for the planning of land and water to be brought together under the same administration.

An increasing number of united or regional councils are having their regional boundaries extended to include harbours and coastal waters.

National Development Act 1979—The National Development Act provides for “the prompt consideration of proposed works of national importance by the direct referral of the proposals to the Planning Tribunal for an inquiry and report and by providing for such works to receive the necessary consents” (preamble to Act).

Under the Act, application can be made to the Minister of National Development for the status of national importance to be applied to a proposed work. The procedures which follow are initiated by Order in Council which may be issued by the Governor-General if he considers that the work is major and likely to be in the national interest, and that it is essential that a decision be made promptly as to whether or not the consents sought should be granted. The Governor-General must also be satisfied that the work is essential to the development of New Zealand's resources, or self-sufficiency in energy, or expansion of exports, or import substitution, or to the development of significant employment opportunities.

Following the Order in Council the application is referred to the Planning Tribunal. Details of the proposal are sent to all authorities who might normally grant approvals under the terms of 22 statutes listed in the schedule to the Act, notably the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 and the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967. These authorities send a report to the Planning Tribunal. At the same time an environmental impact report, prepared by the applicant, is submitted to the Commissioner for the Environment who calls for public comments. The report is audited by the commissioner and the audit is made available to the public.

The Planning Tribunal then considers, at a public inquiry, the matters concerning consents being sought by the applicant. The Minister of Works and Development, the local authority, the Commissioner for the Environment, and any body or person affected by the work or representing some relevant aspect of the public interest have a right to be present and heard at the inquiry, as of course does the applicant himself. Every statutory authority which would otherwise grant consents (and had earlier reported to the tribunal) must be represented and available for cross examination at the inquiry.

Following the inquiry, the tribunal reports and makes recommendations to the Minister of National Development. The report is made available to the public. After taking into account the tribunal's report and recommendations and the criteria to which a work of national importance must conform, the Governor-General by Order in Council may then declare the work to be of national importance, granting the consents sought in the application, with such modifications, conditions, restrictions, or prohibitions as he thinks appropriate. The effect of the Order in Council is therefore to apply consents to the construction and operation of a particular work as if the consent had been granted under the provisions of the various Acts which would have applied.

The Act includes provisions and procedures for the variation or cancellation of such conditions as might be specified in the Order in Council. Any legal proceedings arising from any consents relating to work approved under the Act are subject to priority proceedings in the courts.

The Act is administered by the Ministry of Works and Development.

RECREATIONAL LAND—Existing national parks and reserves are, for the most part, close to the centres of greatest and most rapidly growing population. Until recently little was done to secure in public ownership those areas where most New Zealanders take their holidays—by the water. Along the north and north-east coasts, where the climate is best and the population densest, many of the most desirable areas of coastline have already been subdivided, notably on the North Auckland, Bay of Plenty, and Coromandel coasts. Besides limiting public access, this can destroy scenic values. Similar considerations apply in respect of lakes, rocks, and offshore islands. In recent years the Crown has purchased a number of islands or parts of islands for reserve purposes. Some of these are grouped in the Hauraki Gulf and Marlborough Sounds Maritime Parks. Moves are being made to control subdivision in coastal and lakeshore areas.

Access along rivers 3 metres wide, lakes in excess of 8 hectares, and foreshores has usually been provided: on all alienations of Crown land since 1886, on private subdivision for towns near rivers or the sea coast since 1923, and on partitions of Maori land in counties since 1967.

The Land Act has provided since 1948 that around every lake with an area of 8 hectares or more there shall be laid off a strip not less than 1 chain in width.

New Zealand has some 26 percent of its land under forest. It is important that a forest cover should be maintained wherever it constitutes the most desirable form of land use. Forests meet a wide range of basic human needs—social, recreational, and spiritual, as well as economic.

New Zealand is fortunate in that a large area of native forests was set aside in the early days in reserves of various types (State forests climatic reserves, scenery preservation reserves, reserves for the preservation of flora and fauna, and reserves for the growth and preservation of timber). As a result New Zealand is well endowed with forested wilderness and with other native forests having scenic, recreational, and wildlife values. Per head of population, New Zealand probably has a larger area of forests of this type than any other developed country. Early land administrators laid the basis for a national park, a forest park, and a protection forestry system which is widely envied.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for leisure pursuits in surroundings of great natural beauty—for the study of wildlife (plant and animal); for walking and tramping; and for shooting and fishing. Most of the attractive forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation; recreational use can be allowed in almost all such protection forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting can be of benefit through its contribution in destroying wild animal pests. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes the improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining shelter huts, assets also of use to Forest Service personnel. Entry is unrestricted except that, in the interests of safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

In order to avoid the mistakes inherent in haphazard development, the National Parks Authority has for some years been encouraging national park boards to prepare management plans for their respective parks. These plans establish concepts and guidelines for the preservation and use of national parks, and afford the means by which park use and management can be reconciled with the preservation in perpetuity of the park's scenic beauty, and natural and historic features.

The older exotic forests also offer the attractions that only a sylvan setting can provide and have the advantage of accessibility. In many places, walks and picnic spots have been prepared for use by the public, and selected areas will be preserved from felling for their scenic value.

A related topic is the protection and conservation of bush and trees within urban areas. Not only do trees and areas of bush provide beauty and additional amenities in urban surroundings, but they provide habitats for birds and other wildlife, encourage the cycling of water and nutrients, and assist with erosion control. Local authorities have the power to require that, when land is subdivided, trees and bush areas shall be preserved.

ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES

In addition to the Government departments with responsibilities for administering the diversity of legislation for the protection of the physical environment, there are several authorities with responsibilities for the physical and social environment. Some of the more prominent of these are discussed below.

COMMISSION FOR THE ENVIRONMENT—The ministerial portfolio for the environment and the Commission for the Environment were established in 1972. The Minister's responsibility is to ensure that the Government has before it the best information available on the environmental aspects of projects and policies under consideration and on the possible effects of current trends on the future environmental well-being of the country.

The commission functions as a small investigatory and advisory agency without executive or management responsibility apart from the administration of the Lake Wanaka Preservation Act 1973. It undertakes studies for the Minister and investigates and makes recommendations on the environmental implications of proposed Government projects. It often has an initiating and co-ordinating role on environmental issues which are assuming new importance in a changing society, or for which responsibility is shared by several management agencies. The commission's overall role is to assist in the development of policies designed to promote sound physical and social environmental management.

A major responsibility of the commission is to audit environmental impact reports. These are written appraisals of the environmental consequences expected from new developments or policies. The Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures which have been in force since 1 March 1974 require environmental impact reports for all major projects of the Central Government and for all other projects that need Government approvals or funds. A pulp mill proposal, steel mill expansion, the petro-chemical industry, and the creation of a marine reserve have been among the projects recently reported on. More than 70 such reports have been subject to commission audit since the procedures came into being.

The procedures which the commission administers provide for the critical examination of environmental effects expected from the projects or alternatives to them and include provision for public submissions to the commission, which produces a written audit of the environmental impact report and the project. The audit is sent to the authority promoting the project and is published before a decision is taken on the proposal.

The National Development Act 1979 requires an environmental impact report to be prepared on all Government and private projects which follow the approval procedures of that Act. Under the Act, the Commissioner for the Environment is required to audit such reports and is given independent standing to appear in subsequent hearings. The proposed Petralgas methanol plant in Waitara, North Taranaki, was the first project to be audited by the Commissioner under this legislation.

Aside from its role under these procedures, in which it is largely reacting to the proposals of others, the commission also initiates studies aimed at drawing attention to important environmental questions facing the country. The possible environmental effects of the use of new technologies and toxic chemicals, the protection of sections of wild water in the river systems of the country, community noise, milk and beverage packaging, and product charges on packaged goods, are some examples of studies initiated by the commission. Other initiatives are taken in organising discussion groups and seminars on a wide range of issues that often involve bringing together representatives from Government departments, agencies, industry, and environment groups. In addition to these activities, which are part of an active approach to environmental education at all levels, the commission also has a commitment to the development and production of education resource material for school and community use.

The Commission for the Environment also services the independent guardian groups established to advise the Government on the ways in which areas of important environmental interest should be safeguarded. Three such groups have been appointed—the Guardians of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, the Guardians of the Rotorua Lakes, and the Guardians of Lake Wanaka.

Liaison between New Zealand and international agencies concerned with environmental matters is a further function of the commission. Links are primarily with the OECD Environment Committee, for which the commission prepared the background working document Environmental Policy and Management in New Zealand to assist with the OECD's review of these matters in 1980. The other major liaison role is with United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and its numerous activities including Infoterra, an environmental information system.

The commission's staff covers a wide range of environmental disciplines but an important feature of its operations is collaboration with other agencies with the expertise required for the evaluation of particular aspects of projects under study.

ENVIRONMENTAL COUNCIL—The Environmental Council was established in 1970 following the Physical Environment Conference held in May of that year. It reports to the Government through the Minister for the Environment.

The constitution of the council provides for 16 members, including the chairman who is not a serving Government official. Five Government departments are represented—Treasury, Health, New Zealand Forest Service, Works and Development, and Lands and Survey. Three positions are drawn from those with experience in municipal and county local government, and regional planning; the remaining positions are filled by private citizens with knowledge and experience in environmental matters or appropriate qualifications.

The council has no executive powers. Its terms of reference are:

  1. To advise the Minister for the Environment on such matters as he may refer to it and on such matters as the council may raise itself on the state and trend of the environment and on measures to be taken to manage it.

  2. To publish from time to time such information upon environmental problems as the council considers necessary to serve the public interest.

  3. To co-operate with other sector councils in matters of mutual interest; in particular, to provide the Planning Council with information, forecasts, and data arising from the above, and requested by the council to enable it to carry out its functions.

The main role of the council is to advise on general matters of policy and principle rather than to examine the environmental consequences of specific projects. It has, however, alluded to specific developments to illustrate its concerns. Examples of the policy issues in which the council has been involved are the need for national policies on the coastal zone, the implementation of an indigenous forest policy, and the use and preservation of wetlands.

A special article by the chairman of the Environmental Council entitled The New Zealand environment and changes in environmental management since 1970 appeared in the 1980 Yearbook.

NATURE CONSERVATION COUNCIL—The Nature Conservation Council was set up by statute in 1962. It can enquire into the effects of any proposed public or private works in areas of scenic, scientific, or recreational interest, and it makes recommendations to the Government through the Minister of Lands. The council's concerns include electric power schemes, location of power and telephone lines, roading, harbour reclamations, native forests, mining applications, air and water pollution, recommendations for reserves, and aspects of town and country planning. Although it has access to Government information, it speaks with an independent voice, and is able to make public any of its reports or recommendations.

The council frequently advises non-Government conservation groups and co-ordinates their views. It also keeps the general public informed through its environmental publications, and through its sponsorship of the National Conservation Week each year.

CONTROL OF MINERAL EXPLOITATION—Mining has in the past left small areas of the landscape so scarred that their visual impact today suggests that mining in general produces only perpetual devastation. In fact most areas where mining has ceased need show no sign that they were ever mined.

To ensure that the land is maintained in a suitable condition, the Minister of Energy is empowered under the Mining Act 1971 to impose whatever conditions he thinks fit on a mining licence, and he may impose or vary these conditions at any time, even after the grant of the licence. Over public reserves and foreshore a condition may be attached in exchanging a prospecting licence for a mining licence that the licensee should provide a contribution towards a community asset.

Problems can occur where mineral exploitation takes place on freehold land. Local authorities have the necessary power to make regulations to control these activities, and they may use this power to maintain the long-term quality of the environment.

RE-AFFORESTATION MEASURES—In recent years Government-sponsored loans and grants have encouraged afforestation on private land, which has assisted in restoring the balance of forests on induced grasslands. In addition the Forest Service has embarked on a programme of revegetating eroded upland areas in important river catchments and also establishing dual-purpose forests where production of wood may be complementary to the protective nature of forests, for example, in East Cape - Poverty Bay where over 100000 hectares will be planted over the next 40 years.

The New Zealand Forest Service prepares regional development plans for major timber supply regions throughout New Zealand, covering both State and private forestry. These plans set out the potential of the regions. For those forests under State control the Forest Service prepares regional management plans which describe and prescribe State forest activities in both indigenous and exotic production forests as well as protection forests in the mountains.

SCIENTIFIC STUDY—About one-fifth of the staff of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is engaged on research on physical environment matters including ecological studies of national parks, investigations into beech forest ecosystems, and identification of marine animals and plankton. The department has undertaken bathymetric studies of lakes and the ocean floor around New Zealand. Basic geological, soil, and botanic surveys provide information for the land use surveys which guide urban development. Further information is given in the Science and Scientific Services Section of this Yearbook.

The National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO) has statutory responsibility for integrating research and survey activities in the field of water and soil conservation. The work is carried out by the Water and Soil Division of Ministry of Works and Development (MWD) and catchment authorities throughout New Zealand.

Three MWD science centres at Aokautere, Christchurch, and Hamilton carry out investigations in land resources, physical water resources, and water quality respectively.

The NWASCO land resource inventory, published as 1 inch to the mile worksheets and available as computer-stored data, is a major milestone in assisting land development planning providing, as it does, the first such inventory with truly national coverage.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION BY INDUSTRY—Statistics of expenditure on environmental protection have been obtained in the integrated economic census of manufacturing and are shown in the following table for 1978–79. The expenditure shown is that incurred directly on processes or operations which are for the benefit or protection of the general public, such as the disposal, eradication, or cleansing of effluents, wastes, poisons, vapours, or similar obnoxious matter; protection from radiation; land stabilisation or beautification; the replacement of overburden; and similar work designed to protect or restore the environment. The total relates only to manufacturing establishments employing 10 or more persons engaged full time, and excludes ancillary units servicing more than one manufacturing industry.

New Zealand Standard Industrial ClassificationExpenditure on Environmental Environmental ProtectionPercentage Environmental Expenditure of Value Added
 $(000)percent
Major Division 3—Manufacturing (total manufacturing industries, excluding single-establishment enterprises employing less than 10 people, and ancillary units servicing more than one manufacturing industry)9,5010.27

WATER RESOURCES AND MANAGEMENT—Latest estimates put New Zealand's consumption of water at 1440 million cubic metres per year, of which agriculture uses 60 percent. The remaining 40 percent is split nearly equally between industrial and domestic use.

Approximately 96 percent of the population are supplied by public water supply systems and 4 percent rely on an independent domestic supply (rainwater collecting, aquifer bores, etc). Industry obtains about 33 percent of its requirements from public supply systems and 66 percent from its own independent sources.

With such a large consumptive use of water the protection of waters is nationally important. It is achieved largely through the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967, with protection of soils against flooding provided by the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941. These acts are administered by a central policy-making organisation, the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO), and a complementary regional organisation.

The National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO) consists of the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority, the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, and the Water Resources Council. Representation on the national authority and the 2 councils includes counties, municipalities, catchment authorities, and regional water boards; farming, manufacturing, and recreational interests; and appropriate departments of Government. Some 20 regional bodies known as catchment authorities administer the 1941 Act and, as regional water boards, administer the 1967 Act.

There are two principal means of managing water resources to protect them—the water and soil resource management plan, and the water management (allocation) plan. Although not statutory documents, these are accepted publications giving the public the opportunity to make comment and present submissions on their expectations of the use of natural water.

A water and soil resource management plan is prepared by a regional water board as a general statement of its policies for all soil conservation and water management matters. In this plan the prime objectives for the use of water are stated.

A water management plan is the next stage on in planning. In this plan, the board indicates how it wants to apportion water to different uses and what quality and quantity will be maintained in the water body. After opportunity for public comment the plan serves as a guide to the regional water board when issuing new water rights, or when varying existing rights, and serves as a guide to intending users of the water as to restrictions that may be applied. It is implemented through water classification and the setting of minimum and maximum flows to which statutory recognition can be given when required, and through the water right process.

Both plans are reviewed periodically.

To carry into effect the planning policies the regional water board has 3 procedures available:

  1. The classification of a body of water into water quality classes, which represents a minimum water quality standard, below which the quality must not fall

  2. .A second and possibly complementary method is by the authority fixing the maximum and minimum acceptable flow, or levels or range of flows, of any body of natural water following consultation with interested parties.

  3. The water light process provides a statutory public forum (with appeal rights) where a particular application can be discussed in the light of all known and potential competing users. Water rights are also subject to appropriate conditions imposed by a regional water board, which amongst other things, protect other users.

Town and Country Planning Act 1977—The imposition of man-made boundaries on the natural environment does not recognise the interrelation between different parts of the environment. However, the interaction, between land-uses and water-uses is an essential element in planning for the water's physical state and uses.

All planning schemes are to have regard to the principles and objectives of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941 and the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967. This applies to wherever land and water meet. The administration unit to overcome this artificial division is the regional authority.

The significance of these general principles is that statutory recognition is now given on how our resources should be used. Water is an important resource and planning authorities should be able to control the manner and way this resource is used, if necessary the prohibition of its use, and the introduction of measures to protect it. Sound technical advice is also necessary if these resources are to be used wisely.

Irrigation—Most New Zealand soils have a seasonal moisture deficiency and would benefit from irrigation to reach their maximum productivity. Many soils presently farmed under dry land conditions are capable of substantially increased production under irrigation.

Throughout the country there are presently 8 major irrigation schemes at various stages of construction. The Lower Waitaki scheme to serve 14500 ha and the Morven-Glenavy scheme to serve 12100 ha are now almost complete. The Waiau Plains scheme (Canterbury, 17000 ha) is now well into construction with the first farms receiving water in 1980. The Maniototo scheme (Otago, 9300 ha) is also proceeding well, with design work continuing for the inclusion of a hydro-electricity scheme in shared headworks with the irrigation scheme. The Loburn trickle irrigation scheme (Canterbury) has now been opened and serves an area of horticultural crops.

Schemes recently approved by the Government include the Glenmark scheme in North Canterbury (involving water harvesting in many small dams) and the Kerikeri trickle irrigation scheme in Northland. Communal irrigation schemes are financed and constructed by the Government. In an increasing number of cases the operation of the schemes is being taken over by local authorities.

Charges for water are fixed so that over a period of 40 years the revenue should meet the costs of operation and maintenance and the periodic renewal of items of capital works, together with the recovery of an agreed portion of the scheme's capital cost.

In addition to these large Government-supported schemes, irrigation is used on single farms or orchards in many parts of New Zealand. Water is generally drawn from underground sources, or pumped from rivers and drains and applied by a variety of spray, trickle, and flooding techniques.

The Ministry of Works and Development (MWD) is continuing its activities for the investigation, design, and construction of new irrigation schemes, including the co-ordination of other Government and local agencies. To qualify as an approved scheme an irrigation proposal must, in general, include a minimum of 4 farm businesses and also meet agreed engineering, economic, and water management standards.

Approved irrigation schemes are financed on a basis of the Government's providing the full capital cost of all off-farm works and approved fixed on-farm works, and half of the cost of off-farm distribution works within the irrigable area to be recovered. The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation takes security for the full capital cost of approved fixed on-farm works. One half of the cost is recovered by way of mortgage and half is treated as a suspensory loan. The loan is written off at the expiration of 10 years. Approved irrigation development not qualifying as a scheme may qualify for Rural Banking and Finance Corporation loans of 100 percent with interest and capital repayments deferred, if necessary.

Local irrigation committees involving landholders have been set up to reappraise existing schemes and, through the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO), advise the Minister of Works and Development on their upgrading, operation, and maintenance. There are also committees of officials for each of 7 MWD districts, convened and chaired by the district commissioner of works and including representatives of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation, and regional water boards. These committees are charged with the technical evaluation of irrigation proposals, and recommendations on the worth of proposals are made to the Government through NWASCO.

SOIL CONSERVATION—The changes in vegetation consequent on land development have been reflected in disturbed soil conditions in many parts of New Zealand. The protective, stabilising, and water-controlling combination of vigorous native vegetation, litter, and spongy soil has given way to a shallow-rooted, less protective carpet of grass on a compacted, impervious, and often exhausted soil. Soil erosion now occurs on more than 8 million hectares of hill country and mountain land, about one-third of the total area of New Zealand.

Successful techniques that have been developed to control erosion include spelling, control of burning and animal pests, oversowing, topdressing, strict grazing control, soil conservation, fencing, stock-water ponds, gully control, contour ploughing, terraces, grassed waterways, and open and close tree planting. Cost-sharing rates are available to farmers carrying out these control practices.

Land resource surveys (inventory and capability) are used extensively in New Zealand. The technique involves making an inventory of the physical factors of rock type, soil, slope erosion degree and type, and vegetation, and the assessment of the potential of the land for safe sustained use.

The National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO) has recently completed coverage of New Zealand on a scale of 1:63360. This national land resource survey divides the country into approximately 80000 land management units. The national coverage, coupled with its computer storage of both boundaries and codes, is a very effective and flexible physical base for soil conservation and general land use at regional through to local levels.

Similarly, such information is also compiled at more detailed scales by catchment authorities for small catchments and individual farm properties, allowing soil conservators to recommend the best treatment (conservation practices) and management of particular areas of land so as to ensure sustained permanent production from any one area. A plan is formulated by a soil conservator and then discussed with the landowner concerned. The plan may then be adjusted to suit the landowner's ability to carry it out over several years.

Soil conservation and water management activities are now entering a new phase with involvement in planning. Catchment authorities make submissions to local councils, providing land and water resource information and soil conservation and water management objectives and policies, so that physical risks to development can be considered when social and economic factors are evaluated at the planning stage. Consideration of physical risks to development is required under the Town and Country Planning Act. This will help prevent some of the costly mistakes made in the past, for example, the location of buildings in flood-prone or landslip-prone areas.

Two new areas of involvement are in identifying physical suitability for urban development and in the calculation and identification of areas susceptible to coastal erosion.

The activities of the catchment authorities are complementary to the planning activities of local councils. Catchment authorities are concerned with the management of soil and water resources, while the councils are concerned with changes in land use and with planning for the physical, social, and economic environment.

Coastal Erosion—The coastlines of New Zealand total about 15000 km in length, of which 80 percent is exposed to the open sea. The remainder is sheltered. For the exposed part, about 56 percent is static, 25 percent is eroding, and 19 percent is accreting. History has shown that even the accreting section of coastline may revert to erosion, so that, in total, almost half of New Zealand's coastline has a high susceptibility to erosion.

Coastal erosion has proved expensive in the past. Between 1953 and 1979 the total cost of coastal protection works within the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation's policy was $4.8 million (present day costs).

Severe storms during July 1978 caused much erosion along the coasts of both islands. Areas known to have suffered damage were Omaha in Rodney County, where the timber protection wall was completely demolished; Raumati, near Wellington, where sections of the newly-constructed wall failed; and Ohiwa Spit in the Bay of Plenty.

Coastal protection was required to protect badly-planned subdivisions. Most, if not all, of the threatened subdivisions could have been developed further inland from the beach.

The planning section of the Planning and Technical Services Group, Water and Soil Division, Ministry of Works and Development, is providing a coastal planning service through MWD works districts. Based on geological data, coastal protection strips delineating land highly susceptible to erosion processes are being identified to assist planners.

POLLUTION—Public concern for the environment has led to an increased awareness of pollution problems. Organisations have responded by involving the public in the decision-making processes and by amending legislation to provide the appropriate controls.

At present, different parts of the physical environment are protected by different organisations, with co-ordination provided by the Commission for the Environment. The problems of water pollution are being controlled by the Water Resources Council and the regional water boards; those of air pollution by the Department of Health under the provisions of the Clean Air Act 1972; and many local authorities have introduced bylaws to control noise problems in their areas.

Within the territorial sea and harbours, the Marine Pollution Act 1974 controls the discharge or dumping of oil or any other substance declared a pollutant. New Zealand also has a contingency plan for dealing with oil pollution in coastal waters and on the shore.

Pollution of our rivers and lakes can be caused by soil erosion, farm run-off, industrial waste, or domestic sewage. The Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967 provides for the control of waste discharges through water rights. These will have certain conditions put on them to ensure that the discharge has had adequate treatment sufficient to protect the receiving waters.

Diffuse forms of pollution, like soil erosion, require different approaches, such as through changing land use practices.

Sewage and farm run-off add nutrients to the water which in some lakes (e.g., Lakes Rotorua and Horowhenua) has caused excessive growth of weeds and algal blooms, to the detriment of water quality.

Waste disposal from cities and the forestry and meat industries are the major contributors to pollution of the land. Urban solid-waste disposal is largely by the land-fill technique, and most major cities are establishing tip sites planned to last up to 50 or 100 years. Until recently large amounts of wood were left in the forest during logging or dumped near sawmills. Now, much of this waste wood is chipped for use in pulp mills, either within the country or overseas.

Organic chemical pesticides and herbicides are widely accepted as essential for efficient agriculture and horticulture. The use of such chemicals is controlled by the Agricultural Chemicals Board under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The board controls the import of chemicals and has an approved list of proprietary herbicides and pesticides for use in different situations such as in or near water, and also gives guidance on the application of those chemicals.

Several divisions of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research are concerned with monitoring pollution. The Chemistry Division conducts surveys of mercury contamination of fish and water, arising from geothermal outflows. Nitrate concentration in ground waters, and insecticides in water are measured, and checks are kept on heavy metals in foods. The Oceanographic Institute traces the biological effects of heated water discharges from thermal power stations. The Physics and Engineering Laboratory participates in the Earth's Resources Technology Satellite programme. The department also assists such organisations as the Dairy Research Institute, the Meat Industry Research Institute, the Wool Research Organisation, and the Leather and Shoe Research Association, which are industrial research groups all supporting projects to reduce pollution and increase the use of by-products from their industrial processes which have in the past been wasted.

New Zealand's geographical shape and location is, in general, favourable to the dispersal of air pollutants, although some areas, such as Christchurch, suffer from air pollution problems. The Clean Air Act 1972, the first part of which came into effect on 1 April 1973, established the principle of air pollution control on industry by the best practicable means. Provision was also made for the establishment of smokeless zones. The first clean air zone under the Act has been established in -Christchurch.

The Clean Air Council was established under the Clean Air Act 1972 to advise the Minister of Health on all aspects of air pollution. It advises local authorities on their work under the Act and co-ordinates the work of control authorities and voluntary organisations. It publishes reports from time to time, and is undertaking research work through four committees studying respectively clean air zones and domestic heating, motor vehicles and air pollution, rural pollution, and planning co-ordination.

MARGINAL LANDS LENDING—The purpose of the Marginal Lands Act 1950 is to assist farmers to restore, maintain, and increase production on properties that are not economic but are potentially so. The Marginal Lands Board fulfils its role as a last resort lender by providing finance where it is not available through normal private lending institutions. The board finances development work, purchase of livestock and chattels, purchase of additional land for amalgamation to make farms economic units, and refinancing of existing securities where the need is most critical. The board is also empowered to lend to landless farmers for the purchase of uneconomic (“stepping stone”) farms to enable them to be established on their first unit. These farms can either be built up to an economic level with outside income from related farm work and board assistance, or sold when developed to provide a deposit for an economic property.

The board comprises the Minister of Lands (chairman), the Director-General of Lands (deputy chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, and 4 private persons with a farming background appointed by the Minister.

To assist the board in undertaking its activities, local committees have been established in each land district consisting of a representative of the Department of Lands and Survey (chairman), the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, and a private fanner selected and appointed for each district by the board.

The pattern of the board's lending over the past 3 years is illustrated by the figures in the table below:

Purpose of LoansYear Ended 31 March
197819791980
* Includes purchase of uneconomic land (“stepping stone” units).
  $(thousand) 
Development (including stock, plant, and seasonal)1,0841,3521,475
Purchase of additional land1,667*1,886x1,777
Refinance316875590
Uneconomic purchases (“stepping stone” units)-44885
              Total3,0674,5613,927

In total, to 31 March 1980, the board has assisted 1987 farmers to the extent of $54.8 million.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on the relationship of the environment and economic growth will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Lands and Survey (Parl. paper C. 1).

Report of the Commission for the Environment (Parl. paper C. 7).

Report of the Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust (Parl. paper C. 2).

Report of the Director-General of Forests (Parl. paper C. 3).

Report of the Nature Conservation Council (Parl. paper C. 4).

Report of the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority (Parl. paper D. 2).

Ministry of Works and Development Statement (Parl. paper D. 1).

Proceedings of Soil and Plant Water Symposium 1976—DSIR (1977).

Land Application of Treated Sewage Effluent—DSIR (1976).

Research into Aquatic Weeds in New Zealand Waterways—DSIR (1976).

Slope Stability in Urban Development—DSIR (1977).

Eutrophication of Lake Rotorua—DSIR (1977).

The Physical Environment Conference 1970: Reports, Papers and Proceedings.

See also the special article The New Zealand environment and changes in environmental management since 1970 in the 1980 Yearbook.

10 B—PUBLIC LANDS

CROWN LAND—There are 5.7 million hectares of Crown land which are held under lease or licence by individuals for farming or other purposes. Land permanently set aside for national parks and public reserves comprises 2.64 million hectares. The Department of Lands and Survey is also developing 0.68 million hectares of land, of which 0.44 million hectares is intended for subdivision and settlement as individual farms.

Administration—Crown land is administered under the authority of the Land Act 1948. The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands. New Zealand is divided into 12 land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands.

The central authority under the Land Act is the Land Settlement Board consisting of the Minister of Lands (chairman), the Director-General of Lands (deputy chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Valuer-General, a representative of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation, the Deputy Director-General of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, and not more than 4 other persons appointed by the Minister.

The Land Settlement Board is required to appoint one or more land settlement committees for each land district, and 20 of these committees have been set up. Each committee consists of 3 members with the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as chairman and 2 private farmer members.

The Land Settlement Board, through the Department of Lands and Survey, disposes of Crown land for farming, residential, commercial, and industrial purposes. The demand for this land, particularly farm land, is considerable.

DISPOSAL OF CROWN LAND—Crown land is normally offered to the public at valuation and the successful applicant decided by ballot, although in exceptional circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Any land may, however, be offered for disposal by tender at an undisclosed minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an unset price.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:

  1. Farm land, urban land, commercial, or industrial land—(a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) on deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee simple. Annual rent is reviewed at 11-yearly intervals.

  2. Pastoral land—(a) On pastoral lease for term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding 21 years, with no right of renewal or of acquiring the fee simple.

  3. Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding 5 years.

Selections—The following table shows details of selections during the year 1979–80.

TenureNumber of SelectionsTotal Area SelectedPurchase Price or Annual Charges
  hectares$(000)
Freehold2425938826
Renewable leases9418821147
Pastoral leases and licences5338315
Deferred-payment licences1001280144
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)37317316
Licences to occupy5175267167
Leases of endowment and other lands82109740
                Total 1979–801077694071,346
                Total 1978–791158188831,842

Leases and Licences—The following table shows the total number of leases and licences current as at 31 March 1980.

TenureLeases and LicencesAreaAnnual RentAnnual Instalments*
* Including improvement loading.
 No.hectares (000)$(000)$(000)
Renewable leases65626601,38333
Leases in perpetuity6082572307
Pastoral leases and licences50429541973
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)83911334912
Deferred-payment licences1167511528,427
Misc. leases and licences161519651
Licences to occupy4418134529
Leases of endowment and other lands12081352337
                Total 1979–803290357393,0638,483
                Total 1978–793385857762,9777,479

Freeholdings—The following table shows the number of leases and licences freeholded, either for cash or on deferred payments, during the year ended 31 March 1980.

Method of PaymentCrown LandsEndowment and Other LandsAreaPurchase Price
 No.No.hectares$(000)
Cash2264660782
Deferred payments3845742847,059
                Total 1979–806105789447,841
                Total 1978–796864842648,094

Further details on leases and licences may be obtained from the annual report of the Department of Lands and Survey, Parliamentary paper C. 1.

LAND DEVELOPMENT AND SETTLEMENT—The Land Settlement Board was constituted in 1948 and is responsible for the administration of land policy and the development and settlement of Crown land through the Department of Lands and Survey. The development of land in preparation for ultimate subdivision and settlement of farm units involves clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, the erection of essential improvements, and the installation of water supplies under a development programme undertaken annually. As at 31 March 1980 some 444130 hectares were under development by the Department of Lands and Survey for eventual settlement. It is expected to yield an estimated 1035 farms for settlement by landless farmers before the turn of the century. The major development districts as at 31 March 1980 were Southland with 134042 hectares; Rotorua-Taupo district, 58078 hectares; North Auckland, 62714 hectares; Te Kuiti, 44181 hectares; and Otago, 27129 hectares.

Despite the state of the economy and the need to reduce expenditure, the Government has maintained a settlement programme over recent years and consequently there is a growing shortage of undeveloped Crown land available to enable the department's operations to be maintained. Where possible the department is purchasing suitable private land for medium- or long-term development in conjunction with adjoining Crown land. With the acceleration of the rate of settlement, the Government has recognised the need to maintain the pool of settlement land. As a result of this, funds are being made available annually for the purchase of sheep and cattle properties capable of being converted to dairying and fully settled within a period of two years.

From the inception of the settlement programme in 1941 to 31 March 1980 a total of 4498 ex-servicemen and civilian settlers have been settled on farms of their own. The aggregate area of the farms has totalled 743307 hectares.

The Department of Lands and Survey is continuing to pursue its policy of heavy culling of stock to improve stock quality and breeding programmes aimed at the establishment of flocks and herds of top class with stock of proven genetic background. The main concentration on breeding is at Waihora Farm Settlement near Taupo where results to date have been impressive. High fertility rams are still being made available for use in the department's development programmes in other districts, and a limited number are sold annually to the public. This large scale programme is the biggest of its kind in New Zealand and the department's involvement in this field is of interest to the farming industry generally both in this country and overseas. Starting in 1979 the department has also sold a limited number of surplus Angora goats to the public from its flock at Waitangi.

The Department of Lands and Survey in association with the New Zealand Forest Service has established join? farm/forestry ventures operating in North Auckland, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury and Otago. This is a relatively new concept in New Zealand, involving the grazing of stock among widely spaced trees. Indications are that it could be a profitable one.

Over recent years the Department of Lands and Survey has continued to diversify its farming operations. The fields in which it is currently involved include Angora goat farming, deer farming, exotic sheep and cattle breeding, citrus fruit growing, grape growing, raising olive trees, and similar operations.

NATIONAL PARKS AND RESERVES: History—From the founding of the colony, land has been the raw material used in the creation of a basic economic and social structure which forms part of our way of life. Royal Instructions issued to New Zealand's first governor—Captain William Hobson—who reached this country in 1840, included the concept of reserving land for public use and enjoyment. Under various pieces of general and special legislation a progressive policy of preserving and maintaining open natural and recreational areas for the people has been a facet in the land use policy and administration of the Central Government. Natural areas retained at a time when much of the country was relatively unmodified are still available today in the form of national parks, and scenic and allied types of reserves.

National Parks—The national park system in New Zealand had its origin in 1887 when Te Heuheu Tukino and other Maori chiefs gifted to the Crown the summits of their sacred mountains of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The gifted area provided the nucleus of our first national park—Tongariro—which was formally constituted by Act of Parliament in 1894. Special legislation in 1900 established Egmont as our second national park, while Fiordland had its beginning in 1905 with the reservation of over 800000 hectares as a public reserve for “a national park”.

The Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act 1928 and the National Parks Act 1952, which have been the stepping stones for national park legislation, have now been superseded by the National Parks Act 1980.

The 1980 Act established a National Parks and Reserves Authority as an independent statutory body comprising 10 people representing private organisations and the public. Four members are appointed by the Minister of Lands from public nominations; one member representing each of the Royal Society of New Zealand, the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society, and Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand (Incorporated) on the recommendation of each organisation; and three members are appointed after consultation with the Minister of Tourism and the Minister of Local Government. The authority has general oversight and responsibility for the formulation of policy and management planning for national parks and reserves of national importance, and the Department of Lands and Survey looks after the day-to-day administration as well as servicing the Authority and Boards.

At district level, twelve National Parks and Reserve Boards have been set up to have general oversight for the management of national parks and reserves of national importance within their specific region. Each Board has 10 members appointed by the Minister of Lands after public nomination and consultation with the authority. Nominations are considered on the basis of the individual's special knowledge or interest in matters connected with the policy for, and management of, national parks and reserves. Also taken into consideration are the nominated individual's interest in regional or community affairs, tourism, recreation or conservation.

Rangers employed in the Public Service for the Department of Lands and Survey are responsible for development, protection, interpretation, and management in each park and their work (chiefly in the area of park protection) is supplemented by the voluntary help of honorary rangers.

The status of national park land cannot be changed except by Act of Parliament.

Description—New Zealand's 10 national parks, covering 2149209 hectares (or one-thirteenth of the country's land area) of beautiful or unique natural features and scenery, steeped in Maori legend, offer many alternative opportunities for enjoying open air recreation and the contemplation of nature and wildlife. Mountains, glaciers, forests, lakes, rivers, fiords, and beaches offer opportunities for people to tramp, climb, ski, fish, hunt, camp, and picnic. There are pleasant drives for motorists, short nature walks, alpine gardens, visitor centres and, during holiday periods, nature programmes. Accommodation, transport, and other services in or near the parks are provided by the Department of Lands and Survey, Government agencies, private enterprise, and voluntary organisations. Although the National Parks Act provides for freedom of entry and access by the public, this is subject to conditions and restrictions “necessary for the preservation of the native plants, birds, and other living creatures or for the welfare in general of the parks”. Access to “special areas” constituted under the Act is (if the circumstances warrant) by permit only. The Act also requires parks to be administered and maintained so that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state; that their value as soil, water, and forest conservation areas is maintained; and that as far as possible, native plants, birds, and other living creatures are preserved, and introduced plants and animals exterminated.

Development permitted by the National Parks Act includes the erection of houses for rangers and park staff, and the provision of camping grounds, huts, hostels, accommodation houses and other buildings, ski tows and similar facilities, parking areas, roading and tracks. In “wilderness areas”, established in terms of the Act, development is restricted to foot-track access and the erection of huts for essential wild animal control operations or to facilitate scientific research. Authority policy and park management plans provide guidelines and criteria for the extent of acceptable development in national parks.

Virtually all the finance for national parks is provided by the Government but cash donations by private individuals and organisations are encouraged: these earn a $2 for $1 subsidy from the Government.

Of the 10 national parks, the first 3 listed below are in the North Island and the remainder are in the South Island.

Urewera National Park (207462 hectares, established in 1954), surrounds the beautiful Lakes Waikaremoana and Waikareiti. As the traditional home of the Tuhoe, “the Children of the Mist”, it is rich in Maori folklore. The park protects the largest remaining area of native forest in the North Island and provides a home for many species of native birds.

Tongariro National Park (77044 hectares, established in 1894), includes the three active volcanic cones of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. Ruapehu's snowfields are the winter playground of the North Island. Lake Rotopounamu, still free from exotic fish, and Mount Pihanga are two other focal points of the park.

Egmont National Park (33536 hectares, established in 1900), contains one of the world's most symmetrical mountains, known to the Maoris as “Taranaki”, and preserves magnificent scenery and vegetation within a 9-kilometre radius of the summit. Dominating Taranaki province in the west of the North Island, the near perfect cone varies from heavily-forested lower slopes to the bare scoria, rock, snow, and ice at the upper levels.

Abel Tasman National Park (22455 hectares, established in 1942), with a broken coastline and rich in historical significance, has numerous tidal inlets and beaches of golden sand fronting Tasman Bay. Botanically, the park is unique as its bush-clad slopes show a blending of the natural cover of both the North and South Islands, a phenomenon of nature not found elsewhere in the country.

Nelson Lakes National Park (57505 hectares, established in 1956), is named after the chief focal points for visitors, the beautiful lakes Rotoiti and Rotoroa. These nestle in rugged mountainous country with extensive beech-forest clad lower slopes. The Mount Robert area, with its magnificent views, provides visitors with winter recreational opportunities on its ski fields.

Arthur's Pass National Park (94422 hectares, established in 1929), is a rugged and mountainous area straddling the main divide of the Southern Alps. It is an area of high peaks (at least 30 over 1800 metres), snowfields, deep-cut valleys, snow-grass clad ridges, forest-clad hillsides, high waterfalls, wide shingle riverbeds, and rushing torrents, all providing endless scope for physical endeavour or quiet appreciation.

Mount Cook National Park (69957 hectares, established in 1953) and Westland National Park (97067 hectares, established in 1960), share a common boundary along the main divide of the Southern Alps. Their magnificent alpine scenery, containing almost all of the 27 peaks over 3050 metres in height, includes New Zealand's highest mountain, the 3764-metre Mount Cook, known to the Maoris as “Aorangi”—freely translated as “Cloud Piercer”. Their attractions are as varied as their altitude, ranging from well known glaciers such as Tasman (at 29 km long one of the longest outside polar regions), Franz Josef, and Fox, to hot springs, placid lakes, and the sub-tropical luxuriance of the rain forests.

Mount Aspiring National Park (287319 hectares, established in 1964), is a complex of impressive glaciated mountain scenery which includes the headwaters of seven major rivers. The park's distinctive character is enhanced by bush-covered mountainside and pleasant river flats and valleys. Its focal point, often referred to as the Matterhorn of New Zealand, is the 3036-metre Mount Aspiring, a 4-ridged peak rising from the Bonar Therma-Volta ice shelf, and the country's highest peak outside Mount Cook National Park.

Fiordland National Park (1212032 hectares, established in 1952), is one of the largest national parks in the world, and is renowned for the rugged grandeur of its scenery which includes fiords, mountains, forests, waterfalls, and lakes. The better known lakes are Manapouri, backed by snow-capped peaks, and Te Anau. The park is the only known habitat of two flightless birds, the takahe (notornis) and (except for a small colony on Stewart Island) the kakapo.

RESERVES—The main pieces of current legislation providing for the setting aside of land for public use, e.g., for the preservation of flora and fauna, scenery preservation, or recreation, are the Land Act 1948 and the Local Government Act 1974 and its subsequent amendments. The Land Act enables land owned by the Crown, including foreshore areas, to be reserved for any purpose desirable in the public interest, while under the Local Government Act local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision is made for public reserves on subdivision of land.

The current legislation governing the administration, management, and control of reserves is the Reserves Act 1977. This Act established 7 distinct categories of reserves, each with its own management requirements. The 7 categories are: recreation, historic, scenic, nature, scientific, Government purpose, and local purpose. In addition there is provision to declare any reserves or class of reserves which contain values of national or international significance to be national reserves which can be revoked only by Act of Parliament. All reserves will be classified according to their principal or primary purpose into the above categories. The classification process will take some time to complete but considerable progress has been made. Until finally classified, all reserves shall be held and administered for the purpose of their existing reservation.

Scenic Reserves—Scenic reserves, of which there are 1045 with an overall area of 286780 hectares, are set aside to preserve features or areas of scenic interest such as native forest, limestone and glow-worm caves, thermal areas, sea coasts, lakes, rivers, waterfalls, scenic vantage points, and forested areas with considerable conservation value. Some of these reserves are mainly of local or regional significance while many of the larger ones, which are in the nature of small national parks, are of national importance. Public use of scenic reserves varies greatly, ranging from off-road parking and picnicking to camping, tramping, and hunting (subject to written permit).

Scenic reserves in excess of 2000 hectares include Lewis Pass, Wanganui River, Buller Gorge, Rakeahua, South Cape (Stewart Island), Lake Kaniere, Gouland Downs, Glenhope, Lake Brunner, Rahu (Reefton), Mangamuku Gorge, Tangarakau, Te Tapui (Cambridge), and Waioeka Gorge.

Improved maintenance, management, and control of scenic reserves has been accomplished through the classification of their principal values and most appropriate usage. The appointment of salaried reserves rangers in the Public Service to ensure that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state “in the public interest” and for the “benefit, enjoyment, and use of the public” has also been of considerable assistance. In addition, native trees and shrubs are being propagated at the Department of Lands and Survey's Taupo Nursery to promote scenic restoration activities in reserves throughout the North Island but with particular emphasis on the Taupo basin in the wake of power scheme works. A nursery has also been established at Home Creek in Southland to service requirements for the South Island.

Land of special scenic interest may, while remaining in private ownership, receive the benefits of preservation and protection of the Reserves Act 1977 through being declared private protected land. Areas which have received such protection include White Island in the Bay of Plenty, where petrels and gannets nest in large numbers annually, and a large area of the Pukeiti Rhododendron Trust property, near New Plymouth, and adjoining Egmont National Park, which is in native bush.

Historic Reserves—One hundred and sixteen areas of historic interest totalling 2289 hectares are set aside as historic reserves. The Department of Lands and Survey co-operates closely in the administration and investigation of historic sites with the New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Historic reserves mark the landfall and landing places of early voyagers such as Tasman and Cook, the site of missionary Samuel Marsden's first sermon on New Zealand soil, sites of early fortifications, of engagements during the Maori wars, and buildings of historic value. (The Treaty House area at Waitangi, administered by the Waitangi National Trust, is not a historic reserve in the strict sense.) Sites of Maori rock drawings and places of significance in New Zealand's early constitutional history are also preserved.

Nature Reserves—Land is reserved for bird sanctuaries, for the preservation of flora and fauna, or some similar purpose in cases where the land provides a habitat for bird or plant life of such importance that some control on public access is desirable. In all there are 50 reserves in this category with a total area of 185137 hectares. Some of them are mainland areas, but most are off-shore and outlying islands. Major areas of particular public interest include Little Barrier Island in Hauraki Gulf, the only known habitat of the stitch bird, and now part of the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park; Cape Kidnappers gannet colony in Hawke's Bay; Kapiti Island off Wellington's west coast; the white heron colony in South Westland; and Taiaroa Head albatross colony near Dunedin.

All of New Zealand's subantarctic islands, except for a small area surrounding the meteorological station on Campbell Island, are reserved for nature purposes and provide a habitat for marine mammals and millions of sea birds. As well as Campbell Island, the reserves include the Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, and Snares Islands. To the north of New Zealand, most of the land in the Kermadec Islands is similarly reserved.

Access to these reserves is by permit only, a policy followed solely in the interests of preservation of the plant and animal life to ensure an absolute minimum of human interference to anything living and growing naturally there. The reserves are administered by the Department of Lands and Survey.

Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park—This park was established under the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act in 1967. The park may include reserves of any type on or off the east coast of the North Island from Whangamata Harbour to Home Point at the northern end of Bland Bay. It includes such well-known islands as Motuihe, Rangitoto, Browns, Motutapu, Motuora, Poor Knights, Little Barrier, and part of Kawau containing the historic Mansion House. The park is administered by a board of 10 members.

Marlborough Sounds Maritime Park—This park was established under the provisions of the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 and is administered by a 13-member board. The park provides for co-ordinated management of existing scenic, historic, recreation, and other public reserves located within the coastal region stretching from Cape Soucis in the west to Rarangi in the south-east. Appropriate island reserves are also included.

Bay of Islands Maritime and Historic Park—This park was established in 1978 under the provisions of the Reserves Act 1977. The park provides for co-ordinated management of existing scenic, historic, recreation, and other reserves located within the coastal region, stretching from the Whangaroa Harbour in the north to the Whangamumu Harbour in the south, and includes many reserves on the mainland in and around Kerikeri and Russell and on many of the adjacent islands. The park is administered by a board of 10 members.

Wildlife Reserves—There are 3 classes of wildlife reserves, namely wildlife sanctuaries, wildlife refuges, and wildlife management reserves. Land of any tenure may be proclaimed wildlife sanctuaries or wildlife refuges, and any such proclamation prohibits only certain actions in respect of wildlife but does not affect the land ownership. Any of the 3 classes may however be declared in respect of lands of the Crown, or on lands specially acquired by the Crown. In such cases the declaration is made pursuant to the Land Act 1948, thus conferring upon the lands public reserve status pursuant to the Reserves Act 1977.

Wildlife Sanctuaries—The role of these is protecting fragile wildlife habitats from the effects of entry by humans or animals; or protecting wildlife species which are low in numbers regionally or nationally, or are confined within a small number of habitats which are sensitive to disturbance.

The major administrative and management objective is the total or partial exclusion of the public from such areas. Written permits to enter a sanctuary are required from the Secretary for Internal Affairs.

At present there are 14 wildlife sanctuaries, all but three of which are on off-shore islands.

Wildlife Refuges—This status is given to wildlife habitats which require protection to ensure the well-being of the habitats and to maintain the natural regional or local distribution and presence of wildlife.

The primary management functions are to carry out habitat maintenance, and to allow the public freedom of access, except that firearms, domestic animals and disturbing influences, are prohibited.

Wildlife Management Reserves—The objective for this class of reserve is much the same as for a wildlife refuge but the primary management functions are to manipulate and improve the habitat for wildlife, and to allow freedom of public entry together with a variety of activities, including the hunting of game species of wildlife.

Recreation Reserves—Recreation reserves, including public domains which are now categorised as recreation reserves administered by the Department of Lands and Survey, number 620 covering 21072 hectares. These provide for the recreational needs of the people as a whole. While many such reserves are designed primarily to provide for organised sport there are a large number which preserve for public use attractive and natural areas, particularly along the coastline, and provide facilities for camping. Some outstanding examples of coastal reserves are Orewa, near Auckland, Ohope Beach, near Whakatane, Queen Elizabeth Park, near Wellington, Momorangi Bay in the Marlborough Sounds, Kaiteriteri and Pohara in the Nelson district, and Waikuku Beach in Canterbury. Widely known city reserves are the Auckland Domain and Hagley Park, Christchurch. Native bush is protected on reserve land.

Summary of Areas Reserved—The following table records the main classes of reservations at 31 March 1980.

Type of ReservationNo.Hectares
National parks102149209
Scenic reserves1045286780
Historic reserves1162289
Nature reserves50185137
Recreation reserves62021072
Scientific reserves192057

QUEEN ELIZABETH THE SECOND NATIONAL TRUST—The Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust was established by Act of Parliament in December 1977 to encourage and promote the provision, protection, and enhancement of open space for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of New Zealand.

The formation of the trust commemorates the Silver Jubilee of Her Majesty the Queen. The trust was set up to fill a growing need for an independent body to oversee the development of an overall open space plan and policy.

The main specific functions of the trust are to advise the Minister of Lands, other ministers, Government departments, and other bodies on all matters concerning open space; to investigate, identify, and classify potential reserves and recreation areas as to their significance; to promote research into open space; to co-ordinate the activities of interested Government departments and other bodies or persons; to negotiate open space covenants; and to acquire open space in its own name.

The trust is administered by a board of 10 directors, 3 of whom (including the chairman) are appointed by the Minister of Lands, 2 by election by the members, and 5 by the minister after consultation with Federated Farmers of New Zealand Inc., the New Zealand Maori Council, the New Zealand Counties Association Inc., and the Municipal Association of New Zealand Inc.

Board meetings are attended by the permanent heads of the Departments of Lands and Survey, Internal Affairs, Maori Affairs, the New Zealand Forest Service, the Ministry of Works and Development, and the Commission for the Environment.

An essential part of the trust is the membership. A list has been opened for individual, corporate, and life membership of the trust. As well as electing 2 directors, it is hoped that the members will form an integral part of the trust's operation, particularly on a local level.

Present Activities—A major task is the preparation of a data base of the open space resource, including land, rivers, lakes and coastline. Associated with this is a study of the regional demand for open space.

The promotion of open space covenants is an important aspect of the trust's work. Three types of covenant are being negotiated. The first type is providing a service for farmers with areas of native bush or other important landscape on their property that they wish to see preserved. A covenant ensures the preservation of an area in perpetuity without the landowner losing title to the land.

The second type is to secure access for the public to areas of open space, particularly near urban centres. The third type requires a series of covenants with all landowners in an area to preserve a major landscape such as a peninsula or river valley.

The trust may purchase land in its own right when a need is recognised. Local Authority grants and other donations to the trust for the purchase of land attract a $2 for $1 Government subsidy.

The trust is taking a special interest in ensuring the preservation of wild and scenic rivers of national and regional significance.

The trust will make its position known and recommend appropriate action when deficiencies in the existing system for provision of open space come to its attention. The trust sees its role in this respect as ensuring that all aspects of open space are adequately taken into account by the proper authorities. As a general rule the trust will adopt this role of broad oversight and consultation rather than become the initial or principal advocate for particular causes.

The trust will encourage existing bodies to acquire or set aside open space where the need by the user is seen to be greatest, e.g., in or close to areas of greatest population density.

NEW ZEALAND WALKWAYS—The purpose of the New Zealand Walkways Act 1975 is to establish “… walking tracks over public and private land so that the people of New Zealand (can) have safe, unimpeded foot access to the countryside for the benefit of physical recreation, as well as for the enjoyment of the outdoor environment and the natural and pastoral beauty and historical and cultural qualities of the areas through which they pass.”

To promote, supervise and co-ordinate this development, the Act constituted the New Zealand Walkway Commission and charged it with the responsibility for walkway administration, with power to delegate duties to 12 district walkway committees, one for each land district constituted under the Land Act 1948, and also to other controlling authorities. In recognition that public, local authority, Government agency, and private lands would be used for walkways, the composition of the commission was structured accordingly, with the members of the commission being the Director-General of Lands (chairman), and the Director-General of Forests, and a representative each of the Municipal Association of New Zealand, the Counties Association of New Zealand, the New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport, the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand, and the Federated Farmers of New Zealand. Similar representation composes each district walkway committee.

Although only 8 walkways, having a total length of 64.3 km, had been gazetted as at 31 December 1980 a further 52 sections of walkway are presently open throughout the country. Together, the total length of those areas open for public use is 515 km. There are numerous urban walks established by local authorities which are regarded as being complementary to the New Zealand Walkways System and these will not be brought under the provisions of the New Zealand Walkways Act 1975 unless it is the wish of the local authority.

FURTHER INFORMATION—The Government Printer has produced a number of very attractive publications dealing with the National Parks, both individually and in total, and with scenic reserves. Other publications dealing with public lands include the following:

Report of the Department of Lands and Survey (Parl. paper C. 1).

Report of the Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust (Parl. paper C. 2).

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

10 C—MAORI LANDS

The term Maori land is a technical one usually denoting land that has always been owned by Maori people. Such land is held by right of succession to tribal ancestors. All except an insignificant portion of it is owned by defined people in defined proportions. All sales and some leases of such land still require ratification by the Maori Land Court.

At 31 March 1980 the area of Maori freehold land in New Zealand totalled 1217646 hectares. Many Maori people own homes in urban areas and others own farm land purchased from non-Maoris that is designated, for record purposes, as “General” land.

The Maori Land Board was constituted under the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1974 to promote greater involvement in, and identification of the Maori owners with, land development activities. The board is assisted by district Maori Land Advisory Committees.

MAORI LAND DEVELOPMENT AND RURAL LENDING—Owners of Maori land have access to usual lending institutions but it is not easy to borrow money for land development unless mortgage security can be given. Multiplicity of ownership often prevents this. Under the Maori Affairs Act 1953 the Maori Land Board, through the Department of Maori Affairs, may lend money for the development and settlement of Maori land. This does not affect the legal ownership, but the rights of the owners are suspended and the board has the right to exclusive occupation of the land. At 30 June 1979 stations fanned by the department contained a total of 114227 hectares, 72937 hectares of which were in grass.

The total annual grassing programme is approximately 1200 hectares.

The original objective of Maori land development was to subdivide developed blocks for settlement by Maori farmers. Recent trends have shown a preference by the owners to form incorporations or trusts to assume control on their behalf when properties are sufficiently consolidated and have attained financial stability.

Over the past decade afforestation of Maori land has become a popular alternative to development for traditional pastoral farming.

The Maori Land Board makes loans available to suitably qualified Maoris to enable; them to purchase farms or to enter into leasing or share farming contracts. New loans and further advances can also be made available to existing farmers for various purposes.

MAORI TRUSTEE—The Maori Trust Office was originally created to take over from the Public Trust Office the administration of certain Maori reserves and the administration of the estates of deceased Maoris and those under disability. The Maori Trust Office now forms part of the Department of Maori Affairs. It is headed by the Maori Trustee, comparable in status and functions with the Public Trustee. Most Maori Trustee activities have been decentralised by the delegation of wide powers to the district officers of the Department of Maori Affairs, who deal primarily with all Maori Trustee matters in their districts.

The following table is a summary of the assets and liabilities of the Maori Trustee as at 31 March in each of the latest 3 years.

ItemAs at 31 March
197819791980
  $(thousand) 
Assets—
    Cash1,1471,0671,180
    Investments—
        Government securities1,7001,9501,950
        Local authority debentures and stock4,5374,6693,164
        Secured bonds1,406
        Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft5,5515,8276,759
    Land, buildings, and miscellaneous345265232
            Total13,28013,77814,691
Liabilities—
    Amounts held for beneficiaries and sundry depositors7,8158,1218,682
    Reserves and appropriation account5,0785,1795,521
    Sundry creditors, etc.387478488
            Total13,2813,77814,691

FURTHER INFORMATION—The annual Parliamentary report of the Department of Maori Affairs (E. 13) includes reports on the Maori Land Board and the Maori Trust Office. See also Section 10E in this Yearbook.

10 D—SURVEYS

The Department of Lands and Survey is the national survey and mapping organisation. Its major functions include the extension of the survey control system, examination of all land title surveys, regulation of survey standards, provision of the survey planning and aerial photograph requirements of the Government, and the publication of all topographic, cadastral, and special maps of New Zealand.

SURVEYING—The New Zealand survey control system, in the form of trigonometrical and other geographically located stations, provides for the effective integration of surveys executed by all sectors for the purposes of land title definition, land development and utilisation, engineering construction, communications, mapping production, scientific studies, and the location of marine and air navigation aids.

Examination by the department of all land title surveys ensures the security of tenure essential to development, and the maintenance of all survey records on a microfilm system provides for ready access and utilisation of data. The control of survey standards, maintenance of discipline, and training of professional surveyors is effected through the statutorily constituted Survey Board under the chairmanship of the Surveyor-General.

Other departmental services provided to Government include surveys for land title, land development, navigational purposes, earth deformation studies, administration of justice, and land and environmental planning.

The practising surveyors in the private sector play a major role in surveys of private lands under the Land Transfer Act 1952, the planning and development of housing projects, and the execution, under contract, of some government surveys.

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY—Extensive use is made of aerial photography in the production of photogrammetric mapping and in the annual provision of basic physical resource and planning data. Photography is undertaken by private aerial survey firms under contract to Department of Lands and Survey, which maintains a complete library of air photos for all national purposes and general public usage.

Under agreement with the authorities in the USA the department now receives and holds multispectral imagery collected by earth resources satellites for use in studies associated with land use and management, regional planning, and scientific research in New Zealand.

MAPPING—Both the mile to an inch maps and the basic metric topographical and cadastral maps now under production provide a reliable inventory of physical resources and an up-to-date identification of land parcels and legal situations. They are in constant demand for planning, construction, development of land, extension of public and social services, protection of the environment, the general use and guidance of the public, and the administration of central and local government.

Regularly updated street maps cover all towns.

The Department of Lands and Survey also produces and publishes a wide range of other maps for various purposes including recreational maps, maps of national parks, and miscellaneous and general maps of New Zealand, the Pacific, and Antarctica. As the mapping agency for the Government in New Zealand, the department produces maps needed to service the activities of other departments, particularly aeronautical charts for military and civil use, meteorological maps and charts, and maps for the Ministry of Works and Development, the New Zealand Forest Service, and other Government departments.

Topographic and orthophoto mapping produced by photogrammetric methods for projects and special purposes is executed at larger scales to provide an essential base for investigation and design of energy, irrigation, forestry, and communications projects.

Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices except Wellington and at the Head Office of the Department of Lands and Survey. In addition, a large number of private selling agents have been appointed throughout New Zealand and overseas. All maps for sale are listed in the Catalogue Of Maps published by the department.

Maps for the New Zealand Land Inventory are being produced for selected areas where land use change can be anticipated. These maps are produced from authoritative data supplied by other departments and are published to uniform standards and presentation. They show the physical and cultural data about land, and overlays assess physical suitability for basic land uses.

10 E—REGISTRATION OF TITLES AND TRANSFER OF LAND

REGISTRATION OF LAND OWNERS—Title to land in private ownership in New Zealand is a matter of public record. The keeping of these records is the function of the Land and Deeds Division of the Department of Justice.

Almost all privately owned land in New Zealand is held under the land transfer system, presently embodied in the Land Transfer Act 1952. The system was introduced to New Zealand by the passing of the Land Transfer Act 1870. This Act was based on legislation enacted in South Australia in 1858, largely at the instigation of Sir Robert Torrens. Today the principles enunciated by Torrens are the basis of land registration throughout Australasia. The principal features of the system are registration of title and guarantee of that title by the State.

The objects of the Land Transfer Acts since 1870 have been to provide security of title by means of state guarantee, simplicity by use of standardised forms in language readily understood by the layman, accuracy by the use of precise survey data, the reduction of costs by simplification of conveyancing procedures, expedition by streamlining and constantly revising recording procedures, and suitability to circumstances by relating our land registration system directly to our social and economic structures.

Under the land transfer system, land and interests in land do not pass by the execution of an instrument of transfer but by the registration of that instrument. A person acquires a legal interest in land not because he has entered into an agreement to purchase the land, but because he has registered the instrument of transfer and it is recorded on the register that he is the owner.

The certificate of title is the pivot on which the whole land transfer system turns. A certificate of title is issued under the hand and seal of the District Land Registrar which guarantees to the registered proprietor of the land described in that certificate his rights of use, occupation, and enjoyment, the extent and position of his boundaries, and the nature of any encumbrances or interests affecting his land, such as mortgages or rights of way. Two copies of the certificate of title are issued; one copy forms the Land Transfer register, and the duplicate is held by the owner. This duplicate must be presented to the Land Registry Office for noting whenever documents affecting the estate for which it was issued are submitted for registration. Any change in the registered proprietorship which occurs through transfer, death, or other devolution, and the encumbrances to which the land is subject may be entered on the register by the registration of the appropriate documents in the manner prescribed by the Land Transfer Act.

Interests in, and charges against, land arising from many other statutes may be noted against the Land Transfer register. Successive governments have charged the Land and Deeds Division with duties of surveillance under the laws relating to the subdivision and aggregation of land, disposition of public reserves, anti-slumming requirements of local authorities, and many other aspects of land use and occupation.

Certain leases and licences of Crown land may be registered under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act, and Maori land when vested in any person for a freehold estate comes automatically under the land transfer system.

Settlement of matrimonial homes as joint-family homes has been a widely used procedure since its inception almost 30 years ago and, until recently, there has been a steady increase in the number of settlements registered (see section 19).

Certificates of Title Issued—The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the latest 6 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal
197552196
197657008
197753196
197849516
197942176
198043816

MAORI LANDS—Before European settlement, all land was held by the various groups and tribes of the Maori people in accordance with their traditional customs and usages, and the land so held was described as Maori customary land. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown. Almost all of the land which was formerly Maori customary land has now been converted to other forms of title by one or other of the following processes:

  1. Purchase or other acquisition by the Crown (from whom in turn the European colonists obtained land for farms, etc.).

  2. The issue of a Crown grant to a Maori owner on the recommendation of the Maori Land Court.

  3. The issue of a freehold order by the Maori Land Court in favour of the Maori or Maoris found entitled upon an investigation of title. This process was used instead of process (b) after the introduction of the land transfer system into New Zealand.

Land which was included in titles issued under processes (b) and (c) became known as Maori freehold land.

Maori freehold land becomes Crown land if all interests in it are purchased or otherwise acquired by the Crown, or becomes General land when bought by a non-Maori, or declared by the Maori Land Court to be General land.

Maori Land Court—The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other judges as the Governor-General may from time to time appoint. It is a Court of Record and its general function is to deal with problems peculiar to multiple ownership of Maori lands including the partitioning and combining of titles for better utilisation, the effecting of exchanges, directing the holding of meetings of owners, and confirming or disallowing resolutions passed by such meetings, confirming sales, and making other miscellaneous orders including in certain cases, determining entitlement and vesting in persons entitled, and the beneficial interests of deceased owners, in Maori freehold land.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any 2 or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that 2 Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the court. With certain exemptions, the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

During the year ended 31 March 1980 the Maori Land Court conducted 94 sittings throughout New Zealand and dealt with 5098 applications, from which a total of 8461 orders were made.

The Royal Commission, appointed on 7 August 1978 to inquire into the structure and operation of the Maori Land Court and the Maori Appellate Court, presented its report on 16 May 1980.

ACQUISITION OF LAND—Safeguards have been made for long-term planning in the use of land, whether publicly or privately owned, in order to ensure that it and its resources are used to the best advantage of the community as a whole. Legislation introduced in 1968 and 1969 (by amendment to the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952) prevents, where there is an operative regional plan or proposed or operative district scheme, the acquisition by overseas interests of land of 4000 sq metres or over designated or zoned as reserves for recreation or other purposes, and all islands or parts of islands within 150 kilometres of the mainland, and the Chatham Islands. The legislation covers rural and farm land of 2 hectares or over. Here a purchase may be approved if specified conditions, directed to ensuring beneficial use of the land from a national viewpoint, or permanent future residence, are met.

The court shall grant its consent where the purchaser or lessee is a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand, i.e., who has resided in New Zealand for 2 1/2 years and the court is satisfied that he intends to continue to reside in New Zealand. Where the purchaser or lessee is not a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand or is an overseas company, the court shall not grant its consent unless it is satisfied that the land is not required for any reserve purpose and that the land is not an island or forms part of the Chatham Islands. In the case of farm land, the court must be assured that the purchaser or lessee intends to conduct experimental or research work on the land which will benefit agricultural industries in New Zealand or the community generally, or that the land will be used for purposes other than agricultural with greater advantage to the community, or in the case of an individual that he intends to reside permanently in New Zealand and farm the land exclusively for his own use and benefit and has the ability and means to do this.

Part I of the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act authorises the Minister of Lands to take in certain circumstances any farm land that is suitable for settlement, and is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production.

Part II deals with the control of sales and also leases (for 3 years or more) of farm land to prevent undue aggregation. The consent of the court is required unless the purchaser or lessee owns no farm land, has no interest in any estate or trust owning farm land, has not since the passing of the Act transferred any farm land to any person as trustee or created any trust in respect of farm land, and has entered into the transaction solely on his own behalf.

The Act prevents the purchase of farm land, without the consent of the court, by a trustee for any person under the age of 17 years, or the purchase by a company or trustee for a company to be formed where the shareholders are fewer than 10 in number and any member of such company is under the age of 17 years (or where shares will be held in trust for any person under that age at the date of the transaction).

Land Transfers—The following table shows property transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during the latest available years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal TransfersTotal Consideration
NumberPercentage Change*AmountPercentage Change*
* On the previous year's figures.
   $(m) 
197698003+ 0.72,202.8+ 3.2
1977101968+ 4.02,691.6+ 22.2
197885705– 16.02,538.6– 5.7
197991229+ 6.42,964.6+ 16.8
1980100176+ 9.83,575.9+ 20.6

The continued rise in both the numbers of land transfers and the total consideration involved which characterised the early 1970s reached a peak in 1973–74, when there was an increase of nearly 20 percent in the number of transfers and one of nearly 60 percent in the consideration involved. The following year witnessed a sharp fall in the number of land transfers, although the consideration involved was almost the same. A significant decrease in the number of transfers (and a considerable decline in total consideration) during the year ended 31 March 1978 has been followed by a moderate increase in numbers and a substantial increase in total consideration during the latest 2 years.

The following table shows all land transfers by consideration group for the year ended 31 March 1980. The division into freehold and leasehold demonstrates the relatively small percentage of land transfers involving leasehold property.

Consideration GroupFreeholdLeaseholdAll Transfers
NumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage Consideration
               $ $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000)
Under 4,00042217.86.72240.46.944458.26.7
4,000– 7,999623237.46.01090.65.7634138.06.0
8,000– 9,999396334.98.8540.58.7401735.48.8
10,000– 14,999818399.212.11501.812.18333101.012.1
15,000– 19,9998970155.017.31933.317.29163158.417.3
20,000– 49,999515221,581.330.790326.829.6524251,608.030.7
50,000– 199,999137321,140.5245.927825.5248.5140101,166.0245.9
200,000 and over1403448.5319.73912.5319.41442460.9319.6
          All groups982263,504.635.7195071.336.61001763,575.935.7

Land transfers by size groups during 1979–80 are shown in the following table for both Islands and for New Zealand as a whole.

Size Group (hectares)North IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
  hectares  hectares  hectares 
  (000)$(m) (000)$(m) (000)$(m)
Under 2663237.71,986.6228002.6592.28912310.32,578.8
2 and under 620407.0105.37182.228.827589.2134.1
6 and under 118266.352.53572.618.511838.971.0
11 and under 206279.045.22443.312.287112.357.4
20 and under 50166053.0143.255116.436.0221169.4179.1
50 and under 7577444.689.920712.118.698156.6108.5
75 and under 10044937.051.116713.216.761650.367.8
100 and under 20063084.188.548567.063.41115151.1152.0
200 and over798419.0142.7520239.084.51318658.0227.2
    Total74127667.82,705.026049358.4870.81001761,026.23,575.9

This table includes both urban and rural land transfers. The majority of the urban transfers will be in the Under 2 hectares size-group, which includes 90 percent of the total number. Besides normal residential properties, this size-group will include many business, commercial, and industrial properties, and high-density residential properties (such as blocks of flats) in urban centres.

A final table shows all land transfers during the 2 latest available years by land registration districts The urban areas of Auckland are in the North Auckland Land Registration District.

Land Registration District1978–791979–80
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
  hectares  hectares 
  (000)$(m) (000)$(m)
North Auckland2830994.3953.832747113.31,172.5
South Auckland14369120.2493.316107198.6646.7
Gisborne119348.042.1121563.248.3
Hawke's Bay385978.1139.6410869.2168.0
Taranaki245933.877.8317857.1108.4
Wellington15078121.0477.016772166.4561.2
Marlborough110526.935.9115044.638.9
Nelson241919.066.9259024.983.0
Westland6317.012.265111.213.7
Canterbury12919106.5399.013006121.4431.2
Otago559799.5163.1521868.0167.9
Southland329160.6103.9343488.3136.2
                Total91229814.52,964.61001761026.23,575.9

Figures of average consideration, and indeed all land transfer data, should be used with caution owing to the great diversity of property transactions covered by the figures. These transactions include, for example, sales of residential properties, farms and farmland, all classes of commercial, industrial, and business properties, sections, and parcels of land bought for such purposes as large-scale manufacturing, forestry, recreation, reserves, and later sub-division. Movements in prices of individual types of properties are better indicated elsewhere. The Building and Construction section of this Yearbook includes an urban house property and section index, compiled by the Department of Statistics and designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for house properties and sections sold during each half-year. Recent annual figures from a farmland sale price index, compiled by the Valuation Department, are shown below. Family sales are excluded, as are sales of land having a significant potential for urbanisation or any purpose other than farming. The base is calendar year 1975 (= 1000).

Year Ended 31 DecemberIndex NumberPercentage Change from Previous Year
19751000+ 15.0
19761101+ 10.1
19771238+ 12.4
19781355+ 9.5
19791559+ 15.1

FURTHER INFORMATION—The Monthly Abstract of Statistics shows monthly data on land transfers and also publishes an annual supplement. Other information on land registration and titles will be found in the Parliamentary reports of the Department of Maori Affairs (E. 13), the Department of Justice (E. 5), and the Valuation Department (G. 26).

Those interested in the complex question of Maori land and the work of the Maori Land Courts are referred to the Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Maori Land Courts (Parl. paper H. 3,1980).

10 F—VALUATION OF LAND

Equitable land values are a basis for many of the relations of the Central Government and local authorities with the individual. In particular they are required in connection with the following: (a) the levying of land tax; (b) the apportionment of rating levies over contributory local authorities; (c) the levying of rates by local authorities; (d) the advancing of money on mortgage by Government departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act; (e) the assessing of stamp, estate, and gift duties; (f) the fixing of prices payable to the Crown or by the Crown for transfers of land.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE—The Government Valuation of Land Act 1896 set up a separate Government department charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the Central Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act 1951, and in the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by district valuers and valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate (a) the value of the land; (b) the value of the buildings (if any) and other improvements (if any) upon such land; and (c) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, not to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law, the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local authority expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, is incorporated in the “land value”. “Improvements” on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land. With the introduction of land value in 1970 (in place of unimproved value) the term “improvements”, correctly speaking, includes only those items of work done or material used which result in structural additions to the property.

The “capital value” is, broadly speaking, the unencumbered market value of the land at date of valuation, and the “value of improvements” is the added value given by the “improvements”.

THE VALUATION ROLL—A valuation roll is prepared for each district over which a territorial local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth the ownership, description, and valuation of each property, including rates postponement and special rateable values where these are required to be determined.

Revision of Rolls—District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at intervals of not more than 5 years unless for good reason he decides otherwise.

The Supplementary Roll—There is, in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes—e.g., the granting of loans by Government departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and estate duties—form the supplementary roll.

Objections to Valuations—In the case of a revision of a district valuation roll, the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any valuation thereon. Where a particular property only is revalued, the owner and any local authority affected by the alteration in the valuation have a right of objection. If, after the Valuer-General has reconsidered the matter, the objector is still dissatisfied he may ask for the objection to be heard by the Administrative Division of the High Court.

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION OF THE HIGH COURT—The Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948 as amended in 1968 and 1977 provides for objections under the Valuation of Land Act to be determined by the Administrative Division of the High Court. In addition to its jurisdiction under the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948, the division hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act 1928 and determines values under the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952. Land valuation tribunals for particular localities operating under the general jurisdiction of district courts exercise prime jurisdiction in all matters except those where provision is made for them to be heard in the first instance by the Administrative Division. There is a right of appeal from a tribunal's decision to the Court with a further right of appeal to the Court of Appeal in certain cases.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Court's order, he may, within 14 days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Court at less than the capital value, he may, within 14 days after the sealing of the Court's order require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within 30 days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING—The district valuation roll, so long as it continues in force, is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the land value is framed.

The third major rating system is the annual (rental) value system, where the annual values are assessed by valuers appointed by the local authorities concerned. The Valuer-General may be so appointed. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would let from year to year reduced by 20 percent in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 percent in the case of land, but it may not be less than 5 percent of the value of the fee simple. A new valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or triennially.

Parts IV and V of the Rating Act 1967 provide for local authorities to grant applications for rates postponement in respect of certain residences in commercial and industrial zones and for farmlands in counties with valuations reflecting potential use for urban development. Rates postponement values are determined either under the Valuation of Land Act or the Rating Act, according to the system of rating in force. Special rateable values for non-conforming commercial or industrial land in residential or rural zones are also provided for in order that these classes of properties will not enjoy a rating advantage. Likewise special rateable values may be determined for rural or residential land or commercial or industrial areas, for single or double unit dwellinghouses in areas where values are influenced by demand for multi-unit housing, and for “existing use” properties, i.e., properties used for any purpose for which the owner or occupier is entitled to use the land pursuant to section 90 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977.

Part VI of the Rating Act provides for rating relief for farmlands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town councils, and county councils in respect of county towns. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farmlands lower than the normal rateable values.

Equalisation of Values—The Rating Act, Part IX, provides for an equitable adjustment of rates and of levies based on rateable values as between the several constituent districts comprising the district of an ad hoc local authority where those constituent districts have been revalued by the Valuer-General at different times. Provision is also made for equalisation to be done where the several ridings of a county have been revalued at different dates.

CAPITAL VALUE AND VALUE OF LAND—The figures in the following table show valuations over a period of years for the whole of New Zealand; they are gross values and include the value not only of rateable properties but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating. Valuation figures back to 1878 were given in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

As at 31 MarchCapital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*

* Included in previous column.

Includes the districts revalued after 1 March 1971 on the “land value” basis provided for by the Valuation of Land Amendment Act (No. 2) 1970, which came into effect on that date. Earlier figures are on the basis of unimproved values only.

 $(million)
19637,373.62,212.1
19647,760.42,345.8
19658,459.22,644.5
19669,085.02,865.5
19679,836.13,184.2
196810,631.63,487.0
196911,349.73,705.2
197012,515.64,170.7
197113,305.74,489.0
197214,331.35,046.3
197315,657.25,704.1
197417,871.76,778.3
197524,383.510,433.6
197630,011.513,386.7
197735,575.215,981.5
197841,228.718,696.5
197945,650.720,651.8
198050,040.522,367.2

In the following table the gross values and net values for the latest years are analysed in more detail. Net values include all rateable property and all properties on which local authorities recover grants in lieu of rates. In interpreting these figures it is essential to realise that substantial boundary changes take place from time to time.

As at 31 MarchCross ValuesNet Values
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*
* Included in previous column.
$(million)
Counties
197814,715.88,232.613,753.77,938.9
197916,278.69,013.815,218.68,697.9
198018,849.610,342.317,650.39,985.1
Cities and Boroughs
197826,481.910,457.724,493.09,658.9
197929,349.311,632.527,227.710,824.9
198031,168.112,019.328,811.911,240.5
Town Districts
197831.06.228.05.8
197922.85.520.95.1
198022.95.520.85.0
Grand Totals
197841,228.718,696.538,274.717,603.6
197945,650.720,651.842,467.219,527.9
198050,040.522,367.246,483.121,230.6

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up-to-date has the effect in the preceding tables of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes.

With the present resources at the Valuation Department's disposal, an up-to-date revaluation of all properties in New Zealand would be an impossible task but by using the principle of valuation equalisation mentioned earlier, it is possible to compile up-to-date gross values by local body districts for the whole country. The gross capital value figures shown below have been compiled on the level of values as at 31 March for the latest 3 years.

Territorial AreasGross Equalised Capital Value
197819791980
 $(million)
Counties and communities18,794.320,926.424,618.3
Cities and boroughs31,007.732,484.334,217.5
Town districts40.229.830.6
              Total49,842.253,440.558,866.4

A comparison of these figures with the gross values given previously, illustrates the point that valuation statistics tend to have the effect of delaying the appearance of current movements in the property market.

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 31 March 1980, and of rateable property values between the different types of local authority districts, also as at 31 March 1980.

Local Authority DistrictAreaPopulationNet Property Values
Capital ValueValue of LandValue of Improvements
 Percentage Distribution
Counties and communities98.524.237.9747.0330.35
Cities and boroughs1.575.761.9852.9469.58
Town districts0.10.050.030.07
              Total100.0100.0100.0100.00100.00

VALUERS REGISTRATION BOARD—The Valuers Act 1948 provides for the registration of land valuers and for some control of their work. There is a Registration Board under the chairmanship of the Valuer-General, which issues certificates for registration to all valuers and annual practising certificates to public valuers. The main objects of the Act are to secure a high standard of valuation work throughout the country and to encourage competent valuers. Of the 1411 valuers registered as at 31 March 1980, 540 have taken out annual practising certificates for the current year. The majority of the remaining 871 registered valuers are either employed in Government departments or do not make valuations for members of the public and thus are not required to hold annual practising certificates.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Particulars of values for each county, borough, and town district in considerable detail are container the research publication, The Real Estate Market in New Zealand, published by the Valuation Department and in the annual report, Local Authority Statistics, published by the Department of Statistics. The parliamentary report of the Valuation Department (Parl. paper G. 26) may also be consulted.

Chapter 11. Section 11 NATIONAL PLANNING

Table of Contents

DEVELOPMENT OF CONSULTATIVE PLANNING—New Zealand has now had several years of experience with a form of consultative planning, instituted as a result of the National Development Conference in 1968. The need for long-term planning in order to achieve a faster, more balanced, economic growth rate coupled with a proper consideration for environmental, social, and other non-material factors first came to the fore in the early 1950s.

During the 1950s and 1960s, “key sector” conferences were held on housing and on industrial, export, and agricultural development. These conferences reflected a changed attitude regarding the Government's role in growth and development. As a result of the work of the Agricultural Development Conference, in particular, medium- and long-term projections were accepted as the basis for planning and targets were set for agricultural production up to 10 years ahead. Another feature was the formation of continuing machinery after two of the conferences. This took the form of a Trade Promotion Council and an Agricultural Production Council.

Other sectors became interested in this approach to planning within sectors. Preparations were being made by the end of 1967 for conferences on forestry and tourism to be held in early 1969. One drawback of this type of action was that each sector tended to view its problems and future in isolation. The Government decided therefore to hold a National Development Conference, with plenary sessions in August 1968 and May 1969, to set economic planning on a national basis. The outcome of the conference was the adoption of national and sector growth targets and a large number of recommendations, many of which were later implemented.

THE NDC SYSTEM—The NDC planning structure, which succeeded the National Development Conference, consisted of a National Development Council and eventually 16 sector councils, including 7 bodies already in existence before the conference. The National Development Council, which was chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister, was designed to oversee and co-ordinate the work of the sector councils and to provide a direct link between the NDC system and the Government. The council was served by a Targets Advisory Group (TAG) chaired by the Governor of the Reserve Bank. A planning secretariat, located in the Treasury, served both the council and the Targets Advisory Group.

Considerable changes were made during succeeding years (for example, the National Development Council was abolished and its functions taken over by the Cabinet Committee on Policy and Priorities, and the Targets Advisory Group was renamed the Planning Advisory Group), but by the mid-1970s there was a general feeling that momentum had been lost and a major overhaul or replacement of the central planning organisation was necessary.

During 1976 the Government established a task force on social and economic planning under the chairmanship of Sir Frank Holmes. The objectives were to review past planning activities in New Zealand, to advise on major trends and issues, and to recommend a planning mechanism that would assist in the development of New Zealand's economy and society. The task force completed the exercise in October 1976, and issued its report entitled New Zealand at the Turning Point in December (the synopsis from this report was reprinted as a special article in the 1977 Yearbook). As a result of its recommendations a New Zealand Planning Council was set up in March 3.977 as a first step towards the development of a national planning system as envisaged by the task force.

THE NEW ZEALAND PLANNING COUNCIL—In selecting the council members the Government was influenced by a task force recommendation that membership should reflect wide experience in many fields rather than represent particular sectional interests. Other notable departures from the NDC experience include full-time chairman and secretariat, and the presence on the council of a senior Minister of the Crown with portfolio responsibilities directly relevant to the council's work (the Minister of National Development). Sir Frank Holmes, who had led the task force, was appointed the council's first chairman.

Although the council had been in operation since April 1977 a Statute (the New Zealand Planning Act, 1977) was enacted in December 1977 to formally establish the council and to set out its functions and powers. These include:

  1. To advise the Government on planning for social, economic, and cultural development in New Zealand;

  2. To assist the Government to co-ordinate such planning;

  3. To comment to the Government on programmes for social, economic, and cultural development in New Zealand, and to recommend the priorities that should be accorded to them;

  4. To act as focal point for a process of consultative planning about New Zealand's medium term development;

  5. To foster discussion among those agencies (Government and private) concerned with planning particularly in the economic, environmental, social, and cultural fields;

  6. To submit advice to the Government on links between planning at the national and regional levels;

  7. To prepare reports on any matter affecting the economic, social, or cultural development of New Zealand.

Before the New Zealand Planning Council was established the Government was assisted in its long-term economic planning and the development of natural resources by the Planning Advisory Group and a number of councils with a wide coverage of economic, social, and cultural affairs.

Most of them were originally sector councils under the National Development Council. Although the Planning Council maintains close links with those that still exist, they are not part of its formal structure; and it has also developed a wide network of consultation with many other individuals and agencies involved in planning.

In February 1978 the Monetary and Economic Council was disbanded and its role in monitoring economic trends and policies was assigned to the Planning Council. An Economic Monitoring Group (EMG), which works independently of the council, was set up in April 1978. It has produced four reports in a series Economic Trends and Policies; No. 1 in September 1978, No. 2 in September 1979, No. 3 in April 1980, and No. 4 in April 1981.

Planning Council Publications—Between August 1977 and December 1980 the New Zealand Planning Council had published or issued the following documents.

NZPC Series
    No.1. A Moment of Truth1977
    No.2. Regional Options1977
    No.3. Town and Country Planning Bill1977
    No.4. Planning Perspectives 1978–19831978
    No.5. Taxation Reform (Donald T. Brash and Graeme Thompson)1978
    No.6. Income Maintenance and Taxation: Some Options for Reform (Paul Bevin, Avery Jack, and John Jensen)1978
    No.7. Working Together (Brian Picot, Claire Drake, Ted Thompson, and Noel Woods)1978
    No.8. New Zealand and the European Community1978
    No.9. The Future for New Zealand Agriculture: Economic Strategies for the 1980s (Ian McLean)1978
    No.10. Australian Relationships with New Zealand (Frank Holmes)1978
    No.11. Economic Strategy: 19791979
    No.12. The Welfare State?: Social Policy in the 1980s1979
    No.12a. Public Expenditure and its Financing: 1950–19791979
    No.13. Implications of New Energy Developments1979
    No.14. He Matapuna—Some Maori Perspectives1979
    No.15. Planning and the Regions1980
    No.16. Investment Issues (Donald T. Brash, Frank Holmes, Bill Smith, and Graeme Thompson)1980
    No.17. Employment: Towards An Active Employment Policy1980
Planning Papers
    No.1. The National Development Bill1979
    No.2. Land as Turangawaewae: Ngati Whatua's Destiny at Orakei (I. H. Kawharu)1979
    No.3. Finding a Pathway to the Future: He Ara Ki te Aomarama (S. M. Mead)1979
    No.4. Whakatupuranga Rua Mano—Generation 2000: An Experiment in Tribal Development (Whatarangi Winiata)1979
    No.5. The Stabilisation Role of Fiscal Policy (R. S. Deane and R. G. Smith)1980
    No.6. New Zealand's Long Term Foreign Trade Problems and Structural Adjustment Policies (P. J. Lloyd and others)1980
    No.7. Regional Development Objectives and Policies: An Appraisal (Claudia D. Scott)1980
    No.8. Migrants and their Motives (Rosemary Barrington and Judith Davey)1980
    No.9. Puzzled, Pakeha? Some Reflections on He Matapuna (Ken Piddington)1980
    No.10. Forecasting the Economy in the Eighties (Eric Haywood)1980

COMMISSION FOR THE FUTURE—The New Zealand Planning Act 1977 gave statutory recognition to both the New Zealand Planning Council and the Commission for the Future, which had been established in September 1976.

The principal general functions of the Commission for the Future are to study the possibilities for the long-term economic and social development of New Zealand; to report to the Minister of National Development on these possibilities; and to publish the information and stimulate further public discussion. In carrying out these general functions the commission is required to give special attention to the long-term implications for New Zealand of new or prospective developments in science and technology, and to have regard to prospective trends, policies, and events in New Zealand or overseas which could have important consequences for the country's future. The membership of the commission consists of not more than 7 members appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of National Development, a Minister of the Crown, a Member of Parliament nominated by the Leader of the Opposition, a member of the Planning Council, and the Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

The commission co-ordinates its activities closely with those of the Planning Council to avoid duplication of effort and to ensure the most efficient use of available resources.

This year the commission will complete its scenario programme with the publication of four contexts which provide tools for discussing New Zealand's development. Policy research groups are researching in more detail policy issues which have been identified in the initial work phase as being of importance to New Zealand.

THE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL—The Social Development Council is a planning and advisory body responsible to the Minister of Social Welfare. The council has 3 members representing Government departments, and 9 private members, selected for their personal qualities and general or particular experience in the social field, but not as direct nominees of particular interest groups. The secretariat for the council is provided by the Department of Social Welfare.

The Social Development Council had its origins in the National Development Conference which was set up in 1968 to review New Zealand's resources, and to indicate broad lines for economic development over the subsequent decade. As a result of criticism that the conference's first session had been preoccupied with purely economic matters, the examination was broadened to include the development of a better social environment.

Among the recommendations to come from the National Development Conference was that for a permanent planning structure to be set up to continue the work of the conference. The National Development Council was established as the central body of the planning structure. A framework of sector councils was established and among these was the Social Council, whose task was to focus on the social aspects of development including those arising from the targets and programmes of other sector councils. The Social Council met for the first time in August 1971.

In December 1972, the functions of the National Development Council were transferred to the Cabinet Committee on Policy and Priorities. The Social Council continued to function with a change of name to the Social Development Council and altered terms of reference.

Under its present terms of reference, the council keeps under review social aspects of development and social policies needed to bring about a desirable quality of life. The council has a brief to initiate social development proposals for submission to the Minister of Social Welfare and to advise the Minister of Social Welfare and other Ministers through him of changes required in social policies, social needs arising from economic development, and any related aspects. It co-ordinates with other planning and advisory bodies and maintains contact with organisations concerned with social research.

Social Goal—The ultimate goal of the Social Development Council is a society in which the direction of development and social change is towards providing the maximum opportunity for each person to achieve happiness, and thus a society in which:

  1. Each person is able to create and belong to family or other intimate groups where a secure and happy environment is provided for children and dependent adults;

  2. Each person is regarded as having dignity and being worthy of respect, has the maximum freedom of choice and action without encroaching upon the rights of others, and is not discriminated against by reason of sex, race, culture or other distinguishing characteristics; and in which;

  3. Each person is able to contribute towards the identification and achievement of objectives for a multicultural community and is encouraged to understand and appreciate the religious, political and cultural attitudes, beliefs and customs of other persons and groups and to act responsibly within the community.

Specific Objectives—The following more specific objectives are considered to be important at the present time for helping progress toward the ultimate goal. An advantage of these is that the extent to which they are achieved can be measured by data available or obtainable:

  1. Each person has access to employment and vocational opportunities which are satisfying and within his or her capabilities.

  2. Each person has the maximum opportunity to be as physically and emotionally healthy and fit as his or her potential allows, and has ready and adequate access to necessary health and social welfare services.

  3. Each person has equal and effective access to opportunities to learn knowledge, skills, and attitudes, which will enable the development of the person and of his or her contribution to the well-being of the community.

  4. Each person or family group is housed adequately according to their needs in keeping with currently accepted standards.

  5. No person has his or her participation and enjoyment in the community restricted by an inadequate income.

  6. The hazards of injury, accident, and crime are kept to a minimum, and each person has adequate access to processes of law and equal rights before the law, is aware of his or her obligations under the law, and does not experience any avoidable hardship through being the victim of injury, accident, or crime.

  7. Each person has the right to leisure and the opportunity to participate in leisure-time activities including social, intellectual, artistic, cultural, and physical pursuits.

  8. Each person has the opportunity to participate in community decision-making and is encouraged to accept his or her responsibilities to the community.

OTHER PHASES OF NATIONAL PLANNING—Other phases of national planning are dealt with in other sections of this Yearbook. Land development and use, and the sometimes-conflicting claims of economic growth and the preservation of the natural environment, are discussed and described in Section 10A—Physical Environment and Economic Growth. Energy planning comes into Section 20—Energy Resources; industrial planning into Section 18—Manufacturing; and the scientific, agricultural, and industrial research that provides the essential background information for meaningful planning is briefly described in Section 7B—Science and Scientific Services. The question of finance for development comes into the Finance sections, especially Sections 29 and 30.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Fuller reports will be found in the two following Parliamentary papers:

Report of the New Zealand Planning Council (Parl. paper D. 9).

Report of the Commission for the Future (Parl. paper D. 10).

Chapter 12. Section 12 TRANSPORT

12 A—GENERAL

New Zealand, as a nation dependent on overseas trade and geographically remote from many of its trading partners, relies more heavily on transport than do many other countries. During recent years its transport industry has been the subject of a comprehensive examination and review by the Government. Transport has far-reaching effects on the economy, on society, and on the environment, and it was the recognition of the close link between transport and the general welfare of the community that highlighted the need to establish a transport policy as an integral part of New Zealand's broad development strategy.

Transport in New Zealand is complicated by the geographic configuration of the country, the separation into 2 main islands, the location of the main urban areas, the number and situation of the main ports, the seasonal nature of much of the production, and the large proportion of one-way loading in the internal transport system. In its overseas trade the country is still largely dependent on overseas shipping companies to carry its exports to distant markets and bring in imports.

Transport and Industry—Transport is an integral part of the production process. It supplies the factories with raw materials, and carries away the manufactures goods. It supplies the transport services by which the men and women who work in the factories travel to and from their homes. The efficiencies which have been achieved as a result of the greater concentration of industrial plant in recent years can to a certain extent be attributed to the development of technologically advanced and efficient transport services.

The priority given today by the international financial institutions to transport development in the less economically advanced countries of the world is further recognition of the importance of an adequate transport system as one of the foundations for national development.

Transport and Economic Development—One of the key elements in the attainment of a high standard of living in this country has been the development of an efficient internal transport system. There is no doubt that the establishment of rail and road links from the interior to the coastal ports was a prerequisite to the large-scale development of New Zealand's primary industry during the last century, and that it was the growth of international sea-transport and of a fast, regular service of refrigerated cargo ships that enabled New Zealand to evolve from a subsistence economy to one of the world's major exporters of meat and dairy produce.

The Distribution of Goods—Transport, as a key means of the mass distribution of goods, ensures that ample supplies and a wide variety of goods are readily available within all centres of population. The standard of living enjoyed by people living in the ever-growing urban concentrations that are a feature of developed countries depends ultimately on efficient national and international transport systems. Additionally, ready transport availability from the point of production to the points of consumption reduces the need for large warehouse holdings of goods. The reduction in warehouse costs can assist in the lowering of retail prices.

Relationship with Costs—Transport costs make up a substantial part of the price of a product. The cost of transport as a portion of the total cost of a product varies from a small percentage to the major portion. Obviously, transport costs make up a greater proportion of the cost of a bulky raw material than of a sophisticated manufactured item.

Transport and the Economy—It is estimated that the transport industry provides employment for over 9 percent of the labour force, and that the cost of moving goods and people is over $2,000 million each year. This figure provides an indication of the substantial sums spent on transport annually by private motor vehicle owners, road carriers, bus operators, rental vehicle firms, taxi proprietors, freight forwarders, shipping companies, and aircraft operators as well as the considerable amount of expenditure on our roads, ports, airports, and railways by both central and local government. In addition, the Central Government, through its ownership of Air New Zealand Ltd., Safe Air Ltd., the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand, and the New Zealand Railways Department, has acquired fixed assets valued at over $550 million in transport services in this country. As well as contributing to the provision of transport facilities through the payment of certain road, air, and sea user charges, the transport industry, through the payment of income tax, customs duties, sales tax, local body rates, the local authority petroleum tax, and various registration and licence fees, contributes a significant amount to the annual taxation revenue of the country. Furthermore, transport is a major consumer of industrial goods. It utilises large portions of the country's rubber, lead, zinc, steel, copper, and aluminium needs, for instance, and its high consumption of imported oil products has been a matter of national concern in recent years. Finally, as a major consumer of industrial products and as a means of distributing exports to our distant and diverse markets, transport has a significant effect on the country's balance of payments.

Transport and the Physical Environment—The roads, airports, ports, railways, and pipelines of this country have an effect on the communities surrounding these facilities. They affect the location of manufacturing, retailing, and the distribution industries and influence the character of an area. On the other hand, they can divide communities and create noise and aesthetic problems as well as problems of pollution. Environmental and aesthetic considerations have received increased attention in recent years. For example, the environmental aspects of major roading schemes are carefully considered in relation to their purpose, need, design, benefits, and detractions.

Transport and Society—Apart from the various considerations outlined in the previous paragraphs which closely affect the quality of life in this country, transport has numerous other effects on our society. For instance, the availability, type, and extent of transport can influence the character of a city or suburb. A city or town can be dominated by its port or its rail facilities just as a suburb can become, owing to its transport system, largely a “dormitory” suburb of a distant commercial area.

An efficient network of roads and other transport services both serves to knit together a community and discourages narrow parochialism by providing the means of cheap, convenient, and comfortable travel by which mental horizons are widened and the bonds of family or friendship kept strong. If the economic life of a country is heavily dependent on its transport system, so too is its social and cultural development.

The effect on a community of a change in transport policy must therefore be carefully evaluated by those responsible for running the country.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Publications dealing with shipping, railways, roads and road transport, and civil aviation are listed at the ends of the appropriate sections. Two publications discussing transport policy in general are:

A New Direction for New Zealand Transport (Parl. paper F. 13, 1974).

Interim Report on Transport (Parl. paper F. 14, 1975).

The annual report of the Ministry of Transport (Parl. paper F. 5) should also be consulted.

12 B—SHIPPING

The development of the container ship, the unitised cargo ship, the roll-on roll-off ship, and barge-carrying systems such as the “lash” (lighter aboard ship) system have brought about a world-wide revolution in the handling of maritime cargoes, and a new concept of the co-ordination of transport through the substitution of capital-intensive for labour-intensive operations. New Zealand, as a country that lives by overseas trade, has been fully involved in these technological changes.

A cargo-handling co-ordination committee serviced by the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport is affiliated to an international association with a control office in the United Kingdom.

PORT DEVELOPMENT—To ensure nationally co-ordinated harbour development the New Zealand Ports Authority was established by statute in 1968. The chief functions of the authority are to maintain an overview of port facilities in New Zealand and to promote an efficient and integrated ports network. The authority's approval for port development is required when the cost exceeds specific capital expenditure limits. Consents granted during the year ended 31 March 1980 amounted to $16 million. While container shipping handles the bulk of New Zealand's general cargo trade, development at the four container ports of Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, and Port Chalmers has virtually stabilised. The downturn in the economy has affected the trade throughput at all ports and has postponed the need for bringing into use the inland container base developed at Wiri. Limited development for specific container operations at Napier and Taranaki has been authorised in more recent times. Consideration is being given to port needs for the handling of hydrocarbon products at Taranaki.

CARGO TRAFFIC—The number of containers handled during 1979–80 was 234824, a decrease of 11694 (−4.7 percent) on the total of 246518 handled in 1978–79. The 234824 movements comprised 107478 unloaded, 112398 loaded, and 14948 miscellaneous container movements. By ports, Auckland handled 88648 containers, compared with 91986 last year; Wellington 73405 compared with 80140; Lyttelton, 23322 compared with 22052; and Port Chalmers, 49449 compared with 52340 in the previous year.

SHIPPING SERVICES—New Zealand is a nation dependent on the export of its agricultural produce to markets thousands of miles away. Shipping services that connect us with our main overseas markets are thus essential to our economic survival.

Cargo is shipped by a variety of means; bulk, container, conventional, reefer, and roll-on/roll-off vessels carry New Zealand cargo to destinations all around the world. United Kingdom/Europe (including Russia) still remains our largest market, and most container cargo to this region is shipped via the New Zealand/Europe Shipping Association (NZESA) which is a freight rate and service regulating conference comprising a number of British and European lines, as well as the Australian National Line (ANL) and the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand (SCNZ). The conference has been granted exclusive rights by the New Zealand Meat and Wool Boards to carry meat and wool to Europe.

In competition with the conference there are independent shipping groups, such as ABC Lines, who offer a container service to Europe as part of their round-the-world bulk/container service. ABC Lines offer freight rates lower than those offered by the conference lines, and have been actively attempting to obtain the right to carry meat and wool, so far without success. This has resulted in an active debate in New Zealand trade circles as to whether in fact the conference lines should have exclusive contracts to carry producer board cargo. In Australia approximately 5 percent of the wool clip is now carried to Europe by ABC Lines at rates below those offered by the conference. Various European and American lines, along with ANL and SCNZ, carry cargo between New Zealand and the American continent. The trade to Japan, Korea, and South-East Asia has developed rapidly in the past few years, and is serviced by a number of Asean and European lines, along with the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand (SCNZ). The Middle East has become an important market for New Zealand and is serviced, along with Africa, by European lines and chartered tonnage. Again, in all these trades, the lines involved either form themselves into various shipping conferences to rationalise freight rates and service levels, or act as independent operators.

Trans-Tasman—The Union Steam Ship Company operates 5 roll-on roll-off vessels on the trans-Tasman run, the Union Hobart, Union Lyttelton, Union Rotorua, Union Rotoiti, and the Marama. A further vessel, the M.V. Waitaki, is owned and operated by Maritime Carriers in the trans-Tasman service. Tasman Pulp and Paper (New Zealand) and Broken Hill Products (Australia) use their own purpose-built vessels, designed to carry timber products and minerals respectively. Other trans-Tasman cargo is carried on the Shipping Corporation's vessel New Zealand Pacific and Australian National Line vessels, in the course of their participation in the New Zealand/Australia/Europe trade.

Pacific Islands Trade—The Shipping Corporation of New Zealand operates on behalf of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs a New Zealand - Cook Islands - Niue - Tahiti service with its 2 unit-load vessels, the Tiare Moana and the Fetu Moana. The service with these vessels commenced operation in 1978 and was necessitated by the growing need to rationalise and increase the efficiency of shipping services to the region.

Pacific Forum Line—The Pacific Forum Line was established in June 1977 as a South Pacific Regional Shipping Line jointly controlled by member countries of the South Pacific Forum including New Zealand. The line's headquarters were established in Apia, Western Samoa, and operations began in May 1978 with 3 chartered conventional vessels, 1 being contributed by New Zealand.

In late 1979 and early 1980 these vessels were replaced by more suitable container vessels, these being chartered to the Pacific Forum Line by Tonga (Fua Kavenga), Western Samoa (Forum Samoa), and New Zealand (Forum New Zealand). Ports in New Zealand, Fiji, Western Samoa, American Samoa, Tonga, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, and Australia are now served.

Inter-Island and Coastal Services—A regular ferry service across the Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton, at the head of the Marlborough Sounds, is provided by rail ferries operated by the Railways Department. The ferries Aramoana and Aranui, which carry passengers and freight, normally make 25 round trips per week throughout the year. Two other ferries, Arahanga and Aratika, were designed to carry freight but, in addition, have limited accommodation for truck drivers and others whose vehicles are being carried. The Aratika has since been converted to carry passengers and freight.

During the year ended March 1980 the ferries carried 684742 passengers, 132904 passenger cars, 11785 trucks and trade cars, and 1670492 manifest tonnes of other goods. Gross revenue amounted to $40,596,752, an increase of $7,315,167 or 22.0 percent, and expenditure totalled $38,384,723, an increase of $8,344,811 or 27.8 percent, resulting in a profit of $2,212,029, compared with last year's profit of $3,241,673.

Auckland, Lyttelton, and Dunedin are served by the Coastal Trader, a roll-on/roll-off ship operated by the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand. The Union Steam Ship Company provides coastal services with its trans-Tasman vessels which service the six main New Zealand ports in the course of trans-Tasman trading, the Titoki which trades Onehunga-Nelson, and the Holmdale which services the Chatham Islands. Other coastal shipping includes the movement of newsprint from Mount Maunganui to the South Island and the cartage of cement, coal, and petroleum products.

SHIPPING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND (SCNZ)—In 1974 a Government-owned shipping corporation was set up to establish and operate shipping services as empowered by the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973. Development of the United Kingdom - Europe trade has grown with the introduction in October 1979 of the Shipping Corporation's new large container ship, New Zealand Pacific into the Australia - New Zealand - Europe container service (ANZECS) fleet of vessels serving New Zealand, Australia, Western Europe, and the United Kingdom. This milestone marked the expansion of the corporation's participation in this most important trade to New Zealand, from operating 2 small conventional vessels (1 of which has now been sold) to full membership of the ANZECS consortia, operating one of the world's largest refrigerated container vessels.

New Zealand's trade with the Japan-Korea area has steadily grown—as has the SCNZ carriage of the trade. At present, Korea continues to be served by transhipment via Japan, but it is likely that with the predicted growth in trade with that country Korea will require improved direct services. With the launching of the New Zealand Caribbean in late 1979 the Shipping Corporation has entered into the West Indies - US Gulf Trade, giving New Zealand exporters greater access to Caribbean and United States Gulf ports.

SCNZ Agencies—Commencing with the agency for Shaw Savill and Albion Co. Limited in 1974, the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand now acts as agents for the following companies:

Shaw Savill & Albion Co. Limited; New Zealand Line; Comalco Chartered Vessel Bulknes; Bank & Savill Line; Pacific Forum Line; Salen Rederiana—Sweden; and Nissui.

In the container terminals at Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, and Port Chalmers the corporation acts for:

Overseas Containers Limited; Japan Line; Mitsui OSK; Crusader Swire Container Service; Mapag—Lloyd Aktiengesellschaft; Ned Lloyd Ljnen B.V.; Compagnie Generale Maritime; and Lloyd Triestino di Navigazione Sp.A.

SHIPPING ON NEW ZEALAND REGISTER—At 31 December 1980 there were 1593 ships on the New Zealand register, the total gross tonnage being 288367 and net tonnage, 154668. (Gross tonnage is defined by Lloyds as the capacity in cubic feet of spaces within the hull and of the enclosed spaces above the deck available for cargo, stores, passengers, and crew, with certain exceptions, divided by 100. Thus,100 cubic feet of capacity is equivalent to 1 gross ton. Net tonnage is derived from gross tonnage by deducting spaces used for the accommodation of the master, officers, crew, navigation equipment, propelling machinery, and fuel.)

Most of the vessels on the register are relatively small. Vessels not exceeding 15 net tons, employed in trade solely on the coast or inland waters, are not required to register under the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952. These small trading vessels, along with yachts and other pleasure craft, may be registered at the request of the owners.

The following table shows registered trading vessels. Ships in overseas trade are mainly engaged in trans-Tasman and Pacific Islands trading movements.

YearNumber of VesselsNet Registered Tonnage*Number of Crew
* 1 ton equals 2,83 cubic metres.
Coastal Trade
19771543125565
19781543843538
19791544288540
19801443811516
Overseas Trade
19771985322637
19781884577526
19791984870553
19801675609466

PORT STATISTICS—Demands made on ports by overseas and coastal vessels are illustrated in the following table. Included are arrivals and departures of overseas and coastal vessels. If a vessel calls at more than one New Zealand port during a single voyage it has been recorded as having entered and cleared at each port visited. All figures are provisional for the 1980 calendar year.

PortArrivalsDeparturesTotal
NumberNet TonnageNumberNet TonnageNumberNet Tonnage
Parengarenga8415249851543516930684
Houhora122193122193244386
Mangonui7123771237142474
Awanui122154122154244308
Opua65014765014712100294
Whangarei436287958443928764968755756080
Auckland1056756230210527559307210815121609
Onehunga1219962412099009241198633
Tauranga5102916752501289432010115811072
Raglan141711714171172834234
Taharoa1958109819581098381162196
Gisborne5011178250111782100223564
Port Taranaki3489987623449741096921972871
Napier295152597329014917165853017689
Waverley1259846413662368251260832
Wanganui282221728222175644434
Wellington2970715734129647206406593414363747
Other North Island ports120342221183360723867829
            Total, North island6100245762186074246007181217449176936
PortArrivalsDeparturesTotal
NumberNet TonnageNumberNet TonnageNumberNet Tonnage
Tarakohe63950106395010126190020
Nelson3428137553448232006861636955
Picton183627075371838271105636745418593
Westport7612132876121328152242656
Lyttelton6942842933697285702513915699958
Timaru1756976031777134683521411071
Otago371227511736822631167394538233
Invercargill (Bluff)302105907830310618656052120943
Halfmoon Bay137398671343899427178861
Chatham Islands1559101559103011820
            Total, South Island401110658138401510690972802621349110
            Total, New Zealand ports101113523435610089352916902020070526046

COASTWISE ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES—Included are arrivals and departures of overseas and coastal vessels on coastwise movements. If a vessel calls at more than one New Zealand port during a single voyage it has been recorded as having entered and cleared at each port visited. The following table relates to the 1980 calendar year. All figures are provisional.

PortArrivalsDeparturesTotal
NumberNet TonnageNumberNet TonnageNumberNet Tonnage
Parengarenga8415249851543516930684
Houhora122193122193244386
Mangonui7123771237142474
Awanui122154122154244308
Opua311103443819754922
Whangarei332169434032015720416523266381
Auckland5082967878635424722511437215103
Onehunga80618177857414158119231
Tauranga369210395319410772385633181191
Raglan141711714171172834234
Taharoa
Gisborne24718684710334271175210
Port Taranaki2226659982035173854251183383
Napier207108413220710817244142165856
Waverley
Wanganui141881115169372935748
Wellington2179550623122696086632444811592863
Other North Island ports120342221183360723867829
Tarakohe62807806280780124161560
Nelson128372395101282470229654865
Picton183527015671834267677736695378344
Westport638199074120145137202135
Lyttelton437188419447021478879074032081
Timaru9456883472401122166969956
Otago205155523317610215403812576773
Invercargill (Bluff)2437162882215613604641277648
Halfmoon Bay137398671343899427178861
Chatham Islands1559101559103011820
                Total, all ports7406222653617379222124851478544477846

OVERSEAS ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES—Included are first arrivals from overseas and final departures overseas only. The table relates to the 1980 calendar year. All figures are provisional.

PortArrivalsDeparturesTotal
NumberNet TonnageNumberNet TonnageNumberNet Tonnage
Parengarenga
Houhora
Mangonui
Awanui
Opua33904426328545372
Whangarei104118524411913044552232489699
Auckland548459442441733120829657906506
Onehunga413780742415958379402
Tauranga14181279930718170824482629881
Raglan
Taharoa1958109819581098381162196
Gisborne2639914384402948354
Port Taranaki126332764141456724267789488
Napier8844184183409992171851833
Waverley1259846413662368251260832
Wanganui143406135280278686
Wellington7911651110695111977414862770884
Other North Island ports
Tarakohe114230114230228460
Nelson214441360243540730457982090
Picton15970434279540249
Westport1339338211831540521
Lyttelton2579587392277091384841667877
Timaru81128769105312346186441115
Otago16671988419212415763581961460
Invercargill (Bluff)5934279082500505141843295
Halfmoon Bay
Chatham Islands
              Total, all ports270512968995271013079205541526048200

CARGO STATISTICS—With cargo statistics it should be noted that the term “tonne” does not invariably denote a weight of 1000 kg. It is practicable to obtain the actual weights involved for only a portion of the goods handled. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulas as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, etc., to the tonne. Overseas cargo is recorded in manifest tonnes, 1 cubic metre of space being regarded as the equivalent of a tonne. Coastal cargo is recorded in gross tonnes, which is the actual weight of cargo including packaging but not including the weight of a container.

For the year ended December 1980, overseas cargo was—inwards 10424881 manifest tonnes, outwards 10774078 manifest tonnes. Coastal cargo for the same period was—inwards 5066584 gross tonnes, outwards 4922112 gross tonnes. It should be noted that coastal cargo figures are provisional. With the rise of ports handling specialised cargoes and major ports mechanically handling bulk loads and goods in containers on and off cellular container ships, the pattern of cargo movements has changed rapidly. Technical developments in packaging (containers, pallets) and transport (bulk loading) has tended to concentrate mechanised handling of cargo through a few ports with the consequent displacement of the manual labour of waterside workers.

The following table shows the tonnage of major items of coastal cargo handled in 1980. All figures are provisional.

CommodityInwardsOutwardsTotal
 gross tonnes
Cement5026955531911055886
Coal and coke140191193825957
Petroleum products335774732017826559529
Sand and shingle405254157782102
Grain111757109597221354
Motor vehicles207713222634430347
Container goods204011183761387772
Other goods6281175976321225749
                Total506658449221129988696

The next table shows for each port inward and outward cargo in 1980. Loadings of bunker fuels are not included. A large proportion of the coastal movement concerns oil tankers working from the Whangarei refinery, while the movements of cars by tourists build up the Wellington and Picton tonnages.

PortOverseasCoastal*
LoadedUnloadedLoadedUnloaded
* Provisional.
 manifest tonnesgross tonnes
Parengarenga425896069
Houhora2421
Mangonui9591612
Awanui2418
Whangarei13227331135122922991410691
Auckland1358611276322081929971688
Onehunga90642309901860183659
Tauranga197628963325243842804500
Raglan717017250
Taharoa1887729
Gisborne3861425160
Port Taranaki149404306887382252178346
Napier64559438428335979266170
Waverley1278775
Wanganui1077911136
Wellington9141281220654424957905909
Other North Island ports109296317779
            Total, North Island8473151845279839730113704808
Tarakohe19385015330
Nelson5769217363138986149234
Picton15505510376767368192
Westport176634735127728
Lyttelton39148279157893281339646
Timaru1813579848316603162884
Otago84528933487322390155275
Invercargill (Bluff)27271066827377422162863
Halfmoon Bay12623567
Chatham Islands8124785
            Total, South Island230092719720839491011361776
            Total, New Zealand ports107740781042488149221125066584

Inward Overseas Cargo—The following table shows the tonnage of some major items of inward overseas cargo handled in 1980.

PortIron and SteelMachineryFertilisersMotor Spirit, KeroseneOil, Other MineralsMotor Vehicles and PartsGypsum, Plaster of Paris
manifest tonnes
Whangarei284351281688611361
Auckland356300986131236914176832881229191449661
Tauranga5737914754911495
Napier95224128301920273522056
Taranaki1075121702588649709
Wellington62786301018802638955310524124858
Nelson1090413452418753215140
Lyttelton293361236513752923461569395496816929
Timaru2879486944994560
Otago4692712924965417875594
Bluff230622396145412
All other ports119222125
            Total4700441624381867974109594290576461039498743
PortFresh FruitGrainSugarTextilesAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tonnes
Whangarei9143113512
Auckland9447437143195804876659814602763220
Tauranga1259813188704633252
Napier301236293384283
Taranaki41624653306887
Wellington1031714089196815244941220654
Nelson610673631
Lyttelton32254245278822040241570791578
Timaru11861174387898483
Otago55201799334873
Bluff396594668273
All other ports687027962622936235
          Total14522661706201388132570267269410424881

Outward Overseas Cargo—In the section dealing with the export trade it is pointed out that pastoral products make up over 70 percent by value of New Zealand's exports. The following table shows how the various ports participated in the handling of the volume of the main items in the outward overseas cargo during 1980.

PortButterCheeseOther Milk ProductsFrozen and Preserved MeatsHides and SkinsTallowWool
manifest tonnes
Whangarei88024970786515514
Auckland5501327718224009176845244342599661692
Onehunga8737930492564357
Tauranga349341481830756193877212921
Gisborne3595
Napier29728846294642043393269528351
Taranaki17272812739711302722624616136
Wellington311875245643567358585466462044170228
Picton815
Nelson219512781899
Lyttelton36456140896058311472628944305
Timaru52607711109140705404
Otago54952154510863
Bluff643931971535211207
All other ports1092
          Total14837812532456403180924688549108584341121
PortFresh FruitBeans and PeasPaper, Newsprint, etc.Timber, SoftwoodIron-sandAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tonnes
Whangarei382565147041132273
Auckland554291039688269366707481358611
Onehunga18173634977846990642
Taharoa18877291887729
Tauranga6352475485292719693791976289
Gisborne74062761338614
Napier953666100107561319548645594
Taranaki1306113392423422043346149404
Waverley12787751278775
Wellington58883003508135844198614914128
Picton10814387615505
Nelson908043144336337351576921
Lyttelton82168478525014176260391482
Timaru496560957083772181357
Otago155627515898814551845289
Bluff48347295133783272710
All other ports1766318755
          Total2511332843526662712538683166768362201410774078

MERCHANT NAVY QUALIFICATIONS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport conducts regular examinations for merchant service personnel who wish to obtain certificates of competency as master, mate, or engineer. There are different standards of certificates for foreign-going, home trade, and restricted limits ships. The foreign-going certificates as master, first mate, second mate, and first-and second-class steam and motor engineer, are valid in most Commonwealth countries. Examinations are also conducted for skippers and mates of deep sea, coastal, and inshore fishing boats. Voluntary examinations are held for yachtsmen.

NAUTICAL SCHOOLS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport maintains nautical schools in Wellington and Auckland. Courses leading to the examinations for all grades of masters and mates certificates are available. Courses are also held for able seamen and ordinary seamen, for yachtsmen, and in radar.

SHIP SURVEY STATISTICS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport carries out the surveys of ships as required by the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952. In 1979 1050 certificates of survey were issued, as opposed to 1577 in 1978. This drop is due to the fact that certificates of survey for fishing boats are now issued for 4 years with an annual endorsement, instead of 1 year as was done previously.

Seventy-one foreign-flag joint venture fishing vessels were surveyed and issued with an exemption certificate and certifying letter in lieu of a certificate of survey.

One hundred and three certificates were issued under the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960, to which New Zealand is a signatory.

Special surveys are made for seaworthiness after damage, for efficiency of equipment, and for tonnage measurement.

LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE—On headlands, capes, reefs, and shoals around some 7000 kilometres of coastline and the waters in harbours and lakes controlled by the Ministry of Transport there are 252 navigational aids. These aids comprise 16 manned lighthouses, 117 automatic lights, 89 day beacons, 17 navigational buoys, 1 fog signal, and 13 radio beacons. Their provision, maintenance, and servicing is a responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport, and involves an expenditure of approximately $2 million annually. Lighthouse tenders, aircraft, helicopters, and road transport, along with a number of workshops, are used to maintain this service to give the mariner reliable navigational aids. Light dues collected from overseas and coastal ships meet most of the running costs of the service.

WRECKS—In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Transport, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a district judge, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, or in any river or lake, the Receiver of Wreck for that district has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

Shipping Casualties—During the 1979 calendar year 364 shipping casualties were reported to the Ministry of Transport. The table below shows the type of vessels involved and the nature of the casualty.

Type of ShipMachinery Breakdown and MiscellaneousCapsizing and CollisionStranding and GroundingFounderingFireTotal
Passenger11136
Cargo362314
Fishing16121916568
Dredges, tugs, etc.1113
Pleasure1544146248273
          Total17561694019364

Fishing boat accidents on the New Zealand coast resulted in the loss of 29 vessels and 7 lives. As a result of pleasure boat accidents, 32 deaths were recorded.

Casualties involving serious damage, injury, or loss of life were investigated and preliminary inquiries were carried out in 20 cases. No judicial inquiries into any of the casualties were conducted.

SAFETY OF SHIPS—A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, administered by the Ministry of Transport, is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the international conventions of which New Zealand is a signatory. These conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters.

MARINE POLLUTION—The Marine Pollution Act 1974 gives effect to a number of international conventions relating to oil pollution. The most important of these is the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1954, as amended in 1962 and 1969. The Act prohibits the discharge of oil within the territorial sea and restricts the discharge of oil elsewhere to insignificant amounts. A contingency plan has been developed to deal with a major spillage of oil in the vicinity of New Zealand and a considerable quantity of oil pollution control equipment and oil dispersant is being stockpiled in New Zealand to deal with such an eventuality.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on shipping, ports, and cargo may be found in the following publications.

Transport Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Waterfront Industry Commission (Parl. paper G. 2).

Report of the Ministry of Transport (Parl. paper F. 5).

Report of the New Zealand Ports Authority (Parl. paper F. 5A).

Report of the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Parl. paper F. 13).

Turnround of Overseas Shipping—Waterfront Industry Commission (4–monthly).

Royal Commission on Containers: Final and Interim Reports (1972).

12 C—RAILWAYS

A network of railways extending over 4500 km links almost all the principal centres of population in New Zealand. The railways services are almost entirely provided by the New Zealand Government Railways Department, using the title New Zealand Railways for trading purposes. The department also operates road services over more than 10000 route kilometres of highway, and a rail and road vehicle and passenger ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton. Over 21000 people are employed by the department.

RAILWAYS DEVELOPMENT—Recent years have seen notable progress in the development of the railway system and a steady increase in the carrying capacity of its main lines. Extensive use is being made of the latest developments in airway-transport technology, including diesel and electric traction, transistorised equipment for centralised traffic control, mechanised equipment for freight handling and track-maintenance work, and electronic data-processing machines to assist with accounting and statistical operations. Many new types of goods wagons have been and are being introduced, and numerous station buildings, goods sheds, bridges, etc., are being replaced by up-to-date structures in a continuing programme.

In 1971 the Te Rapa marshalling yard, near Hamilton, was opened. This 30-hectare yard is the only one in New Zealand to have a semi-automatic hump-shunting system, while the electronic equipment makes it the most advanced of New Zealand Railways' marshalling yards.

In September 1978 the Kaimai deviation was opened. The deviation, which includes an 8.9-km tunnel, substantially shortened the railway distance between the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty.

Under construction is the 9-kilometre Mangaweka deviation between Mangaweka and Utiku, north of Palmerston North. This deviation, which is due for completion in 1981, will eliminate a difficult section of the North Island Main Trunk which is very expensive to maintain and replace it with a low-maintenance, all weather, high-speed route.

A computerised wagon control scheme is in operation nationwide. This system began in Napier in February 1979 and has progressively spread around the country until the final area, Christchurch, came in late in 1980. Called Traffic Monitoring System (TMS) the scheme provides for increased wagon utilisation with increased speed and efficiency of the department's freight operations.

Departmental officials are currently making a study on electrification with an intention of introducing an electrified line over the North Island Main Trunk from Palmerston North to Te Rapa during the next 5 years.

The total route length of railways vested in the New Zealand Government Railways Department and open for traffic at 31 March 1980 was 4478 kilometres-2555 kilometres in the North Island and 1923 in the South Island. In addition, the Railways Department was working traffic over a further 7 kilometres of railways owned by other Government departments. Double line was worked over a total of 254 route kilometres, of which 208 kilometres were in the North Island. A total of 100 route kilometres of railways electrified on the 1500-volt direct current overhead contact system was in use at 31 March 1980.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND ENGINEERING—In most instances, Government railways in New Zealand were constructed by the Public Works Department, now the Ministry of Works and Development, and handed over to the Railways Department upon completion. Recent practice has been for the Ministry of Works and Development to construct the earthworks, bridges, tunnels, and buildings, and for the Railways Department to lay the tracks and install signals.

Track—All track is laid to a gauge of 1067 mm. The major routes are laid with rails 85 or 91 lb per yard (42.2 or 45.1 kg/m) but these lines will be progressively relaid with rails weighing 50 kg per metre. Secondary and branch lines have generally been laid with rails weighing 55, 70, and 72 lb per yard (27.3, 34.7, and 35.7 kg/m) and the practice is to relay these lines with heavier rails from the main lines. Treated Pinus radiata sleepers, laid about 1480 per kilometre, have gradually replaced Australian hardwood sleepers, and locally manufactured concrete sleepers are also being used on selected areas on the main routes. Track with fishplates and bolts at every joint is progressively replaced with rails welded at the joints on all major routes and on some secondary lines.

Bridges—To carry the railways across gorges, rivers, and streams in New Zealand, about 2600 bridges and viaducts have been built with an aggregate length of 90 kilometres. The longest railway bridge is that over the Rakaia River, 55 kilometres south of Christchurch. Completed in 1939 to replace an original timber structure of the 1870s, it is 1743 metres in length.

The highest viaduct is the Mohaka, completed in 1937 to carry the Napier-Gisborne railway 97 metres above the bed of the Mohaka River. Twenty-one New Zealand railway viaducts carry the rails more than 33 metres above the streams they cross.

Tunnels—There are 183 railway tunnels in New Zealand. The 3 longest tunnels are Kaimai (8.9 km), between Tauranga and Hamilton; Rimutaka (8.8 km), between Wellington and Masterton; and Otira (8.5 km), between Otira and Arthur's Pass.

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service—An air freight service across Cook Strait was commenced in February 1947. In recent years this service has been considerably affected by the alternative service offered by the rail ferries, and has operated at a loss.

Cook Strait Rail/Ferry Service—Three ferries carrying road and rail vehicles and passengers are operated by the Railways Department between Wellington and Picton. Two of the vessels, Aramoana and Aranui, can carry 30 rail wagons, about 55 cars, and 800 passengers. A third vessel, Aratika, was converted from a freight-only ship in 1976 and now carries 50 rail wagons, about 70 cars, and 800 passengers. A fourth vessel, Arahanga, carries 50 rail wagons and 40 road freight vehicles.

In 1977 Aramoana was extensively refitted and in 1978 Aranui received a similar but less extensive refit.

During the year ended 31 March 1980 a significant milestone in the operation of the Cook Strait rail ferries was the carrying of the 10 millionth ton of rail freight since the service was begun by Aramoana in August 1962. Total rail freight carried to 31 March 1980 was 10296273 tonnes.

ROLLING STOCK: Wagons—The Railways Department's fleet of goods and livestock wagons at 31 March 1980 totalled 28112 with a total carrying capacity of 490896468 kg. In recent years thousands of new wagons have been introduced, including long covered bogie wagons with wide doorways for mechanical loading of palletised freight, for use on express goods trains. Special-purpose wagons include those designed for log traffic, packaged timber, and bulk commodities such as cement, flour, plaster, heated tallow, sulphuric acid, and aluminium sulphate, and wagons for coal traffic for the Mission Bush steel mill. Many bogie flat-top wagons have also been built or modified for the ever-increasing volume of container traffic. In addition to the wagons owned by the department, another 274 privately-owned wagons are also in use, mainly for petrol and cement traffic.

PASSENGER SERVICES—In addition to the normal suburban services. New Zealand Railways run 4 prestige passenger trains. These are the Silver Fern, Northerner, Southerner, and Endeavour.

The Silver Fern daylight express railcar runs 6 days a week, between Auckland and Wellington. This service is licensed, air conditioned, and has hostesses.

The Northerner express runs nightly between Auckland and Wellington, and has both day and sleeping cars. The train, which has a licensed dining car, stops at many of the smaller towns not served by the Silver Fern.

The Southerner runs 6 days a week between Christchurch and Invercargill. This train has hostesses and a buffet car. The Endeavour, which runs daily between Wellington and Napier, is similar.

Most provincial passenger services are run by Railways' Road Services following the withdrawal of railcars, many of which were worn out. However, on routes where there are geographical and social considerations, refurbished railcars, with their motors removed, have been placed in service. These cars, known as “Ac” cars, are hauled by diesel-electric locomotives.

The following table sets out the numbers of rail passenger journeys and the corresponding receipts.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of JourneysPassenger Revenue
SuburbanNon-suburbanTotalSuburbanNon-suburbanTotal
 (000)(000)(000) $(thousand) 
1977171891289184784,3485,5779,925
1978153961006164024,6955,85210,547
1979157421007167495,5196,08711,606
198015012999160116,5326,43712,970

GOODS TRAFFIC—The following table shows the volume of goods traffic in tonnes and tonne-kilometres, and the revenue received from goods and parcels traffic consigned by rail.

Year Ended 31 MarchGoods Carried (Excluding Parcels)Total Revenue from Goods and Parcels Traffic
TonnesNet Tonne-kilometresNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal
* Revenue from rail parcels traffic was $4,703,000 in 1976–77, $4,735,000 in 1977–78, $5,313,513 in 1978–79 and $5,770,594 in 1979–80.
 (000)(million) $(thousand) 
1977136013723.5135,96553,246189,211*
1978125773401.7143,57755,062198,639*
1979117223281.0157,54164,230221,771*
1980127603225.9178,06075,782253,842*

MOTIVE POWER—Dieselisation of New Zealand Railways began in 1949 and was completed by 1971. The most powerful diesel-electric locomotives in service are the American-built 2050 kW “Dx” class.

At 31 March 1980, sixty-two 1063-kW “Da” locomotives had been shipped to Australia for rebuilding and 53 returned to New Zealand as class “Dc”.

Ten “Df”-class locomotives were bought from General Motors of Canada during the 1979–80 year. These joined 20 which were imported the previous year and which are in use on the Christchurch-Picton line and in the North Island.

From Japan, 6 diesel-electric locomotives rated at 625 kW, Class DSG were imported. All of this new heavy class of shunting locomotives were in service by 31 March 1980.

Sixty-six type D398 diesel engines rated at 685 kw were imported from the Caterpillar Engine Company, and at the end of the year 24 had been successfully installed in class Dj locomotives.

The programme to renew cabs on Dg locomotives has been reduced from 15 to 10 and 6 have now been rebuilt. The remaining 4 will be completed in the next financial year.

Forty-two of the 52 Dsc locomotives have been fitted with new Cummins engine power packages.

Six high-powered shunting locomotives have been ordered from Toshiba Corporation for use in major yards.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Gross revenue and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue
* Deficit recovered from Vole: Stabilisation.
$(thousand)
1977248,070260,073−12,003*
1978266,404304,184−37,780*
1979299,513346,786−47,274*
1980349,126404,931−55,805*

The chief items of expenditure for 1979–80 were: wages, $236,058,809; fuel (including electricity) for locomotives, road vehicles, and rail ferries, $26,230,106; stores and materials, $59,334,889; depreciation, $25,818,822; and miscellaneous, $39,532,067.

The revenue and expenditure for recent years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items, are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or Loss
Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.
$(thousand)
1977202,41945,651214,79645,277−12,377+374
1978212,74853,656251,86352,323−39,115+1,336
1979237,26662,247287,24159,545−49,975+2,702
1980274,36974,756331,36073,570−56,991+1,186

The respective Island figures of revenue and expenditure for railway operation only (i.e., omitting subsidiary services) are given below for the 1979–80 year.

Section of RailwayRevenueExpenditureOperating Deficit
 $(thousand)
North Island195,132229,22834,096
South Island79,237102,13122,894
New Zealand274,369331,36056,991

The revenue and expenditure of the various subsidiary services conducted by the Railways Department is set out in the following table. Full working costs are charged against these services, and interest which is debited to road services and rail ferries is credited to miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

ServiceRevenueExpenditure
1977–781978–791979–801977–781978–791979–80
$(thousand)
Advertising384412420373374442
Departmental houses1,8502,2632,4434,7375,2615,931
Road services—
    Passenger and goods18,44921,61925,95520,34323,87028,811
Cook Strait rail ferry service28,51433,28240,59626,86730,04038,384
Miscellaneous4,4594,6715,340
                  Total53,65662,24774,75652,32059,54573,570

Revenue—In the following table the railway operating revenue is classified according to the class of traffic, etc., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassenger TrafficGoods and ParcelsCatering ServicesTotal
$(thousand)
19779,925189,2113,283202,419
197810,547198,6393,563212,749
197911,606221,7713,888237,266
198012,970257,1164283274,369

Expenditure—The railway operating expenditure is shown under various heads in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance of Way and WorksMaintenance of Rolling StockLocomotive TransportationTraffic TransportationHead Office and General Charges*Catering ServicesTotal
* Includes superannuation subsidy.
$(thousand)
197752,89346,05835,19363,31111,0276,314214,796
197865,29753,90440,95272,31312,2537,144251,863
197975,29463,08645,04381,41514,3548,048287,241
198084,68871,65452,42496,52418,0128,057331,360

Expenditure has been influenced by progressively higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment, as well as higher costs of fuel and materials.

Capital Expenditure—Expenditure on capital works and new equipment is set out in the following table.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197819791980
* Includes Capital Equipment Credits.
 $(thousand)
Plant and equipment3,8983,9983,271
Works programme20,35519,82820,557
Rolling stock17,337*27,392*36,361*
Motor vehicles5,0674,4142,298
Rail ferries3,203*4,095*494
                        Total49,86059,72962,891

This capital expenditure has been met from the department's own depreciation reserves, National Development loans, and overseas credits.

The relative proportions of capital funded from these sources were as follows:

SourceYear Ended 31 March
197819791980
 $(000)percent$(000)percent$(000)percent
Railway depreciation19,8914022,2923726,07439
National Development Loan23,1274621,1303621,16336
Overseas credits6,8421416,3072715,65425
                Total49,86010059,72920062,891100

RAIL FERRY TRAFFIC—Traffic statistics for the rail ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Return CrossingsTotal Passenger JourneysMotor Vehicles (of all kinds)Freight in Railway Wagons
NumberManifest TonnesDeadweight TonnesManifest Tonnes
1977195568529015297684136810043641284598
197819457242421576158668839995021612268
197919066916151534108437559565841725334
198021266847421446897233459689631732936

Financial statistics for the Cook Strait ferry service are as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure, Total
PassengerCateringPassengers Motor VehiclesGoods (Rail and Road)Total
$(thousand)
19773,4866293,06716,41323,59523,200
19784,1387993,82719,75028,51426,868
19794,6488744,42423,33633,28230,040
19805,5709394,92329,16440,59638,384

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES—The number of persons employed by the Government railways at 31 March 1980 was 21010 (not including 784 sea-going staff employed on the Cook Strait rail ferries), compared with 21293 a year earlier.

ACCIDENTS AT LEVEL CROSSINGS—Accidents at level crossings resulted in the death of 14 people and injury to 26 others in 1979–80; in the previous year 3 were killed and 21 injured.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS—There are a number of short private railways in New Zealand, principally lines serving collieries and other industrial undertakings. The 11-km line of the Ohai Railway Board, extends from Wairio (north-west of Invercargill) to coal mines at Ohai. The Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., in the North Island, operates a 10-km private line from Awakeri to its mill at Whakatane in the Bay, of Plenty.

RAILWAY OPERATED ROAD SERVICES—There is a network of railway-operated road services the origin of which dates back to November 1926 when a bus service between Napier and Hastings was purchased. Others were acquired in the following years (notably the services within the Hutt Valley and between the Hutt Valley and Wellington in 1927 and 1928), but it was 1934 before the first long-distance coach service was taken over. The main development of the network took place between 1936 and 1951, when the route distance over which licences were held rose from 418 to 9641 km. Now the Railways Department maintains in its fleet almost 21 percent of all the vehicles used to provide road passenger services throughout the country. At 31 March 1980, the Railways Department's road services branch employed a staff of 1947.

Suburban bus services at Auckland, Rotorua, Hastings, Hutt Valley, Wellington-Khandallah, Titahi Bay, Paraparaumu, and Dunedin, with a fleet of 353 vehicles at 31 March 1980, carried 11968000 passengers and earned a total revenue of $4,705,164. All the other road passenger services, both long and short distance, with 422 coaches, carried 7599000 passengers and earned a revenue of $19,692,429. The routes of the services in operation at 31 March 1980 covered 10144 km of highway.

In addition to the road passenger services, a small number of road goods services were operated. Goods traffic on these services, for which some 83 motor vehicles were maintained, produced a further $1,557,634 in 1979–80. A rail ancillary goods service is operated by the department's Traffic Branch for the carriage of goods consigned to or from wayside stations.

The following selected statistics illustrate the development of the Railways Department's road services operations.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoute Kilometres at 31 March*Number of Passenger Vehicles at 31 MarchNumber of Other Vehicles at 31 MarchTotal Passenger JourneysTotal Passenger and Goods RevenueTotal Expenditure, Including Interest Charges
* Route kilometres for which licences are held.
    (000)$(000)$(000)
197799757823772032316,44017,924
1978101417813811990018,44920,343
1979101447743781974021,61923,870
1980101447753841982525,95528,811

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Railways Department (Parl. Paper F7)

Transport Statistics (Dept. of Statistics)

Monthly Abstract of Statistics (Dept. of Statistics)

12 D—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

Capital investment in New Zealand's roading and road transport system exceeds that of all other forms of transport services. There are more than 96000 kilometres of road and over 1.6 million motor vehicles, while the population census in 1976 revealed that there were 38289 road transport drivers in the labour force. A further 40344 persons were employed in the repair, servicing, and sale of motor vehicles, and 11791 persons were engaged in motor-vehicle assembly and body building.

ROADS AND BRIDGES—The cost of providing adequate roads in New Zealand as a proportion of annual investments is relatively high in comparison with many other countries, largely because of the nature of the country and the wide variety of terrain frequently encountered within relatively short distances, and of occasional rain and flood damage. During December 1979 and January 1980, for example, extremely heavy rainfall in parts of Otago, Westland, and Canterbury inflicted severe damage to a number of highways, particularly in the Haast Pass, Arthur's Pass, and Mt. Cook areas. Flood damage restoration work by the National Roads Board during 1979–80 cost a record $9.7 million.

Annual roading expenditure by Central and Local Government is now almost $245 million. Maintenance comprises a little over half the expenditure. During 1979–80 construction priority continued to be given to bridge replacement and upgrading to ensure that highways were able to handle heavy traffic without restriction.

Motorways are expensive to construct and are justified only in areas of high traffic density. They require strong foundations and thick surfacings to stand up to the heavy, fast, and continuous traffic. However, they confer two great benefits—greatly increased traffic capacity and greater safety. The limited number of access points, designed to permit smooth and safe entrance and exit, and the complete absence of ordinary intersections, contribute substantially to safety and the uninterrupted, fast flow of traffic, which also reduces transport costs.

With increased financial stringency, the main emphasis of State highway activities in recent years has been on the maintenance and improvement of existing roading assets.

Details of formed roads and streets at 31 March 1979 are given in the following table.

Nature of SurfaceCities and BoroughsDistrict CouncilsCountiesTown DistrictsTotal
County RoadsState Highways and Motorways
 kilometres
Paved or sealed1074228362379594883146892
Metal or gravel732231439241720143008
Unmetalled6917960393436630
          Total, formed roads11543532969075105513296530

There are 13358 bridges of 3 metres and over with a total length of 302809 metres.

Auckland Harbour Bridge Traffic—From May 1959, when the toll bridge opened, to March 1980, the Auckland harbour bridge has carried 331 million vehicles. In the 1979–80 year the bridge had a daily average of 71673 vehicles crossing it; the highest daily figure being a record 100467. With traffic totals continuing to grow it is estimated that the eight-lane facility will reach its ultimate carrying capacity in the late nineteen eighties.

Traffic totals for March years are shown in the following table.

Class of Vehicle1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80
* Estimated.
 (thousand)
Cars1123611434119171244012370
Motor cycles, etc.270256252243251
Commercial vehicles290297278271270
Exempt vehicles204208212221224
Southbound*1197612176126501316413117
                Total2397624371253092633926232

ROADS ADMINISTRATION—The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act 1928, the Local Government Act 1974, and the National Roads Act 1953. Administration of the country's roading system is exercised by municipalities in respect of streets, by county councils in respect of county roads, and by the National Roads Board in respect of State highways.

The National Roads Board is charged with the responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs. The board came into being in 1954 as the result of the passing of the National Roads Act. This same Act provided for the establishment of the National Roads Fund. Under the chairmanship of the Minister of Works and Development, the National Roads Board is an organisation of 10 members, representative of the private motorists, commercial vehicle owners, counties, municipalities, the Ministry of Works and Development, and Ministry of Transport. It is of interest to note that Government members are in a minority. The representative nature of the board ensures that the widest possible background of knowledge and experience is brought to bear on roading matters. Essentially the board is a politically orientated policy-making body; it is required to think nationally and to act nationally. The most important functions of the board are:

  1. to administer the National Roads Fund.

  2. to provide a roading system adequate for New Zealand's needs.

  3. to advise Government on all matters concerning roading including the provision of finance.

  4. to assist and advise local authorities on roading problems.

  5. to undertake at intervals of not more than five years a comprehensive survey of the roading position in New Zealand.

The money in the National Roads Fund is derived from road taxation paid by the users, the private motorist and the commercial vehicle operator. Through this roads fund the money is returned to the road user in the form of safer, smoother, more economical travel. It is an inviolate fund. Under the legislation by which it was brought into operation on 1 April 1954, all taxation paid into it must be immediately available and be used for roading purposes. In effect the National Roads Act provided for an independent fund at the disposal of an independent board and removed the element of uncertainty associated with annual appropriation of funds through Parliament. Nevertheless opportunity is provided for Parliament to debate the board's activities.

The National Roads Board can be likened to a board of directors with the Minister of Works and Development as chairman and Director of Roading as chief executive officer. The board meets regularly once a month. Most of the business is conducted in open meeting with representatives of the press in attendance.

The board employs no staff directly but the Ministry of Works and Development provides an engineering and administrative service for which it is paid 6.8 percent of total National Roads Board expenditure. The roading division of the Ministry of Works and Development carries out the executive functions of the board and in servicing the board calls on the specialist services of other divisions and branches of Ministry of Works and Development as required, e.g., bridge design, land purchase, accounts, legal, etc.

For State highways and motorways, the board meets the full cost of construction and maintenance, while the maintenance and construction of county roads and municipal streets are subsidised by the Board. Some 94 percent of the State highways are now sealed. The National Roads Board is the controlling authority for State highways. As the board's agent, the Ministry of Works and Development has responsibility for financial control and technical control. In certain cases, the board has delegated its powers of construction and/or maintenance to local authorities.

In the case of county roads and municipal streets, responsibility lies with the local authority concerned. Apart from the question of standards on major works, there are no strings and no overriding control by Central Government.

Under the National Roads Act, in December of each year the board is required to estimate its income for the following year and to make its primary allocations of funds expected to be available. The board then prepares a final programme of road works for the coming year. At the present time there are two sectors and funds are allocated on the following basis: for local authorities—not less than 39 percent of motor revenue; for State highways—not less than 47 percent of motor revenue; this leaving 14 percent of motor revenue for allocation to any or all of the above, at the discretion of the board.

For purposes of roading administration, New Zealand is divided geographically into 22 roads districts and funds are allocated by the board to each sector in each district as fairly and equitably as possible having regard to particular needs.

In each roads district there is an advisory body known as a District Roads Council. These councils are representative of the same interests as the board itself. Although they have no executive powers, their recommendations concerning relative priorities have considerable influence on board decisions. In addition to its regular meetings the board makes visits of inspection to several roads districts each year. These visits afford an opportunity for board members to get a better appreciation of local problems, needs, and conditions through observation and discussion, and to maintain personal contact with District Roads Councils. The board is thus able to keep in close touch with the roading problems of New Zealand, and is better able to discharge its responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs.

Finance—A National Roads Fund has been established within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation with an annual contribution from the Government. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Motor spirits tax of 6c per litre from all lightweight petrol-powered vehicles using public roads is paid into the National Roads Fund. All heavy motor vehicles including trailers, and all remaining lightweight non-petrol-powered vehicles are required to purchase distance licences at a cost that varies according to their nominated maximum gross weight, their axle configuration, and the distance they travel. The income from these road user charges is all credited to the National Roads Fund.

Following is a statement of receipts and expenditure of the National Roads Fund for the latest 3 March years. Receipts are less collection expenses.

Item1977–781978–791979–80
Receipts—$(thousand)
    Petrol tax (net)106,447109,44787,470
    Distance tax8,8741,127
    Road user charges 48,30251,234
    Fees and charges—
    Heavy traffic fees10,003–120
    Contribution from Consolidated Account10,00014,00024,000
Advance from Loans Redemption Account4,000
Miscellaneous receipts—
    Repayments of advances to local authorities10595241
    Rents1,4681,8912,144
    Sales of land and buildings1,0568211,897
    Interest on advances to local bodies11018
    Bailey bridging hire103174185
    Interest on investments6110483
    Miscellaneous12172456
                Total receipts142,239175,923167,729
Item1977–781978–791979–80
Expenditure—$(thousand)
    Highways maintenance37,02343,65650,867
    Highways construction37,14041,30835,633
    Local authority roading subsidies and grants58,63668,24470,110
    Local authorities advances606450
Administration and general expenses—
    Ministry of Works administration9,16510,59911,400
    Fees and travelling expenses788392
    Miscellaneous expenses1,6341,3542,442
Bridging expenses—
    Bailey bridging, etc.31699158
    Unauthorised expenditure265
Repayments of advances from Loan Redemption Account4,000
                Total expenditure144,054169,413170,757
    Balance in fund at end of year5007,0093,982

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on motorways and State highways construction, renewal, or maintenance during the last 5 years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable.

Class of Expenditure1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80
* Excludes motorway structures.
 $(thousand)
Construction and improvement26,86619,37430,46234,78327,805
Bridges and other structures*14,75416,3576,6786,5257,828
Maintenance, repairs, etc.25,88929,34237,02343,656x50,867
                  Total67,50965,07374,16384,964x86,500

State Highways—The National Roads Act provides for the declaration of roads as State highways with the approval of the Minister of Works and Development. In 1969, the National Roads Board reviewed the State highway system and re-affirmed the principle that the network must continue to be based on the pattern of national development, needs of defence, and directness of route and main travel desire lines. The most important principles in designing a State highway system are that the total length of the system must be based on routes of primary importance; that routes must be equitably distributed in relation to the pattern of national development; and that routes must be confined to those which have characteristics in keeping with the function of the system.

Although urban development with its growing industrialisation is a predominant problem, the National Roads Board is also aware of the need for continued development of a fully effective inter-regional network with adequate rural feeder roads. Balanced development of the total network is essential if primary production is to increase and production costs are to be restrained.

Highways Standards—In order to qualify for highway subsidies local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the National Roads Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. The National Roads Board also produces complementary guides to good practice, and standard specifications for roading materials and construction methods.

Motorways—The Public Works Act makes provision for the declaration of motorways. Motorways provide efficient and economic means of communication, while the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

The total length of motorways in use at 31 March 1978 was 118.6 kilometres.

New Sealing—During the year ended 31 March 1980 22.9 kilometres of new sealing on highways was completed, giving an aggregate of 10893.6 kilometres of sealed highway, 94 percent of the total length.

National Roading Expenditure—Details of New Zealand public roading expenditure financed from the National Roads Fund, the Consolidated Account, and local authority funds (both from revenue and loans) are summarised as follows:

Item1978–791979–80
 $(thousand)
State highways expenditure 84,964 86,499
Subsidised highway, section 12A 1,624 1,320
County roading expenditure—
    From county funds41,214 39,857 
    From National Roads Fund38,670 40,414 
    From Consolidated Account (Developmental Roading)1,609 1,524 
  81,493 81,795
Municipal roading expenditure—
From municipal funds47,437 52,526 
From National Roads Fund27,894 28,376 
  75,331 80,902
                  Total 243,412 250,516

NOTE—Table above includes subsidies paid under section 12A of the National Roads Act to the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority ($1,000,000).

Local Authority Roading—The National Roads Board pays a basic subsidy at the rate of $1.50 for each $2 that is spent by local authorities out of their own funds on such programmes of subsidised works as have been accepted for a financial year by the board, and approves grants in special cases.

In recognition of the urgency and importance of the country's bridge renewal problem, the board makes generous grants for local authority bridge replacements. Wooden bridges built 50 and 60 years ago, which have served the country well, continue to deteriorate at a greater rate than replacements can be built. In 14 years to March 1980 there were 2585 bridges completed, totalling 62438 metres.

For the year ended 31 March 1980 the following amounts were paid to local authorities from the National Roads Fund for roading.

Local AuthoritySubsidyGrantsTotal
 $(thousand)
Municipalities20,1568,22028,376
County councils24,85715,55740,414
                  Total45,01323,77768,790

Loan Assistance—To assist counties and municipalities with their planning the National Roads Board meets 30 percent of the cost of approved transportation surveys in urban areas. Plans have been completed or are in the course of preparation in all city areas with a population in excess of 30000 people.

Needs studies have been made for county and municipal roading and the board has carried out regional surveys to assess relative needs.

It is envisaged that more comprehensive and co-ordinated surveys will become necessary as development increases in complexity, and that the board's criteria will need to extend further into the field of productive economics.

Development Roading—In addition to the expenditure on roading from the National Roads Fund, moneys are provided annually by the Consolidated Account (Programme: Developmental Roading) for development of road construction. Under this heading subsidies are paid to local authorities for the construction of new roads giving access to farmlands being brought into production. This programme also finances access roads to lands being prepared for farm settlement by the Lands and Survey and Maori Affairs Departments, as well as certain new roading of a national development character.

New roads constructed for farm access are handed over to the care of local authorities, while national roading normally becomes the responsibility of the National Roads Board for maintenance as part of the State highway system.

Government roading expenditure from the Consolidated Account (Programme: Developmental Roading) for the year ended 31 March 1980 was $1,600,000, excluding Maori land roading, Crown land roading, and tracks totalling $952,000.

Overall Roading Expenditure—The following table shows the total expenditure on roading from all sources for the year ended 31 March 1980.

National Roads Fund—$(000)$(000)
    State highways86,499 
    Subsidies, etc. local roading70,110156,609
Consolidated Account (Developmental Roading) 2,552
Local authority funds—
    Municipalities52,526 
    County councils39,85792,383
                Total 251,544

Roading expenditure over the last 5 years is related to Gross National Product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoading Expenditure: Central and Local Gov't.Gross National ProductRoading Expenditure as Percentage of G.N.P.
* Provisional.
 $(million)percent
1976174.8311,319x1.54x
1977180.8213,529x1.34x
1978211.8614,880x1.42x
1979244.5517,083*1.43x
1980251.5420,441*1.23

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR VEHICLES—The amounts for initial registration fees are: motorcars, from $32 to $100 according to age or engine capacity; motor cycles, trailers, and traction engines, $20; power cycles, $12; heavy trucks, $100; light trucks and vans, $60; farm tractors, $4; and any other motor vehicle, $40.

Annual licence fees are as follows: motor vehicles $20 (except veteran or vintage motor vehicles, $6 and $10); trailers (2 tons or less loaded), $12; motor cycles, $12; power cycles, $8; tractors, $16; traction engines, $6; trade licences for motor cycles are $12, and trade licences for other motor vehicles $20. Other fees include drivers' licences, 50c, and changes of ownership, $10. All such fees, except those for drivers' licences which are payable to the local authorities, have been credited to the Consolidated Account since 1 July 1967. Additional to these fees are the Accident Compensation levies which replaced compulsory third-party insurance.

The various types of motor vehicles licensed as at 31 March in each of the last 5 years are itemised below.

Type of Vehicle19761977197819791980
* Class 3 vehicles under these headings are now listed on their own under Miscellaneous.
Cars11720001200003121563812447511283661
Rental cars54255899553354845945
Private taxicabs13010184114119
Light goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight 2 tonnes and under)137184155782161401173468176692
Heavy goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight over 2 tonnes)7397076420752907442476872
Contract vehicles11921250128012681396
Omnibuses26602674262226592556
Public taxicabs30823084298729513015
Service coaches563594684757841
Motor cycles98833104147103712104570123071
Power cycles42072879210318902001
                Total, motor vehicles14992461552833157133416123361676169
Trailers, including trailers exempted from payment of annual licence fees and caravans*325193351411353007367335374490
Dealers' cars44054373442637164513
Dealers' motor cycles292212214302294
Vehicles including cycles exempted from payment of annual licence fees (farm tractors etc.)*100561101001925118910490345
Miscellaneous1348413791146401237611705
                Total, all vehicles19431812023621203613220851692157516

Motor vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee include a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' motor vehicles used solely on the farm and only venturing on roads to proceed from one pan of the farm to another, or from farm to garage for repair, etc., excavators, scoops, trench diggers, cranes, and logging trucks (used on private roads), etc.

The following table shows the changes in relationship between the number of licensed vehicles and population as at 31 March in the latest 6 years.

As at 31 MarchNumber of Persons in Population per CarNumber of Persons in Population per Motor Vehicle (Excluding Trailers)
19752.72.0
19762.71.9
19772.61.9
19782.61.9
19792.51.8
19802.41.8

Motor spirit usage in New Zealand during the latest March years is shown in the following table by grade. The grades shown are 83 octane (regular or standard), 96 octane (super, supreme, or premium) and other, which may include some non-petroleum based racing fuels. The figures are based on returns made by oil companies to the Customs Department in connection with the assessment of motor spirit duty. However, they include motor spirit used for farming purposes and in industrial engines for which the purchaser can claim a rebate of duty.

Year Ended MarchMotor Spirits—Oil Company Deliveries§
96 Octane83 OctaneOthersTotal

* 3 April 1976 to 1 April 1977.

2 April 1977 to 31 March 1978.

1 April 1978 to 30 March 1979.

§ Based on deliveries by oil companies to resellers, bulk sales, and use in own fleet.

litres (000)
1977*21376051444615222282588
197821401201118804982252500
197922285381009296432330110
19802121857796577262202241

Diesel fuel is widely used by heavy trucks and buses, but actual figures of consumption by these vehicles are not available.

Estimates based on survey data collected during the New Zealand Transport Study indicated that the average travel in 1972 for passenger cars and light vehicles was 13673 kilometres; for heavy goods-service vehicles the average was 20534 kilometres; and for passenger-service vehicles the average was 27859 kilometres.

Registrations of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country are as follows for the 4 latest years.

December YearNew Cars and Station Wagons—C.C. RatingCars Previously Registered Overseas*New Motor Cycles
Up to 13001301 to 20002001 to 50005001 and OverTotal
* Included in previous column.
197726517263717932100461824275014028
19782537233232759994567148268114522
19792903933131796270970841268221558
19802945941351717039178371270129957
December YearNew Commercial Vehicles By Gross Weight in KilogramsOmnibus and Service CoachesTotal Commercial Vehicles
2500 or Less2501 to 45004501 to 90009001 to 1450014501 and Over
1977132621519789135093826618124
197814391170773098178630618901
197914505206067098989026319377
198016462171682385993423721031

Not included in the previous tables are new tractors, of which 2811 were registered in 1978, 2694 in 1979, and 2600 in 1980.

Road Transport—The Transport Act 1962 is the main legislation governing road transport and the road transport operations of the Ministry of Transport; attendant regulations set out the rules of the road, the requirements as to motor vehicle equipment, and the obligations of motor drivers and owners and pedestrians.

Transport Licensing—Transport licensing is primarily an economic measure to achieve better coordination of road and rail transport and to prevent excessive competition and duplication of services within the road transport industry. Public passenger buses, taxicabs, rental vehicles, and certain harbour ferries can only be operated with a licence. A transport licence is also needed for the cartage of goods in the following circumstances:

  1. When they are carried for hire or reward by means of a motor vehicle.

  2. When they are carried in competition with the New Zealand Railways beyond specified distances whether for hire or reward or not, except with vehicles which together with their load, weigh 3500 kg or less and farmers' vehicles with a payload of up to 5000 kg.

Thus goods service licensing extends beyond the common carrier operating throughout the country and can include farmers and businesses carrying their own goods in their own vehicles if these vehicles are over the laden weights or carrying the load prescribed above and they wish to operate them beyond certain distances.

In general, goods cannot be carried by road between places where a route is available which includes at least 150 kilometres of rail. However, for some goods such as livestock, fresh meat, fresh fruit and vegetables, poultry, and fresh fish, there is no restriction at all. In addition, this restriction ceases to apply where use of the railway would increase the journey by more than one-third of the shortest road route available. The licensing authorities (see below) may also grant exemption from the railway restriction in particular cases where this is in the public interest.

Apart from the exemptions in respect of competition with the railways, there is complete freedom from transport licensing for certain special or limited transport services.

New Zealand is divided into 17 transport licensing districts (including one harbour ferry district at Auckland) which are administered by five full-time licensing authorities appointed by the Minister of Transport for terms of up to 5 years. They adjudicate on applications for a licence to enter the industry, on transfer or renewals of licences, and on changes to or withdrawals of transport services.

In addition, there is a Regional Transport Licensing Authority for the purpose of hearing applications relating to passenger-service licences (other than taxicab-service licences) or harbour ferry service licences that are operated or intended to be operated within the Auckland Regional Authority's district.

The factors to be considered in dealing with these applications are specified in the Transport Act 1962, and emphasis is placed on consideration of the public interest and of users of public transport. There is a right of appeal from the decisions of licensing authorities to the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

Charges for transport services do not come within the jurisdiction of the licensing authorities. Public bodies operating public passenger services fix their own charges; the Secretary for Transport all others. In every case there is a right of appeal to a Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Both the Minister of Transport and licensing authorities have powers in respect of public inquiries into or reviews of transport services and licences. Reviews of taxicab services must be made at least every three years in the four main centres and in other centres with a population of more than 20000.

In general, licences may be either continuous, seasonal, or temporary (not more than 14 days). However, all rental service licences have a duration of three years after which application must be made for their renewal.

Transport to Work—The following table, based on answers to a question in the 1976 Census of Population, shows the means of transport to work used by major occupational groupings.

A comparison of the percentages of the work force using different forms of transport in 1971 and 1976 confirms the decline in the use of public transport and the increased use of private or company motor vehicles.

Means of TransportOccupational GroupingPercentage of Workforce
Professional, Technical, Administrative, Managerial, and ClericalSales and Service WorkersAgricultural, Animal Husbandry, and Forest Workers, Fishermen and HuntersProduction Workers and Related Workers, Transport Equipment Operators, and LabourersOthers*19711976

* New workers seeking employment, workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described, and workers not reporting any occupation.

Unemployed persons.

Drive car, truck, or van21587211718025267251433439544.248.3
Passenger in car, truck, van, or firm's bus407341662971415979811629.69.9
Public bus546622002668837910151211.89.0
Train16865271110278272362.32.2
Motor cycle or power cycle1450956333286242382652.13.8
Bicycle1236753511385186402873.83.0
Walk49499314641043749740137812.411.2
Other means1853130713552344980.50.5
Work at home104951593378985657135511.38.8
Not applicable4081290610406529117811.62.1
          Total, including not specified42564722126113069046883625899100.0100.0

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS—Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the Police. During the year ended 31 December 1979, there were 9714 reported accidents resulting in 554 fatalities, and injuries to 13903 other people were reported.

Details of the nature of road accidents for the calendar year 1979, which have been compiled by the Ministry of Transport, are set out in the following table.

Classification of AccidentsFatalInjuryTotal
Overtaking26321347
Head on (not overtaking)90606696
Lost control or ran off road on straight50937987
Lost control or ran off road while cornering11014831593
Collision with obstruction15574589
Rear end9448457
At intersections or driveways—
    Vehicles moving in same direction, one turning6723729
    Vehicles crossing paths, not turning30968998
    Vehicles crossing paths, one turning10567577
    Vehicles merging3189192
    Vehicles moving in opposite directions, one turning right18730748
Vehicles manoeuvring10480490
Pedestrian crossing road789541032
Pedestrian—other30131161
Miscellaneous1788105
Unknown1313
Total50292129714

The ages of persons killed and injured in motor accidents is shown in the following table.

Age Groups (Years)Killed*Injured
197719781979197719781979
* Killed immediately or died within 30 days of accident.
Under 5262728408360308
5–9221924684608519
10–14201913893800713
15–19186162136523943794191
20–24111118102316526382539
25–29664335143511931053
30–34303326843804687
35–39252525627518579
40–44273024496420341
45–49222722479388346
50–54293024462387392
55–59242123406314305
60–64191711341308271
65–69272811288248235
70 and over675550473408399
Unknown age1128614051025
              Total702654554175251517813903

A classification of road users killed and injured during the calendar year 1979 is given in the following table.

Type of CasualtyKilledInjuredTotal
Driver of—
    Car17339294102
    Rental car35053
    Taxi3030
    Van15314329
    Truck6106112
    Articulated truck21719
    Bus1111
    Other189
Motor cyclist8224062488
Passenger14040714211
Pillion riders8404412
Cyclist15623638
Pedestrian10611571263
Other31114
Unknown766766
            Total5541390314457

Of particular concern is the number of school children and pre-school children killed or injured on the roads while cycling or on foot. During 1979, 11 child pedestrians under school age were killed. Among child pedestrians and cyclists of school age, 24 were killed in 1979 compared with 30 in 1978, and 750 were injured in 1979 compared with 774 during the previous year. The totals of killed and injured are shown by age groups in the following table.

Age of Child (In Years)PedestriansCyclists
197719781979197719781979
Under 5162125142035
5–93162652411067688
10–15203166177300297268
            Total681556560406376361

Total casualties and rates for the latest available years are shown in the following table.

Calendar YearPersons KilledKilled per 10000 Vehicles on RoadPersons InjuredInjured per 10000 Vehicles on roadCasualties (Killed and Injured) per 10000 Vehicles
* Provisional.
19756284.1019839126.0130.0
19766093.7317895109.6113.3
19777024.2717525106.7111.0
19786543.901517890.694.5
1979554x3.201390380.283.4
1980*5993.35   

The following table shows motor accident death and injury rates in 1979 for New Zealand in comparison with recent annual figures for Australia and Great Britain.

CountryPersons KilledPersons InjuredKilled per 10000 VehiclesKilled per 100000 PopulationInjured per 10000 VehiclesInjured per 100000 Population
New Zealand554139033.217.680.2441.2
Australia3705969625.226.0135.1681.0
Great Britain68313429643.812.6188.4631.6

ROAD SAFETY: Enforcement of Traffic and other Laws—Traffic on roads in five cities and boroughs is controlled by local authorities. Elsewhere throughout the country it is controlled by the Ministry of Transport which is also responsible for traffic on motorways. In national emergencies or major disasters, all traffic control comes under the supervision of the Ministry of Transport.

In addition to regulation of traffic and standards of driving, traffic officers enforce the laws relating to heavy traffic, and the allowable weights of vehicles and loads on different classes of road. They also enforce the legislation concerning the licensing of road transport services.

Traffic officers are not part of the Police and do not engage in criminal investigations. They form, however, a uniformed and disciplined enforcement body and a close liaison is maintained with the Police. A traffic officer now has a wide range of tests available to him where he suspects that a driver is affected by alcohol or drugs or a combination of the two.

Those persons a traffic officer suspects are driving while under the influence of alcohol or who commit a driving offence may be required to give a breath screening test. If this proves to be positive the person may be required to give either an additional evidential breath test or if he prefers a blood test.

Under new legislation introduced on I December 1978 a person commits an offence and is liable for prosecution if either:

  1. His/her breath-alcohol concentration as recorded on an evidential breath testing device exceeds 500 micrograms of alcohol per litre of breath; or

  2. His/her blood-alcohol concentration exceeds 80 mg of alcohol per 100 ml of blood. Wearing of seat belts is now compulsory for drivers and front-seat passengers in most classes of light vehicles registered after January 1955. As from 1 November 1979 all new cars registered must have seat belts fitted in the rear passenger seats and it is compulsory for rear seat passengers to wear these. For all people 8 years old and over it is law that they wear seat belts where fitted. Children under 8 years old should be restrained in a proper child restraint.

From 1 December 1973 it has been compulsory for all motor cyclists and pillion riders to wear safety helmets at all speeds.

Offences—Penalties are awarded by Courts for driving and other offences under the Transport Act 1962 and attendant regulations. There is also a system in operation whereby points are automatically registered according to a fixed scale against persons convicted of driving offences.

The Secretary for Transport has authority to suspend drivers' licences for 6 months where 100 or more demerit points are received in less than 1 year, or for 3 months where this number of points are received within 2 years. Official warnings are issued and compulsory interviews take place before these levels are reached.

Breaches of certain parking, speeding, and overloading laws are dealt with under an infringement system. A motorist is able to pay an infringement fee within a certain time and thus avoid court proceedings if he so desires. In 1974 provision was made for the infringement system to be extended to certain other offences, which are not punishable by imprisonment.

Speed Limits—The maximum speed for highways generally is 80 kilometres an hour. However, lower limits are prescribed for certain vehicles, e.g., 70 kilometres for heavy goods vehicles.

A general speed limit of 50 km/h is fixed in cities, boroughs, town districts, or other localities declared to be closely populated localities. Areas with a speed limit of 70 km/h may also be specified by the Minister of Transport; and limited speed zones may be established for which the maximum permitted speed may be either 80 km/h or 50 km/h depending on conditions and circumstances.

Inspection of Motor Vehicles—All vehicles using the roads must be inspected every 6 months to ensure that their mechanical and structural fitness is of a satisfactory standard. Most lightweight vehicles are required to have a warrant of fitness which can be issued at approved garages, or at testing stations operated by local authorities or the Ministry of Transport. All heavy vehicles, with minor exceptions, undergo a more exacting examination for a certificate of fitness, which, in respect of passenger service buses, has special regard for the safety and comfort of passengers. Taxicabs and rental vehicles also require a certificate of fitness.

The design and standard of construction of vehicles manufactured, assembled, or modified in New Zealand are also regulated to ensure safety.

Insurance—Under the Accident Compensation Act 1972 a motor vehicle scheme provides cover for everyone in respect of personal injury caused by motor accidents. There is a Motor Vehicle Fund financed by premiums paid with the annual licence fee. The legislation came into effect on 1 April 1974, replacing the compulsory third-party scheme previously operating.

Road Safety Education—Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out through the press, radio, and television and by means of posters, etc. Special road safety campaigns and traffic improvement courses are held from time to time.

The main emphasis in schools and teachers' colleges centres around integrating traffic education into the current social education programmes. Traffic Education Units are co-operatively planned and implemented by traffic instructors and teachers and are based on the special social and traffic needs of the students.

The New Zealand Defensive Driving Council provides a safety course for all licensed drivers.

Traffic safety advice is given to the Government by a permanent parliamentary select committee, by the Road Traffic Safety Research Council, and by a number of other bodies, including the 46 local road safety committees.

TRAFFIC OFFENCES—The following table shows the nature of offences reported during the years ended December 1978 and 1979. The table covers only offences reported by officers of the Ministry of Transport; in addition traffic prosecutions are taken by the police, particularly for serious offences, following accidents or other police investigations. Some city councils employ their own traffic control staff and total offences are therefore rather higher than shown.

It should be noted that the present table is on a different basis to that in previous Yearbooks. (It shows reported offences instead of offences resulting in convictions) so direct comparisons with earlier years are not possible.

Type of Offence19781979
Accident promoting offences—
    Driving or attempting to drive under the influence of drink or drugs284219
    Failing to surrender keys1744
    Breath blood-alcohol offences78906112
    Evidential excess alcohol 2094
    Warrant of fitness offences4490145138
    Certificate of fitness offences14471782
    Certificate of loading offences13751343
    Exceeding certificate of loading253248
    Reckless driving280289
    Driving in a dangerous manner14751289
    Driving at a dangerous speed951830
    Driving without reasonable consideration1095899
    Careless use of a motor vehicle116728800
    Overtaking of fences19842095
    Failure to keep to the left64065560
    Failure to yield right of way25342891
    Failure to stop in half clear road22832353
    Exceeding 50 km/h*3946236502
    Exceeding 70 km/h*20511689
    Exceeding 80 km/h*2711821253
    Breaches of limited speed zone9120
    Exceeding temporary speed limits1538893
    Exceeding by-law, etc.1060
    Failure to stop at traffic lights62086119
    Failure to stop at compulsory stop sign79217584
    Failure to give way at give way sign17031938
    Failure to yield right of way at pedestrian crossing893800
    Failure to stop/or give way for siren256300
    Failure to comply with road signs40453461
    Cycling of fences36793715
    Pedestrian offences11681
    Passenger offences292283
    Horse traffic offences1714
    Failure to wear safety helmet25452308
    Provisional motor cyclist exceeding 50 km/h176224
    Exceeding 70 km/h with trailer961858
    Exceeding 70 km/h with heavy motor vehicle368447
    Exceeding 80 km/h (omnibus)110
    Exceeding other limits152181
    Defective brakes880757
    Lighting offences1600315975
    Failure to dip lights325357
    Mechanically defective or unsafe vehicle1941516181
    Trailer offences768699
    Totals (accident promoting offences)221841204695
Type of Offence19781979

* Road user charges legislation commenced on 1 April 1978 and thus in 1978 a complete year's data for comparison is not available.

The Economic Stabilisation (Conservation of Petroleum) Regulation (No. 3) 1979 came into force on 30 July 1979.

Non-accident promoting offences—
    Failure to obey officer38232604
    Failure to fulfil duties after accident779853
    Owner failing to supply information5671127
    Failure to pay parking infringement fee193101
    Failure to pay overloading infringement fee1830
    Failure to pay speeding infringement fee3116
    Failure to pay instruction course fee2122
    No distance licence carried*2704
    Hubodometer offences*5987
    Driving without a time licence*682
    Exceeding maximum gross weight—distance—time*4392
    Display of road user licence offences*111
    Altered or defaced road user licence*566
    Driver's licence offences120875104631
    Driving whilst disqualified18571635
    Probationary driver's offences15691664
    Vehicle licences and registration offences1583013368
    Breaches of driver's hours regulations1944
    Over 100 demerit points  
    Other miscellaneous offences35694353
    Safety-belt offences191169344
    Noisy motor vehicles54764382
    Emitting excessive smoke449385
    Loading offences27842608
    Other nuisances52740
    Aiding and abetting  
    Stock offences130171
    Other by-law offences281344
    Unlicensed goods service257334
    Breach of goods service licence13451177
    Exceeding rail restriction limit512440
    Unlicensed passenger service1710
    Breach of passenger service licence3821
    Rental vehicle offences213152
    Taxicab offences110259
    No vehicle authority or not carried848603
    Other transport licence offences14091125
    Fails to display carless day sticker1009
    Operating motor vehicle on chosen carless day1451
    Carless day offences tending to mislead128
    Fuel sale restrictions6
              Totals (non-accident promoting offences)182663168879
            Parking offences111591102138
              Totals—all offences516095475712
            Parking infringement—notices issued372266341604
            Speeding infringement—notices issued4785540904
            Overloading infringement—notices issued53327455

Note: This table covers only the offences reported by the officers in the Ministry of Transport. This is the first year of computer-generated statistics. Because of the change, a detailed classification of offences resulting in convictions is not available. This table comprises total offences reported.

URBAN PASSENGER SERVICES OPERATED BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—In 1977 the Government announced a new policy in the field of urban transport. A bus replacement programme amounting to $50 million over 5 years was announced. It applied to the four main local authorities operating public passenger services—Auckland Regional Authority, Wellington City Council, the Christchurch Transport Board, and Dunedin City Council. These four therefore do not receive assistance from the Urban Public Passenger Transport Council.

An Urban Public Passenger Transport Council was established under the Ministry of Transport Act 1968 with the function of administering Government assistance by way of loans and grants for capital expenditure to urban public passenger operators, both public and private; and to encourage and conduct research into urban passenger transport and associated matters. During 1979–80 the Council made grants totalling $160,500 to local authorities operating urban transport, and loans totalling $332,040 to private operators. Recent years have been difficult for urban passenger transport operators, with mounting losses and falling numbers of passengers.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on roads and road transport will be found in the following publications:

Transport Statistics—Department of Statistics, Annual.

Road Transport Statistics—Department of Statistics bulletin, Annual.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Local Authority Statistics—Department of Statistics, Annual.

Report of the Ministry of Transport (Parl. paper F. 5).

Report of the National Roads Board (Parl. paper F. 8).

Roading Statistics—National Roads Board (annual).

Urban Transport in New Zealand (Parl. paper F. 5B, 1977).

Breath Tests in New Zealand—Ministry of Transport, annual.

Motor Accidents in New Zealand—Ministry of Transport, annual.

Traffic Research Reports—Ministry of Transport:

Driver Recall of Roadside Signs.

Priority Rules at Uncontrolled Intersections.

Accidents at Shopping Centres.

Compulsory Safety Helmet Legislation and Motor Cyclist Accidents.

Attitudes towards Drinking and Driving.

Short-term Traffic “Blitzes”.

Traffic Safety Research in New Zealand.

The Alcohol-impaired Driver.

Regulations and Enforcement.

Traffic Accident Trends and Patterns.

Evaluation of the New Zealand Compulsory Seat Belt Legislation.

Blood Test Legislation in New Zealand.

An Operational Study of a Wellington Urban Bus Route.

Road Traffic Safety Research Council—Annual report and research projects.

Report of the Working Party on Road User Charges (Parl. paper F. 5B. 1979).

Report of the New Zealand Urban Public Passenger Transport Council (Parl. paper F. 9).

Report of the New Zealand Police (Parl. paper G. 6).

Survey on Driving Practices and Opinions 1975—Department of Statistics bulletin, 1979.

Report of the Road Safety Committee (Parl. paper I. 17A).

Statistics of the Licensed Road Transport Industry—Ministry of Transport, annual.

12 E—CIVIL AVIATION

In terms of the use of air transport per head of population, New Zealand ranks among the leading nations of the world. Modem aircraft provide regular flights on a network of internal air services operated by the domestic division of Air New Zealand, while the international division of Air New Zealand, in competition with other international airlines, provides links with various nations in the Pacific and South-east Asian regions.

Early days of commercial aviation in New Zealand, and the growth and development of the international service, are described briefly in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

AIR TRANSPORT SERVICES—The state-owned airline, Air New Zealand (Domestic) and the wholly-owned subsidiary Safe Air Ltd., the air freight carrier, are the major domestic air service operators. Safe Air provides a passenger and freight service to the Chatham Islands. Mount Cook Airlines, a division of the Mount Cook Group Ltd., provides mainly tourist-orientated passenger services. There are also an increasing number of third-level operators providing scheduled and non-scheduled services throughout the country. In addition, at most aerodromes there are light aircraft operators licensed for air charter and air tad services. Aero clubs and flying schools provide facilities for training and private flying.

International air services are operated by Air New Zealand, together with QANTAS, Pan American World Airways, UTA French Airlines, Singapore Airlines, British Airways, Air Pacific, Polynesian Airlines, Continental Airlines, and Air Nauru. In addition, Japan Airlines were licensed to commence services between Japan and New Zealand from July 1980.

During 1979–80 Air New Zealand's international operations earned or saved an estimated $117 million in overseas funds, an important contribution to the country's external balance of payments.

LEGISLATION—The principal legislation affecting civil aviation in New Zealand is the Civil Aviation Act 1964. This Act established the Department of Civil Aviation which later, under the Ministry of Transport Act 1968, became a Division of the Ministry of Transport.

The Air Services Licensing Act 1951 made provision for the establishment of the Air Services Licensing Authority, a 4–man independent body, with the primary function of receiving and determining applications for the grant, renewal, amendment, or transfer of air service licences. Under the Act, an air service licence is essential for any air transport or specified aerial work conducted for hire or reward. There is a right of appeal against the decisions of the Air Service Licensing Authority to the Air Services Appeal Authority. International air services are governed by intergovernmental air transport agreements and the International Air Services Licensing Act 1947.

New Zealand is a party to the Warsaw Convention of 1929 as amended at The Hague in 1955 and these conventions define the financial liabilities of international air carriers towards their passengers. New Zealand has signed but has yet to ratify the Guatemala City Protocol which, although not in force, raises the limits of liability from $15,000 to $100,000. Air New Zealand is also a party to the airline agreement known as the Montreal Agreement, which for travel to and from the United States of America imposes a limit of US$75,000. This limit is now being extended world-wide in its application, pending the entry into force of the Guatemala City Protocol. Liabilities of domestic air carriers are governed by the Carriage by Air Act 1967 and the Carriage of Goods Act 1979.

The Airport Authorities Act 1966 empowers local authorities, with the consent of the Governor-General in Council, to establish, improve, operate, or manage airports. In pursuit of these objectives, local authorities may enter into joint-venture agreements with the Crown.

The Aviation Crimes Act 1972, which came into full force in March 1974, gave effect to the Tokyo Convention 1963 relating to offences committed on board aircraft, The Hague Convention 1970 relating to hijacking, and the Montreal Convention 1971 relating to aerial sabotage.

In 1976 an amendment to the Civil Aviation Act 1964 established the Aviation Security Service as a branch of the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport. The Aviation Security Service was charged with the screening of passengers and baggage and, where necessary, the searching of passengers, baggage, cargo, aircraft, aerodromes, and navigational installations. It was also to carry out security patrols, and in general, review, investigate, and inquire into security techniques, systems, devices, etc., co-operating where necessary with the Police, airport officials, Government departments, and other responsible authorities.

The International Air Tariff Regulations 1978 control international air tariffs in relation to travel between New Zealand and overseas. The Secretary for Transport is empowered to approve tariffs, and it is an offence to sell or provide international carriage by air otherwise then in accordance with such approved tariffs. Air travel organisers are required to keep records relating to international air travel for 2 years and to make them available to the Secretary for inspection.

AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES AND FACILITIES—The Civil Aviation division of the Ministry of Transport is responsible for the provision of ail civil aviation air navigation facilities in New Zealand and at Rarotonga, Cook Islands.

Air navigation facilities include electronic aids such as non-directional medium frequency beacons (NDB), very high-frequency omni-directional radio ranges (VOR), instrument landing systems (ILS), surveillance radar (SRE), precision approach radar (PAR), distance measuring equipment (DME), and also visual aids such as visual approach slope indicator systems (VASIS).

To promote the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic the Civil Aviation Division has an extensive ground services organisation comprising air traffic services, aeronautical communication services, airport rescue fire services, and aviation security services. The Ground Services Branch also plays a major role in the search and rescue and aerodrome emergency organisations. Elements of the Ground Services Branch are located at all aerodromes served by Air New Zealand's schedule air transport services in New Zealand. In addition to control towers and flight service stations at aerodromes, area control and flight information centres are established at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch airports and provide services to en route aircraft throughout the country. Rescue coordination centres are established at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch and are responsible for co-ordinating search and rescue operations in their respective regions.

The Flight Operations Branch is responsible for flight supervision and standards and is also responsible for the licensing of all categories of aircrew and aircraft ground personnel. A calibration flight with specially equipped aircraft is continuously engaged on the checking and calibration of all air navigation facilities.

An Aeronautical Information Service Section prepares and publishes a New Zealand aeronautical information publication, notices to airmen, and information circulars and collaborates with the Lands and Survey Department in the production of aeronautical maps and charts.

An aeronautical training college is established at Christchurch International Airport and regular courses are conducted in air traffic services, meteorology, telecommunications engineering, aeronautical communications, and rescue fire procedures.

AIR NEW ZEALAND: DOMESTIC AIR SERVICES—The New Zealand Division of Air New Zealand provides regular services to centres throughout the North and South Islands with a fleet consisting at 31 March 1980 of 9 Boeing 737s and 16 Fokker Friendships.

Statistics of the operations of the National Airways Corporation for the year before the merger with Air New Zealand and for the domestic services of the New Zealand Division in the years ended 31 March 1979 and 1980 are shown in the following table.

ItemYear Ended MarchPercentage Increase 1979–1980
197819791980
Revenue passengers carried—
    Scheduled228638823887182403674+0.6
    Charter1503911921 
Passenger kilometres created (000)—
    Scheduled151656915950001649000+3.4
    Charter8435 
Revenue passenger kilometeres (000)—
    Scheduled107674211350001163000+2.5
    Charter5369 
Revenue passenger load factor71.071.270.6 
Average passenger journey (kilometres)470.93   
Revenue tonne-kilometres created (000)180975186000186000
Overall tonne-kilometres used (000)—
    (a) Passenger and baggage94410126000127000+0.8
    (b) Freight24217
    (c) Mail1467
                Total120094126000127000+0.8
Overall revenue load factor66.467.768.4+1.0

AIR NEW ZEALAND: INTERNATIONAL AIR SERVICES—In the international field Air New Zealand provides services to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Hong Kong, Singapore, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, Fiji, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Tahiti, Honolulu, Los Angeles, Tonga, and Tokyo. Its international fleet comprises 3 Douglas DC 8s and 7 Douglas DC 10s, while B737s are used on short-haul Pacific operations.

Some data on Air New Zealand's international operations during the latest available 3 years are shown in the following table.

ItemYear Ended March
197819791980
Passengers carried8222669532101006225
Passenger kilometres flown (million)364543024430
Seat kilometres available (million)583262156264
Revenue passenger load factor (percent)62.569.270.7
Cargo and airmail tonne-kilometres (million)129152152
Total revenue tonne-kilometres (million)475560573
Total revenue load factor (percent)61.468.670.8

The following statement shows Air New Zealand's revenue and expenditure for both domestic and international operations during the year ended 31 March 1980.

ItemDomestic OperationsInternational OperationsTotal
* Includes depreciation and amortisation, interest charges, and exchange losses.
 $(thousand)
Revenue—
    Traffic revenue134,455255,218389,673
    Charter revenue1,27020,67421,944
    Contract revenue7,86319,27627,139
    Other revenue2,20712,64014,847
                Total revenue145,795307,808453,603
Expenditure—
    Flying operations46,83884,439131,277
    Engineering maintenance26,58744,21070,797
    Aircraft and traffic servicing37,12845,46982,597
    Passenger services6,22636,90843,134
    Sales and publicity13,14753,27266,419
    Administration and general12,30420,08932,393
    Other*8,40534,51942,924
                Total expenditure150,635318,906469,541
    Loss from year's trading operations before extraordinary items4,84011,09815,933

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS: Domestic—The following table gives the summarised result of the operations of scheduled domestic air services during recent years.

Calendar YearKilometres FlownPassengers CarriedPassenger-kilometresFreight Carried (Tonnes)Freight (Tonne-kilometres)Mail (Tonne-kilometres)
   (000)   
1975251712312103367861.2245391617
1976246702294105532204.6278111415
1977265262408112310163.8292161531
197828212x2520117910561.0280471496
1979272822628123445763.4315581624

International—The following table shows passengers, freight (including excess baggage), and mail carried by international scheduled air services on scheduled routes.

Calendar YearPassengers CarriedFreight CarriedMail Carried
 (000)tonnestonnes
19751179308772270
19761245397062213x
19771286416842286
19781400x49210x2361x
19791682573732666

INTERNATIONAL AIR SERVICES—Air New Zealand's international services have already been described. Other services through New Zealand include: Pan American World Airways—from the United States through Honolulu, to Auckland and beyond to Sydney; British Airways—from the United Kingdom to Melbourne and Auckland; Union de Transport Aeriens—from Tahiti to Auckland and beyond to Noumea; QANTAS—a full range of trans-Tasman services; Singapore Airlines—direct from Singapore; Polynesian Airlines—from Apia via Tonga to Auckland; Continental Airlines—from the United States via Honolulu to New Zealand and beyond to Sydney; Air Nauru from Nauru to Auckland; and Japan Air Lines from Tokyo to Auckland via Nadi.

A minority financial interest is retained by Air New Zealand in the regional South Pacific operator: Polynesian Airlines Ltd. (PAL)—operating from Western Samoa to American Samoa, Tonga, Niue, Rarotonga, Nadi, and Auckland. Cook Islands Airways is a subsidiary company of Air New Zealand.

International scheduled air services are shown by sector groupings in the following table, which shows figures for the latest available December years.

Sector and Traffic19771978
InOutInOut

* Auckland, Wellington, or Christchurch to Melbourne or Brisbane (and vice versa) and Wellington or Christchurch to Sydney (and vice versa).

Other Pacific short-haul sectors are Auckland to Noumea, Norfolk Island, Tonga, or Suva (and vice versa).

Pacific long-haul sectors are Auckland to Honolulu, Papeete, Pago Pago, Rarotonga, Singapore, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Hong Kong, or Apia (and vice versa).

Trans-Tasman—
    Auckland – Sydney – Auckland    
    Flights1099109711441098
    Passengers163091163516173265174953
    Freight and mail (tonnes)6546711881748405
    Kilometres flown (000)2590258124192406
Other trans-Tasman*
    Flights2242226019111979
    Passengers290441321009311769336794
    Freight and mail (tonnes)54638673618110133
    Kilometres flown (000)5571542146344711
Pacific short-haul—
    New Zealand – Nadi – New Zealand—
    Flights522529384420
    Passengers64865712136061768502
    Freight and mail (tonnes)1397335310843249
    Kilometres flown (000)11881200828828
Other sectors
    Flights639640845792
    Passengers32828297474747854240
    Freight and mail (tonnes)29214566434092
    Kilometres flown (000)1044105114651767
Pacific long-haul
    Flights1046108511521069
    Passengers117646125361148866139309
    Freight and mail (tonnes)3019830541048071
    Kilometres flown (000)6406644588327618

Traffic on international scheduled services is shown by airport in New Zealand in the following table. Passengers and freight in transit are excluded.

Airport and Type of Traffic19771978
Into New ZealandOut of New ZealandInto New ZealandOut of New Zealand
Auckland (Mangere)—
    Passengers483028496982543886557240
    Freight (tonnes)12632231261578527632
    Mail (tonnes)12637031144753
Wellington (Rongotai)—
    Passengers62263623266938168570
    Freight (tonnes)1184120211161316
    Mail (tonnes)129699168
    Christchurch (Harewood)—
    Passengers123580151528130374149285
    Freight (tonnes)1213374218074301
    Mail (tonnes)59634350

Lengths of flight stages from Auckland Airport are given below. These are airport-to-airport great circle distances.

DestinationDistance
 km
Apia2893
Brisbane2293
Hong Kong9145
Honolulu7086
Los Angeles10480
Melbourne2635
Nadi2156
Norfolk Island1091
Noumea1859
Pago Pago2902
Papeete4093
Rarotonga3013
San Francisco10503
Singapore8410
Suva2141
Sydney2158
Tonga2004

Distances to the Australian cities from the airports at Wellington and Christchurch differ slightly from the Auckland figures given above: Wellington-Sydney is 2235 km; Wellington-Melbourne, 2589 km; and Wellington-Brisbane, 2495 km; Christchurch-Sydney is 2124 km; Christchurch-Melbourne, 2413 km; and Christchurch-Brisbane, 2495 km.

AIR FREIGHT—Air freight involves mostly exports and imports to and from Australia, and imports from United States and United Kingdom. Exports concern mainly made-up textiles, meat, fish, and live animals, notably racehorses. Imports air-freighted are mainly machinery, scientific instruments, pharmaceutical products, and textiles.

The following table is a summary of the value of exports and imports transported by air during the 2 12-month periods ended June 1979 and June 1980. Fuller details are available from the Department of Statistics.

CommodityExports
New Zealand ProduceImported MerchandiseImports*
1978–791979–801978–791979–801978–791979–80
* Cost including insurance and freight, n.e.s.—not elsewhere specified.
 $(thousand)
Live Animals chiefly for food20,62625,3303311166,2346,188
Meat and meat preparations13,30218,896575730
Dairy products and eggs2,1757154164126
Fish, crustaceans and molluscs, and preparations9,13217,65837161,5581,671
Vegetables and fruit6,8247,96046288791,125
Other foodstuffs (including animal)7411,1646772322529
Beverages and tobacco4686853,2174,236201622
Hides, skins, and furskins, raw9,57016,08321273
Crude animal and vegetable materials n.e.s.7,68810,1453801,5492,758
Petroleum, petroleum products, and related materials6316617,97821,0305472
Medicinal and pharmaceutical products3,6646,73662087833,09737,594
Other chemicals and related products n.e.s.2,8434,3961,7022,35819,75123,933
Textile, yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, n.e.s., and related products14,13519,7896101,92028,74832,268
Other manufactured goods classified chiefly by material12,29617,1461,5542,18234,58245,701
Machinery and transport equipment23,41138,54829,76418,315190,869268,908
Scientific instruments, photographic apparatus, optical goods, watches and clocks4,3555,7887,1059,18949,21261,831
Other miscellaneous manufactured articles43,75261,7094,2655,66735,70053,903
Other goods1,2594,65459739,94914,271
                Total176,872257,46867,36766,165412,847551,803

AERIAL WORK—Aerial topdressing as a means of improving hill pastures and checking and preventing soil erosion began commercially in 1949. The industry developed rapidly and is now a major feature of peak activity in spring and autumn. The extent of aerial topdressing in any particular year is largely a reflection of the level of farm incomes. Approximately 40 percent of the total fertiliser and lime applied to farms in New Zealand is spread by means of aircraft.

Aerial spraying (i.e. the release from the aircraft of agricultural chemicals in liquid form, such as insecticides and weedicides) and aerial liquid topdressing have also been developed. The volume of this work has increased to more than 40 million litres a year, and helicopters are performing an increasing amount of this work.

Miscellaneous aerial work operations comprise very largely flight training in fixed-wing aircraft. The majority of hours flown in other categories of miscellaneous aerial work (e.g., supply dropping, fencing, photo survey) is performed by helicopters.

A summary of aerial work operations follows.

ItemYear Ended 31 December
19741975197619771978
Hours flown141993141098285039155906153507
Number of operators83858794101
Material distributed—
    Fertiliser and lime (tonnes)1105375865443106215312416241213387
    Seed (tonnes)21741978282561812302
    Spray (litres)4412728441499249433131624559778753026645
    Animal poison (tonnes)715284301023182996542
    Supplies (tonnes)53983496765833943534
    Fencing (tonnes)630761107314791481
    Dusts (tonnes)17103458
    Prills (tonnes)1944266167106
    Miscellaneous (tonnes)19344049719372157039
Source: Ministry of Transport.

Later figures of fertiliser and lime applied from the air are included in the farming section.

CIVIL AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS—Civil aircraft accidents are investigated by the Office of Air Accidents Investigation headed by the Chief Inspector of Air Accidents who has statutory powers of his own in respect of Us investigative duties and responsibilities.

During the year ended December 1980, 144 aircraft accidents were notified in New Zealand. Fifteen fatal accidents claimed the lives of 10 pilots and 10 passengers. Thirty-seven occupants and 3 non-occupants suffered serious injury, and 131 pilots, 222 passengers, and 1 non-occupant sustained little significant injury. Nineteen fixed-wing and 20 rotary-wing aircraft were destroyed. Thirty-nine helicopter accidents included 6 involving aircraft engaged in agriculture aviation, 21 in venison recovery, and 12 in other aerial work.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information may be found in the following publications:

New Zealand Civil Aviation Statistics—Ministry of Transport, annual.

Report of the Ministry of Transport (Parl. paper F. 5).

Transport Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Air New Zealand Annual Report—Air New Zealand.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

New Zealand Civil Aircraft Accidents—Office of Aircraft Accident Investigation (Aircraft accident reports, briefs, and summaries are also available on subscription from the Office of Air Accidents Investigation, care of Ministry of Transport).

Chapter 13. Section 13 COMMUNICATIONS

13 A—POST OFFICE

HISTORICAL—With the arrival of Governor Hobson in 1840 the first post office proper was set up at Kororareka (now Russell). The same year saw the establishment of offices at other settlements in the north and at Port Nicholson (Wellington), and the beginnings of overland mail routes. By 1858, 73 post offices had been opened to provide communication services for the scattered settlers. In that year a Post Office Act was passed making the Post Office an independent department of State.

The system of communication by telegraph was inaugurated in the 1860s. A separate department, the Telegraph Department, was created by Act of Parliament in 1865 to take responsibility for the erecting of telegraph lines and the opening of morse telegraph offices. The North and South Islands were linked by telegraph cable in 1866 and by telephone cable in 1926.

The telegraph and postal services were amalgamated in 1881. Under the Post Office Act 1959, the name of the department became the Post Office, and the Minister's title became Postmaster-General.

A table in the Statistical Summary towards the back of the Yearbook shows the growth of postal and telecommunication activities over the latest 50 years.

POSTAL BUSINESS—At 31 March 1980 there were 1321 post offices in New Zealand.

Because of a change in postal categories and rating structures introduced on 1 October 1977, it is not practicable to relate all current postal statistics with those published for earlier years. The following table shows the new categories which form the basis of postal statistics now prepared and gives the numbers of articles posted during the latest 3 available years.

Year Ended 31 MarchLetters (Standard and Non-Standard)Other Articles (Including Packets, Newspapers, etc.)ParcelsTotal
million
1978559.378.113.2650.6
1979565.784.010.8660.5
1980541.2102.710.4654.3

The average numbers of items posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31 March 1980 were: letters, 171.2; other articles (printed papers, commercial papers, newspapers, and magazines), 32.7; and parcels, 3.3.

Chartered air services are used to convey the bulk of surface mail between the North and South Islands.

Private boxes installed as at 30 September 1979 totalled 137089.

Rural Mail Delivery—The rural mail delivery system enables country residents to obtain postal notes, money orders, and stamps, to register correspondence and to collect or post their mail in boxes at or near their gates. The deliveries are generally performed by contractors who handle the mail in conjunction with the carriage of goods, and thus the rural mail delivery is in many areas the medium by which country residents obtain their newspapers, bread, parcels, etc. At 31 March 1979, the total number of boxholders was 93236 and at 31 March 1980, it was 94860. The cost of the rural delivery service is $10 million a year.

Inland Airmails—Particulars of letter class articles carried by air within New Zealand during the latest 3 years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchWeight
 kg
1978924137
19791006641
19801030404

Overseas Airmails—The weight of airmail dispatched from New Zealand is about 39.0 percent of the total amount of mail forwarded overseas each year. In 1979–80, 328326 kg of letters, 272588 kg of newspapers and packets, and 264670 kg of parcels were posted by overseas airmail.

Trans-Tasman Air Services—The first flight of the regular trans-Tasman service linking Auckland and Sydney took place on 30 April 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. The existing service provides for flights between New Zealand (Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch) and Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane) with a frequency overall of at least one flight each day.

New Zealand - United Kingdom Air Service—This service operates daily to London, the transit time New Zealand to the United Kingdom being normally 17 hours.

At London Airport, airmails for 14 European countries are transferred to the first available flights to destination and the majority normally arrive within 23 hours of departure from New Zealand.

New Zealand - Hong Kong and Singapore Air Services—There are direct services from Auckland to Hong Kong and from Auckland to Singapore. Airmail to countries in the Far East is dispatched to Hong Kong, Singapore, or Sydney for reforwarding.

Trans-Pacific Services—The trans-Pacific service operating between New Zealand and North America commenced on 20 July 1940. Airlines now operate a daily service to the United States.

Pacific Island Services—Airmails are forwarded by New Zealand-operated air services to the Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, Tonga, and Western Samoa (Apia). Local air services provide connections from Apia, Suva or Nandi to American Samoa, Kiribati, Nauru Island (service by Air Nauru), Vanuatu, Niue, and the Solomon Islands.

Overseas Parcel Post—Particulars of overseas parcels received and dispatched in each of the latest 4 years are contained in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchOverseas Parcels ReceivedOverseas Parcels Dispatched
NumberWeightCustoms DutyNumberWeight
  kg$(000) kg
197757752922129142,6704778851339854
19785619612104388..4088701224374
19795537082038083..3546511188069
19806068582233237..3560591192797

Postal Mechanisation—The Wellington Postal Centre is extensively mechanised. A similar modern centre has been built in Christchurch. This became operative early in 1981.

Money Orders—Inland postal money orders for amounts exceeding $7 (for $7.00 and lesser amounts postal notes are generally used) and telegraphic money orders for any amount may be purchased to send money within New Zealand, the Cook Islands, and Niue. Postal money orders may also be issued in New Zealand for payment in 64 foreign administrations, and an overseas telegraphic money order service is available to Australia, Fiji, Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Irish Republic, Norfolk Island, and Western Samoa. For remittances exceeding $4 to foreign countries a permit is required.

A special rate or commission applies to money orders payable in foreign countries, except to the Cook Islands, Niue, and Western Samoa to which the inland rate applies. In addition to commission, telegraph fees are also payable for money-order telegrams.

Postal Notes—Postal Notes for 10c, 50c, $1, $2, $3, $4, and $5 are available for payment within New Zealand, Niue, and the Cook Islands.

Postal notes are negotiable, and their period of validity is unlimited. They are a popular medium for making small inland remittances by post. During the year ended 31 March 1980, 1 337267 postal notes valued at $2,843,918 were purchased by the public.

British Postal Orders—British postal orders are both issued and paid in New Zealand. Denominations sold are 25p, 50p, 75p, £;1, and £;2 sterling. (In decimal currency, which has applied in the United Kingdom from 15 February 1971, five new pence equal the previous one shilling.) Commission is payable. For all remittances exceeding £;2 per day a permit is required. As these orders are payable in several British Commonwealth countries they are a popular medium for making small postal remittances to overseas countries, especially the United Kingdom. During the year ended 31 March 1980 the Post Office sold 666792 British postal orders valued at $2,771,186 and paid 137185 orders valued at $1,386,528.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK—Details on the Post Office Savings Bank are given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TELEPHONE SERVICES—The first telephone exchange was installed in 1881. The telephone system has since then been expanded to over 800 exchanges serving 1097721 subscribers at 31 March 1980.

Telephone exchanges are grouped into 262 toll-free-calling areas within which there is no charge for local calls. The long-term objective is to reduce the number of toll-free-calling areas to about 80. Toll fees are charged for calls between different toll-free-calling areas, at rates varying according to distance.

About one-sixth of the main telephones are business telephones. At 31 March 1980 there were 17189 applicants awaiting service.

According to the latest comparative data available (January 1979) compiled by the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks sixth in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the USA (77.0), Sweden (74.4), Switzerland (68.2), Canada (63.5), Denmark (56.5) and New Zealand (56.1).

Subscriber Toll Dialling (STD) service is in operation in Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and in several smaller centres. It is being progressively extended as new telephone exchange equipment is brought into service. At 31 March 1980 STD service was available to 49.6 percent of subscribers.

A broadband toll link, comprising microwave, radio, and co-axial cable systems, connects main centres from Whangarei to Invercargill.

The following table indicates the growth of telephone installations (the figures are as at 31 March).

Item19761977197819791980

* Amended figures as a consequence of a review of 1979–80 statistical records.

Included in main telephones.

Main telephones—
    Automatic94699197717710080921023099*1050173
    Manual72195712865606546746*47548
Extension telephones584514618898644585602089*627176
Public telephones53285381529051655019
Private line telephones24123819218083
Toll offices116411521119
                  Total telephones1610433167413217153431677279*1729999
Telephones (all types per 1000 population)514533545533*549
Applicants awaiting installations2701329517257932241017189
Number of toll calls (inland and outward international)8068552479393726829758418620412989454723

TELEGRAPH SERVICES: Telegrams—The downtrend in inland telegrams has continued. In the year ended 31 March 1980, 2.8 million messages were lodged compared with 3.2 million in the preceding year. Of these, 64 percent were lodged by telephone, 14 percent by telex, and 22 percent handed in over Post Office counters. At the delivery end, 43 percent were delivered by messenger, 43 percent telephoned to the addressee, and 14 percent telexed.

The public telegraph network comprises 107 teleprinter offices which interwork through Gentex (automatic circuit switching).

Bureaufax Service—Bureaufax is an electronic document-transfer service for the transmission of documents, including type-written and hand-written manuscripts, charts, and graphs, etc., by facsimile. The service opened in June 1980 between Auckland and Wellington and is now also available at Christchurch, Dunedin, and Hamilton. Demand for the service is expected to increase steadily.

Telex Service: Telex—the international abbreviation for Teleprinter Exchange Service—is a customer-to-customer service using page teleprinters. An international manual telex service for communicating with overseas subscribers commenced in New Zealand on 1 September 1960 with 16 subscribers. Service was then available with 23 overseas countries. Automatic service was introduced in 1964 with a total of 150 subscribers. Demand for telex connections has increased steadily and at 31 March 1980 there were 3613 subscribers.

The monthly rental for a standard teleprinter is $112.50 and for a machine equipped with a tape reader and transmitter $150. Inland calls are charged at 5.625 cents per 6 seconds.

Ancillary telex services include a public telex service at all Chief Post Offices, Hastings, and Lower Hutt (16700 messages, mostly international, were handled in the year to 31 March 1980); Phonatelex (messages accepted by telephone for onward transmission by telex) was introduced on 1 October 1977 and 52700 messages were handled during the year ended 31 March 1980. Teltex, which provides for the hand or telephone delivery of telex messages sent to any public telegraph delivery office had an annual volume of 435000 messages to March 1980.

Data Service—The use of computers in the commercial sector has created a need for facilities for transferring data from one point to another. The Post Office leases both inland and international circuits for data transmission. It also leases data modems (300, 1200, and 2400 bits per second) for use on leased lines, and provides a datel service for the exchange of data using the switched telephone networks (local, toll, and international).

For the Datel Service, Post Office modems are mandatory and subscribers are also required to rent a business telephone connection. Modems for operation at speeds of 300, 1200, and 2400 bits per second are currently available. Yearly rentals range between $186 and $720 for modems and between $225 and $389 for a business telephone connection. There is no charge for Datel calls within each free-calling area. Calls between different areas are charged at the same rate as telephone calls. Where the toll and international services are used for Datel calls the ruling toll or international rates apply as appropriate.

INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS: Cable Links—Telegraphic communication overseas was first established between New Zealand and Australia by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka (Nelson) to Sydney in 1876, and between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island, Suva, and Fanning Island in 1902. In 1945, the Commonwealth's external telecommunications systems were brought under Government control and, in accordance with the Commonwealth Telegraphic Agreement 1948, the New Zealand Post Office purchased the assets in New Zealand of Cable and Wireless Ltd., the private company previously controlling these services, and took over the operation of the overseas cable services.

In July 1962 a submarine cable with a capacity of 80 telephone channels was brought into operation between New Zealand and Australia as part of a Commonwealth round-the-world cable project. The cable was extended from New Zealand to Fiji in December 1962, and in December 1963 was further extended, via Hawaii, to Vancouver and across Canada by microwave to Montreal. At Montreal it links up with the trans-Atlantic telephone cables, to connect with Britain, and provide high-quality circuits for telephone, telegraph, and telex communication between New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Canada, the United States of America, and Britain. This cable system, known as the COMPAC cable, links New Zealand with most of the world's major countries, and it was supplemented by the bringing into service in March 1967 of the South-East Asia Commonwealth Telephone Cable (SEACOM) which extended the system from Australia to New Guinea, and (via Guam) to Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Singapore.

An additional high capacity trans-Tasman submarine cable, a joint New Zealand-Australia multi-million dollar project, was brought into service in early 1975. Known as TASMAN this cable has a total capacity of 640 telephone circuits.

Planning is now underway to replace the COMPAC cable which will soon reach the end of its design life.

The new 15000 km cable, called ANZCAN, is expected to have some 20 times the capacity of COMPAC and is planned to begin operation about 1984.

It will link New Zealand, Australia, Norfolk Island, Fiji, Hawaii, and Canada, and will be the largest single international submarine telecommunications cable project ever undertaken.

International Telephone Service—Telephone communication by cable, satellite and radio is now available to almost all countries of the world, as well as to Ross Dependency (Scott Base), Raoul Island, Chatham Islands, Campbell Island, merchant ships, and H.M. New Zealand and Australian warships.

An International Gateway telephone exchange in Auckland handles all New Zealand's outgoing and incoming international telephone calls. International Subscriber Dialing (ISD) enabling New Zealand subscribers to dial overseas subscribers directly was introduced on 1 December 1979. The facility which is presently available to 50 percent of New Zealand subscribers is being progressively extended as is the number of countries to which the service is available.

International Data Service—Datel service (operated via the switched telephone network) is available to a number of countries. Operation at speeds up to 2400 bps is permitted.

A service providing access to data bases and computing facilities connected to the Tymnet and Telenet networks located within the USA was opened on 18 September 1979. The service is named OASIS—Overseas Access Service for Information Systems. It is intended that the service will be extended to similar facilities in other countries.

International Telex Service—Since its inception in 1960 this service has continued to grow steadily and at the present time is available with 183 countries. An important development in New Zealand's international telex service was the introduction in July 1968 of automatic subscriber-to-subscriber calling. Telex subscribers in New Zealand can now call most overseas subscribers automatically without the aid of the international assistance operator. In August 1977 automatic telex service became available to ships at sea.

International Bureaufax Service—The service, which opened in September 1980, is now available to Australia, Bermuda, Britain, Canada, Hong Kong, Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan, and U.S.A.

International Telegraph Service—Telegrams are an important part of international communications and a world-wide service is available. Phototelegraph service is also available to a number of countries.

Satellite Communications—Because of the rapid increase in international telecommunication traffic, an earth station was opened in 1971 at Warkworth, near Auckland, for communicating with other countries via satellites in space.

In addition to providing additional international telecommunications facilities, the earth station is used for both “live” and recorded television relays. The earth station works through a satellite over the Pacific Ocean.

International Radio Services—Telegraph and telephone services between New Zealand and places in the Pacific area not served by cable or satellite are provided by radio through a high-power transmitting station at Himatangi and a receiving station at Makara.

Direct radio circuits are operated from New Zealand to Apia, Rarotonga, Niue, Ross Dependency (Scott Base), and Chatham Islands. Communication is effected with other islands in the Cook group by Rarotonga Radio through feeder stations. Stations in Tokelau communicate with Apia Radio.

Radio Services to Shipping—The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on 26 July 1911. Other stations are located at Auckland, Awarua, and Chatham Islands. These stations provide a service for the exchange of radio telegrams with ships at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand and Australia. A free radio-medical service also operates for ships at sea and lighthouses on the New Zealand coast. The number of ships licensed to operate radio equipment is 10209.

INLAND RADIO SERVICES—The use of radio as a means of communication continues to grow. In the Post Office very-high-frequency service, 6105 subscribers are provided with radio-telephone service to 48417 mobile units through 93 base stations throughout the country. A further 15027 mobile units are provided with service through 3491 Government and private owner-operated base stations. The fastest-growing service is the Citizen radio service. The number of walkie-talkie sets licensed increased during 1979–80 from 28679 to 37370, an increase of some 30 percent. The amateur service provides facilities for experimental communications between persons interested in radio as a hobby, and 5175 licensed stations are operated by qualified amateur operators. There are now 133329 radio transmitting stations of all types licensed compared with 119073 in 1979.

REVENUE—The revenue of the Post Office for the latest financial years is now shown.

Item1976–771977–781978–791979–80
 $(thousand)
Postal revenue—
    Postages65,17774,91181,236102,838
    Private box and bag rentals and rural mail delivery fees1,7021,7761,8011,970
    Miscellaneous1,1162,0472,5454,667
 67,99578,73485,582109,475
Telecommunications revenue—
    Telex8,71010,76613,05114,138
    Telegraph7,9578,1148,2078,714
    Tolls91,135115,183133,435152,534
    Telephones152,202184,576223,740253,394
    Overseas telecommunications18,73122,15630,01640,353
    Radio6527448211,068
 279,387341,539409,270470,201
Miscellaneous revenue—
    Fees from Government departments, etc.14,04913,22712,80317,263
    Money order and postal note commission953977995881
    Rents received693604743885
    Other revenue4,3984,9185,0805,583
 20,09319,72619,62124,612
                  Total revenue367,475439,999514,473604,288

Revenue and expenditure for the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure
 $(thousand)
1975232,221252,995
1976262,869301,589
1977367,475346,295
1978439,999402,344
1979514,473464,851
1980604,288533,433

CAPITAL—Capital expansion necessary to meet demand requires substantial provisions for new telecommunications systems and the replacement of those which have become obsolete. Accommodation to house this equipment, to provide post offices in newly developed areas, and to replace old and inadequate offices is an important part of Post Office capital development.

Capital expenditure on telecommunications development and buildings is financed partly by the Post Office, and partly from the Loans Account, on which interest is paid at the rate of 10 percent. The interest payment amounted to $39.2 million in 1979–80.

In 1979–80, $40.4 million was spent on the development of telecommunications systems and $19.5 million on land and buildings. In addition, $10.0 million was invested in other assets such as motor vehicles, tools and plant, and office equipment. This expenditure was financed from Post Office resources. It was not necessary to finance any expenditure on fixed assets from borrowings from the Loans Account. The capital liability of the Post Office is now $510.9 million and liability under capital equipment credit arrangement is $3.9 million.

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS—Because it has numerous offices readily accessible to the public, the Post Office also undertakes agency work for other Government departments. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

Receipts—For the following departments: Education (examination fees, etc.), Health, Inland Revenue (land tax and income tax, under PAYE system), Lands and Survey, National Roads Board (Road User Charges), Public Trust Office, Housing Corporation (State rents, loan and interest repayments), Electricity (some electric-power receipts), Ministry of Transport, Tourist and Publicity, Valuation, Customs (collection of Customs duty and sales tax), Treasury (Government Superannuation, National Provident Fund receipts, and motor vehicle registration and licence fees).

Payments—Departments of Social Welfare (social welfare benefits and war pensions, etc.), Health (refunds of medical expenses), Defence, Labour (subsidised wage payments), Public Trust Office, Police (witness warrants), Treasury (Government superannuation payments and miscellaneous payments for other departments), Ministry of Works and Development, and for Reserve Bank (interest warrants and coupons).

Other services performed by the Post Office are the issue of licences in respect of motor vehicles and radio apparatus, and assistance to the Marine and Civil Aviation Divisions of Ministry of Transport on radio matters. In some of the smaller centres postmasters act as registrars of births, deaths, and marriages. In each of the 92 electorates a postmaster or senior officer is appointed registrar of electors with responsibilities for the compilation, maintenance, and production of electoral rolls as directed by the Chief Registrar of Electors.

Other activities include the receipt of levies under the Motor Vehicle Accident Scheme as provided for under the Accident Compensation Act 1972, the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatisation societies, organising and selling health stamps, and collecting television licence fees.

STAFF—Staff numbers at 31 March are shown in the following table.

Classification1977197819791980
Permanent staff31815321223323433178
Temporary and non-classified staff6415677261616287
                  Total staff38230388943939539465

VEHICLES—The Post Office fleet as at 31 March 1980 consisted of 6319 vehicles; 1301 trucks, 3146 vans, 1863 cars, and 9 motor scooters. Of this fleet, 791 vehicles are used for hire to other departments, 4333 for engineering work, and 1195 on postal, telegram delivery, and other general work. The fleet travelled 83.17 million kilometres in the year ended 31 March 1980.

FURTHER INFORMATION—For further information see Parliamentary paper F. 1. Report of the Post Office.

13 B—TELEVISION AND RADIO BROADCASTING

The Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, which was created by the Broadcasting Act 1976, came into existence on 1 February 1977. It united under 1 central board, 4 independent statutory bodies—TV1, TV2, Radio New Zealand, and the Broadcasting Council of New Zealand—which had been established by the Broadcasting Act 1973. In their place, 3 programme services (TV1, TV2, and Radio New Zealand) and a Central Services Division were established. Under the Broadcasting Amendment Act 1979 the 2 television services were amalgamated on 16 February 1980 into a single television service—Television New Zealand, which is responsible for producing and scheduling programmes on both the TV1 and TV2 networks of the corporation. The Central Services Division has since been redesignated the Corporate Services Division. In the exercise of its duties and functions the Act stipulates that the corporation “acts as a trustee of the national interest” and “operates its services with the maximum independence”, and provides programmes which “inform, educate, and entertain”. The announced intention of the 1976 legislation was to restore the ultimate accountability of the broadcasting system to Parliament through the Minister of Broadcasting, to improve administrative efficiency and financial viability, and to establish a tribunal with powers to control some aspects of broadcasting, including the establishment of further private radio stations. At the same time it was intended to preserve those features of the preceding system which were thought to be advantageous to listeners and viewers in general.

Earlier forms of control dating back to the introduction of the first “wireless” stations in New Zealand were the Radio Broadcasting Company of New Zealand Ltd. (1925–31); the Broadcasting Board (1931–36); the National Broadcasting Service and the National Commercial Broadcasting Service (1936–45); the New Zealand Broadcasting Service (1945–62); and the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation (1962–75). Information on these organisations appears in the relevant Yearbooks.

BROADCASTING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—The corporation consists of not less than 7 and not more than 9 members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Broadcasting. Since 1977 the chairman of the corporation has served in the capacity of an executive chairman. There are Directors-General for Radio New Zealand and Television New Zealand. The secretary of the corporation is in executive charge of all centralised functions.

In general terms the corporation's responsibility is to carry on public broadcasting services and to develop, extend, and improve them in the public interest. In doing so, it must have regard for the general broadcasting policy of the Government. The Minister may direct the corporation in writing (although not on specific programme matters or complaints) but any such direction must subsequently be gazetted and laid before Parliament.

The corporation is required to maintain standards of accuracy, impartiality, decency, and good taste; and to this effect must promulgate rules governing programmes and advertising. The Independent Broadcasters' Association is represented on the committee formulating these rules. Additionally the corporation is charged with maintaining a New Zealand identity in its programmes, with respecting the privacy of the individual, and with avoiding the coincident presentation on the 2 television channels of programmes of a like nature. Formal complaints from the public on certain aspects of programming must receive proper consideration and, if the complainant is dissatisfied with the corporation's decision, he or she may refer the matter to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

The corporation is responsible for the publication of the New Zealand Listener and for the administration of the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra. Up to two-thirds of the cost of operating the orchestra may be met by Government appropriation.

The corporation is empowered and expected to promote and encourage artistic, cultural and educational development in the community.

BROADCASTING TRIBUNAL—A tribunal of 3 members, appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Broadcasting, is empowered to consider applications and grant warrants for additional radio stations, public or privately-owned. No warrant may be granted for any television station additional to TV1 and TV2 without the express permission of the Minister. The tribunal has no authority over any shortwave station.

It is also empowered to consider and determine complaints which in the opinion of the complainant have not been satisfactorily dealt with by the Broadcasting Corporation or the Committee of Private Broadcasters. The tribunal must have regard for Government policy on broadcasting and must comply with any written direction from the Minister which does not derogate from its duty to act judicially. Any such direction must subsequently be gazetted and laid before Parliament.

RADIO—Radio New Zealand provides programmes for 59 medium-wave broadcasting stations, and 2 short-wave transmitters of the External Services Division, the latter having a number of assigned frequencies. Of the 59 medium-wave stations, 39 broadcast advertising material. No advertising is broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. All Radio New Zealand stations maintain a daily 24–hour service, apart from shutdowns for maintenance purposes once a month, between 11.15 p.m. and 5.30 a.m. The shutdowns are staggered to give the minimum loss of coverage to listeners.

Coverage of Short-wave Service—The External Services Division of Radio New Zealand broadcasts the Home Service (National) Programme to the Pacific on 2 transmitters from 1800 to 0830 G.M.T. daily. Then one frequency beams this programme to Australia until midnight. The Home Service programme also continues to the Pacific on one frequency until midnight G.M.T.

Special breakouts to take Concert and Sports Networks to the Pacific and Australia are generally to cover major and international sporting events, e.g., All Black tours and cricket series. Radio New Zealand's Overseas Programme Unit supplements this with weekly despatches of taped programmes; news, current affairs, talks and comment including vernacular programmes. The shortwave service also carries home service news and magazine programmes in Maori, Tongan, Samoan, Niuean, and Cook Island Maori.

Local Broadcasting—Whereas in many Commonwealth countries local broadcasting has only recently begun, in New Zealand it is in many ways the most important part of the national system. Local stations not only provide a wide range of entertainment and information programmes, but also play a valuable social role through new community services and participation in cultural activities. Decentralisation of administration enables local radio stations to be highly responsive to the communities they serve.

Broadcasts to Schools—This service was virtually phased out at the end of 1979, being supplemented by a new service of the Department of Education embracing modern teaching methods more suited to the use of tape replays than direct broadcasts to schools.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Non-commercial)—Two private non-commercial stations are now in operation. One (Radio Alpha) is operated by the Otago Radio Association Incorporated and has been broadcasting since 1922 from studios located in Dunedin. It broadcasts on Wednesday, Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday nights from 1800–2230 hours and Sunday mornings from 0900–1230. The other station is owned by Radio Rhema Inc. with studios in Christchurch, and began transmission in November 1978. Broadcasting hours are Monday to Friday 0600–1805 and Saturdays, Sundays, and public holidays from 0600–2400 hours.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Commercial)—The first warrants for private commercial broadcasting stations were issued on 30 June 1970 to Radio Hauraki and Radio i, both located in Auckland, and transmissions began on 26 September 1970 and 31 October 1970 respectively. Radio Waikato was issued with a warrant on 31 July 1970 and began transmission on 2 November 1970, followed by Radio Whakatane with a warrant dated 24 November 1970 which began transmission on 30 June 1971, and Radio Otago with a warrant dated 8 June 1971 which came into operation on 20 November 1971. Later warrants enabled Radio Avon in Christchurch and Radio Windy in Wellington to begin operations late in 1973, Radio Pacific in Auckland in April 1979, Radio Central Otago in mid-1980, and Radio Foveaux (Invercargill) and Radio Manawatu (Palmerston North) in mid-1981. Advertisements are not permitted to be broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. If Anzac Day falls on other than a Sunday, advertisements are not permitted before 1300 hours. The Broadcasting Act 1973 prohibited the issue of any further warrants, but the 1976 Act reinstated the right to grant them to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

Independent Broadcasters Association—In 1970, holders of warrants for private commercial radio stations formed a federation which was subsequently approved by the Broadcasting Authority in August 1971. The general objects of the federation are to conserve the rights and interests of the members in broadcasting. The name was subsequently changed to the Independent Broadcasters Association (Incorporated).

Committee of Private Broadcasters—This consists of a chairman appointed by the Minister, and 2 members appointed by him on the nomination of the Independent Broadcasters Association. It investigates complaints against private stations, and allegations of breaches of warrants or rules, and is responsible to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

TELEVISION—In August 1958 the Government decided that the 625–line system would be the standard for any television service in New Zealand.

In October 1958 approval was given to the then New Zealand Broadcasting Service to purchase equipment to enable technical investigations to be made. The service began regular transmissions in Auckland in 1960, in Christchurch and Wellington in 1961, and in Dunedin in 1962.

In October 1969 the Minister of Broadcasting directed the Broadcasting Authority to carry out an inquiry into the extension of television services. Following extensive hearings in 1970, the authority recommended that the existing TV services be converted to colour transmission (using the PAL system). Colour telecasts began in a limited way in October 1973, and conversion of the remaining transmission equipment was completed by March 1975. At the end of 1980, 72 percent of licensed television sets were colour sets.

Extension to Coverage—Television coverage has been steadily extended to all areas of New Zealand. By the end of 1980 the first television programme (the TV1 Network) was being disseminated by six 100 kW transmitters, 150 kW, 17 of from 1 to 25 kW, and 230 installations of less than 1 kW. These transmissions reached over 99 percent of the population.

Some 134 small units are operated by private individuals or societies, the latter receiving financial assistance from the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand. These small transmitters cover less than 1 percent of the population.

Transmission of the second television programme (the TV2 Network) began from 300 kW transmitters at Auckland and Christchurch on 30 June 1975. By the end of 1980 it was carried by five 300 kW transmitters, two 100 kW, 5 of from 1–25 kW, and 71 installations of less than 1 kW. Five small installations were operated by private groups. Approximately 91 percent of the population was covered by second programme transmitters. By the mid-1980s TV2 should have full nationwide coverage.

Second programme transmitters for other areas are to be provided progressively until identical coverage is achieved for both programmes.

Over 94 percent of homes in New Zealand are equipped with television sets.

Television Programmes—The BCNZ Television New Zealand Service operates 2 national networks in colour—the TV1 network which originates programmes from the Avalon television complex in Lower Hutt and the TV2 Network which originates programmes from the Auckland studios. TV1 transmits some 88 hours of programmes per week and TV2 some 71 hours. Five days are commercial. Sundays are non-commercial on each network. Fridays are non-commercial on TV1 and Saturdays are noncommercial on TV2.

TVNZ has production studios at Auckland (3), Avalon (3), Christchurch (2), and Dunedin (2). Colour outside-broadcast units are stationed at each of the 4 main centres (Auckland 3, Wellington 2, Christchurch 1, Dunedin 1) and are deployed for live coverage of sport and programme production from towns and cities in both islands. Comprehensive film facilities are installed at each centre.

With the change in the administrative organisation of TV1 and TV2 into a unified 2–channel operation from 16 February 1980, the stated intention was to give a wider range of programming to viewers and to rationalise the use of facilities by the channels. The specific BCNZ objectives were to provide the kind of complementary programming which a two-channel co-operative system could offer the public: offer wider scope for regional television; eliminate competitive practices which annoy viewers; cater to minority and cultural audiences at more suitable times than had previously been possible; and to fulfil the social, cultural, and educational potential of television. Local output for the 1979–80 financial year was estimated at 2550 hours. This content included drama, news, and current affairs, light entertainment, religion, service programmes, and sport. The balance of programme output is purchased from overseas, mainly from Britain, the United States, and Australia. The use of satellite links permits same-day presentation of world news items and live telecasts of significant overseas events, particularly in the field of sport.

NEW ZEALAND SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA—The New Zealand Symphony Orchestra was formed in 1946 as the National Orchestra and adopted its present title in 1975. It is a full symphony orchestra widely known for the high standard of its public concerts as well as its performances over the air. Distinguished guest conductors and celebrity artists from other countries, along with resident soloists and New Zealand choirs, appear regularly with the orchestra. As a national orchestra, its tour programme is one of the most extensive in the world, involving some 15000 miles of internal travel annually. The playing strength is 89 players, which enables the orchestra to undertake the complete symphonic repertoire.

In 1974 the orchestra undertook its first overseas tour to 3 Australian cities. Its second, in February 1980 was to Hong Kong. As well as presenting nationwide concerts the orchestra has given many studio recordings for both radio and television. It has also made several commercial recordings. There is also a small training orchestra of string players which was established in 1961 as a scheme to develop promising students wishing to gain experience of the orchestral profession. The NZSO also organises an annual season by the National Youth Orchestra which was established in 1959.

NEW ZEALAND LISTENER—Programmes and advance information for national television channels and radio stations are published in the weekly journal, the New Zealand Listener, first issued on 30 June 1939. The circulation of the Listener as at the end of March 1981 was 365000. The readership is estimated to be 1 250000. As well as containing programme information the Listener occupies a special place in New Zealand journalism as a leading periodical dealing with the current scene. It publishes interviews, articles, and reprints of broadcasts as well as fiction, poetry, and criticisms. Through its editorial and correspondence columns, the Listener provides a forum for serious public discussions on important issues.

FINANCES—There have been 2 principal sources of revenue: licence fees and radio and television advertising. Under the NZBC licence, fee revenue was credited to the accounts of the non-commercial stations and sales revenue to those of the commercial stations, although a common fund was in fact operated with all revenue being available for the general purpose of broadcasting. The NZBC was abolished on 1 April 1975 and was replaced by 4 corporations—Television Service One, Television Service Two, Radio New Zealand, and the Broadcasting Council of New Zealand. Under that structure the licence fee revenue was allocated amongst the 4 organisations by the council. On 1 February 1977, when the four-corporation structure was replaced by the consolidated Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, a single main bank account, known as the Broadcasting Account, was established. All income and payments are handled through this account.

Gross revenue from licence fees and from advertising for the latest 5 financial years is shown in the following table.

Item1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80
 $(thousand)
TV-licence fees25,76927,59529,74131,71933,600
Radio advertising10,97412,38714,85016,62120,493
TV advertising20,89430,35239,09543,74955,310
                Total57,63770,33483,68692,089109,403

LICENCES—As from 1 October 1971 the radio licence, which stood at $3 a year, was abolished and the monochrome television licence raised from $13 a year to $20. A colour television licence fee of $35 was introduced on 1 November 1973. On 1 January 1975 licence fees were increased to $27.50 (monochrome) and $45 (colour).

The following table summarises licences for television receivers issued by districts.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedinTotalNumber of Sets Covered by Hirers Licences*

* Included in preceding figures.

Includes 188911 colour sets in 1976, 302212 in 1977,394195 in 1978, 499210 in 1979, and 583183 in 1980.

Including other.

197628724423036211062268590811182124344
197728506721950711617568554815798126495
197829889622600411880470953843555131898
197929851622235611936069035859885150618
198030034022873811688370121883021166939

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on broadcasting will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper F. 3).

Report of the Broadcasting Tribunal (Parl. paper F. 4).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

13 C—NEWSPAPERS AND CINEMAS

NEWSPAPERS—Although printing in New Zealand began peacefully enough with the production of hymns in the Maori language, the early years of the New Zealand press appear to have been stormy, acrimonious, and marked by frequent shortages of the basic necessities of newspaper production. The first newspaper to be printed in New Zealand was the New Zealand Gazette of 18 April 1840, but like most early New Zealand newspapers it was short-lived. Much of the newspaper writing of early days was powerful, dogmatic, sometimes virulent and irresponsible, and the Government or other target of attack reacted with equal force. One way of closing down a rival or too-critical newspaper was to buy up the press on which it was printed. When this method of silencing was used against the Auckland Times in 1842 the proprietor continued publication with the aid of a job-lot of assorted old type, a load of coarse paper, and a mangle. Another paper appeared for some weeks printed on red blotting paper, and others appeared on occasion on green or blue paper or in varying paper sizes or qualities. Appeals for supplies of paper sometimes appeared in advertisements and one paper made a despairing appeal for treacle, apparently an essential ingredient in inking-rollers. One Auckland paper was made to yield to a unique form of forceful persuasion. In 1865 the New Zealander published an article which gave offence to the Navy, whereupon a large number of sailors passed a hawser through the newspaper office and back over the roof, and threatened to overturn the building unless there was a full retraction.

Since 1840 about 500 different newspapers have appeared in New Zealand, but relatively few have survived. The oldest surviving newspaper is the Taranaki Herald, started in 1852. A number of the large metropolitan dailies still in existence were started in the 1860s.

By world standards, New Zealand has had (and continues to have) a large number of newspapers for the size of population. In the past, difficulties of geography and the scattered nature of the centres of population prevented any daily newspaper achieving a national circulation. Today, aided by distribution during the dead hours before dawn, the morning papers published in Auckland and Wellington are, between them, able to cover much of the North Island, while the Christchurch morning paper covers much of the South Island. Nevertheless, the provincial press remains fairly strong. New Zealand still has a relatively large number of local papers published daily, weekly, or 2, 3, or 4 times a week which, by offering a detailed coverage of local news, are complementary to the newspapers published in the main centres rather than in competition with them. Most of the provincial dailies are evening papers.

There are 7 daily newspapers in the 4 main metropolitan areas, with a total circulation of approximately 707000. In the smaller cities and provincial towns there are about 30 daily newspapers. New Zealand also has about 110 general-interest non-dailies, of which 78 publish once to 3 times a week.

The total number of magazines, periodicals, and journals published and sold by large establishments and ancillaries in 1974–75 was 13539000 and in 1975–76, 9165000. The total number of copies of daily newspapers sold in 1974–75 was 329519000 and in 1975–76 it was 316784000.

In the following table, based on the UN Statistical Yearbook, the total circulation of daily and non-daily (including Sunday) newspapers is shown per 1000 inhabitants for selected countries. Circulation figures for non-daily papers in New Zealand include those for the weekly, fortnightly, or monthly local papers distributed free in many districts.

CountryYearCopies per 100 Inhabitants
DailiesNon-dailies

*1974.

1973.

Australia1975394 
Canada1973235289
Denmark197534130
France1975214196*
Germany, West197531255
Italy197511346
Japan1974526 
Netherlands197331582
New Zealand1972365547
USSR1975397264
United Kingdom1975388 
United States1975287166

Advertising—The advertising revenue of newspapers and periodicals is shown in the following table for the latest available years.

Type of Publication1974–751975–761976–771978–79
 $(thousand)
Newspapers, daily53,37858,56169,87687,074
Newspapers, other than daily5,8986,6408,05610,367
Magazines, journals, and periodicals3,4843,2372,7844,446

CINEMAS—The survey of cinemas for the year ended 31 March 1975 covered 203 theatres compared with 208 in 1973. Cinema admissions, which had been dropping since the introduction of television in 1961, showed a recovery in the last survey. Compared with the position 2 years earlier, total admissions during 1974–75 were up by 3.2 million and admissions per head of population, at 5.1, were above both the 1972–73 and the 1970–71 figures, although well below the wartime peak of 21.3 in 1944–45 when admissions totalled 35.4 million. The survey of cinemas for the year ended 31 March 1981 is now being processed.

The following table gives figures of cinema attendances and takings.

YearCinemasAdmissionsGross Admission TakingsAverage Admission PriceAdmissions Per Head of Mean Population
 No.No.$(000)cNo.
1970–71210130877,82859.84.6
1972–73208118709,85583.04.0
1974–752031503514,12994.05.1

The following statistics refer to the 3 latest available surveys.

Item1970–711972–731974–75
* Includes 1 circuit ox itinerant operator.
Cinemas—
    Screenings 6 days per week120134134
    Screening odd days per week897469
    Circuit1
                Total210208203
Cinemas according to seating accommodation—
    Under 200101613
    200 and under 500766878
    500 and under 100010310595
    1000 and over201917
                Total210*208203
Seating accommodation (all cinemas)No.129434126185119365
Average seating capacity per cinemaNo.616607588
Persons engaged—
    Full time—
        MalesNo.261227241
        FemalesNo.190226244
    Part time—
        MalesNo.425405422
        FemalesNo.664784886
Performances per yearNo.896909494891304
Average attendance per performanceNo.146125165

Statistics on the commercial operation of theatres are given in the following table. These statistics relate only to cinemas, and do not purport to show employees, revenue, and expenditure of the motion picture industry as a whole. In particular, the full revenue and expenditure in connection with screen advertising, and also head office expenses of controlling companies (including such items as interest on debentures and mortgage charges), unless recovered from exhibitors, are not recorded in the statistics. The item “Rent” under Expenditure does not represent the rental value of all theatres, but only the rent paid where theatres were leased or rented.

Item1970–711972–731974–75

* Includes drawings of working proprietors.

In 1972–73 other receipts included a large increase in revenue from sales of confectionery and beverages not recorded in previous surveys.

Revenue—$(thousand)
    Admission receipts7,8289,85514,129
    Screen advertising337362413
    Other receipts5021,2942,029
                Total8,66711,51116,571
Expenditure—
    Salaries and wages*1,8882,4523,288
    Film hire2,6403,2125,193
    Advertising2,8283,6814,565
    Rent
    Repairs and maintenance
    Depreciation
    Other expenses
                Total7,3569,34513,046

Classification by Statistical Areas—In the following table, cinemas have been classified by statistical areas; further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

The average attendance per performance in 1974–75 rose in all areas except Marlborough.

Statistical AreaPopulation Estimate at 1 April 1975CinemasSeating AccommodationAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions Per Head of PopulationPerformances For YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Seating Capacity per Hall
 (000)No.No. of SeatscNo.No.No.No.
Northland100.49444480.93.92918135494
Central Auckland796.74025995104.45.726771170650
South Auckland Bay of Plenty464.1371824472.25.013812168493
East Coast48.58346680.76.62.163148433
Hawke's Bay144.97382783.04.13088193547
Taranaki104.910577777.84.43157146578
Wellington591.9332502399.14.917612164758
Marlborough34.33134974.12.2103474450
Nelson72.36389481.04.22054149649
Westland22.54167076.55.2984119418
Canterbury428.12514602102.14.410363183584
Otago185.815670293.54.04706160447
Southland111.06437280.84.02642169729
              Total3105.420311936594.05.191304165588

Classification by Urban Areas—Statistics for the principal urban areas are as follows. Further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

Urban AreaPopulation Estimate at 1 April 1975CinemasSeating AccommodationAdmissions per SeatAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions per Head of PopulationPerformances per YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
 (000)No.No. No. of seatsNo.cNo.No.No.No.percent
Northern Auckland746.43524380183104.96.02539517697718.0
Western Auckland
Central Auckland
Southern Auckland
Upper Hutt Valley333.71513592134109.25.510188179100317.8
Valley Hutt
Porirua Basin
Wellington
Christchurch297.9149382169106.65.3814319578724.8
Dunedin114.46367317197.65.5372316964726.1
                Total1492.47051027167105.65.74744917992419.4

Classification of Cinemas—The following table shows further statistics of cinemas classified by the number of screening days weekly.

ScreeningCinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAverage Admission ChargeAdmission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Admission Takings
 No.No. of seats(000)c$(000)$(000)percent
Six and 7 days per week134957081432194.713,5675,03737.1
Fewer than 6 days per week692365771578.656215727.9
                Total2031193651503594.014,1295,19336.8
ScreeningPersons EngagedPerformances for the YearAverage Number of Paid Admissions per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
Full TimePart Time
MaleFemaleMaleFemale
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.percent
Six and 7 days per week2632523748588233817478422.2
Fewer than 6 days per week41201116689668040519.8
                Total3042724859249130416574722.1

Chapter 14. Section 14 FARMING

14 A—GENERAL SURVEY

Most of New Zealand's dairy farms are in lowland areas of the North Island, where naturally fertile or improved soils make for good grass growth. Approximately 90 percent of the total dairy stock in the country are grazed on the flat and undulating land of Northland, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, and Wellington. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry. Carrying capacity may be as high as 2.5 cows per hectare, and annual production as high as 400–450 kg of milkfat per hectare. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. In most of the dairying areas lamb raising is also undertaken.

On the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are raised.

Sheep finishing farms are generally located on land which is of high fertility, either naturally or as a result of topdressing. Country of this type is usually flat to undulating in topography, and tends to be concentrated on the coastal plains and river valleys of both islands, e.g., the Waikato basin, the Poverty Bay flats, and the Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, Canterbury, and Southland plains. In the North Island it is normal to rely on pasture as a sole diet, while in the drier and colder areas of the South Island it is necessary to grow special crops for supplementing the ewe flock feeding over the winter.

Finishing farms vary considerably in area and in the size of flock carried. A flock of 2000 to 2500 ewes is commonly regarded as a 1-man unit. The average range in carrying capacity is from 7 to 15 ewes wintered to the hectare. Lambing percentages are variable but average from 90 to 100 lambs per 100 ewes mated. The aim of the farmer is to sell a high proportion of these lambs, straight off their mothers, at carcass weights around 12–14 kg. In the North Island, cattle are normally purchased in the spring and in the autumn, and are finished, if possible, by the following autumn. On some properties, store wether lambs from the hill-breeding flocks may also be brought in for finishing. The amount of meat produced on finishing farms averages about 160–170 kg per hectare.

Hill country sheep farming covers extensive areas in both islands. The stock carried consists of mixed-age flocks of breeding ewes, ewe hoggets for replacements, and rams. Where part of the property is underdeveloped, wethers may also be carried. Products sold are wool (which usually represents 50 percent or more of the total farm income), some wether lambs, store lambs for finishing and, of most importance, breeding ewes.

A large proportion of the beef cattle are also run on hill-country properties.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. The bulk of New Zealand's wheat, oats, and barley production comes from these districts. The majority of the cereal-producing farms also finish sheep and lambs.

SOILS—Soil is a product of its environment—its composition depends on the parent ingredient, the climate, the length of time it has weathered, the topography, and the vegetation under which it has formed. The complex soil pattern of New Zealand is a result of the many different kinds of rock, and the various conditions under which the soils have formed.

New Zealand includes such extremes as the subtropical climate of North Auckland, the cold uplands of the alpine regions, and the semi-arid basins of Central Otago.

The country's topography is also varied—50 percent of the land is classifiable as steep, 20 percent is moderately hilly, and only 30 percent is rolling or flat.

The natural vegetation ranges from kauri forest to subalpine scrub, and from tussock grassland to broadleaf forest. From time to time, occurrences such as river floods on alluvial plains, sand drifts, or a volcanic ash eruption interrupt and alter the pattern of soil development.

Regional differences in New Zealand's soils result mainly from the effects of climate on topography. Soils develop more rapidly under high temperatures and a heavy rainfall. In New Zealand, distinct soil gradations are found, both from north to south and from west to east. These closely follow the isohyets (lines connecting places that receive the same amount of rain) on a climatic map.

Increased knowledge of the soils of New Zealand has brought about a change in approach to soil management. Soils have been mapped and their properties and uses determined. This has stimulated the rapid conversion of large areas of “problem” land into good farms and has raised land use to a new pitch of efficiency, which reflects the modern changes to farming as an up-to-date science.

Farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers, phosphatic fertilisers, lime, and trace elements. The use of aircraft for topdressing and oversowing of grass is resulting in considerable improvements to hill pasture, with a consequent increase in carrying capacity and production.

New Zealand soils may be classified on a regional basis as follows:

RegionSoilsVegetation and Land Use
North Auckland Peninsula and Auckland regionNorthern yellow-brown earths and podzols left by kauri forest. Loams and clays from volcanic rocks. Soft-rock uplands with volcanic outcrops.Heavily forested (high rainfall and humidity). Patches of rich dairy land on formerly swampy organic soils. Some wool and store sheep. Dairying, fat lambs near Auckland. Patchy land use.
Bay of Plenty - Waikato - Thames - Hauraki PlainsVolcanic ash covers much of area. Most soils intrazonal or azonal. Yellow-brown pumice soils in Bay of Plenty. Peaty soils with high ground water on Hauraki Plains.Intensively-farmed dairying region. Land use almost entirely based on grass and clover, with great reliance on topdressing. Some fat lambs. Extensive exotic forests in Bay of Plenty region.
Volcanic PlateauPumice soils, lacking in essential trace elements. Yellow-brown pumice soils from volcanic material.Largely undeveloped scrub and native forest. Extensive exotic forests. Topdressing of former manuka and scrub area for farming.
East CoastSouthern and central yellow-brown earths. Patches of recent alluvial soils along rivers. Yellow-grey earths on rolling land south of Hawke Bay.Semi-extensive sheep farming (wool and store sheep). Intensive fat-lamb production on flat to rolling plains. Market gardens and orchards near Napier and Hastings. Some pip fruit. Pockets of dairying close to main ranges from Norse-wood south.
TaranakiRing plain consists of yellow-brown loams, with granular clay from volcanic ash. Overlay of fertile ash and sediment from Mount Egmont. Soft-rock uplands away from coast.Distinct contrast between rich, closely-farmed dairying ring plain and inland country with its steep ridges mainly covered in second-growth forest or dense gorse, and severely eroded.
Manawatu-Horowhenua Coast PlainSand dunes and swampy hollows common along coast. Steep-land yellow-brown earths inland. Extensive young soils from dune sands along coast.Many hollows contain native flax (Phormium tenax). Pockets of dairying and fat-lamb production.
NelsonPockets of fertile, recent alluvial soils in yellow-grey and yellow-brown earths.Orchards and market gardens. Hops and tobacco also grown on flat, rolling land.
Marlborough-Kaikoura CoastYellow-brown earths with pockets of alluvial soils.Where land is developed, mainly sheep or cash cropping.
West CoastExtensive grey podzols, with recent swamp soils on alluvial flats.Mostly undeveloped scrub and native bush. Some dairying.
Canterbury PlainsVery thick layer of gravel deposited by rivers—thickest and coarsest near mountains from which rivers flow. Soils range from stony gravel to fine silts.Deep layer of fine sediment provides fertile soil for cereals and fodder crops, and makes good sheep pasture. Cash cropping on former swamp near Christchurch.
OtagoHigh-country yellow-brown earths on ranges, yellow-grey earths, often stony, in basins.Sheep farming for wool and fat lambs plus some cattle and some orchards. Irrigation necessary in low-rainfall area.
Southland and FiordlandSouthland Plain has extensive deposits of gravel and silt. Fiordland has mostly subalpine grey soils and grey podzols.Fat-lamb production in Southland. Fiordland agriculturally undeveloped and unproductive. Scenic attractions.

OCCUPIED LAND: Tenure—The tenure of occupied land in recent years is shown in the following table.

YearNumber of HoldingsFreehold LandCrown LandLeasehold LandOther LandTotal Land Occupied
hectares (000)
19756706399819559128111620938
197667774101519613132713321224
197768571101759563131317521225
197869401101999625131911021254
197970452105859193133012321231

Land Usage—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1979 by statistical area is given in the following table.

Statistical AreaNo. of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneCrops, Fruit, or NurseryPlantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingTotal Area of Holdings*
Established Before 30/6778Established During Year Ended 30/6/79
* Including “Other”.
 hectares (000)
Northland627866511840281068
Central Auckland630228639288415
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty1652217723238402433404
East Coast1506559982822718
Hawke's Bay4276890221943421304
Taranaki442944164411611
Wellington788913912835411541994
                North Island4720260031111215863099514
Marlborough1310213810174911150
Nelson235516781070791417
Westland77396321536936
Canterbury89489851191784315153355
Otago482284740655218773284
Southland50426972667243581575
                South Island232503006204332221435611717
                New Zealand704529009315453807466521231

Farm Type—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1979 is shown by farm type in the following table.

Farm Type**Number of HoldingsGrassland and lucerneLand In or Prepared for Fruit, Grain, Crops, Vegetables, etc.Plantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingOther Land on HoldingTotal Area of Holdings

* Seventy-five percent or more is derived from stated activity.

From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity, and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

|| More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

The relevant percentage of income may be derived from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

** These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

 hectares (000)
Dairy farming*14756105515323801176
Sheep farming*1749734621293225765676765
Beef farming*647447157289206978
Pig farming*552101112
Cropping*144734501590
Dairy farming with sheep3835714971
Dairy farming with beef675862413105
Dairy farming with other268172120
Sheep farming with dairy123171321
Sheep farming with beef56592153372311624813856
Sheep farming with cropping1112165431199236
Sheep farming with other362513119579
Beef farming with dairy16016219
Beef farming with sheep1116260339785449
Beef farming with other241142320
Cropping with sheep49939311374
Cropping with other1715510
Pig farming with other1505117
Stud farming||6374211348
Mixed livestock390191116143332191493
General mixed farming§13361405111510217
Poultry farming||5406118
Market gardening and flowers||162114203239
Orchards||238491911435
Tobacco growing||212421310
Nurseries||396124
Plantations||645211691916642385
Other farming114368526869021089
Idle land5992194311916981914
                  Total, all farm types7045293254538064665598221231

FARM EMPLOYMENT SURVEY—At 30 June 1979 the total number of persons working on farms was 152976, a decrease of 2.6 percent compared with the 1978 total of 157026. Of these, 84705 (84896 in 1978) were working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers, 61429 (61032 in 1978) of whom worked 30 hours or more a week.

Female working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers decreased by 240 or 1.4 percent from 30 June 1978 to 30 June 1979. Male working owners also decreased by 41 or 0.1 percent.

There were 70452 (69401 in 1978) productive farms included in the survey. On 58120 farms (57792 in 1978) there were working owners, leaseholders, or sharemilkers.

The following table shows persons working on farms by farm type at 30 June 1979.

Farm Type**Working Owners, Leaseholders, and SharemilkersUnpaid Members of Family Assisting on FarmPaid Permanent EmployeesCasual Workers at 30 JuneTotal Workers on Farms
Full-timePan-time

* Gross income of 75 percent or more is derived from stated activity.

From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§ Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

|| More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity

The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

** These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

Dairy farming*2379659294184171757336199
Sheep farming*20547615851612398172735991
Beef farming*7348179953735916410207
Pig farming*80217924282151320
Cropping*161131918984762279
Dairy farming with sheep63317818052301073
Dairy farming with beef1177311336133331990
Dairy farming with other485102865123747
Sheep farming with dairy1653139198262
Sheep farming with beef668318724385113791314990
Sheep farming with crop-ping1373482415197792546
Sheep farming with other4561561355643846
Beef farming with dairy23978401412383
Beef farming with sheep12954344951231122459
Beef farming with other29877362414449
Cropping with sheep61916215676691082
Cropping with other19974441319349
Pig farming with other2225569318385
Mixed livestock4982156321775844129718
General mixed farming§17495135222381893211
Poultry farming||8721924815391462230
Market gardening and flowers||23205046094116854529
Orchards||3313723128246617197503
Tobacco growing||27086197102339994
Nurseries||595999382603272219
Plantations||408614018902954872
Other farming22485997752882334143
                Total, all farm types84705227362772895448263152976

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE ON FARMS—An annual survey of capital formation in the farming industry is made by the Department of Statistics. For the year ended 30 June 1979 capital expenditure was reported by 54.9 percent (38659) of the 70452 farms and plantations surveyed.

The following table shows capital expenditure by type during the latest available 3 years. For each type of expenditure the figure given is net, i.e., receipts from “trade-ins” or sales have been deducted from the gross expenditure.

ItemYear Ended June
197719781979
* Includes construction of permanent yards, airstrips, bridges, roading, and stock or dairy water supply systems.
 $(thousand)
Buildings—
    Owners houses49,88151,24152,395
    Houses for employees8,66511,25811,021
    Other employee accommodation2,0532,4022,133
    Other buildings35,45238,54944,914
            Total, all buildings96,052103,451110,463
Land development—
    Construction*17,28820,45424,849
    Land clearing18,72320,05232,379
    Fencing25,08626,16733,164
    Drainage5,3726,3477,697
    Irrigation3,1083,2894,444
    Other land development3,9065,7777,047
                Total, land development73,48282,086109,581
Transport vehicles—
    Cars27,29722,04734,847
    Other farm vehicles34,42228,12246,656
    Other forest vehicles8153,9631,381
                Total, transport vehicles62,53554,13282,885
Machinery—
    Farm tractors47,53137,69957,435
    Logging equipment918367828
    Other machinery34,12031,15440,825
                Total, machinery82,56969,22099,088
    Working animals1,6481,6581,925
                Total capital expenditure316,285310,547403,941

The following table shows capital expenditure, net of sales, by farm type during the year ended 30 June 1979. It includes holdings given over wholly to plantations of exotic timber.

Farm type**BuildingsConstructionTransport VehiclesFarm MachineryOther Improvements and Developments††Total Capital Expenditure

* Seventy-five percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity, and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§ Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

|| More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

The relevant percentage of income may be derived from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

** These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

†† Includes working animals.

 $(thousand)
Dairy farming*21,2034,45914,61821,5828,95470,816
Sheep farming*28,9785,60226,61124,37628,956114,523
Beef farming*7,5848343,4802,7793,36018,036
Pig farming*991733913072051,967
Cropping*2,1281889203,6698867,791
Dairy farming with sheep6681815076104132,379
Dairy farming with beef9913239261,2917654,295
Dairy farming with other472752315402101,528
Sheep farming with dairy309338296156677
Sheep farming with beef11,5203,44111,45410,46416,85353,733
Sheep farming with cropping2,3782752,3714,1311,62210,778
Sheep farming with other8681335806815892,851
Beef farming with dairy271522262832161,049
Beef farming with sheep1,9646711,3111,3752,3087,629
Beef farming with other472372151861551,063
Cropping with sheep8411489072,7165805,192
Cropping with other240152265671711,218
Pig farming with other2836910213741631
Stud farming||1,1592414665044472,817
Mixed livestock7,1281,5366,1855,7807,27727,905
General mixed farming§2,5063552,5145,4331,70912,517
Poultry farming||1,350205115931552,629
Market gardening with flowers||3,1211711,5542,5836368,066
Orchards||4,8703372,1544,5632,32914,253
Nurseries||1,349463675432492,555
Plantations||2,3625,0142,7071,1375,34916,570
Other farming4,4585201,2692,1612,06510,474
                Total110,46324,84982,88599,08886,657403,941

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—The Agriculture Production Account covers the activities of all market-oriented establishments classified to agricultural and livestock production or to agricultural services (major groups 111 and 112 of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification). All types of farms are included, together with agricultural services operated by contractors, such as top-dressing, weed-spraying, harvesting, threshing, shearing, and scrub cutting. Other services included are herd testing and artificial insemination. Farms operated as trading enterprises by the Department of Lands and Survey and the Department of Maori Affairs are included, but not Government research or demonstration farms or farms attached to prisons, psychiatric hospitals, or universities.

The account includes all income derived from the activities of the establishments covered, including their characteristically farming activities, and also their “other” productive activities. However, investment income (such as dividends, interest, and rent) accruing to the proprietors of farming establishments is excluded.

The main change made in the 1976–77 series shown in this sub-section as compared with the earlier 1971–72 series shown in previous Yearbooks is that the actual sale value for output is used rather than the national “farm gate” valuation used for the 1971–72 series. This means that the output valuations are higher and an equivalent amount has been included in input to cover costs incurred by the farmer in marketing and transporting his produce. For instance, livestock are valued at point of sale, which may be as delivered to meat export works or abattoirs, at the sale yards, on the farm, or by private arrangement. Likewise, actual values and volumes of wool sold at auction are as supplied by the New Zealand Wool Board. Wool consigned by growers directly to the United Kingdom has been valued at the average prices received there.

The Agriculture Production Account is published annually as an appendix to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, and this should be consulted for further information on methodology, etc.

AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION ACCOUNT
ItemYear Ended March
197719781979x1980*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Input
    Intermediate consumption1,2921,3151,7032,037
    Compensation of employees262281361390
Operating surplus—
    Interest paid158196224281
    Proprietors' surplus from farming activity8397169731,451
    Consumption of fixed capital203228249307
    Indirect taxes47556380
    Less subsidies−26−23−99−32
Gross input2,7752,7683,4744,514
Output
    Characteristic products of industrial activity2,7652,7583,4644,501
    Other products10101013
    Gross output2,7752,7683,4744,514

The following table shows details of the Agriculture Production Account item. Intermediate consumption.

ItemYear Ended March
197719781979x1980*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Animal health, weed and pest control95106149171
Shearing expenses43485968
Fertiliser, lime, and seeds129155132205
Vehicle expenses135143163197
Electricity26333954
Feed and grazing105111120137
Agricultural services59475261
Repairs and maintenance132138159187
Packing and containers9121417
Railage and cartage53566472
Administration and general expenses8291125146
Insurance10121416
Rent30283539
Inter-farm purchase of livestock383336578667
                Total1,2921,3151,7032,037

GROSS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION (GROSS OUTPUT)—The following table of Gross Agricultural Production shows the value of production for March years.

Product GroupYear Ended March
197719781979x1980*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Sheep and lambs402388543565
Wool584502613851
Cattle364353563668
Pigs42464764
Dairy products482513530688
Crops and seeds162164172184
Fruit606599130
Vegetables6287111121
Poultry and eggs8285100112
Agricultural services126145175199
Other—
    Farm products26333449
    Non-farm products10101013
Physical change of livestock at average market price—
    Deer+4+7+17+33
    Sheep+23+64−26+145
    Cattle−41−31−89+25
    Pigs+3+1−3- -
Inter-farm sales of livestock383336578667
Gross agricultural production (gross output)2,7752,7683,4744,514

VOLUME OF NET AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—The index of the Volume of Net Agricultural Production is arrived at by deducting intermediate consumption expressed in constant dollar terms from outputs in constant dollar terms and expressing the difference in index form.

The importance of the net volume series lies in the fact that it measures the volume of the contribution of the agriculture industry alone, after elimination of the contribution of all other industries to gross agriculture output. The net index is preferable to the gross index in analysing the contribution of agriculture to the country's real gross domestic product and the changing importance of agriculture in the economy and its productivity.

In the following table the series is shown in index form and in annual percentage movements. The base is 1971–72 (= 1000). The index numbers for earlier years have been revised to embody the change in the 1976–77 series mentioned earlier.

Year Ended MarchIndex NumberChange from Previous Year
* Provisional
  Percent
1973901−9.9
1974840−6.8
1975980+16.7
19761013+3.4
1977x1011−0.2
1978x1020+0.9
1979x998−2.2
1980*1107+10.9

Problems which are specific to farm accounting are related to the production process of the industry itself—its seasonal nature, and its dependence on biological factors and climatic conditions. All these intervene in various ways between real resource use and output. Also, operations are not necessarily restricted to an annual cycle (e.g., the application of fertiliser in one year can affect output for a number of years) but the accounts are always made up for one year. As a result, year-to-year comparisons between resource use and output and, in the final analysis, the net profit (net income, surplus) of the farming industry, can be affected by fortuitous factors.

This is the principal reason why year-to-year changes in real gross production and real net production can differ to a marked degree.

GROSS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION FOR YEARS ENDED JUNE—The index of the Volume of Gross Agricultural Production, which is a year-to-year quantum measure of commodities produced by all New Zealand farms and hence available for export or domestic consumption, is shown in the following table. The index of the Volume of Gross Agricultural Production for each of the latest 6 years is shown for the component product groups, as well as for the production of the whole agricultural industry. The expression base for each product group separately, and for the agriculture industry as a whole, is the year ended June 1972 (= 1000).

Product GroupYears Ended 30 June
197219751976197719781979x1980*
* Provisional.
 volume index numbers
Sheep and lambs10008339059349459291073
Wool10009471006100596310491165
Cattle1000909973949925889883
Pigs10008368621012977875840
Dairy products10009861061107698210711114
volume index numbers
Crops and seeds100097611891248115411281156
Fruit1000113310831112118413091359
Vegetables10001039828884106410911161
Poultry and eggs1000110711921208111711011081
Other farm products1000135113771371131214361578
All agriculture industry production100095010151025992x10231112

The value of gross agricultural production for June years, corresponding to the volume index numbers in the preceding table, is shown in the following table.

Product GroupYear Ended 30 June
1977197819791980*
* Provisional.
  $(million)  
Sheep and lambs415429527x587x
Wool595495623846
Cattle365366599612x
Pigs454645x60x
Dairy products483499569703
Crops and seeds147165168180
Fruit6169102134
Vegetables6289112123
Poultry and eggs8285102113
Agricultural services110127155175
Other—
    Farm products25303852
    Non-farm products11111113
Physical change of livestock at average market price—
    Deer+4+7+17+33
    Sheep+31+34+13+84
    Cattle–33–34–65+36
    Pigs+3–1–2–2
Gross Agricultural Production (Gross Output)2,4052,4173,013x3,749x

DAIRY PRODUCTION—The following table shows milk production and utilisation of milkfat during each of the last 5 seasons, year ending 31 May. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

 1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80
* Includes milk fed to stock and waste, but excludes separation loss.
 Production*
Milk, litres (million)6075642058866304x6634
Milkfat, tonnes (000)296.5302.9278.6301.3321.7
Liquid milk, cream, and ice cream, litres (million)557525521518504
 Utilisation of Milkfat Processed (000 tonnes)
Butter211.3225.8203.0217.1x221.6
Cheese40.133.331.033.6x39.2
Other wholemilk products16.216.017.023.5x30.1
        Total267.6275.1251.0274.2290.9

Production by dairy factories during the latest 5 seasons is set out in the following table.

Product1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80*

* Provisional.

Butter equivalent of AMP.

 tonnes (000)
Creamery butter219.8219.1189.9231.1x217.3
Whey butter3.02.72.42.63.3
Anhydrous milkfat (AMF)29.441.338.921.0x42.5
Frozen cream7.04.08.27.710.0
Cheese104.881.080.790.3x105.7
Condensed and evaporated milk11.910.85.74.66.0
Whole-milk powder22.050.949.958.865.8
Infant food12.916.217.411.210.7
Skim-milk powder207.0205.7172.0173.9168.5
Buttermilk powder24.323.519.422.924.1
Acid casein44.641.443.945.945.2
Caseinates4.09.99.910.08.4
Rennet casein4.26.73.07.412.6
Lactose9.59.19.310.811.4

The butter produced in New Zealand is of a salted “sweet cream” type and, because the cows are fed almost entirely on grass, it has a high carotene content which makes it yellower than the butter from countries where cows are fed indoors for much of the year. The predominant cheese variety produced is cheddar. Whole-milk powder is made from the whole milk, while skim-milk powder is made from the separated milk following the removal of the milkfat for buttermaking. Buttermilk powder is made from a by-product of the butter manufacturing process. Lactose is made from whey, a by-product of cheesemaking. At one time skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey were fed to pigs, but in recent years they have almost entirely been processed to produce powders and specialised dairy products.

The following table gives average milkfat and milk production per cow “at factory”

SeasonDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per Cow
MilkfatMilk

* Provisional.

N.Z. Dairy Board estimate.

 (000)kglitres
1975–7620921372765
1976–7720741432998
1977–7820531312726
1978–7920401422936x
1979–80*20541513105

Herd sizes have increased as suppliers with small herds have ceased production and as dairy farms have been amalgamated. The number of suppliers to dairy factories and milkfat production per supplier is shown in the following table. (Source: N.Z. Dairy Board.)

SeasonDairy Company Suppliers*Average Size of HerdMilkfat per Supplier

* Does not include town milk suppliers (about 1700).

Provisional.

   kg
1975–761742011515725
1976–771678611616625
1977–781612612015675
1978–79x1577412317536
1979–801558112618985

Tanker collection of milk by the dairy factories began in 1951. By 1960, 55 percent of the milkfat supplied to dairy factories was received as milk (instead of cream as previously); this had increased to 79 percent by 1966 and by 1977–78 was 99 percent.

New Zealand Dairy Board—The New Zealand Dairy Board of 13 members functions under the Dairy Board Act 1961. Apart from 2 Government representatives, all are producer members—3 are appointed by the New Zealand Co-operative Dairy Company, 8 are elected by other dairy companies, with voting proportionate to the quantity of milkfat received by those companies from their suppliers in 6 geographically-defined wards.

The Dairy Board's work is divided broadly into 2 sections; one concerned with the development of the dairy industry and the other with marketing of dairy produce. (This latter activity is described in Section 21A, Marketing of Farm Products.) It is a further function of the board to promote the bobby calf and pig industries.

The Dairy Board has the broad function of linking manufacturing plans and growth with export market requirements. It is responsible by statute for the purchase and sale of export dairy products and for the development, in all respects, of the dairy industry. Since the board is the sole purchaser of produce for export, this purchasing power helps to link manufacturing plans with commercial reality.

MILK PRODUCTION—The administration and organisation of the town milk supply is the responsibility of the New Zealand Milk Board (see Section 21A).

During the year ended August 1980, town milk suppliers provided 723.3 million litres of milk. Of this, 454.5 million litres went to the milk stations and eventually reached the consumer in the form of 369.8 million litres of pasteurised milk and 9.39 million litres of sweet cream. The balance of the total production went to dairy factories (245.4 million litres), and to the manufacture of ice cream, flavoured milk, yoghurt, and cottage cheese (23.4 million litres).

MEAT PRODUCTION—The following table shows in summary form production of meat. Figures are shown at estimated bone-in weights for years ended September.

Product1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80
 tonnes (000)
Beef599.0529.9533.7490.5478.8
Veal29.127.827.821.116.9
Mutton155.2156.2159.6162.8168.5
Lamb357.6341.5342.0351.1391.2
Pig meat32.839.038.235.734.5
Other incl. offal60.658.058.858.161.0
                  Total1234.31152.51160.31119.31150.9

Production for Export—Export meat production for years ended September is shown in the following table. Measured on a product weight basis, export meat production increased by 7.5 percent in the 1979–80 season. This was the second highest recorded, being exceeded only in 1975–76 when 766000 tonnes were produced. The main increases were in lamb and mutton production, with beef and veal production continuing at 1978–79 levels.

Type of MeatTwelve Months Ended September
1977197819791980
 tonnes (000) shipping weight
Lamb—carcasses264.2257.4257.5295.3
    —cuts48.756.259.863.3
Mutton—carcasses87.083.886.892.2
    —cuts5.96.88.47.2
Beef—manufacturing160.7173.1161.1159.6
    —other65.752.849.051.0
Veal9.910.58.27.8
Pig meat0.80.90.10.1
Other meats0.70.40.90.4
Variety meats44.144.344.347.3
Inedible meat and offal15.218.418.021.8
                  Total702.8704.6694.1746.0

Source: N.Z. Meat Producers Board.

Lamb export slaughterings during the 1979–80 season, at 27.2 million, were up 9.9 percent on the previous season's figure.

However, the downward trend of beef slaughterings continued during the 1979–80 season, export production being maintained by an increase in average weights.

The following table gives livestock slaughter statistics at meat export works and abattoirs, omitting killings on farms and in rural slaughterhouses, for years ended September.

AnimalsYear Ended September
1977197819791980
 head of stock (000)
Lambs25417263262604228698
Sheep6900769574357460
Cattle2287240521292015
Calves128311901074964
Pigs826802725718

Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

About two-thirds of lambs tailed are killed during the season, and some 90 percent of the lamb meat is exported.

Meat consumed in New Zealand represents approximately 30 percent of total production; quantities per head are shown in Section 24 Consumption of Food.

Producer Control—The principle of producer control of the export meat industry was established in 1922. A system was created in which the processing and exporting companies—public, private, and cooperative—worked under the overall direction of the Meat Producers Board. This system over the years has given the producer a choice of the people to do business with and a choice of methods of selling his stock. That choice for the producer meant that he obtained full benefit from a competitive situation. The system has also given the producer, through his representatives on the Meat Producers Board, the chance to influence through sales promotion the sale of his meat right down to the retail shops half a world distant. The board has controlled shipping to place supplies and has advertised widely, especially in Britain; it controls its own system of grading export meat; and it is general spokesman for the industry.

The Meat Producers Board and the Wool Board are in the position of having to make not only long-term decisions but also to meet day-to-day situations as they occur. This they do with the aid of their own technical staff and through an economic service which is in close and constant contact with the sheep farming industry throughout New Zealand.

WOOL PRODUCTION—New Zealand holds third place in the world as a producer of wool, and second place as an exporter. Production is mainly of cross-bred wool.

After a weakness in demand for wool during the 1977–78 season, some recovery occurred during 1978–79 which became more pronounced at the beginning of 1979–80 (until October 1979). Prices then dipped, recovered slightly to subsequently fall more steeply in April, May, and June 1980. The average price for wool sold at auction during the 1979–80 season was the highest ever. However, when converted to common dollar terms to allow for inflation it was considerably below the prices received in the early 1950s. Because of the fall in the latter part of the season there was some intervention on the market with 67475 bales bought under intervention (4.1 percent of the offering) and 67485 bales bought under strata price control (4.1 percent of the market).

The following table shows for the last 5 seasons the total wool production (greasy basis), the movement in the average price per kilogram of wool (greasy basis), and the estimated total value of wool production (obtained by valuing the production estimate at the overall price per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction).

Season Ended 30 JuneTotal Wool Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price Per Kilogram (Greasy Basis)Estimated Value of Total Wool Production
 tonnes(000)cents$(m)
1976312157.12489.9
1977303219.58664.3
1978311190.43591.9
1979321218.80701.5
1980357265.09945.0

Because of lack of information on changes in stocks of wool on farms, the above figures of production should not be taken as precise measures of actual production in each season.

An article on the New Zealand sheep industry, prepared by the New Zealand Wool Board, is included in the Special Features section near the back of this Yearbook.

New Zealand Wool Board—The New Zealand Wool Board was originally set up under the Wool Industry Act 1944 and amalgamated with the New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation in 1978. The board has 6 representatives of woolgrowers, elected by an electoral committee of 26 (the members of the committee are in turn elected by sheep farmers. The same committee elects the grower representatives on the Meat Producers Board). Representatives have a 3-year term and are eligible for re-election. The Wool Board also has 2 members appointed by the Governor-General on the nomination of the Minister of Agriculture. The Director-General of Agriculture is automatically a member, and the tenth member chosen for his commercial experience, is appointed by the Governor-General on the nomination of the board.

The general objective of the board is to obtain, in the interests of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool. Among its functions are: to promote the use of New Zealand wool in existing or new markets; to develop and maintain a marketing system for New Zealand wool suited to the requirements of the world's textile industry; to market wool to the best possible advantage; to bring about the greatest possible efficiencies in the preparation, handling, distribution, shipping, and selling of wool; to encourage the production in New Zealand of types of wool suited to market requirements; to promote research into wool and sheep; and to set minimum prices for wool and operate a minimum price funding scheme.

Main sources of income for the board are: (i) A 3-percent levy on gross wool receipts ($28.0 million in the 1979–80 season) which is used exclusively for promotion and research; (ii) Interest on investments ($13.0 million for the 1979–80 season); (iii) Government grants for research and development ($2 million in 1979–80).

The board is active in all aspects of the wool industry from production through to advertising wool products overseas. Its production section is engaged in the promotion of breeding practices suited to today's market, proper wool handling and clip preparation, and co-operation with wool and sheep research organisations throughout the country. The field service trains 1000 shearers a year in the Wool Board shearing technique.

Perhaps the board's biggest role is in the New Zealand marketing system and the operation of its market support schemes. It values all wool offered at auction and intervenes in the market according to its commercial judgment. In doing this it may buy wool. During the 1979–80 season, however, there was very little support buying until April 1980. The board sells from the stockpile of bought-in wool, normally through the established wool trade in New Zealand. The wool is also valued for the purpose of ensuring a minimum return to growers (the minimum floor price). In the 1980–81 season the floor price was set at an average of 215 cents per kilogram, greasy weight. When the sale price for a lot at auction falls below the appropriate minimum price, the board pays the difference to the grower as a supplementary payment. Supplement is also paid on privately sold wool, provided the buyers display it under specified conditions for appraisal by the board.

The board's market support operations are funded by its general capital and reserves which totalled $107.0 million at 30 June 1980 and which had their origin in profits on the sale of wool accumulated during World War II. Supplementary payments under the minimum prices scheme are funded by a minimum price funding levy introduced on 1 July 1976. Currently the levy is 1 percent of gross proceeds from all shorn wool sold for the first time.

A wool auction sales committee, comprising representatives of the board, the New Zealand Woolbrokers Association, and the New Zealand Woolbuyers Association, set up under provision of the Wool Industry Act 1977, draws up and supervises the roster of wool auction sales.

The board is also empowered to grant or revoke licences to export wool. Under the regulations the board has to keep a list of registered private buyers, registered wool exchange operators, and scourers.

It is involved in the development of market innovations, such as the sale of wool by sample, it is a negotiator of freight rates, and operates a number of wool stores for its own use. Board economists conduct a market intelligence service covering production, disposal, and market prices.

The board provides a technical service to wool processors and textile manufacturers, both in New Zealand and overseas, and is extensively involved in the promotion of wool textiles, on its own account and in co-operation with garment and carpet manufacturers and the retail trade throughout New Zealand. It also supports New Zealand manufactured wool products in export markets.

In the 1979–80 season the board's share of the budget of the International Wool Secretariat was just over $20 million. The IWS is a partnership with Australia, South Africa, and Uruguay. It has its headquarters in London and operates in almost all countries with a substantial consumer market.

It offers technical and fashion advice in menswear, womenswear, and furnishing to manufacturers, administers the Woolmark and the Woolblendmark (maintaining quality control in more than 13000 factories), and promotes wool through campaigns with manufacturers and retailers. Extensive research and development is also undertaken.

The board provides about 40 percent of the revenue of the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand (WRONZ). In 1979–80 this was $662,831. Established in 1960 at Lincoln, Christchurch, the organisation has a professional staff of about 35. It conducts fundamental research on the wool fibre and applied research on scouring, processing, and performance of New Zealand wools. It is also developing the measurement of wool characteristics as an aid in marketing. The board is represented on the WRONZ executive.

The board is also represented on the Wool Testing Authority. Wool testing, which has been carried out in New Zealand since the 1940s, is used by buyers and processors as a basis for trading. Certificates are provided for yield, vegetable matter, fibre diameter, and moisture content.

With the Meat Producers Board, the Wool Board maintains the New Zealand Meat and Wool Board's Economic Service, which provides economic data for both boards and outside organisations through a survey of a representative 500 pastoral farms.

The board administers on behalf of the Government the Individual Grower Income Levy Retention Scheme. Under this scheme a proportion of the gross proceeds' from the sale of wool is retained when the adjusted weighted average sale price at auction exceeds a “trigger price” set by the Minister of Agriculture (330 cents per kilogram, greasy, in the 1980–81 season). The proceeds so retained are credited to individual growers accounts and are refundable to growers after 5 years, or in special circumstances as described in the regulations. Funds are held by the Reserve Bank. In February 1978 the Government authorised the repayment of all funds held in these accounts (amounting to $26 million in more than 40000 accounts). Funds in the Reserve Bank at the end of the 1979–80 season amounted to $46,000.

The board also administers, on behalf of the Government, the supplementary minimum floor price scheme introduced in 1978 for an initial period of 2 years. This provides a Government-backed minimum price to growers at a level higher than the board's minimum price of 215 cents per kilogram (average greasy basis). For the 1980–81 season this has been set by the Government at 235 cents per kilogram (greasy basis).

During the 1979–80 season, when the supplementary minimum price was set at 235 cents per kilogram, a supplement was payable in March, when prices were relatively low. The total paid out by the end of June 1980 was $27,641. Funds for supplementary payments above the board's minimum levels are provided by the Government.

Supplementary payments are calculated on a percentage basis—using the adjusted weighted average sale price (AWASP) for each auction sale. In cases where the sale AWASP is below the supplementary minimum price level, the percentage difference between the AWASP and the supplementary floor price is added on to the realised price by the broker. For private sales the buyer completes an application on behalf of each grower, on the basis of which the board pays the supplement direct to the grower.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION COUNCIL—This council was set up following a recommendation of the Agricultural Development Conference in 1964 but has not met since late in 1974. There are 22 District Agricultural Advisory Committees which bring together at local level all the organisations which service agriculture in that region. These committees review the progress of agriculture in their district; identify factors limiting production and propose remedial measures; and ensure that farmers and their advisers are fully aware of development incentives and concessions and the availability and terms of finance.

AGRICULTURAL TRAINING COUNCIL—The Agricultural Training Council was gazetted as an industry training board in 1971 under the Vocational Training Act following recommendations of the 1970 Training in Agriculture Conference. The role of the council is to provide organised training in those sectors of the primary industry for which it is responsible and at the same time work closely with those agencies and other industry training boards having responsibilities in other sectors of the primary industry.

The council comprises representatives from Federated Farmers of N.Z. Inc., N.Z. Federation of Young Farmers, National Farm Cadet Scheme, Farm Workers' Association, the horticultural industry, the equine industry, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Vocational Training Council, Department of Education, Massey University, and Lincoln College.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries was formed in 1972 by grafting the fisheries management and research divisions of the former Marine Department on to the Department of Agriculture. The principal functions of the ministry are to promote and to encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, horticultural and fishing industries in New Zealand, including the stock, poultry, fruit, vegetable, flax (Phormium tenax), tobacco, hops, and honey production industries, with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing the production of those products; and to promote, control and encourage the marketing and sale of those products.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries provides a service of which the main object is the advancement of the interests of agriculture and fisheries. Under a director-general of agriculture and fisheries there are divisions of animal health, meat, dairy, advisory services, agricultural research, fisheries research, fisheries management, economics, management services, and administration. Though the service is primarily advisory, the ministry administers a number of Acts and regulations.

Animal Health—A major objective of the Animal Health Division is to safeguard the health of livestock in New Zealand by preventing the introduction of serious exotic diseases and to work towards the eradication of existing endemic diseases. The scale and immediacy of the precautions taken against the introduction of serious exotic diseases which would have a disastrous effect on New Zealand's export trade in agricultural products were demonstrated in February 1981 when there were suspicions (fortunately proved unfounded) that foot-and-mouth disease had been discovered on a South Island pig farm. The division's veterinarians examine animals and certify them as suitable for export, and they maintain surveillance and quarantine procedures which reduce the risk of introducing foreign diseases with import of animals and animal products. The division operates quarantine stations for imported livestock. Five regional animal health laboratories are operated by the division and provide diagnostic support to practitioners and veterinarians of other divisions of the ministry. It also operates a national reference laboratory for infectious diseases and for diagnostic tests of imported and exported animals. The division is also involved with animal welfare and the registration of animal remedies.

Through the district pest destruction boards, the division is associated with the Pest Destruction Council in the destruction of rabbits, hares, opossums, and wallabies.

Meat—The Meat Division is responsible for the inspection of stock intended for slaughter at abattoirs and export meatworks and for the later inspection of the carcasses. It is also responsible for the standard of hygiene at these establishments as well as in meat packing houses, rural slaughterhouses, game packing houses, and export fish packing houses. Veterinary certificates for meat, game, and fish exported are given by veterinary staff of the division, and meat-inspection staff are responsible for grading meat produced at abattoirs for local consumption and supervising the grading of meat for local consumption at export meatworks.

Dairy Produce—Quality control in all aspects of dairy food production is essentially the job of the dairy industry itself. However, the Dairy Division is responsible for assuring all buyers of New Zealand dairy produce that strict quality standards are indeed being maintained.

In this role the division gives advice in, and supervises, all aspects of the manufacture of dairy produce. Supervision starts on the farm and extends through dairy food processing plants to storage facilities and to loading out for shipment.

All dairy farms are visited regularly for inspection and advice by farm dairy instructors. Milk tankers are inspected constantly and milk is graded before processing by Government tested and certificated staff. All processing plants are inspected and classified; the division licenses and registers each plant and must approve its design, operation, and quality control performance.

Samples from each lot of dairy produce manufactured are tested by officers highly experienced in assessing the flavour, texture, body, and presentation of produce. They are backed by comprehensive chemical and microbiological assessments performed in laboratories at Auckland, Mount Maunganui, New Plymouth, and Wellington. The laboratory network is itself supported by a national reference laboratory at Hamilton. Specialist advisory officers are available for problem-solving or general support on farms, or in dairy food manufacturing plants.

The division supervises the town milk industry in the same way.

Whenever possible, a proportion of dairy produce: is examined at its destination overseas. Officers are maintained in, or visit, customer countries for this purpose.

Advisory Services to Farmers—The Advisory Services Division provides advisory services to farmers and horticulturalists and undertakes the various activities such as plant diagnostic, quarantine, testing, and field inspection services needed to meet the ministry's responsibilities under the Plants Act 1970.

The graduate advisory officers, who service the districts, are backed by specialists in the fields of agricultural engineering, animal husbandry, and farm economics. Extension work operates through individual farm visits, group techniques, and the mass media.

Outside its extension work, this division is responsible for certification and testing of herbage and cereal seeds, for the Flock House Farm Training Institute at Bulls, and for the education and training aspects of the Telford Farm Training Institute at Balclutha. The division also provides a specialist advisory service for poultry farmers and beekeepers.

The advisory service embraces commercial producers of a wide range of horticultural crops including pip, stone, citrus, and subtropical fruits, vegetables, cut flowers, nursery stock, viticulture, hops, and tobacco. The service provided covers all aspects of crop production—plant and soil management, disease and pest control, crop handling and storage. Advisory officers demonstrate and initiate the adoption or adaption of research results most appropriate to districts for all horticultural crops. Greater advisory emphasis is being given to export horticultural crops and those with export potential. Emphasis is being given to financial management in the horticultural sector to assist producers improve profitability.

Field officers are involved in a wide range of horticultural activities concerning plant health, which includes the prevention of spread of diseases and pests and the inspection of export crops and plant material during the growing season. They are also responsible for advice and instruction to producers on harvesting and handling and the grade requirements of export crops, the operation of quality assurance programmes for certain export crops, and the inspection and certification of a wide range of fruits, vegetables, and plant material including agricultural seeds for export. In addition they inspect and certify honey exports.

Seasonal forecasts of production for the main fruit crops are made and supplied to those involved and interested in production and marketing. Periodic surveys of certain long-term crops are undertaken.

Information, in the form of seasonal forecasts of production, is supplied to marketing organisations. Periodic surveys are made of orchards, market gardens, and nurseries.

Agricultural Research—All research stations of the ministry are under control of the director of agricultural research, with headquarters at Wellington. Regional directors at Hamilton, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Invermay control the 4 research regions into which the country is divided. Research activities are more fully discussed in Section 7B Science and Scientific Services.

Economics—The Economics Division deals with all aspects of agricultural policy including international trade and trade negotiations in relation to agriculture, international quality standards, liaison with international agencies, the analysis of national production and marketing policies, the social implications of agricultural policies, and the periodic evaluation of the general economic position of farmers. Other functions include the economic appraisal of projects associated with agricultural development and resource use, the economics of the fishing industry, and the economic evaluation of research proposals.

Port Agriculture Service—The Port Agriculture Service is a uniformed branch of the ministry under the control of a superintendent. Its chief responsibility is to prevent the introduction into New Zealand of serious animal and plant diseases and pests. Officers of this service are located at ports and international airports, and deal with all items from overseas of concern to agriculture.

TOPDRESSING—Topdressing with artificial fertilisers has been an important factor in the intensification of grassland farming. Most New Zealand soils need fertilisers, especially phosphates. Superphosphate has been produced in New Zealand in increasing quantities since the 1880s, using rock phosphates from Nauru and Ocean Islands; Christmas Island is now an increasingly important source of supply. Over the years there has been a marked changeover from straight superphosphate as the principal fertiliser for grassland and crops—usual variants are serpentine superphosphate or aerial superphosphate, or a mixture of superphosphate with potash, additional sulphur or a trace element. Production of chemical fertilisers in superphosphate manufacturing works during the year ended 30 June 1980 totalled 2402000 tonnes. Approximately half of the sown grassland receives fertiliser annually, with about half the fertilised area covered by aerial distribution; about 45 percent of the quantity is distributed by aeroplanes from 8000 airstrips. New Zealand occupies less than 0.3 percent of the world's land area, yet this country uses 2 percent of the world's fertiliser production.

The use of lime to correct soil acidity and increase the availability of trace elements grew steadily from 1890 to a peak of 1.5 million tonnes in 1945. Over the next 2 decades usage fell away, but it recovered during the 1970s and over recent years has been from 1.5 million to 1.7 million tonnes annually.

The following table gives particulars of areas of grassland topdressed during the latest available years. From 1972 this information has been collected triennially.

YearArea TopdressedQuantity of Fertiliser and Lime Spread
Fertiliser OnlyLime OnlyFertiliser and Lime TogetherTotal Area TopdressedBy Ground SpreadBy Air
 ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)tonnes(000)tonnes(000)
19704853.8165.4632.95652.12003.8951.3
19714758.3171.8695.75625.82218.9930.4
19724758.7187.5741.75688.02189.61020.2
19754143.4226.6555.24925.21819.5747.1
19784835.3337.9737.55910.82049.41163.1

Information on fertiliser and lime applied from the air is obtained from aerial topdressing operators by the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport. Figures for the latest 4 years are shown below.

Year Ended 30 JuneFertiliser OnlyLime OnlyTotal Fertiliser and Lime
 tonnes (000)
19769291261055
19779651611126
197810791441223
197910681411209

IRRIGATION—Most New Zealand soils have a seasonal moisture deficiency and require irrigation to reach their maximum productivity. Many soils presently farmed under dry land conditions are capable of substantially increased production under irrigation.

The area and type of land irrigated during the year ended 30 June 1979 is analysed by statistical area in the following table.

Statistical AreaNo. of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneCommercialOther CropsOther LandTotal
FruitVegetables
 hectares
Northland16664453719637111425
Central Auckland25011572119018862363
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty321167065416275372598
East Coast45209149131171507
Hawke's Bay453207817061268157495258
Taranaki55952824113998
Wellington2602945216396276143847
    North Island155096553481307866112116996
Marlborough1632043149594947313764
Nelson40917305945971724284673
Westland
Canterbury15236363042918601898926185169
Otago8045338510571288654255477
Southland91191414147
            South Island29081209072243317922539362149230
            New Zealand44581305625724625723200483166226

Further information on irrigation is included in Section 10A Physical Environment and Economic Growth.

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC.—For many years a number of grants and subsidies have been paid to the farming industry and allied organisations from public funds.

The following table shows the pattern of major payments in recent years.

Subsidy, Grant, etc.1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80x1980–81*
* Estimates.
 $(thousand)
Lime transport assistance3793543
Fertiliser and lime transport subsidy9,16112,72216,11223,42728,71126,500
Adverse events relief2633742026,054341100
Eradication of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis—
Compensation for condemned animals, loss of production payments, hardship payments, and incidental costs2,6872,3431,9461,9682,7373,110
Agricultural pests control4,0694,8355,6896,2676,8677,529
Subsidies to nassella tussock boards3,1451,2721,5341,2361,5231,470
Subsidies to county councils under the Noxious Weeds Act
Noxious plants control scheme8,7467,7088,8758,1338,600
Agricultural Engineering Institute373429495602728872
Herd Improvement Council160176200223249291
Veterinary Services Council606056595030
Fertiliser price subsidy61,50759,33550,83270,17840,55034,500
Special Assistance Fund2
Dairy diversion scheme (beef)7084043,86967610
Grant to New Zealand Wool Board2,0002,0002,0002,0002,000
Livestock Incentive Scheme4852,2977,00912,780
Grants to Dairy Products Development Centre188180209235251289
Pipfruit pesticides rebate391586
Fertiliser and lime bounty14,69715,51616,0177,8462,3712,150
Feed storage construction subsidy8398182
Lucerne establishment grants655209708340
Sharemilkers' Suspensory Loan Scheme145319371314400419
Cartage grants to dairy companies264399547213
Grant to Agricultural Training Council for regional training officers93110198250361462
Special payment, sheep and cattle58,5717910
Artificial breeding incentive41673545
Land development loans: interest subsidy1,0245,550
Supplementary minimum prices scheme—
    Wool1,34891200
    Dairy15,037
Special payment to freezing industry1,880
Meat industry hygiene grant4081,4022,500
Rural export suspensory loans5431214

Lime Transport Assistance and Subsidy—From 30 November 1959 a subsidy on lime transport was paid to farmers applying lime to newly developed land which was lime responsive, had not previously been limed, and which was cultivated and sown for the first time; or, if it could not be cultivated, which received its first dressing of lime. The rates of subsidy were 3.7c per tonne-kilometre for the first 100 km and 1.2c per tonne-kilometre thereafter. A revised scheme which subsidises the transport of all lime from approved lime works at the same rates of transport subsidy as those applying to fertiliser became operative from July 1976.

Fertiliser Price Subsidy—A uniform subsidy of $5 per tonne ex works on all fertiliser was introduced on 6 July 1970. The rate has been altered several times since it was introduced, but has stood at $15 per tonne since 21 June 1979.

Fertiliser Transport Subsidy—Since 1965 a subsidy on the transport of fertiliser has been payable. Since 1 June 1978 the rate has been 8c per tonne-kilometre for up to 65 km, 5c per tonne-kilometre for between 65 and 250 km, and 3c per tonne-kilometre for over 250 km.

Fertiliser and Lime Bounty—This bounty was introduced on 24 January 1975 to encourage the application of fertiliser and lime. The rates for spreading fertiliser were altered several times. From 1 June 1978, however, the bounty for air-spread fertiliser has been $2 per tonne, and the bounties for ground-spread fertiliser and for fertiliser spread by the farmer himself have been abolished.

For lime, the original bounty of $2 per tonne when spread by a contractor and $1 per tonne when spread by a farmer remained unchanged until 1 June 1978, when it too was abolished.

Noxious Weed Eradication—The Noxious Plants Control Scheme was introduced from 23 May 1975. Expenditure during 1979–80 was $10.74 million.

Supplementary Minimum Prices Scheme—In June 1978, the Government introduced this scheme in an effort to arouse greater long-term confidence in the profitability of pastoral farming. The scheme established new minimum prices for meat, wool, and milkfat for the 1978–79 season. It has continued in force for the 1980–81 season. It also guarantees that the minimum prices for these commodities for the 1981–82 season will not be lower than those it established for 1980–81. The new “minimum prices” supplement those set under the stabilisation schemes that are operated by various producer boards. When market returns fall short of the set prices, the “support payments” that become necessary are to be met by the Government. The producer boards, however, will still be responsible for the cost of any price- or market-support arrangements up to their own minimum prices. The scheme was designed as an interim measure, to be superseded in the longer term by more comprehensive stabilisation arrangements.

Other Items—Most of the remaining items represent an attempt to deal with a specific problem (such as the eradication of brucellosis or of bovine tuberculosis) which is of importance to the whole community, but the handling of which would impose a serious burden on the individual or on a small group, or the Government's contribution towards the running costs of a particular organisation, such as the Agricultural Engineering Institute.

TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS IN NEW ZEALAND AGRICULTURE—Despite the growing diversification of the New Zealand economy both from its traditional position as Britain's “dairy farm in the Pacific” and its dependence on a relatively narrow range of agricultural and pastoral exports, the agricultural sector (a term which includes not only farms but the processing and service industries) remains all-important and, as needs it must, among the most efficient in the world. In his book The Future for New Zealand Agriculture, published for the New Zealand Planning Council, Ian McLean suggests that the continued growth in efficiency has been due to the rapid adoption of new technologies. He lists the following, in roughly chronological order: Refrigerated ocean transport, machine shearing, milking machines, phosphatic fertiliser, milk recording of dairy cows, improved varieties of grass and clover, application of trace elements (cobalt, copper, and selenium), aerial topdressing, slow rotational grazing on dairy farms, herring-bone cow sheds, artificial insemination of dairy cows, new hybrid breeds of sheep, more effective anthelmintics, elimination of TB and brucellosis, and use of motorbikes.

Technologies currently being adopted include rotary cowsheds and slow rotational grazing for beef and sheep (usually together with electric fencing). New types of production enterprises such as deer farming, and horticultural crops such as kiwi fruit and tamarillos might also be included as new technologies.

New technology is important because increases in productivity are usually based on it. Without technical progress, any industry is subject to diminishing returns and thus where, as in agriculture, the supply of one input (land) is almost fixed, a stage is reached where extra production is uneconomic. Recent macro-economic work tentatively suggests that this stage may be approaching in New Zealand agriculture.

Scientific developments suggest that future breakthroughs in several areas may include super-ovulation and embryo transplants, the use of bacteria to release bound phosphate in soils or to fix nitrogen in association with grasses, and pre-determination of the sex of animal offspring.

Current research and investigations being undertaken by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and the DSIR are described in Section 7B, Science and Scientific Services. The continual checking and research on animal health and product quality is described earlier in this section.

Farm Machinery—The following table shows details of machinery employed on New Zealand farms at the time of the 1974 and 1977 surveys.

Type of Machine19741977
Agricultural tractors9528990152
Milking machines2140818917
Shearing stands6827170621
Pick-up balers1299417770
Side delivery rakes2222328539
Harvesters—
    Forage52254861
    Header48284409
Electric fence units7133668384
Field mowers4272040787
Ploughs3364630710
Disc harrows3028852493
Cultivators2148320402
Grain drills1439113573
Spray irrigation plants49445119
Weed and crop sprayers3164030556
Lime and fertiliser spreaders1994620504
Potato planters1174954
Potato harvesters15071383
Grain silos or bins1619319424
Grain capacity (tonnes)..722943
Effluent disposal units..7344
Water pumps..60423
Chainsaws..49721
Bikes..32299
Farm trucks3296733798

14 B—CROPS

Crops grown in New Zealand are in general sufficient to meet domestic needs for agricultural products, apart from tropical and subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, etc.

Local requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones are normally supplied from New Zealand orchards. The production of pipfruit (apples and pears) is sufficient to make them New Zealand's major horticultural crop. They are grown mainly in two areas—Hawke's Bay (in the North Island) and Nelson (in the South Island). Apples are the biggest single earner among New Zealand's horticultural exports.

Grapes are grown mainly for winemaking, principally in the Auckland, East Coast, Hawke's Bay, and Marlborough regions.

Kiwifruit is the most important subtropical-fruit crop. Production is increasing rapidly to meet the expanding demands from overseas markets. Citrus fruits, tamarillos, avocados, feijoas, and passionfruit are also grown commercially.

Subtropical fruit is grown predominantly in the subtropical northern area of the North Island.

Oranges are imported in substantial quantities, but the demand for other citrus fruit and subtropical fruit is met by the local production.

Potato and onion production is normally adequate.

Wheat production fluctuates in relation to price incentives and imports are sometimes necessary.

Animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full 12 months of the year, but the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summer months. Hay and silage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though some districts specialise in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders, other than grass and clover, hay, and silage, is grown in the South Island, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

The renewal and extension of pastures require the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass seed. There is an appreciable export trade in some species of grass seeds.

The following table shows the varieties of wheat, oats, barley, and peas threshed during the year ended 30 June 1979. It should be noted that some holdings grow more than 1 variety of a crop and that if, for example, a holding grows 3 varieties of wheat it appears 3 times in the “Number of Holdings” column. As a result, the aggregates of holdings by individual varieties may exceed the totals of holdings under particular crops.

VarietyNumber of HoldingsArea ThreshedTotal YieldAverage Yield Per HectarePercentage of Surveyed AreaPercentage of Total Yield
  hectares (000)tonnes (000)tonnespercentpercent
Wheat—
    Aotea6348294910
    Hilgendorf609616375
    Arawa31239333
    Gamenya11515512
    Kopara1890309033530
    Takahe1044176942023
    Karamu1587217642426
    Other32212211
            Total5537872953100100
Oats—
    Onward (Oware)59231031718
    Mapua (Makaru)1961113836264
    Black Supreme21312354
    Grey Winter3200210
    Achilles7400311
    Other White54214377
    Other36414376
            Total377818583100100
Barley—
    Carlsberg463413355
    Kenia10613311
    Research12714322
    Zephyr37144815936260
    Other2134238543032
            Total6544782643100100
Peas—
    Field varieties—
    Maple59482133433
    White41741031616
    Blue Boiling42651332021
    Garden varieties77571933030
            Total221223633100100
Maize—
            Total1388221798100100

Detailed statistics of crops are contained in the annual report Agriculture Statistics issued by the Department of Statistics.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION—Grain growing is localised to a considerable extent. The Canterbury statistical area, with its fertile plains, supplies more than one-half of New Zealand's wheat yield, over one-third of the threshed oats, and over one-half of the barley yield. In recent years, however, the North Island has been growing a higher proportion than previously of the wheat and the barley crops.

Maize growing is largely confined to certain parts of the East Coast (notably, Cook County) and to the South Auckland-Bay of Plenty areas.

Peas for threshing are grown extensively in Canterbury (which produces three-quarters of the total yield) and, to a lesser extent, in Marlborough and Wellington. More than two-thirds of the area that is closed off for the production of grass seeds is also in the Canterbury district.

New Zealand's potato production is mainly centred on three areas—Pukekohe, near Auckland, which is relatively frost free, produces mainly early potatoes; the Manawatu-Opiki region (North Island) produces main-crop and some early potatoes; and Canterbury produces main-crop potatoes.

The Pukekohe district also provides the Auckland area with a considerable share of its vegetable requirements, as well as being the North Island's main onion-growing area.

Wellington City draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts; while Ohakune (in the centre of the North Island), with a climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages, carrots, and broccoli, supplies them to both Auckland and Wellington.

Hastings, in Hawke's Bay, has become a centre for the canning and processing of many vegetables.

In the South Island, market gardening is carried on near the cities, on the rich soils near Christchurch, to the south of Oamaru, and on the Taieri Plains, just south of Dunedin. Nelson, too, produces considerable quantities of fresh and processed vegetables, most of which are marketed in Wellington.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions. The Nelson and Hawke's Bay districts are notable for their apple and pear orchards, a high percentage of the crops from these districts normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits, notably apricots. Hawke's Bay and Nelson are also noted for their peach production. In certain particularly warm areas of the North Island with suitable soils citrus fruits are grown, the principal areas being Kerikeri, in Northland; Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty; and Gisborne.

Grape growing is of importance in the Auckland area, in Hawke's Bay and Gisborne, and, more recently in Marlborough. Hop growing is concentrated in the Nelson district.

Detailed statistics of crops are contained in the annual report Agricultural Statistics issued by the Department of Statistics.

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS—Details of areas of grain and peas threshed and of total yields by statistical areas are shown in the following table. This applies to the year ended 30 June 1979.

Statistical AreaWheatOats
Area ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal Yield
 hectaresKghectaresKg
Northland385002157500
Central Auckland70290000511200
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty14048560099285561
East Coast9315991542257
Hawke's Bay2861242770263635197
Taranaki1194564657072196729
Wellington72653014991310333115893
                  North Island89673785495215084344337
Marlborough11814931907296871664
Nelson4517486188209030
Westland260002461150
Canterbury46645132328012809821320961
Otago117884136417428639857512
Southland1852878368585547521584225
                  South Island781892571735391684453904542
                  New Zealand871562950284911835258248879

WHEAT—Control of the distribution of both imported and locally produced wheat rests with the New Zealand Wheat Board, which is also responsible for the distribution of flour and associated offal. The operations of this board, which consists of representatives of flourmillers, wheat growers, bread bakers, the poultry industry, the grain seed and produce business, the Department of Trade and Industry, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, with the Minister of Trade and Industry as chairman, and i person with no direct association with any of the above industries as deputy chairman, are governed by the Wheat Board Act 1965.

All New Zealand milling wheat is purchased from farmers by the Wheat Board through the agency of grain merchants acting as brokers for the board. The board is responsible for the distribution of all imported wheat and its functions also include arrangements for the processing of wheat by flourmillers and the sale of the resultant flour and offal to merchants, bakers, pastry cooks, grocers, and others.

The annual consumption of wheat in New Zealand for flour and cereal foods approximates 320000 tonnes. Wheat is also required for poultry foods and seed. Research is assisted by a levy on wheat and flour on the: recommendation of the Wheat Research Committee.

MAIZE—Maize is principally grown on the east coast of the North Island, Hawke's Bay, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty. During the last decade the area sown has greatly increased from 7138 hectares in 1969 to 22486 hectares in 1979. The introduction of improved hybrid maize varieties has considerably increased the yield of grain threshed. Maize is used as poultry feed and is becoming a more important feature of supplementary feed for pigs and other livestock.

BARLEY—Barley is used mainly in the manufacture of stock feeds, and for malting. The production of barley is increasing steadily, mainly because of the growing demand for stock feeds.

OATS—Most of the oats are grown for threshing and green feed and not for chaff. From the grain milled, rolled oats, oatmeal, and proprietary oaten foods are produced, along with feed for animals and fowls.

BarleyPeasMaize
Area ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal Yield
hectaresKghectaresKghectaresKg
137526001003822105739
253885574003442225353
1218434061111231994914413117455473
245826250415000348028754593
3099120170675152000642159913443984
50723420858289803332544270
101603932163422447082316147010669010
15619602592222883944688722021177198422
195760464056271693781123824161
706263834275252178132950995
133880000312600
49765159124371175184790931500
52901875596910952406013812000
416816717256434169862400
6189920332114319749539599112661799756
77518263580365226326340679822287178998178

VEGETABLES—The following tables show vegetable production for the fresh market and for processing during the years 1978 and 1979.

The first table shows production for the fresh vegetable market, by area and yield.

Vegetable19781979
Area GrownProductionArea GrownProduction
* Includes both outdoor and glasshouse production.
 hectarestonneshectarestonnes
Asparagus206335309427
Beans—green6867376695
Beetroot39981481151
Brussels sprouts15818861081250
Cabbage120930588125730885
Carrots101627245102526913
Cauliflower131825504124822918
Celery12540181243829
Kumara1001151559828391
Lettuce8421813679816796
Parsnips27564782705965
Peas4538457379
Sweetcorn26941392784605
Tomatoes*417x29869x47123889

Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

The second table shows production for processing, by area and yield.

Vegetable19781979
Area GrownProductionArea GrownProduction
* Outdoor-grown tomatoes only.
 hectarestonneshectarestonnes
Asparagus329806326809
Beans—broad43518813421264
Beans—green11999939136313579
Beetroot8225061323200
Brussels sprouts3738035376
Cabbage52146627748
Carrots10454671656955
Cauliflower66104247753
Celery52204191
Kumara487485
Peas1121943236935744263
Sweetcorn268831716253831982
Tomatoes*5193193536019301

Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

The major areas producing vegetables for processing are the Heretaunga Plains around Hastings, Gisborne, Christchurch, and Timaru. Peas and sweetcorn are the 2 main crops followed by tomatoes, beans, carrots, onions, beetroot, and asparagus.

The total net area of land devoted to the production of outdoor vegetables (excluding potatoes) during the October 1979 year was some 25580 hectares. The aggregate area of the fresh-market crops was estimated at 10750 hectares. An estimated 14830 hectares were growing vegetable crops for processing.

For the June 1980 year, fresh-vegetable exports (excluding potatoes) totalled some 59610 tonnes, of which 41726 tonnes were onions.

POTATOES—The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet home market requirements.

Potato yields have risen to such an extent that a population of 3 million is now supplied from the same area as were 1 3/4 million people 30 years earlier. Most of this increased production has been the result of research, the introduction of new varieties, and better farming practice.

Figures for area and yield of potatoes for the latest available 5 years are as follows:

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonnestonnes
1974–75885422552225.47
1975–76949524832126.15
1976–77986727049727.41
1977–78928523729125.56
1978–79750120328527.10

GLASSHOUSES—The following table shows the area and yield of glasshouses (heated and cold) given over to the production of vegetables and grapes.

Vegetable or Fruit197719781979
AreaYieldAreaYieldAreaYield
 m2 (000)tonnesm2 (000)tonnesm2 (000)tonnes
Tomatoes1448.1210551033.7x198771112.015618
Cucumbers and gherkins98.9155486.9x1987102.62365
Beans18.712118.4x7526.886
Capsicums and peppers7.53314.1171
Grapes58.428850.1x20047.5181

Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

NOTE: Between 1977 and 1978 the minimum areas for recording the size of holdings and of individual crops was increased, so that some small holdings are no longer being recorded.

LINSEED—Most of the linseed is grown under contract for the production of linseed oil. About 3500 hectares are sown each year. The oil is extracted mainly for use in paints, and the residue provides a valuable concentrate for stock food.

SEED CERTIFICATION—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates a seed certification scheme covering the more important herbage species, cereals, brassicas, and potatoes. Bred varieties of these species are produced by the Grasslands and the Crop Research Divisions of the DSIR. These are then reproduced under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries which releases them as Breeder's seed which in turn produces Basic seed. The final stages in the multiplication of certified seed are known as 1st and 2nd Generation seeds. Basic and Certified seed, 1st and 2nd Generation, are sold through the usual commercial channels.

MACHINE-DRESSED SEED—The production of machine-dressed grass, clover, brassica, and other seed for the year ended 31 December 1980, compiled by the Department of Statistics, is set out overleaf together with the corresponding totals for the 2 previous years. The figures are taken from returns from seed dressing plants.

Type of Seed12 Months Ended 31 December
197819791980
 Kilograms (000)
Ryegrass—
    Ariki ryegrass379424295
    Italian ryegrass (including Western Wolths)10541297977
    Nui ryegrass182225345067
    Perennial ryegrass547862725496
    Short rotation (H1) ryegrass17551441740
    Tama ryegrass11601149930
    Ellett 280336
Other grasses—
    Browntop109193171
    Chewings fescue16299
    Cocksfoot475582679
    Crested dogstail504578551
    Prairie grass75111132
    Timothy226260266
    Yarrow1987
    Yorkshire fog13620
Clovers—
    Broad red clover445353427
    Lotus1177
    Mixed clovers12149200
    Montgomery red clover397195286
    Pawera red clover442243
    Suckling clover41178131
    White clover415759565555
    Huia white clover517
    Pitau white clover1145343
Other—
    Lucerne1778775
    Kale453347296
    Maize220516731306
    Peas—
    Garden184561739218317
    Field321582647624853
    Rape223163397
    Turnip15093220

Large quantitites of grass and clover seed have been exported during recent years, especially to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. Details of the volume and value of exports during recent years will be found in Section 22B of the Yearbook.

HORTICULTURAL LAND USE—The following data, supplied by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, give an indication of the net areas of land devoted to the main horticultural crops in 1979.

 hectares
Outdoor vegetables (includes process crops, but not potatoes)25580x
Pip fruits6154
Vineyards4177
Kiwifruit3487
Registered nurseries (943)2488
Stone fruits2466
Citrus fruits1936
Berry fruits1735
Other subtropical fruits630
Hops136x

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY—Pip and stone fruits are grown commercially throughout New Zealand, whereas citrus and subtropical fruits are largely confined to the coastal strip from North Auckland through the Bay of Plenty to Poverty Bay.

The following table compares the areas planted in various fruits in 1979 with the situation in 1978. The main producing areas for the various fruits are also given.

Fruit1978 Survey1979Main Districts
hectares
Pip fruit—
    Apples55965710Nelson, Hawke's Bay.
    Pears446444Hawke's Bay, Nelson.
Stone fruit—
    Apricots552570Otago.
    Cherries110112Otago, Marlborough.
    Nectarines364380Otago, Hawke's Bay.
    Peaches10311055Hawke's Bay, Auckland, Otago.
    Plums341349Hawke's Bay, Auckland.
Citrus fruit—
    Grapefruit445428Bay of Plenty.
    Lemons114116Bay of Plenty.
    Mandarins278296Bay of Plenty, Northland.
    Oranges (sweet)519589Northland, Poverty Bay.
    Tangelos489507Bay of Plenty, Northland, Poverty Bay.
Subtropical fruit—
    Kiwifruit21953487Bay of Plenty.
    Passionfruit3136Bay of Plenty.
    Tamarillos225327Northland, Bay of Plenty.
    Avocados126153Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay.
    Feijoas70114Bay of Plenty.

Fruit Crop Disposal—Estimated production and methods of disposal of the various tree-fruit crops in 1979 are shown in the following table, as well as provisional production from the 1980 crop. These 1979 figures replace earlier estimates shown in the previous Yearbook.

Fruit19791980
DisposalTotal ProductionTotal Production (provisional)
Export (fresh)Local Market (fresh)Processing
tonnes
Pip fruits—
    Apples812576291635885180058200630
    Pears1579743452751428814980
Stone fruits—
    Apricots233958276167426340
    Cherries1944358520540
    Nectarines222343913437953354
    Peaches1321110664121765019157
    Plums374113103951893500
Citrus fruits—
    Grapefruit802107300351905260
    Lemons151823159125652586
    Mandarins362507325462576
    Oranges7548085663436537
    Tangelos174302121655358642
Subtropical fruits—
    Avocados1888970
    Feijoas12145213370380
    Kiwifruit14100202425261865016500
    Passionfruit8791097106
    Tamarillos2317229818431240

BERRYFRUITS—Berryfruits are grown commercially throughout New Zealand.

The following table sets out the estimated net areas occupied by the various berryfruits during 1978 and 1979. The main producing areas for each of them are also listed.

FruitYearMain Districts
19781979
hectares
Black currants311778Otago-Southland, Canterbury.
Blueberries814Waikato.
Boysenberries233355Nelson, Hawke's Bay.
Brambles (other than those listed)1519Waikato, Nelson.
Gooseberries1013Horowhenua, Wairarapa.
Raspberries178225Nelson, Canterbury.
Strawberries234269Auckland, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury.
Total (all kinds)9911675 

The estimated production and disposal figures for the 1979 berryfruit crop and provisional production for the 1980 crop are set out in the following table.

Fruit19791980
DisposalTotal Production (Provisional)
Market (fresh)ProcessingTotal Production
 tonnes
Black currants94743837795
Boysenberries509198924982381
Brambles (other than those listed)231205436308
Gooseberries19625142
Raspberries53470112351295
Blueberries1711821
Strawberries3520129448145292
                  Total (all kinds)49294941987010234

Fresh-berryfruit exports for the June 1980 year amounted to 523 tonnes, of which strawberries accounted for 504 tonnes.

GRAPE GROWING AND WINE PRODUCTION—The estimated net area of the vineyards throughout New Zealand as at December 1979 was 4177 hectares. The main grape-growing areas are Poverty Bay, Hawke's Bay, Auckland, Marlborough, and Waikato.

Grape-wine production in 1979 amounted to over 42.3 million litres, of which about 288000 litres were exported.

The area of table grapes under glass in 1979 was around 50000 square metres, with an estimated production of 200 tonnes. Exports of fresh glasshouse grapes, mainly to Japan, amounted to about 8 tonnes.

APPLES AND PEARS—A summary of the activities of the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board appears in Section 21. Over 700 orchardists consistently sell apples and pears to the board. Over 80 percent of the total crop received comes from Nelson and Hawke's Bay.

The following table shows the quantities of the main varieties of fresh apples and pears received by districts by the Apple and Pear Marketing Board during the 1979–80 season.

VarietyHawke's BayNelsonOther DistrictsTotal
 cartons (000)
Apples—
    Granny Smith19258774423244
    Sturmer Pippin237540184961
    Golden Delicious268517130915
    Red Delicious9323311491412
    Cox's Orange Pippin9648597678
    Delicious141215133489
    Dougherty19618520401
    Jonathan312158182
    Other479243247969
            Total apples4277351414609251
Pears—
    Packham's Triumph41648113
    Winter Cole77338118
    Winter Nelis58122494
    Other714519135
            Total pears24715459460

Exports of apples and pears in the 1979–80 season totalled 5233000 cartons (excluding processed goods).

HOPS—The whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea County and all the requirements of hops for New Zealand are produced. Production per hectare usually ranges between 1400 kilograms and 1800 kilograms.

The total crop produced in the 1980 season was 281147 kilograms. About 99 percent of the crop is picked by machines. Hop gardens in production covered 155.96 hectares in 1980, the same as in the previous season, but a number of new gardens have been planted. The yield for 1980 season averaged 1803 kilograms per hectare. A total of 134771 kilograms of hops was exported, 71498 kilograms to West Germany, and 63273 kilograms to the U.S.A. The balance was used in this country.

A Hop Marketing Committee of 6 members (one Government and 5 producers) was established by the Hop Marketing Regulations 1939 to regulate and control the marketing, either locally or overseas, of all hops produced in New Zealand and to assist the industry generally.

TOBACCO—Tobacco is grown mainly in the Motueka district. Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, burley, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco. Some 3600 tonnes of raw tobacco leaf was imported during 1974–75, 3650 tonnes during 1975–76, 3500 tonnes during 1976–77, 4320 tonnes during 1977–78, 2657 tonnes during 1978–79, and 3483 tonnes during 1979–80.

SeasonNumber of GrowersArea Planted*ProductionEstimated Value of Crop
* Contract area amended after planting operations completed.
  hectareskg(000)$(000)
1974–75306176430077,485
1975–76308177533499,372
1976–77315184727199,044
1977–783091813355912,314
1978–793151718328212,598
1979–802691513325013,604

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 98 percent and burley leaf for 2 percent of the 1978–79 crop.

Approximately half the tobacco used by New Zealand manufacturers in the production of cigarettes and cut tobacco is New Zealand grown. The actual average percentages used during recent years ended 30 June has been as follows: 1970, 49.4 percent; 1971, 49.3 percent; 1972, 49.1 percent; 1973, 49.2 percent; 1974. 48.3 percent; 1975, 47.1 percent; 1976, 45.9 percent; 1977, 44.2 percent; 1978, 41.6 percent; 1979, 44.7 percent; and 1980, 44.8 percent.

14 C—LIVESTOCK

Agriculture is a major industry upon which much of New Zealand's prosperity depends. It has the capacity to expand provided the circumstances are favourable for development. The lines of development are influenced by overseas prices received for farm products in the form of meat, wool, butter, cheese, milk powder, casein, etc. Although there is a time-lag associated with livestock breeding, the livestock numbers are an indication of the response of farmers to financial incentives, although weather factors, such as drought, are also involved.

Livestock numbers over a 50–year period are shown in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

New Zealand has more than 20 times as many animals as people: this ratio is probably not exceeded in any country in the world. Grasslands have been developed to the extent that the best dairy farms can carry 2 1/2 cows to the hectare, and the best sheep farms can support up to 25 sheep to the hectare throughout the year.

The first sheep stations in the 1840s were stocked with Merinos from Australia. During the 1850s and 1860s several English breeds of sheep were imported, notably Southdowns, Leicesters, Lincolns, and Romneys. In 1855 there were 761700 sheep in the country; by 1870 there were 9700000. Until 1882, the year of the successful introduction of cargo refrigeration when mutton and lamb exports were sent to London, the Merino and its crosses were predominant, because the only sheep products of any importance for export were wool and a little tallow, obtained by boiling down carcasses. Then the Merino was superseded in the North Island by breeds more suited to the climate and conditions. Today the flock sheep of the North Island are nearly all predominantly of Romney blood. In the South Island, Merino blood in varying degree continued to play an important part in the flock structure but Merino crosses are now restricted to the foothills of the Southern Alps, while Corriedales are more profitable in the better hill country, and crossbreeds and long-woolled British breeds at lower levels.

In 1851 there were 193000 cattle in New Zealand and by 1897 the number had reached 1138000. Cattle raising and fattening are usually associated with hill-country sheep farming and fat-lamb farming respectively, and beef stock are grazed chiefly in the North Island.

The growth of dairy herds was related to the availability of refrigeration for the export of butter from 1882, and the development of butter and cheese factories. There were 300000 dairy cows by 1897, 185000 of them in the North Island and 115000 in the South Island. Now the North Island has more than 11 times as many dairy cows as the South Island.

In the following table, livestock numbers are shown by farm-type category as at 30 June 1979.

Farm Type**Beef CattleDairy CattleSheepPigs

* 75 percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§ Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

|| More than 50 percent of gross income is Derived from stated activity.

The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent.

** These farm types are defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

†† Year ended 30 June 1978.

 (thousand)
Dairy farming*116245925530
Sheep fanning*120817336618
Beef farming*733164025
Pig farming*7426260
Cropping*622432
Dairy farming with sheep*††12552511
Dairy farming with beef70115653
Dairy farming with other337712
Sheep farming with dairy4101370
Sheep farming with beef15889167236
Sheep farming with cropping24021042
Sheep farming with other2015306
Beef farming with dairy231480
Beef farming with sheep303310981
Beef farming with other261201
Cropping with sheep604542
Cropping with other51194
Pig farming with other351942
Mixed livestock802117541739
General mixed farming§6611146813
Poultry farming||42341
Market gardening and flowers||1611131
Orchards||51641
Tobacco growing||20280
Other farming70183774
Total, all farm types5122290063523443

Figures as at 30 June 1979 gave a total of 5122316 for beef cattle (of which, breeding cows and heifers totalled 1822513 compared with 1916358 the previous year), and a total of 2900089 for dairy cattle, of which 2001855 (compared with 2020396 the previous year) were dairy cows in milk.

The 1979 figures showed a 7.0 percent decrease in beef cattle, and a 0.4 percent decrease in dairy cattle. The beef cattle herd has been increasingly supplemented in recent years by dairy-bred cattle reared for beef production, as indicated by the declining calf kill.

The dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island which, in 1979, had 83 percent of the total cattle and 92 percent of the dairy stock. Localising the dairying industry still further, it is found that 66 percent of the milking cows of New Zealand are in the northern half of the North Island.

Beef cattle are fairly evenly spread over the North Island, except Taranaki and areas close to Auckland.

If the number of beef breeding cows 2 years old and over are taken as a guide to beef production, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty and Wellington statistical areas easily lead with 36 percent of the New Zealand total between them. Northland is next, followed by Hawke's Bay and East Coast in that order. These 5 districts together pasture 68 percent of breeding cows.

Northland, Central Auckland, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty statistical areas account for 45 percent of the pig population and Wellington and Taranaki for 21 percent. The number of pigs kept in the Nelson and Canterbury areas has increased considerably in recent years and 19 percent of the pig population is now in these areas. In recent decades tanker collection of whole milk from dairy farms has reduced the rearing of pigs as a sideline but major developments have taken place in the rearing of grain-fed pigs in large units.

Sheep farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The statistical areas of major importance are Canterbury, Wellington, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Southland, Otago, and Hawke's Bay in that order. These 6 districts accounted for 85 percent of the total sheep population in 1979.

The following table shows the distribution of livestock at 30 June 1979.

Statistical AreaDairy CattleBeef CattleSheepPigsDeer
 (thousand)
Northland3276271872130
Central Auckland229260861505
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1333109490991397
East Coast5381278930
Hawke's Bay506117504102
Taranaki4861831528380
Wellington2497919890564
                North Island267939483354430819
Marlborough191021492200
Nelson5789852121
Westland317221811
Canterbury5836410822739
Otago303078291175
Southland262408306138
                South Island22111742997913523
                New Zealand290051226352344342

Detailed statistics of livestock are contained in the annual report Agricultural Statistics. This publication also contains the summary tables from parliamentary paper C. 5A, a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns.

SHEEP—The following table analyses categories of sheep.

At 30 JuneRamsWethersBreeding EwesDry EwesHoggetsTotal
RamWetherEwe

* Includes dry ewes.

Included with wethers.

Included with wether hoggets.

 (thousand)
 Totals
19759091300411083362891576980255320
197688011584120033430416461086956390
19778771405*4278231419891173859105
1978954x2166*4451534523631182162163
19799374610834232581288063523

Data on sheep breeds collected in 1979 indicate that, of the 63.5 million sheep in New Zealand at the end of June 1979, 28.4 million (44.6 percent) were Romneys, 11.4 million (17.9 percent) were Perendale, 11.3 million (17.8 percent) were Coopworth, 5 million (7.9 percent) were Corriedale, 3.7 million (5.8 percent) were Merino and half-bred, and 3.8 million (6 percent) were other breeds.

In the 1978 Budget the Government announced a livestock subsidy scheme of 50c per head for sheep and this could be reflected in the returns for that year.

The following table shows numbers of flocks by size of flock.

Size of Flock19751976197719781979
1–9954215376466654844758
100–19920731960190522112154
200–49938543746357038063776
500–99945934391428042433976
1000–149947884566430941143962
1500–199945564458443642924093
2000–249932563437346436943633
2500–499952465458592463596525
5000–999912001258145915971733
10000 and over248254283318356
        Total flocks3523534904342963611834966
Average flock size15701616172317211816

CATTLE—Numbers of cattle at 30 June of the 3 latest available years are given by categories in the following table.

Category197719781979

* Heifers not yet in milk, and cows not in milk during season but intended to be used again for dairying.

Includes bobby calves (5157 in 1977, 3271 in 1978, and 3270 in 1979).

Includes cows culled from dairy herds (28774 in 1977, 20362 in 1978, and 17518 in 1979).

Dairy stock—
    Cows and heifers, 2 years old and over—
    Cows in milk during season200682020203962001855
    Others*336593474636628
    Heifers—
    One and 2 years old414711424824432330
    Under 1 year old381366369815372642
    Bulls and calves intended for dairy breeding571365768453364
            Total dairy stock289884929107362900089
    Beef stock—
    Breeding cows and heifers, 2 years old and over196554217445731655663
    Cows, 2 years old and over, not used for breeding189182197282183733
    Heifers—
    One and under 2 years old651516633959589989
    Under 1 year old747570703552620555
    Steers and bulls of all ages225620822075472054858
            Total beef stock583879255072755122316
            Total cattle873764184180118022405

PIGS—Pig numbers fell in the late sixties as farmers began increasingly to supply whole milk to dairy factories instead of separating off the skim milk, which was frequently used to feed pigs. There was increased emphasis on grain-feeding, and a significant increase in pig numbers in the grain-producing areas of the South Island. After falling throughout the first half of the present decade, pig numbers showed a small increase in 1976, a very substantial increase in 1977 and then another fall in 1978 and 1979.

At 30 JuneBreeding Sows One Year Old and OverOther Pigs of All Ages (Including Boars)Total Pigs
197553553368838422391
197656429376415432844
197760809424152484961
197855686415613471299
197951761391691443452

DEER—A type of livestock farming which is of growing importance is deer-farming. Venison finds a ready overseas market and almost all the meat produced is exported. (In 1979–80 venison exports totalled 1,063,252 kg valued at $5.9 million. The principal markets are the German Federal Republic, which takes almost three-quarters of the export total, followed by the Netherlands and the United States.) Deer farming is controlled by the New Zealand Forest Service because of the status of the deer in the wild as a noxious animal. Deer farms have to be licensed and registered, and permits are issued for specified numbers of animals or specified areas.

The first deer-farm licence was issued in March 1970. By 1980 some 1300 properties were involved.

GOATS—The goat industry became well established during 1979–80. The New Zealand goat population is around 3000000 (principally feral goats but including some pure-bred Angoras) and numbers of goats, mainly Angoras, have been imported from Tasmania. Feral does are being crossbred with Angora bucks for improved milk, meat, and mohair production. Goats milk is used for the production of high-priced felta cheese, and mohair offers a good export potential.

POULTRY—In 1979–80 there were 633 registered poultry runs forming the basic commercial units of the poultry industry. Farmlets comprising 100 birds or less are exempt from registration.

The following table shows registered poultry runs in 1979–80 by flock size and the number of birds.

Flock Size (Birds)Number of RunsNumber of Birds
101–1000220171826
1001–5000141417388
Over 50002723212781
Total6483801995

The Poultry Board Act 1976, which amended and consolidated the Poultry Runs Registration Act 1933, provided for the registration by the occupiers of poultry farms with 100 or more head of poultry as from 1 July 1977.

Eggs—The commercial groups sell most of their eggs through licensed egg floors and are therefore mainly responsible for supplying eggs to retail shops in the cities and larger towns.

Commercial poultry farms are distributed over both Islands, but there are concentrations around Auckland, Tauranga, Christchurch, and Oamaru. The poultry industry does not cater for overseas markets, though limited quantities of frozen egg pulp, surplus to local requirements, are exported.

The following table shows eggs handled by licensed distributors for years ended 30 June.

YearEggs
 doz(m)
1974–7556.7
1975–7651.1
1976–7756.1
1977–7851.8
1978–7950.7
1979–8048.9

Table Poultry—The Poultry Board has continued to maintain a close liaison with the New Zealand Poultry Processors' Association (Inc.), an active organisation comprising the majority of processors of all types of poultry for table meat consumption. The main basis of concern to the board in this area has been that of ensuring and maintaining an economic outlet for the egg producing industry's by-product—the roasting fowl—some 3 million hens that have completed their 13–15-month laying cycle. Not only is there fierce competition to be faced by the roasting fowl from meat chicken interests for its continuing share of the available market, but the coming into force of the Poultry Processing Regulations 1978 on 1 July 1980 will most likely tend to reduce the opportunities commercial poultry farmers presently have of disposing of their birds in quantity for a reasonably economic return.

The continuing expansion throughout New Zealand of various “takeaway” retail establishments has been a notable feature of the table poultry industry in very recent years, and has had a vast influence on the changing eating habits of the country's population. It is estimated that over 60 percent of all meat chicken marketed are sold through these increasingly popular outlets, and it is difficult to foresee any slowdown in these activities while red meats are inclined to become a less competitive source of foodstuff.

While no firm statistics are compiled on table poultry meat consumption within New Zealand it is widely held that in 1977–78 it was in the vicinity of the following figure:

BirdsTotal
 (million)
Meat chicken22.00
Roasting fowl3.00
Turkey0.50
Duck0.35
Geese0.02
 25.87

On this basis the per capita consumption was 10.4 kg which compares favourably with the 1973 figure of approximately 7.1 kg.

BEES—The rich pasture lands of New Zealand and some bush areas are favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey, although more intensive farming methods and land development have eliminated many sources of nectar for the bees.

Sales of honey by the New Zealand Honey Marketing Authority during the year ended 31 May 1980 amounted to approximately 2106 tonnes, of which 1276 tonnes was sold overseas. Total honey production for the 1979–80 season was assessed at 7489 tonnes, and beeswax production at 115 tonnes.

Following is a summary of registrations under the Apiaries Act 1969 at 31 May 1980.

GroupHives
1–56–5051–250251–500501–10001000+Total
Beekeepers362811642267574505217
Apiaries40372743226119693431500919450
Hives established78431796628032297735687293324233810

Only approximately 200 beekeepers were completely dependent on honey production and beekeeping for their livelihood.

FURTHER INFORMATION ON THE FARMING INDUSTRY—There are numerous publications dealing with aspects of the farming industry and only a selection can be given here.

Report of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Parl. paper C. 5).

N.Z. Horticulture Statistics—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Annual)

Report of the Department of Lands and Survey (Parl. paper C. 1).

Sheep Returns (Parl. paper C. 5A).

Agricultural Statistics—Department of Statistics (Annual). (The annual report is usually preceded by a series of bulletins).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics

Economic Review of New Zealand Agriculture—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (1978).

N.Z. Fertiliser Statistics—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Annual).

Productivity Statistics of New Zealand Agriculture, 1960–1975—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Annual Reports of Producer Boards, (N.Z. Wool Board, N.Z. Dairy Board, N.Z. Meat Producers Board, N.Z. Milk Board, N.Z. Potato Board, Wheat Board, Tobacco Board, N.Z. Honey Marketing Authority, N.Z. Poultry Board and Egg Marketing Authority, N.Z. Apple and Pear Marketing Board, etc.)

The Future for New Zealand Agriculture—N.Z. Planning Council (published by Fourth Estate Books).

The N.Z. Meat Producer—N.Z. Meat Producers Board (monthly).

Dairy Industry: Information at a Glance—N.Z. Dairy Board (Annual).

N.Z. Pork Industry Council (Annual Report).

Chapter 15. Section 15 FORESTRY

Table of Contents

Until the early nineteenth century extensive evergreen forests covered some two-thirds of the country, the remaining third being the low-rainfall zones in the east of the South Island (carrying only tussock grasses) and the rocky high country above 1100–1400 metres. Because of the abundance, use of timber during the early days of European settlement was wasteful, and in clearing land for farms large areas of forest were felled and burnt, often going well beyond the limits now considered desirable by extending into steep terrain unsuited to development. Not until towards the end of the nineteenth century was the need to conserve forests of the high mountain watersheds recognised.

Today, in addition to forest set aside in national parks, about 4 million hectares of land valuable either for timber production, recreation, or forest growth vital to soil and water conservation have been constituted State forest, and there is also a large private forest estate. Resources have been built up by afforestation with introduced species, mainly conifers, which produce usable wood in 25–30 years, a much shorter time than the slow-growing indigenous species.

The following table shows the present area of forested land in relation to other categories of land.

Type of LandAreaPercentage of Total Area
 hectares 
 (million) 
Total forested land7.126.0
Pasture and arable land13.550.2
Other non-forested land6.022.3
Minor islands0.10.4
Lakes, rivers, etc.0.31.1
        Total area of New Zealand27.0100.0

FORESTS TODAY—About three-quarters of the forest area is classed as unmerchantable. This is mainly Crown-owned indigenous forest which, because it covers much of the remote and mountainous high-rainfall country, has as its primary function soil protection and water regulation. The limited production possibilities it offers must be subordinated to its protective role.

Of the 6.2 million hectares of indigenous forests only about a million hectares are merchantable by today's standards. Greatly increased use of exotic timber has enabled the rate of cutting in State indigenous forests to be reduced, allowing emphasis to be placed on the management of indigenous forests for sustained wood yield or as reserved natural stands. A lower cutting level is also evident in privately-owned indigenous forests.

Merchantable forests also include almost all the planted (exotic) forests, about half of which were established and are owned privately or by local authorities. There are about 846000 hectares of productive exotic forest, over half of which is in the Bay of Plenty - Taupo region, where very large plantings were made from 1923 to 1936. The distribution of the planted forests was influenced mainly by availability of cheap undeveloped land at that time. The output of timber from the exotic forests greatly surpasses that from the indigenous forests.

The exotic conifers, particularly radiata pine, have high growth rates, ease of establishment and ease of re-establishment on cut-over areas, and they produce wood that has many uses. Plantings of such trees are being extended and developed to provide for increasing domestic and export demand.

The distribution by area of forest land is shown in the table below.

Forested LandIndigenous ForestsExotic ForestsAll Forests
 hectares (thousand)
State forest29934673460
National parks and reserves15501550
Unoccupied Crown land361361
Other tenures13423791721
        Total62468467092

BOTANICAL COMPOSITION OF FORESTS: Indigenous Forests—These can be broadly grouped into podocarp/broad-leaved forest (which includes kauri forest) and beech forest, but there are also many subgroups and transition zones.

Podocarp/broad-leaved forests are found at all latitudes in the 3 main islands, more particularly those of the north and of the warm wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes, and there is a general increase in luxuriance and in numbers of species from south to north. This type of forest has suffered severely by destruction in land clearing or from heavy logging. There are still some large areas on steep country, such as the Ureweras, but these are essentially protection forests. Fairly extensive areas in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island contain most of the remaining indigenous softwood supplies. However, large portions of the forests in these regions were recently set apart as ecological reserves. The residual production areas will be managed for low levels of cutting only. Otherwise, the remaining forest of this type consists of pockets, some of which may be worked out in a few decades.

The principal podocarp is rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) and important secondary ones are totara (Podocarpus totara), matai (P. spicatus), and miro (P. ferrugineus). Important species at higher elevations are Hall's totara (P. hallii) and kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii). Kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides), once common on low-lying swampy river silts now cleared for farming, is becoming scarce. The smaller podocarps of the silver pine group (Dacrydium biforme, D. colensoi, and D. intermedium) are dominant in bog forests occupying limited areas in the central North Island and scattered widely over the South Island although concentrated largely on the West Coast, where they have been largely cut over for posts and sleepers.

The main broad-leaved species associated with the podocarps are kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa), rata (Metrosideros umbellata and M. robusta), and tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa) in the North Island and western Nelson.

Kauri forests are found in the north of the North Island. In them, kauri (Agathis australis) either occurs frequently or is locally dominant—otherwise they are akin to the podocarp/broad-leaved forest, though with many additional hardwoods. They have been almost destroyed by logging and fire, and only limited stands now remain.

Beech forests, in which one or more of the southern beech (Nothofagus) species are dominant, are the forests of the south, of the mountains, and of the dry lowlands; but the species are absent from some localities where their presence might be expected, e.g., Mt. Egmont, the region 160 km south of the Taramakau River in Westland, and Stewart Island. In the main, these forests are protection forests, but there are large areas in accessible regions that have been cut over and are regenerating, and others that have not yet been logged and will be reserved for sustained-yield management or replacement by fast-growing exotics.

Scrub and second-growth broad-leaved species occupy much of the land now classified as forest. There were, before European settlement, limited transition areas carrying manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides) between tussock grassland and forest proper. With deliberate destruction by fire of much tussock and forest these manuka belts have extended, and manuka even occupies extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from its own original stands. In this respect it is important, for it is often a stage in succession back to forest proper.

Exotic Forests—Introduced conifers form the bulk of the large and valuable exotic-forest estate, and among these radiata pine (Pinus radiata) is the supreme multi-purpose tree. Radiata pine grows rapidly in New Zealand (reaching saw-log size in 25–30 years), produces a large volume of usable wood, and is remarkably adapted to a variety of sites. Other major species are Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii),Corsican pine (Pinus nigra (laricio)), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa). In recent years, planting of the last two species has declined because they have proved less versatile and slower growing than radiata pine.

The largest exotic forests are in the centre of the North Island, but medium and small plantations are distributed throughout most of the country. Radiata pine constitutes about three-quarters of the area of State plantations and about 96 percent of private plantations.

MANAGEMENT OF STATE FORESTS—The management activities of the New Zealand Forest Service are directed towards protecting, conserving, and perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests of the country, and creating an exotic forest estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce and to provide for large exports.

Spreading awareness among the general public of the human and physical environment has brought the management of the remaining indigenous forests under critical examination. In 1975 a new policy covering State indigenous forests was approved by Government. It provides principles to guide the future use and management of these forests, giving due regard to sound forestry practices, the wishes of the public, and social and economic welfare on a regional and national basis. To manage forest land on the basis of balanced use, dominant forest values (whether they are of protection, amenity, production, or otherwise) must be identified and defined. Recognising forest zones is a sound basis for reconciling numerous objectives. The values identified first in forest zoning are soil and water conservation and biological significance. Scenic appeal, potential for recreation, and wood production values are considered subsequently. This policy was given specific effect in 1978 with the release by the Government of more detailed policies covering the two most important remaining indigenous forest regions—the West Coast, and the Central North Island—and these have been followed by detailed management plans for both regions. In both instances, substantial reductions in allowable cut have been made to provide for ecological reserves and management of the productive forests on a sustained or long-term periodic-yield basis.

In relation to the approximately 4.2 million hectares of State forest land administered by the New Zealand Forest Service, conservation embraces: the husbanding of indigenous forests yielding timber needed for special purposes, but which are difficult to perpetuate and must therefore be used as sparingly as possible; the management in selected areas of less silviculturally difficult forests, such as terrace rimu in Westland, podocarps in the central North Island, beech in Southland and north Westland, and kauri in North Auckland, on a sustained yield basis; the creation and management of exotic forests on a sustained yield basis for the production of wood for a wide range of uses; the establishment or maintenance in a healthy state of protective vegetation on hill and mountain land to preserve soil and to control stream channel aggradation; the protection of exotic and indigenous forest against fire, disease, and noxious animals for the maintenance of a supply of exotic and indigenous wood, as a vegetative cover to preserve soil and water values, as a habitat for wildlife, and for its scenic and other amenity values in perpetuity; the legal reservation of selected forest types as forest sanctuaries and dedicated areas; the use of exotic and indigenous forest for recreational and other purposes, including spiritual enjoyment, where this is not incompatible with essential soil and water conservation.

Increasing interdependence between forests, and the social and economic benefits derived from indigenous and exotic forests in regional development, emphasise the necessity for planning all forest operations on a regional basis.

Indigenous Production Forests—Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve restriction of the annual cut, rigid insistence on full utilisation, and block sales of carefully measured standing timber.

The ecology of the natural forest associations and the silvicultural characteristics of the individual species are being studied. Past work has shown the importance of preserving a forest climate. Carefully conducted selective logging of terrace rimu forests in south Westland provides a favourable forest environment for the regeneration and growth of rimu. A sustained-yield policy, based on experience of both large-scale operations and selective logging trials, has been developed for central North Island forests. The policy allows mature trees, which are likely to die and decay within a few decades, to be identified and carefully harvested. The forest's natural regeneration is enriched by planting native seedlings.

In many districts, forests of mixed podocarps and tawa have been logged for rimu, leaving tawa behind. Recently, however, tawa has been found useful as a hardwood pulp and, in the Bay of Plenty, wood unsuitable for saw logs is being used for this purpose.

The kauri forests, now only remnants, are owned principally by the State. Management of them has the objective of perpetuating kauri as a species in the interests of science and public enjoyment, in natural stands and as managed forests. Large representative areas of mature and immature kauri have been set aside as sanctuaries, programmes of research and artificial establishment intensified, and the annual cut reduced to the lowest level consistent with economic, social, and legal constraints.

The prospects of improving and perpetuating the beech forests on a sustained-yield basis are good. Both major species, red and silver beech, when given the right conditions, will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to produce saw logs in 100–130 years; and both show their best development on sites that are unsuitable for agriculture. Many large areas of beech forests are still intact and, in the case of red beech, there are extensive stands of young forest which have originated after fire, wind throw, or mining activities. Against these favourable circumstances must be set the presence in many localities of red deer and other feral animals, the browsing of which may check or even prevent effective regeneration, and difficulties associated with the utilisation of the non-sawlog component of the forest crop.

Exotic Forests—State exotic forests date from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting began in 1898 and proceeded slowly until 1922, by which time 19000 hectares had been established. From 1923 to 1936 there was a boom in afforestation, with no less than 150000 hectares being planted by the State and 120000 hectares by commercial companies. After the boom period, planting continued on a more modest scale, but in 1961 State planting was increased and the Government provided for financial inducements to encourage planting by private landholders and local authorities—with the aim of doubling the exotic-forest estate by the end of the century. The annual rate of new planting by the State has increased considerably since 1961, and since 1974 has averaged some 20828 hectares per annum, over 5 times the rate achieved in 1961. Private sector afforestation continues at a high rate, with 26000 hectares planted in 1980.

Now that the stage of large-scale utilisation has been reached, there are opportunities to increase productivity by correcting the deficiencies in the distribution of age classes, replacing unthrifty plantations, and improving the quality of the trees, and at the same time, meeting the demand for forest products and ensuring continuity of supplies. The diversity of products now marketable permits utilisation of trees of a wide range of sizes and aids the operations needed in management practice.

Present policy is to concentrate new exotic forests in areas where there is scope for building up integrated wood-based industries to supply markets both in New Zealand and overseas. The planted forests (both State and private) already supply nearly 97 percent of the total wood production.

Stabilisation of Sand Dunes—This aspect of the Forest Service's work has a twofold objective—the stabilisation of dunes for the protection of agricultural and pastoral land and the establishment of exotic production forests. The Forest Service plants marram grass, sows lupin, and later establishes trees on certain protective zones. Eight schemes are in operation—at Aupouri, Mangawhai, Woodhill, Waiuku, Tainui-Kawhia, Waitarere, Santoft, and Pouto—embracing around 60000 hectares. A further 1555 hectares were planted in 1980, bringing the total stocked area of protection forest to almost 30000 hectares.

A most successful co-operative venture is under way in two Northland localities, where the Crown has leased large areas of Maori-owned coastal sand dunes (adjacent to Aupouri and Woodhill forests) for stabilisation and afforestation.

Stabilisation of Eroding Farmlands—A consequence of past forest clearing for farm land on some unsuitably steep areas has been accelerated water run-off and erosion. Widespread landslipping, aggradation of riverbeds, and subsequent flooding have been sufficiently severe to require remedial works in which reafforestation plays a major part. Afforestation commenced in the East Coast-Poverty Bay area in 1962 following detailed land use studies. To date, 21000 hectares have been established in critical headwater areas. Carefully managed, these can fulfil a productive role for timber supply and also maintain a protective cover.

Afforestation of Maori Land—In addition to the two areas of Maori-owned coastal sand country mentioned above, the Crown has also leased 14 other areas of Maori land for co-operative forestry ventures. These total 77000 hectares, of which 25000 hectares have been planted to date.

Protection Forests—The vegetation of the mountainous areas—forest, scrub, and alpine grassland—is of the highest importance to the welfare of New Zealand. Many rivers that bring water to low-lying farmlands or provide the domestic water supply of cities and towns have their headwaters in the mountainous back country. The mountains receive frequent heavy r?in and are mostly formed of rock that erodes easily when exposed to rain, wind, and frost. The blanket of montane vegetation protects the thin soil layer and stabilises rocky slopes. This prevents soil and rock from reaching streams and altering their flow characteristics. Settled flood plains can be protected by a combination of river-training works and a good cover of vegetation on catchments to ensure the most stable stream flow possible.

Browsing animals that were introduced into the forest and mountain lands many years ago (and, in the absence of natural enemies and limiting climate, multiplied excessively) are the major threat to the continued protective function of the vegetation of these areas. Consequently the first step in the effective management of these areas is control of the numbers of these animals to a level that will allow an adequate vegetative cover to grow and persist.

Techniques to assess the condition and trends of vegetation, alpine climate, rates of erosion, the possibility of introducing new forest and scrub species into badly depleted areas, and changes in animal populations and methods of control are undertaken by the Forest Service and other agencies in support of management of protective forest lands.

Recreation in State Forests—Over 1.4 million hectares of State forest is set aside in 18 forest parks which, although mainly protection forests, provide scope for recreation. In addition, a further 110000 hectares of State forest land has been set apart as recreation areas and another 1.4 million hectares have been gazetted open indigenous forest to enable public entry without permit except when carrying a firearm.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for recreation in surroundings of great natural beauty—for study of plant and animal life; for challenging tramping; and for shooting and fishing. Most of the forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation and recreational use can be allowed in almost all such forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting, for instance, can be of benefit in destroying wild animal pests. Two recreational hunting areas have been gazetted and several more areas are in the process of being established. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining huts. Entry on foot is unrestricted except that, in the interests of public safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

The older exotic forests, two of which are forest parks, also offer attractions and have the advantage of accessibility. In many there are walks and picnic spots for the public, and selected areas are reserved from felling for their scenic value.

Conservation and Protection of Scientific Values—There are 14 sanctuaries (16300 ha), to preserve, in their natural state indigenous flora and fauna and, especially, their high scientific values. The basic aim in administering forest sanctuaries is that natural processes dominate management, no plants may be taken or destroyed, no leases or privileges over the land or over the forest produce can be assigned, and public use is restricted whenever entry is likely to affect the value for which the sanctuary is proclaimed.

The are 46 dedicated areas, 68600 ha, set apart for the purposes of protection and maintenance of the land for specific purposes. Dedicated areas are areas of State forest land which had some special natural value or management objective which needed to be protected. Such areas may have ecological, historical, educational, or other special values. Many are ecological areas set apart as being representative of regional forest ecosystems.

Safeguarding Forests and Timber: Fire Prevention—Fire is the greatest single menace to forests; within a few hours it can destroy a valuable timber crop or undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance. Indigenous forests are fairly fire resistant but can become fire-risks in drought conditions. Without doubt, however, the major risk occurs in the plantations of exotic conifers.

The fire-protection organisation of the New Zealand Forest Service operates over the entire country, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves, national parks, and all other State areas. The Forest Service also gives support to other rural fire authorities, particularly those with high country fire hazards. A fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the department has fire-fighting responsibilities, and well-equipped fire-fighting crews can be brought into action at short notice and controlled through a radio network. Aerial fire-detection patrols operate when and where required, and aerial fire-fighting in the form of helicopters fitted with special buckets, has been adopted to deal with fire outbreaks. When weather or other conditions may lead to the start of forest or rural fires and endanger life and property, the Forest Service may issue a warning of fire hazard conditions, impose a total ban on lighting fires in the open, and take charge of an area so endangered by declaring a regional fire emergency.

The Forest and Rural Fires Act, which became law on 1 April 1979, provides for a nationwide fire control system (involving all fire authorities), affords private forest owners the opportunity for protection identical with State areas, and sets up a mediator to deal immediately with any controversy.

Wild Animal—Under the Wild Animal Control Act 1977 the Forest Service is responsible for the control of deer, goats, chamois, thar, and other introduced wild animals on all lands where the damage they cause is detrimental to the welfare of the country. On some pastoral land, control of opossums and wallabies comes under the Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

The widespread populations of many of these animals have a serious effect on the growth of trees and ground cover in production as well as in protection forests. The forest floor of ferns, mosses, and shrubs has been extensively damaged by deer and goats, while the upper storey is adversely affected by the canopy-feeding opossum.

Control of Insects and Disease—In conjunction with private enterprise, the New Zealand Forest Service has organised joint spraying operations to control the pine needle blight Dothistroma pini. Aerial spraying of a copper fungicide is an effective means of dealing with the disease. Increasing research is being directed towards the debilitating effect of Swiss needle cast (Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii) on the growth of Douglas fir.

Pathologists and entomologists of the Forest Research Institute maintain a constant watch on forests, woodlots, and shelter belts to detect incipient epidemics in time for effective control measures to be taken. Much information is accumulated to elucidate the relationships between the organisms and the forests.

Timber Inspection and Quarantine—Forest Service timber inspection and quarantine cover all sawn, hewn, and natural round timber, wooden manufactured items, wooden packing, and ship's dunnage entering or leaving the country.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES—More money is spent on establishing and tending State forests than is obtained in revenue from these forests. Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry is met in full from taxation, as distinct from the development of State forests, which is financed from national development loans. The sources of finance are shown in the following table.

Source1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80
* Expenditure and receipts now recorded in Consolidated Account.
 $(thousand)
Consolidated Account expenditure8,4598,83910,602133,301152,835
    Less receipts8512014259,90877,754
        Required from Consolidated Account8,3748,71910,46073,39375,081
Works and Trading Account expenditure78,70494,552109,090-*-*
    Less receipts37,64759,68757,327-*-*
        Loan moneys required41,05734,86551,763-*-*
Net finance required from Government funds49,43143,58462,22373,39375,081

PRIVATE FORESTRY: Private Forest Estate—Exotic forest holdings other than State forests amount to 379000 hectares.

Forestry Incentives—In 1979, 6544 hectares of new planting was carried out under the Government's forestry encouragement loans scheme (for local authorities) or forestry encouragement grants scheme (for individuals, trusts and partnerships, and small companies). Also, 5584 hectares of established planting was pruned and thinned under both schemes. The total area planted since the schemes' inception now totals 67265 hectares.

As an added incentive, standing trees do not incur land tax, death duties, or local body rates. There are also income tax concessions to forest companies.

Extension Services—In addition to the financial assistance provided under the encouragement schemes, the Forest Service also provides guidance in all plantation matters. Because of the high interest in private forestry, increasing emphasis is being given to providing information and training services. Handbooks are available, a correspondence course is offered through the Technical Correspondence Institute, and short residential courses are held periodically.

Farm forestry associations also assist in promoting the schemes and advising on the management of woodlots.

FOREST UTILISATION: Removals of Roundwood—By the 1930s the easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone, whereas some of the exotic forests had reached the stage where harvesting could begin. By 1939, of the 1700000 cubic metres per annum of roundwood cut for industrial use, some 280000 cubic metres came from the exotic forests. By 1948 the total annual removals of roundwood had increased to 2300000 cubic metres, with 820000 cubic metres from the exotic forests. The exotic forests are now by far the more important source of wood. In 1980 they supplied 9372000 cubic metres, or 94 percent of the total supply from exotic and indigenous forests.

The table below shows the quantities of timber produced by the forests of New Zealand to supply the forest industries, which comprise 377 sawmills, 9 plywood and veneer plants, 3 particle board mills, 7 pulp and paper mills, and 2 fibreboard mills. This roundwood production does not include firewood.

Year Ended 31 MarchIndigenous WoodExotic WoodTotal
 cubic metres (thousand)
1976959.67344.38303.9
1977861.18892.89753.9
1978692.08574.09266.0
1979x583.08391.08974.0
1980559.09372.09931.0

Sawn-timber Production—Radiata pine and other pines account for about 89 percent of the total cut of exotics; Douglas fir provides most of the remainder. Only 10 percent of the country's timber requirement comes from the indigenous forests, and this proportion is being reduced to the point where a small sustained yield in indigenous timber can be maintained for special purposes.

The table below gives the production of rough-sawn timber in recent years. Total sawn-timber production by years over a 50-year period is included in the Statistical Summary at the back of the Yearbook.

Year Ended 31 MarchSoftwoodsHardwoodsGrand Total
IndigenousExoticTotalIndigenousExoticTotal
 cubic metres (thousand)
1976326161819444811592003
197729618672163472492212
197822317041927322341961
197917316541827353381865
198015718111968384422010

The following graph shows the production of exotic and indigenous rough-sawn timber over a series of years.

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past 5 years.

SpeciesYear Ended 31 March
19741977197819791980
 cubic metres (thousand)
Rimu and miro266242185152137
Matai2016933
Totara64322
Kahikatea3232211410
Tawa2117121515
Beech2629191923
Other indigenous33635
        Total, indigenous374343255208195
Exotic pines14271662152214791609
Douglas fir153161141131163
Eucalypts102232
Other exotic3944414441
        Total, exotic16291869170616571815
        Total (all species)20032212196118652010

Export Wood-chip Industry—The industry originated in 1969 in the Nelson region where two mills now produce both indigenous and exotic wood chips for Japan. They use trees unsuitable for sawn-timber production, enabling replanting with more productive species, and also provide outlets for forest and sawmill residues which would normally be wasted. Nelson remains the principal chip export port, handling about 40 percent of the country's total chip exports.

Wood chips have been exported through the port of Mount Maunganui since 1972, through Lyttelton since 1975, and through Port Chalmers since 1977. Total chip exports in 1980 totalled 192000 bone dry units.

Pulp and Paper Industry—Over the last 10 years total production of pulp has risen at an average annual rate of 9 percent, and production of paper at 5 percent. Production of pulp has risen from 455000 tonnes in 1968–69 to 1122000 tonnes in 1979–80. The industry is mainly concentrated near the big exotic forests on the volcanic piateau of the North Island. There are 7 pulp and paper plants in New Zealand, 6 of which are in the North Island. Of these 6, 4 are integrated with sawmills to utilise fully the total input of wood. The 7 companies are:

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.—This company, which was formed in 1952 to utilise wood from Kaingaroa State Forest, is now part of the Fletcher Challenge Corporation, the largest New Zealand company in terms of shareholders' funds. The company's plant is at Kawerau, Bay of Plenty. The pulp and paper mill began operation late in 1955 and the sawmill early in 1956. The annual rated capacity of the sawmill is 200000 cubic metres of sawn timber on the basis of one shift a day, while the capacity of the pulp and paper plant is 335000 tonnes of newsprint and wallpaper base, 245000 tonnes of chemical pulp, and 295000 tonnes of mechanical pulp. The company is now planning to install a fourth newsprint machine.

N.Z. Forest Products Ltd.—This public company utilises about 2200000 cubic metres of timber a year from its own pine forests and also small quantities of hardwood (tawa) from State forests. Annual plant capacity is 260000 tonnes of kraft, packaging, printing, and writing paper, 435000 tonnes of kraft pulp, 55000 tonnes of refiner groundwood pulp for fibreboard production, and 115000 cubic metres of sawn timber a year, the last on a one-shift basis. The company uses 12000 cubic metres of timber to make wooden cases and has the capacity to produce 12000 cubic metres of plywood on a one-shift basis, 11 million square metres of wallboard, and 100 million multi-wall paper bags annually. The integrated pulp mill, paper mill, sawmill and veneer lathe is at Kinleith near Tokoroa: the fibreboard, multi-wall paper bag, and wooden case mills and plants are in Auckland. The company is also a joint owner, with Australian Paper Mills Ltd. of Australia and U.E.B. Industries Ltd., of Fibre Products N.Z. Ltd., a firm which makes a range of moulded pulp products, including 32 million moulded fruit trays a year. During 1980 the company acquired a 40–percent share in U.E.B. Industries Ltd. It is investigating the possibility of establishing a pulp mill in Northland.

Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., a subsidiary of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., has an annual production capacity of 45000 tonnes. The company manufactures mechanical and semi-chemical pulp which it uses, with considerable quantities of waste paper, in the production of paperboard. The company owns its own radiata pine forest at Matahina and hauls the logs 42 kilometres to the mill by road. It also operates a sawmill near the board mill to take the larger logs from the forest.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. makes tissue and various lightweight papers adjacent to the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.'s plant at Kawerau.

New Zealand Paper Mills Ltd., at Mataura, now a subsidiary of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., has been in operation for more than 100 years. It has 2 machines producing a range of papers from kraft wrapping grades to specialty printing and writing papers. The company uses New Zealand-made sulphate-pulp and supplements this with wastepaper and small quantities of imported specialty pulp. Annual production capacity is 19000 tonnes of paper. Adjacent to the paper mill is a small bagmaking factory, producing a range of single-ply bags.

Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd.—In 1969 the Government invited tenders for the processing of 9 million cubic metres of wood from Kaingaroa State Forest. After examining the proposals received, the Government awarded the sale of roughly two-thirds of the volume to Carter Consolidated Ltd. This led to the formation of the company, which has built an integrated sawmill and refiner groundwood mill at Whirinaki in the Napier district. This project, which is geared to the Japanese market, began producing wood pulp in March 1973. Present productive capacity is about 217000 tonnes of refiner groundwood pulp and 70000 cubic metres of sawn timber annually. Newsprint production is planned for the late 1980s when additional wood supplies are expected to be available. The company is now planning to convert the process to thermo-mechanical pulp.

Winstone Samsung Industries Ltd.—The company's thermo-mechanical pulpmill at Tangiwai produced its first pulp in the latter part of 1978. The plant, which uses exotic wood from Karioi State Forest, and Lake Taupo State Forest as well as sawmill residues, has a rated capacity of about 68000 tonnes annually.

The basic products of the pulp and paper industry are mechanical and chemical pulp, which are converted into such products as newsprint, kraft, and other paper and paperboard.

The following table gives the production of wood pulp in New Zealand in recent years.

Year Ended 31 MarchWood Pulp
Chemical*Mechanical

* Chemical pulp includes semi-chemical pulp.

Mechanical pulp includes ground wood pulp and thermo-mechanical pulp.

 tonnes
1975521161371618
1976565376387736
1977581453521203
1978606759490083
1979578615464195
1980556488565968

Production figures for paper in New Zealand in recent years are as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchNewsprintOther Printing and Writing PaperOther Paper and PaperboardTotal Paper and Paperboard
 tonnes
197621913434213301607554954
197727536938773320450634592
197827662731491333047641165
197926031133075337635631021
198031904433165321644673853

The rise of production of pulp and pulp products is clearly shown in the following graph.

Wood-based Panel Products Industries: Plywood—Five factories manufacture plywood, and the total output for the year ended 31 March 1980 was 54000 cubic metres. Total production of veneer in the industry in 1979–80 was 76000 cubic metres.

New Zealand Forest Products plywood plant at Kinleith began production of industrial and structural grades of plywood for both the domestic and export markets in 1976. The plant has a capacity of 12000 cubic metres on a one-shift basis (twice that of any other plywood plant in New Zealand or Australia) and uses radiata pine from Kaingaroa State Forest together with wood from the company's own pine forests.

Radiata pine has become increasingly important as a species for peeler log supply because of the demand for industrial plywood, and now constitutes about 93 percent of total peeler log production. Now that the indigenous forests have become depleted, the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence, in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs, and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers logging State indigenous forests to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Fibreboard—Although fibreboard is manufactured from wood pulp, it is by end use a panel product. Production started in 1943 and has increased steadily. A new mill in Canterbury began producing medium-density fibreboard by a dry process in 1976. This product has now established itself on domestic and export markets.

Particle Board—Particle board is manufactured from roundwood and sawmill residues. There has over recent years been a rapid expansion in the domestic market for this product for interior panelling and flooring as well as furniture manufacture.

Production of veneer, plywood, fibreboard, and particle board is shown In the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVeneerPlywoodParticle BoardFibreboard
  cubic metres tonnes
1976322001930012848144000
1977411002600015956656100
1978477003320010730051400
1979603004200012060061800
1980763005370014700074000

Production of Round and Split Produce—Considerable quantities of native timbers have been used in the past to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, and firewood, and for a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge-timber requirements, but as with forest products in general, most post and pole requirements are now met from exotic resources. A massive increase in the volume of posts and poles treated (from 5000 cubic metres in 1955 to 365000 cubic metres in 1979–80) indicates the switch from indigenous roundwood to exotic roundwood.

Wood Preservation—In the year ended 31 March 1980, 40.5 percent of all sawn timber produced was preservative treated: by world standards the proportion treated is very high, partly because of the relative ease with which otherwise non-durable exotic softwoods such as radiata pine can be treated.

Features of the preservation industry are: the very wide use in house building of timber treated by diffusion or vacuum-pressure methods with water-borne preservative at low retentions to prevent insect borer attack; the wide dispersal of small treating plants specialising in such treatment; and the quality-control function exercised by the Timber Preservation Authority.

Timber Preservation Authority specifications prescribe the preservative treatments for different service conditions. For treatment of exterior timbers against decay, multi-salt preservatives (essentially solutions of copper, chromium, and arsenic compounds) at high loadings are widely used, but oil-type preservatives (e.g., creosote) are also acceptable. The usual method of application of multi-salt preservatives is by vacuum pressure, but such variations as the oscillating-pressure method (OPM), the Lowry process, and the alternating-pressure method (APM) have been introduced. Oil-based preservatives are applied by pressure, hot and cold bath, and cold soak, and are used for poles, posts, and sleepers. For timber out of contact with the ground and protected from the weather lighter treatment with water-soluble preservatives is acceptable. Two basic formulations of alkyl ammonium compounds and one light organic solvent preservative have recently been approved for certain uses. Provisional approval for preservative treatment by the sap displacement technique has also been given.

The following table shows the Quantities of sawn timber treated.

YearOpen TankDiffusion Impregnation*Pressure ImpregnationTotal
* Mainly boron.
 cubic metres
1975–769359238570849930096
1976–77644028836184881021435
1977–7830350297551433901760
1978–791400308045532169841614
1979–8020277244536534813798

In addition, 365500 cubic metres of other timber, such as sleepers, poles, and fence posts, were treated by one of the preservation methods in 1979–80.

OVERSEAS TRADE—Forest products are important earners of overseas funds. For the year ended June 1980 exports of forest products were valued at about $446 million; Australia was the largest customer, taking 36 percent (by value) of exports, mainly in the form of pulp and paper, and Japan was the next largest, taking 31 percent, mainly pulp and logs. For the same period, imports of forest products into New Zealand were valued at $81 million.

Timber Exports—There is an established market in Australia for sawn radiata pine and Douglas fir. Japan takes large volumes of logs, and a significant quantity of sawn timber. Korea and the People's Republic of China are also taking logs. Only special categories of indigenous timbers are permitted for export, and these are strictly regulated.

Timber Imports—Durable Australian hardwoods are still imported for use as large poles, crossarms, wharf, bridge, and constructional timbers, etc. The demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses, exterior joinery, and weatherboards continues. Other imports are normally limited to tropical hardwoods for the furniture trade and specialty purposes.

Pulp and Paper Exports—These are now established exports of great value to New Zealand. Australia takes significant volumes of pulp and paper, and Japan takes large volumes of pulp. Both chemical and mechanical pulp are exported. Newsprint accounts for 70 percent of all paper exports.

Pulp and Paper Imports—Short-fibred pulp and special papers are imported and constitute over 66 percent of the value of our total forest products imports.

VALUE OF EXTERNAL TRADE IN FOREST PRODUCTS
Year Ended 30 JuneWood ProductsPulpPaper and Paper ProductsAll Forest Products
 Imports $(000) c.d.v.
197611,7271,75921,56535,051
197717,3321,58536,81855,735
197813,1102,69832,58148,389
197913,5532,201x46,503x62,257x
198019,9771,91859,44381,338
 Exports $(000) f.o.b.
197641,95658,78066,624167,360
197764,50570,02785,924220,456
197879,54269,71984,485233,746
1979113,111x86,29199,881x299,283
1980184,671120,227140,824445,722

The following tables give New Zealand's imports and exports of timber for the latest 5 years.

TIMBER IMPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneSawn TimberLogs and Poles
HardwoodsNorth American Softwoods*OakOtherTotal
* Douglas fir, redwood, and cedar.
cubic metres (thousand)
19761580.91.1258
197721132.0367
19781562.0239
19791361.0205
1980179263
TIMBER EXPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneIndigenous TimberRadiata PineDouglas FirOther ExoticTotal ExoticsTotal, All Sawn TimberLogs and Poles
SawnCases
cubic metres (thousand)
19764.0143458.0196200714
19775.020514215.02632681136
19784.027913712.03293331070
19797.0353x54618.0422x429x1063
19809.043698118.05445531247

NOTE—Small quantities of roundwood are included in the exports.

The following table gives New Zealand's external trade in pulp and paper for the latest 5 years.

Year Ended 30 JuneWood PulpFibreboard*Paper and Paperboard
NewsprintOther Paper and PaperboardTotal

* In cubic metres.

Excludes manufactures of paper and paperboard; excludes minor items for which no quantities are given.

 Imports (tonnes)
19765640282061976919975
1977401235886643110439768
1978852122022757727779
19796413715635600x42756x
19804741703564395444310
 Exports (tonnes)
1976359919440713211784306216423
1977420398496917592780208256135
1978429890414019035071708262058
19794432311394820651199958306469
19804783791128522328894266317554

RESEARCH—The Forest Service undertakes and co-ordinates its forestry and forest-product research through the Forest Research Institute, which has two divisions at Rotorua and a third at Christchurch, employing 137 scientists, 201 technicians, and a large servicing staff. An advisory committee for each division of the institute ensures that the research programmes are relevant to the needs of the forestry and forest-based industries.

The institute maintains a continuous exchange of scientific information with other research organisations in New Zealand and overseas, and provides opportunities for research fellowships under the National Research Advisory Council's fellowship scheme, as well as some finance for universities to undertake contract research.

The institute produces its own annual report. The work of the three divisions is described below.

Production Forestry—This division is responsible for research into all aspects of growing forests for productive purposes. Its research programme includes forest establishment, genetics and tree improvement, silviculture and the economics of silviculture, soils and site productivity, mensuration, entomology, pathology, tree physiology, forest biology survey, and the ecology, silviculture and management of indigenous forests.

A large research nursery and tree improvement trial area has been established within the Institute's grounds at Rotorua, as well as a comprehensive network of research trials in State and private forests throughout the country.

Forest Products—This division undertakes research aimed at making the best use of wood. Its research includes: wood formation, structure and quality; drying, and preservation; timber engineering; adhesives and composite wood products; pulp and paper; wood chemistry; and the production of ethanol by wood hydrolysis and fermentation. In carrying out its work, this division maintains close contacts with the timber and building industries and is therefore represented on numerous agencies associated with building standards and timber use and preservation.

Protection Forestry—Located in the grounds of the University of Canterbury at Christchurch, this division undertakes research into methods of protecting and restoring the soil, water, and other values of forests. It studies the condition of mountain-land forests, the biology and control of introduced animals such as deer and opossum, the influence of forest operations on slope stability and erosion, and the revegetation of eroded areas.

Industry, the universities, and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research also carry out research into many aspects of forestry and forest products.

TRAINING IN FORESTRY—The Forest Service recruits school leavers up to 20 years of age as forestry trainees. They work and train for 12 months in the field while continuing their education, often by correspondence, to gain prerequisites for further study. Management-orientated trainees wishing to obtain the New Zealand Certificate in Forestry undertake 3 years of block study courses at the Forestry Training Centre as well as practical training in forests to gain a balanced education in forest management. Research and technical trainees are also catered for with course alternatives for the certificate, and an increasing number of Forest Research Institute technician recruits are studying for the New Zealand Certificate in Forestry rather than the New Zealand Certificate in Science.

Planning- or technically-orientated trainees wishing to do university study attend a 4–year degree course in forestry at the Universtity of Canterbury, doing practical work during vacations. Private students may also study for a bachelor of forestry science degree and take post-graduate courses leading to a master of forestry science degree and Ph.D. in forestry.

To build up a permanent skilled labour force, the Forest Service recruits each year about 70 youths 16 to 18 years of age. These junior woodsmen receive a 2-year course of basic training in the practical skills of forestry at one of the woodsman schools at Kaingaroa, Golden Downs, Berwick, Ashley, or Aupouri, followed by a third year of advanced training given in small groups in selected forests.

Each year the Forestry Training Centre in Rotorua holds about 40 in-service management courses for forest industry personnel. The Timber Industry Training Centre, also in Rotorua, provides courses in sawmill practice, sawdoctoring, and timber machining. Accommodation, catering, and recreational facilities of a high standard are available at the Forest Training Centre Hostel for those attending courses.

EMPLOYMENT—In 1977 the people employed in the forestry sector comprised 3.6 percent of the total labour force. Because the major manufacturing units are logically located near their raw material supplies, there is a concentration of employment near the largest forest areas. This is seen in the central North Island, where over half the country's exotic forests are located and where one-quarter of the regional labour force is engaged in forest industries. In fact, the forest industries have had a very marked effect on regional development. The current prosperity and the fast growth of population in the Rotorua - Bay of Plenty area is due in no small measure to the expansion of the forest industries. Apart from the expansion of the established towns such as Rotorua, the industrial development of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., and Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. led to the establishment of the completely new town—Kawerau—and the rapid growth of another—Tokoroa. The development of these industrial complexes has also stimulated other industries, especially transport, vehicle repair, and building and construction. Similarly, the expansion of exports of forest products was partly responsible for the increased tonnages that have passed through the ports of Tauranga and Napier over the last decade.

The following table shows the number of employees and working proprietors in the forest industries in recent years.

At 15 AprilForestry*LoggingSawmillingTimber MerchantingPulp, Paper, and PaperboardOther§Total

* Includes silviculture, nurseries, etc.

Includes felling, cutting, and haulage.

Includes planing mills.

§ Includes other wood industries, plywood and veneer factories, manufacture of furniture and fittings, wooden and cane containers, and wood and cork products.

|| At 15 May.

19784586310866433359110911313641923
19795971310868193380115431355644377
1980||5311313366933309125861452345555

THE OUTLOOK—The State owns 75 percent of the remaining indigenous timber and about half of the 0.8 million hectares of exotic forest. It makes sales, of either standing timber or logs, from both types of forest. The contribution of the indigenous forests to timber supply has diminished considerably but it is hoped that these forests will in the future supply small volumes of special purpose timbers. The exotic forests are readily renewable and are managed for sustained yield. Their full possibilities have not yet been reached, but owing to the irregularity of past planting programmes their composition is far from ideal and there are problems over maintaining a steady rate of expansion of output.

The large area of exotic forest in private ownership has arisen for the most part from speculative planting in the 1920s and 1930s. Most of the forests then established have since come under the control of industrial companies, which are utilising them and managing them, in several cases, to ensure regular and permanent supplies for their major wood-using factories. The other privately-owned indigenous forests are subject to uncontrolled exploitation and are expected to be exhausted at no distant date.

Increased production up to the end of the century will be based for the most part on existing forest resources and will be sustained thereafter by additional new planting. It is expected that the current new planting rate of about 45000 hectares a year will diminish only slowly.

New Zealand's forest industries are favourably placed in regard to the basic requirement for expansion—wood supplies from exotic forests, which will increase substantially from 1990 onwards. By 1990 roundwood removals will probably have increased to double the present levels, and by the year 2015 they could be 4 times those at present. Efficient processing is well established, providing a good basis for further expansion; projections indicate that demand for forest products will grow both at home and abroad. In many countries wood supplies are inadequate for their needs, hence these countries must import timber.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Additional information will be found in the following publications:

Report of the Director-General of Forests (Parl. paper C. 3)

Statistics of the Forests and Forest Industries of New Zealand (N.Z. Forest Service, updated periodically).

A very brief summary of the results of the first census of forestry and logging, applying to the year 1979–80, is included in the latest Statistical Information section at the back of this Yearbook.

Chapter 16. Section 16 FISHERIES

Table of Contents

Food from the sea figured prominently in the diet of the Polynesian inhabitants of New Zealand for over a thousand years. Fish was also important to white settlers, but it is only within the last two decades that fishing has attained status as a significant industry.

Whalers and sealers were the first Europeans to tap the potential of New Zealand waters. In 1844 whale oil and other products were fetching more than $50,000 on London markets.

Fishing had existed as a way of life among the European inhabitants of New Zealand for more than a century before, in 1945, the Government of the day introduced a system of restrictive licensing of fishing vessels which provided for the vessels to land catches only at the port of registration. Surplus fish were exported, but there was no steady export trade. In 1962 a Parliamentary Select Committee was appointed to examine the prevailing restrictive licensing system and review practices. It recommended the abolition of the system, which had restricted the expansion and diversification of the industry.

At this time there was a mounting world-wide demand for protein foods. Russian and Japanese fishing boats were penetrating into the hitherto unexploited south-west Pacific, including New Zealand waters, where of the 42 food fishes known to be caught locally, only 7 were being marketed regularly.

Restrictive licensing was abolished in 1964 and the Fishing Industry Board was established to help promote the industry.

From 1964 onwards, the industry has not only expanded, but also diversified into rock oyster and mussel cultivation and begun to employ different catching methods to land tuna and other pelagic species, which previously represented a largely untapped resource in New Zealand waters.

The establishment of new processing plant principally to export quality wet fish, regular supplies, the development of attractive packaging, and the introduction of Government quality standards and control are now resulting in expanding export markets.

In 1977 the Minister of Fisheries was empowered to declare any fishery controlled. The basic objective of the controlled fisheries legislation is to enable fisheries management measures to be introduced to match fishing effort in a particular fishery to the ability of the resource to provide a sustained yield. A number of fisheries have been, or are in the process of being, declared controlled.

The advent of the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone in 1978 provided the incentive for a considerable increase in investment in larger fishing vessels to fish the deeper water outside the 200-metre isobath and in fish processing facilities. It also, through Government policy, led to the replacement of some licensed foreign fishing effort by co-operative fishing ventures between foreign and New Zealand companies.

The primary aims of current government fisheries policy are to:

  1. ensure a continuing harvest of high quality fish for an economically sound industry contributing to our export earnings and supplying the local market.

  2. encourage the development of aquaculture (fish farming).

  3. protect and where possible improve the fisheries environment.

  4. enhance the natural stocks where this is practicable and economically feasible.

  5. conserve and enhance the opportunities for recreational fishing and the study of marine life.

RESOURCES: The 200 Mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)—New Zealand's 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone was implemented on 1 April 1978 and with an approximate area of 1.2 million square nautical miles is one of the world's largest.

The Act establishing the EEZ Joes not extend territorial limits. It gives control over conservation and management of resources, but no claim, in real terms, to ownership. Control over all activities in the zone must be in accord with international law.

The zone is divided into 8 fisheries management areas. In spite of the relatively large size of the zone some two-thirds of its area is too deep for bottom fishing methods such as trawling and longlining.

The fish resources of the zone, although substantial, are not rich by world standards. The inshore fisheries of New Zealand's territorial waters are, for the most part fully exploited and future development depends largely on fishing the deeper waters of the zone.

The sustainable biological yields in the New Zealand territorial sea and i EEZ waters are currently estimated at about 400000 tonnes of wetfish, 91000 tonnes of squid, and over 20000 tonnes of tuna. The domestic industry is estimated to have the capacity to harvest over 100000 tonnes of this, with the remainder being apportioned amongst co-operative fishing ventures and any balance to foreign nations.

Estimates of fish stocks are based mainly on catch data from commercial fishing vessels and are being constantly refined as new information becomes available.

There is scope for increasing the natural stocks of some species through aquaculture (fish farming). To date the only species which are farmed are rock and pacific oysters and mussels but development projects are underway for other species.

Controlled Fisheries—In 1977, legislation was introduced to give the Minister of Fisheries the power, when necessary, to declare a controlled fishery, and so to regulate, among other things, the species, quantity, and size of fish that could be taken from the fishery, the type of fishing method used, the areas that could be fished, and the persons who could be engaged in the fishery.

A controlled fishery allows a tight regulation of total effort and the fishing activity of each person with a licence to fish in the fishery. The basic objective is to match fishing effort with what the fishery can reasonably be expected to yield on a sustained basis.

The issue of licences to fishermen in a controlled fishery is the prerogative of the Fisheries Licensing Authority. This is independent of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries but receives advice and administrative services from it.

In 1978, three fisheries were declared fully controlled. These fisheries were the major Tasman Bay scallop fishery, the Coromandel scallop fishery, and the Lake Ellesmere eel fishery.

The rock lobster fishery, which has been under a moratorium for more than 2 years, is in the process of being brought under control. The coastline has been divided into 10 areas and the implementation of control in all areas will be completed by mid-1981.

Catch—The tonnage of fish landed annually by the domestic fleet has increased from 6488 tonnes in 1936 to 84100 tonnes in 1979.

Composition of the catches is extremely varied and most species are landed whole. About 50 species are landed, but many only in small quantities. In 1979, four dominant species contributed 46 percent of the total landings. These were snapper (20 percent), skipjack (11 percent), barracouta (8 percent), and trevally (7 percent).

Catches during the latest available 4 years are shown by class of fish or shellfish, landed weight, and value in the following table.

Class of Fish or Shellfish1976197719781979
TonnesValueTonnesValueTonnesValueTonnesValue

* Includes joint venture catches, otherwise statistics refer to domestic coastal fishing fleet.

Estimated.

Including some other minor items.

 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Snapper14.44,85612.65,16217.710,02716.413,210
Trevally5.79506.51,1846.51,7185.72,472
Tarakihi3.51,1124.11,5164.21,9304.02,282
Gurnard2.95423.37173.89543.51,400
Barracouta3.73554.75515.25006.9748
Hapuku1.14911.05491.41,0141.71,524
Elephant fish0.81910.82260.62870.7334
Flounder1.29961.41,2401.61,5871.81,576
Mackerel1.1841.91512.01803.7382
Sole1.26471.71,0092.21,7512.01,659
Shark3.66744.51,1803.51,2403.41,268
Red cod0.91312.32673.85514.9907
Albacore30.93211.68580.9709
Skipjack4.5*1,087*5.4*1,459*8.9*2,663*9.0*6,578*
Other8.22,2968.92,62014.64,61519.115,691
Total, wet fish52.814,41660.018,15377.629,87583.741,741
Rock lobster3.79,3043.513,8963.814,9524.422,220
Oysters (dredge and rock)10.03,80110.84,38310.15,47910.15,834
Mussels (wild)2.22470.73560.7721.1113
Mussels (farmed)............2.31,950
Paua0.62700.84460.63950.5497
Scallops6.12,1145.72,3053.21.2501.6541
Squid0.1340.61691.84980.4138
Other0.34970.53620.73180.5300
Total, all fish75.830,68282.940,08398.552,839105.073,336

The value of fisheries products is shown in the following graph.

FISH MEAL—There are two fish meal plants in the North Island and three in the South Island, with another nearing completion. Fish meal production in 1980 was estimated at just over 2000 tonnes.

EXPORTS—The total value of New Zealand's fisheries exports during 1980 increased by $64.8 million, 66.4 percent over those in 1979, to a record total of $162.4 million.

The following table shows the increasing significance of finfish and shellfish in exports. Squid accounted for 85.6 percent of the volume and 76.6 percent of the value of all shellfish exports in 1980.

CommodityQuantityValue
197819791980197819791980
 tonnes (000)$(million) f.o.b.
Finfish29.752.274.732.153.385.9
Rock lobster2.12.12.525.426.929.5
Shellfish2.410.733.36.117.447.0
                  Total34.265.0110.563.697.6162.4

Rock Lobsters—The development of a market for rock lobsters in the United States in 1948 provided a major stimulus for the export industry. In 1962 rock lobster landings totalled 4572 tonnes, and by 1968 they had risen to 10909 tonnes valued at $7,433,006. This was the peak year of the fishery at the Chatham Islands, where prolific rock lobster grounds had been discovered.

From 1968 landings showed a general downward trend until the mid-1970s, when they began to climb again. Landings in 1979 were 4444 tonnes worth $22,220,000 and appear to have stabilised.

Total exports of rock lobsters in 1980 were 2479 tonnes with an f.o.b. value of $29.5 million compared with 2133 tonnes worth $26.9 in 1979 and 1453 tonnes valued at $3 million in 1964.

Finfish—Between 1964 and 1979 the production of finfish increased 181 percent, from 29924 tonnes to 84100 tonnes, and since 1978 the value of finfish exports has exceeded that of rock lobsters. In 1980 the value of finfish exports reached 74718 tonnes valued at $85.9 million compared with 52153 tonnes valued at $53.3 million in 1979 and exports worth $4.1 million in 1964.

Shellfish—Although the production and export of farmed mussels and oysters are increasing rapidly, by far the major species in this group is squid. Exports have risen from 9190 tonnes worth $13.3 million in 1979 to 31906 tonnes valued at $37.5 million in 1980. Nearly all this squid is the product of co-operative fishing ventures.

FISHING INDUSTRY: Fishing Methods—Trawling is the principal method of taking demersal or bottom dwelling fish. All types of trawling accounted for over 60 percent of the total wetfish catch of the domestic fleet in 1979. Various line methods accounted for 7.5 percent of the catch and set nets for 8.8 percent. Pelagic or surface dwelling fish are being increasingly caught by purse seining and 17.8 percent of the total domestic catch was taken by this method in 1979. This excludes the catch of chartered foreign super seiners, which have greatly increased the landings of skipjack in recent years.

For some years there has been a trend away from trawling to purse seining, longlining, and netting.

Fishing Grounds—The continental shelf, to which coastal vessels have confined their activity, extends out to a depth of about 200 metres, but is fairly narrow. Although in some areas, such as the Taranaki Bight, it extends for a considerable distance off shore and in others, such as the south-west of the South Island, it is almost contiguous with the coast line, its average width is 20 kilometres. There are 36 trawl-fishing ports, including 16 of major importance. These are located fairly evenly around the coastline, with trawlers having access to the whole continental shelf.

Coastal fishing vessels work throughout the year, with no marked fluctuations except for seasonal changes to fish particular species. A full-time coastal trawler averages between 100 and 160 days at sea a year, but there are regional variations due to climatic differences. Trawling is more intensive along eastern coasts of both islands. The deeper waters of the Exclusive Economic Zone off the continental shelf are currently fished by larger fishing vessels (over 35 metres) which are operated by licensed foreign companies or co-operative fishing ventures between New Zealand and foreign companies.

Main Fishing Ports—Nelson is now New Zealand's largest wetfishing port in terms of tonnage landed. During 1979 almost 10700 tonnes were landed with a value of $2,683,281. Barracouta and red cod comprised over 34 percent of the catch.

In terms of value, Auckland was the leading port with landings totalling 8894 tonnes valued at $6,518,489. Over 63 percent of this tonnage came from snapper, which also accounted for 76 percent of the value.

Other prominent fishing ports are Tauranga, Timaru, Manukau, Gisborne, and Greymouth.

Fishing Vessels—There were 5320 registered fishing vessels at the end of 1979 compared with 5430 at the end of the previous year. Seventy-four percent of all fishing vessels were under 9 metres in length overall. Some 680 vessels, ranging from 12 metres to over 33 metres in length, comprise the bulk of the catching capacity of the New Zealand fishing industry.

The number of small vessels of less than 6 metres in length is decreasing, while the proportion of larger vessels is increasing. An expansion in the number of vessels in the 27–35 metres overall length range has occurred over the past few years, mainly through a duty-free import concession scheme aimed at boosting the range and capacity of the coastal fleet working out to the edge of the continental shelf. The increase in the number of vessels over 35 metres has, however, been mainly through the New Zealand registration of foreign fishing vessels.

Fisheries Development—Responsibility for the optimum development of fishery resources rests with three divisions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Fisheries Research Division, the Management Division, and the Economics Division. Promotion of industrial development is a responsibility of the New Zealand Fishing Industry Board.

The marine research programme is controlled from the Fisheries Research Laboratory in Wellington. Freshwater research is carried out mainly at Christchurch and also at Rotorua. Two research vessels are operated by the Fisheries Research Division; the 42 metre James Cook is used all round New Zealand from her base in Nelson, and the 19 metre Ikatere, based in Auckland, is used mainly for inshore work between North Cape and East Cape. Ikatere is being replaced during 1981 by a newly-built 28-metre vessel Kaharoa which will be based in Wellington.

Most of the commercially important species of demersal and pelagic fish in New Zealand waters are being studied by the Fisheries Research Division. Work has already resulted in the establishment of safe biological yields for some coastal and deepwater fisheries. Considerable effort is being applied to redefining estimates of total allowable catches in the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone.

Commercially important species of shellfish are also being studied, both in the wild and as subjects for aquaculture. Because of pressure on some shellfish resources, a number of shellfisheries are being licensed. Research work has provided valuable information for licensing these fisheries, particularly that for rock lobsters, which is New Zealand's most valuable inshore fishery.

The 27-metre technological vessel, W. J. Scott, based at Nelson, undertakes various gear tests and exploratory fishing. An aimed trawling survey on preselected transects, covering the entire continental-shelf area of the east coast of the South Island, began in 1978. It is testing the viability of midwater trawling for the less-preferred species as a means of safeguarding the prime demersal inshore species. This study will be completed in 1981.

Development until recent years has in the main been influenced by a traditionally small and highly selective domestic market, which has not encouraged diversification in processing methods for fish which did not meet the normal domestic demand for a white-fleshed, bland, non-oily, relatively bone-free type of fish.

Generally, fisheries development involves two important factors. The first is where a demand develops for a particular type of fish and this stimulates a search for this fish. The second factor is new treatment and packaging of a resource which has not previously found favour in the traditional fresh fish market in New Zealand (e.g. mackerel).

There are changes in the world-wide demand for fish as the more popular species reach the point of over exploitation. Thus, fish species which in the past had little or no value on either the domestic or the export market are now acquiring a new value internationally. The time is appropriate for the expansion and development of certain types of fisheries, but a great deal will depend upon the economics of these operations.

The governing legislation for the fishing industry is the Fisheries Act 1908, which is administered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and is currently under review. The Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977 redefined the territorial sea and established a 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone.

NEW ZEALAND FISHING INDUSTRY BOARD—The New Zealand Fishing Industry Board was formed in 1964 to promote the interests of all sectors of the fishing industry. It is a statutory organisation deriving income from an industry levy and Government sources. Outside its major responsibilities of aiding in orderly and profitable development of the industry, the board deals with specialised problems at the request of individual fishermen, processors, retailers, and fish farmers, as well as on behalf of the entire industry where, for example, liaison with the Government is required.

Practical involvement with the industry is maintained by the presence on the board of two fishermen representatives, two fish processors, and a fish retailer. These are elected by their respective organisations. An independent chairman, the Director-General of Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, and one other member appointed by the Minister of Fisheries complete board membership.

Continual communication with fishing and governmental organisations in many other countries is fostered. The resultant exchange of information enables the Board to bring to the industry a great diversity of developments in technology and fisheries policy areas.

A staff of 36, stationed in Wellington, are incorporated in fishing methods, aquaculture, processing, marketing, and economics divisions. Board staff liaise closely with the Fishing Industry Training Council, whose current chairman is also general manager of the board, in the important area of industry training at all levels.

ASSISTANCE TO THE FISHING INDUSTRY—The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation is the main lender to the fishing industry and provides term finance for a wide range of purposes. These include loans for vessel purchase or improvements to vessels, or for mussel and oyster farm development. Loans are also made for cold storage and processing facilities, and suspensory loans are available for export development and fishing vessel construction. A summary of loan authorisations during the last 3 years is shown in the following table.

 1978–791979–801980–81
NumberValueNumberValueNumberValue
  $(m) $(m) $(m)
Loans for catching9410.60635.781093.95
Loans for processing facilities182.56252.28203.56
Rural export suspensory loans20.3090.6030.15
                Total11413.461028.661327.66

With the commencement of the licensing of the rock lobster fishery in 1980, Rural Bank lending policies were extended to include loans for rock lobster fishermen.

Foreign Licensed Fishing—Since the Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act came into effect on 1 April 1978, foreign trawling activity has been strictly controlled and catch limits enforced. Quotas have been issued and licensed access agreements have been negotiated between New Zealand and the Republic of Korea, the Soviet Union, and Japan. Applications by foreign countries to fish must include plans showing areas to be fished, numbers and sizes of vessels, target species, and other details. Apportionments are made to countries for special quantities by area. By-catch levels can be set for selected species. In the case of tuna caught by longline and purse seine and for squid caught by jigging, no catch allocation has been made, but the total number of vessels is limited.

All countries licensed to fish in the EEZ are charged fees based on the landed market value of the species caught.

The following allocations for trawl and bottom line were made in 1980, the wetfish allocations to apply until 31 March 1981 and the squid allocation to 31 August 1981.

CountyWetfishSquid
 tonnes (000)
Korea, Republic of1.70.5
USSR32.510.5
Japan76.09.9

In addition, the Republic of Korea was authorised to operate 4 squid jigging vessels and Japan, 98 vessels with no tonnage restriction. Authorisations were also given for the Japanese to operate 911 tuna longliners without tonnage restriction in the southern bluefin tuna fishery, and for the Republic of Korea to operate 40 longliners in the albacore fishery in the northern regions of the EEZ.

CO-OPERATIVE FISHING VENTURES—To enable local fishing interests to gain more knowledge and experience of fishing technology and to enlarge the scale of on-shore processing, the Government has encouraged the formation of co-operative fishing ventures with foreign companies over recent years.

This development has been directed into areas in which there was previously little local exploitation, for example, squid jigging and trawling, southern bluefin tuna longlining, skipjack tuna purse seining, and trawling and lining for other finfish off the continental shelf, mainly to the south and south east of New Zealand.

The first co-operative ventures were approved by the Government in mid-1978. Currently, 38 co-operative ventures have been approved for finfish, squid, and tuna, with foreign companies from Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Poland, Soviet Union, Taiwan, the United States, and West Germany. Not all of these are currently operational. Foreign investment in all ventures is restricted to 49 percent of the shareholders equity.

SPECIES OF FISH AND SHELLFISH: Demersal Fisheries—Of the inshore species of demersal fish the most important is the snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), which is the principal species in trawl catches off the north-east and west coasts of the North Island and the north-west corner of the South Island. Other important species are barracouta (Thyrsites atun) and red cod (Pseudophycis bachus), taken by trawlers mainly round the South Island; tarakihi (Cheilodactylus macropterus) caught round the South Island and the cast coast of the North Island; and trevally (Caraux georgianus), which is taken by trawlers and purse seiners round the North Island. Flounders and soles are taken in shallower waters, mainly by trawl and set net.

The principal species taken by longline are groper (Polyprion oxygeneios) and ling (Genypterus blacodes) in most areas, though blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the main line-caught species around Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands.

Further offshore, deeper water species such as hoki (Macruronus novaezealandiae) and silver warehou (Seriolella punctata) are caught on the Chatham Rise and off the east coast of the South Island. Off the west coast of the South Island hoki and hake (Merluccius australis) are the principal deepwater species and, on the Campbell Plateau to the south of New Zealand, catches are dominated by southern blue whiting (Micromesistius australis). In deeper water still, at around 1000 metres and particularly on the Chatham Rise, catches consist largely of oreo dories (Allocyttus and Neocyttus) and orange roughy (Hoplostethus atlanticus).

Pelagic Fisheries—A number of species including trevally, Kawahai (Arripis trutta), blue mackerel (Scomber japonicus) and jack mackerel (Trachurus spp.) are taken by purse seining. There are also a number of smaller species such as pilchards (Sardinops neopilchardus), sprats (Sprattus antipodum) and anchovy (Engraulis australis) which are being evaluated as bases for commercial fisheries.

Three species of tuna are fished commercially in New Zealand waters. Skipjack (Katsuwonus pelanis) are caught by purse seiners round the north of the North Island in summer, and albacore (Thunnus alalunga) mainly by trolling off the east coast of the North Island and the west coasts of both islands. The southern bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) is caught mainly by Japanese longline vessels off the east coasts of both islands, but is also caught by New Zealand vessels off the west coast of the South Island. Fisheries for all three species are being carefully monitored.

The squid fishery is another substantial fishery in New Zealand waters, with some 70000 tonnes being caught annually, mainly by squid jigging vessels around the main islands and by trawlers round the Auckland Islands.

Shellfisheries—The fishery for rock lobsters (mainly Jasus edwardsii) is New Zealand's most important and valuable inshore fishery, particularly round the south west of the South Island. Other valuable shellfisheries are for oysters (Ostrea lutaria) in Foveaux Strait, scallops in Tasman Bay and off the north east coast of the North Island, and paua, the New Zealand abalone (Haliotes iris). In addition, the green-lipped mussel (Perna canaliculus) and rock oysters and pacific oysters (Crassostrea glomerata and C. gigas) are the basis of thriving aquaculture enterprises.

Rock Oyster Farming—In addition to the Government experimental rock-oyster farm, many private farms are in production in Northland and the Hauraki Gulf. Both tray and stick cultivation is employed.

Total production on rock-oyster farms in 1979 increased 46.0 percent over the previous year and was valued at just over $1,147,109. A high proportion was exported to Singapore, Hong Kong, and the Pacific Islands.

Mussel Farming—Green-lipped mussels are fanned, chiefly in the Marlborough Sounds area. Production is growing rapidly, and markets in New Zealand and overseas are proving profitable. In 1979 production was estimated at about 2300 tonnes, valued at nearly $2 million.

Rock Lobsters—Rock lobsters occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast. Some of the catch of rock lobsters is sold in local markets for domestic consumption but most is exported as frozen rock lobster tails and whole rock lobsters.

With the development of the export of frozen tails to the United States of America and the productive fishing in the Chatham Islands, the catch of rock lobsters increased until 1968. The boom period, however, has now passed and the aim of all concerned is to ensure that this valuable fishery continues to provide a stable production.

YearProduction (whole)Exports
QuantityValueQuantityValue
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
197533185850174112069
197637029304191819048
1977353313896197923667
1978375214952217425397
1979444422220213326937
1980  247929481

Dredge Oysters (Ostrea Lutaria)—The principal oyster beds around the coasts of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South Island and Stewart Island. During 1979 a total of 124744 sacks of oysters, valued at $4,533,000 were dredged from these beds. Tasman Bay, in Nelson, yielded a further 12867 sacks, valued at $154,000. The total 1979 dredge-oyster catch of 137611 sacks, valued at $4,687,000, represented a fall of 11.6 percent in landings but an increase in value of 18.2 percent on the previous year's figures.

Dredge oyster catches during the latest 6 seasons for which figures are available are shown in the table below.

SacksFoveaux StraitTasman BayTotal
ValueSacksValueSacksValueSeason
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
1975114.72,8568.7117123.42,973
1976115.03,10710.8179125.83,286
1977122.13,3599.0256131.13,614
1978124.54,0809.0380133.54,460
1979124.74,53312.9154137.64,687
1980114.25,4497.489121.65,538

Paua—Relatively few years ago, paua (Haliotis iris) was, strictly speaking, a non-commercial shellfish. Maoris have traditionally taken paua as a regular item of diet, but it was largely neglected as food by the pakeha until very recent years. Even now, it is only a small item in the retail sales of fish in New Zealand. The recent change in the demand for paua has come about in the context of the ban on the export of the unprocessed flesh, which would have been processed overseas. Some New Zealand canners have solved the problems by bleaching and canning the flesh, to produce an article acceptable at substantial prices in primarily South-East Asian markets.

FRESHWATER FISHERIES: Salmon Forming—Commercial farming of quinnat salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) has commenced in New Zealand with encouragement from the Government. Government policy emphasises the development of salmon ocean ranching.

The main areas for farming are on the east coast of the South Island, where natural stocks of salmon exist.

Whitebait—This fishery is based on five Galaxias species. Whitebait fishing is carried out in the tidal reaches of many rivers, from August to November in the North Island and from September to November in the South Island. The most productive fishing grounds are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally, the whitebait fishery gives employment to over 300 regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishermen. With improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aircraft have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed, particularly on the West Coast of the South Island. In the 1978 season about 123 tonnes (worth $859,418) were recorded for the West Coast of the South Island, while 10 tonnes (worth $67,270) was the catch for the Waikato River. The large number of itinerant buyers makes it increasingly hard to collect catch data, and the figures should therefore be regarded as conservative.

Acclimatised Species—Acclimatised species include quinnat or chinook salmon, brown trout (Salmo trutta), rainbow trout (Salmo gairdnerii), and perch. The local administration and management of these species is delegated to acclimatisation societies and to the Department of Internal Affairs for the Rotorua and Taupo fishing districts and for the Southern Lakes Acclimatisation District, where it acts as an acclimatisation society. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries assists with management investigations, and provides technical advice based on research, to acclimatisation societies.

A fishing licence is required for the taking of acclimatised fish. The estimated revenue from angling licences in a season is approximately $1 million.

Indigenous Species—Eels (longfin, Anguilla dieffenbachii and shortfin, Anguilla australis) are the only indigenous species of which a significant commercial harvest is taken from New Zealand's freshwaters. Most eels are exported. In 1980 these totalled 1772 tonnes valued at $3.9 million f.o.b. compared with 2081 tonnes valued at $4.4 million in 1979.

Research—The research programme concentrates on introduced fish but native species are also studied. Two species of Chinese carp—grass carp (Ctenopharyngoden idella) and silver carp (Hypothalmichthys molotrix)—are being evaluated as agents for weed and algal control in lakes and waterways. Studies on quinnat salmon are aimed at enhancing natural runs and evaluating the commercial potential of these salmon.

Native species under investigation include eels, which support considerable commercial fisheries. The aquaculture potential of eels is also being evaluated.

Studies are also carried out on diseases of fish, including parasites, and a diagnostic service is provided.

Big-Game Fishing—Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District. They attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), Whakatane, and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March.

To preserve this very important fishery, the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950 prohibit the taking of swordfish by other than rod and line, and stipulate that the line be not heavier than No. 39 linen thread line. In addition, a limit bag of not more than 4 fish per boat per day has been imposed.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on fishing and fisheries will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Parl. paper C.5).

Report of the New Zealand Fishing Industry Board (Parl. paper C.6).

Report of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B.25).

Catch—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (monthly).

Chapter 17. Section 17 MINERALS

The mineral industry in New Zealand began with the discoveries of the gold prospectors of the 1850s and 1860s. Gold production reached a peak in 1873 when it earned 75 percent of all export earnings. Coal mining also began about 1850, and early this century the value of coal produced exceeded that of gold for the first time. In 1961 coal in turn was replaced by building aggregate, sand, and gravel as the most valuable mineral product, and that in turn has been exceeded in importance by natural gas. From 1969–72 the world-wide mining boom resulted in a great upsurge in mineral exploration in New Zealand. At its peak in 1971 estimated annual expenditure reached $1.7 million. No major metalliferous mineral deposits were discovered, but the impetus given to the mining industry has continued.

The existence of extensive ironsand deposits on the west coast of the North Island has been known for more than a century. Numerous attempts had been made to smelt the ironsand but, as none had been successful, the State-owned New Zealand Steel Investigating Co. was set up to investigate the feasibility of steelmaking from the ironsands. In 1963 the company reported that an industry was economically and technically feasible, using ironsand from near Waikato Heads and Waikato coal. Construction of the steel mill at Glenbrook was completed in 1970 and the mill now provides a significant proportion of the country's steel requirements. Now that technical difficulties have been overcome, mill expansion is expected to more than double production by 1984.

In addition, ironsand is mined for export at 2 localities (Waverley and Taharoa) on the west coast of the North Island. The value of ironsand concentrates exported in 1979 exceeded $27 million.

Coal production over the last 40 years has varied between 2 and 3 million tonnes per annum. However, recent steep rises in the cost of imported fuels, and the prospect of shortages, has led to renewed interest in the country's coal resources, mainly for electricity generation and industrial uses. A large thermal power station at Huntly began operating in 1981, and three new mines now being developed at Huntly will produce over 2 million tonnes per annum when fully operational.

After a long period with little activity, serious exploration for oil and gas resumed about 20 years ago, resulting in the discovery of 2 natural gas fields. The Kapuni field was discovered in 1959 and started production in 1970 with gas being supplied to 9 North Island centres and to a number of industrial consumers. The much larger Maui offshore gas field was discovered in 1969 and the first stage of development is completed. The gas produced is being used initially for electricity generation, and as a premium fuel. Exploration for oil has continued with the drilling of several wells both on-shore and offshore, so far without any major success. Expenditure on mineral exploration for 1979 was $620,000.

The Mineral Resources Council, originally established as a sector council on minerals for the National Development Council, keeps all aspects of mineral development under review.

MINERAL PRODUCTION—In New Zealand non-metallic minerals such as coal, clay, limestone, and dolomite are both economically and industrially more important than metallic ores. A decade ago, almost the total value of mineral production was represented by coal and limestone, together with sand, rock and gravel for roads, ballast, building, and construction purposes. The position has changed over the last few years with the increased production of ironsand for export and the increasing output of gas and condensate from Kapuni taking precedence. This change in values will be further enhanced as Maui gas flow increases over the next few years. Nevertheless, the quarrying industry, which produced about 19 million tonnes of aggregate and sand and about 3.7 million tonnes of limestone in 1979, is of prime importance.

The following table shows the production of minerals and metals from mines and quarries. The values are assessed at pit mouth or quarry.

Mineral19781979
QuantityValue*QuantityValue*

* Based on selling price ex mine (or equivalent).

Based on overall price at State coal mines (64 percent of total production).

Includes a high percentage of CO2.

§ Thousand litres.

|| Estimated value.

Tonnes (000) unless otherwise stated.

Fuelstonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)
Coal2182.545,6581947.645,223
Petroleum condensate724012m3..476893m3..
Natural gas2124.65 × 106 m3..1307.46 × 106 m3..
LPG15204§..19116§..
Natural gasoline8287§..8592§..
Metals    
Gold219.084 kg1,438217.655 kg2,356||
Silver62.617 kg1050.969 kg12
Iron ore0.1320.132
Ironsand (export)3775.826,9993292.127,002
Ironsand (local)170.51,189235.31,732
Tungsten ore (scheelite)0.002133||0.0153142
Non-metallics    
Bentonite9.81535.0124.4
Clay for bricks, tiles, etc.118.7564110.1364.3
Clay for pottery33.585825.61,268.3
Dimension stone26.640727.2450.4
Dolomite24.349825.8601.5
Greenstone9881 kg4613044 kg42.6
Limestone, agricultural1615.272351772.68,780.4
Limestone for roads250685289889.7
Limestone, industrial158.61,222288.91,832.7
Limestone and marl for cement13,65.83,1211268.03,585.6
Magnesite0.839
Perlite0.522.25.5
Pumice39.58925.898.1
Rock (harbour work, reclamation, and filling)2286.73,5962427.73,773.5
Salt6568755778.6
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for building aggregate4961.616,9084652.218,184.1
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for roads and ballast15171.534,60913189.030,412.0
Sand for industry71.835683.4549.8
Serpentine115.71,144112.21,221.1
Silica sand127582136.7780.4
Total..148,230..150,212.0

LEGISLATION—Legislative control of mineral production is contained in the Ministry of Energy Act 1977, the Atomic Energy Act 1945, the Coal Mines Act 1979, the Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959, the Mining Act 1971, the Quarries Act 1944, the Petroleum Act 1937, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. The administrative agency is the Ministry of Energy.

COAL—Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well defined areas, outside which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coalfields, with the class of coal found in each, are—

Bituminous Coal (Metallurgical): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfields), Reefton (Garvey Creek).

Sub-bituminous Coal (Steaming): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago (Kaitangata), Southland (Ohai).

Lignite (Low Grade Steaming): Southland.

Coal Utilisation and Research—Coal utilisation and research is fostered by the New Zealand Coal Research Association. Finance for the association's activities is raised by a levy of 20.0 cents a tonne made by coal wholesalers, including State coal mines, and a Government grant.

Fuel Technology Service—The Ministry of Energy and the Coal Research Association have established a fuel technology service in Auckland, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Dunedin to advise industrial and domestic consumers on the efficient use of coal.

Survey of Coal Resources—The Mines Division of the Ministry of Energy (formerly the Mines Department), in association with the N.Z. Geological Survey, has in recent years accelerated its coal exploration programme. As well as undertaking exploration to locate and evaluate deposits for specific demands, e.g., as at Huntly to supply coal for thermal power generation, there is in progress a broad programme to evaluate all New Zealand's coal resources in order to facilitate long-term planning and efficient resource management and stimulate use of an indigenous energy source.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable coal reserves of New Zealand. Recoverable coal is coal which it is estimated could be recovered by mining techniques that are established in New Zealand with coal at the present selling price. The reserves are expressed according to the following criteria:

  1. “Measured coal” is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established.

  2. “Indicated coal” is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.

  3. “Inferred coal” is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples or measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

There are areas where the presence of coal in mineable quantities is undoubtedly possible but there is insufficient geological knowledge to include these in the table. As exploration proceeds more will be learned of this coal as well as about the coal in the categories, Measured, Indicated, and Inferred.

Detailed information concerning geology, coal type, rank, and extent of the coalfields is given in the Geological Survey Bulletins and for an overall picture a suitable reference is Williams G. J., Economic Geology of New Zealand, Monograph Series No. 4, published by the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.

The major coal exploration effort has been in the Waikato, East Southland, Otago, and Grey regions, in the Waikato, major deposits of coal mineable by underground methods have been located, as well as some important discoveries of opencastable coal, which is in very limited supply. The coal is suitable for electricity generation and general industrial use.

The East Southland programme has located 6 major deposits of lignite which could technically be mined by opencast methods. This is a very large energy resource by New Zealand standards, but because of the medium-term energy demand situation and mining costs, it is more appropriate to consider the resource as one available for longer-term use. Potential uses of the lignite, such as conversion to liquid fuel, can in the meantime be fully investigated and adequately planned for.

The lignite deposits of Central Otago were explored during 1978–79, resulting in the location of 460 million tonnes. The coal exploration programme has now been shifted to the West Coast of the South Island, where the Grey coalfield is being drilled.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable reserves, which total 3445 million tonnes.

LocalityCategory
MeasuredIndicatedInferred
* The total lignite available in Southland amounts to some 4400 million tonnes, but adequate recoverability factors have not yet been assessed.
Bituminous tonnes (000) 
Buller31500620012100
Murchison3001400
Garvey Creek33437102600
Reefton55412206800
Greymouth24501830056000
Pyke River15000
Shag Point20800
 348382975094700
Sub-bituminous   
Waikato—
    Maramarua89793250032200
    Huntly111800120200122000
    Rotowaro1278089301800
    Glen Massey18001400
    Whatawhata480370700
Kawhia234031019000
Mangapehi7170
Taranaki (includes Ohura)—
    Waitewhena, Aria, Mokau, Tangarakau15050046000
Retaruke4300
Collingwood100100100
Heaphy River1000
Charleston11700
Punakaiki90702000
Buller Gorge, Inangahua, Fletchers Creek739705600
Kaitangata2701230200
Ohai2248530045700
 139310179450293700
Lignite   
Canterbury36022000
Otago, includes—
    Green Island47037802300
    Kaitangata238506700032000
    Pomahaka875016200
    North Otago119306350700
    Central Otago24015000
Southland* , includes—
    Eastern Southland2301000107000
    Maitland410050000
 368502390980245200
                Total coal in each category2109982600180633600
                Total of all coal types in all categories3444778

One of the biggest potential uses for coal is for electricity generation.

In future there is likely to be a smaller number of large mechanised underground mines. Coal mining will become much less labour-intensive.

There are 3 coal areas of major future significance—Waikato, Buller, and Southland.

Waikato—The Waikato area has measured and indicated resources of low/moderate-ash, low-sulphur, sub-bituminous coal of 298 million tonnes. Inferred resources are an additional 158 million tonnes. Production costs range from $12 to $27 per tonne. Reserves are adequate to supply the 1000 MW power station at Huntly, plus the steel industry's projected requirements. Further work to increase measured and indicated reserves is currently being undertaken for proposed additional thermal power station capacity. The Waikato coalfield is well placed to serve Auckland's industrial development, and coal is railed to the Bay of Plenty for the pulp and paper industry. New Zealand Steel Ltd's development programme anticipates an increased demand of over 500000 tonnes a year by the late 1980s.

Main markets for Waikato coal are electric power generation, dairy factories paper mills, freezing works, carbonisation, space heating, brick and tile manufacturing, cement and lime works, general industries, and domestic heating.

Buller—The Buller area has measured and indicated resources of low/moderate-ash, low/high-sulphur, bituminous coal amounting to 38 million tonnes, but only 7 million tonnes of it is low-ash and low-sulphur. Inferred reserves amount to 12 million tonnes. The significant fact is the high proportion (about 30 million tonnes) that is opencastable, and therefore low-cost ($17 per tonne) coal.

Southland—The Southland coal area essentially comprises the Ohai and Mataura Valley coalfields. Ohai contains 53 million tonnes of Waikato-type coal, mostly inferred, but has little significance because the principally domestic market is likely to decrease. Mataura is important because of its ready access to the Bluff industrial area, and because the reserves of moderate-ash, low-sulphur coal are large, potentially cheap, and opencastable.

Coal Consumption—Coal has always been important in New Zealand's mineral industry, and had a higher production value than any other mineral between the First and Second World Wars. Usage slumped in the late 1960s but, with the increased price of oil and prospects of oil shortages, coal consumption prospects are now rising again, especially as industries are in some cases reconverting their heating and steam plants to coal firing.

The approximate distribution of coal consumption during recent years is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports.

User1976197719781979
 tonnes (000)
Factories1149112510751050
Gasworks80807579
Households288290240220
Public hospitals and central heating, etc.240265267230
Electricity generation730610525530
                    Total2487237021822109

Summary of Operations—The following table summarises coal-mining operations during recent years.

YearOutputPersons Ordinarily Employed
UndergroundOpencastTotalUnderground MinesOpencast MinesTotal
SurfaceUnderground
 tonnes (000)  Number  
1975717169524124157714141600
1976723176424874267133891528
1977635173423694526885101650
1978581160221824016955071603
1979601134719485855674991651

The total output of underground and opencast mines up to and including 1979 is estimated at 198.9 million tonnes.

In 1979 the State operated 12 of the 36 underground mines in operation, and these produced 501972 tonnes of coal; 13 of the 43 opencast mines were operated by the State and they produced 716555 tonnes of coal. The loss on operations of State coal mines for the year ended 30 September 1979 was $239,929 after payment of interest on loan capital.

Derived Products—Low temperature carbonisation works at Rotowaro (100 km south of Auckland) use the Lurgi process to produce a range of products derived from coal which forms part of the output of local State mines. During the year ended 31 March 1979 the works produced 9741 tonnes of carbonettes, 1801286 litres of tar and oil, 12459 tonnes of char, 1162 tonnes of pitch and 999157 litres of creosote. This company is at present engaged on investigations into the building of a replacement plant of modern design and similar capacity.

Meremere Power Station—This station, of 210 MW capacity, which has burnt up to 700000 tonnes of coal each year over the last 2 decades, is nearing the end of its useful economic life. From 1980 State coal will no longer be supplied to it from the Kopuku field, which has usually supplied two-thirds of its requirement, and in about 5 years time Meremere is expected to close down.

Huntly Power Station—Initially this station (1000 MW capacity) will be fired with Maui gas. The first of its four 250 MW units will be commissioned in 1981. However, when the Maui gas flow is diverted to petrochemical manufactures, commencing about 1983, the Huntly plant will gradually become a coal-fired electricity generation station consuming more than 2 million tonnes of local coal each year.

PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS—Prospecting and mining for petroleum in New Zealand is governed by the Petroleum Act 1937 and the Petroleum Amendment Act 1980, the Petroleum Regulations 1978, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. These give the Minister of Energy the authority to grant petroleum prospecting and mining licences over land and marine areas including the New Zealand continental shelf. As at 31 December 1980 there were 12 petroleum prospecting licences covering 118635 km2 of New Zealand land, territorial sea, and continental shelf. Four petroleum mining licences covered 984.48 km2 , which is made up of the Kapuni onshore field, Maui offshore field, Hawke's Bay onshore, and the New Plymouth harbour.

Activity in the search for petroleum is being maintained. Four on-shore wells were drilled in 1980—Onaero, McKee 1, Kokiri, and McKee 2.

There is a continually growing network of high-pressure gas pipelines, now totalling over 1052 km, including the pipelines recently commissioned to carry gas. Investigations are continuing for several small lateral pipelines to supply boroughs and industries and also for an extension from Huntly to the Auckland area. The capabilities of existing pipelines have been increased by the installation of compressors part-way along pipelines, and by pipeline duplication (“looping”).

Gas from the Kapuni field is used mainly as a premium fuel and is supplied to the Natural Gas Corporation for distribution to Auckland and Wellington and other centres en route. Condensate separated from this gas before it is supplied to the corporation is delivered as feedstock to the petroleum refinery at Whangarei.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MAUI FIELD—The Maui field is being developed in two stages: Stage One consists of the installation of Maui Platform A, drilling of production wells, the installation of separate submarine pipelines for gas and condensate, and the on-shore processing facilities for the Maui production station at Oaonui. Treated gas is distributed by transmission pipelines to the New Plymouth and Huntly power stations. Maui gas will also be available for direct use by domestic and industrial consumers.

Commissioning of Stage One commenced in May 1979.

Stage Two of the development provides for a second platform, Maui Platform B, additional and independent submarine pipelines, and an expansion of the on-shore processing facilities.

Stage One Development—The first drilling and production platform, Maui Platform A, is installed some 37 km from the Taranaki coast, close to the Maui 3 exploration well, in a water depth of some 110 metres. Fourteen production wells have been drilled from the platform. The tower base of the platform was fabricated in Japan and was upended on location in early January 1976. Difficulties arose during the 1975–76 construction season as a consequence of severe weather and installation work was suspended in June 1976. Installation work recommenced with a larger construction vessel in December 1976.

The piling of the tower to the sea bed and the installation of the modules, living quarters, and helideck were completed late in 1977 and drilling operations commenced early in 1978. A 254 mm condensate pipeline and a 610 mm gas pipeline carry the condensate and the gas to the on-shore processing facilities at the Maui Production Station at Oaonui. The laying of these submarine pipelines also commenced in January 1976 but was suspended in June 1976, again as a consequence of the very severe weather. Work recommenced in December 1976 and was completed in 1977.

At Oaonui, 2 gas refrigerator trains, each with a capacity of approximately 7 million cu metres a day, process the gas stream to meet the gas delivery specifications, and 2 stabiliser trains, each with a capacity of 1500 tonnes per day, stabilise the condensate to enable subsequent sea shipment to the Whangarei refinery.

The Maui A platform, submarine pipelines, and onshore gas processing station were commissioned in May 1979.

In September 1979 the decision to proceed with the construction of the second stage of the development was deferred for a further period of 1 year because of the low demand at present for increased supplies of natural gas.

Costs—The budgets approved for Maui A in September 1979 provided for a total expenditure of NZ$667.9 million.

IRON RESOURCES—New Zealand's largest resources of potential iron ore are contained in the black sands of the western beaches—from Westport southwards in the South Island and from Wanganui to Muriwai in the North Island. Titanomagnetite sands make up most of the black sands in the North Island, but from Waikato Heads northwards the beach deposits also contain ilmenite in varying proportions. In the South Island beach sands, ilmenite is the chief iron-bearing material. These beach sands have been estimated to contain some 800 million tonnes of titanomagnetite, with a further 8.6 million tonnes of ilmenite in the North Island and 43 million tonnes in the South Island.

A process has been developed whereby the titanomagnetite sands can be smelted on a large scale economically to produce a good grade of steel. A steelworks has been constructed at Glenbrook, 58 km south of Auckland, by New Zealand Steel Ltd., and the plant began production late in 1969 using ironsand deposits from the North Head of the Waikato River, 19 km away. Production of steel billets from ironsand commenced in November 1969.

New Zealand Steel Ltd., now proposes to expand its Glenbrook plant to double output by 1985. A further expansion may then be commissioned. Coal use should increase to 300000 tonnes per annum and local iron sand concentrate use to 350000 tonnes by 1985. By 1990 coal use may be 600000 tonnes per annum and ironsand concentrate use up to 700000 tonnes.

There has been a small annual production of iron ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district, for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock licks, and in the brickmaking industry.

Near Waverley, 32 km north of Wanganui, an ironsands mining unit produces titanomagnetite concentrates for direct export to Japan through off-shore bulk-loading facilities and in 1979 some 1440012 tonnes were exported. New Zealand Steel Ltd. has developed a similar undertaking at Taharoa near Kawhia, and 1619197 tonnes were exported in 1979.

GOLD—The gold mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, declined in importance with the exhaustion of the more accessible alluvial-gold deposits and of ore from the zones of enrichment. Annual production is now mainly confined to one dredge at Taramakau on the west coast of the South Island. However, workings of residual stockworks at the old Martha Mine at Waihi have yielded favourable results in a pilot plant process. Interest in possible gold-bearing areas has increased rapidly over the past year, and has developed to the extent that other large-scale dredging operations are proposed for the West Coast of the South Island.

SILVER—A small quantity of silver is won by the West Coast gold dredge, the remainder of the silver comes from Waihi.

TUNGSTEN—The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

The scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, and the scheelite is erratically distributed in the veins. Access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high. Although the price of tungsten ores has improved, scheelite mining continues to be on a small scale, being confined to the Glenorchy and Macrae's Flat fields in Otago, and Top Valley in Marlborough.

COPPER—Production of copper has ceased since the Tui mine, near Te Aroha, closed in 1973. Small mines have been worked in Northland in the past, at Parakao and Pupuke. Prospecting has been carried out at a number of localities, but no significant deposits have been discovered. Exploration for economic deposits of copper in a number of geological environments continues.

MANGANESE—Manganese ores are found in many localities, chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. Prior to 1960 there was some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits are, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore.

MERCURY—Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand. No mining is at present being carried out. Past production has been limited, the main bulk came from the cinter deposits in Northland, at Puhipuhi and Ngawha Springs. Recently there has been interest in the disseminated mercury in Northland.

LEAD AND ZINC—An ore-bearing reef of lead and zinc was mined near Te Aroha, producing lead-copper sulphide and zinc sulphide concentrates for export to Japan, but the mine closed in 1973. Prospecting still continues, however, on the Coromandel Peninsula, in the East Cape region of the North Island, and in Nelson.

MOLYBDENUM—Some promising geological environments exist for economic molybdenum mineralisation in north-west Nelson but, to date, exploration has failed to locate an economic deposit. Exploration is also being carried out on the Coromandel Peninsula.

TIN—Cassiterite in the form of “stream tin” occurs in small deposits on the Tin Range near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island. These, and lodes in greisen on the range itself, were worked on a small scale early this century.

PLATINUM—Platinum occurs in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel, but quantities produced have been insignificant.

SILICA—At Parengarenga, in northern Northland, there are large deposits of pure quartz (silica) sand. Over 100000 tonnes from here, 30000 tonnes from Tarakohe in Golden Bay, and 13000 tonnes from Mt. Somers in Canterbury are used each year, mainly for glass manufacture. There are lump silica deposits in Southland of a high quality suitable for the production of ferro-silicon and probably silicon metal.

DIATOM3TE—Diatomite is a light powdery material used as a source of silica and as a filtering agent. It is worked in the Rotorua-Taupo volcanic zone and at Middlemarch, Otago.

BENTONITE—Production of bentonite continued at Coalgate in Canterbury and at Porangahau in Hawke's Bay for applications such as foundries and pelletising stock food. A new drilling grade meeting A.P.I. specifications is being used on oil rigs in the Taranaki area. Export shipments were sent for iron ore pelletising in Australia as well as to Japan and Taiwan.

HALLOYSITE—Halloysite is a clay used as a filler in the paper industry, and for ceramics. It has been mined in Northland since the Second World War. Though nearly all production is for local consumption, possible expansion of the small existing export market is being investigated.

SULPHUR—Prospecting proved a 6 million tonne deposit of sulphur at Rotokawa in the Taupo area in 1968. The deposit is mixed with pumice and work on the development of a separation process is continuing. The Frasch Process cannot be applied here owing to the porosity of the overlying beds. Prospecting and mining have ceased at present. Further development will await additional research and finance.

PERLITE—Perlite is a volcanic glass expanded by heating; it is used as an insulator and in light-weight concrete. There are deposits in the Rotorua-Taupo area.

ASBESTOS—Chrysotile asbestos, mainly associated with serpentines in ultramafic occurrences, occurs at a number of localities in the South Island. The most significant deposits are those of the North West Otago (Pyke River) area, but further work is required to determine the limits of mineralisation. Tests of the fibre indicate that it is of favourable economic quality.

PHOSPHATE—The only deposit of phosphate ever to have been worked in New Zealand is that at Clarendon in Otago. Mining ceased in this area in 1944. The most promising source of phosphate is thought to be the nodules occurring on the sea floor on the eastern half of the Chatham Rise (west of Chatham Island). Evaluation is still continuing. Exploration for phosphate in other geological environments has not revealed any economic deposits as yet.

SERPENTINE—Serpentine is a magnesium-rich rock used as a fertiliser additive. Deposits are being mined at Piopio, near Te Kuiti, and North Cape, in the North Island, and Lee Valley, Collins Valley and Mossburn, in the South Island.

GREENSTONE—The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone”, occurs as rounded aggregations in the talc or talc-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply was obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers, and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. At the present time the main source of supply is from a deposit of greenstone boulders in Olderog Creek, a tributary of the Arahura River. The boulders are reduced in size by a portable diamond trepan saw and airlifted by helicopter. Some of this has been cut and polished in New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations this mineral has been in short supply. The best-known occurrences of bowenite, the serpentine variety of greenstone, are in Fiordland, but these are not systematically or commercially exploited.

PEAT WAX—There are an estimated 4000 hectares of moorland peat, with an average thickness of 4 metres, on the Chatham Islands. This peat contains peat wax derived from a particular plant which grew in the area. The peat wax is being investigated for commercial application in carbon paper, polishes, varnishes, cosmetics, and explosives. Similar investigations are taking place with deposits in Central Otago.

The existence of high-melting-point waxes in peat deposits on the Chatham Islands has been known for more than 30 years. Comparable waxes have also been discovered in the lignites of Otago and Southland. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is carrying out research in processing methods that might produce saleable products from these minerals. Laboratory-scale work has investigated a range of solvent systems, and different extraction techniques. Larger-scale work is also being done on the production of bulk samples of wax for further analysis and evaluation. Thus, successful commercial development will involve co-operation between industry and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

ILMENITE—Ilmenite, which is a source of titanium oxide for the paint and other industries, occurs extensively in the beaches of the west coast of the South Island in association with monazite, gold, and zircon. A reconnaissance survey by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research indicated reserves of over 50 million tonnes of ilmenite-bearing sands, and subsequent work by New Zealand and Australian companies has indicated considerable reserves in the Westport and Barrytown areas. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has carried out extensive laboratory work aimed at producing a synthetic rutile from these rather low-grade (46 percent TiO2) ilmenites. The companies concerned have also carried out both concentration and beneficiation studies with encouraging results. The main obstacle to the development of this mineral is now in marketing rather than in treatment.

SALT—At Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of sea water. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose. Salt was first harvested in 1952.

Production of salt in the latest 6 years is shown in the following table.

YearSalt ProducedValue
 tonnes$(000)
197454864454
197540000464
197641000516
197753000631
197865000687
197955000779

STATE AID TO MINING—State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz (a) geological survey and bulletins; (b) detailed investigation of the occurrence and development of economic minerals; (c) schools of mines; (d) financial aid to prospecting and for access roads to mining fields; (e) research by Chemistry Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—An understanding of the country's geology is imperative for long-term assessments of New Zealand's mineral resources. In New Zealand almost all Government geological work is carried out by the New Zealand Geological Survey, a scientific institution founded in 1865, which since 1926 has been a branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Works and Development, and other Government departments consult the Geological Survey on geological problems. Only that part of the work of the Geological Survey that concerns the discovery and development of mineral resources is discussed here. Other aspects of applied geology include engineering geology, the study of earthquakes and volcanoes, and effects of engineering works and other developments on the physical environment.

The survey's principal work is to prepare geological maps of New Zealand and to determine the country's geological structure and geological history. Along with this, the survey studies and helps to assess the country's mineral deposits, geothermal steam, and underground water resources, and gives advice on geological problems encountered in State and private civil engineering projects, such as the construction of hydro-electric dams, bridges, tunnels, roads, and building foundations.

The Geological Survey has issued regional geological maps on a scale of 1 mile to the inch, covering about one-third of the country. Maps (scale 1: 250000), informally known as the “Four mile” series, are available for the whole country. Bulletins will continue to be issued at intervals for areas of special economic or scientific importance. Most new maps will in future be published on metric scales—1: 10000, 1: 25000, 1: 50000, 1: 100000, etc. In 1972 a new 1: 1000000 geological map was published (in 2 sheets) of each of the North and South Islands; and in 1973 maps on the same scale of the Quaternary geology (Pleistocene and recent deposits, together with the location of active faults, recent and active volcanoes, and changes in shore lines, etc.). Several sheets of the industrial series geological maps, at a scale of 1: 25000, have been issued. They cover to date most of the Auckland area and the city of Hamilton. In 1979 the first sheet of a new urban series, also at 1: 25000, was published. This covers the Nelson urban area.

A 2-volume work, The Geology of New Zealand, is now available.

Geological mapping has also been carried out in New Zealand's island territories and in the Ross Dependency, Antarctica.

Prospectors and mining companies may seek advice and assistance from any of the district offices of the Geological Survey as well as from the head office in Lower Hutt, which houses the administrative and specialist research sections.

Mineral Resources Surveys—The Economic Geology Section of Geological Survey is responsible for the investigation of potentially valuable deposits, coupled with closer study of the changing overseas economic emphasis. A new inventory of New Zealand's minerals is now available, and a publication Industrial Minerals and Rocks, containing articles of interest to engineers, mining companies, and local bodies, is produced from time to time. In earlier years, when gold was of major importance, the survey reported on all major goldfields. Deposits of ores of iron, copper, tungsten, manganese, chrome, uranium, aluminium, and other metals have also been investigated over the years, and the survey took complete responsibility for the raw material geological investigations for the new steel industry. Field studies are made by the geologists, and laboratory examination of ores by the petrology specialists.

Chemical analysis is usually done by the Chemistry' Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Petrology Section makes identification of rocks and minerals forwarded by the Ministry of Energy, prospectors, and others.

Coal—During the last two decades, coal as a mineral resource has been largely over-shadowed by natural gas. Nevertheless, coal remains among New Zealand's most important mineral resources, and mapping the coal fields in detail has been one of the survey's major undertakings in economic geology. Work has proceeded in co-operation with the Ministry of Energy and with the Coal Research Association. Detailed maps and bulletins on Greymouth, Reefton, Kaitangata, Ohai, and Waikato coalfields have been published. Although the mapping of the coalfields is largely complete, survey geologists continue to help with the large number of day-to-day problems in the coalfields and undertake constant revision. A major revision of coal estimates is currently being made. Geological work is being undertaken for the Ministry of Energy in connection with the present extensive drilling in the Huntly area.

Oil and Gas—Oil companies draw on survey maps and bulletins for basic information about the country's stratigraphy and geological structure which enables them to narrow down areas deserving more detailed examination. Close and mutually beneficial co-operation has usually developed between survey geologists and paleontologists and those of oil companies. Copies of oil company reports and maps continue to be deposited with the Government in terms of the Petroleum Act. The Geological Survey is the national repository of collections of rocks, fossils, and drill cores collected by the oil companies, and has recently expanded its Petroleum Section, partly in response to increased Government participation in exploration.

Paleontological and stratigraphic information by the survey helped the search for oil in Taranaki which was rewarded by the discovery and development of large reservoirs of natural gas at Kapuni, and off-shore in the Maui field. The collections of fossils and drill cores held from earlier Taranaki oil-exploration bores greatly helped prediction of the type, age, and thickness of strata the drills would penetrate. Geological Survey micro-paleontologists are assisting oil companies in interpreting the stratigraphic progress of off-shore oil wells and provide a complete service for many recent drill-holes, both on-shore and off-shore.

Constructional Materials and Other Non-metallic Minerals—As far as it is possible with the staff available, the survey advises the Ministry of Works and Development and local authority engineers, contractors, and other users on where rock materials for road metal, aggregate, building stone, sand, etc., can be obtained. Marl, limestone, and pozzolana for cement manufacture, perlite, bentonite, clays, talc, mica, and magnesite are other non-metallic minerals in the utilisation of which the survey has played a part. Current aid to industry given by the survey, includes detailed projects on northwest Nelson deposits of wollastonite, asbestos, dolomite, and talc magnesite; the limestone resources of Auckland and Otago have been assessed in detail; and North Auckland sands and halloysite clays have been the subject of New Zealand Geological Survey publications.

CENSUS OF MINING AND QUARRYING 1978–79

The fourth 5-yearly census of mining and quarrying was taken for the year 1978–79, and was the first fully integrated economic census covering the activities of establishments and ancillary units predominantly engaged in that activity.

All activities from exploration or production to the point at which the goods are sold are within the scope of the census, which was for the year ended 31 March 1979 or the last accounting year prior to 31 March.

The census formed part of the department's 5-yearly series of integrated economic censuses and for this reason any comparisons with the censuses of mining, quarrying, and prospecting prior to 1978–79 should be treated with caution.

In 1978–79 the mining and quarrying industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

  1. Coal mining.

  2. Crude petroleum and natural gas production, etc.

  3. Ferrous and non-ferrous ore, etc., mining.

  4. Other mining and quarrying.

The statistical tables which follow give summaries of these 4 divisions. The definitions used in these tables are the same as listed for the Census of Manufacturing statistics (see section 18. Manufacturing), with the following exceptions:

Establishments—Productive units, engaged predominantly in mining and quarrying operations.

Ancillary Units—Servicing units, usually head offices, laboratories, workshops, etc., engaged in predominantly servicing these establishments.

The following table gives a general summary of the results of the 1978–79 Census of Mining and Quarrying.

Item1978–79
Establishments463
Ancillary units16
Total persons engaged at 15 April 19794409
 $(000)
Salaries and wages paid (excluding working proprietors remuneration)40,134
Depreciation14,847
Purchases and other expenses201,944
Turnover358,652
Value added170,138
Capital expenditure less disposals79,793

In the following 2 tables statistics are given at industry (sub-group) level.

Industry ClassificationEstablishmentsAncillary UnitsTotal Persons Engaged at Mid-April 1979Salaries and Wages Paid During Year
  Number $(000)
Coal mining657136912,763
Exploration, drilling and extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas1336107,211
Ironsand mining3-2554,675
Non-ferrous ore mining31-133
Marble and building stone extraction8-47341
Limestone quarrying8013843,028
Quarrying and other extraction of road metals, gravel, sand, shingle, etc.2435151911,422
Extraction of stone, clay, gravel, sand, etc. n.e.c.14-74580
Mining and quarrying, n.e.c.6-18115
              Total, mining and quarrying46316440940,134
Industry ClassificationDepreciationPurchases and other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Coal mining1,39019,01041,20326,3503,207
Exploration, drilling and extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas6,196112,823203,53497,85667,967
Ironsand mining2,59626,57739,20214,0861,925
Non-ferrous ore mining
Marble and building stone extraction1162,2773,249262147
Limestone quarrying8919,03014,7715,9781,630
Quarrying and other extraction of road metals, gravel, sand, shingle, etc.3,47230,29653,44424,2004,630
Extraction of stone, clay, gravel, sand, etc., n.e.c.1381,6942,588983232
Mining and quarrying, n.e.c.4723666142356
                Total, mining and quarrying14,847201,944358,652170,13879,793
n.e.c.—not elsewhere classified.

Regional summaries of the census as a whole are shown in the 2 statistical area tables which follow:

Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-April 1979Salaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillaries
  Number $(000)
Northland48-1941,143
Central Auckland4724393,931
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty874107710,521
East Coast5133288
Hawke's Bay151103883
Taranaki2716407,151
Wellington5934734,233
                North Island total28812295928,150
Marlborough11-50277
Nelson4013653,154
Westland2414083,368
Canterbury38-119948
Otago3611441,053
Southland2613643,183
                South Island total1754145011,983
                New Zealand total46316440940,134

The following table shows additional financial statistics at statistical area level.

Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Northland2972,6824,9992,469397
Central Auckland89612,18320,2638,347474
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty4,11740,93872,75333,1434,614
East Coast1866861,253592638
Hawke's Bay2883,2385,0391,906377
Taranaki3,08247,23583,30225,7627,751
Wellington4,03975,965136,40680,26562,342
                North Island total12,906182,927324,016152,48576,593
Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Marlborough1064901,086620131
Nelson4215,2168,9594,499712
Westland1783,0075,5302,895325
Canterbury2802,8534,4121,637423
Otago5022,7515,2142,500993
Southland4534,7009,4355,503617
                South Island total1,94119,01734,63617,6533,200
                New Zealand total14,847201,944358,652170,13879,793

In the following table the turnover for the mining and quarrying industry has been analysed by the principal components.

ItemTurnover
Sales of products—$(thousand)
    Coal41,195
    Clay460
    Limestone10,016
    Rock, sand, gravel, etc.48,475
    Other mining, etc., products233,343
                Total sales333,489
    Other income25,043
              Total sales and other income358,532
    Capital work done by own employees120
                Total358,652

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on minerals and mineral production will be found in the following publications.

Report of the. Ministry of Energy (Parl. paper D. 6).

Census of Mining and Quarrying 1978–79—Department of Statistics.

Annual Returns of Production from Quarries and Mineral Production Statistics—Mines Division, Ministry of Energy.

Report of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Parl. paper G. 21).

The Geology of New Zealand—N.Z. Geological Survey.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics (Production figures for coal and gas are published monthly).

Industrial Minerals and Rocks—DSIR (occasional).

Details of N.Z. Geological Survey map coverage and publications are available from N.Z. Geological Survey, P.O. Box 30368, Lower Hutt.

Chapter 18. Section 18 MANUFACTURING

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—The function of the early manufacturing industries in New Zealand was to supply locally the immediate needs of the small scattered communities for food, clothing, building materials, and home furnishings and to provide shipping with ropes, spars, and repairs. These handicraft activities grew into factories as the settlements expanded and as more opportunities developed for the organisation and specialisation of labour, and for the more complex processing of domestic or imported raw materials. Flour nulls, flax mills, ropewalks, and sawmills appeared in the early eighteen forties followed by breweries, brick kilns, and cooperages in the mid forties and, later in that decade, lime kilns, ship and boat yards, soap and candle works, and tanneries.

By 1867, the first year in which statistics off factory production were collected in conjunction with the population census, manufacturing establishments included grain mills, breweries, biscuit factories, a bone-manure works, brick and tile yards and potteries, candle and soap works, coachbuilding workshops, fellmongeries, tanneries, wool-scouring works, flax works, aerated water and cordial factories, iron and brass foundries, lime kilns, malt kilns, engineering workshops, a patent slip, a petroleum works, rope and cordage works, sawmills, sash and door factories, ship and boat yards, and a woollen mill. The factories of this period were still primarily concerned with the satisfaction of the needs of the limited local markets.

The development boom of the eighteen seventies, the rapid rise in population, and the better communications between internal markets encouraged further factory expansion. There was to some extent a natural protection from overseas competition in the high freight rates on imports. Other factors which assisted in this expansion were the admission of certain raw materials free of duty, the imposition of a tariff on some finished goods, and the granting of bounties for new factories by central and provincial governments. These were followed by a wider imposition of tariffs in 1888 when the home market was shrinking and capital and labour were beginning to leave the colony. Footwear and clothing factories, the manufacture of machinery, and metal industries were protected by this tariff. A wider protective Customs tariff was imposed in 1895. During the depressed years of the eighteen-eighties low wage costs enabled some New Zealand manufacturers to export their products, but this was partly attributable also to the special suitability of some New Zealand products, such as farm implements, to the needs of other developing communities overseas.

The first shipment of refrigerated meat in 1882 opened the way for the establishment and growth of the meat-freezing and dairy industries. Ten years after this first shipment, 21 meat-freezing works and 104 dairy factories had been established.

The recovery from the long depression, the resumption of large-scale immigration at the beginning of the present century, the spectacular development of meat-freezing and dairy factories, and the breaking in of new land, especially in the Worth Island, all contributed to the revival of a strong internal demand which stimulated manufacturing growth.

Auckland established itself as the predominant manufacturing province in New Zealand at an early stage, but in the general prosperity following the gold boom of the eighteen-sixties, there was a spectacular increase in manufacturing activity in Otago, which led Auckland until the eighteen-nineties. Canterbury was the next most important manufacturing province. Today, however, Auckland has clearly re-established its predominance and is followed by Wellington and Canterbury.

With the rising population and increased export income during the first decade of this century, manufacturing continued to expand at a steady rate. The growth continued to be concentrated on industries processing farm products for export and those supplying the more simple goods, housing materials and equipment, repairs, and supplies for farmers. In this period the electrical, wire-working, sheet-metal, and motor-vehicle industries had their beginnings.

Developments in the nineteen twenties included the expansion of the vehicle industry (particularly motor and cycle assembly), sawmilling, and the metalworking, furnishings, and apparel industries. These developments carried forward the tendency for industries processing farm products to be less dominant in value of production and employment compared with other types of industry.

During the depression of the nineteen-thirties the total volume of factory output declined with the contraction of New Zealand's export income and the drop in internal demand. While prices fell the output of factories processing farm products rose, but not sufficiently to offset the loss in volume from other manufacturing industries. The rapid fall in purchasing power caused the farmer to produce more, but the impact of the depression on the factories processing “non-farm” materials meant a heavy reduction in the output of consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural and dairy machinery and implements. By 1934–35, however, the volume of factory production had been restored to the 1929–30 level.

Apart from metalworking and vehicle factories, which had improved their position significantly, industry emerged from the depression in much the same pattern as before.

The recovery of manufacturing after the depression was primarily the result of better export prices, more public development, and an expansionist monetary policy, all of which resulted in the re-engagement of most of the unemployed.

There had been little time for any protective effect of exchange control and import selection to stimulate industrial expansion between the date these measures were introduced (December 1938) and the outbreak of war in September 1939. It was the war and its shortages which changed the manufacturing pattern and gave great encouragement to industrial development. The engineering and apparel industries, which contributed so much to war needs, made the greatest progress.

Production expanded in response to the need to replace imports which the United Kingdom and other countries could no longer supply and to provide uniforms, weapons, equipment, and provisions for New Zealand and allied armed forces.

One protective effect of the war and post-war periods and their restricted supply of imports was that domestic industry was often enabled to attain its optimum (New Zealand) output quickly without a difficult competitive struggle with imports.

Post-war Development—The pattern of New Zealand industry changed again from 1949–50 with the exemption from import control of many items. Factory expansion was sustained by a high level of internal demand, by a widening of the range of products, and to some extent by the restriction of imports for a short period of exchange control. In this period the volume of production in the food, footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods groups increased slowly in response to population growth, while leather industry production fell as a result of competition from imports and synthetics Spectacular increases in production came from new developments in the pulp and paper and the rubber industries. However, as in past years it was the engineering factories that contributed most to the growth of manufacturing after 1949–50. The expansion in this field was stimulated by increasing mechanisation on farms, the high level of investment, the rising demand for consumer durables, and the increased imports of motor vehicle components for assembly in New Zealand.

Small factories continue to be typical of manufacturing in New Zealand. This is a reflection of the fact that, partly as a result of the geographical configuration of the country, many factories supply small local markets. Many of the smaller manufacturing units are involved in the production of machinery and wood product'; while the largest plants are engaged in the manufacture of food and paper.

Some of the major industries are mentioned later in this section. Others include wire drawing and galvanising; the production of copper tube, wire rope, aluminium cable, and telephone and underground power cable; and 11 kV switchgear, electric hoists, electric motor starters, and fractional horsepower electric motors, as well as telecommunications equipment and electronic controls for a variety of equipment. The manufacture of transport equipment and machinery has expanded to cover turboprop topdressing aircraft, bicycles, pneumatic and steel-tyred road rollers, self-propelled hydraulically operated excavators, post-hole diggers, hydraulic equipment and attachments, and cargo containers. Further items now made in New Zealand include oil-fired kilns, control valves, thermostats, press brakes, disc brake-pads, high-speed twist drills, and numerous others. In the chemical and allied industries, New Zealand factories process PVC compounds and dry blends, besides producing such PVC products as sheeting, flooring, roofing, and rainwater goods; a range of formaldehyde resins used in the manufacture of adhesives and related products; acrylic emulsions and compounds; many industrial and domestic materials including synthetic detergents; various weed killers and insecticides; and a range of drugs and cosmetics. The packaging industry makes moulded pulp products as well as several types of plastic film, the most recent projects involving cast polypropylene and the manufacture of irradiated polyethylene (“shrink film”). Textured synthetic yarns, warp-knitted, transfer-printed, and foambacked fabrics have been added to the products of the textile industry in recent years. An oil refinery and sheet glassworks, have been in operation for some years. Gin and whisky distilleries have been established.

MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS OF THE SEVENTIES—In general, major manufacturing activities through the severities showed increased development and processing of indigenous resources as well as increasing experience in the manufacture of items involving considerable technological sophistication. Significant industrial developments of the last decade are briefly summarised in the following paragraphs.

Pulp and Paper—N.Z. Forest Products Limited opened a new kraft pulp mill at Kinleith early in February 1973. This mill, operating 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, doubled pulp output from 215000 tonnes to 430000 tonnes. The company's number 6 paper machine began operating about the end of the first quarter of 1973. The company's number 3 paperboard machine at Whakatane came into production in mid-1976. This doubled the capacity of the Whakatane paperboard mill and enabled the company to produce fully-coated paperboard. A new multi-wall paper bag plant at Penrose also commenced production in mid-1976, producing a new type of totally-sealed bag for foodstuff such as milk powder. The major increases in pulp and paper production are part of a 5-year expansion project which is the largest undertaken by an individual company in New Zealand's industrial history.

The expansion programme completed by Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Limited in 1975 increased the company's newsprint production capacity by 130000 tonnes per annum to 330000 tonnes per annum, of which 200000 tonnes is for export. At the same time, market pulp capacity was doubled to a level of 160000 tonnes per annum, of which 140000 tonnes is for export. A further development envisaged by the company is the installation of a fourth paper machine by 1985.

The pulp mills constructed by Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Limited at Whirinaki near Napier commenced production in March 1973. Since then, capacity has been increased to 240000 tonnes of pulp. The entire output is exported.

Construction of a thermo-mechanical pulp mill at Karioi was completed in 1978. The mill, owned by Winstone-Samsung Ltd., a company in which a Korean partner, Conjure Paper Co., holds specified preference shares, produces 70000 tonnes of pulp a year, using wood from the adjacent Karioi III State Forest. Since March 1979 all output has been exported, primarily to the Republic of Korea and to Japan.

Particle Board—New Zealand Particle: Board Limited commenced production in October 1972. Since then, capacity at the Kumeu plant has been increased to 60000 cubic metres a year. In December 1979 plans were announced to convert half this capacity to the production of medium-density fibre board.

Fletcher Wood Panels Limited produces particle board at its Taupo plant. In 1974 the company introduced a new product to the market, Bison board, which is a thin particle board. Since 1977 exports of both particle board and Bison board have been built up to an annual value of over $5.5 million.

Canterbury Timber Products Limited has been producing medium density fibre board in Rangiora since July 1976. Annual sales are now worth more than $16 million, of which more than 25 percent represent exports.

Plywood—N.Z. Forest Products Limited has established a new plywood plant at Kinleith. This plant, the largest of its kind in Australia or New Zealand, uses 56500 cubic metres a year of radiata pine from the Kaingaroa forest. Output is sold on both the local and export markets.

Mineral Fibre Products—N.Z. Forest Products Limited! commissioned increased capacity at its mineral fibre plant in 1979. The 7000 tonnes of mineral rockwool now produced each year provide material for a variety of commercial and industrial fire-resistant wall coatings.

Steel—The 1970s were a period of growth and consolidation for New Zealand Steel Limited. Items manufactured currently are galvanised products, pipe, rectangular hollow sections, and billets. By contrast the nineteen-eighties are to be a period of, expansion for the company. Plans have been announced to expand New Zealand Steel's primary steel production and extend its operations into cold and hot rolling. A new development company, jointly owned by the Government and New Zealand Steel, has been formed to undertake basic engineering and construction of the plant should a final decision to proceed be made.

This development would mean a fully integrated steel industry for New Zealand.

Aluminium—New Zealand Aluminium Smelters Limited, owned by Comalco Industries Pty. Limited, of Australia, and Showa Aluminium KK and Sumitomo Aluminium Smelting Company Limited, of Japan, established a primary aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point, near Bluff, early in 1971. The first furnace was commissioned in April 1971. Production is now 150000 tonnes a year rated annual capacity, with 2 full potlines in operation. Approximately four-fifths of the primary aluminium produced at the smelter is exported. All the partners take their percentage of the smelter's output in proportion to their ownership. The addition of a third potline, which will be in operation by 1983, will increase the total rated smelter capacity to 244000 tonnes a year.

A new two-potline smelter is to be established at Aramoana, near Dunedin, by Fletcher Holdings Limited, Swiss Aluminium Australia Limited, and Gove Alumina Limited. This will add a further 200000 tonnes to New Zealand's annual aluminium smelting capacity by late 1986.

A continuous sheet-casting plant with a 100000 tonnes a year capacity will be built next to the new smelter.

An aluminium semi-fabricating industry is well established, making a wide range of extrusions, rolling-mill products, and fabricated items.

Aircraft Manufacture and Maintenance—Aircraft manufacture is carried out by New Zealand Aerospace Industries Ltd. (NZAIX) at Hamilton. This company produced about a hundred CT4 military trainer aircraft for the New Zealand, Australian, and Thai airforces. Production of this aircraft has now ceased and the company is concentrating on production of the Fletcher FU 24 agricultural aircraft.

It has also developed the Cresco, a stretched turbo engine version of the FU 24 with a substantially increased payload. Component manufacture for the Australian Government Aircraft Factories' Nomad aircraft is carried out by a number of New Zealand companies including Safe Air Ltd., Blenheim, and New Zealand Aerospace Industries Ltd. Safe Air's engineering complex at Blenheim also services aircraft propellers for a number of New Zealand and overseas airlines. Alexander Helicopters Ltd., Hamilton, and Airwork N.Z. Ltd. carry out substantial overhauls of helicopters. Major engine and airframe overhaul facilities are maintained by Air New Zealand in Auckland and Christchurch. These carry out extensive overhauls of its own aircraft and those of other Pacific airlines.

Electronics Manufacture—The New Zealand electronics industry has a well developed consumer sector, principally orientated towards the colour television market. Six companies are currently manufacturing colour television sets in New Zealand. Some exports have been achieved, mainly to the Asian market. The professional and industrial electronic sector, which covers a wide range of industrial, medical, and scientific applications, has shown sustained growth.

Carpet and Carpet Yarns—Carpet yarn production for the year ended June 1980 was up by 4 percent on last year's production. The overseas demand for woolyarn continues to be steady. There is adequate spinning capacity in New Zealand to meet any increase in demand.

The domestic market for carpet has failed to retain its earlier buoyancy. This is believed by the industry to be attributable to some extent to the fall in the rate of construction of private dwellings. Overseas markets continue to be actively sought. During 1979–80, carpet production rose by 0.7 million square metres to 9.5 million square metres, of which 3.2 million square metres (worth $42.16 million f.o.b.) was exported. Some 31 percent of the carpet exported went to countries other than Australia.

Tanning—In 1978 the Government gave favourable consideration to a Tanning Industry Development Plan, prepared by the industry, and agreed that under the plan tanners could obtain the benefits of an approved industry development plan.

Historically, hides and skins have been exported from New Zealand in a wet-salted condition, but in recent years there has been a marked swing towards exporting in a partially processed (wet-blue) state and, more recently, further processing (semi-finished and fully-finished leather) has been undertaken, thereby increasing the value added.

In 1979–80 the value of sheep and lambskins exported was $143.3 million; of this, $38.5 million represented semi-processed and finished leather. The value of hides exported was $79.6 million.

TRENDS IN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: Indigenous Resources—Those trends in industrial development of which the above examples are illustrative appear certain to continue through the decade of the eighties, with priority being given to the development of new industries based on natural resources such as forests, fish stocks, and energy. The rapid development of the forest industries was a major turning point and these are now significant export earners, principally through export of pulp,paperboard, and newsprint but also through exports of logs, sawn timber, chips, and building boards. Intensive forest planting programmes since the early 1960s will result in a surplus for export about 3 to 4 times greater than current levels by the year 2000, and this will present opportunities for substantial future processing developments.

The establishment of the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone in 1977 has stimulated the rapid development of the fishing industry. The levels of both catching and processing have risen significantly with the introduction of large deep-water vessels, a substantial increase in on-shore processing facilities, and the establishment of co-operative ventures between New Zealand and foreign fishing companies. The development of the industry will continue to concentrate on hitherto under-utilised species.

In the energy resource field major decisions were made by the Government late in 1979. These will result in important new industries in the 1980s. The natural gas utilisation programme involves the construction of a synthetic gasoline plant, an export methanol plant, and an ammonia urea plant as well as encouraging the use of compressed natural gas and liquid petroleum gas as fuels. The synthetic gasoline, compressed natural gas, and liquid petroleum gas projects together should enable New Zealand to meet half its transport fuel requirements from indigenous sources by 1987. The production of petro-chemicals such as polyethylene from natural gas is also being considered. In addition, investigations are being made into the production of liquid fuels from the large lignite resource in Southland and from energy farming as a supplement to and an eventual replacement for gas-based fuels.

Increasing use is being made of New Zealand's hydro-electricity resources by electro-metallurgical industries. Electricity supply agreements negotiated in 1980 between the New Zealand Government and aluminium smelter operators will increase New Zealand's annual aluminium smelting capacity by over 180 percent by 1986.

The increasing price and scarcity of oil has stimulated interest in the development of New Zealand's substantial coal resources. Research is being undertaken to evaluate the various fuel and industrial feedstock uses of New Zealand coals, particularly of Buller coking coals and Southland lignites. During 1980, exports of Buller coal commenced on a small scale, although prospects are good for increased exports.

Overseas Investment—In June 1979 the Government publicly stressed its welcoming attitude to overseas investment, in particular where such investment is allied to the introduction of new technology and increased net foreign exchange earnings. The full development of New Zealand's resources will require both technology and capital from overseas during the eighties. Procedures for evaluating projects involving overseas capital have been reconsidered and cases will continue to be assessed on their individual merits by the Overseas Investment Commission.

Resource Conservation—The Department of Trade and Industry provides support for existing reclamation industries and encouragement for the establishment of new resource management ventures.

Pacific Metal Industries Limited (formerly Pacific Scrap Limited) has drawn up its initial programme for the flattener and shredder equipment due to commence processing vehicle and whiteware hulks during 1981. After commissioning early in the year, the mobile compactor will start reducing South Island municipal stockpiles of hulks, flattening each car body to a 20-cm block for shipment to Auckland, where the shredder is to be commissioned in mid-1981.

The detinning unit, also owned by Pacific Metal Industries Limited, is operating, and trial collection depots are being set up in Auckland, where the public may leave cleaned used cans. The unit reclaims tin stannate and scrap steel from recovered cans and factory offcuts.

Trials are continuing with source-separation schemes for materials recovery from domestic waste, especially glass, reusable bottles, textiles, paper, and metals. It is expected that during 1980 more cities will set up such schemes.

The Department of Trade and Industry will provide resource recovery support for the New Zealand Litter Control Council's comprehensive nationwide programme.

Interest in the recycling of waste paper has accelerated recently. N.Z. Forest Products Limited is seeking 30000 tonnes annually of waste kraft. In addition, this company plans to use increasing quantities of old newspapers in some of its production. In 1981 the company has a requirement for 15000 tonnes of waste newspapers which will be sought from the Auckland/Waikato region. Because of this development, less emphasis is being given to finding alternative outlets for waste paper, such as in pelletised fuel or ethanol production. Good printed white paper (bank, bond, sulphates) is sought by N.Z. Forest Products Limited during 1980 for reuse in underliner for bleached coated board. About 1000 tonnes a year is required.

The used oil subsidy has, in the 2 years it has been operating, brought about doubled collections of waste lubricating oil for re-refining—from 3 million litres to 7 million litres—and there are plans for expanded plant for the refining of a further 7 million litres. This would make New Zealand 20 percent self-sufficient in lubricating oil. New Zealand presently imports annually 70 million litres of lubricating oil.

The N.Z. Waste Materials Exchange, which indexes usable industrial wastes, has extended its coverage across the whole country from the Department of Trade and Industry's 4 offices.

Interest continues in the Department of Trade and Industry's conservation award which provides recognition of achievements by industry or commerce in the conservation and recycling of raw materials and energy. Until 1980, the awards had been made only within industry or commerce, but during this year the first local authority and the first community group each received an award for sustained collections of a range of recyclable materials.

Export Earnings—The improvement in the rate of increase of exports of manufactured goods during 1979 continued during 1980, although at a lower level. Export receipts for all manufactured goods (excluding those from primary processing industries) during the year ended June 1980 totalled $945.5 million compared with $726.1 million the previous year. Export earnings increased by 30 percent between June 1979 and June 1980. This increase is lower than the 41.7 percent increase recorded between June 1978 and June 1979, but still represents a continuing overall high growth trend in manufactured exports.

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT—The Government's regional development programme is designed to encourage regions to maximise the development of their potential, and to further contribute to national development by increasing the efficient use of their resources.

Effort is concentrated on promoting industrial growth in 11 designated priority regions: Northland, King Country, East Coast, Taranaki, Wanganui, Wairarapa, Marlborough, West Coast, Southern Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. The incentives available focus on the retention of industry, the attraction of new manufacturing concerns, and the development of resource-based activities in regional areas.

In each region, local initiatives and the activities of independent business concerns provide the major employment opportunities for local people. The Central Government provides the administrative framework through appointed regional development councils and the Department of Trade and Industry. It also provides the necessary incentives to encourage local initiatives and to remove hindrances to worthwhile development. These are generally in the form of suspensory loans for new and expanding manufacturing industries, but preliminary investigation and establishment incentives are also available to “seed” new developments in the fishing, forestry, tourism, mining, agriculture, and horticulture sectors.

AIDS TO DEVELOPMENT—Described very briefly below are some of the programmes which provide assistance of various types to manufacturing industry.

Development Finance Corporation—A description of the Development Finance Corporation, which was established as an independent body in 1964, is included in the Banking and Currency section of this Yearbook. The Development Finance Corporation also operates the Government's Applied Technology Programme, which provides incentives for industrial research and development, and the Small Business Agency, which was established by Act of Parliament in November 1977 with the aim of encouraging and promoting the efficient operation of small businesses.

Industries Development Commission—The Industries Development Commission operates under the Industries Development Commission Act 1961. The commission superseded the Tariff and Development Board on 19 September 1975.

The commission's functions are to inquire into and report on matters relating to industrial development and on protection at the frontier when requested by the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry, or the Minister of Overseas Trade.

At present the emphasis is on the commission's developmental function.

The commission reported in 1980 on the wine, packing, and commercial shipbuilding and repair industries. At the end of 1980 it was engaged on inquiries into the plastics industry, the tobacco growing, industry and an inquiry relating to writing instruments.

In November 1980 the Government announced that it would be referring the rubber, tyre, motor vehicle assembly, and electronics industries to the commission, which also has a mandatory requirement to review its textile industry development plan by June 1982.

High Priority Activities Scheme—The 1977 Budget included the announcement of a scheme under which a limited number of manufacturing activities which are judged, on the basis of a few quantitative criteria, to be making an outstanding contribution to growth and to the country's balance of payments, are granted “high priority” status. “High priority” activities become eligible for benefits in the form of reduced administrative control, priority treatment, preferential access to finance, and taxation incentives.

The Investment Unit—In 1979 an Investment Unit was established within the Department of Trade and Industry. The functions of the unit are to:

  1. Assist investors, whether local or overseas, in researching their projects;

  2. Ensure that applications for any necessary consents necessary are processed with minimal delay by the central and local government agencies concerned;

  3. Develop proposals for streamlining consent procedures;

  4. Increase the number of investment proposals being made, particularly in those areas of the economy where there is immediate scope for increased investment; and

  5. Prepare and distribute information and publicity material on investment opportunities in New Zealand.

Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme—The Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme (PIIDS), introduced on 30 November 1976, provides financial assistance and incentives for New Zealand companies developing approved manufacturing operations in Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Kiribati, Tuvalu, and Nauru, with the objective of fostering economic development opportunities in those countries and furthering the growth of employment.

Standards Association of New Zealand—The Standards Association of New Zealand (SANZ) was established by the Standards Act 1965, to take over and expand the activities of the New Zealand Standards Institute. The Standards Association is responsible for the formulation of national standards for processes, goods, and services.

The Standards Association represents New Zealand in the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), the Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC), and on the Asian Standards Advisory Committee (ASAC) of the United Nations.

Manufacturing Development Council—The council was established in 1969 as a sector council of the National Development Council.

The Holmes Task Force on Economic and Social Planning recommended that the functions of the council should be widened as far as practicable to include the whole industrial sector. Moreover, in addition to its prime function of acting as a link between the industrial private sector and the Government, the council should act as a planning body. The Manufacturing Development Council (MDC) and the Government both supported this recommendation and a comprehensive reorganisation of the council was undertaken in 1977–78. Broadened membership encompassing increased geographical spread, greater range of interests, and more diversity in size and type of industry are features of the reorganised council.

In late 1978 the council directed to the Government a document which commented on the New Zealand Planning Council's statement Planning Perspectives 1978–1983. The MDC gave firm support to the views enunciated by the Planning Council and this has had an important bearing on official thinking. Since that time the MDC has continued to comment on, and to recommend for Government consideration, specific actions arising out of this general approach to the development of the manufacturing sector.

In early 1980 the Council co-sponsored a study into New Zealand manufacturing and exports (Manufacturers' Export Research Programme). The first part of the study was a survey of manufacturers' expectations which showed that manufactured exports were expected (by manufacturers) to increase to 15.9 percent of total manufactured output by 1984. The second part of the study was a model which showed that this was a viable option.

New Zealand Export/Import Corporation—Established early in 1974, the corporation has a responsibility for co-ordinating and expanding overseas trading opportunities. By providing assistance to small and medium-sized companies to go into the export field, the corporation aims at increasing and diversifying New Zealand's range of exports.

Other Bodies—A number of liaison committees have been established to promote development in particular fields of industry. These include the Advisory Committee on the Heavy Engineering Industry, the New Zealand Metal Casting Industry Association (previously the Foundry Industry Advisory Committee), and the National Electronics Development Association (NEDA). Several bodies exist principally to promote exports: ENEX (previously the Engineering Export Association of New Zealand Inc.) continues to be prominent in this field, while the Export Guarantee Office facilitates the export of manufactured goods by removing some of the financial uncertainties involved in export trade. The Industrial Design Council (IDC) exists to promote and encourage good design. There are also several bodies providing technical and advisory services for industry. Further details of these organisations are to be found under Section 7, Education, Science, and the Arts.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT—Engagement in research and development by manufacturing enterprises is shown in the following table.

Details published in all but the last column exclude single-establishment enterprises employing less than 10 persons and ancillary units servicing more than one industry.

Manufacturing Census (Year)Persons Engaged on Research and DevelopmentPercentage of Total Number Engaged in ManufacturingExpenditure on Research and DevelopmentPercentage to Total Value Added in Manufacturing
 No.%$(000)%
1974–7514490.5013,9490.65
1975–7614080.4715,4450.66
1976–7713440.4315,4030.54
1978–7913410.4522,4360.64

SCOPE OF STATISTICS—Results of the first integrated economic census of manufacturing introduced by the Department of Statistics applied to the 1974–75 year. The census covers establishments (factories, workshops, etc.) in New Zealand, the predominant activity of which is manufacturing, processing, assembly, or repair, plus the activities of ancillary units (head offices, etc.) which service or predominantly service those establishments. Single establishment firms having an average of less than 2 persons engaged full time are, however, not included in the census.

All activities of the manufacturing operations, from the purchase of material and supplies to the point at which the products are sold, are within the scope of the census, which is for the year ended 31 March, or the last accounting year prior to 31 March.

The integrated economic census classifies all the manufacturing industries according to the revised New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC), which is based on the 1968 United Nations International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities.

Because of the major changes introduced, there was an unavoidable break in the continuity of manufacturing statistics. To provide some link with the previous census series, a limited number of main aggregates were collected for the 1973–74 year on the same basis as those collected for 1974–75. This link information has been published in a series of industry bulletins.

In the statistical tables which follow, the results of the 1976–77 and 1978–79 manufacturing censuses are published. The 1976–77 manufacturing census was the last of the annual series. Commencing with the 1978–79 year, the Department of Statistics introduced a series of 5-yearly integrated economic censuses covering the 9 major divisions of NZSIC.

A series of quarterly sample surveys linked to each 5-yearly census has commenced. A description and some results of these surveys are given at the end of this section.

GENERAL SUMMARY—Changes introduced by the integrated census of manufacturing may be summarised as follows:

  • industries were reclassified to conform to the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification;

  • ancillary units, such as servicing units, laboratories, etc., were included in the census;

  • the basis of valuation was changed from cost of materials used and factory door value of production to purchase and sale prices;

  • the census year was changed from a year centred on 31 March to a year ended 31 March or the nearest prior balance date;

  • a number of new or changed definitions were introduced. A table of definitions follows:

Definitions

Establishments—Productive units, usually factories, engaged predominantly in manufacturing operations.

Ancillary Units—Servicing units, usually head offices, laboratories, workshops, etc., engaged in predominantly servicing establishments.

Persons Engaged—Numbers of people employed in the establishments and ancillary units at, or on the nearest pay day to, 15 April.

Salaries and Wages—Gross earnings during the accounting year, before taxation and other deductions, of all employees in the establishments or ancillary units included in the census. Included are such items as sick and holiday pay, bonuses, benefit allowances, payments under piece rate schemes, and capitalised salaries and wages. Excluded are contributions to superannuation funds by employer, reimbursement allowances, payments from superannuation funds, and drawings by working proprietors.

Depreciation—As charged in the books of account on fixed tangible assets owned by the establishments or ancillary units included in the census.

Purchases and Other Expenses—The sum of all operating expenses except interest, bad debts, and donations, and including value of capital work done by own employees but excluding salaries and wages and depreciation.

Turnover—The total of all sales and other income except interest, dividends, royalties, patent fees, and insurance claims received, plus the value of capital work done by own employees.

Value Added—The industry and sector contribution to Gross Domestic Product comprising the sum of salaries and wages paid, employer contributions to superannuation schemes, operating surplus, depreciation, and indirect taxes less subsidies.

Capital Expenditure Less Disposals—The sum of the amount spent by establishments and ancillary units in the census on the purchase, less the proceeds received from the sale, of the following types of fixed assets: land; buildings and other construction; road vehicles, ships and aircraft; plant, machinery and equipment; other, such as artifacts.

General Statistics

A general statistical summary of the results of the 1976–77 and 1978–79 Integrated Economic Censuses of Manufacturing is given in the following table.

Turnover of manufacturing establishments, including ancillary units, covered in the 1978–79 Census of Manufacturing totalled $10,926 million, a 21.6 percent increase on the total of $8,987 million recorded in 1976–77.

ItemUnitCensus of ManufacturingPercentage Change
1976–771978–79
EstablishmentsNo.90199498+ 5.3
Ancillary unitsNo.7191022+42.1
Persons engaged at mid-April:
    MalesNo.219046215078−1.8
    FemalesNo.8713183253−4.5
              TotalNo.306177298331−2.6
Capital expenditure, less disposals$(million)479475−0.8
Salaries and wages paid:
    Males$(million)1,4451,844+ 27.6
    Females$(million)357450+ 26.0
              Total$(million)1,8022,294+27.3
Purchases and other expenses$(million)6,3817,595+ 19.0
Turnover$(million)8,98710,926+ 21.6
Value added$(million)2,8653,478+ 21.6

The 3 following tables give a more detailed comparison of the results of the 1976–77 and 1978–79 Censuses of Manufacturing. This is at industry division and major group level.

The first table shows numbers of establishments and ancillary units, and persons engaged.

Division and Major GroupEstablishmentsAncillary UnitsPersons Engaged
1976–771978–791976–771978–791976–771978–79
 Number
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco
    Food108411031161806697966074
    Beverages117119313347124529
    Tobacco668913301268
                Total120712281552227302171871
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather
    Textiles40840525381956615972
    Clothing (except footwear)76272138732198921148
    Leather14214431434183456
    Footwear1061088751195198
                Total14181378741325009245774
Wood and Wood Products
    Wood and cork products87586122341695715664
    Furniture477509181972986944
                Total1352137040532425522608
Paper and Paper Products, Printing and Publishing
    Paper and paper products10410011131043610384
    Printing and publishing57061155781807717932
                Total67471166912851328316
Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
    Industrial chemicals124126112759625764
    Other chemical products172195458568757352
    Petroleum1313-4368464
    Petroleum and coal products181944373320
    Rubber products8391364346024602
    Plastic products198246171662226454
                Total6086901131792440224956
Non-metallic Mineral Products n.e.c.
    Pottery, china, and earthenware1826-1312891215
    Glass and glass products67691126702361
    Other non-metallic mineral products411435163473116779
                Total49653017481127010355
Basic Metal Industries
    Iron and steel44482534023254
    Non-ferrous metals71742333003363
                Total1151224867026617
Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery, and Equipment
    Metal products1253135349492432724136
    Machinery (except electrical)85896923371437815181
    Electrical machinery29932841531750215945
    Transport equipment421462682005921959
    Professional and scientific equipment43505711071201
                Total287431621241547737378422
Other Manufacturing275307111944304161
    Ancillary units servicing more than one major group  11511661195251
                Total manufacturing901994987191022306177298331

The following tables give financial statistics derived from the 1976–77 and 1978–79 Censuses of Manufacturing. The first shows salaries and wages, purchases and other expenses, and total turnover.

Division and Major GroupSalaries and WagesPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnover
1976–771978–791976–771978–791976–771978–79
 $(million)
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco
    Food393.7535.71,812.12,108.32,367.02,824.1
    Beverages27.335.4122.3159.9186.1245.5
    Tobacco7.99.749.055.763.576.5
                Total428.9580.81,983.42,323.92,616.63,146.1
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather
    Textiles100.0110.4305.8371.5439.9525.5
    Clothing (except footwear)90.3114.7157.8215.8261.3353.7
    Leather15.621.162.098.882.0124.2
    Footwear24.230.546.261.074.298.5
                Total230.1276.7571.8747.1857.41,101.9
Wood and Wood Products
    Wood and cork products102.7115.1313.0357.2463.6522.1
    Furniture38.642.394.2107.9143.7163.7
              Total141.3157.4407.2465.1607.3685.8
Paper and Paper Products, Printing and Publishing
    Paper and paper products81.4108.2417.9517.0594.6720.2
    Printing and publishing108.2139.5170.3228.0318.6419.2
                Total189.6247.7588.2745.0913.21,139.4
Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
    Industrial chemicals41.452.0234.9249.2316.7360.9
    Other chemical products41.157.9187.9269.1256.3365.3
    Petroleum2.94.739.443.253.155.7
    Petroleum and coal products2.22.810.713.614.918.3
    Rubber products31.642.081.199.2131.3166.2
    Plastic products34.845.099.2124.3151.1194.4
                Total154.0204.4653.2798.6923.41,160.8
Non-metallic Mineral Products, n.e.c.
    Pottery, china, and earthenware6.48.26.48.815.419.1
    Glass and glass products18.922.940.844.869.582.7
    Other non-metallic mineral products46.854.3182.3207.8270.9317.0
                Total72.185.4229.5261.4355.8418.8
Basic Metal Industries
    Iron and steel26.337.1147.1176.1199.6252.0
    Non-ferrous metals23.932.8105.1150.2156.9206.5
                Total50.269.9252.2326.3356.5458.5
Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery, and Equipment
    Metal products145.8179.5490.8564.8707.5829.7
    Machinery (except electrical)83.0109.7265.2312.4385.9472.1
    Electrical machinery102.7113.6334.5343.7458.0515.0
    Transport equipment126.9176.9411.6508.5569.3743.3
    Professional and scientific equipment5.48.113.920.021.531.3
                Total463.8587.81,516.01,749.42,142.22,591.4
Other Manufacturing21.724.852.564.281.6102.7
    Ancillary units servicing more than one major group49.858.7127.0114.3132.9120.0
                Total manufacturing1,801.72,293.66,381.37,595.38,987.210,925.4

The final table of comparative data from the 1976–77 and 1978–79 Censuses of Manufacturing shows Value Added and Net Capital Expenditure. Value Added, as shown in the table of definitions, comprises salaries and wages paid, any employer contributions to superannuation schemes, the operating surplus, depreciation, and indirect taxes less subsidies.

Capital Expenditure Less Disposals comprises gross capital expenditure less the proceeds of “trade-ins” and sales of second-hand capital goods.

Division and Major GroupValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
1976–771978–791976–771978–79
 $(million)
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco
    Food593.7747.2119.9151.4
    Beverages69.681.216.110.7
    Tobacco17.622.51.40.9
                Total680.9850.9137.4163.0
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather
    Textiles144.9156.114.127.0
    Clothing (except footwear)117.1139.45.74.0
    Leather25.832.32.55.7
    Footwear33.239.61.71.6
                Total321.0367.424.038.3
Wood and Wood Products
    Wood and cork products165.9170.631.819.7
    Furniture53.360.63.83.0
                Total219.2231.235.622.7
Paper and Paper Products, Printing and Publishing
    Paper and paper products155.9171.468.455.3
    Printing and publishing156.3202.214.517.2
                Total312.2373.682.972.5
Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
    Industrial chemicals78.799.524.711.9
    Other chemical products70.7100.17.412.8
    Petroleum14.19.44.5−0.6
    Petroleum and coal products4.24.90.50.9
    Rubber products54.765.07.624.3
    Plastic products56.073.07.010.7
                Total278.4351.951.760.0
Non-metallic Mineral Products, n.e.c.
    Pottery, china, and earthenware8.910.40.60.7
    Glass and glass products31.839.94.44.0
    Other non-metallic mineral products91.2107.427.811.4
                Total131.9157.732.816.1
Basic Metal Industries
    Iron and steel61.789.53.316.1
    Non-ferrous metals60.264.532.45.5
                Total121.9154.035.721.6
Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery, and Equipment
    Metal products241.4285.222.723.7
    Machinery (except electrical)129.9166.89.912.2
    Electrical machinery144.6176.210.311.4
    Transport equipment173.6228.822.118.0
    Professional and scientific equipment8.712.90.91.7
                Total698.2869.965.967.0
Other Manufacturing35.538.43.03.4
    Ancillary units servicing more than one major group66.182.99.810.2
                Total manufacturing2,865.33,478.0478.9474.8

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1978–79—Statistics from the 1978–79 Census of Manufacturing have been given along with data from the 1976–77 Census in the previous tables at industry division and major group level. The following tables, which refer only to the 1978–79 Census of Manufacturing, show statistical data by industry major group and sub-group.

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1978–79
Industry Major Group and Sub-groupEstablishmentsAncillary UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

* Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential data.

Establishments and single-industry ancillary units.

Ancillary units servicing only this major group.

§ Data included in Food products n.e.c. Textiles, n.e.c., Manufacturing industries, n.e.c. and Transport equipment, n.e.c.

No.No. No.$(000)
Food Manufacturing
    Meat export works (incl. export-licensed abattoirs)445295101817265,10711,992
    Other abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses29212113411,976192
    Meat packers and canners201278662,140374
    Ham, bacon, and smallgoods5111137051610,8913,231
    Poultry slaughterhouses2324115322,7132,865
    Game packers6210729969174
    Meat pies and puddings2413272402,4291,140
    Casings of animal origin4157119495867
    Co-operative dairy factories9719611687565,0136,193
    Milk processing plants4139311599,5591,034
    Ice cream factories1763233102,1591,299
    Factories manufacturing dairy products including processed cheese (excluding co-operative dairy factories)643981663,845847
    Canning and preserving fruit and vegetables4142655179317,1337,709
    Land-based fish, etc., factories62209626656,3813,369
    Vegetable and animal oils and fats214547785,608479
    Grain milling19-4321255,1121,145
    Prepared grain breakfast foods4-237133
    Bread bakeries8731195065816,3552,931
    Cake, pastry, and pie (not meat) factories43112784211,7311,381
    Cake and pastry kitchens2832690011864,3464,229
    Biscuit factories9-4434563,9282,557
    Macaroni, vermicelli, spaghetti, and noodles3-716§§
    Sugar factories and refineries1229241§§
    Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery376102013247,4447,447
    Food products, n.e.c.71121633111316,4006,062
    Prepared animal feeds6076651425,684725
    Total food manufacturing11031805306013014467,41868,242
Beverages
    Distilling, rectifying and blending spirits5175495,4332,076
    Wine6216663552
    Breweries113153414816,6731,010
    Malting158110
    Soft drinks and cordials4089294887,0063,241
                Total, beverages119333282124729,1126,327
Tobacco Manufactures696795896,0653,669
Textiles
    Wool scouring33-921458,374244
    Woollen fibres, spinning and weaving2872411148919,7979,299
    Linen flax mills1-5-§§
    Man-made fibres, spinning and weaving1313772343,3751,146
    Dyeing, printing, and finishing yarns and textiles16-239811,925396
    Canvas goods and similar articles of other fabrics87-5695013,3032,394
    Other made-up textile goods (except clothing)81942210993,2405,064
    Knitting mills10151686307813,54617,272
    Carpets and rugs227142669711,8114,305
    Cordage, rope and twine4531973§§
    Textiles, n.e.c.194232684,003874
                Total, textiles405388607736569,37440,994
Wearing Apparel
    Leather gloves and clothing2611024056822,027
    Fur clothing17-3586168302
    Clothing other than leather or fur6787232711724924,67086,839
                Total, wearing apparel7217334081774025,52089,168
Fur and Leather
    Tanneries and leather finishing21910894538,6152,246
    Fellmongery10210231,024
    Fur dressing and dyeing, fur and skin articles, n.e.c.141134144836703
    Leather and leather substitute products (except footwear and clothing)99250910223,0674,657
                Total, fur and leather144141834162213,5297,619
Footwear (except rubber, plastic, or wooden)10872121307715,26215,239
Wood and Cork Products (except furniture)
    Sawmills2329567133144,5101,830
    Planing, preserving, and seasoning timber63-175516213,899827
    Builders' carpentry and joinery3486320333522,3531,311
    Prefabricated and precut buildings602687594,919313
    Plywood, veneer, and board31-155526513,4081,660
    Wooden containers294412392,923197
    Basket and cane wear4-64193,9791,005
    Cork products and wood products, n.e.c.943654253
    Other ancillary units-10145551,668330
                Total, wood and cork products86134141461518107,6597,473
Furniture
    Wooden furniture and upholstery469134781114631,0054,922
    Mattress making1713732912,7151,652
    Window blinds (incl. Venetian and roller)2351931601,241790
                Total furniture509195347159734,9617,364
Paper and Paper Products
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard11-487134662,7352,849
    Corrugated board, paper board and corrugated board boxes, cases, and cartons503204972219,5745,495
    Paper bags and sacks3-197141
    Wallpaper factories5-237652,288373
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard articles, n.e.c.319107564210,1454,757
    Other ancillary units-12415
                Total, pulp and paper products100138453193194,74213,474
Printing and Publishing
    Printing and publishing newspapers, periodicals, and books88475638302255,85618,562
    Job and general printing431315457272642,78614,694
    Service industries for the printing trade92-7803096,1211,497
                Total, printing and publishing61178118756057104,76334,753
Industrial Chemicals
    Basic industrial chemicals (except fertilisers)2735021265,754903
    Chemical fertilisers25514658813,032488
    Pesticides95339773,160500
    Synthetic resins, plastic materials, and man-made fibres (except glass)6514256060724,3923,740
                Total, industrial chemicals12627486689846,3385,631
Other Chemical Products
    Paints, varnishes, and lacquers3842124335110,7252,205
    Drugs and medicines28118728208,0484,777
    Soap and detergents1076013976,1172,504
    Toilet and cosmetic goods38115047344,6524,567
    Cleaning preparations, n.e.c.11-2311662,217951
    Ink134349883,296506
    Chemical products, n.e.c.57106733235,6371,683
                Total, other chemical products195854473287940,69217,193
Petroleum Refineries134422424,409324
Petroleum and Coal Products
    Bituminous mixtures and products184254252,618153
    Petroleum and coal products, n.e.c.1-401
                Total, petroleum and coal products194294262,618153
Rubber Products
    Tyres and tubes1140176617823,6491,411
    Tyre retreading and vulcanising38-48528
    Rubber products, n.e.c.423146068513,2083,762
                Total, rubber products9143371189136,8575,173
Plastic Products, n.e.c.246164116233833,14011,878
Pottery, China, and Earthen-ware26136665495,0693,176
Glass and Glass Products691201334820,8482,008
Other Non-metallic Mineral Products
    Structural clay products273643564,738342
    Cement works489222610,383196
    Lime kilns (not agricultural lime)3-321
    Cement, lime, and plaster, n.e.c.41443
    Precast concrete1463148910811,055474
    Concrete masonry587829796,479393
    Ready-mixed concrete1006921597,845314
    Plaster and fibrous plaster products28-360272,459126
    Monumental masonry and stone masonry422190301,10361
    Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.c.2338121327,526796
    Other ancillary units-1115
                Total, non-metallic mineral products43534625352651,5882,702
Iron and Steel
    Iron and steel basic products44183315335,4141,660
    Iron and steel forgings and castings4411159109
                Total, iron and steel485299226235,4141,660
Non-ferrous Metal
    Non-ferrous basic metal products223224425424,8341,635
    Non-ferrous forgings, castings, extrusions, etc.52-7251405,624689
                Total, non-ferrous metal743296939430,4582,324
Metal Products (except Machinery and Equipment)
    Cutlery and handtools25-4401383,4581,012
    Builders' and joiners' etc., hardware5219444296,8562,217
    Furniture and fixtures (primarily of metal)65510172997,2021,471
    Architectural metal structures and fixtures2374260344319,1182,055
    Sheet metal roofing and related products1472199122715,4951,133
    Structural steel fabricating, and plate metal and boilershop products26815430632739,6991,600
    Wireworking771132723010,4671,052
    Nails and fasteners9-273711,985373
    Household and kitchen utensils2012501101,605571
    Servicing industries to the metal trades126-11172357,3351,035
    Fabricated metal products, n.e.c.327185690162844,8498,924
    Other ancillary units-2329
                Total, metal products135349199904146158,06921,443
Machinery (except Electrical)
    Manufacture and reconditioning of engines and turbines103-9511166,620400
    Agricultural machinery and equipment2213278740218,6041,663
    Tool, die, and jig making7026741284,254530
    Metal and woodworking machinery, n.e.c.34-593884,846409
    Specialised industrial machinery and equipment1329255323220,7461,097
    Office, computing, and accounting machinery302179341,483182
    Machinery and equipment (except electrical), n. e. c.37921571473045,1473,751
                Total, machinery96937134511730101,7008,032
Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies
    Electrical industrial machinery and apparatus1157207185017,8434,743
    Radio, television, and communications equipment and apparatus94132103230715,00612,127
    Household electrical durables and ranges277272598521,3446,709
    Other electrical appliances and housewares, n.e.c.2337085875,1133,099
    Electrical cables and wires6118102947,3081,989
    Other electrical apparatus and supplies, n.e.c.6312167283313,5414,776
                Total, electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies3285310089585680,15533,443
Transport Equipment
    Ship building and repairing1882212416816,495713
    Railroad equipment9-508638§§
    Motor vehicle assembly plants2425291135539,8298,640
    Motor vehicle body building, caravans, and trailers111-194224115,9891,241
    Motor vehicle parts, n.e.c.783187161512,7153,835
    Motor cycles and bicycles1-7025§§
    Aircraft (incl. repairs)301280914633,1491,002
    Transport equipment, n.e.c.21-1324642,591746
                Total, transport equipment4628193252634160,76816,177
Measuring and Controlling Equipment, etc.
    Medical and surgical equipment and supplies, n.e.c.14-1772101,5681,164
    Laboratory and scientific equipment, measuring and controlling equipment, n.e.c.1542491571,955809
    Photographic and optical goods2131972111,4901,097
                Total, measuring and controlling equipment5076235785,0133,070
Other Manufacturing Industries
    Jewellery and related articles9415502593,3371,111
    Musical instruments516716§§
    Sporting and athletic goods4723361492,463780
    Brushes and brooms1252741542,181890
    Toys and games3623303812,4142,002
    Manufacturing industries, n.e.c.11387488974,7604,378
                Total, other manufacturing industries307192305185615,6439,161
                Total, all manufacturing establishments and ancillary units servicing single industries or major groups9498906211370817101,797,184437,870
    Ancillary units servicing only manufacturing-48196850824,6354,120
    Ancillary units predominantly servicing manufacturing-681740103522,2117,736
                Grand total94981022215078832531,844,030449,726

The following table shows additional statistics.

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1978–79
Industry Major Group and Sub-groupDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals

* Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

Establishments and single-industry ancillary units.

Ancillary units servicing only this major group.

§ Data included in Food products, n.e.c., Textiles, n.e.c., Transport equipment, n.e.c., and Manufacturing industries, n.e.c.

 $(thousand)
Food Manufacturing
    Meat export works (incl. export-licensed abattoirs)19,656478,251791,907341,32561,507
    Other abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses57518,45331,63012,4084,699
    Meat packers and canners20919,59122,9393,805714
    Ham, bacon, and smallgoods1,32968,81787,79320,1911,311
    Poultry slaughterhouses71342,44453,04810,7201,090
    Game packers84733,24542,0489,3571,096
    Meat pies and puddings
    Casings of animal origin
    Co-operative dairy factories21,940609,941713,555106,39840,613
    Milk processing plants1,85567,37385,354−3604,039
    Ice cream factories40326,04933,5026,3091,407
    Factories manufacturing dairy products including processed cheese (excluding co-operative dairy factories)74728,03635,0529,6301,256
    Canning and preserving fruit and vegetables3,79281,349117,42345,5898,545
    Land-based fish, etc., factories2,48750,50565,60216,0505,950
    Vegetable and animal oils and fats1,29640,14850,63113,1812,679
    Grain milling1,22562,88575,09013,5872,005
    Prepared grain breakfast foods
    Bread bakeries2,45574,682102,28228,3644,047
    Cake, pastry, and pie (not meat) factories1906,51210,7654,381438
    Cake and pastry kitchens65421,29135,45314,5471,502
    Biscuit factories57523,50532,3887,708613
    Macaroni, vermicelli, spaghetti, and noodles§§§§§
    Sugar factories and refineries§§§§§
    Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery1,27160,96984,71324,5691,309
    Food products, n.e.c.3,772212,931261,08047,1005,222
    Prepared animal foods1,64081,38191,83412,3041,365
                Total, food manufacturing67,6312,108,3582,824,089747,163151,407
Beverages
    Distilling, rectifying, and blending spirits1,78639,60753,35917,3714,938
    Wine
    Breweries5,80085,119142,05348,5884,298
    Malting
    Soft drinks and cordials1,36735,21150,13915,2941,492
                Total, beverages8,953159,937245,55181,25310,728
Tobacco Manufactures1,37455,72676,50222,518867
Textiles
    Wool scouring1,06933,82545,63113,6992,392
    Woollen fibres, spinning and weaving3,228106,516140,46936,4906,946
    Linen flax mills§§§§§
    Man-made fibres, spinning and weaving54012,53620,7607,847475
    Dyeing, printing, and finishing yarns and textiles3665,4489,1673,375658
    Canvas goods, and similar articles of other fabrics32714,54923,0927,877463
    Other made up textile goods (except clothing)82928,84542,13113,3541,311
    Knitting mills2,70484,809124,22243,6555,464
    Carpets and rugs2,08867,27192,28321,4648,518
    Cordage, rope, and twine§§§§§
    Textiles, n.e.c.51717,73127,8018,372803
                Total, textiles11,668371,530525,556156,13327,030
Wearing Apparel
    Leather gloves and clothing1296,3439,1123,184177
    Fur clothing161,3411,92162313
    Clothing other than leather or fur3,625208,151342,681135,6273,781
                Total wearing apparel3,770215,835353,714139,4343,971
Fur and Leather
    Tanneries and leather finishing1,36360,01071,99116,5624,328
    Fellmongery17914,50915,5832,199359
    Fur dressing and dyeing, fur and skin articles, n.e.c.604,4586,2142,597161
    Leather and leather substitute products (except footwear and clothing)39019,80930,40010,951862
                Total, fur and leather1,99298,786124,18832,3095,710
Footwear (except rubber, plastic or wooden)1,35760,99398,55139,5941,570
Wood and Cork Products (except furniture)
    Sawmills5,780125,703193,19568,89811,597
    Planing, preserving, and seasoning timber.1,44250,64875,15421,8611,946
    Builders' carpentry and joinery1,49767,370100,52234,6401,971
    Prefabricated and precut buildings35331,58038,0517,139395
    Plywood, veneer, and board3,40849,24469,76921,3202,308
    Wooden containers23413,14716,9333,998215
    Basket and cane ware42914,68323,78810,0331,019
    Cork products and wood products, n.e.c.
    Other ancillary units1974,8804,7022,657278
                Total, wood and cork products13,340357,255522,114170,54619,729
Furniture
    Wooden furniture and upholstery2,11986,846134,94650,8182,617
    Mattress making18614,92219,8907,076207
    Window blinds (incl. Venetian and roller)1136,1108,8732,715139
                Total, furniture2,418107,878163,70960,6092,963
Paper and Paper Products
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard23,183309,634436,20698,36047,987
    Corrugated board, paper board and corrugated board boxes, cases, and cartons2,814120,047168,58241,6894,180
    Paper bags and sacks
    Wallpaper factories2,39787,282115,43631,3273,088
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard articles, n.e.c.
    Other ancillary units
                Total, pulp and paper products28,394516,963720,224171,37655,255
Printing and Publishing
    Printing and publishing newspapers, periodicals, and books4,80896,708195,810102,2116,582
    Job and general printing5,601120,813202,45289,3389,129
    Service industries for the printing trade91510,53320,93110,6321,529
                Total, printing and publishing11,324228,054419,193202,18117,240
Industrial Chemicals
    Basic industrial chemicals (except fertilisers)2,58218,13933,85115,4033,000
    Chemical fertilisers4,84588,484128,03027,9512,565
    Pesticides1,55424,46833,7089,7401,453
    Synthetic resins, plastic materials, and man-made fibres (except glass)4,436118,077165,34646,4184,910
                Total, industrial chemicals13,417249,168360,93599,51211,928
Other Chemical Products
    Paints, varnishes, and lacquers1,05870,59992,88622,8911,444
    Drugs and medicines1,58960,15479,87419,7845,481
    Soap and detergents1,45239,48454,18314,0072,094
    Toilet and cosmetic goods81934,01449,09217,1561,096
    Cleaning preparations, n.e.c.30311,85616,2824,460562
    Ink33814,50920,2426,145327
    Chemical products, n.e.c.1,07238,48752,78115,6681,781
                Total, other chemical products6,631269,103365,340100,11112,785
Petroleum Refineries2,49943,18755,6649,388−612
Petroleum and Coal Products
    Bituminous mixtures and products39113,59018,3414,943922
    Petroleum and coal products, n.e.c.
                Total, petroleum and coal products39113,59018,3414,943922
Rubber Products
    Tyres and tubes2,95063,424108,47640,64621,932
    Tyre retreading and vulcanising
    Rubber products, n.e.c.1,08235,73557,77824,3252,359
                Total, rubber products4,03299,159166,25464,97124,291
Plastic Products, n.e.c.6,178124,261194,37272,98210,699
Pottery, China, and Earthenware4108,81119,08110,432650
Glass and Glass Products2,11744,82982,65639,9073,994
Other Non-metallic Mineral Products
    Structural clay products7799,98920,0369,878962
    Cement works3,91531,22656,24323,8933,336
    Lime kilns (not agricultural lime)
    Cement, lime, and plaster, n.e.c.     
    Precast concrete2,45528,40750,59722,1161,745
    Concrete masonry1,28245,86060,87011,137739
    Readymixed concrete1,78850,26265,14814,9461,824
    Plaster and fibrous plaster products31715,74220,9805,815409
    Monumental masonry and stone masonry1062,5114,4882,199114
    Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.c.1,41623,80538,66617,4182,273
    Other ancillary units
                Total, non-metallic mineral products12,058207,802317,028107,40211,402
Iron and Steel
    Iron and steel basic products6,004176,126252,02689,49516,094
    Iron and steel forgings and castings
                Total, iron and steel6,004176,126252,02689,49516,094
Non-ferrous Metal
    Non-ferrous basic metal products5,935124,633169,13651,8694,221
    Non-ferrous forgings, castings, extrusions, etc.1,14925,58937,33112,6321,323
                Total, non-ferrous metal7,084150,222206,46764,5015,544
Metal Products (except Machinery and Equipment)
    Cutlery and handtools47415,14021,3017,007732
    Builders' and joiners' etc., hardware88921,28434,69314,5801,282
    Furniture and fixtures (primarily of metal)52423,07734,78711,970843
    Architectural metal structures and fixtures1,45572,651102,09829,9892,543
    Sheet metal roofing and related products1,59077,993100,41927,2082,147
    Structural steel fabricating, and plate metal and boiler-shop products3,143100,545155,72059,0224,187
    Wireworking1,07770,05592,15424,4301,438
    Nails and fasteners27516,92621,0754,729584
    Household and kitchen utensils1944,7008,4544,665179
    Servicing industries to the metal trades91116,16228,91513,2061,292
    Fabricated metal products, n.e.c.4,860146,259230,09188,4028,447
    Other ancillary units
                Total, metal products15,392564,792829,707285,20823,674
Machinery (except Electrical)
    Manufacture and conditioning of engines and turbines65816,96027,64511,2011,080
    Agricultural machinery and equipment1,56073,732106,38733,1132,900
    Tool, die, and jig making5887,16315,1058,295752
    Metal and woodworking machinery, n.e.c.34710,37117,5407,251478
    Specialised industrial machinery and equipment1,24467,550100,59634,2342,360
    Office, computing, and accounting machinery1562,7395,2892,33178
    Machinery and equipment, n.e.c.3,392133,858199,53470,3804,591
                Total, machinery7,945312,373472,096166,80512,239
Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies
    Electrical industrial machinery and apparatus1,22249,89279,65240,8613,097
    Radio, television, and communications equipment and apparatus2,21089,944131,94832,2131,662
    Household electrical durables and ranges2,18398,866141,70540,3003,237
    Other electrical appliances and housewares, n.e.c.52819,39130,72910,791498
    Electrical cables and wires1,41739,49755,87621,9901,035
    Other electrical apparatus and supplies, n.e.c.1,50346,09175,05330,0971,919
                Total, electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies9,063343,681514,963176,25211,448
Transport Equipment
    Ship building and repairing1,05735,50556,97522,9742,090
    Railroad equipment§§§§§
    Motor vehicle assembly plants4,430298,210384,70667,6993,799
    Motor vehicle body building, caravans, and trailers89460,75982,29523,8643,846
    Motor vehicle parts, n.e.c.1,69037,01655,84023,9622,273
    Motor cycles and bicycles§§§§§
    Aircraft (incl. repairs)1,74239,46180,96243,7203,687
    Transport equipment, n.e.c.82637,56482,49846,5752,333
                Total, transport equipment10,639508,515743,276228,79418,028
Measuring and Controlling Equipment, etc.
    Medical and surgical equipment and supplies, n.e.c.2127,74111,7344,407781
    Laboratory and scientific equipment, measuring and controlling equipment, n.e.c.1705,4928,9784,185570
    Photographic and optical goods2106,74010,6004,294363
                Total, measuring and controlling equipment59219,97331,31212,8861,714
Other Manufacturing Industries
    Jewellery and related articles35013,30020,3437,839427
    Musical instruments§§§§§
    Sporting and athletic goods3238,31313,7935,225313
    Brushes and brooms3227,24111,7284,387630
    Toys and games47712,47418,9696,260371
    Manufacturing industries, n.e.c.66522,91237,89314,6511,703
                Total, other manufacturing industries2,13764,240102,72638,3623,444
                Total, all manufacturing establishments and ancillary units servicing single industries or major groups258,8107,481,14710,805,6353,395,067464,714
    Ancillary units servicing only manufacturing2,10945,83375,68445,4205,334
    Ancillary units predominantly servicing manufacturing3,21868,47744,36637,5154,854
                Grand total264,1377,595,45710,925,6853,478,002474,902

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY—The following tables show the distribution of the manufacturing industry by statistical area in 1978–79. The tables illustrate the high degree of concentration of industry in the four main centres and very noticeably in the Central Auckland and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty Statistical Areas.

Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemales
 No.No.No.No.$(000)
Northland21024453196843,641
Central Auckland33433047086833450808,764
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1219109263597557284,989
East Coast707201569217,573
Hawke's Bay3484599423594102,680
Taranaki251236539191967,558
Wellington16082333658015792388,971
                  Total, North Island7049745156834639721,714,176
Marlborough966124347811,737
Nelson20893591126134,491
Westland71410353029,617
Canterbury14081543085011413314,587
Otago43278118554415117,997
Southland234269670141291,147
                  Total, South Island24492775824419281579,576
                  Total, New Zealand94981022215078832532,293,756

Additional financial statistics of manufacturing by statistical area during 1978–79 are shown in the following table.

Statistical AreaPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Northland155,465214,70473,3219,177
Central Auckland2,833,7004,039,7711,279,068142,733
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1,085,4051,500,827403,69062,339
East Coast42,61261,40925,3425,836
Hawke's Bay334,809507,350179,24131,033
Taranaki277,088359,852102,40622,200
Wellington1,233,3071,780,836573,58497,384
                  Total, North Island5,962,3868,464,7492,636,652370,702
Marlborough40,87456,42617,5995,484
Nelson120,403170,09548,0337,068
Westland27,31842,65016.4192,711
Canterbury821,6081,282,976462,78451,179
Otago365,659521,858169,50321,755
Southland257,203386,930127,01116,008
                  Total, South Island1,633,0652,460,935841,349104,205
                  Total, New Zealand7,595,45710,925,6853,478,002474,902

A similar summary of manufacturing during 1978–79 is given by employment districts in the following tables.

Employment DistrictOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid AprilSalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 No.No.No.No.$(000)$(000)
Whangarei21024453196838,8934,748
Auckland33433047086833450623,530185,234
Hamilton69673125224315106,83622,633
Tauranga223122985109421,3575,458
Rotorua30124108652148115,78912,960
Gisborne707201569214,4153,158
Napier159203409126729,5426,818
Hastings163236199208652,20710,450
New Plymouth244225827187551,8349,325
Wanganui16794582141036,6056,684
Palmerston North406347991348561,92618,504
Masterton11762423137717,9266,665
Lower Hutt43475133275131116,25230,132
Wellington5161129290467478,80025,495
                  Total, North Island7049745156834639721,365,912348,264
Blenheim96612434789,3032,374
Nelson18083129110223,7426,174
Greymouth995149746111,9082,282
Christchurch11821462626010186217,91751,920
Ashburton64596437410,0122,259
Timaru1613362085228,2154,205
Oamaru391157237412,0552,042
Dunedin3947710289404281,33022,630
Invercargill234269670141283,5767,571
                  Total, South Island24492775824419281478,118101,458
                  Total, New Zealand94981022215078832531,844,030449,726

Additional financial statistics of manufacturing during 1978–79 are shown by employment districts in the following table.

Employment DistrictDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Whangarei7,873155,465214,70473,3219,177
Auckland81,2332,833,7004,039,7711,279,068142,733
Hamilton16,686510,526702,872188,17231,695
Tauranga3,950109,203155,74844,1537,898
Rotorua26,944465,699642,307171,44122,747
Gisborne2,07142,61261,40925,3425,836
Napier6,627151,004217,60773,44411,864
Hastings5,815161,698261,886100,68817,469
New Plymouth12,264273,727351,27596,21521,521
Wanganui4,264126,662178,96055,34136,488
Palmerston North9,656282,667395,791120,34620,818
Masterton3,04858,82989,65937,3586,486
Lower Hutt14,301502,626722,226210,23821,703
Wellington10,209287,968430,533161,52614,268
                  Total, North Island204,9435,962,3868,464,7492,636,652370,702
Blenheim1,45340,87456,42617,5995,484
Nelson3,604108,870148,03438,9466,731
Greymouth4,03938,85164,71125,5063,048
Christchurch22,905720,6341,118,966398,08236,421
Ashburton94717,43833,82215,8281,288
Timaru3,47683,055129,62748,79013,438
Oamaru1,21745,50262,72420,2673,407
Dunedin9,458320,638459,695149,32018,379
Invercargill12,091257,203386,930127,01116,008
                  Total, South Island59,1911,633,0652,460,935841,349104,205
                  Total, New Zealand264,1377,595,45710,925,6853,478,002474,902

PRODUCTION OF SELECTED GOODS—The following table shows the volume of production of selected goods. It should be noted that the figures refer to the calendar years (except where otherwise stated) and not to production years as in most tables in this section. This table is not based on the censuses of manufacturing from which the data in other tables in this section are derived.

Commodity197819791980

* See also section 14A Farming (General) and section 24 Consumption of Food.

Year ended May.

§ Year ended June.

|| Figures related only to operations of superphosphate manufacturing works.

From April 1980 production figures represent beer for sale.

** Prepared dry cereal foods.

Refrigerators and deep freezersNo. (000)162.2196.6176.1
Washing machinesNo. (000)53.567.361.6
Tumbler clothes dryersNo. (000)80.865.626.8
Electric ranges and rangettesNo. (000)45.551.741.5
Lawn mowersNo. (000)77.593.794.7
Television setsNo. (000)90.6x118.3126.0
RecordsNo. (000)651364655554
Cassette tapes (prerecorded)No. (000)1676x21102450
Textiles and Clothing
Woollen and worsted yarntonnes176851811918696
Piece goodssq metres (000)243027242837
Blanketsprs (000)15313892
Carpetssq metres (000)8486x9157x9136
Women's—
    Overcoats(000)183.4209.3225.4
    Skirts(000)724.41163.01005.6
    Slacks and jeans(000)755.9423.6417.9
    Dresses(000)1225.51614.21476.4
Blouses and shirts(000)1606.2x1950.11605.2
Men's—
    Suits(000)167.0132.8123.5
    Trousers (working)(000)1119.41168.612157.4
    Trousers (other)(000)1109.51131.4
    Shirts (men's and boys')(000)475150184825
Footwear (total)prs (000)7128.68336.88499
Foodstuffs*
White milk sales subject to subsidylitres (million)396.3390.4377.0
Buttertonnes (000)233.6252.1x259.6
Cheesetonnes (000)78.390.3x105.7
Skim-milk powdertonnes (000)172.9174.4172.5
Condensed and powdered whole milktonnes (000)78.778.9x87.3
Caseintonnes (000)57.066.9x67.0
Flourtonnes (000)218.8214.0222.9
Wheatmeal and wholemealtonnes (000)6.26.25.5
Refined sugartonnes (000)134.1133.4133.4
Breakfast foods**tonnes (000)18.819.0x20.2
Biscuitstonnes (000)25.323.925.1
Ice creamlitres (million)57.953.556.8
Beerlitres (million)405.9375.3406.7
Carbonated drinkslitres (million)100.696.892.3
Vegetables (canned, bottled, and dehydrated)§tonnes (000)21.820.923.6
Quick frozen vegetables§tonnes (000)57.754.254.4
Canned fruit§tonnes (000)13.616.716.4
Transport
Passenger carsNo. (000)51.870.573.4
Trucks, vans, and busesNo. (000)11.113.817.4
TyresNo. (000)1524.5x1648.7x1662.5
Miscellaneous
Papertonnes (000)613.4x724.5683.8
Wood pulptonnes (000)1030.5x1201.1x1141.8
Chemical fertilisers||tonnes (000)2403.6x2284.7x2251
Cigarettesmillion6442.9x6406.06276.5

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF MAIN INDICATORS—In 1974–75 the department introduced an enterprise-based economic census of manufacturing. Following completion of the first two annual censuses on the new basis a quarterly survey of the main indicators for the manufacturing sector was developed and this commenced with the June 1977 quarter.

The new survey replaced the previous short term survey of manufacturers' stocks (now discontinued) and was designed to provide rapidly more comprehensive economic indicators for the use of the Government, trade organisations, and business people, as well as providing data for use in the quarterly national accounts. With the co-operation of manufacturers, and because the survey is a sample one only, it is possible to publish results in a much more timely manner than is possible in the case of a full census.

It is also hoped that this survey will obviate the need for an annual manufacturing census. The move towards a less frequent Census of Manufacturing is being tested out by having a gap in 1978, and then a 2-year gap between 1979 and 1982. A firm decision will then be taken on the planned conversion to 5-yearly censuses.

The survey, which is a sample one, is based on 1400 firms selected from the 1974–75 Census of Manufacturing. All manufacturing divisions of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification are represented. Allowance is made in the:survey for the opening of new factories and the closure of established ones.

A long-term series covering earlier years has been derived using the values of the previous survey of manufacturer's stocks which were not conceptually the same as this survey.

The basic definitions of the headings are as follows:

Sales—This is the actual value of sales (whether in New Zealand or overseas) during the quarter. It includes sales of goods without processing or assembly, and also includes processing of other firms' materials.

Stocks—Stocks are as at the end of each quarter. They are grouped under two headings—

  1. stocks of materials include components, stores, fuels, containers, and other packaging materials.

  2. Stocks of finished goods include work in progress. This section also includes goods purchased for resale without further processing.

Gross Capital Expenditure—This includes the purchase of new and secondhand fixed assets and the cost of work done by a firm's own employees, in producing, constructing and installing fixed assets for its own use.

Salaries and Wages—This is the gross salaries and wages of all employees (full time, part time, and casual) during the quarter. It does not include drawings of working partners.

Purchases—This figure includes the value of purchases of all materials, components, supplies, containers and other packaging materials, fuels, electricity, and water. It also includes payments for commission and contract services, and purchases for resale without processing or assembly.

Other Operating Expenses—These include all other expenses except interest, bad debts, and donations.

Hours Worked—Hours worked during the quarter relate to paid employees only and include overtime hours.

All-industry totals for a series of quarters are shown in the following table. Annual figures (where given) are for the year ended 31 March. Stocks are as at the end of each period.

PeriodSalesStocksGross Capital Expenditure
MaterialsFinished Goods
 $(million)
19789,905.71,063.21,051.1410.9
197911,394.01,116.01,120.1467.1
198013,672.61,375.71,364.8571.1
Quarter
    1979—Mar2,983.81,116.01,120.1123.9
              Jun3,180.71,163.91,195.0119.9
              Sep3,282.7x1,231.51,165.8135.6
              Dec3,679.1x1,298.01,172.6153.5
    1980—Mar3,530.11,375.71,364.8162.2
              Jun3,704.51,416.21,453.4147.8
              Sep3,813.11,425.71,359.3176.8
              Dec4,182.71,428.01,404.7194.5
PeriodSalaries and WagesPurchasesOther Operating ExpensesHours Worked
  $(million) (000)
19792,362.96,341.7x1,834.9538028
19802,801.27,987.4x2,138.3547325
Quarter
    1979—Mar633.81,757.9447.5134307
              Jun648.21,842.9512.6137270
              Sep654.91,907.8x516.8x136962
              Dec746.42,129.5x560.4x139168
    1980—Mar751.72,107.2548.5133923
              Jun784.12,114.2581.2138106
              Sep756.52,033.8622.1131517
              Dec866.22,339.5649.5133633

The following table shows the main indicators by industry divisions for the year ended 31 March 1980. The industry divisions are in accordance with the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification. Primary Food covers the processing of meat and dairy products.

Industry DivisionsNZSICSalesStocksGross Capital Expenditure
MaterialsFinished Goods
 $(thousand)
Primary food312,612,94266,907311,509155,076
Other food311,550,657174,206146,72868,855
Textiles, clothing321,348,462155,973156,41838,800
Wood and furniture33874,01072,09781,26120,819
Paper and printing341,411,348120,81174,88580,832
Chemicals351,591,273212,904179,20769,863
Non-metallic mineral36432,92438,94937,35318,532
Basic metal37550,37276,96339,28214,118
Fabricated metal383,187,623439,989324,590100,099
Other man industries39113,06116,91013,5694,099
        Total, all industries 13,672,6721,375,7091,364,802571,093
Industry DivisionsNZSICSalaries and WagesPurchasesOther Operating ExpensesHours Worked
   $(thousand) (000)
Primary food31532,3841,773,142302,21582972
Other food31219,659908,571286,86646859
Textiles, clothing32343,722774,482207,99181243
Wood and furniture33191,853463,411131,47842307
Paper and printing34306,174711,238232,78355577
Chemicals35288,650872,663296,25754833
Non-metallic mineral3699,647204,18987,81219836
Basic metal3783,631344,40381,89513092
Fabricated metal38706,9961,880,687487,263143778
Other man industries3928,53454,59423,8026828
        Total, all industries2,801,2507,987,3802,138,362547325

SOURCES OF INFORMATION—The results of recent censuses of manufacturing have been published in a series of bulletins covering individual statistical areas and individual industries. These are available from the Department of Statistics. Other information on manufacturing industries will be found in the following publications:

Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Census of Manufacturing 1976–77—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

Pocket Digest of Statistics.

The Department of Trade and Industry is responsible for a number of publications including Regional Development News, the Productivity and Technology Journal, and the monthly news brief, Productivity News.

Chapter 19. Section 19 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND HOUSING

Table of Contents

During 1979–80 the demand for new houses and flats continued to decrease. Only 16000 new houses and flats were completed during the year ended 31 March 1980 compared with 19200 during the previous March year and the high point of 34300 during the 1974–75 March year.

The principal factors contributing to the decline in the demand for new dwellings have been high emigration, a decreasing birth rate, unemployment, rapidly increasing building costs and rising interest rates.

The factor having the greatest effect on the housing market has been external migration. A high percentage of those leaving New Zealand have been drawn from the younger age-groups—the potential home-seekers—and many have been family groups with young children. This loss of potential homeowners through migration, which has been a feature of the New Zealand situation since 1976–77, has eased in recent months and there has been a limited revival in the demand for housing, although not necessarily new housing.

A notable development in recent years has been the widening gap between the prices of new and existing dwellings. Because of the continued and substantial rises in house-building costs, building a house costs considerably more than buying a similar existing house. Two effects of this development on Government policy have been that the Housing Corporation has been allowed greater flexibility in making loans available for new or existing houses in order to give borrowers a freer choice, and that increased emphasis has been placed on maintaining the building industry at an economic level rather than primarily on the social objective of housing people to their best advantage. (See also Section 30C, State Finance for Housing).

The difficulty experienced by many people in raising finance for house purchase may have tended to turn people to rental housing or to extending their stay in such accommodation. On the other hand, the National Housing Commission suggests that a reluctance to buy may not always be a matter of insufficient income or personal hardship but may owe something to the fact that New Zealanders have come to expect housing “on the cheap.” The fact of the matter is that this no longer exists.

In the past, subsidised and artifically depressed interest rates have provided the home buyer with finance which has become increasingly discouraging to the lender. Interest rates are now following inflation rates, and new housing costs are showing substantial annual rises. New Zealanders still enjoy relatively lower-priced housing than their counterparts in the United Kingdom, Europe, and the United States but the Housing Corporation and local authorities have both acknowledged their inability to build houses which, without subsidy, can be rented at a level acceptable to the public. Of New Zealand's housing stock of approximately 1 million houses, about 250000 are rental and of those three-quarters are held in private ownership. Private sector rental housing has traditionally been relatively cheap, but principally because it has often been old, poorly maintained, and possibly over-crowded by tenants who congregate and share accommodation to reduce costs to the individual.

In the “other buildings and construction” sector of the industry, demand continued to fall during 1978–79 and 1979–80, a trend that was particularly marked in the South Island. While the reactivation of Government programmes continued to maintain a fair degree of activity, the application of more resources to the public sector was neither economically possible nor realty desirable. On the other hand, decisions to proceed with energy resource developments were imminent, and the need for a high level of trade skills could be foreseen. A Major Projects Advisory Group has been established to advise the Government on the level of skills and resources necessary for the proposed energy projects.

Within the residential field the trend away from houses to flats appears to have passed its peak. New flat units, which comprised only 5.5 percent of all residential units for which permits were issued in 1960–61, reached a peak of 36.5 percent of dwelling units for which permits were issued in 1976–77. In 1977–78 they had declined to 32.3 percent of permits for dwellings, in 1978–79 to 28.2 percent, and in 1979–80 to 23.1 percent. A development in residential accommodation in recent years has been the growing popularity of town houses, a type of construction which combines some of the advantages of both houses and flats and makes more economical use of space than does the traditional house on the 1/4-acre section.

BUILDING INDUSTRY ADVISORY COUNCIL—The functions of the Building Industry Advisory Council are: (a) to give advice to Government through the Minister of Works and Development on matters affecting the building and construction industries; (b) to maintain an overall and continuing review of the industries and (c) to give advice to the industries on the likely effects of building trends. The membership of the council consists of nine representatives from sectors of the industries, namely building and civil engineering contractors, architects, professional engineers, workers, and suppliers, plus one representative each from Treasury and Ministry of Works and Development. Members have been appointed by the Minister of Works and Development on the recommendation of organisations within the building industry.

BUILDING PERFORMANCE GUARANTEE CORPORATION—The Building Performance Guarantee Corporation was established early in 1978 to offer an insurance scheme designed to protect the buyers of new homes against the consequences of poor workmanship, the use of inferior building materials, the bankruptcy of the builder, or other failures to complete a house in accordance with the contract.

NATIONAL HOUSING COMMISSION—The National Housing Commission, established in 1974, is a body whose principal functions are to advise the Minister of Housing on all matters relating to housing in New Zealand and to inquire into and keep under review the housing needs of the population. In addition it is charged with assisting in the co-ordination of all persons, bodies, and agencies, both public and private, concerned with housing in New Zealand and to promote co-operation between them.

Currently there are 6 appointed members, comprising the chairman (a barrister and solicitor with local body housing background), the general manager of a lending institution, an architect, a building consultant, a company director of a construction firm, and a professor of economics.

Early in 1978 the commission published Housing New Zealand, the first of its intended 5-yearly reports on the present and prospective position of housing in New Zealand.

Up to the end of 1979 the commission had issued 24 other publications based on a continuing programme of research into a variety of aspects of housing.

TRENDS IN AVERAGE COSTS—The following table illustrates trends in the cost of building activity over a period. (Source: Housing Corporation.)

Type of BuildingCost at End of Year
1950196019701977197819791980
* Area 102 sq metres. Cost comparability is affected by design changes from year to year.
 $     $     $     $     $     $     $     
State rental house (976 sq ft)4,3445,5287,45021,965*23,755*27,715*33,310*

CENSUS OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION 1978–79—The fourth 5-yearly census of building and construction was taken for the year 1978–79, and was the first fully integrated economic census covering the activities of establishments and ancillary units predominantly engaged in that activity. It excluded the activities of owner-builders and labour-only contractors to the building and construction industries, as well as the building activities of New Zealand electric power boards.

All activities from production to the point at which the goods or services are sold were within the scope of the census, which was for the year ended 31 March 1979 or the last accounting year prior to 31 March.

The census formed part of the department's 5-yearly series of integrated economic censuses and for this reason any comparisons with the censuses of building and construction prior to 1978–79 should be treated with caution.

In 1978–79, the building and construction industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

Buildings, residential and non-residential.

Construction, other than buildings.

Services to building and construction.

The statistical tables which follows give summaries of these 3 divisions. The definitions used in these tables are the same as listed in the Census of Manufacturing statistics (see section 18), with the following exceptions:

Establishments—Productive units, engaged predominantly in building and construction operations.

Ancillary Units—Servicing units, usually head offices, laboratories, workshops, etc., engaged in predominantly servicing those establishments.

General Statistics

The following table gives a general summary of the results of the 1978–79 Census of Building and Construction.

ItemUnit1978–79
EstablishmentsNo.10,754
Ancillary unitsNo.52
Total persons engaged at 15 April 1979No.73,217
Salaries and wages paid (excluding working proprietors remuneration)$(000)545,993
Depreciation$(000)41,031
Purchases and other expenses$(000)1,895,241
Turnover$(000)2,667,143
Value added$(000)794,833
Capital expenditure less disposals$(000)106,266

In the following 2 tables statistics are given at industry (sub-group) level.

Industry ClassificationEstablishmentsAncillary UnitsTotal Persons Engaged at 15 April 1979Salaries and Wages Paid
 No.No.No.$(000)
Buildings, residential29417974049,660
Buildings, non-residential7741617,912176,666
Construction, other than building1,2732423,248192,667
Bricklaying2847502,783
Concrete blocklaying1173241,526
Other stone work1786401
Concrete work1274162,041
Solid plastering1584341,790
Fibrous plastering683762,717
Job carpentry3908282,796
Glazing58175921
Roofing, tile562391,475
Roofing, metal643812,517
Roofing, fabric10102852
Electrical10352416924,007
Plumbing and drainlaying13781539528,298
Heating and air-conditioning108126710,007
Painting and paperhanging1134405921,786
Flooring1986112,641
Insulating392191,504
Demolition work25104712
Scaffold erection222912,293
Structural steel erection181481,516
Reinforced steel bending and placing1768578
Other services to building and construction4432187513,840
    Total, building and construction industries10,7545273217545,993
Industry ClassificationDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Buildings, residential4,011343,565445,461101,8294,652
Buildings, non-residential4,569697,805900,445212,09631,369
Construction, other than building22,768516,138766,647259,31255,278
Bricklaying2558,02114,2756,336353
Concrete blocklaying984,3347,2523,012130
Other stone work321,3722,08181930
Concrete work3716,0289,9923,970604
Solid plastering1182,6836,4263,768187
Fibrous plastering764,1347,8773,779110
Job carpentry31513,12020,4097,068577
Glazing952,7024,4301,812187
Roofing, tile1169,85912,3012,653134
Roofing, metal15110,64714,5843,990134
Roofing, fabric392,1073,1821,10843
Electrical1,47261,489102,33541,3392,021
Plumbing and drainlaying2,65281,702132,75351,7783,992
Heating and air-conditioning34829,18942,1351,499409
Painting and paperhanging1,20426,52063,98138,0012,199
Flooring2956,37912,2065,996473
Insulating903,4005,6752,366128
Demolition work2251,4002,8701,528340
Scaffold erection1561,8534,9533,141207
Structural steel erection962,8535,2622,425105
Reinforced steel bending and placing375201,23172812
Other services to building and construction1,44157,42078,38022,4772,594
    Total, building, and construction industries41,0311,895,2412,667,143794,833106,266

Regional summaries of the census as a whole are shown in the 2 statistical area tables which follow. The first shows operating units, persons engaged, and salaries and wages paid.

Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged At Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillaries
 No.No.No.$(000)
Northland313244715,142
Central Auckland26601016709128,544
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty162751130284,154
East Coast140210426,706
Hawke's Bay4921322921,581
Taranaki4183274622,841
Wellington21232015587121,100
                North Island total77734153062400,068
Marlborough1466984,097
Nelson280172611,821
Westland897034,623
Canterbury12275917671,780
Otago8154576540,374
Southland4242208713,230
                South Island total29811120155145,925
                New Zealand total107545273217545,995

The second regional summary shows other financial statistics.

Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Northland1,29354,78773,23921,1702,990
Central Auckland9,591446,643635,702189,02420,159
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty6,480252,454366,989122,73518,092
East Coast41021,00429,41110,1641,273
Hawke's Bay1,55082,486115,84931,7373,928
Taranaki3,02268,052102,49434,0502,468
Wellington7,762483,636643,179173,50922,319
                North Island total30,1081,409,0621,966,863582,38871,230
Marlborough44710,48816,8586,515907
Nelson95834,28551,08717,2742,186
Westland58615,25221,5136,5762,343
Canterbury4,196245,757349,60598,60416,928
Otago3,302129,200187,30860,2639,115
Southland1,43351,19673,90823,2113,557
                South Island total10,923486,178700,280212,44535,036
                New Zealand total41,0311,895,2412,667,143794,833106,266

In the following table the turnover for the industry has been analysed by the principal components:

ItemTurnover
 $(thousand)
Building and construction sales—
    Repairs and maintenance359,225
    Construction of new buildings1,263,389
    Construction, other than buildings945,532
Hire of plant46,238
              Total sales2,614,384
Other income47,961
              Total sales and other income2,662,345
Capital work done by own employees4,797
              Total turnover2,667,143

HOUSING—More than half of New Zealand's estimated 1056000 dwellings have been built during the past 25 years. The average house is about 102 square metres in area, is single-storeyed, and normally built of timber; fittings are of a reasonably high standard, especially in the kitchen.

Approximately 90 percent of the dwellings completed annually are built for private home ownership, with most of the balance being erected by Government agencies for rental purposes. There is relatively little housing built for private rental, but some rental flats are created by conversion of existing dwellings. Rapidly rising property costs have made it difficult for persons on modest income to finance their way into home ownership.

Since 1937 the State, using the services of private contractors, has been building rental dwellings. By March 1980, 86937 of these houses and flats had been built and since 1950, 28599 of them had been sold to the occupiers. Rental dwellings are let to applicants in difficult housing circumstances.

Under the Community and Housing Improvement Programme (CHIP), a measure which came into effect on 1 September 1979, local authorities, builders, and private home owners are provided with a wide range of financial assistance for residential urban renewal projects. Activity in this field is becoming of increasing importance as the housing stock ages and the rate of new housing construction declines.

The Unit Titles Act 1972 made provision for a new type of ownership of units in a multi-unit development. Individual owners are entitled to a legal estate in their respective units and can sell or transfer a unit without requiring the consent of other owners as is the case where a block of shares in a flat-owning company provides the right to a flat.

GOVERNMENT CAPITAL ASSISTANCE FOR NEW HOUSING—The following table shows the bulk of the Government's capital expenditure on new housing during the latest available 3 years. It does not include expenditure on residential properties by the Departments of Maori Affairs or Lands and Survey, expenditure by the Housing Corporation for other departments, or advances under the scheme for the capitalisation of family benefits.

Expenditure1977–781978–791979–80
 $(thousand)
Land purchase and development, State house construction, etc.62,09260,56955,541
Advances for new urban houses132,551160,600x122,700
Advances for new rural houses6,375x5,3586,997
Loans to local authorities for rural housing, pensioners' housing, etc.11,109x11,381x8,100
Subsidies paid to local authorities, and religious or welfare organisations for housing of elderly8,4777,0895,474

HOUSES AND FLATS COMPLETED—Statistics of completions are given in the following table; they include flats created by conversion of existing dwellings. The statistics are dependent on the supply of information by local authorities and indications are that they have been understated.

Year Ended 31 MarchGovernmentPrivate and Local AuthorityTotal New Houses and FlatsRats Created by ConversionTotal Housing Units
State RentalTenancies*

* Includes Education and Hospital Boards.

City, borough and county councils, etc., comprising pensioner units, staff housing, etc.

Additional dwelling units created by conversion of existing buildings, e.g., one house converted into two flats.

19751056405330003430036034600
19761880570305003290025033200
19771913598261002860029028900
19781427491222002410020024300
19791180504175001920011019300
19801173287145001600013016100

DEMOLITIONS—According to notifications received, the totals of dwellings demolished in recent years have been: 1975–76, 2056; 1976–77, 2097; 1977–78, 1808; 1978–79, 1625; and 1979–80, 1576.

BUILDING STATISTICS—The principal official building statistics are the Department of Statistics monthly analyses of building permits and its quarterly analyses of the value of work put in place. Other building information is available from the 5-yearly Census of Building and Construction, the 5-yearly Census of Population and Dwellings, and inter-industry statistics.

The prime source of the following statistics is building permits issued by local authorities. To enable a complete picture of building activity to be shown, construction commenced by Government departments, hospitals, education and harbour boards are included, even though permits may not actually be taken out.

The permit value shown represents in the majority of instances the contract price or estimated cost of the building prior to the commencement of construction. The finished cost may be higher because of wage increases, the rising cost of materials, etc. This applies particularly to large buildings which usually take a considerable time to complete.

The values of building permits for the latest 5 years are analysed by types of building in the following table. Permits cover alterations and additions as well as new buildings. Government and other buildings not requiring building permits are included.

Type of BuildingYear Ended 31 March
19761977197819791980

* Includes ancillary buildings.

Includes alterations and additions.

 $(million)
Dwellings     
Houses432.5454.4378.5390.3378.8
Flats160.9180.0125.2108.683.5
Alterations and additions91.8115.3116.7138.7153.5
Other Buildings     
Hostels, boardinghouses4.65.521.612.813.0
Hotels, motels, etc.16.119.119.515.315.0
Hospitals and nursing homes*91.516.050.331.826.6
Education buildings*77.678.169.054.459.5
Shops, restaurants, taverns18.034.231.634.242.7
Office and administrative84.291.4103.3127.1127.2
Warehouses38.854.249.346.845.4
Factories, powerhouses, etc.86.8120.4124.5104.1126.6
Social, cultural, and recreational buildings24.226.531.645.438.9
Farm buildings19.730.332.334.547.9
Miscellaneous buildings11.76.44.05.42.3
                  All buildings1,158.51,231.91,157.41,149.41,160.9

The following tables show the value, and a percentage analysis of the value, of building permits and authorisations during 1979–80 by type of building and sector of ownership. The high percentage of the total value of building permits represented by houses and flats built by the private sector (“Households”) highlights the importance of private investment in residential buildings as a key to stability in the building industry.

Type of BuildingProducer EnterprisesFinancial IntermediariesGeneral GovernmentPrivate Non-profit OrganisationsHouseholdsRest of the WorldTotal

* Includes ancillary buildings.

Includes alterations and additions.

Value $(million)
Houses and flats37.50.17.80.1570.10.1615.8
Hostels and boardinghouses1.98.03.013.0
Hotels, motels, etc.14.90.215.0
Hospitals and nursing homes*0.722.53.326.6
Education buildings*54.45.159.5
Shops, restaurants, taverns42.00.10.642.7
Office and administrative49.446.525.05.01.3127.2
Warehouses42.70.62.10.145.4
Factories, powerhouses, etc.109.80.116.60.1126.6
Social, cultural, and recreational buildings5.78.324.938.9
Farm buildings47.20.747.9
Miscellaneous1.20.90.22.3
                All buildings352.947.5146.542.4570.11.41160.9
Type of BuildingProducer EnterprisesFinancial IntermediariesGeneral GovernmentPrivate Non-profit OrganisationsHouseholdsRest of the WorldTotal
Percentage of Total Value
Houses and flats3.20.749.153.0
Hostels and boardinghouses0.20.70.31.1
Hotels, motels, etc.1.3  1.3
Hospitals and nursing homes0.11.90.32.3
Education buildings4.70.45.1
Shops, restaurants, taverns3.60.13.7
Office and administrative4.34.02.20.40.111.0
Warehouses3.70.10.23.9
Factories, powerhouses, etc.9.51.410.9
Social, cultural, recreational buildings0.50.72.13.3
Farm buildings4.10.14.1
Miscellaneous0.10.10.2
                All buildings30.44.112.63.749.10.1100.0

The values of permits for alterations and additions are included for all types of buildings.

The total for houses and flats during 1979–80 includes 15197 permits or authorisations to a total value of $462.2 million for new dwellings. This included authorisations by the Central Government for 779 new houses (value $24.4 million) and 340 new flats (value $9.6 million).

Compared with the previous year, in 1979–80 the value of permits and authorisations for houses and flats made up a lower percentage of the aggregate total (53.0 percent as compared with 55.5 percent).

Some categories of buildings used in this and other building-permit tables require additional explanation. Hostels and boardinghouses, for example, include barracks, orphanages, nurses' homes,and boarding school accommodations; hotels and motels include private d licensed hotels, but exclude taverns; education buildings include primary and secondary schools, teachers colleges, technical institutes, university buildings, kindergartens, and play centres; and the broad category—social, cultural, recreational—includes churches, halls, theatres, cinemas, clubrooms, community centres, and grandstands.

In the following table the numbers of permits for new houses and flats over a period of 5 years are shown along with permit values. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

Year Ended 31 MarchNew HousesNew FlatsTotal Dwelling Permits*Total Permits All Buildings*
Dwelling UnitsValueAreaDwelling UnitsValueNo. of Blocks
* Includes the value of permits for alterations and additions.
  $(m)sq metres (000) $(m) $(m)$(m)
197620932432.52541.011257160.94192685.21,158.5
1977x19160454.42441.110994180.04197749.71,231.9
1978x14358378.51819.56847125.22815620.41,157.4
197913670390.31732.95380108.62223637.71,149.4
198011687378.81551.4351083.51518615.81160.9

The average permit value for new houses and flats in 1979–80 was $30,415, compared with $26,190 in 1978–79, $23,754 in 1977–78, $21,039 in 1976–77, $18,434 in 1975–76, and $16,513 in 1974–75.

The following diagram illustrates building-permit figures for new houses and flats.

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS—The following table shows for urban areas and statistical divisions, building permit values and dwelling completions for the March year 1979–80. Where applicable the urban areas are included in the relevant statistical division.

AreaNew Houses and FlatsTotal (All Permits) ValueDwelling Completions*
NumberValue
* Figures for completions of dwellings are rounded to indicate that exact numbers are not always available and are dependent on notifications from local authorities.
  $(m)$(m) 
Whangarei U.A.1946.014.3150
Northern Auck. U.A.109534.358.4960
Western Auck. U. A.62816.733.1600
Central Auck. U. A.64320.781.8600
Southern Auck. U.A.142342.485.21490
Auckland Stat. Div.4211126.8283.43950
Hamilton U.A.49414.928.5680
Hamilton Stat. Div.49414.928.5680
Tauranga U.A.54316.028.4540
Rotorua U.A.2807.517.0250
Gisborne U.A.1173.722.2130
Napier U.A.2597.617.3370
Hastings U.A.2246.717.4270
Napier-Hastings Stat. Div.51415.737.5670
New Plymouth U.A.2226.813.7280
Palmerston Nth. U.A.2828.228.6330
Palmerston Nth. Stat. Div.42512.943.7460
Lower Hutt U.A.2216.920.3240
Upper Hutt U.A.1133.310.8150
Porirua Basin U.A.2317.013.0220
Wellington U.A.3539.794.5410
Wellington Stat. Div.106931.7146.81190
Wanganui U.A.2155.618.3290
Masterton U.A.802.24.480
Nelson U.A.2046.212.2280
Christchurch U.A.88226.175.01290
Christchurch Stat. Div.105031.389.61460
Timaru U.A.792.68.580
Dunedin U.A.3139.829.0320
Dunedin Stat. Div.34110.630.8340
Invercargill U.A.2848.219.3200
                  Total, New Zealand15197462.21,160.916000

WORK PUT IN PLACE—The Department of Statistics makes a quarterly survey of building work put in place. In contrast to the statistics based on building permits, these figures show the gross value of actual work done. It should be noted that there are varying time lags between the issue of the building permit and the commencement of building. The actual work for which a permit is issued can be extended over a number of time periods. Also, the total value of this work may differ considerably from the value estimated on the building permit, especially in times of relatively rapid inflation.

Year Ended 31 MarchDwellings
New Houses and FlatsAlterations and AdditionsTotal
GovernmentOtherTotal
 $(million)
197533.1509.7542.875.6618.4
197661.7536.5598.294.7692.9
197749.5599.7649.1126.7775.9
197858.3523.6581.9128.8710.7
197953.1450.4503.5139.2642.7
198045.5438.1483.6162.6646.2
Year Ended 31 MarchOther Buildings*Grand Total
Hotels, Boarding-housesHospitalsFactoriesCommercial BuildingsSchoolsMiscellaneousTotal

* Includes alterations and additions.

And ancillary buildings.

Includes churches and sports entertainment buildings.

 $(million)
197523.423.099.1172.954.155.2421.11,046.1
197621.439.298.9165.175.667.6467.81,160.6
197722.251.2119.6189.963.075.1521.01,296.9
197825.455.0123.4204.171.275.8554.91,265.6
197933.862.7126.7210.456.474.3564.21,207.0
198038.161.5141.4255.351.288.8636.31,282.5

BUILDING MATERIALS—Production of some principal building materials during the three latest calendar years is shown in the following table.

ItemCalendar Year
197819791980
Ready-mixed concretecu metres (000)1002922994
Paint and varnish—
    Paints (not water) and enamels lacquers, varnishes, and reaction clearslitres (000)152871560218218
    Water paints, including aqueous emulsionslitres (000)847490169617
Structural clay—
    Glazed pipesmetres (000)1356789..
    Field tilesmetres (000)34396134..
    Bricks and hollow blocksNo. (000)2022722855..
Fibrous plaster sheetssq metres (000)548402..
Fibrous plaster corniceslin. metres (000)168163..
Fibre boardtonnes (000)54.873.1x81.9
Sawn timbercu metres (000)190219542225
Particle boardcu metres110263144189141413
Plywoodcu metres381615806153508
Cementtonnes (000)798752720

HOUSING FINANCE—The Housing Corporation, a wholly Government-owned institution described in detail in Section 30C, generally provides finance to first home seekers and some second and subsequent home seekers who demonstrate a special need. For the year ended 31 March 1980 the Housing Corporation authorised 5983 loans valued at $122.3 million for new urban dwellings. Of the total of 14787 housing loans authorised, 8804 were authorised for the purchase of existing houses. Other important sources of housing finance are building societies, life insurance offices, trustee savings banks, and solicitors trust funds.

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 provides for payment in a lump sum of the social welfare family benefit. The capitalised benefit can be used either to build a family home, or for essential alterations, or to repay mortgages. The scheme became operative on 1 April 1959. Benefits in respect of any number of children may be capitalised provided the aggregate advance does not exceed $3,000. Family benefit advances totalling $7.56 million were authorised during 1979–80 by the Housing Corporation to applicants holding elegibility certificates issued by the Department of Social Welfare.

The Housing Corporation operates a Housing Mortgage Guarantee Scheme in respect of housing loans on first or subsequent mortgage granted by approved lenders, including trustee lenders, where the amount advanced does not exceed 90 percent of value. Under the present scheme, amended in April 1977, the corporation guarantees the full amount of the loan advanced. The loans must be for the purpose of building, buying, altering, or refinancing a house or flat. There is no charge for this service. Home lay-by accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank and trustee and private savings banks qualify for subsidy, and Home Ownership accounts qualify for subsidy and preferential loan finance (see Section 29).

COST OF HOUSES AND SECTIONS—Freehold section and house costs in building proposals financed by the Corporation in the four areas of greatest housing demand in March 1979 and March 1980 are set out below. Section prices are likely to be conservative as some sections would have been purchased well in advance of offering as securities.

CentreMarchSectionsHouses
NumberAverage CostNumberAverage Contract Price
   $      $     
Auckland1979339,2893224,404
 198012810,72212029,525
Hamilton197919,170324,579
 198099,2001229,980
Wellington1979510,500530,820
 1980169,6781734,101
Christchurch197958,800327,740
 19802210,0052027,242
New Zealand1979938,6579126,469
 19803199,37329329,404

Statistics compiled by the Valuation Department illustrate the trend in residential prices in 38 urban areas throughout New Zealand. The following figures of average sale prices for sections, houses, and owner-occupier flats exclude family sales, sales of leasehold property, and other sales not subject to normal market forces.

ItemCalendar Years
1975197619771978x19791980
Average sale price of—$     $     $     $     $     $     
    Sections8,94110,19510,84211,49511,98512,626
    Houses25,47127,47629,23930,18931,82034,374
    Owner-occupier flats23,65725,06426,99528,04629,57831,742

URBAN RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY AND SECTION PRICE INDEX—This index is designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for residential properties and urban sections sold during each half-year. Variations in the average age of properties transferred, as an indicator of the average quality of such properties, are eliminated in the index methodology in order to arrive at a valid index of price level changes.

The following table shows index numbers for individual centres (Base: Each centre separately 1973 = 1000).

CentreResidential PropertiesSections
January-June 1980July-December 1980January-June 1980July-December 1980
Whangarei2290241129643287
Auckland1951212721372244
Hamilton2063222624282551
Tauranga1996207822652360
Rotorua2021220127872887
Gisborne2366249631143291
Napier-Hastings2000212222432393
New Plymouth1847191920302006
Wanganui2526257429253232
Palmerston North1948207521402311
Masterton1991207324512333
Wellington-Hutt1672174119551939
Nelson2285244028172490
Christchurch1727183819881950
Timaru2406244733882992
Dunedin2141217527872717
Invercargill2228228425602911
    All 17 centres combined1934206222172292

The following series is obtained by linking the current urban residential property price index (on base: weighted average 17 centres combined, 1973 = 1000) to the index which it superseded.

Six Months EndedResidential PropertiesSections
1973—Jun918905
            Dec10821095
1974—Jun13221456
            Dec14431642
1975—Jun14521800
            Dec15031939
1976—Jun15651981
            Dec16082069
1977—Jun16812110
            Dec16892245
1978—Jun17012306
            Dec1740x2212
1979—Jun17952241
            Dec18342164
1980—Jun19342217
            Dec20622292

HOUSE MORTGAGES—Most of the housing advances made by institutions are in the form of table mortgages, being made initially for terms of usually up to 30 years with the Housing Corporation, about 15 years with building societies, and about 10 years with the private savings banks. The general experience of these institutions is that most house mortgages are redeemed in 7 to 12 years. Interest rates and the methods of calculating them vary from one institution to another. Some institutions prefer to lend on new houses, others cater for the purchase of older dwellings. Information on mortgages is given in Section 30A—Mortgages and Section 30C—State Finance for Housing.

ROLE OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities through the Housing Corporation for pensioner, rural, and community housing, including urban renewal.

Housing of the Elderly—Since 1951 Government policies have encouraged local authorities to meet the housing needs of elderly persons. A low-interest $5,750 loan is available for up to 30 years on each pensioner unit built. All other costs can be met by Government subsidies. This combination of low-interest loans and generous subsidies is directed at keeping rents reasonable—at present, one-sixth of the income from National Superannuation.

The policy is administered by the Housing Corporation, which establishes the need for pensioner accommodation in a particular locality, provides technical services, and administers the loan and subsidy.

The amount of subsidy approved in 1979–80 was $5,470,000 to provide housing for 681 persons. Since the inception of the policy in 1950, subsidy assistance has totalled $65,185,259 for the accommodation of 11976 persons.

A new policy to assist the rehousing of elderly home owners in owner-occupier flats is proving popular with local authorities and religious and welfare organisations. A particular feature of this policy is the bridging finance which is made available, so that elderly home owners can sell their existing home, before contributing towards the cost of the new flat.

Relocatable Granny Flats—In August 1980 the Government approved of the Housing Corporation making flats available to both local authorities and religious and welfare organisations to provide relocatable granny flats for housing elderly persons on a home owner's property, with the same eligibility applying as for pensioner flats.

Total finance available to build the flats is $17,000 per unit—$10,750 subsidy plus $6,250 loan at 3 1/2 percent, reviewable after 3 years.

The corporation is also able to make available an additional loan of $2,000 per unit at an interest rate of 8 1/2 percent reviewable after 3 years and with a maximum term of 10 years.

This additional loan is for the specific purpose of meeting the costs of installation of the unit on the site, connection of services, and removal back to the base depot.

The loan can be made by the sponsoring organisation to the property owner at 9 percent interest.

Rural Housing—The Rural Housing Act 1939 has as its object the provision of more houses on farm properties. Loans are made to county councils (and other local bodies within whose boundaries farmlands are situated) for readvancing to farmers for the erection of, or additions or alterations to, dwellings. The Housing Corporation is responsible for the supervision and general administration of the Act. Persons receiving loans (592 in 1979–80) are principally owners of economic farms.

Community Housing—The Housing Corporation has authority to grant loans for general housing purposes, i.e., for the benefit of the community in general. Proposals must involve a definite scheme for the erection of not less than three houses. The substantial proportion of assistance provided has been in the metropolitan areas (e.g., in Wellington a significant part of the city council's building programme has been financed from this source). The emphasis is on moderate-cost accommodation.

Urban renewal is also financed by the Housing Corporation through the Community and Housing Improvement Programme (CHIP). Government assistance is available for a wide range of activities in Neighbourhood Improvement Areas selected by local authorities as areas in need of special renewal attention.

Since 1975 nearly $37 million has been authorised for community housing and urban renewal schemes.

Provision has been made by the Government for an annual amount of $7 million for urban renewal and allied works (including community housing undertaken by local authorities). This recognises the need to curb urban sprawl and to bring more people into inner city areas, close to employment, health services, and other amenities.

Local authorities are authorised under the Local Government Act to provide loans for housing purposes, to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; and to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes. Local authorities may also apply to the Local Authorities Loan Board for authorities to purchase land for subdivision for housing. Local authorities are encouraged to play a prominent part in the housing of their citizens.

MAORI HOUSING—In addition to the facilities of the Housing Corporation, financial assistance towards the building of houses, including the purchase of building sites, additions, repairs to existing dwellings, and for the purchase of houses, is available to Maoris and other Polynesians under the Maori Housing Act 1935.

The Maori Affairs Department also arranges for the construction of the houses in many cases and provides a free plan service. Finance through the department up to set loan limits, rebated interest rate, and capitalisation of family benefit, is similar to loans granted by the Housing Corporation. Where the applicant does not qualify for special interest concessions the finance is made available at an interest rate of 9 1/8 percent.

All applications for State tenancies are dealt with by the Housing Corporation, although assistance with applications is often given by the department's staff.

From the inception of the scheme to 31 March 1980, the department has provided finance to enable 21545 families to build new houses and 2293 to purchase existing houses. Also, 13286 advances have been made for additions and repairs to houses and other buildings.

The Government has also provided accommodation for single young Maori people in urban areas. It has built rental flats for girls in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Whangarei. It has provided hostels for boys at Auckland and Christchurch and by the provision of subsidy has encouraged church organisations to establish hostels in a number of cities. Through the agency of the Maori Trustee, hostel and flat accommodation for both boys and girls has been provided in many of the main centres. In these ways the accommodation needs of over 1000 young Maori people are now being met, many of whom are enrolled on the department's vocational training course operated in conjunction with the technical institutes.

Flats for elderly Maoris have also been provided in semi-rural areas in close association with local marae.

WELFARE ORGANISATIONS: Hostels for Young People—Since 1951, religious and welfare organisations have been assisted to establish hostels for young people by subsidies of establishment costs. Since November 1973, the subsidy has been 80 percent, with a limit of $5,000 per young person accommodated. The purpose is to assist young men and women who are working or studying away from their homes, and find it difficult to obtain suitable living accommodation. Subsidies of 50 percent may also be granted for authorised improvements to existing hostels and 75 percent for fire protection work required by the local authority.

From the introduction of the scheme up until 31 march 1980, subsidies totalling $3,072,128 have been approved to assist in providing hostel accommodation for 1692 young people, and for upgrading purposes.

The Government also helps with substantial subsidies for university halls of residence established by religious and welfare agencies. Administration is handled by the University Grants Committee.

CORPORATION RENTAL HOUSE CONSTRUCTION—Housing Corporation rental houses and flats (formerly known as State rental houses and flats) have been built since March 1937. These are allocated to tenants on the basis of need. The Housing Corporation acquires and develops land to provide sites for houses and flats and arranges contracts for their construction. The “design-and-build” scheme, whereby the Housing Corporation arranges contracts with private builders or organisations for the construction of houses on land owned by the builders or organisations, was introduced during 1974–75. The scheme provides for the construction of the houses and the purchase of the land within the one contract, and has proved a successful means of achieving integration of rental accommodation in privately-owned and developed subdivisions.

The totals of rental units completed and handed over for occupation during the latest 6 years are shown in the following table. Up to 31 March 1980 there were 86937 units completed.

Year Ended 31 MarchRental Units
19751463
19763017
19772238
19781611
19791346
19801394

Current Policy—The Corporation is directing an increasing proportion of its rental programme away from peripheral development into renewal and redevelopment, particularly in the main centres, in order to encourage better utilisation of the existing housing stock and provide greater diversity in the type of accommodation offered. The emphasis on this and other developments remains with smaller schemes where the social and economic impact on the existing urban pattern is less marked. Also, in recognising the need for social diversification in corporation-developed areas, it has been the corporation's policy since the mid-70s to make 50 percent of the sections in new sub-divisions available for sale to the public for private housing.

State Services Housing—State Services houses are houses for Government departments and the armed forces. The total number of such houses erected by the Housing Corporation to 31 March 1980 was 16069. This includes houses built at the sites of major construction jobs, such as electric power schemes.

Corporation Rental Housing Tender Prices—The following table shows typical tender prices being accepted in the 4 main centres at the ends of a series of years for similar types of 3-bedroom corporation rental houses. In each year the statistics relate to a typical single-unit house of weatherboard and tile roof construction on a flat site, and prices include ancillary improvements such as fences, paths, etc., but exclude land cost. There is no strict comparability year to year in the sample, as new designs have modified floor areas and fittings. Bracketed figures show the cost per square metre including ancillary improvements.

Year 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 $     $     $     $     
197619,823 (193.98)21,484 (210.23)18,244 (178.53)21,139 (206.85)
197722,099 (216.23)24,385 (238.60)19,193 (187.80)24,056 (235.40)
197824,209 (236.88)26,356 (257.89)20,801 (203.54)26,565 (259.94)
197927,446 (268.55)28,624 (280.80)24,290 (237.67)31,885 (311.99)
198034,669 (339.89)33,005 (322.58)29,093 (285.23)33,287 (326.34)

With the reduced demand for housing, building costs have risen markedly. Builders overhead costs appear to have been spread over a smaller number of units. It is too early to judge effects of the new building standards under New Zealand Standard 3604 code of practice for light timber frame buildings, published during 1978–79. These permit wider timber spacings and modify traditional practices on a rational engineering basis. This change of emphasis allows a wide range of choices between alternative building methods.

JOINT FAMILY HOMES—The Joint Family Homes Act 1964 is designed to encourage the stability of marriage and family life. It provides for a form of ownership in which a husband and wife enjoy equal rights of use, possession, and enjoyment of the family home. While a settlement subsists, neither party may deal separately with his or her interest in the property, but on the death of one of them the home becomes wholly the property of the survivor. There are considerable benefits arising from settlement under the Act. Settlements are exempt from gift and stamp duty, and on the death of one spouse an exemption from estate duty may be claimed. In the event of claims by creditors, or the Official Assignee in bankruptcy, the property is protected to the extent of $10,000. Own-your-own flats may be settled under the Act, and an amendment passed in 1974 enables the benefits of settlement to be transferred from one family home to another purchased for the same purpose.

In the latest years the numbers of joint family homes registered have declined sharply. It has been suggested that this is an effect of the Matrimonial Property Act 1976 and its social and legal ramifications.

Joint family homes under the Joint Family Homes Act registered during the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchHomes Settled
197525402
197631415
197729345
197818143
197915061
198012515

CENSUS INFORMATION: Type of Dwelling—The following table shows the type of dwellings in existence at the censuses of 1971 and 1976, together with total and average occupancy for each category.

Type of DwellingNumber of Dwellings1976 Number of Occupants
19711976AggregateAverage

* Flats attached to shops, etc., were not classified separately for 1971 and will therefore be included in the figure shown for houses with shops.

This was included as a separate category under “Houses” for the first time at the 1976 Census of Population. Some of these would have been classified as flats at the 1971 census and building permits issued for this type of dwelling are classified as flats by the department.

Occupied dwellings—
  Permanent private dwellings—
      Detached house68723774276825704933.46
      Row, cluster, terrace, or town houses linked together34945802582.30
      House with separate flat attached14370412952.87
      House and shop/business premises4736*4673173563.71
        Total houses69197379675627094023.40
      Flat (in single or multi-storey block)105459987362030982.06
      Flat (in house)19234375211.95
      Flat and shop/business premises*360594952.63
        Total flats1054591215752501142.06
      Bach, crib, hut4254492693141.89
        Total permanent private dwellings80168692325729688303.22
Temporary private dwellings—
      Mobile residence (caravan, etc.)994286961872.16
      Other (tent, shed, etc.)753588292.32
        Total temporary private dwellings1069322770162.17
Non-private dwellings—
      Hotel, motel, guesthouse236424163901316.15
      Boarding/rooming house1388778803010.32
      Private or public hospital5354542905063.99
      Education institution3843502228463.67
      Other241127785516019.86
        Total non-private dwellings7082677615353722.66
        Total occupied dwellings80983793326031293833.35
Unoccupied dwellings—
      Occupants temporarily away1811623945
      Dwellings to let, for sale, etc.2618427518
      Holiday residence3244633143
        Total unoccupied dwellings7674684606
Dwellings in course of erection918214284

Between the 1971 and 1976 censuses of population and dwellings the total number of dwellings occupied on the night of the census increased from 809837 in 1971 to 933260 in 1976, a rise of 123423, or 15.2 percent. This rate of increase was considerably in excess of that for population. In addition, unoccupied dwellings increased from 76746 to 84606.

In 1976 the average number of occupants per permanent private dwelling was 3.22, compared with 3.38, 5 years earlier.

Unoccupied dwellings are restricted to buildings intended for human habitation, e.g., houses, flats, cottages, etc., and the category omits unoccupied caravans, tents, etc.; it also excludes unoccupied dwellings which are both deserted and dilapidated.

Tenure of Dwelling—The following table classifies the occupied permanent private dwellings according to tenure.

Tenure19711976
Permanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total SpecifiedPermanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total Specified
Owned without mortgage21237426.725356727.6
Owned with mortgage32973341.438707842.1
Rented or leased20646525.924835627.0
Free with job346834.4226782.5
Free not with job131711.786490.9
Not specified5260 2929 
                Total801686100.0923257100.0

Amenities of Dwellings—The following tables present the various amenities, as at the 1976 Census, which were used by the occupants of permanent private dwellings.

AmenitiesHouseholdsPercentage of Households
Caravan487725.3
Deep freeze64768770.2
Electric clothes dryer35104238.0
Fully automatic washing machine35471538.4
Garage or carport66894372.5
Telephone82978689.9
Television set—
    Black and white62550067.7
    Colour15969817.3
    Both402254.4
Means of Cooking*HouseholdsPercent
Electricity82994089.9
Gas, including rock gas617376.7
Wood, coke, coal235622.6
Other12400.1
No means162 
Not specified66160.7
                Total923257100.0
Means of HeatingHouseholdsPercent
Electricity only28847531.2
Electricity and coal, coke, or wood33494736.3
Electricity and gas179901.9
Electricity and oil and/or kerosene467665.1
Electricity and other combinations614286.7
Gas only, including rock gas145201.6
Oil or kerosene only248872.7
Wood, coke, coal only10016710.8
Other214732.3
Not specified and no means126041.4
                Total923257100.0
Hot Water Service*HouseholdsPercent

* Principal means.

Electric84894492.0
Gas258622.8
Wood, coke, or coal range249622.7
Wetback81870.9
Other74010.8
No hot water service17200.2
Not specified61810.7
Total923257100.0

New questions asked at the 1976 population census revealed that 72.5 percent of households (668943) has a garage or carport, while 5.3 percent (48772) owned a caravan. Colour television was present in 21.7 percent of households.

Materials of Outer Walls and Roofs—The following table analyses the composition of outer walls of permanent private dwellings in 1976 by their roofing material. Each unit of a block of flats constitutes a separate dwelling for census purposes. The roofing category “Not Applicable” comprises those dwellings (mainly flats) which had a second dwelling overhead.

NOTE: Changes to the census question on building materials for 1976 have meant that the categories given below are not directly comparable with classifications published for previous censuses.

Main Material of Outer WallsMaterial of RoofTotal
Galvanised IronTilesFibrolite*AluminiumOtherNot Applicable

* Or asbestos material.

Including two or more materials.

Including “not specified” roofing materials.

Wood3747979951711597647346413242502447
Brick64563796351810141710471222150576
Rough-cast544861916035361968131185281732
Concrete—including concrete block4871337039224716941243667398644
Asbestos371771727933371361139336761154
Galvanised Iron3131129293735263414
Aluminium159012325018045143119
Other25732149837380705054
Three or more materials734245882352275489813132
Not specified1111488123361391023985
Total59548326121623047134661048212666923257

Easily the most popular type of house construction in New Zealand is wooden walls and a roof covered with galvanised iron. This description applied to 374797 permanent private dwellings in 1976, or 40.7 percent of those specifying both wall and roof type, but it should be noted that this was a relatively small increase on the equivalent figure of 365061 at the 1971 Census.

Numbers of Rooms and Occupants—The following table classifies inhabited permanent private dwellings in 1976 according to the number of rooms and number of occupants.

Number of RoomsNumber of OccupantsTotal DwellingsAverage Per Dwelling
12345678 and Over
 Number of Dwellings
1376441980351864143271.19
21415458189993227740107214271.44
323927230116461290093636713095578271.89
44218065344246321533457462618113610751580652.34
5344498782756623688364272519070728657383225543.37
6156014835636340491603159615408630858552086243.67
7427815145130881932915074781233282630806843.97
815315285536383317197410816441400348594.19
955519662045327528941759749627138704.30
102077897921297125284434235758804.47
11 and over14150752786480148927029238914.56
Not specified3109331115131410848478272308112492.82
                Total1438962577781484631710931091645299921479183859232573.22

Of the total cases where number of rooms was specified, 689243 dwellings or 75.6 percent had either 4, 5, or 6 rooms and of these 452452 were occupied by either 2, 3, or 4 persons.

The proportion of dwellings with between 1 and 5 occupants has increased in each case since 1971, ranging from a gain of 27.0 percent in 1-occupant dwellings to 8.7 percent for those with 5 occupants. On the other hand, corresponding declines since 1971 were recorded for almost every size of dwelling with over 5 occupants.

Insulation of Walls and Ceilings—The 1976 census included for the first time a question on the presence of heat-insulation materials in outer walls and ceilings of permanent private dwellings. An analysis of the data obtained follows. The inquiry was restricted to those materials specifically installed as insulation—in most cases, fibreglass pads or loose-fill, or aluminium foil.

Outer Wall InsulationCeiling InsulationTotal
PresentNot PresentNot KnownNot Specified
 Houses
Present634748847695142474440
Not present16802439854945721171572316
Not known21500137114762767483512
Not specified297411483116362028066488
                Total2827394359385453023549796756
 Other Dwelling Types
Present52556052531196232
Not present586758326293519167319
Not known286639673718439944416
Not specified16812363111033808534
                Total1566965261414824089126501

A total of 298408 dwellings at census date had insulated ceilings and of these 68729 (25.7 percent) also specified insulated walls. In ail, wall insulation was present in 80672 dwellings.

TENANCY—Under the Rent Appeal Act 1973, formerly administered by the Department of Labour, but now administered by the Housing Corporation, rent appeal boards have been appointed to determine on application by either a landlord or tenant the equitable rent for dwellinghouses. The amounts to be paid for rent in advance and as a bond are limited by the Act. The Tenancy Act 1955 governs rents and conditions of possession of certain private tenancies in existence before 13 November 1961. All private tenancies since that date and all business premises without exception are no longer governed by the Act. Where the Act applies, a landlord or tenant may apply to a rents officer or the District Court to fix a fair rent, effect certain repairs, prevent oppressive conduct, or have the tenancy freed from controls under the Act. It is estimated that 8800 tenancies are protected by this Act.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Publications dealing with building construction and housing include the following.

* Available from Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.
Report of the Housing Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 13).
Report of the Building Performance Guarantee Corporation (Parl. paper B. 13A).
Department of Statistics publications
  Building Activity Bulletin BC/MP/00* —(Annual).
  Building Activity Bulletin BC/Q/00* —(Quarterly and annual).
  Monthly Abstract of Statistics—(Monthly).
  Building Statistics—(Annual).
  Census of Population 1976—Vol. 8 Maori Population and Dwellings.
  Census of Population 1976—Vol. 9 Dwellings.
  Census of Population 1976 Bulletin 18—Dwellings—(5-yearly).
  Census of Population 1976 Bulletin 17—Maori Population and Dwellings—(5-yearly).
  Census of Building and Construction 1978–79—(5-yearly). Results of the 1978–79 Census of Building and Construction were also published in Bulletin form.
National Housing Commission Publications
  Housing in New Zealand (Report of Commission of Inquiry 1971).
  Housing New Zealand (1978).
  The Demand for Housing in New Zealand Vol. 1 and 2. (1979).
  Housing Preferences in New Zealand (1979).
  New Zealand's Housing Requirements, 1976–86 (1976).
  Housing Finance—Seminar Proceedings (1979).
Ministry of Works and Development Statement (Parl. paper D. 1).
Housing Corporation of New Zealand Annual Accounts and Statistics.
Report of the Valuation Department (Parl. paper G. 26).
Urban Real Estate Market in New Zealand—Valuation Department.

National Housing Commission publications, which include a considerable number of other research papers and reports, are available from the National Housing Commission, P.O. Box 1789, Wellington.

Chapter 20. Section 20 ENERGY

20 A—ENERGY DEMAND AND SUPPLY

DEMAND AND SUPPLY TODAY—From the end of World War II until recent years the demand for energy in New Zealand grew on average by 4 percent annually. This was a result of the expansion and diversification of the economy, rising living standards, increasing population, and the falling price of energy in real terms. Energy policies were aimed principally at providing reliable and cheap supplies to keep up with the demand. From late 1973 the emerging energy crisis brought about a new emphasis on conservation.

The table below illustrates the trends in the consumption of primary energy since 1924. The term “primary energy” refers to energy as it is first obtained from natural resources. Broadly, this means that coal is accounted for as it is mined, oil products as they are imported in various degrees of refinement, and natural gas as it is taken from the wells at Kapuni and Maui. About 14 percent of our primary oil requirements were derived from Kapuni condensate in 1978, and in 1979, 10 percent came from Kapuni and the newly-commissioned Maui field. This increased in 1980 to 12 percent from Kapuni and Maui crude oil.

Primary electricity is electricity generated from hydro and geothermal sources. For these, generation efficiencies are ignored, and the measure of the primary energy is the electricity generated. This is justifiable in the case of hydro-electricity, where the generation efficiency is high, but a large quantity of energy is wasted in producing electricity from geothermal heat. However, the wasted energy is low grade, and for the sake of simplicity is not shown in the table.

In a number of tables in this section, energy is measured in petajoules. The joule is the metric unit of energy and makes comparisons among the different forms of energy possible. For convenience, the petajoule (PJ) or 1015 joules is often used.

Calendar YearCoalOilNatural GasPrimary ElectricityTotalImported Oil as Percentage of Total
ImportedIndigenous

* Provisional.

Because of rounding, totals may differ slightly from sums of individual figures.

Petajoules
192475100.58611
1934561937824
19447230710928
195466591413942
1964661033420351
1974621938145533258
19765918422406036550
19775616831645737645
19784916626596036046
19794717518477035749
1980*5517814377235650

This table shows that New Zealand's dependence on imported oil increased up to the time of the large oil price increases in 1973–74 and subsequently declined. Imports of petroleum and petroleum products, at 3774208 tonnes in 1980, remain lower than they were in 1974. The principal reasons for this are virtually static demand and increased production of natural gas and condensate at Kapuni and, now, from Maui.

In 1980, some 11 percent of primary energy was converted into other forms of energy (mainly electricity), while smaller amounts were lost in processing (oil refining, gas treatment, etc.) or supplied to international transport.

The following table illustrates the trends in consumer energy consumption over the same period as in the previous table. Consumer energy is accounted for in the form and quantity in which it is distributed to the consumer. “Electricity” includes the electricity which is generated in thermal stations burning coal, oil, or natural gas, and “gas” includes the small quantity of gas manufactured from coal, naphtha, and natural gasoline.

Calendar YearCoalOilGasElectricityTotal
* Provisional.
Petajoules
19245952166
193449192373
1944623028102
19545559216132
19644890230170
197441151758257
1976411531267273
1977421531368275
1978361521268268
1979401491167267
1980*461441568273

As this table shows, in the past 3 years there has been a decrease in the consumption of oil by final consumers. Only in industry has consumption been above 1975 levels. The use of oil for industrial, commercial, and domestic heating in 1978 dropped by 3 percent, 10 percent, and 24 percent respectively on 1977 levels. In 1980 consumer energy (273 petajoules) was used in the proportions: industry, 39 percent; transport, 34 percent (nearly all oil); households, 16 percent; and commerce, 11 percent.

The supply and demand of energy in 1980 is shown in detail in the following table.

Supply and Demand of EnergySource of EnergyTotal
Solid FuelOilGasElectricity
* Decreases in stock levels appear as negative stock changes. Such decreases in stocks have to be added to indigenous production (+imports-exports) in order to obtain figures of energy consumed. Increases in stocks have to be deducted from production in order to obtain figures of energy consumed.
  Petajoules  
Indigenous production51.1914.3736.6672.13174.35
Plus Imports3.62178.31181.93
Less Exports0.100.860.96
Stock changes*1.149.4610.60
                Primary energy consumed53.57182.3636.6672.13344.72
Less used in electricity generation6.130.7314.8821.74
Less used in synthetic fuel production3.120.441.515.07
Plus secondary production1.270.771.636.6610.33
                Total energy available45.59181.9621.9078.79328.24
Less
    Used by international transport23.1923.19
    Consumption by energy sector and losses0.0810.2364110.7327.45
    Non-energy use4.244.24
                Total consumer energy45.51144.3015.4968.06273.66
Energy demand—
    Industry29.1338.4810.3725.87103.85
    Transport91.0491.04
    Domestic7.740.353.2529.9641.30
    Commercial and other uses8.647.541.8612.2630.30

Market shares of the various energy resources for 1980 are shown on a percentage basis in the following table.

SourceIndustry and CommerceTransport (Incl. International Transport)HouseholdsThermal Electricity Generation
  percent  
Oil34.56100.000.8510.64
Coal28.3618.8689.36
Gas (natural and manufactured)8.447.29
Electricity28.6473.00
                Total100.00100.00100.00100.00

OIL USAGE—Until the oil crisis in 1973 and the 4-fold increase in the price of oil, there had been a rapid growth in the use of oil in New Zealand. This had been a result of its declining cost in real terms, its versatility, its convenience, and the increasing affluence of the population.

In the year ended 31 December 1980, New Zealand used a total of 3913000 tonnes of petroleum products. This figure for the internal consumption of petroleum products in 1980 is broken down in the following table. Figures for 1979 are included for purposes of comparison.

Petroleum Product19791980
 Tonnes (000)percentTonnes (000)percent
Light flash distillate naphtha6- -40.1
Premium gasoline158846159740.8
Regular gasoline612531.3
Aviation gasoline251220.6
Aviation turbine kerosene12541503.8
Kerosene311501.3
Light diesel oil87325103726.6
Marine diesel11- -240.6
Fuel oils (All types)5201574319.0
Bitumen863812.1
Lubricants401651.6
White spirits7- -160.4
Paraffin waxes5- -30.1
Petroleum coke652681.7
                Total34431003913100.0

In 1980, two-thirds of New Zealand's imports of oil came in as crude and partly refined feedstocks for refining at the Marsden Point refinery while the remainder was imported as refined products because of a lack of refining capacity. Most of the latter came from Australia, Singapore, and Bahrain. The main sources of supply for crude petroleum are Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Indonesia. (See Section 22 C Imports.)

New Zealand exported 20000 tonnes of residual fuel oil in 1980. This oil was too waxy to be used in New Zealand except in power stations. This occurred because of the increased proportion of Kapuni condensate refined at Marsden Point refinery, and also because of reduced requirements for power station fuel oil.

In 1980, 42.6 percent of the Marsden Point refinery's annual output was petrol, 22.4 percent was diesel, 25.4 percent light and heavy fuel oils, and 9.6 percent was bitumen.

ENERGY RESOURCES—The following table sets out New Zealand's estimated recoverable fossil fuel resources including the redetermination by Shell, BP and Todd Oil Services Ltd. in December 1977 of the reserves of the Kapuni gas/condensate field. As can be seen, the major resources deficiency is in liquid petroleum fuels, and the country will continue to be a net petroleum importer. It will, however, become relatively less dependent on imports for a decade or so as natural gas is brought into greater use.

FuelProductionReserves
197819791980
Coal49.6PJ45PJ51PJMeasured 4881 PJ (220 million tonnes)
    Indicated 17210 PJ (2170 million tonnes)
    Inferred 19767 PJ (1308 million tonnes)
    41858PJ (3698 million tonnes)
Oil25.6PJ (0.564m tonnes)17PJ15PJProven and probable reserves with a 65% probability level: 549PJ (11.69 million tonnes)
Gas59.5PJ (2175m cubic metres)47PJ38PJProven and probable reserves with a 65% probability level: 5916PJ (257700 million m3)

The magnitude of New Zealand's geothermal resources is not yet known with any certainty but, according to a conservative estimate, the useful energy output (i.e., geothermal fluid above 70°C) of the total resource is 416 PJ per annum. Used wholly for electricity generation at a utilisation factor of 13 percent, this would produce about 15000 GWh (54 PJ) of electricity per annum; equivalent to 1700 MW at 100 percent load-factor. (Utilisation factor is the ratio of electrical energy generated, expressed in energy units, to the total heat energy above 70°C discharged from the field.) Another estimate has put the total potential heat available as more than 77000 PJ broken down as follows:

 Higher Grade Heal (Above 180°C) PJLow Grade Heat (70 −180°C) PJTotal PJ
Producing7500990017400
Measured330033006600
Indicated138001970033500
Inferred65001300019500
            Total310004600077000

The geothermal resource as it is known at present is restricted geographically to the thermal belt which extends from Mt. Ruapehu to White Island, Tauranga, and Northland. This area is mainly rural, which limits the opportunities for the direct use of geothermal energy.

Geothermal energy is used for electricity generation; process heat in industry; for industrial, commercial, and domestic space heating; and hot water heating. For the year ended 31 March 1980, 33.68 PJ (as heat) of geothermal energy was supplied to users, as follows:

 Geothermal Energy (PJ)
Electricity generation29.00
Industrial/Commercial4.66
Domestic0.02

The Geothermal Energy Amendment Act 1977 implemented 2 new policies relating to geothermal energy. In general, the Crown will develop and operate geothermal fields. A new pricing policy stated that the price is to reflect the worth of the resource to the user, taking account of the costs of alternative energy sources, and the costs of adapting geothermal energy to the user's requirements. When geothermal energy is supplied other than by the Crown, a rental is payable to the Crown based on the same principle.

By far the largest user of geothermal energy is the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy, which owns and operates the Wairakei geothermal power station, a baseload station supplying 1200 ± GWh of electricity per year. A second geothermal power station is planned for Ohaki with an initial capacity of 102 MW (80 MW from intermediate and pressure turbines and 22 MW from high-pressure turbines) probably rising to 150 MW.

ENERGY PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE—Until late 1973 there seemed to be little difficulty in meeting the expanding demand for energy from a combination of indigenous resources and imported petroleum, although New Zealand had been steadily moving into a position of increased dependence on imported fuel. The oil supply embargo announced in October 1973 by the Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries sounded a clear warning of the danger this entailed. As well as dramatically illustrating the fact that oil was no longer a reliable form of energy in terms of supply, the fourfold price increases that followed the lifting of the embargo meant that oil was no longer a cheap commodity.

New Zealand's oil import bill rose from $114 million for the year ended December 1973 to $306 million for 1974; $374 million for 1975; $483 million for 1976; $525 million for 1977; $492 million for 1978; and approximately $725 million for 1979. The 1980 figure is estimated at $1,271 million.

The rising cost of imported petroleum, coupled with uncertainty about the reliability of future supplies, has made it imperative for New Zealand to adopt policies aimed at reducing petroleum consumption and decreasing its dependence on imported energy. This is being achieved on two broad fronts; by accelerating the development of all indigenous energy resources, especially those that can substitute for petroleum, and by developing and promoting energy conservation programmes. Supporting these strategies is a research and development effort, which was spearheaded by the establishment of the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee (NZERDC) in 1974. In the international sphere, New Zealand, as a member of the International Energy Agency (IEA), is committed to a policy consistent with sound economic and social planning to reduce dependence on imported oil.

Ministry of Energy—Even before the outbreak of the oil crisis, concern had been felt about the lack of co-ordination in New Zealand's energy policy making. This concern led to the formation of the Ministry of Energy Resources in 1972.

A further development in the co-ordination of energy policy took place in May 1977 when the Government announced that the Ministry of Energy Resources, the New Zealand Electricity Department, and the Mines Department were to be merged into a single department responsible for all energy policy, planning, and operations. The new Ministry of Energy came into being on 1 April 1978.

The Ministry's principal function is the formulation, implementation, co-ordination, and continuing review of effective and efficient energy policies for New Zealand. It achieves this through an organisation consisting of a central planning/policy group and 2 operating divisions for electricity (Electricity Division) and coal production and supply (Mines Division).

Public Participation in Planning—In May 1978 Goals and Guidelines: An Energy Strategy for New Zealand—Public Discussion Draft was published by Hon. G. F. Gair, Minister of Energy Resources, setting out for public comment the goals and guidelines for an energy policy for New Zealand. This document Was the starting point for public discussion and submissions were summarised in Digest of Public Debate. Subsequently, seminars were held on Transport Fuels, Energy Distribution, Environmental Perspectives, and Energy Forecasting. Together with the fourth New Zealand Energy Conference, this public discussion has contributed toward the development of a comprehensive Government energy policy statement published as Energy Strategy ‘79, and an annual energy plan.

Annual Energy Plan—In 1980, for the first time, the Ministry of Energy prepared an overall energy plan. It consisted of an integration of coal, gas, oil, electricity, and conservation reports prepared by the respective ministry divisions. During formulation of the reports there were full consultations with appropriate private sector, local body, and Government agency interests.

Energy Advisory Committee—To provide a basis for continued public involvement in energy planning, the Energy Advisory Committee was established in 1980. The prime role of the committee is to review each annual Energy Plan and make recommendations for future planning. It provides public input into the energy planning process.

The committee has the following terms of reference:

  1. To examine the current process of forecasting and planning energy supply and demand.

  2. To assess the social, environmental, economic, and technical implications of current energy planning.

  3. To collect relevant opinion from the wider public through submission and representation.

  4. To advise the Secretary of Energy on these matters and to subsequently make these findings public.

  5. To carry out other such investigations as the Secretary of Energy may from time to time agree.

It consists of twelve members who are selected as representatives of consumers, environmental and social interests, and professional and academic interests.

Indigenous Energy Resource Development Policies—Energy supply and use will be dominated by existing technologies in electricity, gas, coal, and oil for a considerable time to come. Hydro and geothermal power will continue to provide the bulk of electricity requirements. Natural gas will provide a major source for transport fuels and, along with coal, will provide an increasing proportion of industrial fuel.

Technical improvements, together with increasing costs of fossil fuels, will improve the economic viability of new technologies.

A recent NZERDC report states that it would be technically possible to meet all road transport fuel demand by about the year 2000 by producing ethanol from fermentable crops, methanol from cellulose material, and methane from biomass digestion.

Solar heating and cooling has good medium-term potential, but a significant resource contribution from wind or waves is unlikely for many years. Although the Government is keeping up to date on nuclear technology, nuclear power is not at present being considered as a possible energy source.

In the medium term the Government's objective of reducing New Zealand's dependence on imported oil will be achieved by further developing and utilising fossil fuel resources. In the long term, renewable energy resources will meet an increasing proportion of energy demand.

Oil Exploration—A comprehensive policy has been developed and was published during 1980. It encourages exploration through taxation incentives, Government contribution to exploration costs through joint ventures, and definition of royalty rates and pricing for indigenous petroleum.

Organisations for Developing Gas/Condensate Resources—On 31 March 1978, the State-owned Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Petrocorp) was formed to take responsibility for the Government's interests in petroleum and natural gas. Present subsidiaries are: Natural Gas Corporation Ltd. (NGC), responsible for purchase, transport, and wholesale marketing of natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG); Offshore Mining Co. Ltd. (OMC), responsible for the Government's participation in the Maui field through its 50 percent shareholding in Maui Development Ltd. (ML), which manages the Maui project for extraction and onshore delivery of gas and condensate; Petrochemical Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Petrochem), which will own the ammonia/urea plant and, jointly with Alberta Gas Chemicals Ltd., the chemical methanol plant; and Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand (Exploration) Ltd. (Petrocorp Exploration), which holds the Government's interests in offshore petroleum exploration and also conducts its own onshore exploration programme. A company named “Liqui-Gas” is to be formed to distribute LPG nationally to bulk installations. It will consist of the six participants in the Maui development and/or bulk distribution of Kapuni LPG.

Gas/Condensate Resource PoliciesMaui gas/condensate field—To enable the best use to be made of the Maui field, the Government has allocated the gas in the field as follows:

  1. 26 percent for reticulation to provide domestic and industrial natural gas and compressed natural gas (CNG).

  2. 16 percent for synthetic fuel production. The Government has chosen the Mobil process for synthetic fuel production, utilising 50–60 PJ per year of Maui gas.

  3. 9 percent for methanol production. Alberta Gas/Petrocorp has been awarded a gas supply contract, subject to negotiations being completed, to construct and operate a plant for the production of 1200 tonnes per day of chemical methanol for export.

  4. 9 percent will be reserved for electricity production.

  5. 11 percent, representing:he ethane content, will be reserved for establishment of petrochemical industries.

  6. 10 percent, representing the LPG content, will be extracted primarily for transport and industrial fuels. Maui Development Ltd. will construct and operate LPG extraction facilities, and Liqui-Gas Ltd. will undertake distribution.

  7. Approximately 10 percent of the field will be reserved for future developments.

Energy Pricing—The Government's energy pricing policy was introduced in 1976. This recognised that, because certain energy prices had been held at artificially low levels, there was little incentive for the conservation and efficient use of indigenous energy resources. A feature of the new policy was the introduction from 1 January 1977 of an energy resources levy on coal and natural gas.

As at 1 October 1980, the price of natural gas to large industrial users was 56.4 percent of the price of fuel oil, providing a major competitive margin for gas. The price relativity for coal, in effective energy terms after allowing for efficiency and cost differences, was 44 percent for large industrial users. In addition to the conservation aspects of pricing policies, a primary objective of energy pricing is to guide future energy investment and use decisions. Relevant costs transmitted in prices will be costs incurred or saved in expanding or contracting supplies, rather than an average of past costs. Prices should cover cost of supply and yield a return for development of new resources.

POLICIES FOR ENERGY USES—Consumer energy is provided by oil (59 percent), electricity (23 percent), coal (14 percent), and gas (4 percent).

Transport Sector—Transport energy use takes 39 percent of total energy demand, and 69 percent of total oil supply. Policy is to encourage conservation, mode switching, and fuel switching, with due consideration given to effects in social and economic planning.

Industrial Sector—Industry accounts for 35 percent of total energy demand. Oil, gas, and coal are primarily boiler fuels, and electricity is used principally for motive power and lighting. Motive power for working the land uses more than 50 percent of diesel consumed in this sector. Policy encourages use of indigenous fuels and fuel use efficiency, with improved availability of gas and coal.

Commercial Sector—Commercial use accounts for 11 percent of total energy demand. Electricity is the chief fuel. Policies encourage conservation and substitution.

Household Sector—15 percent of total demand is in households. Fuel use is electricity (70 percent), solid fuels (18 percent) and gas and oil (12 percent). Policies encourage conservation and the use of gas.

Refining—Taking into account the planned liquid fuels development, N.Z. Refining Co. Ltd., has decided to expand its refinery and install a hydro-cracker. This will increase, in particular, the refinery's capability for producing diesel and aviation turbine fuel.

Electricity—With present load forecasts there is no need for additional generating capacity, beyond that already under construction, until the mid-1990s. However, substantial interest is being expressed in energy-intensive industries and this could substantially influence electricity use patterns.

Geothermal—Expanded use of geothermal heat is being investigated. Policies are that the Crown will generally develop and operate geothermal fields, and the pricing of geothermal energy will reflect the worth of the resource to the user, taking into account the costs of alternative energy resources and the costs to the user of utilising geothermal heat. Also refer to Energy Resources.

Coal—An exploration programme is under way to evaluate all New Zealand's coal resources to the “Indicated” category. Substantial deposits have been found but many years exploration work remains. Mining policies will ensure that underground workings are not made redundant prematurely, and will encourage customers to switch to coals of more appropriate quality to ensure the properties of special coals are fully exploited. In this regard, the Government has agreed that export markets for up to 500000 tonnes per year will be sought. The Government is committed to ensuring that the industry retains adequate capacity and skilled manpower as a base for future expansion.

Future Technologies—Technical improvements, together with increasing costs of fossil fuels, should improve the viability of renewable sources such as solar, wind, and biomass. These technologies are appropriate for small-scale energy schemes as well as larger schemes. However, economic, social, and environmental factors need careful assessment.

ENERGY CONSERVATION—Energy conservation, and the development of an awareness amongst the New Zealand public that oil was not an unlimited resource, came into prominence in 1973 with the first world oil crisis resulting from the Yom Kippur war. Emergency restrictions were implemented and lifted in quick succession, but the 80 km/h speed limit remained in force. Efforts were concentrated on reducing the use of imported petroleum and a conservation programme was undertaken to encourage the wise use of all forms of energy.

Pricing and taxation measures introduced during 1974 and 1975 included a graduated sales tax on cars, a $6,000 depreciation limit on company cars, petrol price increases including increased taxes, minimisation of petrol tax rebates, and a tax on fuel for private flying. Other measures included the introduction of daylight saving, electricity allocations, a publicity campaign, and an interest-free loan scheme for home insulation.

A tax incentive scheme was introduced in 1976 to encourage the wiser use of energy in the business sector. It provided for an immediate 100 percent tax write-off in the cost of expenditure on certain types of equipment. This scheme was extended in 1977 to include:

  1. New process control equipment.

  2. Equipment used in the evaluation of energy use.

  3. New plant, machinery, or equipment used in the production of an energy form from waste materials.

  4. New heat-exchange equipment other than heat pumps for comfort cooling.

  5. New plant, machinery, or equipment for the recovery of waste heat.

  6. Insulation of industrial and commercial buildings.

  7. Sealing of sources or means of energy leakage.

  8. New energy-using plant which uses indigenous energy resources (including solar and wind energy) but not oil or electricity.

  9. Conversions of existing energy-using plant from oil or electricity to indigenous resources.

  10. Plant and ancillary equipment which, in association with approved energy-using plant and equipment, mitigates pollution effects.

  11. Provision has also been made for:

    1. Refund of the 10 percent sales tax on plant and machinery listed in (a) to (j) above where the machinery qualifies for immediate write-off under taxation incentive.

    2. The Development Finance Corporation has available, subject to its normal lending criteria, finance for plant and equipment which qualifies for the immediate write-off.

    3. The major features of schemes to encourage the use of natural gas in the home are grants to the supplying authority of $200 for each new mains connection to new and existing houses where at least 2 of the 3 major gas uses (cooking, water heating, and space heating), are involved; a temporary reduction in the tariff on imported gas cookers for household use; and interest-free loans of up to $400, repayable over 4 years, available to assist in the purchase of gas appliances for cooking, water heating, and space heating.

In 1978 the scheme was further expanded to cover:

  1. New plant, machinery, or equipment for co-generating electricity.

  2. Conversion of business road vehicles to LPG.

  3. Refurbishing of existing lighting installations.

  4. Installation of new LPG storage spheres/tanks exceeding 100000 litres.

Other incentives to encourage the wiser or less wasteful use of energy include:

  1. Mandatory home insulation for new houses is required to a minimum insulation level (NZ 4215P:1977). Interest-free loans for new houses were discontinued after 1 March 1980, but loans for insulation of existing homes continue to be available.

  2. Late in 1978 the home insulation loan scheme was extended to offer assistance to purchasers of approved solar water heaters. Interest-free loans of $500 are available, with repayment spread over 4 years.

  3. From 22 July 1977 a sales tax of 1.5 cents a litre has been payable on a range of products including fuel oil, marine diesel, and kerosene. The sales tax on diesel fuel was increased by 0.5 cents a litre on 22 June 1979.

  4. As from 2 June 1978, motor spirits duty was increased by 3 cents a litre. A 0.1 cent a litre Liquid Fuels Trust Board levy was imposed in November 1978. These increases were passed on to the consumer.

  5. Sales tax on energy-intensive appliances has been increased to 30 percent on household, industrial, and commercial air conditioners which incorporate refrigerating units, and 20 percent on household tumbler and cabinet clothes driers.

  6. The Government decided to support financially, to the extent of $70,000 in 1977–78, a car-pooling scheme developed by the local authorities for commuting between North Shore and Auckland.

  7. Cash grants, known as “gas development grants”, may be given by the Ministry of Energy to businesses which sell, use, or distribute LPG and CNG.

Political events in Iran early in 1979 caused a serious reduction in the supply of petroleum, resulting in unprecedented price rises on the spot market. In New Zealand the following measures were implemented in an effort to reduce oil consumption.

  1. A weekend ban on petrol sales from 12 noon on Saturday to 6 a.m. on Monday (and 9 p.m. closing preceding a public holiday to 6 a.m. on the first working day), was implemented in February 1979. The start of the ban was subsequently brought back to 7 p.m. on Friday. (The ban was lifted in August 1980.)

  2. A carless day scheme requiring each car owner to select 1 day of the week as a carless day, recording the nominated carless day by displaying a sticker on the vehicle windscreen, was implemented in July 1979. Provision was made for exemptions in special circumstances. This was suspended in May 1980.

  3. A system of allocations was imposed on oil for comfort heating, jet fuel, international marine bunkers, petrol (bulk users), and automotive gas oil (diesel).

Although considerable administrative problems were initially encountered in the implementation of these demand restraint measures, particularly the carless day scheme and the diesel allocation system, worthwhile savings have been achieved. The restraints were lifted by the end of 1980 on all these products except oil for comfort heating and international marine bunkers.

When the carless day scheme was suspended in May 1980 the Government announced the introduction of a package of conservation measures including:

  1. encouragement by the Ministry of Energy of exhaust emission testing as a means of informing motorists of the potential savings to be made by keeping car engines properly tuned;

  2. further financial assistance to the Auckland car-pooling scheme, with further funds being made available to assist other local authorities to establish similar schemes;

  3. a campaign in conjunction with the Ministry of Transport to enforce the 80 km/h speed limit;

  4. the establishment of a programme, in conjunction with the Liquid Fuels Trust Board, for the testing of devices which have the potential of saving petrol when fitted to motor vehicles;

  5. a publicity campaign to encourage motorists to install vacuum gauges in their vehicles;

  6. the establishment of an Energy Conservation Co-ordinating Group, including representatives of Government departments and major motor spirits consumer groups, to advise the Government on conservation policy.

Research and Development—New Zealand is able to obtain the results of much overseas energy research work through its international scientific contacts and its membership of the International Energy Agency (IEA). Many of this country's energy problems are, however, unique and can only be solved by our own efforts.

New Zealand has a varied energy research programme with work on a wide range of topics being conducted in Government departments, and by universities, private companies, and individuals. About $9.8 million was provided by the Government for energy research, development, and demonstration projects in 1980–81 (in addition $2.0 million was provided by private sources). Particular emphasis recently has been placed on research into alternative liquid fuels, but other programmes involve wind-energy research, research on opportunities for conservation, and conservation demonstrations on, for example, co-generation and heat pumps, geothermal energy utilisation, and coal utilisation.

New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee—The New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee (NZERDC), chaired by Dr C. Maiden, was formed in 1974 to promote energy research. It now lets research contracts to universities, research associations, and the private sector. The Government provides a grant to the NZERDC ($991,000 in 1980–81) to fund the committee's work. Some of its larger recent contracts include energy use in transport, biomass conversion, heat pumps, coal properties, policy implementation, and impediments to energy.

Apart from funding energy research outside Government departments the committee advises the National Research Advisory Council and the Minister of Energy on overall energy research policy. It is also the administering body in New Zealand for energy research under the United States-New Zealand Joint Agreement for Scientific and Technological Co-operation.

Liquid Fuels Trust Board—Under the Liquid Fuels Trust Act 1978, the Liquid Fuels Trust Board was established.

The primary function of the board is to promote, encourage, finance, undertake, and co-operate in any activity that has as its purpose, or one of its purposes, the reduction of the use of imported fuels for transport purposes in New Zealand.

The board also has the following functions:

  1. To promote, encourage, finance, undertake, and co-operate in investigations, research, surveys, studies, and tests relating to:

    1. the efficient and economical supply, processing, distribution, storage, and use for transport purposes of petroleum, alternative indigenous fuels, and alternative means of propulsion; and

    2. social and environmental factors associated with alternative indigenous and alternative means of propulsion.

  2. To promote, encourage, finance, undertake, and co-operate in the installation or improvement of plant and equipment in New Zealand for the efficient and economical supply, processing, distribution, storage and use for transport purposes in New Zealand of petroleum, alternative indigenous fuels, and alternative means of propulsion.

Standards—Under the special programme for the development of energy-related standards announced in the 1978 Budget standards have been published covering the use of LPG and CNG fuels in internal combustion engines, the storage and location of equipment at CNG refuelling stations, and methods of testing the petrol consumption of passenger cars. The latter, and a standard for a label showing the results of the tests now nearing completion, are the prelude to the introduction of energy-consumption labelling of vehicles in New Zealand. This will enable the potential car purchaser to take petrol usage into account when he is considering buying a vehicle, thus helping to promote energy conservation.

The standard for the use of LPG and CNG in internal combustion engines will be adopted in regulations to be implemented by the Ministry of Transport for vehicles converted to these fuels. The CNG refuelling station standard is widely accepted as the basis for setting up these stations.

Standards are at an advanced state of preparation for compressors for CNG refuelling stations, metering of CNG, thermal insulating materials for buildings, and equipment for determining the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons concentrations in vehicle exhausts. It is well established that high concentrations of these gases in exhausts indicate poor combustion and therefore inefficient fuel use. In addition, they pollute the air. The problem can generally be reduced to a reasonable level by tuning the engine. Work is proceeding on standards for the energy consumption labelling of household appliances, and for solid fuel space heaters covering such aspects as efficiency, safety, pollution, and robustness.

Following the availability of the results of the tests on electric hot water cylinders with different kinds and thicknesses of insulation, a review of the standard for the cylinders, and particularly the standing losses, will get under way shortly.

COMPARATIVE ENERGY-USE STATISTICS—Comparative statistics of per-head consumption of commercial energy in selected countries and geographical areas in 1978 are given in the following table. The figures, taken from the UN World Energy Supplies 1973–1978, are expressed in megajoules per head. That publication should be consulted for fuller information including detailed notes and definitions. In addition to stages of economic and social development, climatic conditions in the various countries should also be borne in mine.

 Megajoules per Head

* Except Middle East.

Includes that part of Russia in Asia.

Customs Union of South Africa.

Africa
    Congo5124
    Egypt13562
    Ethiopia573
    Ghana4826
    Nigeria3119
    South Africa93130
America, North
    Canada291029
    United States333336
America, South
    Argentina54882
    Brazil23280
    Chile29221
Middle East
    Bahrain301932
    Iran52977
    Israel69214
    Turkey23230
    Kuwait198450
    Saudi Arabia38273
Asia*
    Bangladesh1247
    Burma1865
    India5214
    Japan112095
    Pakistan5042
    Singapore72122
    China24521
Europe
    Denmark158932
    France128010
    Germany, West176281
    Netherlands156126
    Sweden174494
    United Kingdom152754
    USSR161933
Oceania
    Australia194087
    New Zealand111089
World60779

FURTHER INFORMATION—Sources of further information on the electricity and gas industries will be found listed at the end of the appropriate sub-sections. Further information on energy demand and supply in general will be found in the following publications:

Report of the Ministry of Energy (Parl. paper T. 6).

Implications of New Energy Developments (New Zealand Planning Council, 1979).

Report of the Liquid Fuels Trust Board of New Zealand (Parl. paper D. 8).

Report to the New Zealand Government of the Fact Finding Group on Nuclear Power (Parl. paper D. 9 1977).

Nuclear Power Generation in New Zealand (Parl. paper H. 41978).

Goals and Guidelines: An Energy Strategy for New Zealand Public Discussion Draft (May 1978).

A Digest of Public Debate on Goals and Guidelines (May 1979).

Goals and Guidelines: Proceedings of Seminar on Energy Distribution (May 1979).

Energy Strategy '79—Ministry of Energy (1979).

Goals and Guidelines: Proceedings of Seminar on Transport Fuels (1978).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

World Energy Supplies 1973–78—United Nations.

1980 Energy Plan—Ministry of Energy (1980).

Other sections in this Yearbook which may be found useful are:

20 B—Electric Power.

20 C—Gas.

17—Minerals.

7 B—Science and Scientific Services.

20 B—ELECTRIC POWER

New Zealand's natural resources of lakes and fast-flowing rivers have been systematically harnessed for hydro-electric development, providing a relatively cheap source of energy which is continually replenished by nature. During the year ended 31 March 1980 hydro energy provided 87 percent of the national electricity supply, with 5 percent coming from geothermal energy and the balance from fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas.

At Wairakei, in New Zealand's thermal region, natural steam is being used to drive the turbines. Meremere, the steam station south of Auckland, uses coal as fuel, while at Marsden, near Whangarei, heavy oils are used. A large dual-fuel steam station at New Plymouth uses predominantly natural gas (with some oil). A second dual-fuel steam station is currently under construction at Huntly, to use natural gas and coal as fuels. Gas turbines operate at Otahuhu (oil and natural gas), Stratford (natural gas), and Whirinaki (oil).

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—Electricity supply in New Zealand was pioneered by local bodies and private enterprise. Reefton had hydro-electric supply as early as 1888, and Wellington in the following year opened a water-powered plant, using water from the city mains, but later switched to steam generation. Auckland and Christchurch, using steam-genera ring stations, and Dunedin, using hydro plant, all had supplies extensively developed before the advent of Government supply. Many smaller communities also had local supply, mostly produced from local steam stations, although in some cases hydro plant was installed to take advantage of local water resources.

The first Government station was opened at Lake Coleridge in 1914, and its capacity was increased in 4 stages up to 1930. In the North Island the Government purchased the Waihi Goldmining Company's station at Horahora on the Waikato River. This station was enlarged and by 1927 was supplying power as far north as Henderson and Takapuna. Mangahao station near Shannon was opened in 1924; one of the Waikaremoana stations (Tuai) and Arapuni both began operating in 1929. Between 1920 and 1930 the capacity of the State generating system grew by 135590 kW and the number of consumers in New Zealand increased from 58449 to 284235. In the early 1920s steam stations were still producing up to 60 percent of the total electricity but by the 1930s they produced as little as 1 percent in some years, as they were gradually relegated to standby stations.

In the 1930s the Waitaki hydro station was commissioned and the Government acquired 2 small hydro stations—Arnold from the Grey Electric Power Board and Monowai from the Southland Power Board. With the latter the Government also took over the responsibility for distribution in Southland, a situation still existing today.

Despite the difficulties, capacity was increased during the war years. Some existing stations were extended, and new ones opened at Piripaua (the second Waikaremoana station), at Cobb in north-west Nelson and, towards the end of the war, at Highbank in Canterbury. Gates were built in 1941 to control the outflow from Lake Taupo.

After the war, plans were pushed ahead for the development of the potential of the principal power source in the North Island, the Waikato River. Work had proceeded on Karapiro, the second Waikato station, during the war and its first power was produced in 1947 (the old Horahora station was submerged in the lake formed behind the dam). In 1952 Maraetai, the largest station on the Waikato, began producing electricity, and in 1956 Whakamaru was completed, followed by Atiamuri in 1958. Both Ohakuri and Waipapa stations began operating in 1961 and Aratiatia Station in 1964.

Development in other areas included the commissioning of Kaitawa, the third Waikaremoana station, in 1948 and the installation of further machines at Waitaki. Control works were built at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo to ensure an adequate water supply to the Waitaki station in the winter. Incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo is a single-machine power station which was commissioned in 1951. Since the commissioning of the first station of the Upper Waitaki project (Tekapo “B”) this station has been known as Tekapo “A”. The largest station built up to that time in New Zealand began operating at Roxburgh on the Clutha River in 1956. Meanwhile work proceeded on the Benmore station, which was completed in 1966. Another station on the Waitaki, at Aviemore, located between the Waitaki and Benmore stations, began operating in 1968.

Matahina on the Rangitaiki River in the Bay of Plenty produced its first electricity in January 1967.

The Manapouri scheme, using the waters of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, took advantage of the 177 m head between Manapouri and the sea. Intakes at the west arm of Manapouri lead the water into vertical penstocks to the turbines 213 m underground and it is discharged into Deep Cove at Doubtful Sound through a tunnel almost 10 kilometres in length.

A large proportion of Manapouri's output supplies the Bluff aluminium smelter and the remainder is fed into the national grid. Four generators began operating in 1969 and the remaining 3 in 1971 to give a total installed capacity of 700 MW (name-plate rating).

The Manapouri scheme was the subject of an agreement between the Government and Comalco in 1960 but subsequent agreements were negotiated in 1963, 1966, 1969, and 1977. As the land concerned lies within Fiordland National Park the agreement required statutory authority which was conferred in the Te Anau - Manapouri Development Act 1963. Under the 1969 agreement the Government built the power station and the lake control works at Te Anau and Manapouri.

The actual formula devised for Comalco to pay for the electricity varied between agreements. The latest of these was a major renegotiation in late 1977 to reflect the changed circumstances in energy supply.

The 1966 agreement provided that Lake Manapouri be raised from its natural level of 178 m above sea level to an operating level of 185–190 m while the minimum lake level was set at 175.4 m. Consequent on a campaign by conservationists opposed to the raising of the lake level the Government appointed a commission in 1970 to inquire into the proposal. The dam at Mararoa to control Lake Manapouri has been built on a narrow base to control the lake within a normal range of levels. Lake Te Anau, which feeds Lake Manapouri through the Upper Waiau River, is controlled at natural levels between 199 m and 202 m by a dam near its outlet.

The purpose, planning, and the development of the Manapouri project were fully described in parliamentary paper D.7, 1967, as well as the Report of the Commission to Inquire into the Proposal to Raise the Level of Lake Manapouri for the Purpose of Generating Electricity (parliamentary paper D,8, 1970) and a report by the Institute of Economic Research on the Manapouri-Bluff Project commissioned by Comalco and published in October 1971.

The installed capacity of Maraetai power station on the Waikato River was doubled by the building of a second powerhouse for 5 additional machines which were commissioned in 1970–71. The yearly output from Maraetai has not been increased but useful peak-time capacity was added.

A catchment area of nearly 260000 hectares in the central volcanic uplands of the North Island is being tapped for hydro-electric power development. Known as the Tongariro Scheme, this complex development involves drawing upon the headwaters of certain rivers and their tributaries and diverting part of their flow from one watershed to another.

The Western Diversions collect water from the headwaters of the Wanganui River and several of its tributaries and divert it into Lake Rotoaira. As part of this project, control equipment has been installed to close gates at the Whakapapa tunnel intake in the event of the passage of a lahar (volcanic mud flow) down the Whakapapa River. Water from Lake Rotoaira passes through a 6100-metre tunnel to the power station at Tokaanu, then into Lake Taupo. Tokaanu power station, which has four 50 MW generators, the first of the stations built as pan of the Tongariro Scheme, was commissioned in 1974.

The Eastern Diversions collect water from the Moawhango River and the eastern slopes of Mount Ruapehu. The waters then feed through the Moawhango tunnel to join water from the Tongariro River before passing through Rangipo station into Lake Rotoaira.

Much restorative planting and landscaping work is being carried out through the whole development as well as special measures to protect and preserve fishing and fish spawning grounds in the area.

The most recently completed hydro power station, Tekapo B (160 MW), the first station completed as part of the Upper Waitaki Development, was commissioned in 1977.

Thermal Generation—The first thermal station built by the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy (then the New Zealand Electricity Department) came into operation in 1958 at Meremere beside the Waikato River, 64 km south of Auckland. This station burns coal which is transported from the Maramarua opencast mines by aerial cableway, and from the Huntly mines by road and rail.

At Wairakei, a few kilometres north of Taupo, geothermal steam has been harnessed for the generation of electricity. The first machine began producing electricity in 1958 and the last machine (the thirteenth) was installed in 1963. Bores, which are 102, 152, and 203 mm in diameter, have been drilled to depths varying between 174 m and 1220 m.

Marsden power station was commissioned in 1967 using heavy oil from the nearby refinery, and 4 oil/natural gas-burning gas turbines went into service in 1968 at Otahuhu. Two further units were commissioned at Otahuhu in 1979. In 1976 a gas turbine station using natural gas was completed at Stratford.

The 600 MW thermal station at New Plymouth produced its first electricity in 1974 and the last machine was commissioned early in 1977. Until the Maui natural gas wells off the coast of Taranaki began production, the energy source was Kapuni natural gas; supplemented by some oil-firing. A chimney 198 m high has been built to disperse the hot exhaust gases.

A 216 MW oil-burning gas turbine station at Whirinaki, near Napier, was completed in mid-1977, but commercial operation of this station was not possible until late 1978 when an oil pipeline and oil storage facilities were completed.

Construction Projects: Hydro—A 120 MW underground station is currently being constructed at Rangipo as part of the Tongariro Scheme, and is scheduled for commissioning in 1982.

In July 1968 the Government approved in principle the total development of the Upper Waitaki Valley for hydro-electric use. The scheme involves controlling the outflows of Lakes Tekapo and Pukaki and to a limited extent Lake Ohau, and directing the stored waters through canals to 4 power stations named Tekapo B, Ohau A, Ohau B, and Ohau C; the diverted waters will eventually reach the Waitaki River at Lake Benmore. The total capacity of the new stations will be about 850 megawatts; also, the extra storage provided by the scheme will allow the output from existing Waitaki stations to be increased. Work began with the construction of a township at Twizel, and on the Tekapo B project, which was completed in 1977. The first 2 generators at Ohau A were commissioned in 1979. Work continues on the remaining two. Construction is under way on Ohau B and C, which are scheduled for first generation in 1982 and 1984 respectively.

Upper Clutha Hydro-electric Development—In December 1976 the Government announced that scheme F had been chosen from a number of alternatives which had been drawn up. This scheme comprises 5 power stations estimated to cost $732 million (1977) with a potential plant capacity of 1300 MW, which may later be extended to 1500 MW. For comparison, Benmore produces 540 MW and Huntly will produce 1000 MW. Construction of the scheme will extend over 18 years and will comprise 3 power stations on the Clutha River (Clyde, Luggate, and Queensberry) and 2 on the Kawarau River (Gibbston and Kawarau). The maximum lake levels (height above sea level), generating capacity, and approximate commissioning dates of the power stations are as follows: Clyde, 195 m, 400 MW, 1988–89; Luggate, 273 m, 265 MW, between 1988 and 1992 depending on planning decisions; with Queensberry, 232 m, 220 MW, Gibbston, 307 m, 180 MW, Kawarau, 256 m, 240 MW, to follow as required. Formal Government approval to construct Clyde power station is expected in mid 1981.

Thermal—The first 250 MW of the Huntly 1000 MW station is expected to be commissioned in mid-1981. It will be initially fired on Maui gas but the Mines Division of the Ministry of Energy is opening up a large new underground mine nearby which will eventually supply most of the fuel for the station.

Construction of an oil-fired intermediate load station, Marsden B (250 MW), was approved in 1974 and was completed early in 1980. Because over-capacity of generating plant on the power system is expected for the next 10 years this station will be temporarily decommissioned, and fully commissioned later as circumstances require.

The contract for the development of the Maui gas field required a large guaranteed gas demand so that associated valuable condensate could be extracted. When the contract was made, virtually all the gas (which was to increase in demand to a maximum in the mid-1980s) was to be used in gas-fired power stations. In the interim this emphasis has changed, and now a high proportion of the gas will be used for petro-chemical industries, including the manufacture of fertiliser and synthetic petrol. The amount now allocated for electricity generation is not expected to be much above that required to supply existing stations and those under construction.

The Ohaki power station, which will be built on the Broadlands geothermal field, will have an initial output of some 80–100 MW, which may be increased to 165 MW at a later stage when more is known about the performance of the field. All the environmental clearances have been obtained, but Government approval cannot be requested until the negotiations to purchase the Maori-owned land have been completed. The first plant is scheduled for commissioning in 1986.

ENTER-ISLAND TRANSMISSION—In 1965, at the same time as Benmore power station was commissioned, the transmission systems of the North and South Islands were linked by a high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission line and undersea cables. This new system enabled electricity to be transmitted from the South Island to the North Island where there was a greater demand for power.

This scheme not only involved the laying of submarine cables for 40 km in Cook Strait, but also the construction of a 570 km, 500 kV direct-current transmission line from Benmore to Fighting Bay on the southern side of Cook Strait, and from Oteranga Bay on the northern side to Haywards sub-station. Complex converting equipment had also to be installed at each end of the system. Considerable worldwide interest has been shown in this scheme, which was the largest of its type outside the USSR. The World Bank made a loan of $23.2 million to meet the overseas costs of this project.

Following modification to the HVDC link it has been possible to transmit power in both directions between the North and South Islands since April 1976.

The 1978 report of the Planning Committee on Electric Power Development in New Zealand proposed the construction of a further HVDC scheme connecting the two islands. However, the 1980 Energy Plan stated that the anticipated growth of electricity in the South Island would make expansion of the inter-island transmission capacity unnecessary in the planning period (up to 1995).

PLANNING FOR ELECTRICAL ENERGY—The formation of the Ministry of Energy has meant that the forecasting and forward planning of electricity can be incorporated more completely into an overall energy strategy than previously. To produce the 15-year forecast needed for planning, the Electrical Supply Authorities Association first prepares estimates for 5 years ahead based largely on local knowledge of industrial and housing development plans. These estimates, together with a wider judgment of long-term considerations, are used by the Electricity Sector Forecasting Committee to produce a 15-year forecast. Projections of economic and demographic quantities are provided by the Planning Division of the Ministry of Energy. Peak power forecasts are also derived from the basic energy forecasts. The results from the electricity sector committees are submitted to the Secretary of Energy and co-ordinated with those of the other energy sectors to provide input to the Energy Plan. This co-ordination eliminates the possibility of several energy forms planning on supplying the same market, and allows the effect of factors such as price changes and conservation measures to be carefully assessed. The Energy Plan (Parl. paper D.6A) is tabled in the House of Representatives by the Minster of Energy.

Forecasting electricity demand is one of the longest-term planning processes in New Zealand. It is of critical importance to the electrical industry and the economy of the country. The long sequences of events in providing generating plants, spanning several years, is today lengthening because of a more critical appraisal of their environmental impact. If demand estimates are low, or plant is not ready on time, a difficult supply situation could result. On the other hand, if estimates are high, a premature commitment of resources and capital can materially affect what is available for other national development and social programmes.

These forecasts of the Electricity Sector Forecasting Committee are used by the Electricity Sector Planning Committee in the production of a power development plan for the next 15 years. This contains recommendations on what projects should be proceeded with in order to meet estimated needs. Although plans are made for 15 years, only those for the 7-year construction period need be considered as fixed, the remainder being capable of adjustment as changing circumstances require.

The Electricity Sector Forecasting Committee, in its 1980 report, provided 2 schedules of estimates (based on different allowances for possible supplies to major industries), each with 3 sets of estimates (reflecting different assumptions of population and economic growth), for the period 1980–81 to 1994–95 inclusive as follows (all figures in GWh or million kWh):

SCHEDULE ‘A’—Including allowance of 2000 GWh per annum at 97 percent load factor from 1983–84 to provide for proposed supplies to major industries.

Low—21800; 22100; 22600; 24800; 25200; 25500; 25800; 26100; 26400; 26700; 27000; 27300; 27500; 27700; 28000.

Middle—22000; 22300; 22900; 25700; 26600; 27200; 27800; 28300; 28800; 29200; 29700; 30100; 30600; 31000; 31400.

High—22200; 22600; 23300; 26400; 27500; 28300; 29000; 29800; 30500; 31200; 31900; 32600; 33200; 33900; 34500.

ALTERNATIVE SCHEDULE ‘A’—Including allowance for possible supplies to major industries of 2000 GWh in 1983–84; 3500 GWh in 1984–85 and 1985–86; and 5000 GWh from 1986–87 onwards, all at 97 percent load factor.

Low—21800; 22100; 22600; 24800; 26800; 27100; 29000; 29300; 29500; 29800; 30100; 30400; 30700; 30900; 31100.

Middle—22000; 22300; 22900; 25700; 28200; 28800; 30900; 31400; 31900; 32400; 32900; 33300; 33700; 34100; 34500.

High—22200; 22600; 23300; 26400; 29000; 29800; 32200; 32900; 33700; 34400; 35100; 35700; 36400; 37000; 37700.

FINANCE FOR ELECTRICITY—Up to 1970 some $1,258 million had been expended on generation, transmission, and distribution, of which the Government share was $946 million. By 1980 the capital invested by the Government had risen to $2,748 million and, with the further expenditure by the electrical supply authorities on generation and distribution, the total capital expenditure had increased to $3,414 million. Continuing capital expenditure will be necessary for the strengthening and expansion of both the Electricity Division's generating and transmission network and electrical supply authorities distribution systems. Current bulk supply tariffs and consequential retail tariffs provide for up to 50 percent of the capital requirements from revenue, decreasing the electricity supply industry's loan requirements.

LEGISLATION—Under the Ministry of Energy Act 1977, the Ministry of Energy is responsible for preparing plans to meet the expected demand for electric power and for controlling the State generating and transmission systems. The Ministry also has certain responsibilities for promoting the conservation and efficient utilisation of electricity. In general, hydraulic investigation and civil engineering are carried out by the Ministry of Works and Development to the requirements of the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy. The Electricity Division is also responsible for the overall functional design of each station, detailed design and installation of all turbines, generators, and associated electrical and mechanical equipment, for the design and installation of equipment at substations, for the survey, design, and construction of transmission lines, and for the operation and maintenance of the network which supplies electricity in bulk to the distributing authorities.

ELECTRIC POWER BOARDS AND SUPPLY AUTHORITIES—Under the Electric Power Boards Act 1925, boards control constituted electric power districts. Of the 37 electric power boards actually functioning at 31 March 1980, 13 had generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 67154 kW. There were also 22 territorial electric supply authorities, 6 of them having generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 83862 kW. The Electricity Division acts as the distributing authority for Southland as Southland Electric Power Supply, while Rotorua is controlled by an area electric authority. The licensed areas under the control of the boards and other authorities cover almost all the inhabited parts of the country. More than 99 percent of New Zealand's population enjoy the benefits of electricity in the home; only a few thousand people in the more isolated and less accessible parts of the country lack this amenity.

The supply of electricity to the remote areas presents difficulties because of the high cost of reticulation in relation to the revenue from power sold. To assist consumers whose livelihood requires them to live in remote rural areas the Rural Electrical Reticulation Council can make a levy on the gross revenue from all electricity sales of all supply authorities and Government-owned electricity undertakings. This levy, at 31 March 1980 1/4 of 1 percent, is used to subsidise the capital cost of supply to these areas (line or private generating plant). Since the council was set up under the Electricity Act 1945, it has approved subsidies on 16436 route kilometres of line (16105 route km completed) assisting some 15912 consumers. During the year ended 31 March 1980, the council approved subsidies on 170 route kilometres of line, assisting 67 consumers, and paid out $399,170 in subsidies.

PUBLIC SUPPLY STATIONS—The following table covers all stations whose output is fully or partially available to the public supply system as at 31 March 1980, their installed capacity, static head where applicable, and annual electrical energy generation. Stations are State-owned unless otherwise indicated.

StationInstalled Capacity at 31 March 1980Static HeadAnnual Energy Generation Year Ended 31 March 1980Annual Load Factor Year Ended 31 March 1980
Number of UnitsMW

* New station being commissioned

Name-plate rating.

  Hydrometresmillion kWhpercent
Arapuni8157.853978.671.41
Aratiatia390.034402.351.80
Atiamuri484.025358.050.32
Karapiro390.030548.067.22
Mangahao519.2273110.460.40
Maraetai10360.0611007.536.88
Matahina272.061348.052.48
Ohakuri4112.035479.146.82
Tokaanu4200.0208782.242.45
Waikaremoana—
    Kaitawa232.0135129.847.75
    Piripaua240.0113170.2
    Tuai352.0206264.2
Waipapa351.016298.261.61
Whakamaru4100.038592.564.42
Arnold23.11327.293.70
Aviemore4220.0371035.149.31
Benmore6540.0922567.052.09
Cobb632.0594172.257.67
Coleridge934.5149249.774.02
Highbank125.2101111.249.45
Manapouri7700.01774320.081.98
Monowai36.04736.666.22
Ohau ‘A’*2132.054161.4..
Roxburgh8320.0461581.054.02
Tekapo ‘A’125.23071.429.45
Tekapo ‘B’2160.014.6769.753.40
Waitaki7105.021582.267.08
North Island Supply Authorities1647.4230.5
South Island Supply Authorities2493.7308.1
                Sub-total..3904.1..18692.3..
Thermal
Marsden2240.0..8.00.39
Meremere7210.0..320.223.98
New Plymouth5600.0..1400.733.22
Otahuhu6280.0..1.90.13
Stratford4208.0..102.05.33
Wairakei13192.4..1061.785.06
Whirinaki4216.0..1.90.13
North Island Supply Authorities28.0..
South Island Supply Authorities31.9..
North Island private plant......15.2
South Island private plant......3.1
                Sub-total..1956.3..2915.0..
                        Total..5860.4..21607.3..

GENERAL STATISTICS—A summary of all supply authorities and New Zealand Electricity (Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy) in 1979–80 is shown in the following table.

ItemUnit1979–80

* New Zealand Electricity only.

Excluding stocks and materials.

Includes starting oil.

§ Name-plate rating.

Generating stationsNo.79
Capacity of generators§kW(000)5860
Fuel used*
    Coaltonnes232925
    Light oiltonnes3994
    Heavy oiltonnes17458
    Natural gasterajoules16427
Staff employedNo.14865
Capital expenditure
    During year (net outlay)$(m)350.5
    To date$(m)3,414.2
Generation and sales—
    Generation per head of mean populationkWh6915
    Retail sales per head of mean populationkWh6093
    Domestic consumption per domestic consumerkWh7084
    Income from total retail sales of electricity per kWh sold to consumerscents3.579

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE—Financial operations during 1979–80 are summarised in the following table.

Item1979–80
* These figures represent transfers within the electrical supply industry and therefore do not represent additional income or expenditure to the industry.
Income—$(thousand)
    Gross income (including bulk sales and standby charges, excluding rates)1,154,206
    Income from bulk sales to supply authorities*427,811
    Net income (excluding rates, bulk sales, and standby charges)726,395
Expenditure—
    Operating (including cost of energy purchased in bulk)580,000
    Cost of energy purchased in bulk*427,811
    Operating (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)152,189
    Trading, administration and general96,933
    Loan interest and depreciation266,611
    Net annual expenditure (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)515,733
Surplus210,662

GENERATION—Means of generation of electrical energy for public supply is given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated by Means ofTotal
HydroSteamOil and Gas
million kWh
197616873.23084.9113.120071.2
197714927.44968.21018.620914.2
197814591.95873.4803.221268.5
197916209.54928.3555.021692.8
198018692.32808.9106.021607.2

The following table sets out generation and disposal by type of authority. The excess generation of certain local organisations, which is bought for public supply, is given in the column “other sources”.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated for Public Supply bySold RetailSon-productive
N.Z. ElectricitySupply AuthoritiesOther SourcesTotal
million kWh
1976196474071720071176502421
1977204654301920914187122205
1978207954542021268189092360
1979212154562221693189632730
1980210505391821607190402567

SALES—The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. “Domestic” includes domestic water-heating units.

Year Ended 31 MarchDomesticIndustrialCommercialFarmingPublic LightingRail and Bus TractionTotalNumber of Consumers
million kWh
197684036123257839411339176501248909
197783986999275341011636187121280166
197883147105290743611532189091309958
197981817263296340511932189631327547
198079097466310440812230190401345330

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power, and shows also the principal purposes for which the power was employed.

The distribution of the expenditure per kWh sold retail during 1979–80 was as follows: operating expenses 0.800 cents; trading, administration and general 0.509 cents; and loan interest and depreciation 1.400 cents giving a total expenditure of 2.709 cents per kWh sold retail.

The income per kWh sold in 1979–80 was, by categories; domestic 3.442 cents; commercial 5.857 cents; industrial 2.655 cents; farming 5.678 cents; public lighting 3.696 cents; railway traction 5.024 cents; urban traction 4.394 cents.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION–Additional information on electric power will be found in the following publications:

Report of the Ministry of Energy (Parl. paper D. 6).

Energy Plan (Parl. paper D.6A).

Report of the Electricity Sector Forecasting Committee.

Report of the Electricity Sector Planning Committee.

Annual Statistics in Relation to Electric Power Development and Operation in New Zealand—Ministry of Energy.

The colour supplement in the 1980 Yearbook was entitled Power for New Zealand and featured views of a number of power stations.

20 C—GAS

Gas was produced from coal as an early source of light and heating in New Zealand and by 1916 there were 56 undertakings engaged in the marketing of gas to the public. From that date the numbers of manufactured gas undertakings steadily declined because of the growth in the use of electricity as providing a cheaper source of energy. A Gas Council was established in 1958 to arrest the decline. Since 1970 the gas industry has been rejuvenated by the reticulation of natural gas in the North Island. There remains, however, a major difference between that part of the industry distributing natural gas and the remainder which is still manufacturing gas from coal and oil. The manufactured gas industry has, for many years, not been able to operate without financial assistance, and its problems intensified during 1974–75, largely because of the massive increases in the price of imported naphtha from which the lowest-cost gas had previously been produced.

The oil consortium, Shell B.P. and Todd Oil Services Ltd., discovered natural gas in Kapuni in 1959. In 1967, when further investigations had confirmed that the field was sufficiently large to justify exploitation, the Natural Gas Corporation was set up by the Government to develop this new energy resource. It is now operating the gas processing plant at Kapuni, and the pipeline to supply and sell gas along the pipeline routes to undertakings previously producing coal gas, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Hawera, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Levin, Hutt Valley, and Wellington. Natural gas supply to these centres took place in 1970 and 1971. The corporation also supplies gas to a limited number of industrial consumers adjacent to the pipeline route. A pipeline to supply untreated natural gas to the Stratford and New Plymouth electricity generating stations was completed in 1975. Supplies of untreated gas are also made available to a limited number of large industrial consumers. The corporation produces natural gasoline which is used by the Gisborne, Napier, and Hastings undertakings as a base feedstock for their gas supplies. An additional by-product extracted at Kapuni is commercial propane, which is purchased and distributed by the oil consortium. Gross trading profits of the Natural Gas Corporation were $62,144 in 1971–72, $719,966 in 1972–73, $1,826,000 in 1973–74, $1,894,000 in 1974–75, and $2,511,359 in 1975–76, but interest and depreciation charges resulted in net losses of $2.8 million, $2.2 million, $1.3 million, $1.3 million, and $982,885 in the respective years. In 1976–77 and 1977–78, however, pre-tax profits of $1,861,457 and $3,167,770 were achieved.

Those gasworks not receiving natural gas continue to receive financial incentives provided by the Government; in 1979–80 subsidies on coal prices and gas sales totalled $2,496,000 compared with $2,196,000 in the previous year. From 1 April 1980, subsidies on sales of gas manufactured from imported oil-based feedstock ceased. Subsidies on sales of gas manufactured from indigenous feedstocks ceased on 31 March 1981. Subsidies on coal used for gas manufacture will continue to 31 March 1982 and then be reduced in two annual steps to cease on 31 March 1984. The Government will increase the level of grants to gas undertakings to assist them, in approved cases, to compensate gas consumers.

GAS INDUSTRY—In 1975–76 the gas industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

  1. The manufacture and distribution of gas by gas works.

  2. The distribution of natural gas by gas undertakings.

This reclassification also introduced an integrated economic census of the industry, based on the year ended 31 March or the last accounting year prior to that date.

GAS CENSUS 1979–80—This census covered the activities of 10 gasworks manufacturing coal, oil, and water gas, and 9 undertakings distributing natural gas. Of the 10 gasworks, 3 are situated in the North Island and 7 in the South Island All the 9 natural gas undertakings are in the North Island.

Gas distributed by gasworks decreased 7.2 percent in 1979–80, to 1000.6 million megajoules. There was an increase of 6.7 percent to 12870.3 million megajoules in natural gas distributed by gas undertakings. Total turnover of gasworks and gas undertakings in 1979–80 was $57,566,000, representing an increase of 20.8 percent over 1978–79. Value Added (the approximate contribution to gross domestic product) for the whole industry was $18,552,000 in 1979–80, 31.8 percent higher than in 1978–79.

The, following table gives general statistics of the gas industry for the latest 3 years. Definitions of the terms used are similar to those for the Manufacturing Census (see section 18).

ItemUnit1977–781978–791979–80
EstablishmentsNo.212019
Ancillary unitsNo.888
Persons engaged at mid-April:
    MalesNo.953971934
    FemalesNo.142138137
Capital expenditure, less disposals$(000)2,7373,5784,160
Depreciation$(000)1,4441,8582,097
Salaries and wages paid:
    Males$(000)7,3788,2359,623
    Females$(000)7898141,005
Purchases and other expenses$(000)29,43432,11138,267
Turnover$(000)42,78047,65257,566
Value Added$(000)12,25114,07418,552

In the 3 tables which follow, the general statistics table has been extended to show the separate details of the 2 sub-groups of the gas industry which forms part of N.Z.S.I.C.—Major Division 4—“Fuel and Power”, viz:

Sub-group 41021—The manufacture and distribution of gas by 10 gasworks, covering 3 in the North Island and 7 in the South Island.

Sub-group 41022—The distribution of natural gas by 9 gas undertakings in the North Island.

The first table gives operating statistics.

ItemUnitGas WorksGas Undertakings
1977–781978–791979–801977–781978–791979–80
* Salaries and wages for females engaged in production are included with salaries and wages of females in administration, etc.
Enterprise units—
    EstablishmentsNo.121110999
    Ancillary unitsNo.665223
Paid employees at mid-April—
    Administration, sales, professional, office and related employees
    —MaleNo.696764174177184
    —FemaleNo.363737969293
Production and all other employees
—MaleNo.286277259424450427
—FemaleNo.10772
            Total—MaleNo.355344323598627611
—FemaleNo.464444969493
Paid part-time employees (included above)—
            Total—MaleNo.1064566
    —FemaleNo.101110345
Hours worked by paid employees—
  Ordinary time—Malehrs (000)659632663118411421126
    —Femalehrs (000)777371177149159
  Paid overtime—Malehrs (000)6961396685101
    —Femalehrs (000)333
Paid employees, full-time equivalent—
    —MaleNo.408388393700687687
    —FemaleNo.4341401018590
Salaries and wages paid—
  Administration, etc.—Male$(000)6316857761,6171,8402,220
    —Female$(000)185200262556569709
  Production, etc.—Male$(000)2,2062,3962,7632,9253,3143,864
    —Female$(000)494534*
            Total—Male$(000)2,8363,0813,5394,5425,1546,084
—Female$(000)233245296556569709
Capital expenditure, less sales of fixed assets—
    Land and buildings$(000)731−38−36−1,121
    Other construction$(000)1841,6491,3652,529
    Vehicles, all types$(000)332946257336352
    Plant, machinery and equipment$(000)3282231724831,6552,180
            Total$(000)3862592192,3513,3193,941
Capital work done by own employees—
    Salaries and wages$(000)1064348484882
    Other costs$(000)46751,0771,916
            Total (included in capital expenditure)$(000)10681,0231,5622,799

The second table gives financial statistics.

ItemGas WorksGas Undertakings
1977–781978–791979–801977–781978–791979–80
Stocks of materials, etc., and finished goods—
   $(thousand)  
    Value at start of year1,5001,6611,5793,0362,9983,307
    Value at end of year1,6931,5791,9912,9983,3074,364
              Increase+ 193−82+ 412−38+ 309+ 1,057
Purchase of materials—
    Fuel and power—Electricity165158233367212
                                  Fuel oil91822
                                  Gas—natural7576065
                                            —manufactured17
    Materials—Natural gas for distribution3,94260560813,35313,45014,623
                        Coal3,4974,087
                        Oil1,9531,1611,005
    Other materials and amount paid for contract services13127545213331
    Goods for resale5555386332,7573,2265,203
              Total purchases of materials6,7606,2517,05616,20316,94019,934
Operating expenses, other—
    Contributions to superannuation, etc.496578147223241
    Rent—Land and buildings35454321169228
            —Plant, equipment, vehicles159177178
    Insurance837986131133210
    Land tax, rates and licence fees107129146172194184
    Additional expenses1,2301,2861,6133,6635,3436,350
    Other costs of capital work done by own employees46751,0771,916
              Sub-total1,5041,6041,9704,9677,3169,307
Total purchases and other expenses8,2647,8559,02621,17024,25629,241
    Depreciation7187696707261,0891,427
    Salaries and wages (including those capitalised)3,0703,3263,8345,0985,7236,793
              Total operating expenses12,05211,95013,53026,99431,06837,461
Sales—
    Gas and by-products—
        Natural gas—Industrial users20,18020,41324,867
                              Domestic users5,4717,8097,956
        Manufactured gas—Industrial users5,5525,3346,463
                                      Domestic users2,4343,0232,804
          Coke9719401,124
          Tars203183235
          Other manufactured goods and services205222280187
    Goods for resale7708077603,5334,0946,457
              Total sales10,13610,50811,66729,18432,50339,280
Other—
    Rent32403918118296
    Subsidies1,7202,1302,4514174414
    Other income422832448518782
    Capital work done by own employees10681,0231,5622,799
              Total, other1,8032,2032,5301,6562,4364,089
              Total turnover11,94012,71214,19730,84034,94043,369

The third table shows the approximate contribution made by the gas industry as a whole to the Gross Domestic Product.

ItemGas WorksGas Undertakings
1977–781978–791979–801977–781978–791979–80
 $(thousand)
Total turnover11,94012,71214,19730,84034,94043,369
    Stocks at end of year1,6931,5791,9912,9983,3074,364
                Total13,63214,29116,18733,83838,24647,733
                    Less stocks at start of year1,5001,6611,5793,0362,9983,307
                    Less total operating expenses12,05211,95013,53026,99431,06837,461
Operating surplus816791,0783,8084,1806,966
Salaries and wages3,0703,3263,8345,0985,7236,793
Superannuation, etc.496578147223241
Land tax, rates, etc.107129146172194184
Depreciation7187696707261,0891,427
                Total4,0254,9685,8069,95111,40915,610
                    Less Government grants and subsidies1,7202,1302,4514174414
                    Equals value added totals for the two industries2,3052,8393,3559,94611,23515,197

PRODUCTION AND DISPOSAL STATISTICS—The following 2 tables compare production and disposal of manufactured and natural gas by the 19 enterprises in the 2 industries. The first shows gas manufactured and distributed by gas works.

Item1977–78*1978–791979–80
* Includes “natural gasoline” reformed by 3 gas works operating in the North Island.
Production—
 Megajoules (million)
    Quantity manufactured by gas works1196.61080.41002.7
        Less
            Internal consumption3.41.82.1
                Quantity available for distribution1193.21078.61000.6
Distribution—
    Losses224.2187.3156.2
    Sales—Domestic293.6296.2271.2
             —Industrial and commercial675.4595.1573.1
                        Total distribution by gas works1193.21078.61000.6

The second table shows gas purchased and distributed by gas undertakings.

Item1977–78*1978–79*1979–80*
* Includes “natural gas” reformed by 1 gas undertaking in the North Island.
 Megajoules (million)
Purchases—
    Quantity purchased by gas undertakings12266.412112.812927.8
        Less
            Internal consumption64.856.157.5
                Quantity available for distribution12201.612056.712870.3
Distribution—
    Losses1523.71329.51418.3
    Sales—Domestic1498.02140.61797.9
            —Industrial and commercial9179.98586.69654.1
                        Total distribution by gas undertakings12201.612056.712870.3

FURTHER INFORMATION—Results of the 1979–80 Gas Census were first published as a supplement to the October 1980 Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Other information on the gas industry will be found in the following reports.

Report of the Ministry of Energy (Parl. paper D. 6).

Report of the New Zealand Gas Council (Parl. paper D. 7).

Chapter 21. Section 21 MARKETING

21 A—MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

Despite the rise in the last decade in exports of timber, wood pulp, and paper and of manufactured products in general, products of animal origin still average annually over 63 percent of the total value of New Zealand exports, and agricultural exports of grass seed and fruit can be added to raise even higher the value of exports of farm produce. New Zealand remains one of the largest exporters in the world of butter and also (in some years) of meat, and is also one of the leading exporters of wool and cheese.

The following table of exports by value indicates the relative importance of farm products.

Year Ended 30 JuneDairy ProduceMeatWoolHides, Pelts, and SkinsTotal Exports*
ButterCheeseMilk and CreamCaseinTotal
* Of New Zealand produce.
$(million)
1976204.278.088.527.1397.8593.8456.477.42,255.6
1977253.984.9111.150.7509.6765.6648.2128.63,096.7
1978240.976.6132.860.5510.8765.2580.0144.03,141.0
1979277.275.5130.362.3545.31,094.0683.3181.83,946.0
1980360.6105.8219.5112.5798.41,192.3930.8180.15,012.5

The countries of destination for some of the main exports for 1979–80 are shown in the following table on a percentage basis. (Percentages are based on value of exports.)

Country of DestinationButterCheeseLambBeef and VealMuttonWool
United Kingdom59.611.551.23.15.19.8
United States0.931.05.868.90.13.9
U.S.S.R.11.61.771.112.6
Japan0.228.53.52.610.79.8
Iran0.20.214.16.0
Germany, Fed. Rep. of0.13.32.56.5
France0.30.28.3
Canada1.03.89.60.7
Italy1.30.15.5
Greece0.12.24.6
Netherlands0.30.25.5
China, People's Rep. of0.50.34.7
Australia0.76.80.93.3
Saudi Arabia0.20.33.31.30.4
Others26.017.311.711.911.818.8
    Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The United Kingdom has always been New Zealand's main export market for farm products, especially butter and lamb. Until Britain joined the European Economic Community the British consumer had virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand supplies of butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of the mutually advantageous trading arrangements made between Britain and New Zealand over a long period, which reflected close political and economic connections between their people and governments.

GENERAL MARKETING SITUATION: Meat—Most meat produced in the world is supplied to domestic markets, and only about 8 percent of world output enters into international trade. Among the few countries with significant levels of exports are Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, the Netherlands, Denmark, and the Irish Republic. The principal importers are the countries of western Europe (in particular, the United Kingdom), the United States, Canada, and Japan. It is significant, however, that although the Common Market countries are substantial meat importers, much of the current trade now takes place between member countries of the Community as governed by the Common Agricultural Policy regulations.

The United Kingdom continues to be by far the largest market for lamb and, although there have been increasing sales to diversionary areas, New Zealand lamb exports remain heavily dependent on this market.

Currently over 100 countries import New Zealand meat. Of these, 5 may be regarded as major markets. These are the United Kingdom and Iran, which in 1979–80 accounted for 52 and 18 percent respectively of New Zealand's lamb exports; Russia and Japan, which took 62 and 14 percent respectively of New Zealand mutton exports last season; and North America (United States and Canada), which currently purchases around 85 percent of New Zealand beef and veal exports.

New Zealand's beef trade with North America developed in the late 1950s, as a result of a decline in the American dairy herd and a subsequent drop in output of manufacturing-type beef. The American beef herd is grain-fed and produces carcases with a greater amount of external fat than the consumer requires. This fat is trimmed when the carcases are being dressed. The trimmings which are used in the manufacture of processed meat products need to be supplemented with the lean type of beef that New Zealand (and Australia among others) can provide. Imports of beef into the United States are subject to “voluntary restraint” agreements under the counter-cyclical meat import law. Under this system New Zealand, along with other suppliers, agrees to restrict the quantity of quota meat shipped for arrival in the U.S. during the calendar year to a negotiated tonnage. However, voluntary restraints were not imposed in 1980 because the estimated availability of export beef was less than the quantity that would be permitted under the law.

Beef and veal imports into Canada have been controlled by quota since the last quarter of 1976. However, because of the reduced export supplies, quotas were not imposed in 1980.

Imports of beef and sheepmeats into the United States are shown in the following table.

Country of ExportImports Subject to Meat Import Law*Lamb
19761977197819791976197719781979
* Includes beef, veal, mutton, and goat meat.
tonnes (000) product weight
New Zealand1181201501621281314
Australia2872973663993245
Canada36352835
Mexico2427282
Nicaragua22232931
Costa Rica24263130
Other countries483942461
                Total imports55956767470516101719
United States production1216611845112839932163.7154.7136.1128.8

Shipments of beef and veal to Canada totalled 24197 tonnes in the year ended September 1980 while lamb shipments made up 9976 tonnes.

In Japan imported mutton is used mainly for processing in sausage-type foods. Shipments of New Zealand mutton in the year ended September 1980, including those to South Korea where meat is processed and reshipped to Japan, totalled 21453 tonnes—a sharp fall from the 49588 tonnes of the 1978–79 season. The U.S.S.R. continued to be active in the market, purchasing 61877 tonnes.

It has been the policy of the Meat Board to diversify exports of lamb. The original initiative for this was the likelihood of Britain joining the EEC and, with that, the possibility of more comprehensive regulations covering imports of sheepmeats from outside the Community than the Common Customs Tariff of 20 percent. It was also considered that there was a need to reduce the continued dependence on one market.

In 1960 the Meat Export Development Company was established, an organisation charged with the responsibility for the orderly development of New Zealand lamb marketing in the United States and Canada. All New Zealand lamb sales to these countries are controlled by this company, the directorate of which is composed of nominees of the New Zealand Meat Producers Board and representatives of the freezing companies. The head office of the company is in Wellington, while the North American operations are controlled from Toronto and New York.

The Market Development Committee, which consists of representatives of the Meat Board and the meat export trade, has each year set a percentage of lamb exports to be sold in markets other than the United Kingdom. A levy was struck, payable per kilogram on any shortfall in sales below the target figure. However, with the level of diversification performance currently running at around 50 percent against targets of 32 percent, the scheme has been suspended in the interim.

Iran provided the largest diversionary market for New Zealand lamb during the 1979–80 season at 64632 tonnes. Other principal markets for lamb were Japan (12666 tonnes), Iraq (11665 tonnes), United States (11360 tonnes), Saudi Arabia (11175 tonnes), and Canada (9976 tonnes).

Wool—New Zealand is one of the world's leading producers and exporters of wool. It holds third place as a producer; only Australia and the Soviet Union grow more. It is second to Australia as an exporter, and is the world's largest supplier of medium-to-coarse crossbred for use in soft woollen clothing, upholstery, and carpets. About 94 percent of the total clip is exported. During the 1979–80 season, wool earned New Zealand $931 million (f.o.b.) overseas.

The most common way of selling wool is by open auction in New Zealand. About two-thirds of the clip is sold this way. The auction season runs from August to the following June. Sales are held at 8 centres around the country and they attract buyers representing all the main wool importing countries. Growers can also sell their wool to merchants privately in New Zealand, and the New Zealand Wool Board buys certain types of wool direct under its Extra Choice Scheme. Small quantities of wool are also shipped to Britain for sale at auction.

Prices fluctuate from season to season. The Wool Board operates a floor price scheme which assures growers of a minimum income each season. The board's market intervention and strata price control policies help to steady the market in times of uncertainty.

After a period of relative price stability dating back to the early 1950s, demand slackened in late 1966 and prices remained low for the next 5 years. Following a recovery which reached a peak toward the end of 1973, the market declined sharply although not to the levels of the late 1960s. After the devaluation of the New Zealand dollar in August 1975, the downward trend was reversed.

The market strengthened throughout 1975–76 and 1976–77, but declined again in 1977–78. In the 1978–79 season a marked recovery in the demand for wool was evident. This recovery continued in the beginning of the 1979–80 season (until October). Demand then fell and after a brief increase in January and February fell again. This resulted in an increase in the New Zealand Wool Board stockpile of 47 percent, from 80598 bales to 118437 bales. The average auction price for greasy wool increased from 218.80 cents per kilogram for the 1978–79 season to 265.09 cents per kilogram for the 1979–80 season. It increased to a peak of 301 cents per kilogram by mid-October after which it fell. Consequently until November there was very little intervention buying by the Wool Board and considerable selling. To the end of October the Wool Board bought 3000 bales and sold 56000 bales.

World wool production increased steadily until 1968–69, particularly in Australia, New Zealand, and the Soviet Union. This growth reflected improvements both in carrying capacity per acre (number of sheep) and wool production per sheep. Of the increase, probably over two-thirds stemmed from the upward trend in sheep population and the remainder from improved output per head of sheep. After reaching a record level in 1968–69 world wool production showed a downward trend until 1973–74. Production increased for the next 2 seasons to reach an all time high in 1975–76. From that record level, production has fallen off so that forecast wool production for 1980–81 is anticipated to be 9 percent down on 1975–76 levels. Thus, while New Zealand and Uruguay have both increased their wool production levels, in all the other main wool exporting countries production levels have declined. This is a reflection of severe droughts in Australia and improved profitability of cereal crops. Since World War II there has been no significant change in the broad distribution of production, which remains concentrated in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa, and Uruguay—all of which export on a large scale—and in the Soviet Union. These countries account for 75 percent of world production; of the world total, Australia produces 27 percent, New Zealand 16 percent, Argentina 6 percent, and South Africa 3 percent.

Wool production does not, of course, coincide exactly with the distribution of sheep population since the production of wool or yield per sheep varies considerably according to differences in pastoral conditions and objectives in fanning.

The International Wool Secretariat, founded by the woolgrowers of Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa in 1937 and now a partnership of the grower organisations of these countries plus Uruguay, is engaged in research, product innovation, and marketing, and the general promotion of wool. In recent years wool has had to meet strong competition from synthetics but the secretariat's campaign, and particularly the use of the Woolmark identification, has contributed to establishing a clear price premium for wool.

Sheep numbers and wool production for selected countries are shown in the following table. (Sources: International Wool Textile Organisation, Commonwealth Secretariat, International Wool Study Group, I.W.S.)

CountryWoolled SheepWool Production
1976–771977–781978–79*1977–781978–791979–80x1980–81*
* Provisional.
 (million)Greasy (million kilograms)
Argentina34.034.835.2172171172166
Australia135.4131.4134.2677706722686
New Zealand59.162.263.7311321357375
South Africa25.0x25.0x24.3106102x103103
Soviet Union139.814.1.0142.6459463x472475
United Kingdom28.129.7x30.046494951
United States12.812.312.25047x4747
Uruguay16.016.517.56263x7380
China89.090.495.2100100100100
World total950.5x961.0x978.52605x2668x27062713

The major importing countries of virgin wool are shown in the following table. (Source: International Wool Textile Organisation.)

Country of Import197419751976197719781979
(million kilograms)
Belgium43.145.363.046.751.5x54.5
France125.5120.1165.2117.4114.4x128.7
Italy67.079.8107.9x87.692.5115.3
Japan163.1229.8269.8214.4201.9213.3
Soviet Union100.3108.8109.6111.6127.0x134.5
United Kingdom121.0132.5162.0136.6149.8x121.5
United States15.319.433.9x30.4x28.5x24.0
West Germany47.174.399.376.477.1x91.9

The following table shows wool entered for export from New Zealand to major wool-consuming countries. (Sources: Department of Statistics.)

Country1975–761976–771977–781978–79x1979–80*

* Provisional.

Including exports to other countries.

 actual tonnes
Japan2691317240174363132526468
Netherlands2524126406229751722615960
Soviet Union2762024199224553141439004
United Kingdom3849346321450993769029991
United States8951100248530939911101
West Germany2276122148197922066517974
Total exports272794252673242782259122285243

The following table shows the number of bales purchased by New Zealand mills during the past 6 seasons. (Sources: New Zealand Wool Board, Manufacturers' Monthly Levy Returns.)

 197475197576197677197778197679197980
bales
Wool purchased91896175354156207121492156814138626

Dairy Produce—The international market for dairy products is characterised by its small size relative to the total world production of milk, with only around 3 percent to 4 percent of production entering international trade. As such, it is very vulnerable to fluctuations from external causes, whether these be climatic, commercial, or political. It only takes marginal production changes in the major producers, transferred via shortages or surpluses on to the international market, for severe shifts to occur in the international supply position and international prices.

There are only really 4 main dairy exporters, namely: the EEC; New Zealand; Australia; and Canada, in that order of magnitude, who provide about four-fifths of all exports. Relatively smaller quantities are exported by the Nordic countries, East Europeans, and the U.S.S.R.

The New Zealand Dairy Board exports annually over 600000 tonnes of manufactured dairy products, of which around half go to the affluent countries in Europe, North America, and Japan, and the other half to the developing countries, with a heavy emphasis on South-east Asia and Latin America. New Zealand now relies on the United Kingdom for only one-third of the value of its dairy export exchange earnings, although the United Kingdom still remains the principal market for butter.

Developed countries have a tendency to express social and political policies towards their farmers through price support mechanisms; high prices which are fixed with little regard to commercial reality encourage production but discourage consumption, thus creating surpluses. It is the disposal of these surpluses, by means of heavy Government export subsidies, which really undermines the stability of the international market.

New Zealand is almost the only country for which dairy exports are economically important. For most other countries, dairy exports are a question of surplus disposal, and therefore inconsequential to national economies. Consequently, New Zealand maintains strong and consistent pressure in international councils to achieve a stable balance between supply and demand in international trade. While attempts in GATT or other international organisations to negotiate improved access conditions in developed countries have met with a minimum of success, international arrangements covering consultative procedures and minimum prices have contributed to stabilising markets.

The “Tokyo Round” of GATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations (MTN) resulted in the negotiation of the International Dairy Arrangement to replace the OECD agreement on wholemilk powder and the GATT agreements on skim-milk powder and anhydrous milkfat. The new arrangement (signed by New Zealand in December 1979), as well as extending the product coverage and providing for an annual review of the minimum prices, established the International Dairy Products Council to evaluate the international market situation and provide a forum for seeking solutions to problems in international dairy trade.

The 1980 minimum prices per tonne established under the arrangement are:

 US$
Whole-milk powder800
Skim-milk powder500
Buttermilk powder500
Anhydrous milkfat (AMF)1,200
Butter1,000
Cheese (certain types only)900

GATT bilateral access negotiations have made some progress with the recent EEC agreement to allow the import of 9500 metric tonnes per annum of New Zealand cheese, commencing in 1980. Additionally, access for cheese into the United States was secured at a higher level, with New Zealand's quota rising from 7447 tonnes to 17442 tonnes per annum.

The following tables compare production and exports of butter, cheese, and skim-milk powder by selected countries. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

PRODUCTION
CountryButter*CheeseSkim-milk Powder
19771978x197919771978x197919771978x1979

* Includes butter equivalent of AMF.

Provisional.

Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

§ Twelve months ended 31 May of following year.

tonnes (000)
Australia11210184116141151837556
Canada11310298133140167159130114
EEC180819511964316132803422197421362055
    Denmark131140130177183189536452
    France556559582101510631099696664660
    Ireland102130133545058146174148
    Netherlands179211202417426440161223195
    United Kingdom135164161207216234246272233
    West Germany535564568691713733559595625
New Zealand§2402592728190106172174169
U.S.A.493451447152315961685502417412
EXPORTS
CountryButter*CheeseSkim-milk Powder
197719781979197719781979197719781979

* Includes butter equivalent of AMF.

Provisional.

Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

§ Excludes trade between member countries.

tonnes (000)
Australia23423455161361813
Canada22316612393
EEC§255274497209221267420418643
New Zealand183194x240706469165120172
U.S.A.225710368

Butter—World butter production in the period 1977 to 1979 averaged around 6.7 million tonnes. Excluding trade between the member states of the EEC and New Zealand's special Protocol 18 arrangement, international commercial trade in butter and anhydrous milkfat (AMF) for the period averaged 488000 tonnes. In addition, 173000 tonnes of anhydrous milkfat were given as food aid. The relatively small size of international trade compared with production illustrates the vulnerability of the international market to distortions resulting from the disposal by large producing countries via export subsidies.

In September 1980 the c.i.f. price for New Zealand butter supplied under Protocol 18 to the United Kingdom was increased through a reduction of the special levy payable. However, this increase was accompanied by New Zealand agreeing to a 20000 tonnes reduction in the 1980 quota of 115000 tonnes.

Under an agreement reached in April 1981, the United Kingdom will be able to import 94000 tonnes of New Zealand butter in 1981 and 92000 tonnes in 1982. A figure for 1983 will be agreed on during 1982.

Skim-milk Powder—World production of skim-milk powder has stabilised at around 4.0 million tonnes per annum. This follows a 25 percent growth in production during the early 1970s.

The surplus stock situation of the mid-1970s eased significantly by 1979 and a run-down in EEC stocks, enabling lower EEC export subsidies, resulted in a gradual improvement in international prices. This international market firming continued through 1980 with improved EEC stock management and lessened export subsidies.

Casein—Casein, which is produced from skim milk, was originally chiefly used in industrial products such as the manufacture of coatings for high quality paper. In the past 10 years, however, the nutritional value of caseins and their derivatives has been realised, and it is now being put to an increasing range of edible uses. Caseins are used as high-grade protein in food manufacture, where their nutritional and functional properties make them desirable ingredients in bakery goods, specialty high protein foods, coffee creamers, snack foods, and other products.

New Zealand is the largest exporter of casein, with most of the production going to the United States of America, EEC, and Japan.

The major countries producing casein are shown in the following table.

Producing CountryCasein
1975197619771978x1979*

* Provisional.

Twelve months ended 31 May following year.

Twelve months ended 30 June following year.

   tonnes (000)  
New Zealand52.758.056.763.366.2
Australia15.516.818.617.215.1
Poland24.028.035.030.030.0
France12.712.619.522.229.8
West Germany13.812.712.814.816.3
Netherlands12.013.014.015.018.0
Irish Republic1.94.07.511.212.9
Argentina8.08.05.03.03.0

Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.

DIVERSIFICATION OF MARKETS—The value of New Zealand's dairy exports to markets outside the United Kingdom has markedly increased over the last couple of decades. In 1955 only 13 percent of the value of New Zealand's total dairy exports went to markets outside the United Kingdom. In 1973, for the first time, more than half of the dairy exchange earnings came from these other markets. Since then, dairy exchange earnings from the United Kingdom market have settled at around one-third of the total.

The rate of diversification away from the United Kingdom in exchange earnings terms has now stabilised. The United Kingdom continues to be the most important outlet for New Zealand butter, taking still over 80 percent of total butter exports. Continued diversification successes are restricted by limited market opportunities for milkfat products. Sales of butter to the Soviet Union and Japan are conducted on an ad hoc basis when these countries have domestic shortages, and as such they do not represent long-term secure markets. The growth in cheese exports to Japan has slowed, while cheese exports to the United States—which had rapidly increased in recent years—are expected to be stabilised under new import quota provisions.

The following table shows the changing direction of New Zealand's dairy export earnings in the period since 1970.

Product197019751980
United KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll Markets
 $(million)
Butter104.0113.2121.0145.8273.8374.1
Cheese35.747.920.273.78.9102.7
Casein3.233.50.419.41.6117.3
Other dairy products8.847.8151.6428.0
All dairy products151.7242.5141.6391.5284.31,022.1

The percentage of dairy export earnings obtained from the United Kingdom in recent years is shown in the following table.

ProductPercentage from United Kingdom
197019751980
Butter91.982.473.2
Cheese74.527.48.7
Casein9.62.11.4
Other dairy products18.4
All dairy products62.636.227.8

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY—The Rome Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) came into force on 1 January 1958. The member countries were Belgium, France, West Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, and the Netherlands. These countries entered into negotiations which resulted in the abolition of customs duties within the Common Market on 1 July 1968. On the same date the separate customs tariff of the 6 countries gave way to a single tariff—the common customs tariff of the Community. By that date also much of the Common Agricultural Policy was in operation, although some final negotiations had still to take place. The Common Agricultural Policy, with its high internal prices supported at the Community frontier by variable levies, and its export subsidies, has encouraged the production of surpluses, most notably of dairy products, while reducing consumption.

The danger facing New Zealand was that should Britain, in joining the EEC, accept the Common Agricultural Policy without special arrangements to protect the major items of New Zealand's agricultural trade with her, New Zealand's pastoral industries in particular and the economy in general would be severely damaged.

Before the formal negotiations between Britain and the EEC commenced, the New Zealand Government engaged in discussions with the British Government and listed the requirements which were regarded as necessary to safeguard New Zealand's vital interests. These requirements were as follows:

  1. That New Zealand should be able to continue to sell at remunerative prices the quantities of butter and cheese for which it currently received assured access to the British market.

  2. That guarantees of access should not terminate with the transitional period, but that there should be a continuing arrangement subject to periodic review.

  3. That, in the event of the Community adopting a common regulation for sheepmeats, New Zealand should continue to have access for lamb sales on a satisfactory basis.

When the formal negotiations opened in June 1970, the British Government accepted this “statement of claim” for dairy products as the basis for their submission to the Community. In respect of lamb, no negotiations with the EEC were scheduled because of the absence of a common Community regulation. The New Zealand Government accordingly sought from the United Kingdom Government an understanding that it would not agree to the introduction of a sheepmeats policy which would damage New Zealand's interests.

Negotiations between Britain and the Community formally opened on 21 July 1970. However it was not until a decisive negotiating session held in Luxembourg from 21–23 June 1971 that Britain succeeded in negotiating a special arrangement for New Zealand butter and cheese.

The special arrangement was subsequently incorporated in Protocol 18 to the Treaty of Accession of the applicant countries (United Kingdom, Denmark, and Ireland) to the EEC. It provided access to the British market for specified quantities of butter and cheese at fixed prices for an initial period of 5 years ending on 31 December 1977. Access for butter was to be continued after 1977 but no special provision was made for cheese.

New Zealand butter and cheese entered under Protocol 18 from 1 February 1973 onwards. New Zealand was guaranteed a c.i.f. price of £;361 per ton for butter, and £;312 per ton for cheese. In 1973, monetary compensatory amounts became applicable to New Zealand's butter and cheese exported to the United Kingdom, and these went some way towards compensating for the decline in the sterling value of the c.i.f. prices. In November 1974 the EEC agreed to increase New Zealand's guaranteed c.i.f. prices for butter and cheese by 18 percent in recognition of New Zealand's claim that inflation and rising freight and production costs had severely eroded returns to our farmers

A further increase of 18 percent was granted towards the end of 1975 applicable from 1 January 1976 and a third increase of 10 percent was granted with effect from 10 October 1977.

In March 1975, in the context of Britain's renegotiation of its terms of entry to the community, the Common Market Heads of Government set guidelines for the quantities of butter for which New Zealand would have access to the British market for the first 3 years after 1977. They also agreed to periodic adjustments to the Protocol 18 prices taking into account, among other things, prices paid to EEC farmers, production costs in New Zealand, and trends in freight charges. In addition, they left the way open for further access for New Zealand cheese after 1977.

In the Tokyo Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was concluded in 1979, New Zealand was successful in obtaining the Agreement of the European Community to an annual quota of 9500 tonnes of New Zealand cheese. Compared with the 70000 tonnes of cheese which New Zealand exported to the Community prior to Britain's accession, the new quota is not large, but nevertheless it will enable New Zealand to resume marketing its cheese throughout the European Community.

Improved access to the EEC was also negotiated for beef. The EEC's annual global tariff quota was increased from 38500 tonnes to 50000 tonnes, thus providing some additional access opportunity in which New Zealand might share.

In June 1976 the Community's Council of Agriculture Ministers agreed on the arrangements for the import of New Zealand butter into Britain in the years 1978–80. The quantities agreed for those years were 125000, 120000, and 115000 tonnes respectively.

In September 1980 New Zealand agreed under an arrangement with the Community that it would reduce its 1980 butter quota by 20000 tonnes in return for an increase in New Zealand's c.i.f. price to the level of 75 percent of the European Community's intervention price. Agreement on New Zealand's butter exports to Britain during 1981 and 1982 was reached at the beginning of April 1981. Under the New Zealand butter accord, Britain will be allowed to import 94000 tonnes of New Zealand butter in 1981 and 92000 tonnes in 1982. The amount to be imported during 1983 will be agreed on during 1982.

Although efforts continue to be made by the. New Zealand dairy industry to diversify butter exports, market opportunities outside Europe are limited and therefore continued access to Britain for substantial quantities of butter remains essential.

Although the Treaty establishing the European Community included provision for a common market organisation for sheepmeat, this was not considered necessary because the Community was only 65 percent self-sufficient in sheepmeat production. Member states operated national controls on sheepmeat imports from third countries and the introduction of a Community regulation only became necessary when French restrictions on imports of sheepmeats from European Community members other than Ireland became an issue between the United Kingdom and France in 1978.

In May 1980 the European Community Agriculture Council agreed on the regulation of the sheepmeat sector and that such regulation would come into effect only when voluntary restraint agreements had been concluded with third-country suppliers. In October 1980 New Zealand formally entered into an agreement by which the European Community agreed on guaranteed access for New Zealand of 234000 tonnes of sheepmeat per annum (increasing by 11500 tonnes per annum after Greek accession to the Community) in return for which the European Community reduced the 20 percent ad valorem tariff to 10 percent. The present agreement operates until 1984 at which time it will be subject to a review as to its operation for later years.

UNITED KINGDOM MARKET: Butter—New Zealand continues to retain an important supply position in the United Kingdom butter market, as the following table illustrates. Domestic production of butter in the United Kingdom has dramatically increased in recent years and, with the decreasing level of consumption, is becoming a relatively larger influence on the market.

Country of OriginButter
19761977197819791980*
* Provisional.
  tonnes (000)  
New Zealand (Protocol 18)120.1137.8125.0120.095.0
Belgium/Luxembourg2.80.91.20.20.3
Denmark71.559.459.543.539.8
West Germany42.327.413.69.111.2
France20.013.65.91.61.3
Ireland48.229.348.340.030.0
Netherlands86.353.237.724.913.0
Other countries0.10.10.1
                Total imports391.3321.7291.3239.3190.6
United Kingdom production89.3133.1161.7157.7168.8

(Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

The following table shows the comparative figures for consumption of butter and margarine per head in the United Kingdom in recent years.

Product19701975197719781979
  kilogram per head 
Butter8.88.47.87.76.6
Margarine5.45.06.56.37.2

(Source: Milk Marketing Board, U.K.)

Meat—The following table shows the imports of meat into the United Kingdom from the principal countries, by country of export. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of ExportMutton and LambBeef and Veal
19761977197819791976197719781979
 tonnes (000)
New Zealand2132132142009x834
Australia12512710612x10
Argentina871111
Denmark26x25x27x18
Ireland, Republic of80127x142x149
Botswana1718x415
France24x2320x18
West Germany23x21x30x29
Other countries1117x17x24x22
                Total imports226219226207214258273276
United Kingdom production2482232282281074100110271035

The Meat and Livestock Commission estimated that in 1978 the inhabitants of the United Kingdom consumed per head 24 kilograms of beef and veal, 7 kilograms of mutton and lamb, 25 kilograms of pigmeats, 4 kilograms of offal, and 13 kilograms of poultry.

THE ORGANISATION OF MARKETING—In a country such as New Zealand, which is very dependent upon overseas trade, the efficient organisation of marketing of primary produce takes on a special importance.

Marketing Authorities—Since about 1950 the principle has been accepted that producers should be predominantly responsible for the marketing of their products. The major statutes under which specific marketing authorities operate are the Dairy Board Act 1961, the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 and the Amendment Acts 1956, 1971, and 1980 (for the Meat Producers Board), and the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, the Wool Industry Act 1977, the Milk Act 1967, the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971, the Poultry Board Act 1980, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953 (safeguards citrus fruit, and honey).

Dairy Produce—The New Zealand Dairy Board acquires and markets all dairy products intended for export and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand. The New Zealand Dairy Board is a statutory authority operating under the Dairy Board Act 1961 and acts as the administrative body for the industry and as its export marketing agency. Of the board's members, 11 are elected by the co-operative companies, 2 are appointed by the Government, and 1 by the New Zealand Milk Board. The board acquires all export dairy products from the manufacturing companies, sells the goods overseas, and returns the proceeds, less marketing costs, to the companies.

The board sells its products throughout the world, and is currently exporting to over 100 countries. Sales are made in the United Kingdom through the board's own sales organisations. In other markets, the board sells through its own local company, or through local agents, or in the case of some buyers it sells direct on a contract basis. Increasingly the board is posting its own personnel overseas in key markets as liaison representatives and, where warranted, subsidiary trading companies have been established.

Meat—The New Zealand Meat Producers Board was constituted in 1922 under the provisions of the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 to protect the national and producers' interests. Up to 31 January 1981, the board obtained funds by the imposition of a levy on all meat exported (except canned meats and offals). However from 1 February 1981, the levy was extended to cover meat for both domestic and export consumption (excluding pigmeat) and collected as a per head charge at time of slaughter. The current levy rates are—

 Cents per Head
Lambs20
Other sheep and goats29
Bobby calves (under 27 kg)24
Vealers150
Other adult cattle330

Funds from the levy totalled $5.2 million in the year ended September 1980. Expenditure exceeded income by $5.9 million, the balance being drawn from the Industry Reserve Account.

The board's main responsibilities are:

  1. Meat export licensing;

  2. The grading, storage, and shipment of meat;

  3. Market research;

  4. The promotion of New Zealand meat;

  5. Improvement in the quality of New Zealand meat;

  6. Meat price stabilisation.

The board has engaged in most activities in the export trade in the interests of the producer.

The board has had a major influence on meat marketing policy through the regulation of shipments, control over quality, and the development of markets through promotion, in which it is investing some $5.5 million a year.

In its market support activities the board is the only organisation in the world promoting the sale of meat on a genuinely international scale. To this end it has established in its major markets a network of market consultants assisting the board through its overseas offices, which are in London, New York, Tokyo, Brussels, and Tehran.

Prior to 1971 the board's power to participate in the purchase and sale of meat in any country outside New Zealand was limited under the terms of the Act to the establishment of markets in those countries where no substantial market for New Zealand meat previously existed and to the expansion and maintenance of those markets. An amendment to the Act passed in October 1971 extended the board's power to enable it to buy any meat derived from sheep and sell in or export to any country. These powers were further extended in 1974 by an Order in Council which enables the board to buy and sell beef. In the 1971–72 season the board purchased a sizeable proportion of lambs slaughtered for export, while, at one stage in the 1974–75 season, it was purchasing mutton, beef, and lamb. During the 1975–76 season and again in 1976–77 and 1977–78, the board intervened and purchased a significant proportion of the export mutton product.

While the trade has retained the role of direct marketing, the administrative and promotional work of the board has served to ensure that the long-term interests of the industry are not ignored. This function embraces all activities in moving meat from producer to consumer in the quickest and most efficient manner with due regard to the stability of prices and markets.

A Pork Industry Council functions under the Pork Industry Act 1974. Its principal functions are to promote and organise the orderly development of the pork industry; to assist in the marketing of pigs; to maintain and improve quality; to increase production; to promote efficiency; and to ensure a supply of foodstuffs for pigs.

Wool—The New Zealand Wool Board—an amalgamation of the old Wool Board and the Wool Marketing Corporation—was established on 7 February 1978 by the Wool Industry Act 1977. The board is a grower-controlled authority which has as its object to obtain, in the interest of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool. Currently the board is involved in a number of activities associated with the marketing of wool including the operation of a minimum prices scheme and a market intervention scheme aimed at reducing fluctuations in prices and cushioning declines in the market. It is also deeply involved in the research and promotion of New Zealand wool and is a partner in the International Wool Secretariat.

Apples and Pears—Apples and pears are purchased from growers by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board. This board was set up in 1948, in terms of the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971, to acquire and market the apple and pear crop. Under the Apple and Pear Marketing Amendment Act 1967 there has been set up an Apple and Pear Prices Authority whose function it is to determine each season the average price to be paid for apples and pears. This price is a New Zealand average, and within it prices to growers vary for the different varieties, grades, and sizes. Most apples and pears of standard grade are purchased by the board, with private sales by growers limited by regulations. Growers may sell direct to consumers in lots of not more than 2 cases, or with permission of the board, to retailers in specified localities. Manufacturers may be licensed by the board to purchase their requirements direct from growers (although in some cases the board itself purchases fruit and resells it to the factory). Growers may also be permitted by the board to sell at municipal markets established under the Local Government Act 1974.

The board decides what proportion of the fruit is to remain in New Zealand and what proportion is to be exported, and arranges for the storage and release of varieties according to their condition and keeping capacity, in order to make fruit available for as long a period as possible during the year. The board determines the wholesale prices at which fruit is sold in New Zealand by authorised wholesalers to retailers. If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the board exceed the amount which the board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus, after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the board, is apportioned between a reserve fund and the growers. The board may distribute up to 50 percent of the surplus among growers, or such greater proportions as the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries approves. The balance is added to the reserve fund. If sales in any season realise less than the amount the board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve fund. The reserve fund, which has been built up from profits derived almost solely from exports, has been invested in a chain of modern cool stores and mechanical equipment designed for the improved handling of fruit.

Financial results for recent seasons are shown in the following table.

SeasonProfit or LossBoard's ShoreGrowers' ShareReserve Fund at End of Season
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1975–76−2,228−2,228−4,407
1976–7713,15610,2232,9335,816
1977–7812,3826,3226,06012,138
1978–799,9914,8565,13517,273
1979–8014,5615,4439,11822,716

Potatoes—The New Zealand Potato Board was reconstituted by the Potato Industry Act 1977 as predominantly a producer organisation. It consists of 9 members—a nominee of the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries representing the interests of the consumer, 6 grower members (3 nominated by the New Zealand Potato Growers Federation and 3 by the New Zealand Vegetable and Produce Growers Federation), and 2 merchant members representing the New Zealand Agricultural Merchants Federation and the New Zealand Fruit and Produce Merchants and Auctioneers Federation.

The principal functions of the Potato Board are to promote and assist in the orderly development of the potato industry in New Zealand, and to ensure as far as practicable an adequate supply of potatoes. It maintains a register of potato plantings and charges a registration fee. The board has the power to administer a legal minimum quality standard scheme for potatoes; to specify standards for table and seed potatoes; to foster, arrange, or undertake the disposal of, surplus potatoes or sub-standard potatoes or the export or import of potatoes where necessary; to further sales by publicity or otherwise; to maintain statistics and disseminate information to growers; and to foster research and development in the industry.

Milk—The New Zealand Milk Board was set up in 1953. It operates the national milk scheme and engages in other activities for the purpose of ensuring an adequate supply and efficient distribution of milk. The legislation is contained in the Milk Act 1967.

The board, with the approval of the Minister of Agriculture, may make a levy on milk to finance its operations and retail prices are fixed by Order in Council. The price for the milk to the producer is fixed by the Minister of Agriculture after consultation with the Milk Board. Intermediate margins, such as those for treating milk and to vendors for its delivery, are fixed by the Secretary of Trade and Industry. The total cost at the present time exceeds the amount paid by the consumers, the balance being met by subsidy. It is the function of the Milk Board to administer the whole town milk scheme on behalf of the Government which, however, retains a direct interest by virtue of the substantial sum paid in subsidy.

Eggs and Poultry—Under the Poultry Board Act 1980 the Egg Marketing Authority, which was established in 1953, was dissolved and its functions merged with those of the New Zealand Poultry Board.

The functions of the New Zealand Poultry Board are—

  1. in general, to promote, organise, and develop the poultry industry;

  2. to regulate and control the production, marketing, and distribution of eggs and egg products within New Zealand and elsewhere; and

  3. to assist, foster, and promote efficiency in the production, marketing, and distribution of poultry and poultry products.

The board has 8 members, of whom 3 are appointed as representatives of the Government and 5 as representatives of poultry farmers.

The board operates principally through licensed distributors in the various districts who, on commission, receive and resell eggs or, as directed by the board, manufacture egg pulp for the use of bakers and pastrycooks. Eggs are subject to price control.

Imported Citrus Fruits, Bananas, Pineapples, and Grapes—The importation and marketing of imported citrus fruits, bananas, pineapples, and grapes are the responsibility of a public company, Fruit Distributors Ltd., representing trade interests. The operations of the company are defined and restricted by an agreement between it and the Government. There are 2 Government representatives on the company's board of directors.

New Zealand Lemons and Oranges—The Citrus Marketing Authority was established in 1953 to market fresh lemons, either directly or through agents throughout New Zealand, and to process unmarketable but otherwise sound fruit into by-products such as fruit juice and lemon peel. The authority has a membership of 6, 5 of whom are nominees of the New Zealand Citrus Council and represent the producers, and 1 appointed by the Minister of Agriculture as the Government member, who also protects the interests of consumers.

The Citrus Marketing Authority controls the assembly and distribution of New Zealand lemons, and also New Zealand-grown sweet oranges. The entire output of fruit, which comes under the jurisdiction of the authority, is sold at agreed prices to Fruit Distributors Ltd. The authority operates processing and packing facilities at Kerikeri, Tauranga, and Gisborne.

Honey—The Honey Marketing Authority, set up in 1953, undertakes the packing and marketing within New Zealand and for export of all honey supplied to it. Beekeepers have the option of supplying the authority, selling to private packers, or packing and marketing their own honey.

A hive levy payable by all producers owning 50 or more honey-producing hives is administered by the National Beekeepers Association for the benefit of the honey-producing industry generally.

The rate of hive levy is determined annually and is currently set at 17.5c per hive.

The Honey Marketing Authority comprises 4 members elected by beekeepers, and 1 member appointed as Government representative. One of the functions of the Government representative is to watch the interests of the consumer.

Prices and sales of honey by the Honey Marketing Authority are set out in the following table.

Item1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79
Payment to producerscents per kg54.8261.3475.0281.086.16
Average selling price—
    New Zealandcents per kg93.01101.20111.71127.40138.55
    Overseascents per kg74.2380.98116.88116.23120.50
Sales—
    New Zealandtonnes988889938789880
    Overseastonnes6872061017801850

TRANSPORT AND OVERSEAS MARKETS—Farm products form the bulk of New Zealand's exports. They come to hand for shipment in seasonal cycles. These are most pronounced for lamb, and apples and pears, but apply also to a marked extent to mutton, beef, wool, and related produce. Butter, cheese, and other dairy produce become available throughout the year, but production is considerably higher in the 6 months October to March than in the remainder of the year. The peak season for all the animal products is much the same, being roughly November to May, while there is a shorter concentrated season for fruit in March and April.

This seasonality presents shipping problems in the marketing process. In addition, the bulk of the commodities are perishable and require continuous refrigeration throughout the period of at least 2 to 3 months between production and consumption. The demand for shipping space lags a little behind the season, generally building up in January and declining in June. A realisation of the demands that increased production was making on transport, storage, handling, and shipping services led in 1964 to the setting up of an Exports and Shipping Council, an independent body whose main purpose is to improve the efficiency and economy of New Zealand export trade as it relates to transport services. Shipping receives special attention as shipping costs absorb a substantial portion of market realisations.

The council is representative of producer boards, freezing companies, transport interests, harbour boards, the New Zealand Chambers of Commerce, the Federation of Labour, and the Manufacturers' Federation. It has been successful in bringing into effect many of the recommendations of the streamlining report on ports, shipping, transport, and other services produced as a result of consultations between the producer boards and the main shipping lines, and it continues its efforts to improve the efficiency and economy of transporting New Zealand produce to its markets.

PRICES FOR FARM PRODUCTS: Wool—The New Zealand Wool Board and the Wool Marketing Corporation were amalgamated under the Wool Industry Act on 7 February 1978. One of the main activities of the new board is the continuance of the corporation's minimum or floor price plan, and its market intervention and strata price control schemes.

The floor price plan was introduced in 1952 by the corporation's predecessor, the New Zealand Wool Commission. It guarantees wool growers a minimum income from the wool they sell. The board prepares a table of minimum prices for all types of wool (there are almost 2000) before the start of a new selling season. The prices are fixed in agreement with the Minister of Agriculture, and are not altered during the season. If wool is sold either to commercial buyers or to the board, at a price below the appropriate minimum, the board makes a supplementary payment to the grower up to the floor level. Supplementary payments are made from the board's Wool Income Stabilisation Account. The account is funded by a 2 percent levy on the returns for wool sold for the first time at above minimum prices.

The minimum price per kilogram greasy weight for the 1980–81 season was 215 cents.

The floor price plan applies to all grower-owned scoured and greasy wool sold for the first time at auction in New Zealand and Britain. There are also procedures to protect greasy wool sold privately in New Zealand.

The board can buy wool at any price under its market intervention policy. It will do this to prevent lots being sold significantly below the market, and to cushion declines in the price. Intervention levels can be set above, at, or below, floor prices. Levels can be changed at any time by the board's directors, although their aim is to set levels which can be held for some time. The board will bid at auction if prices drop to intervention levels. If the commercial benches do not raise the price, the board buys. During the 1979–80 season the board purchased 109093 bales, and in the first 6 months of the 1980–81 season, 135104 bales.

When prices are above intervention levels, the board operates its “strata price control”. It bids when necessary to prevent prices falling more than a set percentage on the previous day's levels.

The following table shows weight, sale value, and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction. The last column shows the average minimum price to growers set by the New Zealand Wool Board.

Season Ended JuneGreasy Wool Sold at AuctionTotal Sale ValueSale Value per KilogramAverage Minimum Price per Kilogram
 Tonnes (000)$(million)CC
1975210.25192.991.7593.00
1978198.61378.2x190.43150.00
1976212.52333.9157.12124.00
1979204.35447.2x218.80x170.00
1977200.93441.2219.58136.00
1980235.73624.9265.09200.00

The next table shows index numbers based on prices of new clip greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand adjusted to a clean f.o.b. New Zealand port basis. The All Wool and each group index is on its own base: average over all sales of 1974–75 season (= 1000).

SeasonAll WoolFine Wools*Medium WoolsCoarse Wools

* 28 microns and finer.

29 to 34 microns.

35 microns and higher.

1974–751000100010001000
1975–761669145616481716
1976–772363201923552379
1977–782066179220762066
1978–792363200323972367
1979–802831244428142848

Dairy Produce—Basic prices (then known as guaranteed prices) were introduced in 1936 for butter and cheese. The present legislative authority for the fixing of purchase prices for all dairy produce which the Dairy Board acquires for export is the Dairy Board Act 1961, as amended by the Dairy Board Amendment Acts of 1972 and 1975.

Since the 1975–76 season, the Dairy Products Prices Authority has established separate values for the milkfat and solids-non-fat (s.n.f.) components of milk on a farm gate basis at the beginning of each season. These values are established having regard to the stability and efficiency of the dairy industry, realisations and market prospects, and the state of the Dairy Industry Account. They may normally not increase by more than 10 percent nor decrease by more than 5 percent on the previous season's values.

Using the milkfat and s.n.f. prices established by the prices authority as a base, the board, in turn, fixes the export purchase prices for the major dairy products by using New Zealand average yields and costs. The board may apply differentials between products to enable the product mix to be more closely matched with expected market requirements, but in doing so must establish purchase prices for products in such a manner that the average payment for the fat and s.n.f. components is at the level set by the prices authority.

The results of the board's export trading each season are recorded in 2 separate accounts—one for the seasons' trading in milkfat products, and the other for trading in s.n.f. products. The differences between export sales prices less selling costs and the purchase prices paid, results in a surplus or deficit in both of these accounts at the end of the year.

The board may pay up to 50 percent of any surplus in either of the trading accounts as an end-of-season distribution, provided such distribution is not considered by the Government to affect adversely the national economy and the stability of the dairy industry. Any remaining surplus, and any deficit, is then transferred to the Dairy Industry Reserve Account.

This system of purchase prices, trading, and reserve accounts, ensures that severe fluctuations in overseas prices are smoothed out when translated into the price the farmer receives for his milk. In the short term, a surplus or deficit in the Reserve Account may occur, but in the longer term the account must be self-balancing from overseas revenue.

The following table gives the average value of milkfat and s.n.f. in wholemilk “at farm” as set by;he Dairy Products Prices Authority plus the end-of-season distribution paid from the milkfat account.

Season Ended 31 MayMilkfat ValueS.N.F. ValueEnd of Season DistributionTotal Wholemilk Value

* Provisional.

Interim.

 (cents per kilogram of milkfat) 
1976–7781.8653.8617.02152.74
1977–7896.8053.8616.69167.35
1978–79111.8653.867.52173.24
1979–80*131.0054.0023.00208.00
1980–81162.0068.00  

These values enabled the following average prices to be paid by the Dairy Board to companies for the main products acquired for export.

Season Ended 31 MayButterCheeseSpray Skim-milk PowderAcid Casein

* Period 1/6/77–31/1/78.

Period 1/2/78–31/5/78.

Estimated Interim.

 (cents per kilogram of product) 
1976–7778.5977.3146.31122.24
1977–78*94.7189.3950.38135.64
197894.7189.8350.13134.87x
1978–79x107.7997.2852.25136.66
1979–79x125.75112.3257.49149.38
1980–81142.94124.9663.04165.60

Production of dairy factories is shown in Section 14A—Farming.

Town Milk Supply—The objects of the New Zealand Milk Board are the provision of an adequate supply of milk of good quality for human consumption and the organisation of the town milk industry on an economic basis. The board arranges supply contracts with milk producer companies for all districts, reports to Government on the adequacy of the town milk producer price, makes recommendations as to national margins for pasteurising, bottling, distribution, and other aspects of price fixation, fixes local allowances for cartage and such special distribution allowances as may be necessary, makes financial adjustments with all those in the industry to see that they get the prices or allowances to which they are entitled, and in doing so pays out subsidy on behalf of Government.

The total Government subsidy on town milk paid during recent 12-month periods ended 31 August has been as follows: 1975–76, $44,582,480; 1976–77, $39,075,629; 1977–78, $51,068,392; 1978–79, $44,192,130; and 1979–80, $40,117,536. These figures include deferred payments.

The following table shows production and sales of town milk under the control of the New Zealand Milk Board.

Year Ended 31 AugustProductionQuantity on Which Town Milk Price PaidVolume of Town SalesPrice per Litre Paid to Producer First GradeGovernment Subsidy per Litre of Town Milk Sales
  litres(m) CC
1976725.5536.8414.310.03710.758
1977739.3534.7399.510.8149.782
1978706.5534.3395.412.56412.916
1979722.9535.2386.313.38711.440x
1980723.3514.2382.915.10710.698

Meat—The Imported Meat Trade Association in the United Kingdom compiles weekly London wholesale meat prices, the basis of quotation being “ex-hooks to retailers at Smithfield market”. The next table gives prices for New Zealand lamb and beef at the end of the last week in March. Approximately 40 percent of the value of all New Zealand exports of frozen and chilled meat is generally accounted for by lamb, and the 8–12.5 kg and 13–16 kg P grades quoted in the table usually account for 10 to 15 percent and 30 to 35 percent respectively of all lamb carcasses exported.

End of Last Week in MarchLambBeef
Prime GradeY GradeBoneless Cartoned Ox Rumps
8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg16.5 to 25.5 kg8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg

* At end of last week in February. No March quotations.

No quotations because of no sales or no significant sales.

New pence per kilogram equivalent
197790.4–93.789.3–91.588.2–89.388.2–90.488.2–89.3163.1–167.6*
197899.2–100.397.0–98.194.8–95.598.8–99.997.0–98.1
1979105.8–106.9104.7–105.8100.3–101.4104.3–105.8103.6–104.7
1980116.8–119.0112.4–114.6105.8–106.9110.2–112.4108.0–109.1
1981125.7–126.8121.3–123.5111.3–113.5123.5–124.6121.3–123.5

Schedule Prices—A schedule of buying prices is issued each week by the meat operators in New Zealand. The producers have a choice on how to sell their export meat. They can sell on schedule, on owner's account, on a pool account system, on the basis of prices received from a nominated ship, on the hoof, or they can sell through a producer co-operative.

The New Zealand Meat Producers Board can, by use of its statutory powers, issue its own schedule of meat export prices. It has taken this course of action on occasions in the past when it has considered that exporters were unduly pessimistic in their assessment of future overseas market prices. Intervention of this type by the board involves not only the setting of the schedule but also the marketing overseas of the various products on its own account.

Mutton prices during 1979–80 continued the favourable levels of the previous year and as a result schedule prices reached the trigger level by December. At the end of January schedule payments were reduced and no buffer account deductions were made.

Lamb prices were somewhat depressed at the end of 1979 and this was reflected in the opening schedule which was set at the minimum. However by February prices had recovered and no supplementation of the schedule was necessary.

In contrast, beef prices opened on a reasonably strong note but slumped during March and as a result, supplementation of the schedule was required. Schedule supplements were paid from the middle of April and continued for some grades until late June when market prices had recovered sufficiently to raise schedule prices to the minimum.

The opening schedules for the latest 5 seasons are given below. The prices quoted are for dressed weights “on the hooks” at freezing works. The prices for lamb and mutton are for bare meat only with an additional payment being made for the wool and pelt.

OPENING NORTH ISLAND SCHEDULE PRICES
Class of Meat1976–771977–781978–791979–801980–81

* Includes early season premium of 9 cents per kilogram.

New Zealand Meat Producers Board Minimum Price.

 cents per kg
Lamb—
    PL, 8.0–12.5 kg72.974.593.792.0*115.0
    PM, 13.0–16.0 kg68.468.590.786.0114.0
    YL, 8.0–12.5 kg59.570.589.090.0*110.0
Mutton—
    ML, 22 kg and under21.542.031.040.056.0
    MM, 22.5–26.0 kg19.540.016.525.540.0
Beef—
    PI—Steer, 220.5–245 kg55.058.5T87.5125.5120.0
    LI—Steer, 220.5–245 kg50.554.083.0123.5114.5
    M—Cow, 145.5 kg-170 kg42.545.076.5106.5105.0
    Bull, 220–245 kg50.053.092.0129.5130.0

Minimum Prices for Export Meat—The scheme which had operated since 1955 has been replaced by a more comprehensive system with 2 principal aims: first, to establish floor prices at a more realistic level and, second, to provide a mechanism which will allow for the replenishment of the funds paid out during the periods of low prices by levying farmers' receipts when prices exceed certain “trigger” levels.

Minimum prices are based on the average of the actual price for the preceding season, the estimated price for the current season (towards the end of which the determinations are made), and a forecast for the following season during which the prices will operate. The Meat Export Prices Committee will have discretion to set the minima up to 10 percent above or below the average of the 3 seasons. The committee also determines the trigger prices for each of the 5 benchmark grades of meat. A meat income stabilisation levy is imposed when schedule prices exceed the appropriate trigger price, the proceeds going into individual buffer accounts (sheep meats and beef) established at the Reserve Bank within the Meat Industry Stabilisation Account.

In general, the scheme aims at placing a floor under the prices the producers receive, financed by funds accumulated when returns are at higher levels. It is, in short, a price-smoothing scheme which, at the same time, pays necessary regard to changes in market demand. Because of the importance of meat in the national economy, it will also have the effect of softening the impact of any sharp movements in overseas prices.

The minimum and “trigger” prices for the 1980–81 meat season are shown in the following table.

Class of MeatMinimum PricesTrigger Prices
 cents per kg
Lamb—
    PM, 13.0 to 16.0 kg113155
Mutton—
    ML, 22 kg and under4060
Beef–
    PI Steer, 245.5 to 270 kg120170
    M Cow, 145.5 to 170 kg103150
    Bull, 220.5 to 245 kg120175

These are known as the “benchmark” prices. They are the key grades for each category of meat. Other grades will be priced at appropriate differentials.

In addition to the above scheme the Government announced in the 1978 Budget the Supplementary Minimum Prices Scheme. This scheme differs from the Price Smoothing Scheme in that it offers direct price support to the producer. The minimum prices announced under this scheme for the 1980–81 season are as follows:

 Supplementary Minimum Price
Lamb PM (13.0–16.0 kg)110c/kg
Mutton ML (22 kg and over)43c/kg
Prime Beef PI Steer (220.5–270 kg)120c/kg
Manufacturing Beef M Cow (140 kg and over)105c/kg
Bull (220.5–245 kg)120c/kg

In the possible event of the schedule price for a benchmark grade falling below the supplementary minimum price, the supplementary minimum price for all the other relevant non-benchmark grades of meat will be determined and the producers will be paid accordingly. Therefore, the prices received by farmers for benchmark grades in the announced schedule will never be below the announced supplementary minimum price. The scheme is to operate for a 2-year term.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES—Farm industry reserves were built up during the Second World War when, in furtherance of the Government's stabilisation policy, farmers agreed that increases in overseas realisations for meat and dairy produce be paid into special funds for later use for the benefit of the industry concerned. The wool reserve account (later the capital funds of the Wool Marketing Corporation) arose in the main from the profits derived from the sale of wartime surplus stocks, and in part from a contributory charge levied on wool sold at that time. Much of it was used to buy in wool in 1966–67 but this was all resold by 1972. About half the meat industry reserve was used to purchase lambs in 1971–72 to provide a higher price schedule, but was recovered from the ensuing marketing of the meat. The meat industry and wool reserve accounts were both drawn on again in 1974–75. Under a new stabilisation scheme for the wool industry, from the start of the 1976–77 selling season, wool growers paid a 3-percent levy on gross wool proceeds into a stabilisation fund. The levy is now 1 percent. Where necessary, supplementary payments back from the fund will assure them of a minimum price.

The following table shows the balances in the various farm industry reserve and stabilisation accounts at given dates.

YearWool Board Capital and Reserves at 30 JuneWool Income Stabilisation Account at 30 JuneMeat Income Stabilisation Account at 30 SepMeat Industry Reserve Account at 30 SepDairy Produce Account at 31 May
* Minimum Wool Prices Funding Account.
   $(000)  
197672,025450−14,41690,924−5,978
197778,93324,354−7,74295,888−2,925
197896,950−8,07697,978−2,091
1979105,34052,464*32,301102,204−27,247
1980127,46869,54022,881105,28434,111

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on the marketing of farm produce will be found in the annual reports of the various producer boards, including the New Zealand Dairy Board, the New Zealand Meat Producers Board, the New Zealand Wool Board, and the New Zealand Milk Board. Other useful publications include the external trade publications of the Department of Statistics and the following:

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

Export News—Department of Trade and Industry (monthly).

White Paper on the GATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations (Parl. paper G. 14A, 1979).

New Zealand and the European Community—New Zealand Planning Council (1978).

The New Zealand Meat Producer—New Zealand Meat Producers Board (monthly).

The New Zealand Dairy Exporter—New Zealand Dairy Board (monthly).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

21 B—DOMESTIC TRADE

Domestic trade embraces retail and wholesale trade and part of the service field. The trend of retail trade is one of the most perceptive barometers of economic activity as it constitutes a large proportion of personal expenditure on consumer goods and services.

The sixth of New Zealand's 5-yearly Censuses of Distribution, which provide the basis for the current monthly and quarterly surveys of retail and wholesale trade, was taken for the year 1977–78, and was the first fully-integrated economic census covering the activities of establishments and ancillary units predominantly engaged in wholesale or retail trade, hotels and restaurants, etc., and the supply of personal and household services.

All activities from the purchase of goods and supplies to the point at which the goods or services were sold were within the scope of the sixth census, which was for the year ended 35 March 1978 or the last accounting year prior to 31 March.

The census formed part of the department's five-yearly series of integrated economic censuses and for this reason any comparison with the censuses of distribution prior to 1977–78 should be treated with caution.

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1977–78

In 1977–78 the distribution industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

  1. Wholesale Trade;

  2. Retail Trade;

  3. Restaurants and Hotels;

  4. Personal and Household Services.

The statistical tables which follow give summaries of those four divisions. The definitions used in these tables are the same as listed for the Census of Manufacturing statistics (see section 18), with the following exceptions:

Establishments—Productive units, usually warehouses, shops, stores, hotels, repair-workshops, etc, engaged predominantly in selling goods and services.

Ancillary Units—Servicing units, usually head offices, engaged in predominantly servicing those establishments.

(The 5 oil companies, classified as wholesalers of “petroleum products”, were not required to advise separate details of establishment/ancillary unit activities.)

The following table gives a general summary of the results from the 4 divisions and of the 1977–78 Census of Distribution as a whole.

ItemWholesale TradeRetail TradeRestaurants and HotelsPersonal and Household ServicesTotal
* At mid-April 1978.
 Number
Establishments6183278787166656347790
Ancillary units2722093630547
Persons engaged*
    Males56390744672299414752168603
    Females2099568382321929721131290
                Total773851428495518624473299893
Salaries and wages paid—$(million)
    Males4223298862901
    Females1052219128446
                Total526550179901,347
Depreciation5849288143
Purchases and other expenses8,7255,62960827315,236
Sales and other income9,7766,54890444117,668
Value added1,2871,0323061722,797
Capital expenditure, less disposals89825315239

WHOLESALE TRADE—The following tables provide a summary of wholesale trade during 1977–78 as shown by the Census of Distribution.

The first table is a summary of the division as a whole.

WHOLESALE TRADE 1977–78
 Number
Establishments6183
Ancillary units272
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978—
    Males56390
    Females20995
                Total77385
Salaries and wages paid—$(thousand)
    Males421,874
    Females104,600
                Total526,474
Depreciation58,325
Purchases and other expenses8,725,066
Sales and other income9,775,811
Value added1,286,572
Capital expenditure, less disposals88,768

In the two following tables statistics of the wholesale trade division are given at industry major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-April 1978Salaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillary UnitsMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 NumberNumber$(thousand)
Unprocessed Primary Products
    Seedsmen5553921312,309426
    Wool, hides, and skins142410952978,8371,193
    Agricultural and other related products, n.e.c.303236671,725341
    Unprocessed primary products, n.e.c.401201791,846316
            Total26713192457414,7172,276
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco Products
    Grocery products25113642190725,1329,445
    Meat and meat products10388153467,3501,817
    Fish48113031491,810608
    Dairy products2314472654,763
    Food, n.e.c.6722671301,933550
    Fresh fruit and vegetables91514687818,2232,773
    Alcoholic beverages71-8072345,8291,267
    Tobacco products11-8739819
                Total665287836385154,36417,954
Textiles, Clothing, and Footwear
    Textiles (dress and furnishing)14747414166,1972,219
    Wearing apparel and haberdashery17539196857,3253,081
    Footwear372118101828478
    Leather goods and leather32-12072916321
    Textiles (other than dress and furnishing)17-8445721224
    Clothing accessories and textiles n.e.c.3911511011,211425
                Total447102133142017,1986,749
Building Materials, Building Supplies, and Hardware
    Timber and other building materials50319564997541,7694,855
    Builders' hardware2326176962812,2562,967
    Plumbers' hardware161311363437,5011,398
    Paint and wallpaper3932951121,769514
    Domestic hardware, pottery, glassware, and china113-4411973,184969
    Other hardware58-280862,106358
                Total1106319570234168,58611,062
Household Appliances, Furniture, and Floor coverings
    Household appliances8277063855,6682,096
    Household furniture24-682135163
    Furnishings and floor coverings9554472313,3261,129
                Total2011212216379,3453,288
Pulp, Paper and Paper Products
    Books, stationery, and other printed paper products24952236130211,2746,210
    Paper and paper products, n.e.c.6614762243,8421,118
                Total31562712152615,1177,327
Pharmaceuticals, Chemicals, Petroleum, and Related Products
    Drugs and medicines104109577657,9544,225
    Cosmetics, toiletries, and related goods3211621831,5491,004
    Chemicals and allied products1697121738110,2862,150
    Petroleum and petroleum products27-283041026,4502,603
                Total332185166173946,2389,981
Metals, Machinery, and Equipment including Transport Equipment
    Metals1806149237412,5211,965
    Agricultural machinery and equipment2355194343012,4161,744
    Industrial machinery and equipment (including electrical machinery)48194701149436,4337,986
    Electrical equipment and fittings2277148155911,9392,872
    Commercial machinery and equipment2289206771519,9534,369
    Professional, scientific, and medical equipment4964352193,5931,171
    Motor vehicles and motor cycles1396130747410,1312,490
    Motor vehicle parts and accessories3327323686921,6854,312
    Transport equipment n.e.c.35-233581,741315
                Total190655168955192130,41127,222
Wholesale Trade, n.e.c.
    Photographic goods43104163263,5271,821
    Watches, clocks, jewellery, and related articles6912251551,467666
    Music and musical instruments1819266714325
    Sporting goods49-3331692,542816
    Toys and novelties39-12297847410
    General wholesalers127259835897,7843,279
    Stock and station agents487215371155437,3717,149
    Wholesale trade, n.e.c.112-3661662,077724
                Total944587908312256,32915,191
Ancillary units servicing more than one major group-4110255939,5693,550
                Total wholesale trade61832725639020995421,874104,600

The following table shows additional financial statistics of wholesale trade, also at industry, major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
* Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential information.
 $(thousand)
Unprocessed Primary Products
    Seedsmen30449,92455,5856,441287
    Wool, hides, and skins1,167513,059507,60528,4952,743
    Agricultural and other related products, n.e.c.49936,47039,5944,0061,158
    Unprocessed primary products, n.e.c.278110,468119,7167,258337
                Total2,248709,922722,50046,2014,526
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco Products
    Grocery products3,030905,285971,09369,8606,289
    Meat and meat products759524,273555,94430,8411,756
    Fish42627,65332,5314,7321,670
    Dairy products370525,952572,86683,219*
    Food, n.e.c.348131,742149,20318,292705
    Fresh fruit and vegetables1,853171,049202,65534,5152,182
    Alcoholic beverages727160,151180,64321,627864
    Tobacco products2640,00441,8821,750*
                Total7,5392,486,1102,706,819264,83614,108
Textiles, Clothing and Footwear
    Textiles (dress and furnishing)54099,866115,04717,395832
    Wearing apparel and haberdashery816107,334123,62517,7931,333
    Footwear12514,44416,1152,197142
    Leather goods and leather8017,91220,1022,567106
    Textiles (other than dress and furnishing)8211,33112,6321,94068
    Clothing accessories and textiles, n.e.c.11719,97622,9254,139122
                Total1,760270,863310,44646,0322,603
Building Materials, Building Supplies, and Hardware
    Timber and other building materials3,971484,216573,67998,8006,012
    Builders' hardware914125,088150,11728,3891,015
    Plumbers' hardware523100,734119,24219,504774
    Paint and wallpaper15818,63222,7484,648363
    Domestic hardware, pottery, glassware, and china32545,55552,5618,642169
    Other hardware19331,33936,3895,602280
                Total6,084805,564954,737165,5858,613
Household Appliances, Furniture, and Floor Coverings
    Household appliances81275,65285,29411,6741,112
    Household furniture504,2254,878637102
    Furnishings and floor coverings38364,99673,02310,559917
                Total1,245144,874163,19522,8702,131
Pulp, Paper and Paper Products
    Books, stationery, and other printed paper products1,134110,147135,01130,3271,584
    Paper and paper products, n.e.c.413123,817134,18711,883399
                Total1,547233,963269,19842,2101,983
Pharmaceuticals, Chemicals, Petroleum, and Related Products
    Drugs and medicines1,065159,507178,38719,8742,354
    Cosmetics, toiletries, and related goods17518,36920,9944,828434
    Chemicals and allied products1,903307,596337,90532,9623,539
    Petroleum and petroleum products14,072914,7721,046,609124,11113,216
                Total17,2141,400,2451,583,896181,77519,542
Metals, Machinery, and Equipment including Transport Equipment
    Metals1,229463,475492,06233,8802,610
    Agricultural machinery and equipment1,145184,538200,30233,7292,519
    Industrial machinery and equipment (including electrical machinery)2,782289,327357,80182,5514,302
    Electrical equipment and fittings1,559138,528161,37627,3773,261
    Commercial machinery and equipment3,02391,732142,42550,0823,225
    Professional, scientific, and medical equipment30924,23830,9087,225312
    Motor vehicles and motor cycles1,171452,528462,09234,5582,257
    Motor vehicle parts and accessories1,617184,164241,93378,2392,609
    Transport equipment, n.e.c.14329,18931,7585,293215
                Total12,9801,857,7192,120,657352,93521,311
Wholesale Trade, n.e.c.
    Photographic goods64234,94143,9138,210308
    Watches, clocks, jewellery, and related articles14518,06921,4124,480274
    Music and musical instruments819,40911,2223,664163
    Sporting goods21428,78134,0355,994102
    Toys and novelties10310,51912,5652,03689
    General wholesalers686170,626189,88821,675213
    Stock and station agents3,807465,504540,17684,9586,335
    Wholesale trade, n.e.c.35733,25938,0935,389786
                Total6,035771,107891,305136,4068,268
Ancillary units servicing more than one major group1,67444,70053,05827,7225,685
                Total wholesale trade58,3258,725,0669,775,8111,286,57288,768

The two following tables show a regional summary of wholesale trade.

Wholesale Trade by Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillary UnitsMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 NumberNumber$(thousand)
Northland155511023807,3801,720
Central Auckland179764174197808131,21939,313
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty686165276155537,1297,428
East Coast8128133334,5421,190
Hawke's Bay26012220672315,6233,379
Taranaki193514295819,7932,692
Wellington125183144605280120,62228,332
                Total, North Island44231874270516660326,30884,053
Marlborough563365892,451378
Nelson11637522174,901990
Westland305193621,309251
Canterbury953488034269857,08913,034
Otago37817274982418,9103,755
Southland2279159244510,9052,140
                Total, South Island17608513685433595,56520,547
                Total, New Zealand61832725639020995421,874104,600
Wholesale Trade by Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Northland744100,709118,20618,8631,480
Central Auckland14,7342,436,0542,714,122365,06023,887
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty4,274577,304668,456104,0956,613
East Coast66069,89781,69013,5991,666
Hawke's Bay1,771285,662322,55942,0353,170
Taranaki921166,946183,76125,6471,448
Wellington25,4033,299,2433,660,236454,10333,787
                Total, North Island48,5086,935,8157,749,0301,023,40272,051
Marlborough27938,05441,7476,580659
Nelson66497,953109,37215,076725
Westland11717,58519,6452,883317
Canterbury5,7931,052,6801,196,904156,65110,060
Otago1,809375,682417,01752,4562,921
Southland1,156207,297242,09629,5242,036
                Total, South Island9,8181,789,2512,026,780263,17116,717
                Total, New Zealand58,3258,725,0669,775,8111,286,57288,768

RETAIL TRADE—The following tables provide a summary of retail trade during 1977–78 as shown by the Census of Distribution.

The first table is a summary of the division as a whole.

RETAIL TRADE 1977–78
 Number
Establishments27878
Ancillary units209
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978—
    Males74467
    Females68382
              Total142849
 $(thousand)
Salaries and wages paid—
    Males328,926
    Females221,374
              Total550,300
Depreciation48,600
Purchases and other expenses5,629,070
Sales and other income6,547,549
Value added1,032,333
Capital expenditure, less disposals82,344

In the two following tables statistics of the retail trade division are given at industry major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-April 1978Salaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillary UnitsMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 NumberNumber$(thousand)
Unprocessed Primary Products
    Seedsmen and gardening supplies30416506302,2541,727
    Florists286-1145661161,222
    Pet shops83-7889103182
    Unprocessed primary products, n.e.c.32-1092346364
                Total705195113082,9353,195
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco Products
    Grocers17174262545756,37312,844
    Dairies2303-254857741,3107,643
    Supermarkets31984305680218,87423,755
    Butchers161094669107722,8812,378
    Fish shops1151212181645361
    Delicatessen122-132237207374
    Milk vendors1159-54188532,923648
    Food, n.e.c.162192358211817
    Greengrocers and fruiterers7771129913541,6602,310
    Wine and spirit merchants127-8492605,3281,264
    Wine resellers25242584008961,231
    Tobacconists89-97128108447
                Total875228225042199961,41654,072
Textiles, Clothing, and Footwear
    Dress fabric shops29032319501,0163,214
    Combined textile and softgoods shops658148117671,6275,130
    Other textile, etc, shops, n.e.c.233-815621781,736
    Wearing apparel (except infantwear)2557182849628314,48221,577
    Infantwear shops19113941993844
    Shoe shops703394119013,9346,334
    Clothing accessory shops, n.e.c.15521113464091,275
                Total47872847331222821,73740,110
Paint, Wallpaper, and Hardware
    Paint and wallpaper shops312411136176,5972,342
    Household and kitchen hardware stores521-10358843,7272,621
    Hardware shops, n.e.c.81-18287648186
                Total91442330158810,9725,149
Household Appliances, Furniture, and Floor coverings
    Household appliances, radio, and television stores1311424176235725,17010,524
    Sewing machine dealers1571216305725886
    Furniture stores4631012817697,3193,087
    Floor covering stores and soft furnishings4391313748438,6343,495
    Sheepskin shops85151200160723
                Total2455677098447442,00618,715
Paper Products
    Booksellers746481416272,2785,215
    Newsagents, stationers, etc.494-6898575361,515
                Total12404150324842,8146,730
Chemical Products and Petroleum
    Pharmaceutical supplies, cosmetics, and toiletries11841191038595,10914,859
    Petrol stations135317196181931,8314,932
                Total253729106567836,94019,790
Motor Vehicles and Other Transport Equipment
    Motor vehicle and motor cycle dealers17281115090328696,00514,819
    Motor vehicle part and accessory shops478416643318,2941,043
    Other transport vehicles, n.e.c.378-9343244,353740
                Total258415176883941108,65216,602
Retail Trade, n.e.c.
    Photographic and optical goods dealers12832701471,349451
    Watch and clock dealers and jewellers574377210612,5003,455
    Music stores9112461521,163525
    Sports goods dealers and camping equipment stores34027703702,989919
    Toy and novelty stores1512166270708852
    Gift, handcraft, and souvenir shops722646413721,4082,866
    Art dealers1073116145303390
    Secondhand dealers906-9708532,0661,291
    Department stores372213671893623,97542,134
    General stores421-5128407941,603
    Retail stores, n.e.c.921142109483272
                Total39044280991425537,73654,758
Ancillary units servicing more than one major group-184554273,7172,252
                Total retail trade27.782097446768382328,926221,374

The following table shows additional financial statistics of retail trade, also at industry major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Unprocessed Primary Products
    Seedsmen and gardening supplies33420,94527,6347,244883
    Florists1848,40211,6933,374229
    Pet shops753,5404,343845432
    Unprocessed primary products, n.e.c.843,8674,9031,10071
                Total67736,75448,57212,5631,615
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco Products
    Grocers2,526338,707375,38838,5683,595
    Dairies3,121276,758307,88332,6184,949
    Supermarkets3,289446,928501,40959,6665,655
    Butchers2,984165,026213,36249,0896,089
    Fish shops1838,95011,5742,616460
    Delicatessen1797,2888,9741,726394
    Milk vendors1,11539,38156,33916,9431,680
    Food, n.e.c.1338,84110,8242,129165
    Greengrocers and fruiterers87460,99474,57413,6421,499
    Wine and spirit merchants54486,059101,32315,103723
    Wine resellers30824,65431,8427,850476
    Tobacconists507,8449,1561,10430
                Total15,3041,471,4301,702,648241,05325,715
Textiles, Clothing, and Footwear
    Dress fabric shops26923,96630,7477,172312
    Combined textile and softgoods shops46953,09564,20213,105911
    Other textile, etc., shops, n.e.c.12313,81616,7163,758164
Textiles, Clothing, and Footwear
    Wearing apparel (except infantwear)2,501265,356320,57865,9173,434
    Infantwear shops768,6669,9511,934208
    Shoe shops54176,04892,70220,459675
    Clothing accessory shops, n.e.c.999,23011,7813,058421
                Total4,078450,177546,678115,4036,124
Paint, Wallpaper, and Hardware
    Paint and wallpaper shops51462,74976,97916,4791,163
    Household and kitchen hardware stores53950,94862,71212,639732
    Hardware shops, n.e.c.1089,55711,5812,433168
                Total1,161123,254151,27231,5502,063
Household Appliances, Furniture, and Floor coverings
    Household appliances, radio, and television stores6,587245,331307,70769,7799,669
    Sewing machine dealers24215,07319,3464,838398
    Furniture stores74582,779100,09917,9801,474
    Floor covering stores and soft furnishings78796,519117,67420,8041,063
    Sheepskin shops686,6158,1991,876277
                Total8,429446,316553,025115,27712,881
Paper Products
    Booksellers69363,63980,29818,752839
    Newsagents, stationers, etc.36232,63438,3536,539321
                Total1,05596,273118,65125,2911,160
Chemical Products and Petroleum
    Pharmaceutical supplies, cosmetics, and toiletries1,604165,247213,93951,7232,165
    Petrol stations2,926487,054546,20061,5775,629
                Total4,530652,300760,139113,3007,794
Motor Vehicles and other Transport Equipment
    Motor vehicle and motor cycle dealers4,5411,415,8601,576,810176,6955,801
    Motor vehicle part and accessory shops82469,75987,29119,7672,227
    Other transport vehicles, n.e.c.59084,06194,66912,0412,406
                Total5,9551,569,6801,758,771208,50310,434
Retail Trade, n.e.c.
    Photographic and optical goods dealers15615,25118,0413,620376
    Watch and clock dealers and jewellers54340,63852,47013,939477
    Music stores13716,40119,4333,519516
    Sports goods dealers and camping equipment stores44537,51844,8808,416746
    Toy and novelty stores15413,78616,4033,193173
    Gift, handcraft, and souvenir shops47640,42151,10810,3861,359
    Art dealers594,1805,6961,638129
    Secondhand dealers51929,85841,41412,5271,658
    Department stores3,855437,665519,12395,5314,755
    General stores49254,79361,2516,663890
    Retail stores, n.e.c.817,1238,9522,053−17
                Total6,917697,635838,770161,48311,062
Ancillary units servicing more than one major group49485,25169,0247,9103,497
                Total retail trade48,6005,629,0706,547,5491,032,33382,344

The two following tables show a regional summary of retail trade.

Retail Trade by Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 NumberNumber$(thousand)
Northland9692222120508,2766,031
Central Auckland748080201201937390,18963,432
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty431822107791003744,41730,875
East Coast334-9227834,1342,614
Hawke's Bay124423368287114,0878,936
Taranaki9265231220349,0526,098
Wellington502858137561301464,21144,444
                Total, North Island202991695347850162234,366162,431
Marlborough32717987523,1432,203
Nelson6642169313467,9354,215
Westland250-52942,2251,280
Canterbury37142610636958848,11130,948
Otago169894664382121,11212,412
Southland92622669231412,0347,884
                Total, South Island757940209891822094,56058,943
                Total, New Zealand278782097446768382328,926221,374
Retail Trade by Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Northland1,421163,731192,04630,5932,815
Central Auckland15,5171,555,0291,815,045282,51826,016
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty6,621844,226980,494145,68310,174
East Coast54365,40877,24612,339876
Hawke's Bay1,925230,239270,45043,1303,839
Taranaki1,237153,875182,35928,6631,952
Wellington9,1661,119,5931,280,821205,14014,622
                Total, North Island36,4304,132,1014,798,461748,06760,293
Marlborough49258,62467,74410,7501,570
Nelson983129,346149,76923,0381,805
Westland30739,00344,7176,331529
Canterbury6,056747,560872,907143,89910,340
Otago2,799321,738377,37162,0145,091
Southland1,533200,698236,58038,2342,716
                Total, South Island12,1701,496,9701,749,088284,26522,051
                Total, New Zealand48,6005,629,0706,547,5491,032,33382,344

RESTAURANTS AND HOTELS—The following tables provide a summary of the restaurants and hotels division during 1977–78 as shown by the Census of Distribution.

The first table is a summary of the division as a whole.

RESTAURANTS AND HOTELS 1977–78
 Number
Establishments7166
Ancillary units36
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978: 
    Males22994
    Females32192
                Total55186
 $(thousand)
Salaries and wages paid: 
    Males88,259
    Females91,108
                Total179,367
Depreciation27,928
Purchases, and other expenses608,368
Sales and other income904,065
Value added306,118
Capital expenditure, less disposals52,891

In the two following tables statistics of the restaurants and hotels division are given at industry major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-April 1978Salaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillary UnitsMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 NumberNumber$(thousand)
Restaurants, Cafes, and Other Eating and Drinking Places
    Takeaway food stores16678280139104,2176,239
    Tea-rooms, coffee-houses, cafeterias, and unlicensed restaurants16832224965343,65614,846
    Caterers147288519752,5104,031
    Licensed restaurants and cabarets2411165023358,3826,725
    Licensed taverns and chartered clubs7184816284721,9089,408
                Total445613124011760140,67441,249
Motels, Hotels, Guesthouses, Hostels, Camps, and Other Accommodation
    Unlicensed motels1205122030931,0794,527
    Licensed hotels and motels82338266970342,49040,767
    Private hotels, boardinghouses, guesthouses38449612731,2003,290
    Motor-camps, caravan parks, cabins2703953431,242
    Other accommodation, n.e.c.2891515
                Total27103103861442745,60449,006
Ancillary units servicing more than one major group202071641,981853
                Total restaurants and hotels716636229943219288,23991,108

The following table shows additional financial statistics of the restaurants and hotels division, also at industry major group and sub-group (industry) level.

IndustryDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
   $(thousand)  
Restaurants, Cafes, and Other Eating and Drinking Places
    Takeaway food stores2,53377,275107,27030,4236,437
    Tea-rooms, coffee-houses, cafeterias, and unlicensed restaurants3,16974,460109,29835,1236,044
    Caterers36115,00723,7058,758712
    Licensed restaurants and cabarets1,43330,84847,22517,7861,761
    Licensed taverns and chartered clubs4,161133,292182,65447,7718,576
                Total11,658330,382470,151139,86223,531
Motels, Hotels, Guesthouses, Hostels, Camps, and Other Accommodation
    Unlicensed motels4,50925,05648,56323,5668,375
    Licensed hotels and motels10,067232,692355,027127,74916,056
    Private hotels, boardinghouses, guesthouses1,00310,44417,1036,8303,239
    Motor-camps, caravan parks, cabins4994,9839,2554,3001,308
    Other accommodation, n.e.c.3017525570115
                Total16,109273,349430,202162,51429,093
Ancillary units servicing more than one major group1614,6373,7123,742267
                Total restaurants and hotels27,928608,368904,065306,11852,891

The two following tables show a regional summary of the restaurants and hotels division

Restaurants and Hotels in Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-April 1978Salaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 NumberNumber$(thousand)
Northland34969210962,2632,951
Central Auckland1504125815698024,42320,319
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty12543240508411,20813,587
East Coast1132745329081,342
Hawke's Bay31885613682,8143,473
Taranaki2215179291,8112,469
Wellington1194144835624519,94517,985
                Total, North Island495326162292223463,37362,125
Marlborough1473044619061,194
Nelson2424727471,4222,028
Westland1352594078761,245
Canterbury93933312464811,93813,586
Otago5174162325296,7107,226
Southland233379511663,0343,704
                Total, South Island2213106765995824,88628,982
                Total, New Zealand716636229943219288,25991,108
Restaurants and Hotels in Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Northland1,28221,09331,7569,8882,516
Central Auckland6,032152,141220,94872,84212,127
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty4,62692,562137,92846,7527,205
East Coast4468,19812,2854,182525
Hawke's Bay1,07523,37234,97611,6711,420
Taranaki76316,30824,1968,0891,848
Wellington4,794115,295170,73360,0346,326
                Total, North Island19,018428,970632,821213,45831,966
Marlborough5108,59812,2873,784546
Nelson72213,67020,3656,7932,417
Westland4477,52211,7614,224488
Canterbury3,34885,440128,35042,1007,118
Otago2,54942,90066,70524,3636,236
Southland1,33521,26931,77711,3974,120
                Total, South Island8,910179,398271,24492,66020,925
                Total, New Zealand27,928608,368904,065306,11852,891

PERSONAL AND HOUSEHOLD SERVICES—The following tables provide a summary of the personal and household services division during 1977–78 as shown by the Census of Distribution. The first table is a summary of the division as a whole.

PERSONAL AND HOUSEHOLD SERVICES 1977–78
 Number
Establishments6563
Ancillary units30
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978: 
    Males14752
    Females9721
                Total24473
 $(thousand)
Salaries and wages paid: 
    Males61,954
    Females28,480
                Total90,434
Depreciation8,449
Purchases and other expenses273,180
Sales and other income440,868
Value added172,138
Capital expenditure, less disposals15,260

In the following tables statistics of the personal and household services division are given at industry major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-April 1978Salaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillary UnitsMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 NumberNumber$(thousand)
Repair Services, n.e.c.
    Repair of footwear and other leather goods761214026246
    Electrical repairs346312583637,3091,230
    Motor repairs1249386789515,1061,755
    Panelbeaters and spraypainters11821436458318,2941,037
    Auto electricians2036951813,173433
    Other motor-vehicle services23826891672,439323
    Watch, clock, and jewellery repairs6881297534
    Other repair shops, n.e.c.160127782833121
                Total3522711352234047,4914,979
Laundries, Laundry Services, and Cleaning and Dyeing Plants52322126320247,6848,727
Miscellaneous Personal Services
    Hairdresser and beauty shops178290442601,61611,174
    Photographic studios, including commercial photography2544645791,7371,902
    Funeral directors8412951101,656311
    Saunas, massage parlours, health clinics951213852371,340
    Other personal services, n.e.c.303353231,53246
                Total25181213753576,77814,774
                Total personal and household services65633014752972161,95428,480

The following table shows additional financial statistics of the personal and household services division, also at industry major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
* Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential information.
 $(thousand)
Repair Services n.e.c.
    Repair of footwear and other leather goods258291,72090127
    Electrical repairs60316,40029,31913,156408
    Motor repairs1,575109,537142,37533,8693,716
    Panelbeaters and spraypainters1,07749,43985,10136,1372,296
    Auto electricians24414,09120,7766,968666
    Other motor-vehicle services27210,46116,9576,653463
    Watch, clock, and jewellery repairs327791,37964328
    Other repair shops, n.e.c.1445,2047,5482,508280
                Total3,973206,740305,175100,8357,884
Laundries, Laundry Services, and Cleaning and Dyeing Plants1,93518,33944,13527,141*
Miscellaneous Personal Services
    Hairdresser and beauty shops1,10826,13252,01926,1571,914
    Photographic studios, including commercial photography78911,73619,2317,7121,565
    Funeral directors3667,08012,3915,479868
    Saunas, massage parlours, health clinics2221,7964,4862,697*
    Other personal services, n.e.c.561,3583,4302,116*
                Total2,54148,10291,55744,161*
                Total personal and household services8,449273,180440,868172,13815,260

The two following tables show a regional summary of the personal and household services division.

Personal and Household Services by Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 NumberNumber$(thousand)
Northland26715663021,985743
Central Auckland1754234053274617,5138,536
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty10361222713128,2363,404
East Coast80177116701273
Hawke's Bay3046084322,5941,232
Taranaki2255253251,808801
Wellington115932552187511,1735,541
                Total, North Island48252810708710844,01120,530
Marlborough70139100537233
Nelson15013662091,544575
Westland5314757567204
Canterbury8961201113829,0164,285
Otago3588715074,2881,540
Southland2115103581,9911,113
                Total, South Island173824044261317,9437,950
                Total, New Zealand65633014752972161,95428,480
Personal and Household Services by Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Northland29410,68816,6886,0821,055
Central Auckland2,63572,375119,77549,3634,400
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1,12939,37362,65123,7221,852
East Coast883,1195,0111,955116
Hawke's Bay30911,66818,8947,258568
Taranaki2958,99414,0645,168541
Wellington1,65250,00881,72732,4312,766
                Total, North Island6,402196,226318,810125,97811,298
Marlborough643,2104,6041,434207
Nelson1577,70011,5303,965381
Westland793,0014,4401,452110
Canterbury1,04837,13559,72322,9931,271
Otago42415,76525,84010,4771,059
Southland27410,14315,9215,840935
                Total, South Island2,04776,955122,05846,1613,962
                Total, New Zealand8,449273,180440,868172,13815,260

SUMMARY OF CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1977–78—The following table shows a summary of the results of the Census of Distribution 1977–78 as a whole.

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1977–78
 Number
Establishments47790
Ancillary units547
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978: 
    Males168603
    Females131290
                Total299893
 $(thousand)
Salaries and wages paid: 
    Males901,012
    Females445,562
                Total1,346,574
Depreciation143,302
Purchases and other expenses15,235,685
Sales and other income17,668,292
Value added2,797,161
Capital expenditure, less disposals239,264

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADE—A quarterly sample survey of retail trade was made by the Department of Statistics until the December quarter 1969. It was replaced by a monthly sample survey in January 1970 and the results of this sample are aggregated to obtain quarterly figures.

The present sample survey was revised in January 1976, based on store-type groupings from the 1972–73 Census of Distribution. Some store types (hotels, chartered clubs, wine and spirit merchants, milk vendors, and the automotive group) are still excluded from the published figures. The collection of statistics for these store types commenced in April 1976 and the results are at present being used to establish a seasonal correction pattern for future surveys.

The following table gives quarterly sales and also stocks at 31 March for store-type groups.

Quarter EndedButcher, Poulterer, etc.Grocer and DairyOther Food and DrinkFootwearApparelFurniture and Soft FurnishingsHousehold Appliances, Electrical Goods, Radios, T.V., etc.Hardware, Builders' Hardware, Paints, etc.ChemistGeneral Department, and VarietyOtherAll Store Types
$(million)
Retail Sales
1979—
    Mar52.3343.199.025.4105.782.487.6103.757.6156.4312.91,426.1
    Jun58.8361.7106.733.5132.292.8105.2108.258.7196.2322.01,576.1
    Sep60.3384.3113.3x27.4116.995.199.8108.760.7176.1339.9x1,582.6x
    Dec69.1459.7133.1x35.1138.3106.2108.1129.376.3240.7462.8x1,958.5x
1980—
    Mar61.1441.7130.731.7114.692.099.0120.767.4189.3404.61,752.8
    Jun66.5450.5138.139.7140.4105.8116.5127.666.5225.0404.31,881.1
    Sep68.3479.7144.332.7128.6116.7124.8137.472.4209.8406.11,920.8
    Dec80.9551.3165.137.7152.7119.1132.1165.488.8280.9540.02,314.0
Retail Stocks as at 31 March
19793.687.410.136.6143.890.373.678.037.1144.0255.5959.9
19804.8110.512.449.1161.0120.190.391.242.4171.7299.01,152.5

Retail Trade Statistics Adjusted for Seasonal Fluctuations and for Price and Population Changes—To facilitate direct comparisons between quarterly figures, seasonally adjusted values of retail trade turnover have been prepared. To do this, seasonal adjustment factors were calculated representing, for each quarter, an average over several years of the ratio of sales in this quarter to the trend value for the quarter (the trend values being calculated as appropriately-centered moving averages).

A special price index has been prepared for the purpose of deflating the retail sales figures to give a series in dollars of constant purchasing power—i.e., the adjusted series shows the changes in the real volume of retail sales. The principal source of the prices used for this index are the commodity prices used in the Consumers Price Index. The prices have been appropriately weighted and the whole index expressed on the base: December quarter, 1974 (= 1000), so that application of the index to the original figures, both before and after seasonal correction, gives a series in constant December quarter, 1974 dollars.

The results of these calculations and adjustments are shown in the following table for all store types.

Quarter EndedIn Current $In Constant Dec qtr 1974 $
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*
* Base: Value December Quarter 1974 (= 1000).
Total Sales or Turnover
 $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) 
1979—Mar1,426.11,527.71668777.7833.1910
    Jun1,576.11,610.81759818.6836.5914
    Sep1,582.6x1,644.5x1796x776.4x806.2x881x
    Dec1,958.5x1,751.5x1913x917.8x823.5x899x
1980—Mar1,752.81,878.12051795.1854.3933
    Jun1,881.11,918.62096816.1830.2907
    Sep1,920.81,981.22164797.7821.3897
    Dec2,314.02,059.42249909.9809.0884
Sales per Head of Population
 $     $      $     $      
1979—Mar453.0485.31620247.0264.6884
    Jun505.1516.21723262.3268.1895
    Sep510.4x530.4x1770x250.3x260.0x868x
    Dec626.0x559.9x1870x293.4x263.2x879x
1980—Mar556.5596.31990252.4271.2905
    Jun602.1614.12050261.3265.7887
    Sep617.8637.22127256.6264.1882
    Dec736.7655.62189289.7257.5860

Information on quarterly sales is presented graphically in the following diagrams.

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF WHOLESALE TRADE—In this survey stores are classified by store-type group according to the predominant type of commodity sold. The stone-type figures therefore do not cover only sales of goods normally associated with the type of store listed, as there are many wholesale stores which handle a wide variety of commodities.

This survey was revised in March 1977. The revised survey includes wholesalers with sales turnover in excess of $100,000 at the 1973 Census of Distribution and covers approximately 89 percent of all wholesale turnover and 87 percent of wholesale stocks at that census.

Several wholesale store-types which were included in the 1973 Census of Distribution for the first time have been introduced into the quarterly survey. The major additions are timber merchants, timber products, cement and concrete stores, indent agents, exporters, manufacturers' agents, and wool, hide, and skin dealers. They have each been allocated to an appropriate survey store-type group. The revised survey also features the addition and deletion of a number of stores which were reclassified at the 1973 Census to and from wholesale, respectively, owing to changes of the proportion of wholesale trade between the 1968 and 1973 Censuses of Distribution. In addition some existing wholesale stores have moved between survey store-types.

The following table shows wholesale turnover by store-type group during each quarter of the 2 latest years and wholesale stocks as at the end of each quarter of the 2 years.

PeriodFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicals
Quarter ended—$(million)
Sales or Turnover
1979—
    31 Mar379.199.950.8170.4179.6104.6
    30 Jun427.2113.958.7205.4197.1118.5
    30 Sep434.1119.264.9199.6205.6128.7
    31 Dec496.5121.863.3229.0217.1143.1
1980—
    31 Mar431.8118.252.1217.5198.7123.1
    30 Jun457.4122.961.2248.8222.4136.5
    30 Sep510.4126.067.4266.8235.2124.4
    31 Dec599.3109.465.1276.4239.6150.7
As at—
1979—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
    31 Mar139.374.744.4137.5150.765.0
    30 Jun150.679.741.7143.1150.472.6
    30 Sep145.287.947.7163.2160.980.7
    31 Dec144.597.450.1160.3168.487.3
1980—
    31 Mar167.496.458.7175.5169.186.7
    30 Jun174.393.861.3166.7177.095.7
    30 Sep173.994.461.7185.0180.1103.5
    31 Dec177.095.263.1180.5181.8105.1
PeriodGeneral MerchantsMachineryElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryMiscellaneousTotal
ActualSeasonally Corrected
Quarter ended—$(million)
1979—Sales or Turnover
    31 Mar106.577.333.638.7277.51,518.21,625.4
    30 Jun118.181.337.747.9300.81,706.51,732.5
    30 Sep122.792.039.947.4288.81,742.81,683.8
    31 Dec139.497.338.049.5339.31,934.21,850.9
1980—
    31 Mar135.798.737.648.2362.71,816.41,944.7
    30 Jun127.695:539.550.7357.11,919.41,900.2
    30 Sep139.697.942.854.1320.61,985.21,979.2
    31 Dec145.4103.943.655.5338.22,127.22,028.2
As at—
1979—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
    31 Mar61.596.831.029.2142.3972.4966.6
    30 Jun60.596.531.332.3151.31,010.21,011.2
    30 Sep70.4115.132.731.8152.21,087.91,081.4
    31 Dec69.6125.635.132.9174.41,145.61,159.5
1980—
    31 Mar78.2131.639.031.3182.21,216.11,216.7
    30 Jun76.2136.640.233.8173.11,228.71,221.7
    30 Sep83.4140.539.937.2166.21,265.61,258.4
    31 Dec78.6144.840.437.8179.31,283.71,290.7

INSTALMENT CREDIT TRADING—Instalment credit trading in New Zealand has been growing steadily in recent years in common with other developed countries. This growth generally is explained by common causes, including an increasing social acceptance and the development of borrowing facilities. There is an increasing tendency for consumer durables to be purchased on credit. Instalment credit allows high-priced goods to be acquired as opportunity or desire dictates, with less reference to the immediate cash position. Some people welcome the discipline of monthly credit repayments as a means of saving. Consumer credit is provided either by retailers or finance companies. A major activity of the finance companies is the financing of motor vehicles on hire-purchase; the Reserve Bank collects statistics in this field. A report by the Tariff and Development Board on instalment credit trading, published as parliamentary paper H.49, 1968, is a useful reference.

The Hire Purchase Act 1971 is the governing legislation in New Zealand.

Regulations to control hire-purchase trade have existed since 22 July 1955. Goods coming into the category “Other consumer goods” were exempted from hire-purchase restrictions from 29 October 1977, and, from 3 February 1978, new regulations covering hire-purchase sales of new cars were introduced. These allowed for a minimum deposit of 60 percent, with a maximum repayment period of 12 months. For used cars the repayment was extended once more to 18 months. With effect from 19 April 1978 hire-purchase sales and credit sales of colour television sets, together with the conditions applying to the hire of television sets, were no longer regulated. The maximum period of credit on new motor cycles was extended to 18 months, and on secondhand motor cycles to 24 months, while the minimum deposit for the latter was reduced to 33 1/3 percent.

The quarterly survey of hire-purchase advances made by the Department of Statistics was revised for the June 1980 quarter and the revisions made retrospective to the June 1977 quarter to enable comparisons to be made. For the revised survey the list of businesses surveyed was updated to include large finance companies not previously covered and retail stores whose sales on hire purchase exceeded $0.5 million during the year ended March 1978.

Sales on hire purchase by businesses covered by the revised survey represented some 92 percent of total hire-purchase sales in 1977–78 as recorded in the 1978 Census of Distribution.

Only sales covered by the regulations governing hire purchase are included in the survey. Credit sales, charge accounts, laybys, and other forms of instalment or credit selling covered by the Census of Distribution are not included in the quarterly figures.

The following table shows the value of advances as recorded by the surveyed businesses.

Quarter EndedMotor Buses Trucks and TractorsCara, Motor Cycles, Caravans, etc.Plant and MachineryHousehold and Personal Goods, incl. TV SetsTotal Advance Under H.P. AgreementsTotal Owing Under H.P. Agreements xPercentage of Payments Overdue
Advance on H.P.Advance as % of Cash ValueAdvance on H.P.Advances as % as Cash ValueAdvances on H.P.Advances as % of Cash ValueAdvances on H.P.Advances as % of Cash Value
 $(m) $(m) $(m) $(m) $(m) $(m)
1977—
    Jun25.26730.44620.37622.38098.2396.92.3
    Sep22.76731.34618.77824.78297.4417.12.8
    Dec31.57031.94219.97927.081110.3434.83.0
1978—
    Mar23.96534.24423.37022.083103.3450.22.8
    Jun25.06339.752?5.47133.381123.5432.93.0
    Sep31.76739.44723.06635.084129.2506.72.7
    Dec29.56940.24722.66438.980131.2505.82.8
1979—
    Mar26.67236.34726.86932.382122.0542.62.6
    Jun26.46736.04631.46937.884131.5558.72.7
    Sep36.77239.24639.17736.079151.0580.72.8
    Dec36.27345.14630.27941.081152.5621.82.9
1980—
    Mar32.36943.44318.27641.083134.9649.42.8
    Jun30.37053.64618.88441.782146.4684.32.4
    Sep34.76862.35217.17748.280162.3680.12.7
    Dec41.07361.65219.07347.701169.2724.02.6

A form of short-term credit trading which has grown rapidly during the past 3 years is the use of credit cards as a substitute for cash. This has largely been the result of the introduction of bank credit cards by the 5 trading banks.

COMMERCIAL PRACTICES—Legislative provisions dealing with the control of prices and with consumer protection are briefly described in Section 23 Prices, Household Expenditure, and Consumer Affairs. Further Sections of the Commerce Act 1975 are described below.

TRADE PRACTICES—Part II of the Commerce Act 1975 is designed to stimulate competition through the alleviation of the harmful effects of various undesirable trade practices that are, or may be, considered contrary to the public interest as defined in section 21 of the Act. Some of these practices are prohibited, for example, profiteering and black marketing. Other types of practices are those that may be approved by the Commerce Commission if they are not considered harmful to the public interest. They include collective pricing agreements, individual resale price maintenance arrangements, and pyramid selling schemes. This commission may also make orders against a third category of practices which it considers contrary to the public interest. These include refusals to supply, and directed insurance.

MONOPOLIES, MERGERS, AND TAKEOVERS—Part III of the Commerce Act is designed to ensure that some control is maintained over aggregations of economic power in New Zealand. Aggregations which constitute a merger or takeover proposal under the Act are investigated and considered by the Examiner of Commercial Practices in terms of the effects on the public interest, which is defined in the Act. The examiner may consent to a proposal, or where he considers it is likely to be contrary to the public interest, it may be referred to the Commerce Commission which will hold a public hearing to decide in terms of public interest whether the merger or takeover should proceed.

Monopoly and oligopoly situations can be investigated by the examiner on complaint or on evidence of misuse of market power. If found to be contrary to the public interest, situations are made the subject of a hearing held by the Commerce Commission, which is empowered to take corrective action.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on domestic trade will be found in the following publications.

Census of Distribution 1977–78—Department of Statistics (Bulletins and volume).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

Additional information on the 1977–78 Census of Distribution is available from the Department of Statistics, Auckland.

Chapter 22. Section 22 EXTERNAL TRADE

22 A—GENERAL SURVEY

New Zealand has always been heavily dependent on overseas trade for its development and progress. Today the value of New Zealand's overseas trade as a proportion of gross national product is among the highest in the world. In the early days of colonisation the infant farming industry found a ready market in Australia for basic foodstuffs such as potatoes, grain, butter, and cheese. Timber and gold temporarily constituted a sizeable proportion of exports, but the most consistent export was wool, which made up 22 percent of the value of exports in 1853, when statistics were first compiled. In the 1870s it accounted for over half the value; from 1880 to 1898 its share was from 40 percent to 50 percent. From 1899 to 1964 wool consistently earned one-third of New Zealand's export receipts; since then the proportion has declined, and in the year ended June 1980 wool made up only 19 percent of exports by value.

Real and lasting diversification of the exports of farm products was made possible by the introduction of refrigerated ships in 1882. This accentuated the development of New Zealand's economy as a complement to the British economy, to the benefit of both. The proportion of New Zealand's total exports going to Britain grew from 70 percent in 1860 to 77 percent in 1900, and reached 88 percent in 1940. At first, exports of frozen meat increased more rapidly than those of butter and cheese; the early emphasis was on frozen mutton and lamb, with beef and veal becoming more significant later. The great expansion of exports of dairy produce occurred after 1900, and was encouraged by the centralised factory production of butter. From 1913 until recent years, meat, dairy products, and wool accounted for over 60 percent of total exports of New Zealand goods. The proportion dropped to 56 percent for the year ended June 1980, with meat (24 percent) the major export earner.

New Zealand's heavy dependence on the British market continued into the post-Second World War era. From about the beginning of the 1960s the increasing emphasis on diversification away from this dependence has been reflected in the growth of beef exports to the United States, of cheese and forest products exports to Japan, and of lamb exports to Greece, the United States, and Canada; the establishment of a rapidly growing trade in meat and dairy produce with the developing countries of South-east Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America; the expansion of trade with Australia under NAFTA and with other South Pacific countries; and the growth of manufacturing industries within New Zealand to supplement agriculture as a source of export earnings as well as to supply the domestic market.

Britain's entry into the European Economic Community in 1973 gave added impetus to New Zealand's efforts to diversify its market for agricultural products. At the same time New Zealand's diplomatic and trade posts in Europe have been strengthened to handle the increasing work and economic diplomacy associated with maintaining access to this market. The enlarged Community, despite its restrictions on imports of agricultural products, remains New Zealand's largest single trading partner, accounting for 25 percent of New Zealand's exports and 24 percent of New Zealand's imports during the year ended June 1980.

New Zealand's relations with the Community continue to demand close attention and there is a flow of official visitors between New Zealand and the Community. This contributes towards the establishment of a close relationship on New Zealand's part with the EEC Commission and individual Community member states.

During 1980 an agreement was concluded whereby New Zealand is guaranteed access to the EEC sheepmeat market and a reduced tariff in return for agreeing to limit to traditional levels the quantity of sheepmeat sent to that market. The quantities of butter New Zealand would be able to supply to the Community during 1981 (94000 tonnes) and 1982 (92000 tonnes) were agreed at the beginning of April 1981. Developments affecting trade with the Community in other agricultural products continue to be monitored closely.

Access into the North American market is vitally important. New Zealand's trade with the United States is circumscribed by various quantitative restrictions imposed on beef, mutton, veal, and dairy products. Meat exports can be subject to quotas imposed under a countercyclical formula introduced in 1979. Dairy products (except casein) are subject to fixed quotas. Dairy products exported to Canada are also subject to quantitative restrictions, and quotas have been applied to beef entering Canada on several occasions.

New Zealand's economic and trade relations with Japan have become closer. Bilateral trade has increased, both in volume and value, and consultations between the two Governments, at Ministerial and official level, have been extended. Continued efforts have been made to improve access for New Zealand agricultural exports (particularly dairy products and beef), leather, radiata pine, and squid.

The newly-independent nations of the Pacific have attracted particular attention since the formation in 1971 of the South Pacific Forum. There is now much more awareness of the scope for closer trade relations with and between the islands. Australia and New Zealand have recently concluded a trade and economic co-operation agreement with the Forum Island countries.

At the same time our diplomatic and trading links with China, the ASEAN countries, and Latin America, have been extended and a significant volume of trade has developed.

New Zealand's trade relations with Australia have always been close. They are largely governed by the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Agreement on Tariffs and Preferences, which came into effect on 1 January 1966 and 1 December 1977 respectively. Two-way trade is currently in excess of $1,500 million per annum.

New Zealand's trade with the USSR and other socialist countries of eastern Europe has grown steadily over the past decade; it declined significantly in 1977–78 but has recovered strongly, particularly over the past year. Our exports to the region are dominated by wool, hides, skins, meat, and occasionally dairy products, while imports include a range of manufactured products, fertilisers, and foodstuffs.

The large rises in world oil prices have greatly increased the revenues of Middle East oil-exporting countries and this has been reflected in the expansion of New Zealand exports to the region in recent years. Political events in Iran resulted in a large drop in New Zealand exports to that country during 1978–79. However, these recovered last year to reach a level almost double that in 1977–78. Exports of meat to the Middle East have risen from $1 million in 1972–73 to $131 million in 1979–80. In the same time, exports of wool have risen from $6 million to $60 million and dairy exports from $1 million to $23 million. The main markets for these commodities are Iran (meat, wool, and dairy products), Saudi Arabia (meat, dairy products), Iraq (meat and dairy products), and the Arab Republic of Egypt (wool and meat).

The pattern of New Zealand's export commodities is changing. Whereas, in the year ended June 1970, meat, dairy products, and wool earned 76 percent of New Zealand's export income (Reserve Bank figures), in the year ended June 1980 they earned only 60 percent of the total export income. Over this 10-year period earnings from exports of manufactured goods, including forest products, rose from 12 percent to 26 percent of total export income.

The following table shows the changing pattern of external trade by countries of destination and origin. The percentages are based on value data, exports f.o.b. and imports c.d.v. (v.f.d. in 1980).

YearBritainAustraliaJapanUnited StatesOther Countries
Exports percent
1920745 165
1930803 512
1940883 45
1950663 1021
1960534 1330
June Year
1970368101630
19752212121242
19781813131442
19791711151641
19801412131447
Imports percent
19204817 1817
1930478 1827
19404716 1225
19506012 721
19604318 1029
June Year
1970302181328
19751920141334
19781822131433
19791522141435
19801519131439

TRADE RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED KINGDOM—The preceding table shows that the United Kingdom has remained the predominant market fox New Zealand's exports and the second biggest supplier of her imported goods. The British consumer for a long time enjoyed virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of trading arrangements reflecting traditional economic, political, and cultural bonds between the people and governments of the two countries.

In return for providing an assured market for this New Zealand produce, Britain obtained an assured source of reasonably priced food in war and peace, valuable preferences in the sale of manufactured goods in the New Zealand market, and considerable earnings from the provision of shipping, insurance, and other services related to the 2-way trade between the countries.

In recent years the United Kingdom's share of New Zealand's export trade has gradually declined. This decline was given impetus by New Zealand's increased efforts to diversify her export products and markets in view of British moves towards joining the EEC. Thus in 1950 the United Kingdom took 66 percent of New Zealand's exports, but by the year ended June 1980 its share had fallen to 14 percent. However, the United Kingdom is still New Zealand's main export market, taking the bulk of our lamb and butter exports (51 percent and 77 percent respectively in the 1979–80 year), and 10 percent of our wool.

Entry into the EEC, involving the assumption of obligations under the community's Common Agricultural Policy, required Britain to terminate the 1959 and 1966 trade agreements with New Zealand on 31 January 1973, and to begin to phase in the common customs tariff and other EEC policies affecting the import of goods from those countries. In consequence, New Zealand phased out by 1 July 1977 the tariff preferences previously given to imports from Britain.

DIVERSIFICATION—Britain's prospective entry into the EEC also caused an intensification of New Zealand's efforts to develop new markets for its exports and to broaden the range of its export commodities. Progress in diversification by the dairy industry is reflected in the fact that the volume of dairy exports to markets outside Britain is now 72 percent of the total. An important factor in the diversification effort is the greater exchange of views and co-operation between the principal dairy exporters.

Reference has been made earlier to the important structural changes taking place in New Zealand's export trade and, in particular, the growing importance of manufactured exports and of new markets, especially in the Pacific basin region.

North America—The United States is now on a par with the United Kingdom as an export market for New Zealand. It is our major market for beef and veal, which in 1979–80 accounted for 53 percent by value of total exports to the United States. However, this trade has been circumscribed since 1964 by the imposition of quantitative restrictions. A new Meat Import Act was passed late in 1979 (to be implemented from 1981 onwards) so that these import controls will now include a countercyclical formula under which the level of beef imports increases when United States domestic production is low and vice versa. As the New Zealand beef production cycle generally moves in accord with the United States beef cycle the new legislation is likely to have a destabilising effect on our beef industry and United States quotas will be lowest when our production is highest. Other main exports to the United States are lamb, wool, casein (the United States is our largest market for casein), and hides and skins. Since the 1950s, an array of import quota controls have been applied to dairy products, especially butter, cheese, and milk powder. These controls have severely limited New Zealand's ability to expand its sales of dairy products to the United States, although with the loss of the traditional British market it is now our second largest market for cheese.

New Zealand's exports to Canada have increased from $16.2 million in the year ended June 1969 to $97.8 million in the year ended June 1980. Beef and veal are again our main exports to Canada, followed by lamb and mutton, sausage casings, wool, machinery, textile products, and casein. New Zealand's trading relationship with Canada is governed bilaterally by the terms of the Canada - New Zealand Trade Agreement of 1932 as amended. In July 1973 New Zealand and Canada agreed in an exchange of letters to continue tariff preferences on the same general basis as those derived from their trade agreements with Britain prior to the termination of these agreements following Britain's entry into the European Economic Community. The July 1973 agreement included undertakings against increasing duties against each other, and for maintenance of margins of preference. New Zealand's main objectives in the trade policy field are to have the quotas on beef and veal removed and to obtain permanent access for dairy products.

South Pacific—The Pacific Islands have attracted particular attention in recent years and in 1971 New Zealand and Australia, with the Cook Islands, Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, and Western Samoa, formed the South Pacific Forum. Since then, Papua Nov Guinea, Kiribati, Niue, Solomon Islands, and Tuvalu, have become full members. The forum has initiated a regional shipping line, and studies into market expansion for Island products, and the rationalisation of agricultural production. Recently, Forum Governments concluded the South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Co-operation Agreement (SPARTECA) which came into force on 1 January 1981. This Agreement provides that Australia and New Zealand will grant non-reciprocal duty-free and unrestricted access for most of the products exported by Forum Island countries. It also recognises that the full potential of the access provisions can be achieved only through closer economic co-operation and development assistance aimed at enhancing the export capabilities of the Island countries.

Japan—Exports to Japan have increased from $25.5 million in 1963 to $633 million in the year ended June 1980. Major exports are forest products (22 percent), aluminium (18.5 percent), wool (24.5 percent), meat (7.5 percent), fish (7 percent), dairy produce (11 percent), ironsands (4.5 percent), and fruit and vegetables (3 percent). Japanese imports of beef, butter, skim-milk powder, and some fish and fruit are subject to global quotas.

ASEAN Countries—New Zealand is becoming increasingly aware of the long-term potential of the ASEAN countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand) as a major export market for agricultural, forestry, and manufactured exports. New Zealand's exports to the ASEAN group have increased from $84 million per year to $262 million per year over the last 5 years. Substantial growth is foreseen as the region develops further, particularly for exports of manufactured goods. ASEAN continues to develop as a regional entity and an ASEAN - New Zealand Joint Trade Study Group was established in 1976 to review the development of New Zealand's trade with ASEAN countries. However, a strong emphasis remains on bilateral relations with each individual country. Negotiations on a Trade Agreement with Thailand are nearly completed. In October 1980 New Zealand officials visited ASEAN capitals to present seminars on access conditions and marketing in New Zealand.

China—Since the normalisation of relations with China in 1972 the bilateral trade has increased significantly. Exports to China increased from $1.7 million in 1971–72 to $117.5 million in 1979–80. Wool, tallow, and forest products remain dominant, but there has been some diversification in recent years. Dairy products, steel, leather, hides, and (most recently) sawn timber and aluminium have also been sold. China's modernisation programme offers good prospects for co-operation in a number of areas (e.g., agriculture, hotel-construction, geothermal energy, food processing, and light industry), and further growth and diversification in the sale of goods and services. The past 2 years have seen an increasing number of exchanges, both official and commercial. A Joint Trade Committee meets annually to review the development of the trade.

Korea—Exports to the Republic of Korea, which increased from $1.6 million in 1970–71 to $68.8 million in 1978–79, dropped to $64 million last year, reflecting an economic downturn in Korea. Wool, wood pulp, hides and skins, and mutton and lamb are major export products. The eleventh annual Ministerial trade talks were held in Wellington in August 1980.

Latin America—Peru, Mexico, Venezuela, and Argentina have become useful markets for New Zealand dairy products, especially for milk powder and anhydrous milk fat (AMF). Peru purchased $23.5 million worth of these products in the year ended June 1980, while Mexico also increased its purchases of milk powder and AMF substantially in 1979–80.

Eastern Europe—New Zealand's exports to Eastern Europe, including the Soviet Union, have increased in value by more than 10 times over the last decade, from $28 million in 1969–70 to a record $306 million in 1979–80. The Soviet Union is the most important market in the region and, with New Zealand exports valued at $251 million in the 1979–80 trade year, is now New Zealand's fifth largest export market and our largest market for wool and mutton.

New Zealand's exports to the area reflected Eastern European requirements for raw material for manufacturing (wool, hides, and skins) and the need to meet occasional shortfalls in domestic production (mutton and dairy products). Diversification of exports continues to be an important goal, with new export opportunities developing for live sheep, seeds, milking equipment, ear tags, and pharmaceutical raw materials.

New Zealand imports from Eastern Europe totalled $33 million in 1979–80 and included a wide range of products, such as chemicals, machinery, textiles, glassware, fertilisers, and motor vehicles.

As a result of more frequent visits to the region by New Zealand exporters and an increasing level of government-to-government exchanges, including Joint Trade Commission meetings with Hungary in May 1980 and Romania in October 1980, New Zealand exports to the centrally-planned economies are expected to show modest growth.

Middle East—The decade covering the 1970s saw New Zealand substantially increase sales of products to the Middle East. Exports to the region rose from $2.2 million in 1969–70 to $260.6 million in 1979–80. Imports, consisting mainly of crude oil and petroleum products, reached $440.8 million in 1979–80 compared with $232 million the previous year.

New Zealand's major markets continue to be Iran, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia, which take over 75 percent of exports to me region. Primary products (lamb, dairy products, wool) are still the major products exported, but in recent years significant quantities of New Zealand manufactured goods have been purchased by several Middle East countries.

New Zealand's position in these markets has been enhanced by the signing in October 1979 of a 4-year contract to supply lamb to Iran, the renewal of the 5-year “evergreen” dairy products agreement with Iraq, and the conclusion of a meat contract with Iraq.

Valuable markets are also being developed in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Kuwait, Jordan, Syria, and Oman for primary products, processed foodstuffs, and a range of manufactured items.

Export initiatives have been reinforced by contacts at ministerial, official, and business levels. In March 1980 the Iraqi Minister of Trade, H. E. Mr Hassan Ali, visited New Zealand. The second session of the New Zealand - Egypt Joint Trade Commission was held in Cairo in May 1980.

Australia—New Zealand's trade relations with Australia have always been close, but recent years have witnessed unprecedented growth in 2-way trade, particularly in manufactured goods. The 1965 New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has been an important factor in this expansion. A number of projects for co-operation in industrial development, including the motor vehicle industry, have been developed and there has been increased co-operation in implementing the Memorandum of Understanding on Defence Supply signed in 1970.

The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement was signed on 31 August 1965 and came into effect on 1 January 1966. The main aim of the agreement, which ran for an initial period of 10 years and was extended for a further 10 years, is “to further the development of the area and the use of the resources of the area by promoting a sustained and mutually beneficial expansion of trade”.

The central element of the agreement is its list of goods (Schedule A) on which duties are progressively reduced and bound at free in the tariffs of both countries. The agreement also contains general provisions governing the conduct of trade between Australia and New Zealand covering such matters as dumping, the maintenance of import restrictions, the encouragement of industrial rationalisation between the two countries, and the holding of consultations on a regular basis and for specific purposes.

Complementary development of trade has been encouraged since 1967 by reciprocal concessions under trading arrangements between firms in New Zealand and Australia under Article 3:7 of NAFTA. Approvals for such inter-firm arrangements totalled about $70 million in the June year 1980.

In terms of a further agreement, each country has undertaken not to increase tariffs against the other while maintaining agreed minimum margins of tariff preference over imports from non-preferential countries.

Trans-Tasman trade statistics are given in the following table.

June YearNew Zealand Imports from Australia*New Zealand Exports to AustraliaVisible Balance of Trade with AustraliaRatio of Imbalance in Australia's Favour

* Current domestic value.

Including re-exports f.o.b.

Valuation for 3980 is v.f.d. (value for duty).

  NZ$ (million) 
1976514.5263.7−250.81:1.95
1977653.6365.6−288.01:1.79
1978652.0387.8−264.21:1.68
1979797.1447.0−350.11:1.78
1980914.8634.1−280.71:1.44

In spite of the NAFTA's success in promoting the rapid expansion of trans-Tasman trade, in recent years it has been felt that it is no longer the most appropriate instrument to reflect the changed economic circumstances. The New Zealand and the Australian Prime Ministers, meeting in March 1980, recognised that it would be timely to take the special relationship between the 2 countries a step further, and a framework was agreed upon for further detailed exploration and examination of possible arrangements for a closer economic relationship.

In consequence, through most of 1980, the Australian and New Zealand Governments, in consultation with interested parties, undertook detailed studies and negotiations with a view to establishing whether a new agreement could be reached in place of NAFTA. The new agreement, it was hoped, would (within an established timetable) remove tariff duties and establish the fullest possible movement of goods between the two countries. By December 1980 substantial progress had been made and decisions were expected to be taken by the 2 Governments in 1981.

TRADE PER HEAD—Trade per head of population is affected, not only by the volume of trade but also by the value, i.e., the prices received for exports and the cost of imports.

The following table shows the value, per head of mean population, of New Zealand's trade over the last 5 years.

Year Ended JuneExports (f.o.b.)Imports (c.i.f.)Total Trade
 $     $     $     
1976768.74953.851,722.58
19771,033.511,132.522,166.03
19781,058.691,046.922,105.61
19791,299.891,227.392,527.28
19801,648.291,654.813,303.10

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE—In the following table the c.i.f. valuation of imports has been used to establish the visible balance of trade. Gold, specie, passengers' baggage, ships stores, and bunkering totals are excluded.

June YearVisible Excess of Exports
 $(000)
1974–75−1,179,639
1975–76−632,850
1976–77−378,240
1977–78−29,297
1978–79144,695
1979–80150,124

NOTE: Minus signs indicate an excess of imports.

Visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries (see Section 25B). A statement of New Zealand's overseas exchange transactions is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TRADE STATISTICS—Provisional trade data are published in an appendix to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics fairly soon after the period to which they relate.

Annual volumes containing comprehensive surveys of final data are also published by the Department of Statistics.

New Zealand has used the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) as from 1 July 1962, for classifying external trade for statistical purposes; from the same date this classification was put into effect for recording the external trade of the Cook Islands and Niue. Since 1 July 1978 the classification has been in accordance with the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised 2).

Provisional values of imports and exports are set out in the following table.

Period1977–781978–791979–80
Exports (including Reexports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Reexports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Reexports) f.o.b.Imports
v.f.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuev.f.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuev.f.d. Valuec.i.f. Value
$(million)
Month of July276.5260.1281.3264.1215.1232.5318.2297.7318.0
2 months ended August528.8566.0612.6542.9523.9564.5687.5714.0766.5
3 months ended September754.5844.6916.8803.4771.1828.71,040.01,063.51,145.9
4 months ended October986.11,091.71,188.81,122.21,140.41,219.21,436.91,508.71,623.2
5 months ended November1,195.91,329.81,448.51,476.51,434.31,536.11,876.01,907.12,052.4
6 months ended December1,486.01,571.01,708.61,780.31,678.51,798.42,318.52,265.92,437.4
7 months ended January1,737.71,772.01,935.92,099.41,969.12,111.72,704.52,651.02,848.1
8 months ended February2,037.92,002.42,185.52,472.12,250.52,415.93,183.03,121.03,350.8
9 months ended March2,346.92,251.92,453.92,881.92,522.62,711.73,710.73,532.13.802.8
10 months ended April2,681.22,468.82,686.63,242.92,817.23,026.24,173.83,907.24,207.7
11 months ended May2,925.42,706.12,945.53,660.63,174.53,411.74,697.54,315.94,649.1
12 months ended June3,309.13,001.53,269.54,068.63,561.03,826.95,152.04,770.65,133.2

Valuation of Exports—It has always been the practice to record exports at free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, except during the Second World War when wool exports were valued at appraisal prices. Most meat and dairy product exports are consigned for sale on overseas markets, and necessarily valued, on export, at the f.o.b. equivalent of the prices ruling at that time in the markets to which they are consigned. Price changes may occur in these markets before the actual sale of the produce.

The exports recorded relate to goods on vessels which have ports of call in New Zealand during the period.

Valuation of Imports—From July 1962, with the introduction of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised), statistics on the c.i.f. basis (cost including freight and insurance) became available at item level.

Since 1 July 1978 figures are based on Standard International Trade Classification (Revised 2).

The proportional difference between the 2 figures of valuation now made available—viz, v.f.d. (value for duty) and c.i.f.—varies from period to period depending on: (1) the make-up of imports in the different periods, (2) differential charges in import prices and in freight rates, (3) differences between domestic and export prices in the exporting countries, and (4) price fluctuations between dates of purchases and of shipping. In all the tables, imports are now shown at v.f.d., unless otherwise specified in respect of particular tables.

The trade figures for imports are compiled from the imports entries passed by the Customs Department. Generally the imports entries are not passed until the goods are available for discharge from the wharf.

Annual Statistics—For trade statistics a June year has been adopted since 1 July 1962 and this accords fairly well with the farm production year.

The statistics of external trade given in this section (comprising the 4 subsections) do not include the trade of the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau; statistics for these territories are given separately.

The following table shows for the June year 1980 the values of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the countries trading with New Zealand.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDED JUNE 1980
CountryExports f.o.b.Imports v.f.d.
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of Origin
O.E.C.D. Countries$(thousand)
E.E.C Countries
    Belgium51,75751,99823,318
    Denmark6,9087,05320,465
    Destination unknown—E.E.C.15,54715,547 
    France126,423126,69154,209
    Germany, Federal Republic of115,610116,245223,848
    Greenland33
    Ireland11,28611,3115,550
    Italy128,226128,34170,616
    Luxembourg22199
    Netherlands83,44784,16561,338
    United Kingdom709,756714,917692,899
    Vatican City State3
                Total, E.E.C. Countries1,248,9641,256,2741,152,444
Other O.E.C.D. Countries
    Australia607,218634,057914,802
    Austria1,3371,3549,403
    Canada97,41198,00095,329
    Finland3,2653,3373,550
    Greece55,24455,300724
    Iceland225
    Japan633,967635,229605,593
    Liechtenstein24150
    New Zealand (reimports)  10,185
    Norway2,7642,7847,705
    Portugal5,9665,9662,939
    Spain23,28623,34918,830
    Sweden7,2747,39663,962
    Switzerland11,85712,08633,421
    Turkey22636
    United States of America711,524721,422649,687
                Total, O.E.C.D. Countries3,410,0833,456,5643,569,363
China
    People's Republic of China117,367118,35141,621
    Province of Taiwan47,20550,77634,487
Asia
    Afghanistan1132
    Bangladesh4,0204,0654,415
    Bhutan1
    Brunei344379
    Burma40040055
    Hong Kong78,27579,31765,037
    India10,96811,08434,031
    Indonesia60,30760,35859,705
    Kampuchea1010
    Korea, Republic of64,03164,04024,489
    Lao People's Democratic Republic
    Macau88788730
    Malaysia57,66758,11666,642
    Maldives
    Mongolia
    Nepal32232281
    Pakistan16,26716,3072,445
    Philippines67,81269,5414,820
    Singapore69,91274,168273,247
    Sri Lanka4,5464,5545,481
    Thailand27,39427,52211,051
    Viet Nam, Socialist Republic of187187807
Oceania
    Fiji64,14471,14226,932
    French Polynesia21,66822,13042
    Kiribati (formerly the Gilbert Islands)8098753,511
    Nauru1,1371,17818,607
    New Caledonia14,03414,6203
    New Hebrides3,9364,35321
    Papua New Guinea34,18935,9147,049
    Pitcairn Islands100114
    Samoa17,35618,7314,185
    Solomon Islands4,5154,912618
    Tonga9,76210,3982,426
    Tuvalu991162
    Wallis and Futuna Islands126126
Latin America-Caribbean
    Argentina10,26210,262612
    Associated States in Eastern Caribbean7,9017,90289
    Bahamas9159161,818
    Belize2020
    Bermuda3,7573,757170
    Bolivia1112
    Brazil53867514,138
    British Virgin Islands9191
    Cayman Islands102102
    Chile721723103
    Colombia1717166
    Costa Rica2,4862,486874
    Cuba2,471
    Dominican Republic3,1723,1721
    Ecuador3,3973,3975,857
    El Salvador4,5814,58112
    Falkland Islands11
    French Guiana8080
    Guatemala498498132
    Guyana38838893
    Haiti62628
    Honduras3232
    Jamaica2,9922,9922,412
    Mexico21,70421,7121,635
    Montserrat1313
    Netherlands Antilles2,2702,2702,587
    Nicaragua31631682
    Panama5,4615,46111
    Peru26,17226,177451
    Surinam8686
    Trinidad and Tobago9,7789,778106
    Uruguay33333332
    Venezuela11,84811,865
Middle East$(thousand)
    Bahrain6,4686,47068,433
    Egypt13,36813,36824
    Iran129,586129,58650,656
    Iraq38,27038,271896
    Israel7677683,088
    Jordan6,0786,080
    Kuwait7,5157,56599,193
    Lebanon1021021
    Libyan Arab Republic9696
    Oman4,0014,011
    Qatar1,6751,675
    Saudi Arabia35,80435,805218,522
    Syrian Arab Republic3,6573,65718
    United Arab Emirates12,22712,266
    Yemen, Arab Republic1,5881,588
    Yemen, Democratic People's Republic3
Eastern Europe
    Albania3
    Bulgaria93793724
    Czechoslovakia15,94015,9425,898
    German Democratic Republic8,4598,4711,695
    Hungary2,9552,9551,715
    Poland12,38112,3812,640
    Romania3743741,643
    U.S.S.R.250,919250,92117,324
    Yugoslavia14,08814,0882,022
Africa
    Algeria333333
    Angola77
    Botswana11
    Burundi114
    Cameroon11341
    Ethiopia666628
    Gambia99
    Ghana585814,197
    Guinea
    Ivory Coast80180163
    Kenya1,6991,6992,629
    Liberia2020
    Madagascar102
    Malawi1,2261,226490
    Mali
    Mauritius12,40712,40934
    Morocco90790914
    Mozambique7597597
    Nigeria8,7308,73612
    Reunion720720
    Rhodesia56
    Rwanda124
    Senegal23
    Seychelles2525
    Sierra Leone1734
    South Africa10,26010,55818,995
    Sudan1,5011,5017
    Tanzania3463642,034
    Tunisia1,2171,21710
    Uganda1,149
    Zaire77184
    Zambia1720
Other countries
    Antarctic stations (U.S.A.)1010
    Cyprus6,0836,08437
    Destination unknown—Other2,0812,081 
    Gibraltar1531533
    Malta3,4883,488125
    St. Pierre and Miquelon7777
                Total, all countries4,950,1675,022,4834,809,625
    Passengers' goods1,68418,854 
    Ships' stores162,593 
    Bunkering, ships' and aircraft60,585108,282 
                    Grand total5,012,4535,152,2124,809,625

VOLUME INDEX OF EXTERNAL TRADE—For the index of the volume of external trade, both the import and the export series are linked chain series with changing (price) weighting patterns, each year being calculated on base previous year and then linked on.

Exports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000) for each commodity or class of commodities.

June YearButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy-Produce
19761079881937110795110511033
197711208731076117789110721088
197895578797810858619971013
19791012719953121492610831079
1980118078311281080102710351091
June YearFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods Other Than FoodCrude Materials Other Than FuelsAll Groups
1976104223349731094
1977119129279631211
1978109631559451170
19791175375410021275
19801196411110581332

Imports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000) for each commodity or class of commodities.

June YearPetroleum and ProductsTextile Yarn, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery Other than ElectricElectric Machinery and ApparatusTransport Equipment
197612001021926138416491429
1977116412521141138015911452
19781133105390512231306921
1979115113261015109115071212
198011561448982132616351290
June YearFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods Other Than FoodCrude Materials Other Than FuelsFuelsAll Groups
19761143121297711991193
197711061293110511581250
19789921085112011291092
197911141242121111461219
198013271323112511491284

IMPORT LICENSING—The former import licensing incentive scheme based on exports was abolished in 1979. It has been succeeded by the Export Production Assistance Scheme (EPAS) which aims to ensure that the import licensing system does not inadvertently act as an impediment to efficient production for export. It does this by providing for New Zealand exporters to have access to imported raw materials and componentry whenever this is necessary to enable their own products to compete in foreign markets. EPAS licences are available for imported raw materials and components of the same kind and to the same value as those certified as used or as going to be used, in the production of goods for export. They cover raw materials and components not made in New Zealand, or made in New Zealand but where it can be shown that the use of raw materials or components of New Zealand origin would, for reasons of price, quality or technology, prejudice export sales of the finished product concerned. The net foreign exchange benefit to New Zealand is relevant in such instances.

Import Selection—Before 1973 administration of import licensing policy was the joint responsibility of the Customs Department and the Department of Trade and Industry. On 2 April 1973 the Department of Trade and Industry assumed sole responsibility for licensing administration in terms of the Trade and Industry Amendment Act 1973.

The objectives of the import licensing policies are to ensure a stable market for industry, to utilise domestic resources to the fullest extent, to maintain full employment, to encourage investment and greater productivity, and to achieve exports and utilise New Zealand resources to the maximum extent.

Import provisions are published in an annual Import Licensing Schedule. Summaries of changes in the schedules and import policies in general up to the period 1977–78 are contained in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Up to this period the Import Licensing Schedule had provided generally for a level of licensed imports at 100 percent of the previous year's allocation. Devaluation of the New Zealand dollar and increases in the prices of imports had meant that the volume of imports had been progressively reduced.

This reduction in the quantity of imports was recognised by the Government and the 1978–79 Import Licensing Schedule made provision for basic allocations on the basis of 107 1/2 percent of the previous year's licence for consumer goods and 112 1/2 percent for other goods. This policy of increasing basic allocations to allow for an increase in import volumes and price increases was continued for the 1979–80 Import Licensing Schedule. Consumer goods licences were issued at 110 percent of the previous year's qualifying licence, and licences for other goods with a basic entitlement were issued at 115 percent of the previous allocation.

Chapters 1 to 49 of the 1979–80 Schedule were restructured to allow usage of the Customs computer facility which will be introduced in approximately 2 years. The remaining chapters 50 to 99 were restructured for the 1980–81 Schedule.

The policy of increasing basic licence allocations to allow for current and anticipated rises in import prices was continued in the 1981–82 Import Licensing Schedule. Basic licence allocations were set at 125 percent of the 1980–81 levels. This should permit importers to bring into the country at least as many goods as in the current year, an achievement which would be in line with the Government's policy of ensuring stability in the current difficult international economic situation. Parallel with this continuity in basic policies, the Government will, during 1981–82, pursue its commitment that the import licensing system be administered so as to cause the least possible obstruction of New Zealand's export potential. As well, every reasonable effort will continue to be made to deal with circumstances of manifestly excessive differentials between New Zealand products and reasonable foreign alternatives in terms of costs, quality, or technology.

INDUSTRIES DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION—The Industries Development Commission operates under the Industries Development Commission Act 1961. This Act was assented to on 19 September 1975 and on that date the Industries Development Commission superseded the Tariff and Development Board. The Industries Development Commission Act 1961 differs only in minor respects from the Tariff and Development Board Act. This Act was amended in 1979 to allow for the appointment of associate members with expertise in those industries under study.

The commission's functions are as set out in section 7 of the Act and are to inquire into and report on matters relating to industrial development and protection at the frontier when requested by the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry or the Minister of Overseas Trade.

At present the emphasis is on the commission's development function. Its current commitments are studies of the tobacco, rubber and tyres, motor vehicles, electronics, and writing instruments industries.

The commission completed studies of the wine, packaging, and plastics industries during 1980 and 1981.

EMERGENCY PROTECTION AUTHORITY—The Emergency Protection Authority operates under section 10A to 10E of the Industries Development Commission Act 1961 and Section 4 of the 1979 Industries Development Commission Amendment Act. It was set up under an amendment to the Tariff and Development Board Act 1961 of 22 November 1967. Its function is to advise, when requested by the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry, or Minister of Overseas Trade, whether urgent action is necessary to protect New Zealand industry in relation to the importation of any goods and if so the nature of such action. From 1968 to end of 1980 the authority had undertaken 176 inquiries.

TRADE COMMISSIONER SERVICE—The Department of Trade and Industry assists in promoting overseas trade through the service of Trade Commissioner posts at Athens, Baghdad, Bahrain, Bangkok, Bonn, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Djakarta, The Hague, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Moscow, New York, Paris, Peking, Perth, Port Moresby, Rome, San Francisco, Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, Tokyo, Toronto, Trinidad, Vancouver, Vienna, and Washington. Marketing officers are also located in New Delhi, Noumea, and Santiago. This representation reflects New Zealand's interest in expanding and diversifying export markets and in keeping governments and businesses in these centres abreast of trade developments and investment opportunities in New Zealand. In addition the Air New Zealand overseas managers in Tahiti and Hawaii act as Trade Correspondents of the Department of Trade and Industry. Trade Commissioners have appropriate diplomatic or consular status in the countries to which they are accredited.

Trade Commissioners can be of considerable help to New Zealand exporters by reporting on market prospects for particular products. They can supply information on access conditions (customs duty, quotas, sales tax, etc.) and on other market requirements such as packaging, labelling, or testing requirements. Trade Commissioner market reports can describe the market situation, and recommend marketing methods. New Zealand businessmen travelling overseas may be saved much time and trouble by enlisting in advance the services of the Trade Commissioner, whose knowledge of local conditions and whose connections with businessmen and Government officials in the territory enable valuable advice to be given. The task is made easier if adequate notice of the visit is given.

The Trade Commissioner keeps a careful watch on the pattern of New Zealand trade with the territory and reports on significant changes. Where imports from New Zealand are affected, for example by a new interpretation of an agricultural inspection regulation, or by the imposition of import restrictions, the Trade Commissioner is often called upon to make official representations to the government concerned.

Trade Commissioners are also engaged in numerous other activities, some of which are representing New Zealand at international conferences, reporting on economic and industrial developments in their territories, acting on behalf of Government departments in the procurement of stores, payment of accounts, etc.

Business people may write for information direct to the New Zealand Trade Commissioner in the country concerned. However, where convenient, it is preferred that requests be made through the Department of Trade and Industry in New Zealand, which is often able to give preliminary advice and assistance.

The addresses of overseas representatives are listed in Section 39, Official.

TRADE PROMOTION—The Trade Promotion Council was established in 1962, under terms of the Trade and Industry Act 1956, as an advisory body to the Minister of Overseas Trade on measures required to assist the further development of New Zealand's export trade. The 17 members are drawn from leaders of industry and commerce in New Zealand and are widely representative of agriculture, manufacturing, professional and technical services, labour, financial, and regional interests. The council, which meets quarterly under the chairmanship of the Minister of Overseas Trade, makes recommendations to the Government concerning the expansion of New Zealand's trade in such areas as the provision of export incentives and financial facilities; increasing the public awareness of the importance of exporting; the improvement of facilities in New Zealand and overseas to assist exporters; the co-ordination of promotional schemes, trade fairs, and publicity in overseas markets; and the exploration of new markets by trade surveys and missions.

The council's Export Award affords recognition to individuals, companies, and organisations who have made significant contributions to the expansion of New Zealand's export trade. There is also the Governor-General's Award for exceptional export performance, which is open only to winners of the Export Award who have had at least a further 5 years' exporting with exceptional sustained export performance.

Since the Export Awards Scheme was introduced in 1965, 122 New Zealand exporters have been granted an export award. Eight companies have been granted the Governor-General's Award since its inception in 1974.

The Export Guarantee Office (EXGO) operates in accordance with the Export Guarantee Act 1964. The office's function is to promote export trade by providing insurance against commercial and political risks arising from the export of goods or services. It also provides guarantees to lending institutions for amounts advanced to exporters of goods or services which are covered by a contract of insurance issued by EXGO. The Export Guarantee Office can provide a wide range of policies sufficient to meet most requirements.

NEW ZEALAND EXPORT-IMPORT CORPORATION—The New Zealand Export-Import Corporation was established under the New Zealand Export-Import Corporation Act 1974 to engage in overseas trade and act on behalf of any manufacturers, producers, exporters, and importers who request it to do so, including the Government. The corporation offers a range of services varying from documentation and costing to complete marketing overseas. Among its prime activities the corporation has been concerned with assisting small and medium size firms producing goods with export potential. The corporation operates Trade Centres in Sydney, Los Angeles, and Singapore which assist member New Zealand exporters selling to Australia, North America, and South-east Asia respectively. The corporation also has a representative based in Caracas, Venezuela. The corporation holds the New Zealand interest in the Bahrain - New Zealand Trading and Storage Company (BANZ) which has been established to operate a port and storage facility in Bahrain.

22 B—EXPORTS

The growth and diversification of the New Zealand economy are heavily dependent on increasing exports to pay for rising imports of goods needed by industry and a growing population, as well as to provide for large payments for “invisibles” in the form of services. Overseas trade is the lifeblood of the economy. New Zealand's export trade has become more diversified in recent years, as regards both products and markets. While the traditional export commodities, dairy products, meat, and wool, remain the backbone of the export trade, new commodities such as wood pulp, paper, and other products of our forest industries, and manufactured goods, are of growing importance.

In New Zealand copies of export entries are forwarded to the Department of Statistics for processing and analysis and the regular publication of export statistics. Exports are valued in New Zealand currency “free on board at the port of shipment”. Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. Meat and dairy produce exports are valued like other commodities, on the basis of overseas realisation, not on the basis of the prices payable to producers under the internal purchasing procedures.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. A distinction is made between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

Since July 1962, the Standard International Trade Classification has been used in classifying export trade. Currently, goods are classified according to the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised 2).

MAIN EXPORTS—The following table gives total exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports (excluding gold and current coin) for the latest 5 June years by the main commodity groups.

Year Ended JuneMeat and Meat PreparationsDairy ProductsHides, Skins, and PeltsWool
Milk, CreamButterCheeseCasein
f.o.b. value $(million)
1976593.888.5204.278.027.177.4456.4
1977765.6111.1253.984.959.7128.6648.2
1978765.2132.8240.976.660.5144.0580.0
19791,094.0130.3277.275.562.3181.8683.3
19801,192.3219.5360.6105.9112.5180.1930.8
Year Ended JuneSausage CasingsTallowFruit and VegetablesPulp, Paper, and Paper-boardTotal*Re-exportsTotal Exports
* Including commodities not listed.
f.o.b. value $(million)
197623.525.850.5120.92,255.6131.22,386.9
197725.833.064.8150.53,096.7132.03,228.7
197827.032.476.8148.13,141.0172.33,313.5
197930.242.4103.8179.33,946.0121.44,067.4
198033.543.4128.7247.75,012.5139.85,152.2

The commodity groups shown above account for more than 70 percent of the total value of merchandise exports. In recent years, however, manufactured goods have come to play an increasingly important part in New Zealand's export trade.

The relative importance of dairy produce, meat, and wool as the main individual constituents of New Zealand's export trade have varied considerably, as is seen from the figures in the preceding table. The preceding subsection includes a table of volume index numbers for these commodities and for manufactured goods and other commodities. A table showing the export price index numbers and terms of trade is given in Section 23, Prices, Household Expenditure, and Consumer Affairs.

The value of total exports and of exports of some of the principal pastoral products is illustrated in the following graph.

The following graph illustrating the volume of exports is based on the table on page 581 of the preceding section.

For many years, exports of wool, meat, and dairy produce averaged over 70 percent (by value) of New Zealand's export trade. Despite the growing importance of manufactured goods and forest products, they still make up over 50 percent by value. During the June years 1979 and 1980, exports of these products made up 54 percent and 58 percent respectively of the total value of exports.

Other principal efforts of economic significance during the June years 1979 and 1980 were (in millions of dollars): fresh, chilled, or frozen fish, including crayfish ($57.9 and $90.6); apples ($29.8 and $35.8); lamb and sheep pelts ($97.6 and $98.2); sawlogs and veneer logs ($46.1 and $68.7); wood pulp ($86.2 and $119.8); inedible tallow ($41.1 and $42.2); casein ($62.3 and $112.5); and newsprint ($55.7 and $81.0).

The volume of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce during the 3 latest years are shown in the following table. The Statistical Summary, towards the end of this Yearbook, shows the figures for some of the more important commodities over a period of 50 years.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)UnitYear Ended June
197819791980
* Excludes rugs from 1979.
Race horsesNo.202521002523
Meat, fresh, chilled or frozen—
    Beef—
        Bone intonne952680818507
        Bonelesstonne206336226998200240
    Vealtonne991495496792
    Lamb—
        Carcasses(000)200421985519317
        Boneless or cutstonne518976580561179
    Muttontonne6258313991187478
    Other meat and edible offalstonne463934670440200
Milk and cream—
    Condensed and evaporatedtonne149711521208
    Skimmed milk powdertonne164892119970172435
    Other driedtonne756527565691134
    Other kindslitre (000)628359276225
Buttertonne177265192200231002
Cheesetonne701546336969241
Fish, fresh, chilled or frozentonne275143292657726
Crayfish, fresh and simply preservedtonne180920122259
Barley, unmilledtonne499711224584679
Maize, unmilledtonne208325803729199
Fruit and vegetables—
    Apples, fresh, whole fruittonne805398386092573
    Kiwifruit, freshtonne6584988216029
    Potatoes, freshtonne114191223011268
    Peas—
        Dry, including splittonne229292411332329
        For sowingtonne90581226915163
        Frozentonne69811120412897
    Onions, freshtonne266354335941425
    Vegetables, frozen, excluding peastonne764084369087
Chocolate and preparationstonne728149085092
Feeding stuff for animals—
    Lucerne meal and pelletstonne200902701717934
    Meals of meat, fish, etc.tonne571777523655349
    Poultry mash and pelletstonne578444964015
    Other kindstonne611833729825371
Margarine and shorteningtonne5537734311103
Hides, skins, and furskins, raw—
    Cattle hides(000)18111455877
    Calf and kip skins(000)12051165974
    Sheep and lamb skins in fleece(000)304931233611
    Lamb pelts(000)192251850216335
    Sheep pelts(000)605995066466
    Opossum skins(000)272426173202
Sawlogs and veneer logs, conifercu metre103183710951921285839
Timber, sawn, sliced, or peeled—
    Douglas fircu metre292753961062402
    Pinus radiatacu metre241352219144274596
Wood pulp—
    Mechanicaltonne232904217681256472
    Sulphate, not dissolving gradestonne197985238474221537
Wool—
    Greasytonne111346117612127501
    Slipetonne251801996516786
    Scouredtonne106385121198140756
Iron ore and concentratestonne (000)307930023499
Sausage casings, naturalhank (000)632669886913
Clover and grass seedstonne9320904410288
Petroleum products—
    Distillate fuellitre (000)155439138864112756
    Residual fuel oillitre (000)202319213676286185
Tallow, inedibletonne851778701182863
Caseintonne599405237258564
Caseinatestonne6867110617419
Newsprinttonne190351202597556593
Kraft paper and kraft cardboardtonne663279100383752
Yarn of wool or hairtonne358046035749
Carpets, carpeting, and rugs*sq m (000)29862312x3131
Iron or steel—
    Bars, rods, angles, etc.tonne347973846054065
    Universals, plates, and sheetstonne415745815138727
Aluminium, unwroughttonne114658143258119557
Finished structural parts and structures, n.e.s. of metaltonne172026863341
Domestic electric refrigerators and freezersNo.818948187582275

The values of the principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)Year Ended June
197819791980
* Includes parts.
 $(thousand)
Racehorses14,96217,21623,298
Meat, fresh, chilled or frozen—
    Beef—
        Bone in11,50019,35226,622
        Boneless285,624447,170478,493
    Veal15,82820,62534,7
    Lamb—
        Carcasses270,804311,135373,022
        Boneless or cuts71,574107,412113,166
    Mutton47,286109,98797,704
    Other meat and edible offals54,13571,53971,285
Milk and cream—
    Condensed and evaporated8627202,272
    Skimmed milk powder71,59460,685119,199
    Other dried57,02662,81391,153
    Other kinds3,3124,7025,142
Butter240,941277,212360,607
Cheese76,56575,472105,861
Fish, fresh, chilled or frozen28,55835,06762,250
Crayfish, fresh and simply preserved21,86522,81228,351
Barley, unmilled5,9141,41511,505
Maize, unmilled2,2426,1153,875
Fruit and vegetables—
    Apples, fresh, whole fruit26,08629,84835,752
    Kiwifruit, fresh11,55722,39434,526
    Potatoes, fresh1,4231,7652,416
    Peas—
        Dry, including split10,38610,48710,659
        For sowing2,8773,8104,613
        Frozen3,2385,2396,174
    Onions, fresh4,3698,8876,201
    Vegetables, frozen, excluding peas4,3585,1716,049
Chocolate and preparations9,3466,8047,901
Feeding stuff for animals—
    Lucerne meal and pellets6,0983,3473,063
    Meals of meat, fish, etc.12,57615,27416,393
    Poultry mash and pellets1,044865899
    Other kinds13,46811,88810,468
Margarine and shortening7,0518,98015,193
Hides, skins, and furskins, raw—
    Cattle hides35,91543,73829,789
    Calf and kip skins8,02613,55111,757
    Sheep and lamb skins in fleece8,23111,74916,012
    Lamb pelts54,91362,90263,909
    Sheep pelts22,41634,66834,302
    Opossum skins12,55813,53323,422
Sawlogs and veneer logs, conifer36,68346,11968,741
Timber, sawn, sliced, or peeled—
    Douglas fir2,8714,0587,821
    Pinus radiata15,84316,70829,239
Wood pulp—
    Mechanical27,80128,45843,265
    Sulphate, not dissolving grades42,13357,75976,571
Wool—
    Greasy228,737271,268366,921
    Slipe53,34447,03847,174
    Scoured297,899365,015516,665
Iron ore and concentrates24,09424,96029,230
Sausage casings, natural27,01530,18133,481
Clover and grass seeds9,8879,81313,990
Petroleum products—
    Distillate fuel18,41218,53726,800
    Residual fuel oil16,42620,10838,711
Tallow, inedible32,28341,13242,194
Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins5,9198,73514,036
Casein60,53362,269112,522
Caseinates8,97616,55317,560
Leather—
    Bovine and equine, including calf11,10327,33738,945
    La skin16,63321,13933,074
Furs, dressed or dressed and dyed4,6265,4407,916
Woodchips, softwood7,4796,24510,166
Newsprint paper51,59455,74580,988
Kraft paper and kraft cardboard18,44926,83332,277
Articles of pulp, paper or paperboard7,2529,23712,419
Yarn of wool or hair18,18124,11136,200
Carpets, carpeting and rugs32,99927,08542,070
Iron or steel—
    Bars, rods, angles, etc.6,3679,34217,244
    Universals, plates, and sheets14,42522,28017,822
Aluminium, unwrought105,124149,025151,115
Finished structural parts and structures, n.e.s., of metal2,9064,2086,418
Tools for use in the hand or in machines4,0162,4063,650
Agricultural machinery and implements*12,64314,1252,896
Textile and leather machinery6,3431,8383,138
Electric power machinery and switchgear7,1599,41710,622
Domestic electric equipment—
    Refrigerators and freezers16,60917,68716,703
    Other*5,11311,9005,859
Road motor vehicles*14,30821,600x25,866
Aircraft*1,5142,9113,029
Ships and boats*3,9965,0264,832
Clothing, excluding fur clothing23,39822,06323,210
Printed matter8,2819,61511,894
Prams, toys, games, sporting goods4,6784,2235,098

In the following table exports (excluding re-exports) are summarised according to the Sections and Divisions of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised 2).

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE
Section and DivisionYear Ended June
19791980
n.e.s.—not elsewhere specified.
0 Food and Live Animals Chiefly for Food$(thousand)
  00 Live animals chiefly for food26,43032,507
  01 Meat and meat preparations1,094,0181,192,282
  02 Dairy products and birds' eggs485,258687,668
  03 Fish, crustaceans, and molluscs, and preparations thereof73,627130,312
  04 Cereals and cereal preparations12,93521,187
  05 Vegetables and fruit103,790128,735
  06 Sugar, sugar preparations, and honey9,79210,434
  07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof10,47413,735
  08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)31,37430,824
  09 Miscellaneous edible products and preparations11,77319,740
            Total, section 01,859,4722,267,425
1 Beverages and Tobacco
  11 Beverages2,3082,401
  12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures2,9762,998
            Total, section 15,2845,399
2 Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels
  21 Hides, skins, and furskins, raw181,803180,121
  22 Oil seeds and oleaginous fruit866273
  23 Crude rubber (including synthetic and reclaimed)333
  24 Cork and wood78,370126,025
  25 Pulp and waste paper86,637120,747
  26 Textile fibres (other than wool tops) and their wastes685,886932,899
  27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals (excluding coal, etc.)1,3601,754
  28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap28,57236,999
  29 Crude animal and vegetable materials, not elsewhere specified58,95369,902
            Total, section 21,122,4511,468,751
3 Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials
  32 Coal, coke, and briquettes9371,079
  33 Petroleum, petroleum products, and related materials40,71067,207
  34 Gas, natural and manufactured11
            Total, section 341,64868,287
4 Animal and Vegetable Oils, Fats, and Waxes
  41 Animal oils and fats43,50044,705
  42 Fixed vegetable oils and fats345632
  43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin740715
            Total, section 444,58546,052
5 Chemicals and Related Products, n.e.s.
  51 Organic chemicals2,6773,445
    52 Inorganic chemicals8911,392
    53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials5,3625,234
    54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products6,35911,059
    55 Essential oils and perfumes, etc.7,72511,745
    56 Fertilisers, manufactured1,0421,774
    57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products171283
    58 Artificial resins and plastic materials, and cellulose esters and ethers8,73514,036
    59 Chemical materials and products, not elsewhere specified90,859144,759
            Total, section 5123,851193,727
6 Manufactured Goods Classified by Material
    61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.s., and dressed furskins55,18482,014
    62 Rubber manufactures, not elsewhere specified3,7739,000
    63 Cork and wood manufactures (excluding furniture)29,90254,130
    64 Paper, paperboard, and articles of paper pulp, of paper, or of paperboard101,855139,354
    65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, n.e.s., and related products66,12195,244
    66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, not elsewhere specified15,19222,065
    67 Iron and steel41,79049,739
    68 Non-ferrous metals157,353168,728
    69 Manufactures of metal, not elsewhere specified43,74659,340
            Total, section 6514,916679,614
7 Machinery and Transport Equipment
    71 Power generating machinery and equipment3,1342,894
    72 Machinery specialised for particular industries24,79336,247
    73 Metalworking machinery2,7902,658
    74 General industrial machinery and equipment, n.e.s., and machine parts, n.e.s.,23,58829,747
    75 Office machines and automatic data processing equipment63154
    76 Telecommunications, sound recording and reproducing apparatus and equipment4,8287,598
    77 Electrical machinery, apparatus and appliances, n.e.s., and parts thereof48,34847,254
    78 Road vehicles (including air-cushion vehicles)22,24132,704
    79 Other transport equipment7,9538,197
            Total, section 7137,740167,452
8 Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles
    81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, etc., fixtures and fittings n.e.s.,7611,194
    82 Furniture and parts thereof15,82216,430
    83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar containers2,1442,498
    84 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories27,56131,120
    85 Footwear3,9343,890
    87 Professional, scientific, and controlling instruments and apparatus, n.e.s.4,7836,214
    88 Photographic apparatus, optical goods, watches and clocks1,8251,870
    89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, not elsewhere specified38,35349,132
            Total, section 895,182112,348
9 Commodities and Transactions Not Classified Elsewhere in the S.I.T.C.
    94 Live animals, n.e.s.13758
    95 Arms of war and ammunition, etc.11675
    96 Coins (other than gold coins) not being legal tender in New Zealand56
    97 Gold, non-monetary6782,658
            Total, section 98313,397
            Total New Zealand produce exports3,945,9615,012,453
            Re-exports121,417139,759
            Grand total, merchandise exports4,067,3785,152,212

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) are given in the table below. It should be noted that Australia includes Cocos, Norfolk Island, and (from 1980) Christmas Island. The United States includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Islands Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

CountryYear Ended June
197519761977197819791980
* Including ships' stores, passengers' duty free purchases, and destination optional.
 $(million)
Australia188.4292.3382.3412.6501.2634.1
Canada45.159.865.973.5101.498.0
France43.366.078.272.694.5126.7
Germany, Fed. Rep. of42.362.596.090.6102.5116.2
Japan187.1325.9403.5435.6600.6635.2
Netherlands36.556.584.173.965.784.2
United Kingdom351.7450.8642.3595.2676.7714.9
United States190.9278.2353.2439.0632.2721.4
U.S.S.R.45.462.1144.181.0129.1250.9
Other countries*490.9732.7979.01,039.51,163.51,770.6
    Total merchandise exports1,621.52,386.93,228.73,313.54,067.45,152.2

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded on the Customs documents. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and in normal times subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export, the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics.

It will be realised, therefore, that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons if is probable that exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

ASEAN and ESCAP—In recent decades there has been a steady growth in New Zealand's relations with the countries of the Asian-Pacific area. This country enjoys a close relationship with the countries which make up the Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP).

The following table shows the total value of merchandise exported to and imported from these two regions. These figures are based on the ESCAP countries, with the ASEAN member countries indicated.

CountryYear Ended June 1979Year Ended June 1980
Exports*f.o.b.Imports v.f.d.Imports c.i.f.Exports*f.o.b.Imports v.f.d.Imports c.i.f.

v.f.d.—Value for Duty

* Includes re-exports.

ASEAN member countries.

 $(thousand)
Afghanistan9323513234
Australia501,190798,513817,455634,057914,802945,107
Bangladesh1,0833,1563,9414,0654,4155,198
Bhutan11
Brunei336379
Burma2081651894005562
China, People's Rep. of78,84921,13024,150118,35141,62147,488
Cook Islands13,6303,6644,00815,3944,5105,173
Fiji55,01911,54712,73071,14226,93227,968
Kiribati1,3871,5172,3208753,5115,353
Hong Kong50,79252,31357,67179,31765,03770,839
India13,32920,04322,19011,08434,03138,613
Indonesia30,62929,88132,19660,35859,70564,578
Iran24,44141,21444,376129,58650,65655,607
Japan600,583495,154549,634635,229605,593680,415
Kampuchea21211
Korea, Republic of68,67623,41226,19564,04024,48926,525
Lao People's Democratic Republic
Malaysia43,90438,85342,04658,11666,64272,462
Maldives
Mongolia1112
Nauru1,01420,87731,8681,17818,60726,338
Nepal36319233228193
New Hebrides3,18634504,3532125
New Zealand (Reimports) 8,2518,648 10,18510,789
Niue2,0303013102,473360377
Pacific Islands Trust Territory103,273
Pakistan8,2381,0501,13516,3072,4452,605
Papua New Guinea23,1755,5015,92335,9147,0497,519
Philippines42,2752,8713,32869,5414,8205,461
Samoa, Western16,2715,0095,66618,7314,1854,972
Singapore42,97867,75375,01274,168273,247296,265
Solomon Islands2,9482272674,912618690
Sri Lanka5,0115,1618,8294,5545,4819,486
Thailand13,8224,3355,03227,52211,05111,904
Tonga8,9841,6532,28010,3982,4263,207
Tuvalu791111622
Viet Nam, Socialist Rep. of788703781187807888
        Total1,655,4501,664,3491,788,3002,156,3532,243,4202,426,041

Oceania—Exports to the countries of Oceania have increased substantially in recent years. In 1975 the total was $54.0 million compared with $184.6 million in 1980. Fiji is the principal importer of New Zealand's exports to Oceania, taking over 39 percent of the total each year.

The following table shows the increase in value of total exports over the past 5 years.

CountryYear Ended June
19761977197819791980
* Included with Kiribati before 1977.
 $(thousand)
Canton and Enderbury Islands1
Fiji30,92239,94642,42955,01971,142
French Polynesia8,27911,50811,81014,76922,130
Kiribati7057501,0261,387875
Nauru2944916681,0141,178
New Caledonia5,6767,87311,82410,72214,620
New Hebrides1,3222,0512,5443,1864,353
Papua New Guinea6,13311,06917,99323,17535,914
Pitcairn Island22357541114
Samoa7,4519,55313,17516,27118,731
Solomon Islands1,1561,3801,9722,9484,912
Tonga4,9616,8097,5448,98410,397
Tuvalu*113379116
Wallis and Futuna Islands178129136105126
            Total67,09991,604111,229137,699184,609

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS—The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the latest available June years. Note: Australia includes Cocos, Norfolk Island, and (from 1980) Christmas Island. The United States includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Islands Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

Country to Which ExportedJune Year 1978June Year 1979June Year 1980
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

* Excludes Province of Taiwan.

* Excludes Province of Taiwan.

* Excludes Province of Taiwan.

Wool (Greasy, Slipe, and Scoured)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia525824,2858024x24,821x815730,310
Belgium995322,275917823,405767223,919
Canada17874,99018225,61718666,701
China*730116,2101064824,9151468543,751
China, Province of Taiwan16124,56323287,056459916,844
Czechoslovakia43998,80041779,192547315,843
France1726437,6611944648,3822616976,959
Germany, Democratic Republic of23334,54917183,73626597,320
Germany, Federal Republic of1981250,8842061456,6901800660,404
Greece1112432,834895828,0861161243,275
Hong Kong23326,746326310,130372914,322
Iran753320,646386311,0931458055,799
Ireland26746,38220355,83621237,342
Italy926523,6621349937,6671448550,889
Japan1745545,4963119688,9832638091,076
Korea, Republic of18565,14229129,310482418,759
Netherlands2297549,8631718543,2481,595051,371
Poland48569,531713116,162402811,011
Portugal22464,95610872,59611253,281
Spain28705,96412552,97817285,233
U.S.S.R.2245447,6573138975,96239004117,117
United Kingdom45124104,2963769995,4713005491,644
United States of America855820,540938124,3781111536,106
Yugoslavia35097,55734158,555433313,123
Other countries5362x14,490x6557x19,050x1068638,361
              Total242910579,980258775x683,322x285043930,760
Beef and Veal (Fresh, Chilled, or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean17292,1336811,3934501,307
Australia11341,7119311,87115694,585
Bahrain3557053999356512,560
Belgium164213293593215603
Bermuda9441,6965411,2207072,292
Canada2719736,6933001260,7572242950,907
China, Province of Taiwan1503642737803281,418
Cyprus20172,54119013,00512353,498
Fiji435505306514336769
French Polynesia21614,35922695,89424828,470
Hong Kong20875,46723326,71721089,453
Japan778812,706568613,653361813,748
Kuwait4218723828504381,785
Malaysia3969693161,0232871,352
Malta16892,52111642,4533911,446
Netherlands Antilles16802,5638681,6114641,486
New Caledonia3508993471,1474351,861
Philippines4481,1447761,9059502,835
Saudi Arabia16203,0748292,11020386,659
Singapore19745,13622626,42324709,928
Sweden4681,178212716196891
Trinidad and Tobago27263,58911252,0207451,924
U.S.S.R.1858720,04437718,724
United Arab Emirates2626994571,2366182,541
United Kingdom49927,38038819,314601416,488
United States of America136305185,315178993348,185158446364,088
Other countries7696x8,472x7391x10,822x22326,807
              Total225776312,952244628487,147215624528,428
Lamb (Fresh, Chilled or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean11031,15613642,02216892,770
Belgium13291,79015812,93712862,714
Canada795913,088961318,118887318,551
Cyprus75475213651,62512051,703
Denmark20122,89616052,81713202,557
Fiji27582,12630392,40631573,018
France15122,08922844,3575741,221
French Polynesia4697235351,0195691,213
Germany, Federal Republic of72708,473765011,792638912,307
Greece1393915,8841429418,690693910,626
Iran4322644,87773857,3354291768,666
Iraq6718041104614,443865413,287
Italy37824,38350596,91735136,451
Japan1258614,2022125228,8241123316,939
Jordan43151616672,02937286,017
Netherlands10511,1868551,3729041,561
Papua New Guinea831616137394729991,915
Saudi Arabia4295185187301040115,820
Singapore10391,23310051,6189961,735
Switzerland16042,67412942,43017604,159
United Arab Emirates20032053380412082089
United Kingdom185298193,347199676246,768172747248,808
United States of America1179519,2521446627,4341341728,037
Other countries10257x9,474x11069x11,113x1173914,023
              Total312305342,378320589418,547318217486,188
Mutton (Fresh, Chilled or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean16412142327066
Belgium1631951282164090
Egypt14791,721
Fiji181120251199195204
France23225512031,044106164
Germany, Federal Republic of615350483429
Italy3252332311554558
Jamaica1096781855641437410
Japan2317017,1644520735,4401011210,470
Korea, Republic of131479,2422852119,71451484,931
Malaysia2622731371614135
Papua New Guinea252104343166535301
Peru10001,110
Singapore5252851003739
Trinidad and Tobago92726867118151
United Kingdom59234,487111309,64137424,960
U.S.S.R.16564132044746038,3526139469,480
Other countries897x933x4200x4,012x29433,485
              Total6258347,286139911109,9878747897,704
Other Frozen Meat
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Belgium126155141182210315
Canada675618178293159203
France33546,192452711,229387211,047
Germany, Federal Republic of24768,93115135,7929464,552
Hong Kong146421127296219354
Iran6851,306
Italy261300489423292624
Jamaica13995664367
Japan34344,36841326,33232156,939
Netherlands7851,44712592,1509021,863
Sweden149190418308227389
Trinidad and Tobago691603734740247310
United Kingdom2950926,0882752737,7262328034,990
United States of America9961,2053247715421,523
Other countries36523,52352705,25453986,862
                Total4639354,1354670471,5394020071,285
Butter
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
China22052,42630003,14817271,923
China, Province of Taiwan7169009631,2738331,181
Fiji22632,80125053,08927454,060
French Polynesia8181,2289581,5338901,703
Hong Kong12781,50313671,66620282,727
Indonesia44115,62534394,2221063714,530
Iran20222,02646014,332513700
Iraq25002,16847854,56937414,151
Jamaica16481,911446462767924
Japan50061822633,000612850
Malaysia25913,35019732,40845346,297
Malta807785351407225259
Mexico17582,20818392,35967379,613
Nigeria9321,15446056814992,228
Oman7311,087397661187311
Panama, Republic of43149613071,862
Peru38224,78757866,947776311,059
Philippines31284,02021732,69253447,352
Singapore18572,29318502,11550826,266
Thailand53568710451,30524393,431
Trinidad and Tobago7737201321152250
U.S.S.R.1290013,1803440441,657
United Kingdom130094184,532125149200,627120713214,946
United States of America15022,36017062,67718593,393
Venezuela22631,90828452,40930743,253
Other countries8111x9,845x8956x11,046x1118915,680
                Total177265240,941192200277,212231002360,607
Cheese
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean800804408519619934
Australia41505,01649426,80243037,193
Bermuda169203102132184263
Canada4745106857687981,106
Cyprus146140186233208282
Egypt19991,47563112
Fiji7190861175490
French Polynesia181262207352229509
Germany, Federal Republic of14921,01012581,23125653,460
Hong Kong1101188232204327
Iraq23262,134134,41443615,113
Jamaica18062,0829211,2569671,252
Japan2339823,6752639129,4662281230,121
Malta430354629733567641
Panama, Republic of6176679881,244
Philippines26832,58619072,02221062,590
Singapore247309300430326562
Trinidad and Tobago19881,8682736161262
United Kingdom59787,5276791457512,172
United States of America1773522,4591716522,3921972832,836
Other countries3970x3,960x2869x3,580x34214,790
                Total7015476,5656336975,47269241105,861
Milk (Dried, Condensed, etc.)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Argentina42393,03044824,112
Australia39160437571317463,659
Bangladesh28841,3261310979400408
China*72525,80247494,209
China, Province of Taiwan122319,41295038,45072707,166
Colombia37502,9231826511
Costa Rica22921,63421151,10916991,207
El Salvador28112,40335983,70735854,467
Fiji18201,29614791,33515231,582
Hong Kong16081,063126578917411,249
Indonesia207909,6512494414,1223993327,765
Iraq1452680158391051134,991
Jamaica42871,80824341926
Japan162397,012153038,4191533810,155
Malaysia4405123,5773052017,7133017023,076
Mauritius27962,01634472,64352745,104
Mexico946295215,852
Nigeria56042,33622441,08147234,516
Pakistan15510958346632052,843
Peru158606,725164927,9301728612,438
Philippines4115418,8102904915,9674872135,434
Singapore103725,74964483,5261321510,410
Sri Lanka57564,35357264,57643434,199
Thailand98514,99979345,1421424810,887
Trinidad and Tobago50923,26727052,06839325,053
United States of America170690453837815541,237
Venezuela95735,76273945,16165895,932
Other countries19514x11,061x14341x9,503x1814816,328
                Total242041129,482200522125,640268536214,315
Casein
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Belgium28726815422013092,574
Canada50956711191,5648621,708
France200208150175280554
Germany, Federal Republic of35473,39243294,12026345,037
Italy337344159200358692
Japan1147112,0401050511,0981370526,246
Mexico6556887211,02717273,797
Netherlands16871,62112721,58611732,254
United Kingdom5446258541,1748541,573
United States of America3914339,0073117538,2933290963,469
Other countries1558x1,772x1934x2,813x27534,620
                Total5994060,5335237262,26958564112,522
Inedible Tallow
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Bangladesh16485985263633,179
China*2488510,1423621117,6183347318,544
China, Province of Taiwan91413,30169383,30530251,321
India189466667163,274529271
Iraq85253,793
Japan2131738975369
Kenya36471,37593943822281,254
Korea, Republic of237588,476217199,99453642,431
Malawi202181922601,009
Mozambique195174923841,0261565682
Netherlands22483998400
Nigeria29991,168
Singapore26381,13840871,990803279
Thailand129751234078596319
U.S.S.R.92604,752
United Kingdom11924441205554
Other countries57512,07456992,63876673,807
                Total8517732,2838701141,1328286342,194
Cattle Hides (Undressed)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
China*20772,2551291x1,522x9631,812
China, Province of Taiwan18821,5268461,05010601,795
France917446564251100
Greece13001,18713813585100
Italy1173311,3671246720,605667611,937
Japan87129,399726213,10045058,572
Korea, Republic of45244,41826093,67711482,045
Netherlands216185261338171312
Poland738816534574117252
Portugal422459100231153410
Spain2382207074
Sweden289224173653106
Yugoslavia23911,927132152707704
Other countries2052x1,858x1181x1,602x8261,645
                Total3666535,9152737543,7381651529,789
Sheep and Lamb Pelts
 doz(000)$(000)No.(000)$(000)No. (000)$(000)
Belgium1878,930323612,813252314,904
France34511,860399714,719475019,722
Italy1424,82524387,86318197,527
Netherlands1255,85815566,01712927,027
Spain2487,24726066,60224956,972
United Kingdom31811,716509818,432320314,487
United States of America69225,183867829,978632026,295
Other countries501,7103991,1453991,277
                Total210777,3292800897,5692280198,211
Sausage Casings
 hanks hanks hanks 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Canada12705,98812966,10713457,259
Germany, Federal Republic of4952,5216593,3153221,954
Japan5452,1307963,1735802,218
Netherlands1498362291,279153869
United Kingdom15085,83917206,64516647,000
United States of America15566,50115836,49519739,319
Other countries8033,1997053,1678754,861
                Total632627,015698830,181691333,481
Apples (Fresh Whole Fruit)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Canada55981,864579197888342
Destination unknown—EEC5321773045610,7773939115,128
Destination unknown—non-EEC212156,737116894,15253642,055
Hong Kong55071,73651761,83036421,382
Singapore60151,82949371,72862612,403
United Kingdom3264810,680154885,55581563,133
United States of America38541,28990013,116130695,027
Other countries51701,77365342,493158036,282
                Total8053926,0868386029,8489257335,752
Kraft Paper and Cardboard
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia201788,043221158,873175727,790
China*101421,952103312,27281902,298
Hong Kong74281,558141253,147121134,028
Indonesia65291,370149554,658153856,069
Malaysia106532338961,14651932,149
Pakistan4328890325790856252,333
Philippines1877556880343672433
Other countries14780x3,757x21443x5,485x190017,177
                Total6632718,4499100326,8338375232,277
Feeding Stuff for Animals
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
China, Province of Taiwan94332,26295051,77327151,316
Japan8119717,8547978914,7574808511,730
Malaysia35781,49748912,02539612,244
Philippines223804,610198434,238143163,999
Singapore77841,94480452,56766312,972
Spain340793992980
United Kingdom98325549661,35131661,630
United States of America112661439591,2321126547
Other countries17754x4,150x12708x3,353x186755,405
                Total14423433,18514404631,37410266830,824
Wood Pulp
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia14118130,12314280733,48914036946,624
China*147272,755267375,5913195310,541
Japan23600628,95222074730,38524239043,118
Korea, Republic of145362,569185114,426294917,821
Philippines195334,534373309,686244558,318
Thailand80416213673752111849
Other countries410283886562,26585402,954
                Total43088969,93445615586,217479309120,227
Timber (Sawn Conifer)
 cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)
Australia879,48110913,44416624,860
Japan20011,81018011,95022020,935
New Caledonia763976237875
Tonga436521732276
Other countries131,360283,527456,547
                Total31123,65532629,71744053,492
Sawlogs and Veneer Logs (Conifer)
 cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)
China*1336819693532,077
Japan89531,91594740,344101156,528
Korea, Republic of1234,3601244,7302199,952
Other countries4053523185
                Total103236,683109546,119128668,741
Fish (Fresh, Chilled or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia58867,79873879,7821187116,227
Japan75047,60763357,2801953218,963
Korea, Republic of604026921,356
Netherlands5698808501,7208741,912
United States of America83707,60493707,65276639,568
Other countries51854,6698924x8,593x1509114,224
                Total2751428,5583292635,0675772662,250
Newsprint
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia11599834,97511686833,68313335249,938
Hong Kong54901,60667741,84885943,128
Indonesia214314,367136753,329112383,679
Malaysia122262,932236756,061217707,385
Singapore2906557427496366962,143
Other countries32302x7,157x37331x9,861x4164014,716
                Total19035151,59420259755,74522329080,988

EXPORTS BY PORTS—The following table shows for the latest available June years the value of total exports, including re-exports, according to the ports at which goods were loaded for export.

PortYear Ended June
197519761977197819791980
$(million)
Whangarei30.538.256.048.858.467.7
Auckland451.5634.1874.5992.71,259.91,657.4
Hamilton7.27.48.815.116.320.7
Tauranga187.8284.1355.6379.6433.0574.5
Gisborne10.314.613.77.88.79.9
Napier161.1202.9269.2176.8175.3240.6
New Plymouth77.8125.9133.0138.969.6137.7
Wanganui4.45.86.710.18.910.8
Palmerston North5.3
Wellington228.1367.3537.7595.8853.9980.4
Blenheim5.25.96.66.81.81.5
Nelson18.836.027.731.661.970.0
Greymouth0.20.91.1
Christchurch116.4191.4257.8293.1327.3457.4
Timaru93.4134.0186.0106.583.3112.1
Dunedin74.5130.3178.2290.7461.7550.3
Invercargill154.4208.9317.1216.3247.4254.7
                Total1,621.52,386.93,228.73,313.54,067.45,152.2

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, since over a quarter of all exports are dispatched from that port. Wellington occupies second place, with almost a fifth of the trade. As will be seen from the above table, the order of the other ports varies from year to year.

RE-EXPORTS—The forwarding trade of New Zealand is made up principally of miscellaneous stores sent to the Pacific Islands and goods returned or re-sold to Australia and the United States of America. Particulars of re-exports are contained in the next table. Specie is not included in the figures.

Year Ended JuneRe-exports
 $(000)
197563,522
1976131,226
1977131,974
1978172,453
1979121,417
1980139,759

The destinations of this re-export trade for the latest available June years are shown in the following table.

CountryJune Year
1977197819791980
 $(thousand)
Australia15,09118,62745,45726,839
Canada601279233589
Fiji5,7924,3875,9926,997
French Polynesia566689415462
Germany, Federal Republic of553774797634
Hong Kong2,5252,7645121,042
Indonesia1423135651
Japan7105,3639591,262
Malaysia1,7948,7112,079449
Netherlands3574,589178718
Papua New Guinea4721,0201,3361,725
Philippines49892811,729
Samoa7841,0001,2341,375
Singapore33,36861,5121,5784,256
Sweden7,48376147122
Tonga762441678635
United Kingdom3,0805,6523,1605,161
United States of America13,35118,0075,9009,899
Other countries14,2854,349x5,951x8,369
Ships' stores17,3841,4612,2652,577
Passengers' goods12,82513,59614,29617,169
Bunkering, ships, and aircraft 18,75527,91147,697
    Total (excluding gold and current coin)131,974172,453121,417139,759

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS, NIUE, AND TOKELAU—Trade with the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau is not included in external trade statistics. The values of exports (including re-exports) to the islands are summarised below.

Year Ended JuneExports
 (000)
19757,885
197610,898
197712,126
197815,299
197915,662
198017,885

22 C—IMPORTS

Statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed to the Customs and are usually quoted on the valuation basis v.f.d. (value for duty in the country of export at the time of shipment). Formerly, the valuation basis was c.d.v. (current domestic value). However, in certain tables the value c.i.f. (cost including insurance and freight) is also given. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and import totals do not include gold and current coin, except where expressly stated.

Reference should be made to Section 22A for details of the systems of valuation of imports as now used in these tables. Section 22A also gives a summary of import totals for recent years and index numbers of the volume of import trade, and also includes a sub-section on Import Control.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS—The following table classifies imports by sections of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) for years prior to 1978–79. From 1 July 1978 figures are based on S.I.T.C. (Revised 2).

Year Ended JuneImports (v.f.d.)
Food and Live AnimalsBeverages and TobaccoCrude Materials, Inedible, Except FuelsMineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related MaterialsAnimal and Vegetable Oils and FatsChemicals
 $(thousand)
1976140,54025,146100,305396,6319,470307,254
1977148,76328,629122,816468,97013,707423,861
1978152,30229,547119,538466,25714,925417,492
1979155,36431,283184,510502,22816,900453,451
1980201,35145,515204,878944,18220,723603,339
Year Ended JuneImports (v.f.d.)
Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by MaterialMachinery and Transport EquipmentMiscellaneous Manufactured ArticlesCommodities and Transactions not Classified According to KindTotal Merchandise Imports
 $(thousand)
1976558,355993,772177,23621,3712,730,080
1977723,1431,091,036203,49819,9343,244,356
1978618,327952,747215,49331,5293,018,158
1979785,4681,155,206264,09325,6383,574,139
1980971,6051,434,609348,82634,5974,809,625

The next table gives fuller details of imports according to sections and divisions of S.I.T.C. (Revised 2) for the latest available June years.

Division values are on the basis of c.d.v. (current domestic value in country of export) for 1979 and v.f.d. (value for duty) for 1980. Section totals are given on this basis and also on c.i.f. (cost, including insurance and freight) basis for both years.

Section and DivisionYear Ended June
19791980
n.e.s.—not elsewhere specified.
 $(thousand)
0 Food and Live Animals Chiefly for Food
  00 Live animals chiefly for food5,4925,006
    01 Meat and meat preparations3,2235,869
    02 Dairy products and birds' eggs6852,227
    03 Fish, crustaceans and molluscs, and preparations thereof13,79016,389
    04 Cereals and cereal preparations8,12812,995
    05 Vegetables and fruit37,94752,344
    06 Sugar, sugar preparations and honey37,18145,077
    07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices and manufactures thereof45,31157,278
    08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)1,1441,303
    09 Miscellaneous edible products and preparations2,4622,863
                          Total, section 0155,364201,351
                          c.i.f.180,353233,749
1 Beverages and Tobacco
    11 Beverages20,67330,407
    12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures10,61015,108
                          Total, section 131,28345,515
                          c.i.f.35,06849,873
2 Crude Materials, Inedible (Except Fuels)
    21 Hides, skins and furskins, raw4,4606,791
    22 Oil seeds and oleaginous fruit6,6756,553
    23 Crude rubber (including synthetic and reclaimed)21,41130,908
    24 Cork and wood5,6659,164
    25 Pulp and waste paper2,2091,925
    26 Textile fibres (other than wool tops) and their wastes14,26918,040
    27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals (excluding coal, etc.)66,86570,672
    28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap51,34845,580
    29 Crude animal and vegetable materials, n.e.s.11,60815,245
                          Total, section 2184,510204,878
                          c.i.f.232,442254,786
3 Mineral Fuels, Lubricants and Related Materials
    32 Coal, coke and briquettes680810
    33 Petroleum, petroleum products, and related materials501,482943,200
    34 Gas, natural and manufactured66171
                          Total, section 3502,228944,182
                          c.i.f.543,5311,024,342
4 Animal and Vegetable Oils, Fats and Waxes
    41 Animal oils and fats98243
    42 Fixed vegetable oils and fats14,26916,585
    43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin2,5333,895
                          Total, section 416,90020,723
                          c.i.f.18,27922,846
5 Chemical and Related Products, n.e.s.
    51 Organic chemicals76,594112,215
    52 Inorganic chemicals47,64662,207
    53 Dyeing, tanning and colouring materials24,97429,244
    54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products90,169113,248
    55 Essential oils and perfumes, etc.17,85922,264
    56 Fertilisers, manufactured28,69431,377
    57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products2,2583,500
    58 Artificial resins and plastic materials, and cellulose esters and ethers.125,206173,022
    59 Chemical materials and products, n.e.s.40,05056,262
                          Total, section 5453,451603,339
                          c.i.f.469,441633,124
6 Manufactured Goods Classified by Material
    61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.s., and dressed furskins4,7366,171
    62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.26,28337,689
    63 Cork and wood manufactures (excluding furniture)7,2499,628
    64 Paper, paperboard, and articles of paper pulp, of paper, or of paperboard46,66759,485
    65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, n.e.s., and related products260,166327,281
    66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures n.e.s.43,62658,057
    67 Iron and steel231,790263,117
    68 Non-ferrous metals68,53793,683
    69 Manufactures of metal, n.e.s.96,414116,494
                          Total, section 6785,468971,605
                          c.i.f.843,7261,045,600
7 Machinery and Transport Equipment
    71 Power generating machinery and equipment125,723143,806
    72 Machinery, specialised for particular industries140,418207,298
    73 Metalworking machinery20,40426,609
    74 General industrial machinery and equipment n.e.s., and machine parts, n.e.s.157,554193,803
    75 Office machines and automatic data processing equipment72,52788,875
    76 Telecommunications, sound recording and reproducing apparatus and equipment45,99446,654
    77 Electrical machinery, apparatus, and appliances, n.e.s., etc.124,015155,019
    78 Road vehicles (including air cushion vehicles)310,535413,432
    79 Other transport equipment158,034159,113
                          Total, section 71,155,2061,434,609
                          c.i.f.1,220,1471,513,441
8 Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles
    81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, etc., fixtures and fittings, n.e.s.3,2393,977
    82 Furniture and parts thereof2,7675,491
    83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar containers1,0171,107
    84 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories8,70216,856
    85 Footwear6,9659,347
    87 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments and apparatus, n.e.s.56,43570,045
    88 Photographic apparatus, optical goods, watches, and clocks59,99371,797
    89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles n.e.s.124,976170,206
                          Total, section 8264,093348,826
                          c.i.f.271,069359,726
9 Commodities and Transactions Not Classified Elsewhere in the S.I.T.C.
    94 Live animals not elsewhere specified129163
    95 Arms of war and ammunition, etc.22,83530,209
    96 Coins (other than gold coins) not being legal tender in New Zealand1,5512,283
    97 Gold non-monetary1,1241,942
                          Total, section 925,63834,597
                          c.i.f.26,4.5235,121
                          Grand total, merchandise imports3,574,1394,809,625
                          c.i.f.3,840,5075,172,607

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE—From the eighties of the last century until the early seventies of this century, the chief source of supply of New Zealand's imports was the United Kingdom. Prior to that the main source of supply was Australia, and in the latest years, as the United Kingdom has become more closely linked to Europe, Australia has once more moved into first place. During the year ended June 1980, imports from the United Kingdom were valued at $692.9 million and imports from Australia at $914.8 million.

In the years following the Second World War, the proportion of the import trade received from the United Kingdom rose from 47.8 percent in 1946 to a maximum of 60.1 percent in 1950. Since 1950 there has been an overall decline, and for the June years 1979 and 1980 only 15.2 and 14.4 percent of imports came from that source. During those same June years 1979 and 1980, imports from Australia made up 22.4 percent and 19 percent respectively of New Zealand's total imports, and imports from Japan (an increasingly important trading partner) 13.8 percent and 12.6 percent.

The principal changes in the direction of the import trade are illustrated in the table in Section 22A giving the percentage received from the various geographic areas.

The table which follows show imports (valuation v.f.d.) during the latest 5 years from the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States, and Japan. It should be noted that Australia includes Cocos, Norfolk Island, and (from 1980) Christmas Island. The U.S.A. includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Island Trust Territory, Panama Can??! Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific Islands.

Year Ended JuneCountry Where PurchasedCountry of OriginTotal Merchandise Imports
United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.JapanUnited KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.Japan
 $(million)
19765935674453994815193944022,730
19776267735134625437114264743,244
19786237144463815326554213903,018
19795508964354825437994904953,574
19806931,0275915906939156506064,810

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS—The table which follows shows details of principal commodity imports by principal countries of origin for years ended June 1979 and 1980. C.d.v. basis of valuation is used for 1978–79 and v.f.d. valuation for 1979–80.

Commodity and Countries of OriginValue of Imports
1978–791979–80
* Does not include statistics for the Province of Taiwan.
 $(thousand)
Sugar (not refined)
    Australia19,25811,160
    Fiji10,30524,721
    All countries35,639x43,082
Coffee, raw
    Indonesia5,19212,991
    Kenya835912
    Papua New Guinea4,1005,069
    Uganda1,7561,149
    All countries16,03527,928
Rubber (crude and synthetic)
    Australia3,4891,779
    Japan3,1935,774
    Malaysia7,60112,132
    U.S.A.1,6114,391
    All countries21,41130,908
Crude petroleum
    Iran32,95526,885
    Kuwait33,49071,668
    Saudi Arabia76,488190,408
    All countries177,012366,163
Partly refined petroleum
    Australia39,73224,121
    Bahrain14,11413,110
    Saudi Arabia9,75128,114
    Singapore9,18465,254
    All countries109,320174,091
Alcoholic beverages
    Australia1,8833,227
    France3,2604,522
    Germany, Fed Rep. of831856
    Italy718977
    Jamaica1,7052,310
    United Kingdom7,13711,778
    All countries20,58930,332
Tobacco (Unmanufactured)
    Korea, Rep. of971423
    U.S.A.5,5398,914
    All countries9,35713,524
Natural calcium phosphate
    Australia21,08523,498
    Nauru20,87518,606
    All countries45,23847,572
Medicinal and pharmaceutical products
    Australia24,81028,965
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of5,11113,100
    Switzerland4,6937,188
    United Kingdom26,76740,378
    U.S.A.3,4817,034
    All countries90,169113,248
Manufactured fertilisers
    Canada2,2091,564
    Japan4,4744,344
    U.S.A.15,12616,241
    All countries28,69431,377
Motor spirit
    Australia32,70928,627
    Bahrain20,22135,756
    Singapore14,23583,451
    All countries79,451159,554
Kerosene and white spirit
    Australia27,51734,855
    Singapore15,45055,180
    All countries46,88894,073
Distillate fuels
    Australia32,14333,039
    Bahrain11,89519,022
    Singapore10,61045,158
    All countries54,707105,650
Organic chemicals
    Australia15,18115,485
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of5,6827,482
    Japan7,83313,229
    United Kingdom12,05017,910
    U.S.A.20,449x34,685
    All countries76,594112,215
Inorganic chemicals
    Australia8,94911,891
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of3,3924,882
    Japan5,0926,808
    United Kingdom10,99414,482
    U.S.A.8,23511,375
    All countries46,99561,138
Woven fabrics of synthetic fibres
    Australia4,7995,804
    China*1,6335,288
    Japan24,18423,273
    U.S.A.8,65611,286
    All countries80,36092,851
Other woven textile fabrics
    Hong Kong5,5056,492
    India1,9664,903
    United Kingdom6,0847,345
    U.S.A.2,8184,105
    All countries27,27937,643
Glass and glassware
    Australia3,5786,174
    United Kingdom4,7366,044
    U.S.A.2,5933,453
    All countries17,24324,564
Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose and artificial resins
    Australia4,7536,246
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of5,2805,917
    Japan4,0555,066
    United Kingdom10,64512,192
    U.S.A.8,39811,653
    All countries40,77749,569
Articles of rubber
    Japan3,6896,041
    United Kingdom4,1645,978
    U.S.A.4,0425,484
    All countries18,60527,143
Paper and paperboard
    Australia5,72510,935
    Japan8,31011,131
    United Kingdom8,6698,695
    U.S.A.4,1085,063
    All countries39,44150,232
Textile yarn and thread
    Australia6,0587,320
    Hong Kong5,5224,686
    Japan8,7208,842
    United Kingdom6,9498,840
    All countries41,88950,694
Cotton fabrics—woven
    China*5,92512,634
    Hong Kong23,56129,949
    India5,3795,792
    United Kingdom3,4534,886
    U.S.A.2,7764,049
    All countries62,50883,703
Copper and copper alloys
    Australia24,10727,432
    Japan8111,243
    United Kingdom3,0603,964
    All countries29,57836,720
Unwrought zinc
    Australia12,32014,849
    Canada2272,768
    All countries12,55817,979
Bars and rods of iron or steel
    Australia5,6856,742
    Japan7,0199,789
    United Kingdom1,7381,468
    All countries16,65321,407
Angles, shapes and sections of iron or steel
    Australia10,6879,771
    Japan1,8793,118
    United Kingdom2,0831,009
    All countries15,70214,557
Universals, plates and sheets of iron or steel
    Australia38,15341,349
    Japan88,793107,426
    United Kingdom10,4119,429
    All countries142,043161,920
Iron and steel wire
    Australia3,9266,624
    Japan3,2824,259
    United Kingdom2,8423,514
    All countries11,22616,514
Tubes, pipes and fittings of iron or steel
    Australia4,5334,936
    Japan8,0218,355
    United Kingdom3,6764,372
    All countries20,23921,161
Automatic data processing machines and accessories
    Japan2,8717,554
    United Kingdom6,8704,402
    U.S.A.20,92327,982
    All countries37,67347,132
Metalworking machinery
    Australia2,3312,841
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of2,2532,404
    Japan2,0443,096
    United Kingdom3,7365,908
    U.S.A.3,3874,208
    All countries20,40426,609
Textile and leather machinery
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of5,6955,539
    Japan4,9205,640
    United Kingdom3,2255,084
    All countries25,25029,324
Tools for hand use or in machines
    Australia5,4705,304
    Japan4,4604,036
    United Kingdom6,2117,908
    U.S.A.6,5128,238
    All countries30,64936,085
Miscellaneous manufactures of metal
    Australia9,65710,859
    United Kingdom7,4639,560
    U.S.A.2,5623,338
    All countries28,24034,873
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)
    Australia1,9323,327
    Japan1,4222,383
    United Kingdom4,1094,452
    U.S.A.10,31812,038
    All countries20,30825,292
Other non-electric power generating machinery
    Canada9,303x6,865
    United Kingdom20,169x24,621
    U.S.A.36,059x45,449
    All countries83,551x92,758
Tractors
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of2,0885,283
    Italy5,0819,579
    Japan3,6688,995
    United Kingdom10,05019,945
    U.S.A.2,5242,805
    All countries31,63457,088
Agricultural machinery and implements (excl. tractors)
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of1,3821,915
    United Kingdom2,4083,438
    U.S.A.2,2814,613
    All countries12,44422,332
Electric power machinery
    Australia4,7245,951
    United Kingdom5,3417,965
    U.S.A.8,157x5,321
    All countries26,87132,080
Electric switchgear, etc.
    Australia4,1405,280
    Japan4,9506,661
    United Kingdom8,70310,381
    U.S.A.3,8936,279
    All countries30,62240,356
Excavating, levelling, boring, etc., machinery
    Japan4,4845,562
    U.S.A.8,1834.409
    All countries20,87019,251
Other machinery for special industries
    Australia6,0409,408
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of8,21011,385
    United Kingdom7,47213,190
    U.S.A.11,69221,207
    All countries50,22079,303
Pumps and centrifuges
    Australia1,9751,984
    United Kingdom3,5214,511
    U.S.A.3,3784,322
    All countries14,57116,915
Mechanical handling equipment
    Australia5,2082,978
    United Kingdom7,3155,657
    U.S.A.5,8659,808
    All countries24,43927,240
Other non-electric machinery and appliances
    Australia14,03517,220
    United Kingdom17,77322,186
    U.S.A.22,46629,259
    All countries90,135111,591
Parts, accessories of, tractors and motor vehicles (not motor cycles)
    Australia11,04811,541
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of8,1458,701
    United Kingdom19,05423,742
    U.S.A.5,2176,954
    All countries50,82960,968
Telecommunications equipment
    Japan26,31618,919
    United Kingdom5,2646,914
    U.S.A.4,9117,406
    All countries45,99446,654
Thermionic, etc., values and tubes
    France5761,201
    Japan11,76813,080
    Netherlands1,6501,415
    U.S.A.3,7214,569
    All countries23,08426,350
Other electrical machinery and apparatus
    Australia5,8556,534
    Japan11,22213,243
    United Kingdom9,07214,712
    U.S.A.7,6748,468
    All countries41,55952,403
Railway vehicles
    Australia14,28110,618
    Japan1,392504
    United Kingdom2043,616
    U.S.A.810437
    All countries30,59217,940
Motorcars
    Australia40,12755,420
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of3,9023,868
    Japan58,11978,638
    United Kingdom57,46869,932
    All countries167,141215,430
Buses, trucks, and vans
    Australia17,80328,247
    Japan13,58118,792
    United Kingdom29,12634,473
    All countries64,59990,635
Scientific, medical, optical, etc., instruments and apparatus
    Australia8,73110,794
    Japan10,40712,115
    United Kingdom14,59818,198
    U.S.A.22,604x31,815
    All countries73,78992,694
Aircraft
    United Kingdom3,1192,250
    U.S.A.18,97020,306
    All countries23,88135,583
Ships and boats
    Australia237155
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of85,96447,501
    Norway32,020
    Sweden1126,075
    United Kingdom12,6169,746
    All countries103,561105,591
Photographic and cinematographic supplies
    Australia8,79911,080
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of5,1394,612
    United Kingdom2,5143,259
    U.S.A.7,27210,336
    All countries30,14635,207
Printed books and pamphlets
    Australia16,93424,236
    United Kingdom26,91632,751
    U.S.A.15,72020,532
    All countries67,60987,860

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the quantities of a number of principal items imported during recent June years.

ItemUnit of QuantityYear Ended June
1977197819791980
* Excludes hardboards, softboards, wallpaper, lincrusta, and window transparencies.
Sugar, not refinedtonne184490166359171925151310
Coffee, rawtonne5507401160847647
Wine of fresh grapeslitre (000)1763161117061886
Spirits, liqueurs, and other spirituous beverages over 40 percent proof p.litre (000)6476519564917335
Tobacco, unmanufacturedtonne3509437127503506
Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimedtonne28769222792381725536
Natural calcium phosphatetonne (000)1050113713491209
Sulphur, other than sublimed, precipitatedtonne (000)230235258249
Crude petroleumtonne (000)2166168218362018
Partly refined petroleumtonne (000)844662796625
Motor spiritlitre (000)434550674788603802663940
Kerosene and white spiritlitre (000)371619451367406598460894
Distillate fuelslitre (000)375990559832488678536949
Aluminium oxidetonne250846326387320599259201
Potassium chloride (fertiliser)tonne226088230502220463149752
Polymerisation, copolymerisation products in bulk formstonne77652641558909492933
Other plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins, excl. floor coveringstonne23156221502045825351
Rubber tyres and tubes excl. bicycletonne1565332427844281
Paper and paperboard*tonne39118271304260943547
Textile yam and threadtonne99977345917710396
Cotton fabrics, woven—
    Suitable for manufacture of apparelm2 (000)31734249962970230073
    For furnishing and household usem2 (000)16500162541910528525
Woven textile fabrics of synthetic fibres excl. tyrecordm2 (000)46930407596829974009
Iron and steel—
    Bars and rodstonne45810299343147837092
    Angles, shapes and sectionstonne63727401304611936630
    Universals, plates and sheetstonne378227318040359050340922
    Wiretonne32675137551500919534
    Tubes, pipes and fittingstonne23330228292328720158
Copper and copper alloys excl. foil, powders and flakestonne14796123021416612677
Unwrought zinctonne23345173112025522594
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)no.13162111795293752149223
Tractorsno.5554452637126343
Metal working machinerytonne4677406227823219
Excavating, levelling and tamping machineryno.667577438384
Lifting, handling, loading machinery, telphers and conveyorstonne3860407124832141
Electric motorsno.543083424346444160487330
Thermionic, cold cathode, photocathode valves and tubes(000)1036829634603
Railway vehicles excl. containers and partsno.33216245
Motorcars—assembledno.4138318845644977
                  —unassembledno.64954522616007367036
Buses, trucks, vans—assembledno.8011022873703
                                  —unassembledno.15940167041559316962
Aircraft, excl. parts, balloons, airshipsno.123144201174
Ships and boats excl. those for breaking up (including buoys)no.1068109166144926

VALUE OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the value of a number of principal items imported during recent June years.

ItemYear Ended June
1977197819791980

n.e.s.—not elsewhere specified.

 $(thousand) v.f.d.
Sugar, not refined44,77941,20535,63943,082
Coffee, raw18,49614,54916,03527,928
Alcoholic beverages15,77614,43920,58930,332
Tobacco, unmanufactured11,80313,8749,35713,524
Crude rubber, including synthetic, reclaimed22,07517,89921,41130,908
Natural calcium phosphate39,54139,98345,23847,572
Sulphur, other than sublimed, precipitated9,8988,3309,45311,665
Crude petroleum193,485155,378177,012366,163
Partly refined petroleum103,30180,378109,320174,091
Motor spirit54,71887,09579,451159,554
Kerosene and white spirit41,68852,86946,88894,073
Distillate fuels42,36761,76654,707105,650
Organic chemicals67,44456,82276,594112,215
Aluminium oxide39,53051,27250,07542,581
Inorganic chemicals (excl. aluminium oxide)38,14540,99446,99561,138
Medicaments, including veterinary60,70461,80876.06990,975
Potassium chloride (fertiliser)12,83112,06111,77910,103
Polymerisation, copolymerisation products in bulk forms55,94948,82068,882103,231
Other plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins49,46346,87656,32469,791
Articles of rubber, n.e.s.18,85117,07718,60527,143
Paper and paperboard31,98827,34839,44150,232
Textile yarn and thread38,73830,32441,88950,694
Cotton fabrics, woven—
    Suitable for manufacture of apparel30,67724,16229,12832,086
    For furnishing and household use13,92513,64615,63128,235
Woven textile fabrics of synthetic fibres47,48843,34580,36092,851
Other woven textile fabrics37,63133,14927,27937,643
Special textile fabrics and related products19,25418,68824,52032,070
Glass and glassware16,87815,59517,24324,564
Iron and steel—
    Bars and rods19,10513,86416,65321,407
    Angles, shapes and sections17,87411,78715,70214,557
    Universals, plates and sheets129,910108,450142,043161,920
    Wire17,4409,16611,22616,514
    Tubes, pipes and fittings22,63318,33020,23921,161
Copper and copper alloys29,93321,50229,57836,720
Unwrought zinc18,61511,21012,55817,979
Tools for hand use or in machines26,85925,11130,64936,085
Manufactures of metal, n.e.s.24,25025,03128,24034,873
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)24,70623,03920,30825,292
Other non-electric power generating machinery74,96691,70783,55192,758
Tractors40,52835,68031,63457,088
Agricultural machinery and implements (not tractors)20,34122,04912,44422,332
Automatic data processing machines and accessories30,92430,28437,67347,132
Metal working machinery18,10013,90120,40426,609
Textile and leather machinery24,18423,78225,25029,324
Excavating, levelling, boring, extracting machinery, etc.18,99920,27720,87019,251
Other machines for special industries26,25829,91550,22079,303
Pumps and centrifuges, filtering, etc., machinery, incl. parts35,93235,87614,57116,915
Mechanical handling equipment25,17327,25224,43927,240
Other non-electric machinery and appliances, incl. parts103,27696,97490,135111,591
Electric power machinery38,63127,79026,87132,080
Electric switchgear, etc.30,56127,61330,62240,356
Telecommunications apparatus32,73625,02245,99446,654
Thermionic, etc., valves and tubes, etc.26,65713,10713,13013,740
Other electric machinery and apparatus, n.e.s.51,42651,17541,55952,403
Railway vehicles15,04811,91430,59217,940
Motor cars—unassembled113,081118,535145,453188,513
                  —assembled15,21412,45221,68826,917
Buses, trucks and vans—unassembled59,28372,30659,79286,609
                          —assembled3,7975,1864,8074,026
Parts, accessories of tractors and motor vehicles (not motor cycles)38,00039,26150,82960,968
Aircraft22,14915,28123,88135,583
Ships and boats134,09514,651103,561105,591
Scientific, medical, optical, etc., instruments and apparatus49,60358,78573,78992,694
Photographic and cinematographic supplies24,07423,20030,14635,207
Printed books and pamphlets (including maps, etc.)32,52536,04467,60987,860

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS BY END-USE—In the following table imports are classified by end-use in the form of economic categories. The classification involves some arbitrary decisions but it is adapted to practical purposes and the comparability of the time series has useful economic applications. Basis of valuation is c.i.f.

Class of Goods Imported*Year Ended June
19761977197819791980
* For more detailed list of items included under each heading see relevant table in Monthly Abstract of Statistics.
 $(million)
Finished Capital Goods454.4524.3433.8445.2573.0
    Agricultural machinery and plant41.060.556.140.977.6
    Industrial machinery and plant127.5158.5135.7122.4145.5
    Construction machinery and plant15.214.211.615.714.3
    Transport end communications items111.3114.154.366.495.0
    Other complete items159.4177.0176.0199.7240.5
Components and Materials for Capital Goods395.3371.4375.1398.4487.4
    For agricultural machinery and plant11.216.415.113.119.1
    For industrial machinery and plant42.865.669.563.894.8
    For construction machinery and plant3.63.93.55.66.6
    For transport and communications items109.9122.3144.7116.5138.5
    For building, construction, roads67.824.323.527.2364
    For other capital items159.9138.8118.9172.2192.0
Finished Goods and Components (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)412.1434.2369.9565.0658.9
    Complete transport items118.2100.739.4137.6120.9
    Parts for transport items180.3202.3202.6249.7313.0
    Other complete items40.648.849.187.9109.0
    Parts of other items72.982.578.889.9116.1
Consumer Goods658.9812.8796.2879.91,128.1
    Finished consumer goods319.8391.4420.2436.3580.0
    Components for consumer goods339.0421.5376.0443.6548.1
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere1,021.91,373.01,269.31,528.82,294.8
Stores Used Only for Defence19.022.232.423.030.4
                Total2,961.63,538.03,276.63,840.55,172.6
 Percent
Finished Capital Goods15.314.813.311.611.1
    Agricultural machinery and plant1.41.71.71.11.5
    Industrial machinery and plant4.34.54.13.22.8
    Construction machinery and plant0.50.40.40.40.3
    Transport and communications items3.83.21.71.71.8
    Other complete items5.45.05.45.24.6
Components and Materials for Capital Goods13.410.511.410.49.4
    For agricultural machinery plant0.40.50.50.30.4
    For industrial machinery and plant1.41.82.11.71.8
    For construction machinery and plant0.10.10.10.20.1
    For transport and communications items3.73.54.43.02.7
    For building, construction, roads2.30.70.70.70.7
    For other capital items5.43.93.64.53.7
Finished Goods and Components (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)13.912.311.314.712.7
    Complete transport items4.02.91.23.62.3
    Parts for transport items6.15.76.26.56.1
    Other complete items1.41.41.52.32.1
    Parts for other items2.52.32.42.32.2
Consumer Goods22.323.024.322.921.8
    Finished consumer goods10.811.112.811.411.2
    Components for consumer goods11.411.911.511.510.6
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere34.538.838.739.844.4
Stores Used Only for Defence0.60.61.00.60.6
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

IMPORTS BY PORTS—In 1980 New Zealand had 17 ports of entry for Customs purposes—ten in the North Island and seven in the South Island. The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry. The value of overseas cargo landed at other ports is included with the appropriate port of entry. Basis of valuation is v.f.d.

PortYear Ended June
19761977197819791980
 $(thousand)
Whangarei259,111328,742249,159313,774570,289
Auckland1,120,3551,484,4541,410,4971,685,6382,203,211
Hamilton25,78824,90022,10927,93036,739
Tauranga29,73243,20945,63347,76268,213
Gisborne2,8122,2711,1951,8801,609
Napier62,12454,66855,21958,89675,148
New Plymouth198,331124,86047,69444,407117,999
Wanganui2,9685,1075,5296,6168,553
Palmerston North16,99526,19627,67530,32549,465
Wellington562,025636,519636,602813,299920,458
Blenheim7951,037556598898
Nelson15,44524,25822,70316,73527,726
Greymouth1,0501,0481,042298188
Christchurch284,449325,122306,156329,571480,675
Timaru6,9264,7028,6159,7099,605
Dunedin59,22979,46885,23195,126130,060
Invercargill81,94577,84692,54491,576108,789
                Total2,730,0803,244.3563,018,1583,574,1394,809,625

Between 60 and 70 percent of the total imports usually come in by way of Auckland or Wellington. With the advent of the oil refinery plant at Whangarei this port has now reached third place in importance. Christchurch occupies fourth place.

Imports by air have been, credited to the port in whose district the overseas airport is located. Thus goods which came in through Mangere Airport were included in the Auckland figures, imports through Wellington Airport and Oha......a in the Wellington figures, and through Christchurch Airport in the Christchurch figures. The value of imports by air, the commodities and their countries of origin are listed in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Some figures of imports and exports by air are given by main commodity groups in Section 12 E of this Yearbook.

GOODS SHIPPED FROM COOK ISLANDS, NIUE, AND TOKELAU—Trade with the Cook Islands, Tokelau, and Niue is not included in the export and import totals for New Zealand. The following table shows the movement of goods from these islands to New Zealand.

June YearValue of Goods
 $(000)
19753,897
19762,918
19773,464
19783,719
19794,333
19805,649

The c.i.f. values of principal goods brought to New Zealand from the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau during the latest available June year were as follows:

ItemYear Ended June 1980
Cook IslandsNiueTokelau

n.e.s.—not elsewhere specified.

 $     $     $     
Vegetables (fresh, frozen, or preserved458,69116,204-
Citrus fruit29,848234-
Bananas and plantains354,283--
Coconuts14,642--
Other fresh whole fruit416,54189-
Fruit juices1,290,07039,003-
Fruit preserved by freezing-102,883-
Fruit prepared or preserved317,374--
Natural honey-16,972-
Copra925,508103,34498,981
Wood manufactures, n.e.s.17,193--
Clothing of textile fabric961,392--
Footwear97,217--
Manufactured articles, n.e.s.108,83180,611-
Other miscellaneous items181,05717,956-
                Total5,172,647377,29698,981

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on New Zealand's external trade and external economic relations in general will be found in the following publications and sections of this Yearbook.

Department of Statistics publications:

Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Pocket Digest of Statistics (annual).

Exports: Final Statistics (annual).

Imports: Final Statistics (annual).

Report and Analysis of External Trade (annual).

External Trade Bulletins (These replaced the quarterly Country Analysis of External Trade. Details are available from Enquiries Section, Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington).

Shipping and Cargo Statistics (annual bulletin).

Report of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Parl. paper A. 1).

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

White Paper on the GATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations (Parl. paper G. 14A 1979).

New Zealand Standard Classifications—Dept. of Statistics:

N.Z. Statistical Classification of Exports.

N.Z. Statistical Classification of Imports.

N.Z. Standard Country Code (NZSCC).

A number of trade agreements, conventions, exchanges of letters, etc., are published in the “A” series of parliamentary papers.

Export News—Department of Trade and Industry.

How to Export—Department of Trade and Industry.

Other Yearbook sections:

2. History, Government, and international Relations.

18. Manufacturing.

21A. Marketing of Farm Produce.

22 D—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

The New Zealand Customs Tariff dates back to June 1841 when the first Customs Regulation Ordinance was passed. In the latter half of the nineteenth century and the first two decades of the present century tariff policies were unsophisticated and tended to reflect the prevailing economic philosophy, the development of the country's agricultural base, and the British preferential system. From 1921, however, tariff policies directed at encouraging and protecting manufacturing industries were given greater importance. This policy evolution received a temporary check following the Ottawa Agreement of 1932 whereby, in return for concessions from the United Kingdom related to New Zealand's agricultural products, further preferences were accorded to British goods and some constraint placed on the use of the Tariff for purely protective purposes. Subsequent tariff reviews have placed increasing weight on the objectives of encouraging and protecting manufacturing industries.

The structure of the Tariff was changed from 1 July 1962 when the Standard International Trade Classification was adopted. Since 1 July 1967, however, the Tariff has been based on the Customs Co-operation Council Nomenclature (C.C.C.N.).

Consequential to the United Kingdom's decision to enter the European Economic Community preferences on goods of United Kingdom origin were phased out, the process having been completed of 1 July 1977 with the exception of certain automotive products. Commonwealth Preferential Country rates were discontinued from 1 July 1978 but the former recipients of these preferences benefited in lieu from New Zealand's extended Generalised System of Preferences favouring developing countries.

On 1 July 1978 a fully revised Customs Tariff was introduced based on the recommendation of a Tariff Review Committee which had been given a 2-year period to put forward proposals to make the Tariff compatible with modern trading conditions, industrial development requirements, and administrative facility. Tariff rates were set consistent with the committee's terms of reference which required, inter alia, an assessment to be made of rates necessary to accord domestic industry a reasonable level of protection against competing imports disregarding the existence of other forms of protection.

The new Tariff reduced the number of individual tariff items from approximately 4700 to some 2500 and also provided for the collection of statistics on a more detailed basis.

The rates of customs and excise duty enforced in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled The Customs Tariff of New Zealand available from the Government Printer, Wellington.

OBJECTS OF THE TARIFF—The objects of the Customs Tariff can be summarised as:

  1. The collection of revenue.

  2. The development of New Zealand industries.

  3. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand's exports.

  4. The implementation of New Zealand's tariff commitments in multilateral and bilateral trade agreements.

  5. Harmonisation with New Zealand's external political objectives including the provision of assistance to developing countries.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)—New Zealand was one of the original members of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade reached in Geneva in 1947 and has since taken an active part in the work of the GATT in attaining its general objective of reducing barriers to trade and providing a forum for the discussion and settlement of international trade problems and disputes.

The majority of the world's trading nations have now become contracting parties to the GATT and entitled to most-favoured-nation treatment. The non-discriminatory provisions within the GATT assist New Zealand to at least some degree in promoting its objective in seeking the right to trade on a multilateral basis.

The results of the tariff negotiations which took place in 1947 and on subsequent occasions are embodied in schedules to the General Agreement and are applied multilaterally so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants and, conversely, accords reciprocal concessions to all other contracting parties. These concessions are of two kinds—actual reductions in duty rates and bindings on duties against increase.

Developments have, however, tended to whittle away most of the trading advantages which countries relying heavily on agricultural exports might reasonably expect to get from GATT membership. There has been a growing disparity between the benefits accruing under GATT to the industrialised nations and the far less tangible advantages it provides for primary producing countries such as New Zealand. This has been due principally to the maintenance of quantitative restrictions on agricultural products by most of the large industrialised countries as an aspect of their policies of agricultural protectionism.

The Kennedy Round of negotiations which was concluded in June 1967 did not correct this imbalance although New Zealand did obtain improved access and the tariff concessions on a limited range of products export 2d to some GATT countries in compensation for a reduction in rates of duty of up to 50 percent on a number of items. A new round of multilateral trade negotiations was initiated in Tokyo in September 1973. New Zealand took an active part in these negotiations whilst making it clear that the extent of its contribution to a successful outcome was dependent upon improvements in conditions of trade relating to products of principal export interest. New Zealand's global tariff offer represented a “binding” of certain tariff rates provided for by the revised Tariff introduced from 1 July 1978, and covered items with a trade value of around $579 million. In addition, New Zealand made offers in the context of bilateral negotiations whereby participants exchanged requests for and offers of trading concessions on both tariff and non-tariff barriers affecting agricultural and industrial products. New Zealand also participated in a series of multilateral negotiations aimed at the formulation of codes of conduct, elaborating on or in addition to the existing GATT rules on international trade.

Useful concessions were obtained by New Zealand on tariffs and access for our major export products, particularly as the result of bilateral negotiations with the United States, the EEC, and Canada. Some benefit is also expected to derive from the multilateral arrangements negotiated on dairy and meat products, as well as the extensive tariff reductions which will be made by participating countries over the next few years on manufactured goods. A major disappointment for New Zealand was that the negotiations failed to grapple with the basic problems of agricultural protectionism and access, leaving relatively untouched the differences in rules and attitudes which exist between trade in industrial and agricultural products.

PREFERENCES AND OTHER BILATERAL TRADE AGREEMENTS: United Kingdom—A radical change in New Zealand's trade and tariff policy was necessitated by the United Kingdom's decision to enter into the European Economic Community on 1 January 1973 and the effect of this action on New Zealand's exports to that country. Consequently the New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade agreement was abrogated on 31 January 1973. The tariff preferences accorded to British goods in the New Zealand market were accordingly phased out in four steps which began on 1 July 1974 and were completed by 30 June 1977, except in the case of a range of automotive products.

Australia—The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement which came into force on 1 January 1966 provides for periodic reduction and ultimate elimination of duties on the goods listed in a schedule to the agreement when such goods qualify for admission into either country as the produce or manufacture of the other country. This agreement modifies or supersedes some of the provisions of the earlier trade agreement between New Zealand and Australia in 1933.

The goods listed in Schedule A to the agreement cover some two-thirds of the imports from Australia and include forest products (timber, pulp, packaging materials, plywood and veneers), petroleum products, meat, fish, cheese, lead, zinc, and other metals, copper rods and bars, wool, and some machinery and chemicals. As a result of subsequent reviews a limited number of other items have been added to Schedule A each year.

The agreement provides for reviews of trade between the two countries with a view to progressive inclusion of additional items within the agreement. The original agreement was for 10 years and thereafter would remain in force unless terminated on 180 days' notice being given. However, in September 1976, the two countries agreed to extend the agreement for a further period of 10 years on the same terms and conditions.

On 1 December 1977 an exchange of letters took place between the New Zealand and Australian Governments. These replaced an interim agreement made in 1973 and provided a general undertaking, subject to certain qualifications and consultative provisions, to avoid increases in rates of duty other than in exceptional circumstances and to maintain margins of preferences on trade between the two countries. It was also provided that when changes were being made to the respective tariffs each country would, subject to certain conditions, endeavour to preserve a minimum margin of preference of 15 percent on goods in the protected area or a lesser margin if operative at 31 January 1973 or 30 November 1977. A 5-percent margin (or lesser provision if operative at base dates) is to be maintained for goods in the non-protected area where the other State has a substantial or important trade interest. The agreement was for an initial period of 3 years.

Valuable though that the agreement has been in promoting the significant growth in bilateral trade which has occurred since the mid-1960s between New Zealand and Australia, a general assessment has been that the agreement in its present form does not seem able to provide sufficient impetus for the type of economic co-operation and development which would best serve the interests of both countries in the changing international environment.

Against this, New Zealand and Australia recognise that there is scope for new economic arrangements which can strengthen the bilateral relationships, and in March 1980 the Prime Ministers of New Zealand and Australia agreed upon a framework for further detailed exploration and examination of possible arrangements for a closer economic relationship.

Considerable examinations have been conducted since then, although at this stage no commitment to any specific proposal has been entered into.

Canada—Reciprocal trade arrangements between Canada and New Zealand are governed by an agreement negotiated in 1932, and this agreement remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the terms of the agreement, sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri gum, and phormium fibre are amongst the New Zealand products admitted free of duty. Certain other items such as butter, cheese, mutton, and lamb are admitted at preferential rates of duty.

On 26 July 1973 an exchange of letters took place between the New Zealand and Canadian Governments. Among the mutual agreements reached was a general undertaking subject to certain qualifications and consultative provisions, not to increase the duties and to maintain margins of preference on each other's goods based on the position existing at 31 January 1973.

Malaysia—A trade agreement between Malaysia and New Zealand was signed in February 1961 by which each country accords preferential rates of duty to the other. Both countries agreed to guarantee minimum margins of tariff preference which apply to certain important items in each other's trade.

Developing Countries—New Zealand responded to the recommendation of the United Nations Committee on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) that developed countries introduce Generalised Systems of Preference in favour of developing nations, and special developing country rates were incorporated in the Customs Tariff as from 1 January 1972.

When New Zealand introduced a revised Generalised System of Preference (GSP) on 1 July 1976 the new scheme was based on the negative-list concept and significantly increased the GSP coverage granted previously. Every effort was made to keep the list of exceptions to the minimum to give the greatest possible coverage to the scheme. Based on figures for the year ended 30 June 1980, total value of imports from GSP beneficiaries was $1,235 million, compared with $648 million for the year ended 30 June 1979. Of this trade, only $19 million was excluded from either duty-free entry or a Developing Country Preferential rate of duty.

The revised GSP was based on an intention to maintain, in terms of GSP criteria, specified margins of preference for developing countries up to a level of 20 percent. For the year ended June 1979 less than 2 percent of trade from developing countries was excluded from duty free and/or preferential treatment. Since 17 December 1976 special provisions have been made for the duty-free importation of specified handicraft products.

Pacific Forum Islands—At the eleventh South Pacific Forum held in Kiribati in July 1980 the South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Co-operation Agreement (SPARTECA) came into existence. Under this agreement New Zealand and Australia will provide on a non-reciprocal basis duty free and unrestricted access into their markets for most of the products exported by the Forum Island countries.

The agreement took effect on 1 January 1981 and except for items subject to revenue duties and a few items of particular sensitivity to New Zealand the revised Customs Tariff introduced from that date reflected the duty-free access provisions of the agreement.

In New Zealand's case the preferential tariff applies only to goods of Pacific Island origin, which are either wholly obtained in the preferential area or partly manufactured in the area, where the Pacific Island and/or New Zealand content exceeds a nominated level which, except in special circumstances related to the development needs of smaller island countries, is set at 50 percent of factory cost.

OTHER TRADE OBLIGATIONS—New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, and arrangements with countries outside the Commonwealth resulting from direct negotiations with the countries concerned. In practice, some of the earlier arrangements (which generally provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment) became superseded by New Zealand's accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Trade agreements which are still operative include those with Switzerland (1938 and since extended to Liechtenstein in 1956); the Federal Republic of Germany (1959, amended 1977); Japan (1958, amended 1962); the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1963, protocol 1973); the Polish People's Republic (1965); Republic of Korea (1967, amended 1976); People's Republic of Bulgaria (1968); Republic of Philippines (1968, amended 1976); Hungarian People's Republic (1970, revised and superseded 1978); The People's Republic of China (1973); Iran (1974); Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1975); Arab Republic of Egypt (1977); German Democratic Republic (1978); Indonesia (1978); and the Socialist Republic of Romania (1979).

ELIGIBILITY OF GOODS FOR TARIFF PREFERENTIAL RATES—In order to qualify for entry at preferential rates imported goods must meet certain origin requirements before they can be deemed to be the produce or manufacture of the countries entitled to the preferences. The provisions are contained in the Customs Regulations 1968 as amended. In general, with minor variations, they include the following:

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries.

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw materials and/or (in some instances) from one or more of the imported partly-manufactured materials which are enumerated in the regulations.

  3. Goods “wholly obtained”. (This provision applies only to South Pacific Forum Island countries and Developing Country Preferences and is instead of provisions (a) and (b).)

  4. Goods partly manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or other items of factory or works cost incurred in such countries in respect of each article is not less than half of the factory or works cost of the article in its finished state.

CUSTOMS DUTIES—The 1978 Tariff (effective from 1 July 1978) has only two duty columns, viz: normal and preferential.

EXCISE—Excise duties are levied on alcohol used in manufacturers' warehouses licensed under the Customs Act 1966, locally produced beer, potable spirits, tobacco, and cigarette papers. These are the traditional “revenue” goods of New Zealand for which the Customs Department has responsibility.

In addition to the responsibility for the collection of Excise duty, the department also has to ensure the revenue is safeguarded on alcohol distilled in New Zealand for use as fuel, as a fuel extender, or for industrial purposes.

The present Sikes' method of determining the strength of alcohol (proof spirit) is to be replaced in July 1981 by the International Organisation of Legal Metrology system (strength as a percentage of alcohol by volume of 20° Celsius). This system is the basis for the tariff of most countries that are members of the Customs Co-operation Council.

The following table shows net revenue from Customs and Excise duties for the past 5 years. For the year ended 31 March 1980 there was a 20.9 percent increase in total receipts. This compared with annual increases of 16.6 percent in 1978–79 and 9.6 percent in 1977–78.

Year Ended 31 MarchCustoms and Excise Duties (Including Foreign Fishing Vessel Tax But Excluding Beer Duty)Sales Tax (Including Travel Tax and Departure Tax)Beer DutyMotor Spirits DutyOther ReceiptsTotal
$(thousand)
1976217,024307,26748,374170,4871,500744,652
1977253,396358,19246,457199,4801,668859,193
1978273,674385,19158,693222,1571,920941,635
1979286,129465,58358,853281,9655,0961,097,626
1980331,622639,69358,159289,3778,1231,326,974

Motor spirits duty paid into the National Roads Fund has been excluded from Customs duties. Customs revenue as a proportion of taxation is discussed in the section on Central Government Finance.

INTERNATIONAL COMMODITY AGREEMENTS: Sugar—New Zealand's annual requirement for sugar is approximately 160000 tonnes. From 1973 the bulk of this was imported from Australia and Fiji under long-term contracts. Additional cargoes were purchased from Cuba and the Philippines. The long-term contracts expired in 1978. The Fijian contract was renegotiated in 1979 and is effective for 5 years expiring in 1983. On 30 April 1980 a new Australian - New Zealand Sugar Agreement was negotiated. This extends over a period of 5 years from June 1980 to December 1984.

In an effort to exert a greater control over market forces, producers and consumers have repeatedly made efforts over the past 20 years to encourage market stability through the implementation of a number of International Sugar Agreements. These agreements incorporate mechanisms that regulate the supply and price of sugar on world markets. Under the agreements exporters undertake to regulate their sales on the free market according to agreed quotas, while importers are to restrict their purchases from non-members during times when sugar prices remain within the range specified in the agreement. New Zealand has been a member of the International Sugar Agreements of 1958, 1968, and 1978.

Coffee—New Zealand is a party to the International Coffee Agreement 1976, which came into force in October 1976, for a period of 6 years. New Zealand was previously a party to the International Coffee Agreement of 1968 which finally expired in 1976, having been extended from 1973 as a purely administrative agreement.

Under the 1976 agreement provisions have been incorporated for adjusting basic quotas, regulating imports whenever quotas are in effect, and recording international coffee trade. As from 1 November 1980 the International Coffee Organisation has instructed importing countries to adopt the economic provisions of the International Coffee Agreement. As importers of coffee, therefore, we are required to limit our imports to a level within the global quota and to limit our annual imports from non-members to quantities established under the provisions of the Agreement.

Cocoa—New Zealand was a member of the original Cocoa Agreement in 1973 which expired in 1976. New Zealand became party to the International Cocoa Agreement 1976, which came into force in October 1976 for a period of 3 years.

The International Cocoa Agreement incorporates features common to other commodity agreements, but depends largely for the stabilising of prices on the operation of a buffer stock. Cocoa beans would be bought into the buffer stock at times of low prices and sold when prices pass an agreed maximum level. The provisions of this agreement have not come into effect and there has been considerable pressure from member countries to renegotiate a more workable base for the agreement. A further agreement, or an extension of the 1976 Agreement, is currently being negotiated. It is hoped that by mid-1981 a further arrangement will have been concluded.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on Customs tariff and revenue and on trade agreements will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Customs Department (Parl. paper B. 24).

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

White Paper on the GATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations (Parl. paper G. 14A 1979).

International Sugar Agreement, 1977 (Parl. paper A. 50 1979).

International Coffee Agreement, 1976 (Parl. paper A. 17 1979).

International Cocoa Agreement, 1976 (Parl. paper A. 18 1979).

Trade agreements with individual countries are published as parliamentary papers in the “A” series.

Chapter 23. Section 23 PRICES, HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE, AND CONSUMER AFFAIRS

CONTROL AND STABILISATION OF PRICES—The principal enactments affecting the control of prices of goods and services are the Commerce Act 1975 and the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948.

Under the former statute a Positive List of Controlled Goods and Services is published by the Minister of Trade and Industry. Increases in the prices of goods and services included in this list are subject to the approval of the Secretary of Trade and Industry or, in the case of specified energy products, the Secretary of Energy. Applicants for price increases who are subject to this form of control may appeal to the Commerce Commission if they are dissatisfied with the Secretary's decision. Goods and services at present on the Positive List include cement, pharmaceuticals, fertilisers, canned foods, soaps, beer, and freight forwarding charges.

Many domestic transport services are subject to price control in terms of the Transport Act 1962, and air transport charges are subject to approval by the Air Services Licensing Authority in accordance with the provisions of the Air Services Licensing Act 1951. The prices of certain other goods such as motor spirits, automotive and diesel oil, and milk and cream prices are fixed by Order in Council.

Regulations have been made from time to time under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948 for the purpose of restraining and monitoring increases in the prices of most other goods and services which are not controlled by the direct supervision of a statutory pricing authority. The current regulations in force are the Price Surveillance Regulations 1979.

The Commerce Act 1975—Part IV of the Commerce Act provides for goods and services to be placed under price control, and allows regulations to be made placing goods and services under price restraint. Decisions take the form of price orders or special approvals, and the Secretary of Trade and Industry is required on request to give the reasons for a decision to the applicant. The Commerce Commission sits as an independent judicial authority for the determination of appeals from decisions of the Secretary of Trade and Industry.

Decisions of the Secretary of Trade and Industry are made following investigations upon receipt of an application in accordance with procedures set out in the Act. Provision is also made for the Secretary to review prices on his own motion with the consent of the Minister of Trade and Industry. Before making a determination in respect of an application or following a review on his own motion, the Secretary is required by the Act to take certain criteria into account.

Criteria considered by the Secretary of Trade and Industry or the Commerce Commission in dealing with pricing matters include the costs of production and distribution of the goods concerned; the ability of the applicant to absorb costs; profit margins and the return on capital employed by the applicant; improvements in productivity and efficiency; and market competition.

The Ministry of Energy Act 1977 transferred to the Secretary of Energy all the functions, powers and duties conferred on the Secretary of Trade and Industry by Part IV of the Commerce Act 1975 with respect to energy products included in the Positive List.

The Price Surveillance Regulations 1979—These regulations came into force on 6 April 1979 and replaced the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1974. The Price Surveillance Regulations require every trader to retain records of price increases and allow the Secretary to investigate the prices of any goods or services. If the Secretary is of the opinion that the price being charged is excessive he may invite the trader to reduce the price or to make refunds, and may recommend to the Minister of Trade and Industry that the goods or services be made subject to price control or that a public inquiry be held before the Commerce Commission.

The Price Surveillance Regulations also require manufacturers with an annual turnover of $7.5 million or more and suppliers of services with an annual turnover of $2 million or more to notify the Secretary of Trade and Industry of price increases and to supply the Secretary with their financial accounts and half-yearly reports indicating the net pre-tax profit earned during that period. Professional bodies are also required to notify the Secretary of Trade and Industry of increases in any scale of charges recommended to their members.

Importers, wholesalers, and retailers whose annual turnover is $5 million or more are required to supply half-yearly returns to the Secretary of Trade and Industry providing details of the turnover and gross profit earned in that period.

CONSUMER AFFAIRS—The responsibility for administering New Zealand's consumer legislation is shared by several Government departments, including the Departments of Trade and Industry, Health, Justice, and Labour.

Some examples are:

Department of Health—
    Food and Drug Act
    Poisons and Medicines Acts
Department of Justice—
    Sale of Goods Act
    Layby Sales Act
    Hire Purchase Act
    Motor Vehicle Dealers Act
Department of Labour—
    Weights and Measures Act
Department of Trade and Industry—
    Consumer Information Act
    Wool Labelling Act
    Merchandise Marks Act
    Door to Door Sales Act
    Safety of Childrens Night Clothes Act
    Commerce Act

Under some legislation the departments concerned may be able to assist complainants but in most cases the legislation provides the avenue for action through the courts. Some problems can now be resolved through small claims tribunals. Following the passing of the Small Claims Tribunals Act 1976, small claims tribunals were set up in June 1977 in Christchurch, New Plymouth, and Rotorua. Recently they have been established in Gisborne and Invercargill. The extension of this system to other centres will be considered.

The Consumers' Institute runs a consumer complaints service and citizens advice bureaux are also established in some main centres and will assist complainants. Some of these bureaux have legal assistance sections for those with legal problems who may not be able to afford to seek private legal advice.

CONSUMER COUNCIL—The Consumer Council's functions are to protect and promote the interests of consumers of goods and services and by so doing to encourage the improvement and development of industry and commerce. The council was established in 1959 and reconstituted an independent body under the Consumer Council Act 1966. The council consists of 12 members appointed solely on the basis of personal qualifications by a representative Appointments Committee. The Secretary of Trade and Industry, the Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Director-General of Health are also represented on the council.

The council has appointed District Consumer Committees in Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and sponsors the formation of local consumer associations. The Council lays down the policies to be followed by the staff of the Consumers' Institute. The institute's work include;; comparative tests and surveys of consumer goods and services; research into and advice on legal, financial, and welfare matters; representations to parliamentary committees and public inquiries; consumer education; complaints advisory service; and liaison with business, trade, and safety associations.

Citizens are encouraged to become members of Consumers' Institute at an annual subscription of $11. At the end of 1980, over 110000 members received the monthly magazine Consumer. Members are entitled to purchase other Institute publications. Teaching Notes are made available to schools, and radio, television, and newspaper reports are made.

Membership subscriptions and sales of publications provide about 55 percent of the Institute's finance. The remainder comes from Government grants and selected non-commercial sources. While the Institute liaises and co-operates with others, it maintains complete independence and impartiality.

The Consumer Council is a council member of the International Organisation of Consumers Unions, and co-operates with and assists other consumer organisations throughout the world.

PRICE STATISTICS—Actual prices of many goods and services at various levels are collected periodically by the Department of Statistics. The fields covered are retail prices, wholesale prices, farm input prices, export prices, import prices, share prices, and wool prices. In the case of retail, wholesale, and farm input prices, direct inquiry is made; export and import prices (or strictly, unit values) are mainly derived from trade statistics, share prices from records of the stock exchanges, and wool prices from the New Zealand Wool Board. In addition, average prices of many materials and products of manufacture are available from the statistics of industrial production. Some retail prices are shown later in this Section, and a wider coverage is published in the annual Report, Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics (Part A: Prices), published by the Department of Statistics. The chief use made of the prices collected is in the compilation of price index numbers. These are fundamentally, weighted averages of price ratios, the weighting being so arranged that the index numbers give a general indication of price movements in the field covered. The usual technique employs fixed weights with, however, provision for revision of the weighting pattern at suitable intervals.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—The Consumers Price Index (CPI) measures changes in the general level of the prices of the goods and services which households purchase; it thus provides the best available measure of the effect of changes in retail prices on the average household budget. Index series of retail prices have a long history in New Zealand, starting with a food and rent index for the 4 chief centres back to 1891, and increasing in comprehensiveness both as to commodity and geographical coverage over successive series since that time. The most recent revisions to the Consumers Price Index were made in 1965, 1974, 1977, and 1980.

1977 Revision—The 1977 revision of the Index was a limited one. It was concerned with updating the expenditure pattern on which the Index is based, incorporating up-to-date population weights to be assigned to the market centres from which prices are collected, and in reviewing the items which are priced and the pricing outlets from which such prices are obtained. No changes were made to the concepts of, and definitions used in, the Consumers Price Index nor to the areas of expenditure, market centres, or households covered by the Index. The reference period or base period in the case of this revision is the year ended 31 March 1977, adjusted to reflect December quarter 1977 price levels. The main basis for establishing the expenditure pattern for the Index was the Household Expenditure Survey conducted throughout the year ended 31 March 1977. The salient features of this index may be summarised as follows:

  1. The basic formula used is that of Laspeyres in its aggregative form.

  2. The index relates to the expenditures of all New Zealand residents living in private households.

  3. The number of items regularly priced is 565.

  4. The base expenditures are quantities for 12 months ended 31 March 1977 at prices for the quarter ended December 1977.

  5. The sources of group and commodity weights are the average expenditure per household from the Household Expenditure Survey of the year ended March 1977 supplemented by crosschecks from other statistical sources. Where considered appropriate, the base weight assigned to selected items represent expenditure on kindred items not selected for pricing.

  6. Prices for most items are collected by field officers in 25 centres, including 3 combined areas. A few are obtained by mail.

  7. Rent movements are determined by means of a quarterly survey of a sample of rented houses and flats.

  8. Special techniques are employed for costs of owner-occupier housing, for prices of seasonal fruits and vegetables, and for transport charges.

  9. Index numbers are compiled for all food and its sub-groups at monthly intervals, and for all other groups and sub-groups at quarterly intervals.

  10. Index numbers are published for 7 chief market centres and 10 larger market centres individually. Combined index numbers are also published for each of these two groupings and for all centres combined. Each centre and grouping of centres is shown on its own base and on a common, all-centres, base.

  11. To provide continuous series, the pre-revision all-groups index and food index series were converted to a base of December quarter 1977.

  12. Expenditures on the following items are, for various reasons, excluded: direct taxation; purchases of shares, bonds or debentures; payments to superannuation funds and the like; savings; collectors' items; gifts; gambling; court fines; legal expenses for traffic cases, criminal and civil cases, estates, family settlements, divorces, adoptions, etc; charitable and church donations; wages of domestic servants, home aids, home nurses, jobbing gardeners, etc.; catering and other service charges for private receptions; training, racing and stabling fees for race or trotting horses; purchase, boarding and breeding charges for animals; pet requisites (other than pet food); and grazing fees and fees for pony clubs.

The basic objective of the Consumers Price Index is to provide a multi-purpose indicator of retail price changes of those goods and services which are purchased by New Zealand residents living in New Zealand.

The weights in the Consumers Price Index are based on the pattern of expenditure of the population covered by the index rather than on what is consumed by them.

Data to revise and update the Consumers Price Index are obtained mainly from continuing household expenditure surveys. These are to be supplemented and tested by additional data on housing, national consumption, production, and expenditure.

The selection of goods and services to be priced—inevitably only a small percentage of goods and services can be priced—has been widened to include more fields of expenditure and more pricing outlets than were used in the previous index. This reflects more adequately both the expenditure patterns of New Zealand residents living in New Zealand and the movement in prices of consumer goods and services.

1980 Revision—A revised Consumers Price Index based on December quarter 1980 and extending both the commodity items and the geographical coverage was introduced early in 1981. The expenditure weighting pattern was also revised in line with the results of the Household Survey for the year ended 31 March 1980.

The tables in the present section relate to the previous (1977) revision. A short feature on the 1980 revision is included in the Special Features section of this Yearbook

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX (1977 REVISION)

The tables which follow relate to the Consumers Price Index (1977 Revision) only.

The first table supplies all-groups index numbers and index numbers of individual groups and subgroups for 25 centres combined. The group and sub-group weights are also shown as percentages of the base expenditure.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—(ALL GROUPS)—TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES COMBINED
Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres, December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Groups—
    Percentages of base expenditure19.1223.5317.047.9513.8418.52100.00
Calendar year—
    19781049104310531069107810821060
    19791231112712061190124412561206
    19801483126013881350151915031412
Quarter ended—
    1979 31 Dec1317117712921257132713531283
    1980 31 Mar1390120013191282141414151333
              30 Jun1459123813651344149414671388
              30 Sep1504127314171365156015401438
              31 Dec1577132914501411160515921490
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold Operation
Fruit and vegetablesMeat, Fish, and PoultryOther FoodsRentalsHome OwnershipFuel and LightHousehold FurnishingsHousehold Supplies and Services
Subgroups—
    Percentage of base expenditure2.955.1211.054.0219.502.779.334.94
Calendar year—
    197810331062104810461042103710641041
    197911461370118811211129131012121137
    198013891639143512331266159213761296
Quarter ended—
    1979 31 Dec12221499125811631180150012801199
    1980 31 Mar13151577132411881203152013061233
              30 Jun13981600141012161243158013561261
              30 Sep13921644146912451278163114051318
              31 Dec14521734153912821338163614371371
PeriodApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
ClothingFootwearPublic TransportPrivate TransportTobacco and AlcoholOther SuppliesOther Services
Subgroups—
    Percentage of base expenditure6.441.521.2212.627.885.944.70100.00
Calendar year—
    197810691068112410741080109110741060
    197911821227130412381264125312471206
    198013301436163315071541146214931412
Quarter ended—
    1979 31 Dec12391335139413201394133713031283
    1980 31 Mar12611369152414041441139213981333
              30 Jun13251422158214851475144414821388
              30 Sep13461447167015501601147415231438
              31 Dec13891506175715911646153615701490

The average level of consumer prices rose by 17.1 percent in 1980, compared with a rise of 13.8 percent during the preceding year. Although price increases were recorded in all main groups of the index the major contributions to the overall result came from the following subgroups: private transport, home ownership, the meat, fish, and poultry subgroup, other foods, tobacco and alcohol, and household furnishing.

The following tables distinguish individual centres and groupings of centres, but the subgroup indexes are omitted. Attention is called, however, to the two-fold method of presentation: in the first table current prices in each centre are compared with prices in the same centre during the base period; in the second, current prices in each centre are compared with average prices over all the 25 centres in the base period.

Where the base is the individual centre, the index numbers are specially designed to show price movements in each centre. Vertical comparisons can also be made but they will show the relative amount of price movements in respective centres, not relative current price levels. In the second table, where the base is average prices over the 25 centres, horizontal or vertical comparisons may be made to compare relative price levels. However, these index numbers do not indicate how much dearer or cheaper it is to live in one centre or another, but only how much higher or lower retail price levels are in one centre than another. The construction of the index assumes the same consumption habits in all centres, regardless of size, climate, etc.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—ANNUAL GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES
Base: Weighted average each centre and grouping, separately, December Quarter 1977 (=1000)
CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
Fourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar Year
19791980197919801979198019791980
Auckland100012271489100011281263100012001384100011831331
Hamilton100012271476100011301270100011861370100011841329
Napier-Hastings100012471511100011241252100011881369100012001373
Palmerston North100012541501100011481290100012231407100012021384
Wellington-Hutt100012301485100011041229100012031367100011981358
Christchurch100012281479100011201248100012181404100011881350
Dunedin100012341476100011381273100011951370100011841352
Seven chief market centres100012311487100011241257100012021383100011891346
Whangarei100012361502100011191263100012521433100011791337
Tauranga100012451492100011381267100011721346100011551306
Rotorua100012341485100011131241100012201400100011791342
Gisborne100012501508100011981358100011921379100011831353
New Plymouth100012191453100011151224100012071404100012231374
Wanganui100012341465100011261280100012261409100011881372
Masterton100012241447100011241228100012601445100012021370
Nelson100012181477100011431269100012061392100012201399
Timaru100012031426100011161276100012171407100011951373
Invercargill100012241464100011581284100012271419100012091376
Ten larger market centres100012291473100011331268100012171402100011921359
Twenty-five market centres combined*100012311483100011271260100012061388100011901350
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Fourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar Year
197919801979198019791980
* Includes 8 smaller market centres, viz Tokoroa. Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera. Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, and Gore.
Auckland100012611536100012551500100012051413
Hamilton100012291500100012541507100011991408
Napier-Hastings100012381507100012631508100012071416
Palmerston North100012191506100012491504100012141428
Wellington-Hutt100012361510100012741524100012011403
Christchurch100012361507100012461487100012031408
Dunedin100012661546100012561502100012101415
Seven chief market centres100012461520100012571503100012041411
Whangarei100012571520100012421495100012111423
Tauranga100012401521100012591508100012011404
Rotorua100012461518100012621510100012061412
Gisborne100012381500100012431475100012201433
New Plymouth100012221495100012561523100012011404
Wanganui100012271498100012671504100012101418
Masterton100012301506100012531493100012121407
Nelson100012221494100012601507100012061414
Timaru100012311510100012681503100012001409
Invercargill100012811562100012521505100012221430
Ten larger market centres100012421515100012561503100012081416
Twenty-five market centres combined*100012441519100012561503100012061412
CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—ANNUAL GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES
Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres combined, December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
Fourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar Year
19791980197919801979198019791980
Auckland9761207146510531163130110011194137998411701316
Hamilton10111236148710061108124510041172135494111011236
Napier-Hastings9991240150293510611182101212021386101212221399
Palmerston North10101265151496711081245102512581448103312381425
Wellington-Hutt10101246150510611171130399912121377102712231385
Christchurch1008123314859741099122498411951377105012501420
Dunedin10091234147791010951226103812301410103112451422
Seven chief market centres99612281483101411341267100412021383100611981356
Whangarei100012331499981111212549971244142487710211158
Tauranga10011254150410581197133210091183135996711281276
Rotorua100112351487967107411989831226140895911321289
Gisborne103612861551907112212739961213140498011761345
New Plymouth10081232146994710671172101712281428100512241375
Wanganui1011125014849071065121196011971375102511871371
Masterton102912491477939107511759991262144897011521312
Nelson10081217147610231154128210141220140898012091386
Timaru983118214019371084123998112111399105112681456
Invercargill1015123514779251106122796311981385105712601435
Ten larger market centres100712351481964111012439911216140198611711334
Twenty-five market centres combined*100012311483100011271260100012061388100011901350
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Fourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar Year
197919801979198019791980
* Includes eight smaller market centres, viz. Tokoroa, Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, and Gore.
Auckland102012781558103412921543101712171427
Hamilton976120014649891251150399411821387
Napier-Hastings1027127315509911262150798811981406
Palmerston North969119914819771226147799112081421
Wellington-Hutt9871220149099512651514101612201426
Christchurch100612421514102012601504100112031407
Dunedin1000127115529821240148398412081414
Seven chief market centres100412491524101112691517100612101417
Whangarei1004127415419831225147598111941403
Tauranga9751208148198412281471100612081412
Rotorua974121614829791234147697811851387
Gisborne1026127615469771220144898112141424
New Plymouth993120414749751220147998511861387
Wanganui9761203146810131279151897311921396
Masterton979120614779751244148297911961389
Nelson10011228150096112081445100112021409
Timaru997123215129541227145497411861392
Invercargill1008129715819861248150098212121418
Ten large market centres994123815109791232147598411971403
Twenty-five market centres combined*100012441519100012561503100012061412

AVERAGE RETAIL PRICES—New Zealand retail prices (weighted average prices over 25 centres) at 15 November 1980 of a number of the commodities which enter into the Consumers Price Index are shown hereunder.

CommodityUnitPrice
  Cents
Apples, eatingkg116.44
Orangeskg101.80
Cabbagekg43.12
Carrotskg94.08
Onionskg80.09
Potatoeskg59.65
Peaches, canned425 g tin69.67
Peas, green frozen1 kg pkt148.93
Beef, blade steakkg421.56
Beef, corned silversidekg423.98
Beef, porterhouse steakkg586.96
Beef, prime rib rolledkg369.35
Beef, rump steakkg539.41
Hogget, chops, middle loinkg340.38
Hogget, cut leg, knuckle endkg325.83
Hogget, forequarterkg205.61
Lamb, leg, wholekg338.01
Pork, cut leg, knuckle endkg467.32
Pork, loin chopskg477.73
Bacon, middle rasherskg751.60
Ham, cooked, pressed, slicedkg886.44
Mince, beefkg314.95
Sausages, beefkg203.11
Sole or flounder, wetkg315.80
Fish, fresh, filleted—e.g. tarakihikg567.67
Salmon, canned220 g141.31
Chicken, deep frozenMedium356.00
Eggs, min. 636g/dozenDozen127.51
Milk, delivered600 ml20.05
Butter500 g83.23
Cheese, tastykg319.61
Milk powder, full cream1 kg tin355.12
Bread, sliced, wrapped750 g52.83
Biscuits, chocolate wheaten225 g79.08
Cake, block, light fruit500 g199.57
Breakfast flake biscuits750 g99.51
Flour, white1.5 kg81.16
Oatmeal, packaged1.4 kg141.72
Rice, short grain500 g62.70
Honey500 g tin116.10
Jam, apricot400 g tin86.59
Coffee, instant100 g205.00
Coffee, ground, packaged200 g214.95
Tea250 g93.89
Margarine, table500 g97.96
Salt, iodised2 kg bag68.88
Soup, tomato450 g tin64.44
Spaghetti in tomato sauce450 g tin63.19
Sugar, white3 kg pkt249.69
Vegetable cooking oil500 ml135.00
Aerated waters740 ml hot58.90
Ice cream, vanilla2 litre189.30
Chocolate, block250 g168.70
Meals, coffee and 2 sandwichesEach107.21
Meals, grill, steak and eggsEach541.19
Takeaways, chicken, hotEach409.84
Takeaways, hamburger, hotEach88.08
  $
Timber, dressed, 150 mm × 25 mm finishing tanalised radiata pinePer 100 lineal metres148.03
Concrete blocks, 400 mm × 200 mm × 150 mm water proofPer 10078.67
Paint, house, waterbased, high-gloss4 litre tin26.94
Wallpaper, N.Z. plain sunproofPer roll8.36
Local body ratesAnn. Demand303.04
Coal, delivered255 kg28.40
Electricity with water heating5040 MJ per 2 months52.56
Gas1055 MJ per month10.41
Electric blanket, single, thermostat controlEach37.96
Clothes drier, tumblerEach341.40
Home-freezer 0.31 cumEach495.09
Electric radiator, 4 elementsEach109.63
Radio, transistorised, 8 transistors 6VEach62.75
Electric range, 4 elementEach672.41
Electric razor, triple header (in travel case)Each80.52
Refrigerator 0.32 cu m dual temperature, freezer-fridgeEach668.81
Modular stereo, turntable, 3 speed, single playEach622.80
Television set, colour, 66 cmEach1,331.72
Vacuum cleanerEach182.88
Washing machine, spin dry, fully automaticEach768.19
Bedroom suite, 135 cm including dressing table, tallboyEach693.94
Motor mower, rotaryEach428.14
Tallboy, 4 drawer, rimuEach124.86
Dining room suiteEach444.40
Lounge suite, 3 pieceEach847.30
Mattress, (inner spring, with spring base and divan feet) 135 cmEach336.29
Blinds, Venetian, 175 cm wide, 130 cm dropEach106.13
Cot, wooden, painted, dropsideEach89.12
Piano, upright, iron frameEach2,316.86
Carpet, embossed, broadloomPer metre86.99
Carpet, 80/20 broadloomPer metre105.86
Blankets, all wool, singlePair59.81
Sheets, singlePair19.32
Towel, turkish, 61 cm × 122cmEach6.88
Casserole dish, 1.7 litre pyrexEach14.06
Clock, alarmEach28.45
Mixing bowl, stainless steel 20 cmEach6.64
Saucepan, 20 cm aluminiumEach26.56
Cup, saucer, plateSet13.51
Forks, table, stainless steel1/2 dozen4.61
Hammer, 568 gEach19.64
PlaneEach39.84
Spade, gardenEach27.23
Bulb, electric light, 100WEach1.17
Cat food, tinned425 g0.62
Detergent, liquid, plastic container900 ml1.63
Disinfectant560 ml0.94
Flyspray, aerosol310 g2.02
Soap powder1.10 kg1.46
Washing powder900g1.86
Postage, surface letters, 10 gEach0.20
Telegrams, 15 wordsEach1.90
Telephone rental, privatePer year144.00
Dry cleaning, men's 2 piece suitEach4.63
Television licence, colourPer year45.00
Television licence, black and whitePer year27.50
Man's cardigan, all wool, fully fashionedEach48.30
            HandkerchiefEach1.04
            Jeans, navyPair25.30
            Raincoat, fabricEach88.46
            Shirt, businessEach25.82
            Singlet, athleticEach4.98
            Socks, half-hose, wool/nylonPair4.15.
            Suit, ready-made two-pieceEach201.09
            Swimming trunks, bri-nylonPair9.63
            Trousers, sports, terylene or woolPair48.61
Woman's brassiereEach10.42
            Cardigan, lightweightEach25.82
            Coat, winterweightEach119.32
            Frock, lightweightEach29.62
            Nightdress, nylonEach14.98
            Nightdress, dacron/cottonEach13.41
            Panties, nylonPair2.24
            Panty hosePair2.19
            Slacks, lightweightPair23.74
Woman's Skirt, winterweightEach36.71
            Blouse, winterweightEach27.54
            Swimsuit, nylonEach28.57
            Underslip, nylonEach11.34
            Vest, at least 50 percent woolEach7.36
Boy's shortsPair8.49
Girl's pantiesPair2.18
          Pyjamas, heavyweightPair8.94
          Socks, ankle, nylonPair2.55
Infant's nursery squares, 76 cm × 76 cmDozen18.68
Infant's vest, eyelet meshEach2.40
Fabric kettlecloth, plain, 115 cmPer metre3.80
            Synthetic, dress, lightweight, 115 cmPer metre4.02
            Woollen/cotton mixture, 90 cmPer metre7.72
Paper pattern, dressmakingEach1.81
Knitting wool 4 plyPer 25 g ball0.83
                        double knitPer 50 g ball1.62
Men's boots, heavyweight, commando solePair51.65
            Sand shoesPair9.59
            Shoes, lightweightPair56.14
Women's fashion shoes (summer)Pair40.10
            Fashion shoes (winter)Pair43.78
            SlippersPair11.58
Boy's shoes, schoolPair23.77
Girl's shoes, schoolPair22.49
Car, new, basic without extras, 1051–1350 ccEach8,633.88
Bicycle, 53 cm frameEach234.80
Petrol, 96 octanePer 10 litres5.40
Car repairs, overhaul of brakes,Per job98.28
Overhaul of gearbox, (new seals, bearings, and gaskets only)Per job192.69
Cigarettes, filter tippedPkt 200.92
Cigarette tobacco50 g pkt1.65
Beer, in a public bar200 ml glass0.30
Wine, N.Z. sherry, medium dryPer 750 ml 
 bot3.31
Aspirin  
Make-up, foundation (tinted)32 g4.09
Lipstick, 12 mm, popular colourEach4.20
Baby talc110 g1.05
Razor blades, stainless steelpkt of 51.56
Toilet paperPer 4 rolls1.56
Toilet soap, bath size tabletEach0.37
Toothpaste, family sizePer tube0.87
Ring, diamond, engagementEach1,167.72
Watch, wrist, man'sEach102.70
Pad, writing, 23 cm, × 18 cm 40 leaves ruledEach0.62
Long playing recordEach9.96
Construction set, child's toyEach19.33
Teddy bear, 33 cmEach18.42
Tricycle, child'sEach85.07
Bowls, outdoorSet of 4124.87
Golf club, no. 5 ironEach36.13
Rifle, 243 calibreEach492.79
Tennis ballsPer pair2.78
Tennis racquet, juniorEach35.04
Newspaper, dailyEach0.18
Optician's fee, full examination and spectacles with caseEach68.56
Dental fillingsEach9.65
DenturesPer set308.40
Medical, general practitioner's fee (in excess of G.M.S. benefit)Per service5.08
Specialist consultation, (in excess of specialist benefit)Per service12.69
Private general hospital, medical wardPer day48.17
Cinema admission, adult, eveningEach2.39
Rugby admissionEach1.01
Golf club subscription, adult, male noPer annum173.56
Rugby club subscriptionPer annum19.55
Tennis club subscriptionPer annum38.37
Motel tariff, 3 star, 2 personsPer night26.28
Funeral, burialEach854.83
Funeral, cremationEach722.48
Haircut, man'sEach2.84
Haircut, woman'sEach5.02
Hairset, woman'sEach6.65

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS—The facing tables provide a comparison of retail and wholesale prices between New Zealand and certain other countries. All the prices have been converted into New Zealand currency and the metric liquid and dry measures have been adopted as the basis for common units of quantity.

Comparisons in annual movement of Consumer Price Indexes of selected countries are given in the following table. (The base is December Quarter 1977 = 1000.)

YearNew ZealandAustraliaCanadaFrance (Paris)JapanUnited KingdomUnited States
1976828862896884911838920
1977947968968968987971979
19781060104510551057102910521055
19791206113911511169106511931175
19801412125512681328114014071332
INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL PRICES OF BASIC FOODSTUFFS
(At December 1980 in New Zealand currency)
ItemUnitNew Zealand (Average 25 Centres)Australia (Sydney)Great Britain (200 Areas)||Japan (Tokyo)||

* Milk loaf sliced.

Green tea, loose.

Processed cheese.

§ Sirloin.

|| November.

  centscentscentscents
Bread750 g50.590.4*87.3117.0
Flour1.5 kg83.484.498.1131.0
Tea500 g186.7186.0282.21,104.0
Coffee (instant)100 g203.6237.4240.8340.2
Sugar1 kg83.257.592.6133.4
Milk (fresh)600 m21.039.246.780.6
Cheesekg323.3313.3543.2595.2
Butter500 g82.9137.1210.4365.9
Margarine500 g96.9102.881.0211.2
Baconkg759.0797.9592.5
Beef—rib roastkg359.7477.21,176.8§1,632.6
Lamb—legkg336.8435.6657.1
Pork—legkg470.0512.7509.3705.6
Pork chopskg479.1512.7

Sources: Australia: Australian Statistician. Great Britain: Department of Employment Gazette. Japan: Bureau of Statistics.

COMPARISON OF WHOLESALE PRICES OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES
(In 4th quarter 1980 or month in that quarter, in New Zealand currency)
ItemUnitNew Zealand*FranceGreat BritainUnited States§

* Fourth quarter.

November 1980.

December 1980.

§ August 1980

  $     $     $     $     
Wheattonne140.000257.611262.012
Oatstonne140.000246.675
Flourtonne240.820247.155
Sugar50 kg37.71049.823
Butter500g0.7542.5141.7651.706
Cheesekg1.7103.2323.6943.539
Motor spiritlitre0.2770.7530.635

GENERAL PRICE INDEX—The General Price Index replaced and considerably extended the Wholesale Prices Index, which was discontinued from the March quarter 1978. The General Price Index measures quarterly price level changes commencing with the December quarter 1977. It is intended to provide a measure of average price changes over all industrial and government sectors of the economy.

Price indexes for inputs and outputs at both all-industry and group levels are contained in this index. The all-groups level of the General Price Index reflects price level movements as these affect the inputs and sales of business and government. Industry groups for which separate index series are available correspond with the New Zealand System of National Accounts production groups. It is conceptually impossible to calculate an output index for the non-market oriented groups of Central Government Services, Local Government Services, and Private Non-profit Services to Households. Their activities differ substantially in character from market-oriented industries in that their output is produced for free distribution or at prices which bear no relationship to the cost of production.

The use of identical industry classification in the national accounts and in the General Price Index is part of the Department of Statistics long-term policy to integrate all economic statistics. With price deflation of the current value of each industry's input of goods and services and its output, it is possible to calculate the industry's real net output and contribution to the Gross Domestic Product. This will be in constant prices or, effectively, in volume terms.

The list of goods and services priced was selected on the basis of input-output commodity flows contained in the department's Inter-Industry Study for 1971–72. These were updated by comparison with data collected for other statistical series including the Farm Costs and the Wholesale Prices Index regimens, Import and Export lists, and other economic censuses recently undertaken. In selecting the goods and services to be priced careful consideration was given to the coverage and representativeness of various commodity groups. In particular, their absolute importance to the producing industry and the whole economy was taken into account. Specifications for the commodities and services were obtained in collaboration with suppliers of the price data to ensure representativeness of priced commodities and adherence to these specifications over time.

The weight assigned to an industry to obtain the all-industry group index is based on the New Zealand System of National Accounts Production Accounts for 1975–76. Commodity weightings within each industry index are based on data from the 1971–72 Inter-Industry Study. Adjustments have been made for significant variations in relative commodity weightings occurring between the date of the study and the index expression base.

Prices for inputs are producer prices (i.e., factory door prices including commodity taxes). Separate indexes are prepared for transport and distribution charges. Where reliable unit-values are available, these have been incorporated in the relevant input indexes. It is not intended to produce separate subindexes for the imported components of each industry's input.

Industry outputs are priced at approximate basic values (i.e., before the addition of commodity taxes or deduction of subsidies). These correspond to factory door prices or as close to this level as the firm's pricing policy allows. Down stream commodity taxes are excluded. In cases where price differentiation occurs between items both consumed locally and exported, separate pricing is usually obtained.

The following table shows price indexes of inputs (i.e., current purchases of commodities and services) and of outputs by industry groups. As already stated, input prices are producers' prices and include commodity taxes paid by, and subsidies received by, the producer.

GENERAL PRICE INDEX
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
Industry GroupQuarter Ended
31 Dec 197731 Mar 198030 fun 1980
InputsOutputsInputsOutputsInputsOutputs
Agriculture100010001591161215931500
Fishing and hunting100010001460121015241248
Forestry and logging100010001394169014611829
Mining and quarrying100010001340135914071475
Manufacture of food, beverages and tobacco100010001533147014801493
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries100010001344129914051361
Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture100010001445138515351477
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing100010001400132814801423
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products100010001671146318801633
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal100010001362132614681408
Basic metal industries100010001398142714641488
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment100010001349136014431426
Other manufacturing industries100010001531150215571534
Electricity, gas, and water100010001643155117461615
Construction100010001403130514781366
Trade, restaurants and hotels100010001393 1471 
Transport and storage100010001587139216711456
Communications100010001443124015521241
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services100010001356133914401421
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings100010001395115214641181
Community, social, and personal services100010001363131314361375
All markets group1000100014551519
Central Government services100013691452
Local Government services100014031524
Private non-profit services to households100014111481
                All industry1000100014511517
GENERAL PRICE INDEX
Base: December Quarter 1977 (=1000)
Industry GroupQuarter Ended
30 Sep 198031 Dec 1980
InputsOutputsInputsOutputs 
Agriculture1660153717491621
Fishing and hunting1629136517041450
Forestry and logging1502186215961747
Mining and quarrying1458156815331587
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco1563154916471595
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries1434138514751423
Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture1574155316391599
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing1530145415741509
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products;1892175519471792
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1556147615861550
Basic metal industries1529154915941625
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment1501149015511551
Other manufacturing industries1634159116721633
Electricity, gas, and water1764163517871640
Construction1552142816151497
Trade, restaurants and hotels1549..1600..
Transport and storage1811155618641618
Communications1667124117211330
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services1495147015701526
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings1526121016121247
Community, social, and personal services1509143615641488
All markets group15871649
Central Government services15211599
Local Government services15861656
Private non-profit services to households15461621
                All industry15851648

FARMING COSTS PRICE INDEXES—Three farming costs price indexes are calculated. These cover sheep farming, dairy farming, and all farming. There is also a farming capital expenditure price index. These indexes are designed to measure price movements only as they would affect a fixed quantity and pattern of materials and services used by the farmers in each category.

It is emphasised that these indexes are not cost of production indexes, i.e. they do not purport to measure the actual total costs of running a farm, but only measure the movements in prices paid for commodities and services used by farmers.

Full descriptions of these indexes were published in supplements to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics; the sheep farming index in the September 1973 issue; the dairy farming index in the October 1973 issue; and the all farming index in the March 1974 issue. All these indexes are published regularly in the Monthly Abstract.

The index values for the all-farming index for the latest available 4 years are set out below. It is followed by the capital expenditure price index, and by the separate indexes for sheep farming and dairy farming. All these farming indexes are on base: year ended June 1971 (= 1000) and represent the average of price levels over the whole of the year shown or at the mid-point of the third month of the quarter.

ItemPercentage of Base ExpenditureYear Ended June
19711977197819791980
* Excludes depreciation 9.63 percent.
Wages and rations13.7110002080231827133238
Sharemilkers5.4310001611176320362419
Animal health and breeding expenses3.2110001778201321882462
Electricity1.3210002074266130193889
Feed8.5710001919217223532668
Freight2.8810001917219224542984
Fertiliser and lime11.1910001809197219483248
Seeds1.3210001845217923152822
Shearing expenses3.6310001962234026713018
Weed and pest control1.2810002186235225032995
Other farm working expenses2.8110002219251226413051
Repairs and maintenance8.7310002076242627563226
Vehicle expenses7.5710002087242327273409
Administrative expenses2.8710001868221124983017
Insurance1.0710001095109511111160
Rates3.0810002235258029763488
Interest10.0110001257131914301536
Rent1.6910001243136213771369
All groups90.37*10001865210523302852

The table following shows a capital expenditure price index for farming. Some expenditure on topdressing comes into both indexes. Capital expenditure on land development includes topdressing and it is also included as a normal part of farm maintenance in the all-farming costs price index.

ItemPercentages of Base ExpenditureYear Ended June
19711977197819791980
Farm buildings17.5210002144252929113368
Transport vehicles19.7610002360258829533424
Tractors and farm machinery24.6910002536292631933708
Land development38.0310001957223424363079
                Total100.0010002212252628083353
ItemSheep FarmingDairy Farming
Percentage of Base ExpenditureYear EndedPercentage of Base ExpenditureYear Ended
1979198019791980

* Excludes depreciation accounting for 9.64 percent of base expenditure.

Excludes depreciation, accounting for 11.28 percent of base expenditure.

Provisional.

Wages and rations16.342741336013.9130763370
Share milkers6.6720362419
Animal health4.64193022162.4323722548
Seeds and fertiliser15.661938318711.1020373232
Shearing expenses3.4726703050
Breeding expenses1.1331593617
Dairy shed expenses1.4822052602
Feed8.5922612571
Repairs and maintenance8.61279732599.8226253110
Other farm working expenses9.73252829975.9325513192
Vehicle expenses9.15269633368.0427623490
Administration expenses3.88255130493.3824592997
Interest9.61142915348.8714341540
Other standing charges9.27208723297.3718382011
                Total items90.36*2320289588.7223522832

PRICE AND VOLUME INDEXES OF EXTERNAL TRADE—The aims of these index series are to analyse the changes in the values of imports and exports from period to period (annually and moving 3-monthly) in order to isolate the relative price, or more correctly “unit value”, and volume components.

All these index series are of the Fisher Ideal type, which involves the calculation of two indexes (for both price and volume) for each current period on the previous year as base, one index using the weighting pattern of the base year and the other using the weighting pattern of the current period. The averaging method known as the “geometric mean” applied to these two indexes produces the index for the current period on the previous year's base which is then linked on to the index for the earlier year to provide a continuous series. The 3-monthly moving indexes (as published in the Monthly Abstract) are provisional until the calculation of the annual definitive index for the year in which they fall. The indexes for calendar quarters are then aligned to the annual indexes. Revision is also necessary on occasion as a result of corrections made by the Customs Department to provisional external trade data on which the indexes are based. The annual indexes for years ended 31 December and 31 March are calculated from the figures for component quarters.

The indexes use the whole range of data available on external trade and involve imputing trends in prices and quantities of some items to other items where it is impracticable to obtain meaningful quantity and price series. The items for which quantity data are not available and those unsuitable for pricing have imputed to them the average price and volume movements of the remainder of the division in which they are classified, or, in some cases the price and volume movement at the next higher level of index aggregation. This means that the weighting system takes account of the value of unpriced items even though these items cannot be used as explicit price or volume indicators. The imputation of movements to the unpriced items is done primarily at the S.I.T.C. (Revised) division level. However, in some cases the values of a whole division are adjusted by imputing to them the price and volume movements obtained by amalgamating the movements of several divisions.

The methodology of the indexes makes the import and export indexes consistent in approach and content with each other, and the adopted internal classifications of commodity groupings of exports facilitates the construction of export index series for industry groupings. The classification is also consistent with the United Nations recommended classification groupings for both exports and imports.

The year ended 30 June 1971 is the standard expression base for price and volume indexes for exports and imports and the tables in which they are published have been standardised in content and constituent components in line with the standardisation of the index methodology.

Although the price and volume indexes are produced as complementary series, only the price indicators are published here. The volume indexes are shown in the section on External Trade.

Export Indexes—The export items explicitly dealt with in the index represent, approximately, 95 percent of the total value of exports. The proportion of manufactured exports so treated is higher than this overall average. To qualify for inclusion as an explicit indicator of price or volume movement in the index a commodity must have an aggregate value of at least $20,000 in the base year and a minimum of $16,000 in the current 3-monthly period. This represents some 525 different items as well as subdivisions of these items. The 5 percent by value of exports that do not have a statistical unit are included in the index by imputation.

The annual indexes on the previous year as base are chain-linked to give longer-term valid comparisons. Provision is made for alignment of individual quarters in both price and volume series once annual indexes are constructed. Because of the varying quantities of particular commodities sold each quarter, the mean price or unit-value, and consequently the index number of any year, is not necessarily equal to the arithmetic mean of the quarterly figures.

Re-exports are not included in the export indexes. The items covered are defined as goods and materials grown or produced in New Zealand, and articles manufactured in New Zealand from imported materials (but not including imported goods which are exported in an essentially unchanged condition).

The following table gives export prices index numbers for years ended 30 June.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year ended June 1971 (= 1000)
Year Ended 30 JuneButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsAll Groups
* Provisional.
197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
197616881843200313702533173717981625173622181857
197720212024212316603837235222871862206131832301
1978*22482026234217993555241523932038214831502415
1979*24392186257222973900289628052421238035502784
198027222809307628144785353633882939281343663385

The next table shows export prices index numbers for all pastoral and dairy produce groups and for all groups combined on a long time series. Separate series are prepared for calendar years and years ended June, the latter relating more closely to the farming year.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
YearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll Groups
* Provisional.
Calendar Year
1930278277
1931210213
1932191194
1933189194
1934236239
1935228233
1936264266
1937311311
1938286288
1939279282
1940324325
1941331334
1942341342
1943356357
1944374376
1945405406
1946443444
1947561557
1948624619
1949605599
1950860846
19511009992
1952806798
1953900888
1954915905
1955939929
1956917906
1957906893
1958767761
1959879868
1960851843
1961802797
1962818813
1963903890
1964987970
1965950937
1966942927
1967854846
1968914911
1969972966
1970974971
197110711052
197212941266
197317151623
197416271596
197515071582
197620402085
197723802394
19782539x2544x
197930813081
1980*35343565
June Year
1930308305
1931227229
1932202204
1933183188
1934235237
1935217221
1936254257
1937303304
1938296297
1939281282
1940317320
1941327330
1942342342
1943351352
1944366368
1945398399
1946416417
1947517513
1948623618
1949599594
1950694685
195110841062
1952809803
1953871859
1954921909
1955912903
1956934922
1957934923
1958781773
1959814805
1960900889
1961813807
1962797791
1963859850
1964976960
1965957944
1966952938
1967897887
1968867862
1969957953
1970974973
197110001000
197211721160
197315551477
197417291653
197514711512
197617981857
197722872301
197823932415
197928052784
198033883385

IMPORT INDEXES—The import prices index has, since 1959, reflected changes in the c.i.f. valuation of imports. Price changes at item level are measured at the current domestic valuation in the country of origin and are adjusted by the c.d.v.: c.i.f. valuation ratio at division level.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX
Base Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
Year Ended JunePetroleum and ProductsTextile Yarn, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery other than ElectricElectric Machinery and ApparatusTransport EquipmentFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsFuelsAll Groups
* Provisional.
197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
197643371742212017721790197119891967219743492143
197752822007233421551897203822892215250053012445
1978*53402075227624271897244226032372242053592589
1979*5618213326332779x1994267223692524x246856382716x
19801055624383123294621912859262529682934105943447

The following table shows a longer time series of all groups import prices index numbers on the same expression base for years ended March, June, and December.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
YearYear Ended
31 March30 June31 Dec (Calendar Year)
* Provisional
1955690692703
1956706715721
1957729735745
1958746743742
1959740734724
1960725732734
1961734732738
1962735733721
1963716718721
1964724727732
1965734730732
1966733734734
1967734733745
1968776808878
1969887898912
1970920935967
197198310001027
1972103310441068
1973108410951125
1974115412301428
1975154216271881
1976200021432318
1977239824452547
1978255625892644x
19792670x2716x2986
1980320634473917*

TERMS OF TRADE—The terms of trade is the expression of the ratio of export prices to import prices, i.e., an index of the purchasing power (in units of imports) of a fixed quantity of exports. In the table that follows terms of trade are expressed on base 1957 (= 100). However, an index above or below 100 means only that terms of trade are more or less favourable than in 1957. The choice of base year was arbitrarily made and is not intended to indicate that 1957 was a normal or standard year. For the purposes of this table both import prices and export prices indexes have necessarily been converted to a 1957 base.

The table below shows index numbers of import prices, export prices, and terms of trade.

IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE—ALL COUNTRIESTerms of Trade
Base: Calendar Year 1957 (= 100)
Year Ended JuneImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of TradePeriodImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of Trade

* Provisional.

Calendar year (base).

Quarter—
  19571001001001977—30 Sep34226477
  1967989910131 Dec34926777
  196810897891978—31 Mar34527078
  19691211078830 Jun35528079
  19701261098730 Sep357x28680
  19711341128331 Dec360x30484
  1972140130931979—31 Mar360x311x86
  197314716511330 Jun377x342x91x
  197416518511230 Sep41635485
  19752181697831 Dec44537785
  1976288208721980—31 Mar*48339181
  19773282587930 Jun*50939077
  19783472707830 Sep*54339873
  1979364x31286x31 Dec*55041575
  1980462379821981—31 Mar*   

SHARE PRICES INDEX—This index is designed to reflect changes in the aggregate value of holdings of parcels of ordinary shares in representative selections of companies listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges and trading in New Zealand. In selecting the companies, the frequency with which shares are traded was used as a criterion as well as the value of the New Zealand shareholding. The weights of the different companies are determined by the New Zealand shareholding, and appropriate methods take account of capital changes in the companies concerned.

Weights for representative groups are fixed and are based on the aggregate value for the month of November 1978 of the total value of shareholdings in all the exchange-listed companies which qualified for representation in the index.

SHARE PRICES AND DIVIDEND YIELDS—ALL GROUPS INDEX NUMBERS
Base: Month of November 1978 (= 1000)
Calendar YearShare PricesDividend Yields
19761008848x
1977919993x
1978998994
19791083986x
19801376924

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY—The Household Survey arose from the acceptance of the Consumers Price Index Revision Advisory Committee's recommendation in 1971 that an essential feature of the revision of the Consumers Price Index (CPI) should be the establishment of average expenditures of private households and that this information should be a major source for determining the relative importance (or weights, in the statistical sense) of the many items of goods and services to be included in the new index. The first year of collection of the Household Survey designed to provide this basic information ran from 1 July 1973 to 30 June 1974. In 1975–76 the collection year was changed from July–June to April–March.

The tables following refer to the year ended 31 March 1980, unless otherwise stated.

Sample surveys are an internationally accepted activity when the collection of information from the total population is either administratively impracticable or would be prohibitive in cost. To meet the needs of the Consumers Price Index revision, the Household Survey was designed to produce data on a national basis, representative of the average New Zealand private household.

A full description of the Survey, together with the concepts, definitions, and collection methods involved, is included in the annual report, New Zealand Household Survey, available from the Government Printer.

The number of responding households in the 1979–80 survey was 4019, containing a total of 12563 persons, an average of 3.1 persons per household. Persons aged 15 or over and earning $20 or more per week totalled 7018, an average of 1.8 earners per household. The following table shows households by income of household.

Weekly Income of Responding HouseholdsNumber of Responding Households
 $     
Under 3831
    38–76334
    77–114355
  115–153380
  154–172170
  173–191176
  192–239487
  240–287462
  288–384747
  385 and over877
          Total4019

The system used was similar to that in use in many similar surveys overseas. This involved collecting data on the more frequently purchased items by asking respondents to keep a daily record of their spending for a short period (in the New Zealand survey a fortnight of diary-keeping was sought) and at an interview conducted in the household asking respondents to recall their expenditure on major items in the preceding 12 months. The recall action usually concerned expenses of $100 or more, and therefore related to the acquisition of such things as housing units, major household appliances, motor vehicles, etc. Again for practical reasons, the diary-keeping requirement was restricted to those household members aged 15 years and over, expenditures by younger members being recorded in the diaries of adult members.

For the purpose of the Consumers Price Index revision private household expenditure was processed in considerable detail, as is shown in the full report of the Household Survey available from the Government Printer. However, for summary purposes, average expenditure was treated under eight main headings.

Expenditure group coverage for 1979–80—

Food—Purchases, including meals away from home where separately recorded by respondents.

Housing—Rent, mortgage repayments, repairs and maintenance, and net capital costs of house sales and purchases.

Household Operation—Fuel, light, and power; household equipment and appliances; furniture; domestic supplies and services.

Apparel—Clothing and footwear.

Transportation—Public transport, overseas travel costs, net cost of vehicle sales and purchases, repairs and maintenance of vehicles, vehicle insurance, registration, etc.

Tobacco and Alcohol—Purchases.

Other Supplies—Medical, health, and personal goods; recreational, educational, and cultural-goods.

Other Services—Medical and health services; entertainment charges; education fees; accommodation charges; personal services; licence fees; life insurance premiums.

In each group the expenditures comprised the total cost of particular goods or services, including credit costs, hire and repair charges.

All expenditures were expressed as average weekly expenditure per household in the particular category. Households were categorised according to their total income, number of occupants, the family types of the members (census definition), and the age of the head of the household.

In all cases information as reported by households was given without adjustment, although overseas experience has shown that expenditure on tobacco and alcohol, meals away from home, and food items such as ice cream and confectionery tend to be understated in household surveys. There is reason to believe that this Household Survey collection contained similar features.

Income, as defined in the Household Survey, related to current gross income from all sources (including Social Welfare and other benefits) for each income recipient in the household.

From 1 April 1978 a change in concept was made in the collection of income. A new questionnaire was introduced which collected details of the respondents income, occupation, industry, weekly hours worked, and employment status.

For respondents who received a wage or salary, details of their last pay were requested and the amount was rated up to an annual equivalent. Respondents with business income were asked to state the net income, before tax, received from the business and the period to which it related. If the period was less than 12 months it was also rated up to an annual equivalent.

Details were also collected on benefits or pensions received, as well as interest, dividends, rent, trust income, maintenance, and any other irregular and/or lump sum income.

Although all the additional details were collected, only that information which was necessary to ensure that the current Household Survey EDP system can function was used.

The following tables show average weekly household expenditure by family types based on the 1979–80 survey, and a comparison of the results obtained from the 1976–77 survey related to the 1979–80 results.

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY 1979–80
AVERAGE WEEKLY HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE BY SELECTED FAMILY TYPES
Expenditure GroupCoupleCouple With 1 ChildCouple With 2 ChildrenCouple With 3 ChildrenCouple With 4 or More ChildrenOne Adult*With ChildrenExtended FamiliesNon-Family Household

* Single, separated, divorced, or widowed man or woman with children.

The category “1 Adult with Children With Spouse Temporarily Absent” has been omitted as the figures relate to only 2 of the 4019 households surveyed and cannot be regarded as representative.

   Average Weekly Expenditure ($)
Food30.8940.8346.7249.3059.8834.6557.1921.10
Housing36.5142.8532.7253.1835.4522.6439.2624.01
Household operation34.3937.5937.7539.7840.0627.8237.5121.15
Apparel12.0015.2520.2020.6225.3217.2626.439.25
Transportation35.5142.5446.7444.1851.9832.0653.2623.28
Tobacco and alcohol8.4411.3811.469.5511.676.8615.917.00
Other goods10.6315.0617.9518.1721.1912.1817.198.28
Other services15.6919.7923.6924.5126.3713.3822.6211.34
      Total expenditure184.07225.29237.22259.28271.92166.84269.38125.42
      Total households875470651384302259208868

Comparison Between 1976–77 and 1979–80 Results—The table following is produced to show the comparison between the 1976–77 and 1979–80 CPI revision years results. The 2 intervening years had different data collection criteria and are not directly comparable with either CPI revision year's data. The table shows both years results as average weekly expenditure with corresponding percentages.

Commodity or Service1976–771979–80
 $     %$     %
Food—
    Fruit and vegetables4.232.95.932.9
    Meat5.583.97.673.8
    Poultry and fish1.130.81.870.9
    Dairy products3.492.45.112.5
    Other food11.728.117.488.6
              Total food26.1418.138,0718.8
Housing—
    Rent5.774.06.523.2
    Other housing costs22.2715.428.1413.9
              Total housing28.0419.434.6617.2
Household operation—
    Fuel, light and power3.542.45.732.8
    Household furnishings14.8110.218.919.4
    Household supplies and services5.593.98.504.2
              Total household operation23.9416.633.1416.4
Apparel—
    Clothing9.436.512.856.4
    Footwear2.131.53.221.6
              Total apparel11.568.016.078.0
Transportation—
    Public1.781.22.311.1
    Private21.6115.031.7515.7
    Overseas2.191.54.252.1
              Total transportation25.5817.738.3119.0
Tobacco and alcohol—
    Tobacco2.491.73.051.5
    Alcohol4.162.96.573.3
              Total tobacco and alcohol6.654.69.624.8
Other goods and services—
    Other goods9.126.313.806.8
    Other services13.569.418.389.1
              Total other goods and services22.6815.732.1815.9
              Total all expenditure groups144.59100.0202.06100.0

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on legislation affecting prices and the consumer, price levels, the CPI, household expenditure, and other matters touched on in this section will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

Prices, Wages and Labour. Pt. A, Prices—Department of Statistics (Annual).

Household Survey Report—Department of Statistics (Annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics (Monthly).

Consumer Council (Parl. paper G. 29).

Reports of the Consumers Price Index Advisory Committees (Parl. paper G. 28A, 1978, and Parl. paper H. 40, 1971).

Report of the Government Statistician (Parl. paper G. 28).

Report on Consumers Price Index Revision 1974—Department of Statistics, 1976.

Chapter 24. Section 24 CONSUMPTION OF FOOD

Table of Contents

Periodically, the Department of Statistics prepares statistics of the amount of food available for consumption in New Zealand, from data supplied by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and from other sources. These statistics are estimates of the total amounts of basic foodstuffs available in New Zealand for human consumption during the calendar year, making allowances for estimated quantities which are produced by households for their own consumption, including the households of commercial producers. The estimates are not of the amounts actually consumed, nor of the actual average intake of nourishment. Nor can these figures be reconciled with the figures for the average per household expenditure on food for the year recorded by the Household Survey, as the latter figures are of the expenditure on food in the form it is actually bought, often in a much more highly processed form.

Dairy Products—New Zealanders are the world's largest consumers of butter per head, but are fairly moderate consumers of cheese. The annual amounts available of the main items of dairy produce, eggs, and ice cream, estimated per head of mean population, are shown in the following table.

Food CommodityUnit19381974197519761977

* Includes condensed milk, evaporated milk and cream, milk powders, and sugar of milk.

Provisional.

Includes the whole-milk equivalent of cream consumed as such.

Fresh milk and cream (whole milk equivalent)litre129181183172167
Processed milk*kg27577
Cheesekg25558
Ice creamlitre218171617
Butterkg1915151414
EggsNo.240320273301270

Meat, Poultry, and Fish—Gradual changes are taking place in consumption patterns for meat, poultry, and fish, of which the most notable is the increase in the consumption of poultry. New Zealanders remain among the world's largest consumers of meat, judging from the amount available per head.

Estimates of the amounts of meat available per head are expressed on a bone-in dressed carcass basis.

Allowances have been made for non-commercial catches of fish, and for home production of poultry.

Catches of fish in the Exclusive Economic Zone which are not landed in New Zealand are not taken into account as they do not contribute to the amount of fish available for consumption in New Zealand.

Food CommodityUnit19381974197519761977*

* Provisional.

Year ended 30 September for 1938 figures. Later figures refer to December years.

Beefkg5257485457
Vealkg44443
Mutton and lambkg3138373330
Pigmeatskg1211121113
Edible offalkg45665
Poultrykg21091010
Fish—
    Fresh, frozen, smokedkg53221
    Shellfishkg11111
    Cannedkg12111

Vegetables and Fruits—The estimates in the following table are based on commercial production plus allowances for production in home gardens and orchards. The estimates include, at fresh weights, the fruits and vegetables grown in New Zealand and either quick-frozen or canned for local consumption.

There are considerable variations from year to year for many of the commodities and these are often a reflection of a poor growing season or a bountiful one, fluctuations in the supply of imported fruit, or a change in consumption pattern.

Availability per head of mean population for individual items is estimated as follows.

Food CommodityUnit19381974197519761977§

* Includes asparagus, beans, brussels sprouts, cucumber, leeks, parsnips, pumpkin, spinach, swedes, sweetcorn, etc.

Includes grapefruit, lemons, mandarins, tangelos, etc.

Includes nectarines, plums, grapes, pineapples, tamarillos, kiwi fruit, passionfruit, etc.

§ Provisional.

Fresh vegetables
    Potatoeskg5454525657
    Kumaraskg43222
    Cabbageskg147875
    Carrotskg51015108
    Cauliflowerkg 4654
    Lettucekg 5553
    Onionskg 914119
    Tomatoeskg99111110
    Other vegetables*kg 41067
Canned and other processed vegetableskg116211319
Quick-frozen and dried vegetableskg 15161214
Fresh fruit
    Orangeskg76766
    Other citrus fruitkg35554
    Bananaskg914121012
    Appleskg2030272727
    Pears and quinceskg34543
    Berryfruitskg 2212
    Apricotskg 3212
    Peacheskg 10777
Other fruitkg 111089
Dried fruitkg 3333

Other Foodstuffs—Most of the foodstuffs in the following table show relatively slight fluctuations in the amounts available per head in different years.

Food CommodityUnit19381974197519761977

* Includes dried peas, beans, and lentils.

Includes barley, and com used for cornflour and maize used for com flakes only.

Provisional.

Sugar, syrups, and honeykg4446433937
Pulses*kg11111
Nutskg 3222
Cocoakg12111
Cereals—
    Wheatkg8172746972
    Oatskg42211
    Ricekg22122
    Otherkg 111
Lard, tallow, animal fatskg 3422
Vegetable oils and other fatskg 4455

Non-alcoholic Beverages and Tobacco—

 Unit1938195119611971197519761977
Teakg3333223
Coffeekg  12222
Tobaccokg2222332

Alcoholic Beverages—The following table shows the estimated consumption of alcoholic beverages.

Year Ended 31 DecemberTotal ConsumptionConsumption per Head of Mean Population
BeerWineSpiritsBeerWineSpirits

* Years ended June.

Litres, not proof litres.

 litres (m)litres (m) Proof litres (m)litreslitresproof litres
194083.31.52.050.90.91.2
1970329.215.95.4116.85.61.9
1975389.826.3*9.6126.38.6*3.1
1977383.329.4*10.9122.59.4*3.5
1978398.736.1*10.0x127.411.5*3.5
1979370.835.4*12.4118.711.3*4.0

PROPORTION OF FOODSTUFFS EXPORTED—New Zealand is a major exporter of dairy produce and meat, and has a growing export trade in fruit and vegetables. The following table shows for these commodities the percentage of the New Zealand production that is exported.

Product19681974197519761977*
* Provisional.
 Percentages exported
Dairy products
    Processed milk7375516583
    Cheese8494798763
    Butter8084737775
Meat, poultry, fish
    Beef6165707167
    Veal5857656166
    Pig meat32214
    Mutton6156545760
    Lamb92898890
    Offal7673637172
    Other meat2312959595
    Poultry   11
    Fresh, smoked, or frozen fish2546597183
    Shellfish5256434146
Fruit and vegetables
    Apples4035444637
    Pears1714101111
    Berryfruits521212921
    Potatoes24579
    Onions3533173756
    Canned vegetables94354
    Quick-frozen vegetables302192427
Other foodstuffs
    Barley22513
    Honey46272716
    Pulses5583596363
    Eggs258511
    Tallow and animal fats7769788586

FOOD AVAILABLE PER DAY—The following table shows by commodity group the food available for consumption in New Zealand per day, per head of mean population.

Food CommodityGrams Per DayCalories Per DayProtein Per Day (Grams)Fat Per Day (Grams)
19761977*19761977*19761977*19761977*
* Provisional.
Cereals200207727755212322
Potatoes and other starchy foods15716111211533
Sugar, syrups, and honey105102399386
Pulses and nuts141356572222
Vegetables226242566424
Fruits198204110112
Meat (incl. poultry)32032466668139425456
Eggs474067585454
Fish128151221
Milk and cheese54354052654425282829
Oils and fats (incl. butter)58574484413636
              Total188018983182322599107127129

SUBSIDIES—Government subsidies on food items and on services have been sharply reduced in recent years. The following table shows the total cost of subsidies paid under the Stabilisation vote. Other subsidies, involving farm incentives, etc., are included in other Government expenditure.

Subsidy ItemsYear Ended 31 March
19771978197919801981
* Includes $5,321,000 in advance for 1980–81.
  $(thousand)  
Bread72
Eggs227
Milk36,21541,53556,68837,02335,217
Subsidy on transport of LPG  5259115
Coal gas2,7761,9992,1962,4962,535
Subsidy on shipping services2,9203,038534
Industrial coal (rail transport)111
Subsidy to meet losses on—
    Post Office operations
    Railways operations16,00058,50061,000119,040*89,772
                Total58,321105,072120,470158,618127,639

Higher postal charges, rail fares, and electricity charges from early 1976 resulted in sharp cuts in the level of subsidies designed to meet losses in these areas. Milk and bread prices were increased at the same time, and at the end of March 1976 the subsidy on bread and flour was abolished. The egg subsidy was abolished at the end of April 1976. The average subsidy on milk for the year ended 31 August 1979 was 11.440c per litre, and for the year ended 31 August 1980, 10.698c per litre. In the 1978 Budget a subsidy at the rate of 5c per litre was introduced on the transport of liquid petroleum gas (LPG) to the South Island.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Fuller information on food available for consumption in New Zealand is usually published as an appendix to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Expenditure on economic stabilisation is given in the Estimates (Parl. paper B. 7 Pt. I).

Chapter 25. Section 25 ECONOMIC AGGREGATES

25 A—NATIONAL ACCOUNTS

The aim of national accounting statistics is to provide a consistent and systematic summary of the transactions taking place in the economy within a specified time period. Information on the production and use of goods and services, on the generation and redistribution of incomes, and on capital transactions is required for planning purposes, social and economic analysis, economic policy formation, and decision-making both inside and outside government.

In the earlier years of national accounting development, both preparers and users of national accounts became aware of the need to develop a comprehensive internationally-comparable system which fulfilled the above needs. This culminated in 1968 in the publication by the United Nations of a revised system of national accounting. The New Zealand System of National Accounts (NZSNA) is based on these United Nations guidelines and their adoption now places New Zealand's national accounts on a similar conceptual basis to those of other market economies.

The New Zealand System of National Accounts (NZSNA) replaces the National Income and Expenditure Accounts which have been produced since 1948 and last appeared for the 1976–77 March year.

The new system greatly expands the coverage of the former accounts and provides a general framework for the collection, processing, and presentation of all economic statistics. In recent years the Department of Statistics has adopted common classifications and concepts throughout its major economic surveys and, as a result, such statistics are now fully integrated with the NZSNA.

For example, the Inter-industry Study of the New Zealand economy for 1971–72 and its 1976–77 updated version use the same concepts and classifications as the NZSNA. The industrial groupings of the NZSNA are the same as those of the 25 industry format of the Inter-industry Study. These series, therefore are statistically reconcilable.

The concepts of Balance of Payments statistics are very similar to, but not entirely coincident with, those of the NZSNA, although the external account of the NZSNA covers similar transactions to those recorded in the Balance of Payments.

Unlike the old series, which was concerned with the economic use of resources owned by New Zealand residents regardless of where those resources were used, the NZSNA concentrates on the economic activity occurring in New Zealand irrespective of whether the income generated accrues to New Zealand or overseas residents.

At this stage the NZSNA comprises the Consolidated Accounts of the Nation, 25 Production Groups Accounts and detailed tables relating to Gross Fixed Capital Formation and Stocks.

The principal tables in this section refer to the 5 years ended March 1976 to 1980.

CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNTS OF THE NATION—The Consolidated Accounts of the Nation comprise 4 accounts:

  1. Gross Domestic Product and Expenditure—Gross Domestic Product is a measure of the value added from all economic activity in New Zealand. The account shows the various forms of income generated by the economy and the categories of the final expenditure on the domestic product.

  2. National Disposable Income and its Appropriation—National Disposable Income is the value of income available to New Zealanders. Consisting mainly of the incomes generated in production in New Zealand, adjustments are made for the income paid to and received from the rest of the world. The account also shows that part of disposable income which was spent by New Zealanders on current consumption and the portion of income which was saved.

  3. Capital Finance—Capital expenditure is recorded in this account. The difference between the accumulation of capital assets and the sources of funds (mainly savings and the income set aside for the use of assets) gives a residual to be borrowed from (or lent to) the rest of the world.

  4. External Transactions—This account brings together all transactions with the rest of the world. The residual “Surplus of Nation on Current Transactions” records New Zealand's net borrowing from the rest of the world.

Terms Used in this Section

Accounting Period—Generally financial years ending 31 March or the last accounting year prior to 31 March.

Gross Domestic Product—The total market value of goods and services produced in New Zealand after deducting the cost of goods and services utilised in the process of production, but before deducting allowances for the consumption of fixed capital.

Compensation of Employees—Payments of salaries and wages whether in cash or in kind to employees. Includes contributions paid on employees' behalf to superannuation funds, private pension schemes, the Accident Compensation Corporation, casualty and life assurance schemes, etc.

Consumption of Fixed Capital—The value of depreciation at ordinary rates allowed for taxation purposes, plus an estimate for the normal rate of accidental damage based on the insurance claims by each industry group.

Indirect Taxes—Taxes which are assessed on producers in respect of the production, sale, purchase, and use of goods and services, and which add to the market prices of these goods and services. Includes sales tax, local authority rates, and import and excise duties, and also registration fees such as motor vehicle registration which are paid by producers.

Subsidies—Grants made by Government to market-oriented producers who regard the transfers as an addition to income from current production. These giants include payments to ensure a guaranteed price or to enable market prices of goods and services to be held below the cost of production. Transfers made by local authorities out of rates receipts to finance the losses of their trading departments and deliberately incurred losses of government trading organisations are also included.

Intermediate Consumption—The value of non-durable goods and services used in production. Valuation is at purchaser's values.

Gross Output at Producer's Values—

  1. Market Production Groups: The total market value including commodity taxes of all goods and services produced during the year including stocks of work-in-progress. Included is output produced for both sale in the market and capital formation on own account.

  2. Non-market Production Groups: These producers may sell a proportion of their output in the market and such receipts are included in total output. However, most of the services produced represent unmarketed output and are valued at cost price. This assumption is necessary because there is no other basis for valuation.

Operating Surplus—This is a residual item, being gross output at producer's values less the sum of intermediate consumption, compensation of employees, consumption of fixed capital, and indirect taxes net of subsidies. It is approximately equal to accounting profit before the deduction of direct taxes, dividends, and bad debts and before the deduction of interest paid or the addition of interest received.

Final Consumption Expenditure—

  1. Resident Households: All outlays on consumer goods and services including expenditure on consumer durables such as motor vehicles and furniture; included are payments made by Government on behalf of households and the imputed rent of owner-occupied dwellings.

  2. Producers of Government services and private non-profit services to households: Total current expenditure by these producers less the value of any sales or own account capital formation (i.e. the total net current costs incurred in providing the services).

Increase in Stocks—The change in value, between the beginning and the end of the year, of stocks of raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished goods.

Gross Fixed Capital Formation—The outlays of producers on durable real assets, such as buildings, motor vehicles, plant and machinery, hydro-electric construction, roading, and improvements to land. In measuring the outlays, sales of similar goods are deducted. Land is excluded from gross fixed capital formation. Included is the value of construction work done by a firm's own employees. The term “gross” indicates that consumption of fixed capital has not been deducted from the value of the outlays.

Statistical Discrepancy—In these accounts, the items making up Gross Domestic Product and Expenditure on Gross Domestic Product are estimated independently. Including the statistical discrepancy on the expenditure side of the first Consolidated Account is simply a convention. It does not imply that one side of this account is more accurate than the other.

PRINCIPAL AGGREGATES—The following table gives the principal aggregates of the national accounts over a 6–year period.

AggregatesYear Ended March
1975x1976x1977x1978x1979*1980*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Gross domestic product10,02811,48413,79215,21717,50420,908
    Plus net factor receipts from rest of world−81−165−263−337−421−467
Gross national product9,94711,31913,52914,88017,08320,441
    Less consumption of fixed capital−819−947−1,086−1,198−1,321−1,464
National income at market prices9,12810,37212,44313,68215,76118,977
    Plus net current transfers from rest of world11−15−7−4215
National disposable income9,12910,37312,42813,67415,71918,992

CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNTS—The first of the 4 consolidated accounts of the nation follows.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT AND EXPENDITURE
ItemYear Ended March
1976x1977x1978x1979*1980*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Compensation of employees6,4017,1848,2279,60411,214
Operating surplus3,4254,4644,6045,2966,579
Consumption of fixed capital9471,0861,1981,3211,464
Indirect taxes1,1031,2991,4661,7252,002
Less subsidies−391−241−277−442−351
Gross Domestic Product11,48413,79215,21717,50420,908
Final consumption expenditure—
    General government1,7321,9532,3772,8983,336
    Private7,1478,3139,33210,50212,342
Increase in stocks3566986362921,587
Gross fixed capital formation3,1253,4483,3463,5463,718
Statistical discrepancy−82−196−202122221
Gross national expenditure12,27814,21715,48817,36021,204
Exports of goods and services2,6923,8244,1974,7886,070
Less imports of goods and services−3,486−4,248−4,467−4,644−6,366
Expenditure on Gross Domestic Product11,48413,79215,21717,50420,908

The second of the consolidated accounts shows national disposable income, that is, the income available to New Zealanders, how it is spent, and how much is saved.

NATIONAL DISPOSABLE INCOME
ItemYear Ended March
1976x1977x1978x1979*1980*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Compensation of employees6,4017,1848,2279,60411,214
Compensation of employees from the rest of the world, net.     
Operating surplus3,4254,4644,6045,2966,579
Property and entrepreneurial income from the rest of the world, net.−165−263−337−421−467
Indirect taxes1,1031,2991,4661,7252,002
Less subsidies−391−241−277−442−351
National income10,37212,44313,68215,76118,977
Current transfers from the rest of the world, net.1−15−7−4215
National Disposable Income10,37312,42813,67415,71918,992
Final consumption expenditure
    Government—Central1,5191,7332,1062,5652,937
    Government—Local213220271333399
    Private—Households7,0598,1949,19910,34612,170
    Private—Non-profit organisations serving households88118133156172
    Savings1,4952,1621,9662,3193,314
Appropriation of National Disposable Income10,37312,42813,67415,71918,992

The third of the consolidated accounts shows capital expenditure and how it is financed.

CAPITAL FINANCE
ItemYear Ended March
1976x1977x1978x1979*1980*

* Provisional.

Includes all Government-owned producer enterprises.

 $(million)
Increase in stocks3566986362921,587
Gross fixed capital formation—
    Private1,9042,2412,0312,0842,424
    Central Government9609289961,106905
    Local Government261279319356389
Purchase of intangible assets from the rest of the world, net.     
Net lending to the rest of the world−957−702−615−319−748
Gross Accumulation2,5233,4443,3663,5184,557
Savings1,4952,1621,9662,3193,314
Consumption of fixed capital9471,0861,1981,3211,464
Capital transfers from the rest of the world, net.     
Statistical discrepancy82196202−122−221
Finance of Gross Accumulation2,5233,4443,3663,5184,557

The fourth and last of the 4 consolidated accounts of the nation records all transactions with the rest of the world.

EXTERNAL TRANSACTIONS
ItemYear Ended March
1976x1977x1978x1979*1980*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Current
Exports of goods and services2,6923,8244,1974,7886,070
Compensation of employees from the rest of the world     
Property and entrepreneurial income from the rest of the world7270868086
Other current transfers from the rest of the world143142163166223
Current receipts2,9074,0364,4455,0346,379
Imports of goods and services3,4864,2484,4674,6446,366
Compensation of employees to the rest of the world     
Property and entrepreneurial income to the rest of the world237333423501553
Other current transfers to the rest of the world142157170208208
Surplus of nation on current transactions−957−702−615−319−748
Current disbursements2,9074,0364,4455,0346,379
Capital
Surplus of nation on current transactions−957−702−615−319−748
Capital transfers from the rest of the world, net     
Net incurrence of foreign liabilities1,001590624383661
Capital receipts44−112964−87
Purchase of intangible assets from the rest of the world, net     
Net acquisition of foreign financial assets11220252−237−47
Statistical discrepancy−69−132−243301−40
Capital disbursements44−112964−87

PRODUCTION ACCOUNTS—The Production Accounts show the production of goods and services in New Zealand in each year, analysed according to economic activity. Each account measures the gross output of goods and services and the costs incurred. The classification used in establishing these groups firstly distinguishes between those producers that are market-oriented and those that produce goods and services that are not normally marketed.

Market-oriented producers are those who either produce goods or services for sale on the market at prices that are designed to cover the costs of production, or produce similar kinds of goods and services and use similar kinds of inputs and production processes (with the exception of social and community services provided by government or private non-profit organisations serving households) although this production may not be intended to make a profit and may not be disposed of in the market.

Market producers are then classified according to industry into 21 production groups which correspond with major divisions, divisions, major groups, or sub-groups in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

Groups not normally producing for the market are sub-divided into those owned by Central Government, by local government, and by private non-profit organisations which provide services for households.

The revised system explicitly recognises the Government as a producer when it carries out its conventional role of the provision of administrative, health, education, defence services, etc. Similarly, the large number of organisations which provide services on a non-profit basis—religious orders, schools, hospitals, sporting clubs, etc.—are now included in the national accounts. Also included among the non-market production groups is an account recording the wages paid by households employing domestic labour.

An additional table is provided which distinguishes market production groups according to the sector of ownership.

Two points require further clarification, the first relating to the item “imputed bank service charge”. Financial enterprises whose expenditure is largely financed out of net receipts of interest (such as trading banks and finance companies) require special treatment in the national accounts. The interest that they receive is viewed as consisting of a pure interest component and a “service charge” which is paid by the users of banking services. However, this imputed service charge has not been allocated to customers and therefore the convention is adopted that all is paid by a nominal industry which accordingly has a negative operating surplus equal to the value of the service charge. Total output is therefore zero and the effect is that a correct operating surplus figure is recorded for all market producers in aggregate.

The second point requiring clarification is that no figure is given for the consumption of fixed capital by the producers of Central Government and local government services. This conceptual omission is entirely due to the present inability to obtain relevant data from the cash accounts maintained by these two producers. The feasibility of deriving estimates from other sources is currently under investigation.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) by Production Group—The following table shows gross domestic product (GDP) by the kind of economic activity, i.e., by production group.

Production CroupsYear Ended March
1976x1977x1978x1979*1980*

* Provisional.

For imputed bank service charge.

Market production groups
 $(million)
Agriculture1,1161,4831,4521,7552,378
Fishing and hunting1729404666
Forestry and logging78115119131176
Mining and quarrying3787186141148
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco7048429001,2311,266
Textiles, wearing apparel and leather industries284323342364480
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture196226212272342
Manufacture of paper and paper products; printing and publishing312373420437569
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products180288338407601
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal125136153158176
Basic metal industries79128123140179
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment6648088539131,130
Other manufacturing industries3339434648
Electricity, gas, water201281388443700
Construction780819848893934
Trade, restaurants, hotels2,5713,0223,2313,6904,342
Transport, storage6558469221,0541,199
Communication210309376447527
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services1,0331,1881,3841,5971,820
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings440495578569602
Community, social and personal services470495569665760
Nominal industry−250−281−290−383−440
    Total market production groups9,93512,05013,18815,01718,003
Non-market production groups
Central Government services1,1741,3241,5711,9432,244
Local government services127122144186229
Private non-profit services to households97115132157178
Domestic services of households78111214
    Total non-market production groups1,4061,5701,8582,2982,665
    Total, all production groups11,34013,62015,04517,31520,669
Plus: import duties124147150166212
Plus: other indirect taxes not allocated to production groups1925222327
Gross Domestic Product11,48413,79215,21717,50420,908

The contribution of each production group to gross domestic product (GDP) is shown as a percentage of the total GDP in the following table.

Production GroupsYear Ended March
1976x1977x1978x1979*1980*
* Provisional.
 Percentage
Agriculture9.710.89.510.011.4
Fishing and hunting0.10.20.30.30.3
Forestry and logging0.70.80.80.70.8
Mining and quarrying0.30.61.20.80.7
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco6.16.15.97.06.1
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries2.52.32.32.12.3
Manufacture of wood and wood products incl. furniture1.71.61.41.61.6
Manufacture of paper and paper products; printing and publishing2.72.72.82.52.7
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products1.62.12.22.32.9
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1.11.01.00.90.8
Basic metal industries0.70.90.80.80.9
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment5.85.95.65.25.4
Other manufacturing industries0.30.30.30.30.2
Electricity, gas, water1.72.02.62.53.3
Construction6.85.95.65.14.5
Trade, restaurants, hotels22.421.921.221.120.8
Transport, storage5.76.16.16.05.7
Communications1.82.22.52.62.5
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services9.08.69.19.18.7
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings3.83.63.83.32.9
Community, social and personal services4.13.63.73.83.6
Central government services10.29.610.311.110.7
Local government services1.10.90.91.11.1
Private non-profit services to households0.80.80.90.90.9
Domestic services of households0.10.10.10.10.1
Not allocated−0.9−0.8−0.8−1.1−1.0
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The following table shows the components of gross domestic product and the components of each industry's output by each of the 25 production groups for the latest available 5 years. The figures for 1978—79 and 1979–80 are provisional throughout. Many of the figures given for the years 1975–76 to 1977–78 have been revised since publication in the 1980 Yearbook.

YearComponents of Gross Domestic ProductComponents of Industry InputTotal Industry Output
Compensation of EmployeesOperating SurplusConsumption of Fixed CapitalIndirect TaxesLess SubsidiesContribution to Gross Domestic ProductIntermediate Consumption

* Includes Stabilisation Subsidies ($52 million in 1975–76 and $7 million in 1976–77), and the Supplementary Minimum Price Scheme subsidies ($1 million in 1978–79 and $15 million in 1979–80) not included in Agriculture Production Account.

From 1 April 1976 the Fire Service Commission took over all local authority fire services. These activities are therefore included in Group 22, Central Government Services from 1976–77.

$(million) at Producers' Values
MARKET PRODUCTION GROUPS
Agriculture
1975–76*22375317440731,1161,0132,129
1976–77*2621,00420347331,4831,2922,775
1977–78*28091222855231,4521,3152,768
1978–79*3191,217255641001,7551,6633,418
1979–80*3691,69229075482,3782,0954,473
$(million) at Producers' Values
Fishing and Hunting
1975–76854171532
1976–7715104292251
1977–78171851403070
1978–79212051465298
1979–80303071166109175
Forestry and Logging
1975–7645258217871149
1976–775455925115103218
1977–786648926119113232
1978–7975521028131131262
1979–8085861139176149325
Mining and Quarrying
1975–7630−111143770107
1976–773338135287102188
1977–7838981634186134319
1978–794272143017141174315
1979–80466423204148137285
Manufacture of Food, Beverages, and Tobacco
1975–7643314862119587041,6182,322
1976–7746120878136418421,9362,778
1977–7856413386166479002,2393,139
1978–79707319103161591,2312,5013,732
1979–80799232122151371,2663,0184,284
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather Industries
1975–7621253172284436720
1976–7724655202323564887
1977–7826652223342630973
1978–79290482433646851,049
1979–80358922634809121,392
Manufacture of Wood and Wood Products incl. Furniture
1975–7613246172196310506
1976–7715253192226373599
1977–7815435202212392604
1978–7916686182272428700
1979–80204118193342548890
Manufacture of Paper and Paper Products; Printing and Publishing
1975–7617794339312433745
1976–772011224010373567940
1977–7823912842114206561,076
1978–7926811345124377281,165
1979–8032318250145698711,440
Manufacture of Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
1975–7614665231265180799979
1976–771681442812642881,0541,342
1977–782081403214573381,1531,491
1978–792451853616754071,1361,544
1979–803062824020476011,6522,253
$(million) at Producers' Values
Manufacture of Non-Metallic Mineral Products except Products of Petroleum and Coal
1975–766843131125175299
1976–777743151136215350
1977–788453151153212365
1978–799052151158234392
1979–8010554151176252428
Basic Metal Industries
1975–7646221179199279
1976–775757131128261389
1977–786643131123283406
1978–797551141 140337478
1979–808974141179384563
Manufacture of Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery and Equipment
1975–7645913837316641,1571,821
1976–77519216393518081,3802,188
1977–78596173493948531,5422,394
1978–79668151524429131,7262,639
1979–80785237575211,1302,2883,418
Other Manufacturing Industries
1975–76201022333972
1976–77241122394888
1977–78241423434992
1978–79261523 4655101
1979–80301323 4867115
Electricity, Gas, Water
1975–76947745216201218419
1976–771021315024281328610
1977–781202086133388438826
1978–791462306835443464906
1979–8017245376457005531,253
Construction
1975–76497229487 7801,8492,629
1976–7753523347848192,0632,883
1977–78589213451098482,1252,973
1978–796422074712148932,1273,021
1979–806842054612149342,1233,057
Trade, Restaurants, Hotels
1975–761,040907131526342,5712,1984,769
1976–771,1691,121153603243,0222,6395,661
1977–781,3131,140160642243,2312,8676,098
1978–791,4941,266164799343,6903,3657,055
1979–801,7681,466177966364,3424,0038,345
Transport, Storage
1975–765199511224956556441,299
1976–7757815812533488467791,625
1977–7865618013144899228791,800
1978–79760181153701111,0549922,045
1979–80888209168721381,1991,2262,425
$(million) at Producers' Values
Communication
1975–76207202023921063273
1976–7723451232130969378
1977–7827672253137675450
1978–7932098283244777454
1979–80371124314252788615
Financing, Insurance, Real Estate and Business Services
1975–76445442777011,0335241,557
1976–77506517838971,1886571,845
1977–785626359210371,3847472,131
1978–7965873110411381,5978532,450
1979–807897911131271,8209922,811
Ownership of Owner-Occupied Dwellings
1975–762977568440222662
1976–773198690495272767
1977–7837299106578290868
1978–79325112132569370940
1979–803231211586024171,019
Community, Social and Personal Services
1975–7621220920345470330800
1976–7724219825366495443939
1977–78278226304165695291,099
1978–79326261345076656031,268
1979–80381290385777607021,462
Nominal Industry (for imputed bank service charge)
1975–76−250−250250
1976–77−281−281281
1977–78−290−290290
1978–79−383−383383
1979–80−440−440440
Total Market Production Groups
1975–765,0123,4259379523919,93512,63422,569
1976–775,6364,4641,0731,11824112,05015.44927,499
1977–786,3964,6041,1821,28327713,18816,98730,175
1978–797,3355,2961,3041,52544215,01719,08334,101
1979–808,5836,5791,4461,74735118,00323,02641,029
NON-MARKET PRODUCTION GROUPS
Central Government Services
1975–761,17221,1744161,590
1976–771,32131,3244941,818
1977–781,56651,5716282,199
1978–791,93851,9437272,670
1979–802,23682,2448063,050
Local Government Services
1975–761242127189316
1976–771202122201323
1977–781422144255398
1978–791832186291477
1979–802263229338567
$(million) at Producers' Values
Private Non-Profit Services to Households
1975–7685939784181
1976–7799133115111226
1977–78112164132122254
1978–79136174157139296
1979–80156184178163341
Domestic Services of Households
1975–76777
1976–77888
1977–78111111
1978–79121212
1979–80141414
Total Non-Market Production Groups
1975–761,389971,4066892,094
1976–771,5481381,5708062,376
1977–781,83116101,8581,0052,862
1978–792,26917112,2981,1583,455
1979–802,63218152,6651,3063,972
All Production Groups—Total
1975–766,4013,42594795939111,34013,32324,663
1976–777,1844,4641,0861,12724113,62016,25529,875
1977–788,2274,6041,1981,29327715,04517,99233,037
1978–799,6045,2961,3211,53644217,31520,24137,556
1979–8011,2146,5791,4641,76335120,66924,33345,001

In the following table the components of GDP and of industry output for the total market production groups are shown by sector of ownership. As in other tables, the 1978–79 and 1979–80 figures are provisional, and many figures for earlier years have been revised.

Year Ended MarchComponents of Gross Domestic ProductComponents of Industry InputTotal Industry Output
Compensation of EmployeesOperating SurplusConsumption of Fixed CapitalIndirect TaxesLess SubsidiesContribution to Gross Domestic ProductIntermediate Consumption
$(million) at Producers' Values
Private Sector
1975–764,0913,2418139262358,83611,40720,244
1976–774,6264,1099261,08617410,57413,96924,543
1977–785,1964,1071,0081,24816011,39915,15126,550
1978–795,8814,7401,1061,48327512,93517,02729,962
1979–806,8925,7431,2161,69117315,36920,73936,109
$(million) at Producers' Values
Central Government Sector
1975–7675613194201378638881,751
1976–7782925811425451,1801,0452,226
1977–7898836713027921,4211,2712,692
1978–791,196446147311371,6841,4093,092
1979–801,394635172441442,1011,4933,594
Local Government Sector
1975–761665330619235339574
1976–771819733722296434730
1977–7821213044826368565932
1978–792581105111313996481,047
1979–802972015712345337941,327
Nominal Industry (for imputed bank service charge)
1975–76−250−250250
1976–77−281−281281
1977–78−290−290290
1978–79−383−383383
1979–80−440−440440
Total Market Production Groups
1975–765,0123,4259379523919,93512,63422,569
1976–775,6364,4641,0731,11824112,05015,44927,499
1977–786,3964,6041,1821,28327713,18816,98730,175
1978–797,3355,2961,3041,52544215,01719,08334,101
1979–808,5836,5791,4461,74735118,00323,02641,029

GROSS FIXED CAPITAL FORMATION—Gross fixed capital formation tables record purchases of capital assets, reduced by the value of sales, plus the value of construction work done by an establishment's own employees; no deduction has been made for assets used up during the period of account. Land purchases and sales, but not land improvements, are excluded by definition.

The following table shows gross fixed capital formation by production group within each sector of ownership.

Production GroupYear Ended March
1976x1977x1978x1979*1980*
* Provisional.
$(million)
Private Sector
Market production group
Agriculture199262245335418
Fishing and hunting814650
Forestry and logging1110131821
Mining and quarrying6686845637
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco125143129173215
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries2724273032
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture313315717
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing4984447172
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products4052525460
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal2033111317
Basic metal industries937171714
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment5156646081
Other manufacturing industries13323
Electricity, gas, and water21112
Construction8211113−1185
Trade, restaurants, hotels188196206240277
Transport and storage Communication143110150131132
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services179221263261257
Community, social and personal services
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings633737650590603
                Total market production groups1,8562,2072,0012,0552,391
Non-market production groups
Central Government services     
Local government services     
Private non-profit services to households4834302933
Domestic services of households     
                Total non-market production groups4834302933
                Total private gross fixed capital formation1,9042,2412,0312,0842,424
Central Government
Market production groups
Agriculture139121919
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging1010141411
Mining and quarrying7693947241
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture11121
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing1111
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products19
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal.
Basic metal industries
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment97623
Other manufacturing industries
Electricity, gas, and water224247285297247
Construction85995
Trade, restaurants, hotels35433
Transport and storage1161018116370
Communication7867688665
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services11788889379
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings     
Community, social and personal services19102497
                Total market production groups676644687768569
Non-market production groups
Central government services284284309338335
Local government services     
Private non-profit services to households     
Domestic services of households     
                Total non-market production groups284284309338335
                Total Central Government gross fixed capital formation9609289961,106905
Local Government
Market production groups
Agriculture
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging1111
Mining and quarrying1
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco21122
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal
Basic metal industries
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment
Other manufacturing industries
Electricity, gas, and water8181100113130
Construction11111
Trade, restaurants, hotels34455
Transport and storage3755696656
Communication
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services2026252117
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings     
Community, social and personal services
                Total market production groups143168201208212
Non-market production groups
Central Government services     
Local government services118111118148178
Private non-profit services to households     
Domestic services of households     
                Total non-market production groups118111118148178
                Total local government gross fixed capital formation261279319356389
Market production groups
Total
Agriculture212271257354437
Fishing and hunting814850
Forestry and logging2220283333
Mining and quarrying14217917812778
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco127145130175216
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries2724273032
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture333416918
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing5085457173
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products4052525479
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal2033111317
Basic metal industries937171714
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment6063716284
Other manufacturing industries13323
Electricity, gas, and water306329385411378
Construction9011723−190
Trade, restaurants, hotels194205214247285
Transport and storage296267299360258
Communication7867688665
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services335344400383360
Community, social and personal services
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings633737650590603
                Total market production groups2,6753,0182,8883,0313,172
Non-market production groups
Central Government services284284309338335
Local government services118111118148178
Private non-profit services to households4834302933
Domestic services of households     
                Total non-market production groups450430458515546
                Total gross fixed capital formation3,1253,4483,3463,5463,718

In the following table the composition of gross fixed capital formation is shown by type of capital good. The 1978–79 and 1979–80 figures are provisional and many of the figures for earlier years have been revised.

YearType of Capital GoodTotal
Residential BuildingsNon-Residential BuildingsOther ConstructionLand ImprovementsTransport EquipmentPlant, Machinery, and Other Equipment
$(million)
Private Sector
1975–7665431779403334811,904
1976–77753366100503126592,241
1977–7867338499552745452,031
1978–79608387108763585462,084
1979–80622429741034797172,424
Central Government
1975–76892842179116246960
1976–77633041931082276928
1977–78512862511476317996
1978–7950335253221652811,106
1979–80482851982186265905
Local Government
1975–761432148131935261
1976–771834149162142279
1977–782043174182737319
1978–791642201243340356
1979–801441230233447389
Total
1975–76757632444624697613,125
1976–77834705442764159763,448
1977–78745713525873769003,346
1978–796747645621235568673,546
1979–806847555021486001,0293,718

STOCK CHANGE BY PRODUCTION GROUP—The following table shows increase in stocks by kind of economic activity, i.e., by production group.

Production GroupYear Ended March
1976x1977x1978x1979*1980*
* Provisional
$(million)
Market production groups
Agriculture−19−1141−101203
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging3440486482
Mining and quarrying1263
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco92129327774
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries920352073
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture1313151129
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing131926820
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products−7352515127
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal4114512
Basic metal industries−31317−1035
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment1073133126
Other manufacturing industries332−26
Electricity, gas, and water73551
Construction202216187
Trade, restaurants, hotels152307207157751
Transport and storage13113612
Communication2510314
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services49336
Community, social and personal services
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings     
                Total market production groups3496956332861,581
Non-market production groups
Central Government services64356
Local government services
Private non-profit services to households
Domestic services of households     
                Total all production groups3566986362921,587

The next stage in the development of the new system of national accounts will be the preparation of constant price accounts. This involves expressing both Production Accounts and the Consolidated Accounts of the Nation in terms of constant dollars to eliminate the effect of price changes and thereby obtain measures of the real contribution of industry groups to changes in Real Gross Domestic Product. Better information on structural changes in the economy and industry productivity can also be derived from such statistical series. Other future developments include quarterly national accounts in current dollar values. Such estimates will considerably increase the usefulness of the national accounts, particularly for economic policy purposes.

The introduction of the new series of national accounts from 1971–72 onwards produced a definite and clear hiatus between the previous and present series of statistics of which users should be aware. A full and detailed report explaining classifications, definitions, working methods, and concepts is in course of preparation.

25 B—BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

A country's balance of payments statement is a comprehensive account of its economic transactions with the rest of the world. The New Zealand balance of payments estimates are based on the principles set out in the Balance of Payments Manual (Fourth Edition), published by the International Monetary Fund and are in conformity with the methods used by other countries.

Annual and quarterly estimates of the New Zealand balance of payments are shown in more detail in an annual volume, Balance of Payments, published by the Department of Statistics. Quarterly data and annual summaries are also published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

MAJOR PRINCIPLES—The major principles used in preparing a balance of payments statement are:

  1. Goods sold from one country to another are recorded at the time ownership changes, and other transactions are recorded at the time they occur.

  2. Exports and imports of merchandise are valued at f.o.b. (free on board) of the exporting country.

  3. As far as possible, all transactions are shown on a gross, rather than on a net, settlement basis.

  4. Wherever possible, all transactions are valued at market prices.

  5. All transactions are recorded in New Zealand dollars. Where another currency was used for the transaction the currency exchange rates ruling at the time the transaction occurred have been used to convert the transaction to New Zealand dollars.

COMPONENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND BALANCE OF PAYMENTS—The following description refers to the summary table on a following page.

Exports/Imports (as Published in External Trade Statistics)—These are for March years and are otherwise identical with the figures published in Section 22, External Trade. Exports are valued f.o.b.; imports are valued c.i.f. (cost, insurance, and freight).

Adjustments to Balance of Payments Concepts—There are some imports and exports which are included in the balance of payments but not in external trade statistics. These include ships and aircraft purchased by New Zealand residents for use in international trade.

A considerable portion of New Zealand's exports are sold on consignment in the United Kingdom. The change of ownership occurs well after the goods have been recorded in New Zealand external trade statistics. Also, the valuation in external trade statistics is an estimate of future realisations. Adjustments to bring tirade statistics to balance of payments concepts show mainly as a credit entry.

The debit entry contains the adjustment of imports from c.i.f. value to f.o.b. value.

Some items, such as ships' stores and passengers' baggage, are removed from merchandise trade and shown elsewhere in the balance of payments statement.

Exports/Imports (f.o.b. Exporting Country)—New Zealand's exports and imports of merchandise on a balance of payments basis.

Balance on Merchandise Trade—The surplus of exports f.o.b. over imports f.o.b.

Transportation, Travel, Insurance, Other Miscellaneous Services, and Government Transactions—The exports of services from, and imports of services to, New Zealand. The balance on services is the difference between the sum of the credit entries and the sum of the debit entries for these items.

International Investment Income—The credit entries show the income accruing to New Zealand residents from overseas investments while the debit entries show the income accruing to overseas residents from their investments in New Zealand.

Balance on Invisibles—The balance on services plus international investment income credits minus international investment income debits.

Transfers—This item provides the counter-entries for gifts of goods, services, and financial assets to and from New Zealand. Examples are immigrants' transfers, gifts and donations, foreign aid payments, and relief supplies.

Balance on Current Account—The balance on merchandise trade plus the balance on invisibles plus transfer credits minus transfer debits. It is a measure of the surplus of outflows of goods, services, and transfers from New Zealand over the inflows of goods, services, and transfers into New Zealand.

Overseas Direct Investment in New Zealand, New Zealand Direct Investment Overseas, and Other Private Long-Term Capital Movements—These items show the changes in long-term claims on the rest of the world and long-term liabilities to the rest of the world of the private sector.

Government Capital Movements—Includes all Government capital movements except movements in Government-held reserve assets and Government borrowing to maintain New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves.

Capital Movements by Monetary Institutions—This item includes those capital movements by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand and the five trading banks which are not movements in reserve assets or borrowing to maintain reserves.

Residual—This is the balancing item. It is the difference between the sum of the credit column and the sum of the debit column. It covers any errors in the balance of payments estimates and all omissions. Included in the omissions are short-term private capital movements.

Balance Before Compensatory Financing—The balance on all transactions, other than reserve transactions and transactions undertaken to maintain reserves.

Compensatory Financing—Borrowing undertaken by the Government or the Reserve Bank to compensate for imbalances in New Zealand's transactions with the rest of the world.

Balance after Compensatory Financing—The balance on all transactions other than reserve transactions. The change in New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves due to transactions is the same in direction and magnitude as this balance.

Reserve Transactions—The movements in New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves during the year. Reserves measured in New Zealand dollars may change because transactions have occurred or because the value of the New Zealand dollar has changed relative to the currency in which the reserve asset is denominated. The presentation shows the total change in reserves and, separately, a counterpart to changes in reserves caused by exchange rate changes. The difference of these two items is equal to the change in reserves caused by transactions in reserve assets.

New Zealand's reserves may change because of an allocation of Special Drawing Rights by the International Monetary Fund. This is not regarded as a transaction and there is a counterpart item for such an allocation.

For a more detailed description of the concepts and methods used in preparing balance of payments estimates and the contents of items in the estimates refer to the latest edition of the Department of Statistics' annual publication Balance of Payments obtainable from the Government Printer.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND EXCHANGE RECORD—There are several very important differences between a balance of payments statement and the statistics of overseas receipts and payments which are included in an exchange record, such as is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency. The main differences are:

  1. The balance of payments attempts to show all economic transactions between residents of one country and residents of other countries, whereas the exchange record shows only transactions involving remittances.

  2. The import and export figures in the balance of payments are based on trade statistics, which enable goods to be valued at a definite and uniform valuation boundary—viz, f.o.b., country of export. The exchange record, on the other hand, records remittances for imports and exports whenever these are made and without adhering to any valuation basis (f.o.b. or c.i.f.). The result is a difference both in timing and valuation between the two statements.

  3. Whereas exchange statistics record net settlements resulting from a number of possible contra-entries or offsets, the balance of payments shows these transactions as far as possible on a gross basis.

Other differences arise from the fact that the balance of payments is constructed on a basis of country of purchase for imports and country of destination for exports, country of residence of remittor or remittee, and nationality in the case of shipping companies, whereas the record of exchange transactions is based on the country of monetary settlement.

In essence, the exchange record is a statement of cash flows, or using the terminology of commercial accounting it is the “cash book” of the nation's transactions with other countries; the balance of payments statement on the other hand approaches an “income and expenditure” account.

GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION—The regional break-up of the balance of payments is on a geographical (as distinct from a currency) basis. This means that it is not the currency in which any economic transaction is settled but the residence of New Zealand's immediate partner in the transaction which determines in which regional column the transaction is recorded. Any exception to this rule is due to statistical necessity—insufficiency of basic data, etc., rather than choice.

United Kingdom (including Channel Islands).

Australia (including Norfolk Island, but excluding Papua New Guinea).

USA—United States of America, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, and other American islands in the Pacific.

Canada.

Japan.

Other EEC Countries—The 6 members of the European Economic Community which formed a common market in 1958; Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and the Federal German Republic, together with their associated and dependent overseas territories. From and including 1973–74 Denmark and Ireland were included with EEC. The United Kingdom is also a member of the EEC but is shown separately.

Other OECD—Austria, Finland, Greece, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey. Greece became a member of the EEC as from 1 January 1981.

Asia-Oceania—All Asian and Pacific countries except Australia, Japan, the Americas, and New Zealand. Afghanistan is the most western country in this group.

Latin America-Caribbean—All the Americas except Canada and the USA.

Other Countries—All countries not included in any other group.

International Organisations—Transactions with the United Nations and its agencies, the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Finance Corporation, the Asian Development Bank, South Pacific Air Transport Council, and other international organisations.

ACCOUNTING PERIOD—All estimates are for financial years ended 31 March.

RESIDENTS AND NON-RESIDENTS—The balance of payments is a record of economic transactions between residents and non-residents.

Residents are all people living permanently in New Zealand (and who have their “centre of interest” in New Zealand). Subsidiaries and branches of overseas companies are treated as residents, while subsidiaries and branches of New Zealand companies operating overseas are regarded as residents of the country in which they operate.

In order to simplify the rather complex operations of overseas shipping companies, the shipping transactions of their branches in New Zealand (such as their receipt of freights, port disbursements, administrative expenses in New Zealand, etc.), are regarded as transactions of non-residents, by way of exception to the general rule stated above; on the other hand, their investment activity is included in the data on New Zealand branches of overseas companies and conforms to the general rule.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND THE EXTERNAL TRANSACTIONS ACCOUNT OF THE NATIONAL ACCOUNTS—As far as possible, the balance of payments account and the external transactions account are prepared using the same principles and definitions. However, they have different uses and there are some major differences in content. The most important of these is the inclusion of the undistributed earnings of direct investment enterprises in the balance of payments. This is the reason why the surplus of the nation on current account in the external transactions account is more favourable than the balance on current account as shown in the balance of payments accounts.

SUMMARY TABLE—The following table presents a summary of New Zealand's transactions with other countries during the four latest available financial years.

Item1976–77x1977–78x1978–79x1979–80
CreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebit
 NZ$(million)
Exports/imports (as published in external trade statistics)3,070.83,327.33,319.83,396.33,844.23,529.64,897.54,918.2
Adjustments to balance of payments concepts−47.2−183.72.6−185.611.6−257.87.1−380.2
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)3,023.63,143.63,322.43,210.73,855.83,271.64,904.64,538.0
      Balance on merchandise trade−120.0111.7584.0366.6
Transportation410.7475.3513.6525.7557.7518.4694.1727.2
Travel160.8245.1160.7300.0165.9388.3197.2499.5
Insurance0.63.92.28.2−0.67.26.3−7.9
Other miscellaneous services78.2178.695.0259.9103.5285.5134.8379.6
Government transactions49.364.338.584.848.0109.744.7144.3
      Balance on services−267.6−368.6−434.7−665.6
International investment income103.7526.7122.8571.0108.6684.9136.3649.6
    Balance on invisibles−690.6−816.8−1,011.0−1,178.9
Transfers141.7156.6162.8170.1165.8208.1223.4207.8
      Balance on current account−825.5−712.4−469.3−796.7
Overseas direct investment in N.Z. (net)278.9 159.2 263.9 342.7 
N.Z. direct investment overseas (net) 35.8 32.9 35.9 91.6
Other long-term private capital movements—
    Increases in assets (net) −26.5 −0.1 −6.3 −81.4
    Increases in liabilities (net)25.0 109.7 −76.5 86.8 
Government capital movements (excluding movements in Government-held reserve assets)—
    Increases in assets (net) 28.6 22.7 3.5 11.8
    Increases in liabilities (net)168.1 −10.1 100.1 3.4 
Capital movements by monetary institutions (excluding movements in reserve assets)—
    Increases in assets (net) 6.2  1.3 1.4
    Increases in liabilities (net)- 3.4  2.6 
Residual (includes short-term private capital movements and errors and omissions)95.4 235.8 −303.3 24.3 
      Balance before compensatory financing−302.2−269.9−519.5−360.3
Government borrowing (net)178.4 463.0 337.0 396.9 
Reserve bank borrowing (net)15.9 53.4  52.4 
I.M.F. drawings (net)117.8 −6.4 −57.0 −126.7 
Total compensatory financing (net)312.1 510.0 280.0 322.6 
      Balance after compensatory financing9.9240.1−239.5−37.7
Changes in Reserve Assets
    Monetary gold  0.9 −0.9 
Special drawing rights—
    Total change in holdings 11.5 27.1 0.1 −11.1
    Counterpart to allocation/cancellation   29.3 32.4
Counterpart to valuation changes 1.9 2.9  1.3
Change due to transactions 9.6 24.2 −29.2 −44.8
Reserve position at the I.M.F.—
    Total change in holdings  13.8 29.7 −43.5
    Counterpart to valuation changes    
    Change due to transactions  13.8 29.7 −43.5
Assets of the N.Z. banking system—
    Total change in holdings 16.5 81.0 −60.5 53.7
    Counterpart to valuation changes 9.7   
    Change due to transactions 6.8 81.0 −60.5 53.7
Treasury and other Government-held securities—
      Total change in holdings 10.6 144.2 −172.8 24.4
      Counterpart to valuation changes 17.1 24.0 5.8 27.5
      Change due to transactions −6.5 120.2 −178.5 −3.1
Summary of reserve transactions—
      Total change in reserves 38.6 267.0 −204.4 23.5
      Counterpart to valuation changes 28.7 26.9 35.1 61.2
      Changes in reserves due to transactions 9.9 240.1 −239.5 −37.7
      Total reserves at 31 March (as shown in Reserve Bank Bulletin) 720.6 983.6 803.9 805.2

A summary of New Zealand's balance of payments transactions by regions during the years 1978–79 and 1979–80 is shown in the table on the following 2 pages.

REGIONAL SUMMARY 1977–78 AND 1978–79
ItemUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States of AmericaCanadaJapanE.E.C.Other O.E.C.D.Asia-OceaniaLatin America-CaribbeanOther CountriesInternational OrganisationsTotal
CreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebit
 NZ$(million)
1978–79x
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)727.6471.2444.2701.1596.9502.395.080.1533.5460.1427.0357.387.079.9613.2348.765.132.5266.4238.23,855.83,271.8
        Balance on merchandise trade256.4−256.994.314.973.469.77.1264.532.628.2584.0
Services262.4375.8293.4368.0160.6235.110.315.743.949.040.090.310.235.842.9117.50.68.610.113.3874.41,309.0
International investment income18.3151.741.2103.211.8176.11.09.31.929.74.675.27.070.514.53.83.83.34.562.1108.6684.9
        Balance on invisibles−246.8−136.6−238.8−13.7−32.9−120.9−89.1−63.9−7.5−60.8−1,011.0
Transfers63.245.749.662.818.19.33.74.20.90.414.34.02.62.111.260.10.21.31.910.08.2165.8208.1
        Balance on current account27.1−406.7−135.70.741.0−40.9−81.5151.724.0−40.7−8.2−469.3
Overseas direct investment in New Zealand203.4 27.1 37.4 0.1 −9.4 2.0 −6.5 2.5 6.9 0.4  263.9 
New Zealand direct investment overseas 1.4 18.4 7.3 1.9    5.6 0.4 0.9  35.9
Other long-term private capital movements−80.5−4.139.83.8−74.8−4.85.60.1−8.4 0.3−0.317.0−0.425.5−0.50.1−0.1−1.1−76.5−6.3
Government capital movements13.915.77.40.5183.935.714.11.28.827.044.58.51.713.319.01.49.4251.3154.7
Capital movements by monetary institutions1.3−1.3
Residual 311.8351.2 54.3  12.8 69.0 190.9 115.6 168.9 29.4115.6 74.0  303.3
        Balance before compensatory financing−160.9−3.926.94.5−64.0−273.7−179.473.357.8−519.5
Compensatory financing−12.8  −64.9   239.6 179.4   −4.4 −57.0 558.6278.6
        Balance after compensatory financing−173.7−3.9−38.04.5−64.0−34.168.90.8−239.5
Total change in reserves−173.6−3.9−38.34.5−62.8−29.268.930.0−204.4
Counterpart to valuation, etc., changes0.1−0.31.24.929.235.1
Change due to transactions−173.7−3.9−38.04.5−64.0−34.168.90.8−239.5
1979–80
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)801.4577.1613.0936.3717.7567.497.5111.0634.4599.4555.5394.2111.3124.1738.4706.1108.535.6526.9487.04,904.64.538.0
        Balance on merchandise trade224.3−323.3150.3−13.535.0161.3−12.832.372.939.9366.6
Services329.0612.9315.2472.5208.5240.19.016.166.863.064.3120.514.438.861.3144.9−0.16.79.022.84.61,077.11,742.7
International investment income32.997.745.297.311.3151.91.611.42.523.83.3120.35.067.624.29.71.90.88.369.1136.3649.6
        Balance on invisibles−348.7−209.4−172.2−16.9−17.5−173.2−87.0−69.1−5.7−74.6−4.6−1,178.9
Transfers96.032.155.376.823.613.84.95.31.50.519.65.23.91.715.451.90.40.92.611.48.1223.4207.8
        Balance on current account−60.5−554.2−12.1−30.818.52.5−97,6−73.366.7−43.5−12.7−796.7
Overseas direct investment in New Zealand136.1 99.5 89.6 11.9 −12.0 10.7 5.4 −2.3 3.8   342.7 
New Zealand direct investment overseas 9.0 54.1 1.5 0.7 1.8 0.5  12.4 5.9 5.8  91.6
Other long-term private capital movements2.2−6.9−9.4−53.8−39.6−10.1−2.56.7−0.249.0−0.476.6−0.6−18.9−2.20.3−3.319.9−1.386.8−81.4
Government capital movements19.828.76.92.6147.236.011.23.115.551.68.980.563.936.68.620.3266.5274.9
Capital movements by monetary institutions0.41.42.22.61.4
Residual 17.9461.7  259.016.5  184.5 42.3 22.178.9  69.7 12.675.2 24.3 
        Balance before compensatory financing49.30.2−101.37.5−188.4−31.8−108.71.50.7−40.751.2−360.3
Compensatory financing−25.6 0.1 45.1 −6.6 226.1 32.0 125.9   53.0 −127.3 322.6 
        Balance after compensatory financing23.70.3−56.20.937.70.217.21.50.712.3−76.1−37.7
Total change in reserves40.30.3−55.11.537.14.718.81.61.012.4−39.223.5
Counterpart to valuation, etc., changes16.61.00.6−0.64.51.50.10.40.136.961.2
Change due to transactions23.70.3−56.20.937.70.217.21.50.712.3−76.1−37.7

Commentary—New Zealand is a small economy that relies on overseas trade for a place among the nations. The value of New Zealand's exports of merchandise over the 3 years 1977–78, 1978–79, and 1979–80 averaged nearly 22 percent of its GDP, and the value of its imports of merchandise averaged 21 percent. The current account receipts (credits) in its balance of payments averaged 28.6 percent of its gross domestic product (GDP) and the current account payments (debits) averaged 32.3 percent.

Over these 3 years, the earnings from exports made up 76.4 percent of total current account credits, while the cost (f.o.b.) of imports of goods accounted for 66.5 percent of New Zealand's current account payments. Thus the New Zealand's balance of payments is dominated by the fluctuations in the earnings from exports and in the payments for imports of goods.

The balance on merchandise trade is influenced by changes in New Zealand's terms of trade (see Section 23) as well as by changes in the volumes of exports and of imports (see the export and import volume indexes, Section 22A).

The deficit in the Balance of Payments (the balance before compensatory financing) for the 1979–80 financial year of $360 million was financed by the monetary authorities borrowing a further $323 million from overseas countries, and by reducing the reserve assets by $24 million.

There has been a long-term trend towards a more diversified pattern of trade for New Zealand. During 1959–60, 54.9 percent of New Zealand's exports were sold to the United Kingdom and 46.8 percent of imports were purchased from the United Kingdom. By 1979–80 the United Kingdom took only 14.4 percent of exports and was the source of only 13.9 percent of imports.

The table below shows New Zealand's merchandise trade with various regions during 1979–80 expressed as percentages of the total merchandise trade.

Country or Group of CountriesExports f.o.b.Imports c.i.f.
 percentage
U.K14.413.9
Australia12.820.6
U.S.A15.112.3
Canada2.02.3
Japan13.313.1
Other E.E.C.11.49.1
Other O.E.C.D.2.32.9
Asia-Oceania15.414.7
Latin America-Caribbean2.30.7
Other11.010.4
        Total100.0100.0

SURVEY OF DIRECT INVESTMENT BY COMPANIES—The picture of international capital movements would be incomplete without the consideration of investment flows originating with private commercial firms. While such investment takes place in response to usual economic motivation, its effect on a country's balance of payments differs in no respect from other capital movements, such as Government lending or borrowing abroad, investment or repatriation of assets from abroad by private individuals, etc.

The type of investment referred to here is that defined as direct private investment. Subsidiaries (i.e., New Zealand companies under control of an overseas company), branches of overseas companies, companies where many of the shareholders reside overseas, or any other companies where overseas shareholders exercise a controlling interest, fall within this category. The question of control is decided in some cases on the strength of the parent company's holdings (a 25 percent holding of the subsidiary's ordinary share capital is deemed as the qualifying minimum); in others on the actual circumstances of the case. The same criteria apply for direct investment overseas by New Zealand companies and residents.

Direct investment flows assume various forms; they may be by remittances of cash, the provision of plant, machinery, or goods without corresponding payments, charging up of services rendered by the parent company, the re-investment in New Zealand of undistributed profits, or the partial remittance only of declared dividends and branch earnings. The inclusion of undistributed profits may require some explanation: the non-remittance abroad of the whole of the current year's earnings, or any portion of them involves, where no statutory constraints exist on remittances of current profits, a decision to invest which is in every respect equivalent to a decision to bring additional investment capital into the country. By treating, as mentioned previously, total earnings of subsidiaries and branches of overseas firms in New Zealand as a current account debit or payment to the rest of the world, the unremitted portions of such earnings are treated as an inflow of investment capital which, together with other forms of investment capital (cash, goods, services), make up the total of the private direct investment credit item in the capital account.

The information tabulated in the following tables is based on an annual survey of companies with overseas affiliations in which the companies report on the distribution of paid-up capital and its changes, dividends and dividend remittances, intercompany accounts with the parent company or affiliated company, and head office accounts in the case of branches.

It should be noted that investment figures given in the following 4 tables are in terms of inflows and outflows at current prices. The total worth of direct investments assets is extremely difficult to establish in view of the fact that book values may bear little relationship to what such investments would realise on sale; a year's inflows and outflows of investment capital on the other hand are capable of precise expression, and the relationship to other capital movements can be defined precisely.

Overseas Private Direct Investment in New Zealand—Data on overall private investment flows into New Zealand are shown in the following table. The figures are totals reflecting investment changes in firms resident in New Zealand and controlled from overseas irrespective of their legal organisation. They include therefore subsidiaries incorporated in New Zealand, companies incorporated in New Zealand which have a majority of shareholders resident overseas or are controlled by overseas residents, and New Zealand branches of overseas companies.

The figures shown in the country or regional area columns refer to the country of incorporation of the New Zealand firm's parent company, head office, or other subsidiary of the parent associate company from which the investment flows, or to which the New Zealand company owes or is owed on outstanding accounts, or the country of residence of individual shareholders who collectively hold a controlling interest (as defined above) in the New Zealand company.

March YearUnited KingdomAustraliaU.S.A. and CanadaOther EEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
   NZ$(million)   
1975–7629.238.727.56.712.6114.7
1976–77100.692.163.64.518.1278.9
1977–7897.875.4−13.6−5.55.1159.2
1978–79203.427.137.52.0−6.1263.9
1979–80136.199.5101.510.7−5.1342.7

The following graphs shows overseas direct investment in New Zealand.

Income from Private Overseas Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table provides a subdivision of total direct investment income derived by all enterprises controlled from overseas and operating in New Zealand. The investment income is given net (after payment of New Zealand taxation). The regional totals, as well as the “All Countries” total, correspond to the “Income from Direct Investment” debits shown in the regional current accounts.

March YearUnited KingdomAustraliaU.S.A. and CanadaOther EEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
NZ$(million) Dividends
1975–7613.49.56.20.43.232.7
1976–7731.011.98.80.33.054.9
1977–7832.512.913.40.44.663.8
1978–7926.911.511.80.43.854.4
1979–8021.515.821.50.94.163.8
Undistributed Earnings
1975–7641.822.913.8−1.12.680.1
1976–7756.643.157.32.711.1170.8
1977–7869.638.115.1−0.710.4132.6
1978–7978.450.640.02.14.7175.8
1979–8022.737.924.80.43.289.0
Net Earnings of Branches
1975–7612.17.24.2−0.622.8
1976–7716.512.02.60.21.432.8
1977–786.418.52.90.71.429.9
1978–7911.015.32.80.21.931.2
1979–804.710.90.4−0.11.717.6
Total Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand
1975–7667.339.524.2−0.75.3135.6
1976–77104.267.068.73.215.5258.4
1977–78108.669.531.40.516.4226.3
1978–79116.377.454.52.710.4261.4
1979–8049.064.646.71.29.0170.4

Industrial Classification of Overseas Private Direct Investment and Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table shows details of overseas direct investment and income from overseas direct investment classified by major industry groupings.

Industry1976–771977–781978–791979–80
 NZ$(million)   
Direct Investment Flows into New Zealand
Farming, hunting, and fishing0.31.01.21.4
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying−0.30.40.9
Manufacturing—
    Food, drink, and tobacco19.418.1−9.414.6
    Meat and dairy products20.24.93.6−5.7
    Textiles, clothing, and footwear2.42.31.81.8
    Wood, cork, and furniture production1.60.60.9
    Pulp, paper, and printing5.94.7−1.92.2
    Leather and rubber products5.0−1.21.10.5
    Chemical and mineral products35.81.348.676.1
    Metalworking19.913.03.010.9
    Engineering and transport equipment19.610.85.033.3
    Miscellaneous manufacturing16.59.710.015.4
Building and construction1.02.87.5 
Electricity, gas, water 
Wholesale and retail trade96.322.426.4113.1
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property35.871.0161.794.5
Transport and communications0.7−2.21.3−23.6
Services0.5−1.33.56.3
                Total278.9159.2263.9342.7
Income from Direct Investment
Farming, hunting, and fishing0.31.01.60.3
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying1.11.30.61.0
Manufacturing—
    Food, drink, and tobacco12.89.815.820.1
    Meat and dairy products16.4−1.66.8−9.4
    Textiles, clothing, and footwear3.02.82.42.4
    Wood, cork, and furniture production0.60.80.7
    Pulp, paper, and printing7.76.45.87.3
    Leather and rubber products2.81.82.81.7
    Chemical and mineral products26.721.035.619.3
    Metalworking16.27.59.55.5
    Engineering and transport equipment22.917.122.422.9
    Miscellaneous manufacturing18.211.217.022.4
Building and construction1.93.22.72.0
Electricity, gas, water   
Wholesale and retail trade87.769.752.420.7
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property36.669.771.845.0
Transport and communications0.83.912.15.0
Services3.31.11.23.5
                Total258.4226.3261.4170.4

Investment by New Zealand Companies Overseas—The following table presents the converse picture of those immediately preceding viz, direct investment flows out from New Zealand and the income earned from direct investment by New Zealand companies in their overseas subsidiaries and branches.

March YearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited Slates and CanadaOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
NZ$(million)
Direct Investment
1975–764.05.08.40.4x177
1976–774.85.621.04.435.9
1977–78−4.426.07.43.932.9
1978–791.418.49.26.935.9
1979–809.054.12.226.491.6
Income from Direct Investment Overseas
1975–763.314.81.05.324.4
1976–774.122.62.39.738.7
1977–782.837.43.27.250.6
1978–792.519.2x2.811.4x35.8x
1979—8011.625.23.513.653.8

25 C—INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES

Input-output analysis, a most important economic tool, was devised by Professor Leontief, an American economist, in the 1930s to define and measure the interdependence of the different industries within the economy. It provided a tool with which, for example, it was possible to measure the effects of a stated increase or decrease in the demand for houses on the timber industry, the cement industry, and the industries producing glass, steel, paint, bricks, tiles, concrete blocks, nails, plumbing requisites, and all the hundreds of other items that go into houses, as well as on the demand for imports.

An inter-industry study involves three distinct tasks. They are:

  1. The systematic collection, evaluation, and arrangement of a vast body of statistical information on production and consumption covering, as far as possible, every facet of the economy. This is the basic data on which the worth of the whole study depends.

  2. The formulation of an appropriate theoretical scheme.

  3. The application of theoretical methods and devices to the analysis of empirical data.

In a sense, input-output analysis brings together those who in economic research have always tended to drift apart—the producers of elegant theories, and those engaged in empirical research and the accumulation of data. Input-output analysis gives scope to the theorist but at the same time keeps him anchored firmly to the basic data, to the figures of goods poured out by factories, transported by ships, trucks, and trains, and sold over shop counters.

The term “Inter-Industry Study” refers to the whole task of investigation, compilation, and preliminary calculations as well as the mass of input-output tables and derived tables that forms the end product.

THE BASIC INPUT-OUTPUT TABLE—In the basic input-output table the entire economic activities of a country are divided into industry groups, which may number some hundreds. In New Zealand they range from 12 in the earlier studies to 130 in the latest study. A great deal of investigation and research is necessary in order to discover what each industry consumes, both in the form of the products of other industries and in the form of primary inputs such as labour; and what it produces, what it supplies to other industries in the form of raw materials, components, and semi-finished products, and what it supplies to final consumers such as households.

Each industry appears twice in an input-output table—in a row as a producer and in a column as a consumer. The rows and columns intersect, so that what appears in a row as part of industry A's output sold to industry B can also be read down the industry B column as part of industry B's input purchased from industry A.

DERIVED TABLES—If the straightforward monetary transactions table is subjected to a mathematical process, known as inversion of the matrix, a derived table or model is produced. This derived table will show on a unit basis (that is per $ or per $ million, etc.) what will be required in additional output from every industry in the economy to support an increase of one unit in the final output of a selected industry. Such an account is often known as a table of total requirements (direct and indirect) per unit of final demand. The words “direct and indirect” are used to indicate that the table includes not only the direct requirements of the selected industry, but also the additional requirements of industries supplying that industry with raw materials, components, and services, and the additional requirements of industries supplying those industries, and so on through an ever-widening circle of the economy until the economic reverberations die away.

UPDATING OF INPUT-OUTPUT STATISTICS—It is a common criticism of inter-industry studies (and not only in New Zealand) that they are invariably years out of date and therefore stale and of historical interest only. A considerable delay is inevitable with a full-scale study because of the enormous amount of preparatory investigation necessary and the fact that sometimes the detailed information required for input-output purposes is not available until a considerable time after the close of the year or other period that is the subject of the study.

The essential value of input-output tables lies not so much in the actual transactions portrayed as in the structural relationships revealed, which are found by experience in developed countries to remain reasonably stable for periods of several years. The Department of Statistics has updated the 1971–72 basic transactions table to 1976–77. It was obtained using information from the 1971–72 Inter-Industry Study and the provisional National Accounts for 1976–77. Derived tables have also been recalculated for 1976–77 and have been published together with a description of the updating methodology in a statistical bulletin.

NEW ZEALAND INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES—The Department of Statistics has published three major inter-industry studies of the New Zealand economy. The Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1959–60 was published in four parts, the Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1965–66 in two parts, and the Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1971–72 in one part. The 1971–72 Inter-Industry Study updated to 1976—77 has been published as a statistical bulletin. The 1959–60 and 1965–66 Studies used similar methodology. The 1971–72 Study, however, adopted concepts used in the United Nations System of National Accounts (1968) and formed the basis for the Department of Statistics's revised National Accounts. The few differences between the 1971–72 Study and the revised National Accounts will be reduced further in the full 1976–77 Inter-Industry Study now in preparation. The 1959–60 and 1965–66 Studies are comparable, and the 1971–72 and 1976–77 Studies will be, but comparison between the 1965–66 and 1971–72 Studies should be made with considerable caution.

A table giving provisional Inter-Industry transactions for the year 1976–77 (obtained by updating the 1971–72 Study) on a basis of twenty-five industry groups was published in the 1980 Yearbook. A full set of provisional tables for 1976–77, together with notes on methodology, will be found in Miscellaneous Series Bulletin No. 14 Provisional New Zealand Input-Output Tables 1976–77, available from the Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.

25 D—REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT

The Gross Domestic Product is the total value of all goods and services produced in New Zealand during a financial year (ended 31 March). The “Real” Gross Domestic Products for a number of years are estimates of the total production of goods and services in each of those years, all valued at the prices prevailing in one particular year, so that the totals for each year indicate the relative volumes of production, and the differences in the volumes of production in the respective years are apparent.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT—For earlier years, the index of Real Gross Domestic Product measured the relative levels of the volume of production in each year, with each sector of the economy represented in proportion to its contribution to gross domestic product at factor cost in 1965–66. The bases for these analyses were input-output tables for 1965–66. The economy was divided into 11 industry groupings representing the major divisions of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC), but with major division 1 “Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry, and Fishing”, split into 3 groups, namely: Agriculture, Hunting and Fishing, Forestry and Logging.

The industry groupings, and the contribution made by each to the gross domestic product in the base year 1965–66, are shown below.

Industrial GroupsPercentage of Base Year Gross Domestic Product
Agriculture15.0
Hunting and fishing0.2
Forestry and logging0.6
Mining and quarrying0.7
Manufacturing21.7
Electricity, gas, and water2.6
Construction7.3
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels18.8
Transport, storage, and communication8.2
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services12.0
Community, social and personal services12.9
 100.0

From 1978–79 onwards, an interim index with no industrial breakdown has been produced to continue the series until a new Real Gross Domestic Product series based on the revised system of national accounts (see section 25A, National Accounts) can be produced. This interim index is based on the estimated real output of the NZSNA production groups weighted according to their 1977–78 contributions to gross domestic product (GDP). The Index of Real Gross Domestic Product is presented in the following table, analysed by the industry groupings where available.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
Base for each Industrial Group and for All Industrial Groups combined: 1965–66 (= 1000).
Industrial Groups1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80
Agriculture10159661103117211751119....
Hunting and fishing128012441268123213331389....
Forestry and logging139914941491149817321659....
Mining and quarrying123514061427131717662157....
Manufacturing138415661639164316831578....
Electricity, gas, and water166617691838204621802214....
Construction115612131296136311791186....
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels120913191349132712981226....
Transport, storage, and communication123314071363135113381334....
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services124013061319134213741386....
Community, social, and personal services115611891223126312701284....
All industrial groups combined12261314136713901392135413851401
Annual percentage increase—All industrial groups combined4.47.24.01.70.1−2.72.31.2

INDEX OF EMPLOYMENT—The Index of Employment is based on the numbers of persons in the total labour force as estimated by the Department of Labour. The total labour force includes all persons actively engaged for 20 or more hours per week and excludes the unemployed. This index has recently been revised back to 1973–74.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT PER LABOUR FORCE MEMBER—Increases in real production are due partly to increases in the numbers of persons engaged, and in part to other factors (additions of productive fixed capital assets, improvements in management, organisational measures) as well as to greater labour effort or improved skills of the labour force. While the elements pertaining to labour input are relatively easy to quantify, the measurement of the other factors is exceedingly difficult.

The 3 indexes are compared in the following table. All 3 indexes are on base 1965–66 = 1000.

YearReal G.D.P.EmploymentReal G.D.P. per Labour Force Member
IndexAnnual Percentage Increase*IndexAnnual Percentage IncreaseIndexAnnual Percentage Increase*
* Minus sign signifies a decrease.
1972–7312264.411181.410973.1
1973–7413147.211623.911313.1
1974–7513674.012063.811330.2
1975–7613901.712231.411370.4
1976–7713920.112401.41123−1.2
1977–781354−2.712460.51087−3.2
1978–7913852.312510.411071.8
1979–8014011.212641.011080.1

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION—Additional information on economic aggregates will be found in the following Department of Statistics publications.

Balance of Payments (annual report).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics (The N.Z. System of National Accounts 1971–72 to 1978–79 was issued as an appendix to the September 1980 Monthly Abstract. Main aggregates and summary tables are published in each edition, as are annual and quarterly balance of payments data).

Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy (1959–60, 4 parts), (1965–66, 2 parts), (1971–72, 1 part), (1976–77 [Provisional] Bulletin).

Chapter 26. Section 26 CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

26 A—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

The Central Government is concerned with the future of the nation and therefore with the economic, social, and cultural development of the people as a whole and the quality of their environment. In New Zealand the State is fairly broadly concerned in national development and social welfare. The Central Government budgets for and controls expenditure on capital works such as electricity supply, land settlement, housing, public buildings, forest development, railway and road construction, and telecommunications, and on other functions such as social welfare, health, education, defence, and paying interest on the public debt.

Taxing, charging, and borrowing are the three alternative avenues of raising revenue to meet Government expenditure. The problem of choice between these avenues can be described as the choice of the most efficient and equitable way of paying for publicly-provided services. However, the problems of finance and of raising revenue cannot be considered in isolation. In the first place some Government expenditure, such as subsidies and transfer payments (for example, pensions, superannuation payments, and family benefits), can and do alter the equity of the tax system. For instance, subsidies and monetary benefits can be regarded as refunds of tax. In the second place, it is now generally accepted that a system of raising revenue must be in accord with the general objectives of Government economic policy. In the final analysis, any system of Government finance, embracing both expenditure and the raising of revenue, must be designed to achieve the economic objectives of growth, a high level of employment, price stability, and external balance of payments in an efficient manner, tempered by the prevailing views about freedom and the equitable distribution of income.

The Central Government, by budgeting for a surplus (revenue exceeding expenditure) or a deficit, or by varying the impact of taxation or the level of Government expenditure on certain sectors of the economy, now uses these powers to regulate internal economic activity.

STRUCTURE OF THE PUBLIC ACCOUNTS—The general structure of the public accounts is in the form established by the Public Finance Act 1977, effective from 1 April 1978. The public accounts comprise 6 accounts in place of the 7 which formerly appeared. These 6 are as follows:

Consolidated Account and National Roads Fund—Before the coming into force of the Public Finance Act 1977 there were 3 general accounts, the Consolidated Revenue Account (now renamed the Consolidated Account), the National Roads Fund (non-trading account), and the Works and Trading Account.

All taxation is credited to either the Consolidated Account or the National Roads Fund. The Consolidated Account also receives most miscellaneous revenues, and ordinary Government expenditure is debited to it. Previously the Works and Trading Account received all the trading revenues of the trading enterprises within the Public Account, met their operating costs and capital expenditure, and also met the expenditure by administrative departments on capital works such as water and soil conservation, the development of natural resources, airports, some roading, and public buildings. The funds available in the Works and Trading Account for works were supplemented by transfers from the National Development Loans Account (now the Loans Account), capital equipment credit arrangements, and contributions from the Consolidated Account.

Under the Public Finance Act 1977 the basic form of the public accounts was changed by the abolition of the Works and Trading Account. This was accomplished by providing separate bank accounts outside the Public Account for the Ministry of Energy (in respect of the trading activities of the Electricity Division and the State Coal Mines) and the Railways Department, and transferring the remaining activities to the Consolidated Account.

The National Roads Fund was retained unchanged under the restructuring. Highways taxation is credited to the National Roads Fund, which meets both capital and maintenance expenditure on roading, but a proportion of the motor spirits duty and the mileage tax are credited to the Consolidated Account.

Loan Accounts—There are 2 loan accounts, the Loans Account and the Loans Redemption Account. The Loans Account receives loan money raised for works and development. A proportion of this is transferred to the Consolidated Account, and most of the balance is advanced by way of capital to the Housing Corporation, the Post Office, New Zealand Railways, the Ministry of Energy, and other State enterprises outside the public account.

Money received into the Loans Redemption account includes an annual contribution from the Consolidated Account towards the repayment of the public debt, the proceeds of every issue of Treasury bills, and money borrowed for the purpose of repaying or converting loans to the Crown. The main purpose of the account is the repayment or conversion of loans, but money not required for these purposes may be transferred to the Loans Account.

Reserve Account and Trust Account—Any money in the Consolidated Account regarded as surplus to the immediate requirements of the account may be transferred to the Reserve Account and invested in New Zealand or overseas. The Minister of Finance has authority to realise these investments and re-transfer the proceeds to the Consolidated Account at his discretion.

Money held in trust or awaiting disposal is paid into the Trust Account. Funds in the Trust Account may be invested in Government or other approved securities.

Financial Year—The financial year commences on 1 April and ends on 31 March. The expenditure of public money is authorised by an annual Appropriation Act, which lapses at the end of the financial year. However, the Minister of Finance is authorised to pay money for services for a period of 3 months from the commencement of the next financial year, pending the granting of supplies by Parliament.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—The following table shows gross Government expenditure and the net amount of expenditure which requires financing from the Public Account. The functional classification is intended to focus attention on the broad areas in the economy in which there is substantial Government activity. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook.

It is to be remembered that the Public Account as shown in this section is prepared on a receipts and payments (cash) basis, and consequently the accounts of the operations of various departments (prepared on an accrual basis) shown in other sections will differ to some extent from those appearing here.

The functional classification of Government expenditure is shown in the following table.

Item1977–781978–791979–80
GrossNet*GrossNet*GrossNet*
* Net expenditure is generally arrived at by deducting trading and departmental receipts from gross expenditure.
Administration—  $(million)   
    General administration191.4160.8230.5199.5271.2239.7
    Law and order136.4107.5172.7139.3201.7164.7
    Government services113.089.2152.5121.7142.9109.0
    Miscellaneous services29.36.933.57.338.08.3
    Stabilisation116.0114.8135.6135.6171.1170.9
 586.1479.2724.8603.4824.9692.6
Foreign relations—
    Defence252.2248.2299.5293.2346.1340.8
    Foreign Affairs83.180.893.991.5112.7110.7
 335.3329.0393.4384.7458.8451.5
Development of industry—
    Land use424.3253.9561.3371.9527.4315.7
    Fuel and power458.4261.4485.9286.6442.8146.2
    Other industrial services120.7114.5206.0199.5260.0252.3
 1,003.5629.81,253.2858.01,230.2714.2
Administration—  $(million)   
Education—
    Education813.9807.5936.7929.31,019.51,009.3
Social services—
    Social Welfare1,491.51,479.21,804.21,790.42,110.92,096.0
    Other social services135.690.1121.863.1143.379.0
 1,627.11,569.31,926.01,853.52,254.22,175.0
Health—
    Health809.8808.5981.2980.11,137.51,136.2
Transport and communications—
    Transport579.3223.6666.7281.0759.7264.7
    Communications429.124.0502.0−1.9571.20.3
 1,008.4247.61,168.7279.11,330.9265.0
Debt services and miscellaneous—
    Debt services471.3471.3595.8595.8766.4766.4
    Miscellaneous investment transactions133.445.524.0−3.543.74.2
    Miscellaneous financing transactions284.0281.0368.0368.0372.3372.3
 888.7797.8987.8960.31,182.41,1429
                Total7,072.85,668.78.371.86,848.49,438.47,586.7

The following table shows Government expenditure and how it is financed.

Item1977–781978–791979–80

* Includes the purchase of $540.0 million of Government securities in 1977–78, $54.4 million of Government securities in 1978–79, and $40 million of Government securities in 1979–80.

Excludes suppliers' credit and currency realignment adjustments.

Expenditure$(million)
    Administration479.2603.4692.6
    Foreign relations329.0384.7451.5
    Development of industry629.8858.0714.2
    Education807.5929.31,009.3
    Social services1,569.31,853.52,175.0
    Health808.5980.11,136.2
    Transport and communications247.6279.1265.0
    Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions516.8592.3770.6
Sub-total5,387.76,480.47,214.4
    Miscellaneous financing transactions281.0368.0372.3
Total expenditure5,668.76,848.47,586.7
Financed from
    Taxation—
        Income tax3,482.83,655.24,465.6
        Customs, sales tax, and beer duty703.0794.61,013.9
        Highways tax126.2159.5x139.5
        Motor spirits tax102.2154.2177.6
        Other taxation212.1226.4223.4
Total taxation4,626.34,989.9x6,020.0
Interest, profits, and miscellaneous receipts348.0413.0539.8
Total taxation, interest, etc.4,974.35,402.9x6,559.8
Amount to be financed from borrowing694.41,445.5x1,026.9
Borrowing in New Zealand*799.41,214.91,502.4
    Less repayments in New Zealand230.4369.9591.5
 569.0845.0910.9
    Plus sales (less purchases) of investments−134.6+152.6−207.0
    Net borrowing in New Zealand+434.4+997.6+703.9
    Internal surplus (+) deficit (-)−260.0−448.3−323.0
Borrowing overseas832.6554.4661.1
    Less repayment overseas424.6267.6324.0
 408.0286.8337.1
    Plus sales (less purchases) of overseas investments−142.2+ 157.2−9.4
    Net borrowing overseas265.9444.0327.7
    Cash surplus (+) deficit (-)+ 5.8−4.3+ 4.7

The following table shows details of expenditure from the principal public account, the Consolidated Account. Most of the revenue of the Consolidated Account is derived from taxation. This is shown in detail in the next section, 26B Public Account Taxation.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1977197819791980
* Comprises expenditure under Government Superannuation Fund Act 1956 and N.Z. Superannuation refunds (recoverable).
  $(thousand)  
Permanent appropriations—
    Under Special Acts of Legislature—
        Civil List1,8432,2432,9063,336
Debt services—
    Interest367,037464,524590,111757,793
    Transfer to Loans Redemption Account60,00065,00075,00060,000
    Administration and management4,2606,7915,1087,831
            Total—Debt services431,297536,314670,219825,624
    Superannuation63,811*49,38260,44859,511
    Miscellaneous22,14149,25173,69977,275
            Total—Permanent appropriations519,092637,190807,272965,746
Annual appropriations—
      General Administration—
          Vote—
            Accident Compensation24304045
            Audit2,1762,5413,0543,650
            Broadcasting84103121131
            Building Performance Guarantee Corporation  1214
            Commission for the Environment383456556628
            Customs9,00910,97413,93916,882
            Inland Revenue24,89927,88033,22739,135
            Internal Affairs32,27035,00639,30857,085
            Legislative3,7594,6285,4729,421
            Prime Minister's Department6408351,0861,141
            State Services Commission30,00337,88644,07552,133
            Statistics10,1347,8739,50310,492
            Treasury5,02316,3487,7008,738
            Valuation5,3486,3437,5148,624
            Total—General administration123,752150,904165,607208,119
      Law and order—
          Vote—
              Crown Law581680818906
              Justice40,72558,38472,83584,018
              Police54,71373,98394,169110,797
              Security Intelligence Service9051,2101,6742,215
              Total—Law and order96,924134,257169,496197,936
    Government services—
        Vote—
            Government Printing Office16,91521,59824,77328,256
            Works and Development40,29491,447127,697114,671
              Total—Government services57,209113,045152,470142,927
      Stabilisation—
          Vote—
            Stabilisation58,321105,072120,470158,618
              Total—Administration336,206503,278608,043707,600
Foreign relations—
    Defence—
        Defence214,831252,172299,506346,091
    Foreign Affairs—
        Foreign Affairs80,41583,01493,819112,624
              Total—Foreign relations295,246335,186393,325458,715
      Development of industry—
        Land use—
            Agriculture and Fisheries171,686179,560288,608228,513
            Forest Service8,839119,692133,301152,835
            Lands and Survey19,41469,51380,47287,897
            Maori Affairs 43,17945,49143,032
            Rural Banking and Finance Corporation6,0367,0358,57110,037
            Total—Land use205,975418,979556,443522,314
      Fuel and power—
      Energy3,5352,56217,99332,143
      Other industrial services—
      Trade and Industry17,73021,76526,63528,480
      Labour36,24648,804117,985162,314
      Scientific and Industrial Research29,90637,73647,17955,478
      Tourist and Publicity10,58812,28313,63513,467
            Total—Other industrial services94,470120,588205,434259,739
            Total—Development of industry303,980542,129779,870814,196
Education—
    Education586,145813,887936,6711,019,475
Social services—
    Housing Corporation47,13354,25466,36963,131
    Social Welfare1,077,8861,491,5281,804,2302,110,904
    Maori Affairs7,13510,10312,36416,373
    Internal Affairs7,0137,5958,7236,374
        Total—Social services1,139,1671,563,4801,891,6862,196,782
Health—
    Health685,785809,731981,0501,137,536
Transport and communications—
    Transport—
        Roads, etc.21,00012,12016,74326,862
        Transport62,18683,86095,917118,358
            Total—Transport83,18695,980112,660145,220
            Total—Annual appropriations3,429,7154,663,6715,703,3056,479,524
Unauthorised expenditure11,9624,5371,8223,850
Defence credits and other entries54,347
Exchange differences on overseas transactions16,284
Additional contribution to Loans Redemption Account100,000100,000
Transfer to Loans Account10,000
Transfer to Reserve Account100,00080,00080,000
Transfer to Trust Account404
            Total payments4,225,1175,485,3986,512,8037,545,404

LOANS ACCOUNT—Particulars of receipts and payments of the Loans Account were as follows.

ItemYear Ended March
197819791980

* Includes Inflation Adjusted Savings Bonds of $6,265,000 in 1978, $8,061,000 in 1979, and $42,289,000 in 1980.

Includes capital equipment credit arrangements.

Receipts $(thousand) 
New Zealand Loans Act 1953—
Securities issued for Government purposes—
    In New Zealand*561,098618,5771,042,935
    Overseas744,357400,601571,450
    Advance subscriptions17,330
    Loan subscriptions unallocated31,471
International Finance Agreements Act 1961—
    Non-negotiable, non-interest-bearing stock and notes issued to international financial institutions37,00338,2898,512
Transfer from Loans Redemption Account450,000
                Total receipts:1,359,7881,507,4671,654,368
                Excess of payments over receipts121,645
 1,359,7881,629,1121,654,368
Payments   
Transfer to Consolidated Account277,900730,000678,000
Capital equipment purchased under credit arrangements59,18745,11552,992
Appropriations outside the public account—
    Electricity Supply262,200275,525135,167
    Geothermal4,793
    State Coal Mines22,80021,27620,381
    Housing Corporation197,500219,483221,500
    New Zealand Railways31,80063,00031,486
    Post Office24.0006,0002,000
    New Zealand Export-Import Corporation1,512185197
    Petroleum Corporation of N.Z. Ltd116,04712,10936,492
    Shipping Corporation of N.Z. Ltd4,639
    Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd3,251
    Tourist Hotel Corporation4,9411,7752,574
    Rural Banking and Finance Corporation150,000182,705208,000
    International Bank of Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)535349
    Asian Development Bank (ADB)912913
Subscriptions under International Finance Agreements Act 1961:
    Non-negotiable, non-interest bearing notes4781,8421,803
    Encashment of securities837835730
Charges and expenses of raising and repaying loans15,3396,6306,788
Transfer to Loans Redemption Account230,000
Security in favour of IMF36,52536,4476,709
Advance subscriptions allocated22,94217,330
                Total Payments:1,224,0611,629,1121,640,574
Excess of receipts over payments:135,72713,794
 1,359,7881,629,1121,654,368

WORKS PROGRAMME—Details of the works programme are shown in the following table.

ItemYear ended 31 March
1977197819791980

* From 1 April 1978 included under Petroleum Corporation of N.Z. Ltd., which is not part of the Works Programme.

Provision mainly for Clutha Valley development for hydro-electric purposes.

Administration—
$(million)
    Works—
        National water and soil conservation14.919.625.526.8
        Development of natural resources1.96.610.73.8
    Public buildings—
        Government services17.716.715.712.5
        Law and order8.410.013.813.4
    Miscellaneous9.710.510.412.6
                Total52.663.476.169.1
Foreign relations—
    Defence5.55.38.79.0
    Public buildings-overseas posts1.11.51.31.3
                Total6.66.810.010.3
Development of industry—
    Energy222.8264.6295.9249.9
    Forestry8.111.110.410.8
    Land utilisation5.58.39.311.6
    Tourism2.83.02.32.9
    Natural gas*3.21.4  
    Miscellaneous2.32.04.05.8
                Total244.7290.4321.9281.0
Education—
Primary, secondary, and special education—
    Buildings68.278.178.767.1
Tertiary education—
        University buildings28.528.824.724.7
        Technical institutes15.211.610.510.3
    Teachers' colleges6.65.93.83.0
                Total118.5124.4117.7105.1
Social services—
    Housing construction58.058.349.443.1
    Public building—social welfare1.91.72.72.7
                Total59.960.052.145.8
Health—
    Health and hospital buildings4.73.46.47.2
Transport and communications—
    Railways19.220.419.820.6
    Roading129.4147.3168.9173.8
    Transport2.08.51.85.7
    Post Office57.651.656.960.5
    Broadcasting1.00.90.91.0
                Total209.2228.7248.3261.6
                Grand total696.2777.1832.5780.1

NATIONAL ROADS FUND—The National Roads Act 1953 established a National Roads Fund within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Consolidated Account. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Receipts and payments of the National Roads Fund were as follows.

ItemYear Ended March
1977197819791980
Receipts    
  $(thousand)  
Motor spirits duty (less refunds)85,936106,696109,67487,771
Road user charges  48,30251,234
Other taxation, etc.21,48119,5601,525x450
Contribution from Consolidated Account21,00010,00014,00024,000
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account4,000
Miscellaneous3,1563,0483,4384,650
Interest526110482
Excess of payments over receipts1,8153,027
                Total131,625145,180177,043171,214
Payments    
State highways maintenance29,26537,19143,69150,892
State highways construction35,88137,24041,64735,686
Subsidies to Local authorities48,27856,85866,61968,790
Administration and general expenses13,94013,88914,20415,841
Refunds of heavy-traffic fees367
Repayment of temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account2,0004,000
Unauthorised expenditure2265
Excess of receipts over payments2,2596,509
                Total131,625145,180177,043171,214
                Balance at end of year2,3155007,0093,982

SUMMARY OF BALANCES—A summary of the balances in the Public Accounts is given in the following table.

AccountBalance at 31 March
1977197819791980

* Cash received but not yet allocated.

Represents that part of the balance of the Works and Trading Account attributable to the activities of Electric Supply, Railways, and State Coal Mines.

  $(thousand)  
Consolidated Account60,62466,85768,01069,446
Works and Trading Account5,6181,713
Loans Redemption Account176,288238,795152,192255,150
Loans Account41,275177,00255,35769,151
National Roads Fund2,3155007,0093,982
Reserve Account102,654184,42798,787185,615
Suspense Account*142711207255
Trust Account31,40041,30919,75230,242
                Total420,315711,314401,314613,841

The composition of the total balances is shown in the following table.

NatureAt 31 March
1977197819791980
 $(thousand)
Cash75,13280,98276,62281,329
Imprests49,66358,02762,18653,570
Investments in New Zealand23,974158,5775,970212,966
Investments overseas271,546413,728256,536265,976
                  Total420,315711,314401,314613,841

26 B—PUBLIC ACCOUNT TAXATION

An 11-year summary of income tax revenue and total public account taxation revenue in the aggregate and per head of mean population is given in the following table. The total taxation figures include taxation revenue paid into both the Consolidated Fund and the National Road Fund.

Year Ended 31 MarchIncome TaxTotal Public Account Taxation
AmountPercentage of Total Taxation (All Sources)Amount
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationxTotalPer Head of Mean Population
 $(million)$      $(million)$     
1970779.2279.3966.01,181.0423.46
1971957.3338.1166.21,445.0510.38
19721,161.1403.8068.01,706.9593.62
19731,314.5448.9968.21,926.6658.07
19741,697.9568.5570.92,394.7801.90
19752,136.0701.0174.52,865.3940.37
19762,295.8741.1972.13,185.31,028.34
19772,828.5906.3873.63,844.91,232.07
19783,482.81,113.1075.34,626.31,478.57
19793,655.21,168.0973.34,989.9x1,594.50
19804,465.61,429.1074.26,020.01,926.52

The following table shows receipts, under the various heads, of taxation during 5 recent years. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook.

ItemRevenue for Year Ended 31 March
19761977197879791980

* Additional to portions paid into National Roads Fund.

Ceased 30 June 1979. Replaced by International Departure Tax.

Consolidated Account—
 $(million)
    Direct taxation—
        Income tax2,295.82,828.53,482.83,655.24,465.6
        Estate and gift duty54.254.748.753.149.7
        Land tax3.46.68.49.510.7
        Property speculation tax0.20.30.20.1
              Total, direct taxation2,353.62,890.13,540.13,717.84,526.1
Indirect taxation—
    Customs revenue217.0252.9272.8286.1331.6
    Beer duty48.446.558.758.958.2
    Motor spirits tax*75.498.899.7153.9177.2
    Motor vehicles fees and charges23.920.642.645.745.6
    Sales tax311.4353.3371.5449.7624.1
    Film-hire tax0.50.60.61.00.7
    Mileage tax*0.91.62.50.30.4
    Racing taxation26.729.933.738.542.8
    Foreign fishing vessel entry tax 0.50.8  
    Foreign travel tax 4.913.715.99.3
    International departure tax    6.3
    Energy resources levy 4.032.528.918.6
Stamp duties—
    On instruments22.128.825.326.230.5
    On cheques, etc.2.93.43.43.53.7
    Lottery duty1.21.52.13.95.5
        Total, indirect taxation730.4847.4960.01,112.51,354.4
Total taxation receipts to Consolidated Account3,084.03,737.54,500.04,830.45,880.5
National Roads Fund—
    Highways revenue (less rebate)101.3107.4126.3159.5x139.5
            Total public account taxation3,185.33,844.94,626.34,989.9x6,020.0

A comparison of public account taxation revenue and national disposable income is afforded by the following table, which also shows taxation as a percentage of national disposable income.

YearNational Disposable IncomePublic Account Taxation
TotalPercentage of National Disposable Income
 $(million)percent
1975–7610,373x3,185.330.7x
1976–7712,428x3,844.930.9x
1977–7813,674x4,626.333.8x
1978–7915,719x4,989.9x31.7
1979–8018,9926,020.031.7

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION—Revenue under the heading of Customs does not include receipts from motor spirits tax paid into the National Roads Fund. The following table shows customs and excise revenue, for ordinary revenue purposes, for the latest available 5 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCustoms and Excise Duties*Beer DutyTotal Customs and Excise DutiesProportion of Total Taxation
* Including Foreign Fishing Vessel Entry Tax but excluding Beer Duty.
  $(thousand) percent
1976217,02448,374265,3988.3
1977253,39646,457299,8537.8
1978273,67458,693332,3677.2
1979286,12958,853344,9826.9
1980331,62558,159389,7846.5

Information in regard to Customs and excise duties generally is contained in Section 22D—Customs Tariff and Revenue.

ROADS TAXATION—Prior to 31 March 1978 the National Roads Fund derived its revenues from a tax on motor spirits, heavy traffic licence fees, and a mileage tax on vehicles not using motor spirits. From 1 April 1978 Road User Charges replaced Heavy Traffic Licence Fees and Mileage Tax. Other revenues of the fund, which are not classed as taxation, consist of a Government contribution, interest earned, and miscellaneous receipts—e.g., from the sale of materials, etc. For 1968–69, tax on petrol paid to the fund was 14.8c per gallon. From 1 April 1969 the rate was increased to 17.1c per gallon by the transfer to the fund of 2.3c per gallon previously credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account, and from 1 April 1971 to 18.1c per gallon by the transfer of a further 1c a gallon. From 1 April 1978 tax paid to the fund was reduced to 4.25c per litre, but this was increased to 6c per litre from 1 April 1980.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities to levy a local authorities petroleum tax on motor spirits and diesel fuel up to a prescribed maximum, and divided the country into tax areas for this purpose. All tax areas decided to make levies at maximum rates from February or March 1971. The 1970 Act has since been superseded by similar provisions in the Local Government Act 1974. The proceeds of any tax imposed are distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenue. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden of taxpayers. The maximum tax rate permissible is, at present, 0.66 cents per litre on motor spirits, and 0.33 cents per litre on diesel fuel.

Taxation receipts for roads purposes paid into the National Roads Fund have been as follows during the latest five years. Refunds have been deducted.

Year Ended 31 MarchMotor Spirits DutyMileage TaxHeavy-traffic and other FeesRoad User ChargesTotal
$(000)
197680,8297,38313,038 101,250
197785,9367,77213,709 107,417
1978106,6969,11210,448 126,256
1979109,4471,12648,301158,874
198087,47051,234138,704

SYSTEM OF TAXATION—The following precis of the New Zealand tax system takes into account all relevant amending legislation effective up to the year ended 31 March 1981. Income tax is levied under the Income Tax Act 1976.

Tax Year—The New Zealand tax year is from 1 April to 31 March.

Income Tax—Income tax is chargeable on most forms of income received by individuals, companies, and estates.

Income, because of its many forms, is not exhaustively defined, but includes income from the following: property; labour or effort; pensions, estates, and trusts (pensions paid by countries with which New Zealand has a double tax agreement, are generally exempt from tax in the country of origin and subject to tax in New Zealand. If a pension is taxed in the country of origin, credit is allowed in a New Zealand income tax assessment for the overseas tax paid); value of benefit allowances received in cash or kind; wages or income (earnings-related compensation) paid by the Accident Compensation Commission where a taxpayer is unable to work because of personal injury or incapacity.

Capital Gains—There is no capital gains tax but certain “gains” are deemed to be income.

These are profits on sale of patent rights, and profits on sale of property (land and buildings). Generally profits from ordinary sales of a person's private residence, business, or farm property, are exempt from tax.

Apart from ordinary sales of a person's residence, business, or farm property, profits on sale of property are subject to income tax where the owner:

—acquires the property for the purpose or intention of resale,

—deals in property,

—is a builder,

—makes a profit which is primarily due to rezoning or likely rezoning,

—subdivides the property within 10 years of purchase,

—subdivides the property more than 10 years after purchase and carries out extensive subdivisional work before selling. (Only the “development profit” is taxable in this case.)

Exempt Income—Income is exempt from tax in New Zealand only if provisions are made in the New Zealand Income Tax Act.

Some of the more common items exempt from tax are the following: maintenance or alimony payments; the first $200 of interest and dividends from all sources; Social Welfare benefits except the National Superannuation Benefit); war pensions and service disability pensions paid by any Government; interest on National Development Bonds and New Zealand Savings Certificates (not exceeding $500 in any one year); income derived by charitable and certain non-profit organisations; proceeds of certain insurance policies; and lottery and raffle prizes.

“Pay as You Earn” System—A “Pay as You Earn” (PAYE) system of collecting income tax is used for individuals and for companies.

How the PAYE System Works—Income for PAYE purposes falls into two general classes—

Salaries and wages and all other forms of remuneration. With these, PAYE tax is deducted at time of payment.

Business, farming, investment, and professional incomes. With these incomes, tax is not deducted at time of receipt but the taxpayer pays “provisional tax”, usually based on the income tax paid for the previous year.

In both cases an adjustment or “square-up” is made when the return of income for the particular year is furnished.

Tax, which is called “Terminal tax”, is assessed on the basis of the annual return, and credit is allowed for the tax deductions or provisional tax paid during the year.

If there is an overpayment the taxpayer will receive a refund or credit against future tax—if insufficient tax was paid there will be further tax to pay.

Income Tax and the Individual: Residents of New Zealand—New Zealand residents are liable to New Zealand tax on all income including income from outside New Zealand. Credit is allowed for any overseas tax paid, but this is limited to the New Zealand tax payable on that income or the overseas tax paid whichever is the smaller.

Who is a Resident?—A New Zealand resident, for New Zealand tax purposes, is a person whose home is in New Zealand. As a general rule a person is regarded as having a home in New Zealand if he lives in New Zealand for longer than 12 months, or if leaving New Zealand is away for less than 12 months.

Generally this means persons who come to New Zealand with the intention of residing permanently, or to stay more than 12 months, are taxed on their total income from all sources, both inside and outside New Zealand, as from the date of arrival.

How the Wage Earner is Taxed—At the beginning of the year, or when a new job is started, the wage earner fills in a Tax Code Declaration. This form fixes the tax code used to work out tax deductions. The codes are—

  • “S” for a single taxpayer, or for a married taxpayer whose spouse receives income in excess of $520.

  • “M” for a married taxpayer with a dependent spouse.

  • “SEC” for a secondary job in addition to the person's regular job. Tax is deducted from these earnings at a rata of 35c in each dollar.

  • S + F

  • M + F

  • S + L

  • S + L + F

  • M + L

For those taxpayers who are entitled to claim the young family rebate and/or the low income family rebate.

Employers Take Off Tax—The employer, when working out the tax, uses a tax table divided into “tax codes”. The tax payable is taken off the employee's earnings and paid to the Inland Revenue Department.

The Tax Code Declaration also incorporates a Tax Deduction Certificate. This is returned to the employee on termination of employment or at the end of the financial year.

The certificate shows the following: income earned; tax deducted; back pay relating to earlier years; overtime hours worked; shifts worked; extra pays; superannuation deducted; and the period of employment.

This information is used when the employee fills out a tax return at the end of the tax year.

Annual Returns of Income—Most salary and wage earners file tax returns each year and the majority of these receive refunds of overpaid tax. Refunds can arise as a result of exemptions and rebates being claimed which are not allowed for in the Tax Code Declaration, or of the wage earner having been employed for part of the year only.

Most salary and wage earners use the return form IR 5. It is required to be completed and sent to the Inland Revenue Department by 7 June. Salary and wage earners are assessed on their total taxable income, less any deduction for expenses and special exemptions. Rebates and the taxes previously paid are deducted from the tax assessed to give either a refund or further tax to pay. For more about exemptions and rebates see later pages.

All Other Individuals—Individuals who are self-employed, in partnership, or who receive income from investments pay provisional tax. Provisional tax is generally payable in two instalments, one in September and the other in the following March. Provisional tax is calculated using as a base the income received during the previous year.

Provisional taxpayers use form IR 3 which is required to be furnished by 7 September. Expenses are deducted from the gross business or investment income and tax is calculated on the net income less any special exemptions. Credit is given for the provisional tax already paid and for any rebates. If there is an overpayment the taxpayer will receive a refund or credit against future tax. If insufficient tax was paid there will be further tax to pay.

Deductions for Expenses: Persons in Business—Expenses which are incurred in producing income, and relevant and incidental to deriving that income, may be claimed as a deduction from income. Expenses of a private, domestic, or capital nature are not deductible.

Salary and Wage Earners may claim 2 percent of salary or wages up to a maximum claim of $52 without receipts, or actual and reasonable income-related expenses supported by receipts or other appropriate evidence.

Special Exemptions—Special exemptions are deducted from the income before tax is calculated. The following special exemption is available for the year ended 31 March 1981.

ExemptionAmount
Life insurance, personal accident and sickness premiums paid for self, wife, or children, and superannuation.The amount paid or contributed up to a maximum exemption of—
 $800 if a member of an employer-subsidised superannuation fund for the whole year with proportionate increases if a member for only part of the year.
 $1,000 in other cases.

Rebates—Rebates are deducted from the total tax payable. Rebates for the year ended 31 March 1981 are shown in the following table.

RebateAmount
Children'sChildren under 15 or still at school and who derive income may personally claim a rebate of $78.
Wife/husband$156, decreases by 20 cents for each dollar by which spouse's income exceeds $520. Where spouse's income exceeds $1,300—no rebate allowable.
Low income familyAllowable to the principal income earner in a family with a child for whom the family benefit is paid. Also available to solo parents and widows with a child. The rebate is $468 a year where the combined income of both spouses is less than $8,200 per year, and decreases by 12c for each dollar of income over $8,200 and is thereby extinguished when income reaches $12,100.
Housekeeper (under certain circumstances)Limited to the smaller of 40 cents for each complete dollar of payments made; or $156.
Dependent relativeLimited to the smaller of 40 cents for each complete dollar contributed to the support of a relative; or $60.
Back pay6 cents per $1 of back pay received which relates to a previous income year.
Overtime10 cents per hour for every hour of qualifying overtime worked.
Shift40 cents for each qualifying shift worked.
Young familyAllowable to principal income earner in a family with at least 1 child under 5 years of age. The rebate is $468 where the sole or principal income earner derives less than $12,100 per annum. Rebates decrease by 12 cents for each dollar of income over $12,100 per annum and is extinguished when the income reaches $16,000.
Special Home, Farm, or Fishing Vessel Ownership Account45 cents for each $1 of annual savings increase in Special Home, Farm, or Fishing Vessel Ownership account. Maximum rebatable savings are:
 Home ownership-$2,000 per year (rebate $900).
 Farm ownership—$5,000 per year (rebate $2,250).
 Fishing vessel ownership—$5,000 per year (rebate $2,250).
Home vendor mortgage interest20 cents for each $2 of net interest received in respect of a “Home Vendor Mortgage”, subject to a maximum rebate of $500. This rebate is in substitution for, and not additional to, the relevant interest exemption which would otherwise be available.
School fees and charitable donations50 cents for each dollar of payments made up to $350. Maximum rebate $175.
Rates or Chatham Islands DuesUp to $25 in respect of rates paid to a local authority or dues paid to the local council on an owner-occupied residence.

Rates of Tax—The following table shows the rates of income tax payable for the year ended 31 March 1981 on each dollar of taxable income. “Taxable income” is the income after deducting exemptions and expenses.

Income RangeRate per Dollar
               $C
          Up to 5,00014.5
5,001–11,68335.0
11,684–16,26648.0
16,267–22,00055.0
Over 22,00060.0

As from 1 April 1981 tax rates became:

Income RangeRate per Dollar
               $C
          Up to 5,50014.5
5,501 to 12,60035.0
12,601 to 17,60048.0
17,601 to 22,00055.0
Over 22,00060.0

These rates were reflected in new PAYE tax tables applying to pay periods ending on or after 1 February 1981 and became the annual rates in respect of income from 1 April 1981.

Taxes for Visitors: Who is a Visitor?— Generally a person who comes to New Zealand and intends to stay less than 12 months is taxed as a visitor or non-resident. If he stays for a longer period he is normally deemed to be a resident for tax purposes. A person not resident in New Zealand is liable to New Zealand tax on income from New Zealand but not on income from outside New Zealand.

How the Visitor is Taxed—A visitor to New Zealand is taxed on income from a New Zealand employer for personal services while in New Zealand; income from an overseas employer for personal services in New Zealand (there are certain exemption periods which are outlined in the following paragraphs); and any other income from New Zealand sources.

Income From a New Zealand Employer—The employer deducts the tax from the salary or wages of a visitor in the same way as for a resident.

Special Exemptions and Rebates Allowable in an Annual Assessment—In an assessment the visitor is allowed a proportion of the rebates allowable to the New Zealand resident. The proportion is based on the amount of time spent working in New Zealand, e.g., present in New Zealand for 30 weeks of which 20 were spent working for wages, the proportion of the spouse rebate, where applicable, is 20/52 of $156 = $60. Visitors are not entitled to claim any special exemptions in respect of life insurance, or superannuation payments.

Income from an Overseas Resident—A visitor (other than a public entertainer) who performs personal (including professional) services in New Zealand for an overseas resident is exempt from New Zealand tax if the length of the visit is not more than 92 days whether or not the period of the visit falls into one or more income years; the period in New Zealand in any one income year is 92 days or less, whether in one visit or several visits in the same income year; and the income is chargeable with tax in the country where the visitor normally resides.

Public Entertainers—Public entertainers are subject to a withholding tax of 20 percent on the gross income derived by them. This is a final tax unless the entertainer considers that the true rate will be lower. To be taxed at a lower rate a return of the income received and expenses incurred in New Zealand must be furnished.

Visitors from “Double Tax” Countries—Agreements to avoid double taxation have been entered into between New Zealand and Australia, Canada, Fiji, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.

A visitor from one of these countries who gets income for personal services in New Zealand from an overseas employer should refer to the relevant Agreement. Depending on the circumstances and the terms of the particular Agreement, the exemption period of 92 days could be extended.

Non-Residents: Who is an Absentee?—An absentee is a person whose home has not been in New Zealand during the income year but who derives income from a New Zealand source. An absentee is not entitled to any exemptions or rebates.

Withholding Tax on Non-residents—The Tax Act imposes a withholding tax on the following classes of income derived from New Zealand by non-residents—dividends, interest, royalties, and “know how” payments.

The rate of tax is 15 percent on the gross payments except for interest payments to Australian and Fijian residents (10 percent), and royalties paid to United Kingdom residents (10 percent).

It is a final tax on dividends, cultural royalties, and on interest except where the borrower and the lender are associated persons. On other royalties, “know how” payments, and interest where the payer and payee are associated persons, it is a minimum tax. A later assessment may be made if the rate of income tax on the income is greater than the withholding tax.

These provisions may be varied by the double tax agreements and the relevant agreement should be referred to.

Taxation of Companies—Companies in New Zealand are taxed in a different way to individual taxpayers.

The main differences are that—

  1. A company does not get any of the special exemptions or rebates which the individual taxpayer may claim.

  2. A company does not get the interest exemptions.

  3. Dividends received by a company incorporated in New Zealand are exempt from income tax.

  4. The rate of income tax is different.

New Zealand Companies: Income Tax—Resident companies pay tax on their income at the flat rate of 45 cents in the dollar.

Bonus Issue Tax—A special tax of 17 1/2 cents in the dollar on the bonus issues made from income sources is levied on the company. Shareholders receive these issues tax-free.

Excess Retention Tax—Privately controlled New Zealand investment companies are liable for an “excess retention tax”.

Excess retention tax is payable if the investment company does not pay a dividend equal to at least 40 percent of its tax-paid profits and 100 percent of its dividends from other companies.

The rate of excess retention tax is 35 cents in the dollar on any “insufficient distribution”.

A refund of excess retention tax paid will be made if, in a later year, the investment company declares a dividend greater than the amount needed for that year.

Special Types of Companies—Differing methods of assessment apply to overseas shipping companies, life insurance companies, and certain types of mining companies.

Non-Resident Companies—Non-resident companies are taxed in the same way as resident companies except that they pay an additional tax of 5 percent of their income on top of the 45 percent rate payable by a resident company. Dividends paid to non-residents are subject to a non-resident withholding tax of 30 percent of the gross income. A withholding tax of 15 percent is payable on interest, royalties, and “know-how” payments. Both of these rates may be limited by the various double tax agreements. This is the final liability except for interest paid between associated persons, royalties (other than “cultural” royalties), and “know how” payments, when there may be an end-of-year assessment.

These provisions may be varied by a double taxation agreement and the relevant agreement should be referred to. Special concessions apply to non-resident investment companies receiving dividends or interest from approved “development investments”, and processers of minerals to the primary metal stage under a “special development project”.

Incentive Legislation—There are tax incentives to help New Zealand's export drive and to encourage agricultural development, mining, fishing, winemaking, and other industries. Full details of these are obtainable from the Inland Revenue Department.

Land Tax—Land Tax is assessed on the total “land value” of land owned at 31 March each year after allowing any special exemption. Both companies and individual taxpayers are liable to land tax which is due and payable on 7 October each year. The last day for payment is 7 November.

Various types of land, including land used solely or principally for farming or agricultural activities, and various land owners are exempt from land tax.

Special Exemption—The exemption is $175,000 reduced by $1 for every $1 by which the “land value” of the land exceeds $175,000. Thus no exemption is allowable when the “land value” exceeds $350,000.

Rates of Land Tax—Land tax is charged at a graduated rate according to the amount of the taxable balance after deducting any allowable special exemptions. These rates are as follows: 0.2 cents in the dollar up to $20,000; 0.4 cents in the dollar on excess over $20,000 up to $30,000; 0.6 cents in the dollar on excess over $30,000 up to $40,000; and 0.7 cents in the dollar on excess over $40,000.

Special Adjustments—There are special adjustments for absentee owners and in addition companies and estates can be subject to a special basis of assessment.

Estate Duty—Generally estate duty is a tax on the total net wealth of a deceased person.

The following reliefs have been abolished: widows; widowers; infant children; orphan infant children; and lineal ancestors or lineal descendants in the estates of deceased servicemen.

Scale of Rates of Estate Duty
Final Balance of EstateRate (Note: “Excess” means excess of the final balance in complete dollars)
Part A: For Deaths from 21 June 1979 to 31 March 1980
               $ 
Not exceeding 100,000Nil
100,001–250,00035 percent of excess over $100,000
Exceeding 250,000$52,500 plus 40 percent of excess over $250,000
Part B: For Deaths from 1 April 1980 to 31 March 1981
Not exceeding 150,000Nil
150,001–250,00035 percent of excess over $150,000
Exceeding 250,000$35,000 plus 40 percent of excess over $250,000
Part C: For Deaths on or after 1 April 1981
Not exceeding 250,000Nil
Exceeding 250,00040 percent of excess over $250,000

Special Exemptions from Estate Duty: Joint Family Homes—A home registered under the Joint Family Homes Act 1964 is excluded from the dutiable estate of the first spouse to die.

Matrimonial Home Allowance—Where the deceased had an interest in a matrimonial home (other than a joint family home) that interest is excluded if the home or other property of equivalent value passes to the surviving spouse.

Pensions from Superannuation Funds—These are excluded from the estate up to $2,000 per annum if payable to the deceased's spouse for the rest of his or her life or until remarriage.

Personal Chattels—The value of any furniture and personal effects passing to the surviving spouse is excluded from the dutiable estate. In addition, the first $6,000 of personal chattels passing to any other person is also excluded from the estate.

Charitable Bequests—Bequests to charities of up to $25,000 are exempt from duty.

The leaflet Estate Duty, available from the Inland Revenue Department, supplies more information.

Stamp Duty—Stamp Duty is payable on documents, executed in New Zealand or elsewhere, affecting property situated, or to be situated, in New Zealand.

The rates of duty are shown in the chart below.

Type of DocumentRate of Duty
Transfer of—
    Mortgage, debenture, shares, share rights, mining rights40 cents for each $100 or part of $100 of the value of the property.
    All other property, including land$1 for each $100 or part of $100 of the value of the property. (Transfers involving people purchasing their first home or first farm, and transfers involving the sale of larger family houses by sole occupants or older persons to growing families and the subsequent purchase of suitable smaller accommodation, are only liable to duty of $1 as Deeds.)
Leases—
    Rentals40 cents for each $100 or part of $100 of 1 year's rent.
    Premiums, fines, consideration other than rent$1 for each $100 or part of $100 of the consideration.
Deed$1.
Duplicate or counterpart40 cents.
Cheques (as from 4 July 1980)5 cents for each bill of exchange.

Gift Duty—The scale of rates of gift duty is set out below. It applies to all dutiable gifts made on or after 22 June 1979.

In those cases where gifts made before 22 June 1979 aggregated with gifts made on or after that date, the duty on the gifts made prior to 22 June did not change unless the aggregated figure exceeded $15,000.

The level at which gift statements are required to be filed has been raised to $8,000.

The exemption in section 71 of the Act for small gifts made by a donor in good faith as part of the normal expenditure has increased from $400 to $1,000. The exemption applied to all qualifying gifts made on or after 1 January 1979.

For estate duty purposes, however, the $1,000 limit applied to gifts made at any time by any person who died on or after 21 June 1979.

Value of Item “b” in section 62Rate (Note: “Excess” means excess of the value in complete dollars)
               $ 
Not exceeding 15,000Nil
15,001–20,0005 percent on excess over $15,000
20,001–30,000$250 plus 10 percent of excess over $20,000
30,001–40,000$1,250 plus 20 percent of excess over $30,000
Exceeding 40,000$3,250 plus 25 percent of excess over $40,000

The net revenue received from estate duty and gift duty during each of the latest 5 years is given below.

Year Ended 31 MarchEstate DutyGift DutyTotal Estate and Gift Duties
$(thousand)
197650,5243,64454,168
197751,6972,99054,687
197845,6683,04548,713
197949,3203,74753,067
198047,4702,22449,694

Taxation Review Authority—The Inland Revenue Department Act provides for the establishment of one or more authorities. There is at present only one authority. Every authority shall consist of one person who is a barrister or solicitor of the High Court of not less than 7 years practice and is appointed by the Governor-General. The functions of the authority are to sit as a judicial authority for hearing and determining such objections to assessments of tax or duty or the decisions or determinations of the Commissioner as are authorised by the relevant legislation. A determination of an authority is subject to an appeal to the High Court as to any question of fact where the tax or duty exceeds $1,000 and to any question of law.

ESTATES PASSED FOR DEATH DUTY—Statistics relating to deceased persons estates certified for duty during the year ended 31 March 1979 are given in the following tables. Estates of Maoris are included, but not hereditary interests in Maori land. Summary figures are included for the year ended 31 March 1978.

The following table analyses the estates certified by size of estate value.

Net Value of EstateEstates of MalesEstates of FemalesTotal EstatesAggregate Set Value of EstatesEstate Duties Assessed
$(000)$(000) Number $(000)$(000)
Under 2180161341407
2 andunder 43653346992,091
4 andunder 63473206673,315
6 andunder 83553096644,681
8 andunder 103352896245,617
10 andunder 124113007117,821
12 andunder 143672946618,617
14 andunder 163463176639,9581
16 andunder 1835231366511,2972
18 andunder 2034731065712,4592
20 andunder 2234032266213,9012
22 andunder 2432227559713,7332
24 andunder 30730623135336,315137
30 andunder 40814684149851,854823
40 andunder 5061038299244,2611,321
50 andunder 6036922259132,3571,444
60 andunder 7024817942727,7481,797
70 andunder 8021110431523,5231,927
80 andunder 901607223219,6781,792
90 andunder 1001226018217,2701,908
100 andunder 1202046326729,0933,548
120 andunder 1401424118323,6433,645
140 andunder 160882811617,2722,798
160 andunder 18066238915,1012,780
180 andunder 20067107714,4872,535
200 and over2173825581,20420,940
Total, 1978–798115607314188527,70147,403
Total, 1977–788306616614472492,32341,642

The average net value per estate certified during 1978–79 was $37,193. Estates of males averaged $43,121 in value and estates of females $29,273. Duty assessed on estates of males amounted to $34.8 million and on estates of females $12.6 million.

The average amount of duty assessed within each of the various estate groups is now shown. The ratios of average duty to average estate value are also given.

Net Value of EstateAverage Duty AssessedAverage Duty as Percentage of Average Value of Estate
Estates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined AverageEstates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined Average
$(000)$(000)$     $     $     %%%
Under 10 
10 and under12
12 and under14
14 and under1621
16 and under18132
18 and under20232
20 and under22413
22 and under24333
24 and under30731331010.30.50.4
30 and under403917375491.12.11.6
40 and under501,0071,8531,3322.24.23.0
50 and under601,6873,6982,4433.16.74.5
60 and under703,4025,3264,2095.28.26.5
70 and under805,2497,8806,1187.010.68.2
80 and under906,63610,1467,7257.812.09.1
90 and under1009,51412,45010,48210.013.211.0
100 and under12012,16816,91813,28811.115.612.2
120 and under14018,91323,38719,91514.618.115.4
140 and under16021,86631,18924,11614.720.716.2
160 and under18028,84338,08831.23217.122.218.4
180 and under20031,61541,67832,92216.822.317.5
200 and over 82,34980,80282,11925.627.225.8
All estates, 1978–794,2842,0793,3419.97.19.0
All estates, 1977–783,6301,8632,8779.36.98.5

The following summary shows gross assets, notional estate, and debts and charges, classified in broad groups according to size of estate. The figures refer to estates certified for duty during the year ended 31 March 1979.

ItemNet Value of Estate (Net Value)All Estates
Under $6,000$6,000 and under $10,000$10,000 and under $20,000$20,000 and under 524,000524,000 and under $40,000540,000 and under 5100,000$100,000 and under $200,0005200,000 and over

* Excludes any interests in Joint Family Homes.

Only debts allowable under the Estate and Gift Duties Act are included.

No allowance is made for the Matrimonial Home Allowances.

$(000), except outrage per estate $
Gross Assets—
    Cash3,6434,45813,1555,91418,80529,75111,5009,21196,436
    Average per estate2,1353,4613,9184,6976,59510,86215,70936,1206,797
    Furniture, effects, etc.3916521,9729232,7004,3452,1211,23614,340
    Average per estate2295065877329471,5862,9054,8471,010
    Farm stock, implements, etc.2825163731581,1222,5724,1678,309
    Average per estate16194857554093,52316,342585
    Private business interests8432881357154,2466,0106,96318,407
    Average per estate433851062501,5518,21127,4121,297
    Assurance policies8731,0084,6231,6845,1429,5464,6403,02130,538
    Average per estate5117821,3771,3371,8053,4856,33911,8482,152
    Loans3598534,7422,4559,20826,00820,42215.37779,424
    Average per estate2106611,4121,9503,2299,50227,89860,3035,597
    Shares, stocks, etc.5088223,3431,9906,66623,11316,75613,85667.055
    Average per estate2976389951,5802,3388,43822,89054,3394,726
    Real property*1,1292,59719,60312,64538,63350,55026,79923,155175,112
    Average per estate6612,0165,83910,04313,55018,45536,71191,16012,342
    Other property2364021,8298092,7286,3393,8812,51318,736
    Average per estate1383115446429562,3165,3019,8531,320
    Notional estate4218885,1802,4517,25615,6987,2984,13943,329
    Average per estate2466891,5431,9462,5475.7319,97016,2293,053
    Foreign property58823152427672,3663,2032,6099,647
    Average per estate3463931922698644,39410,231679
Debts—
    Unsecured1,2491,0263,2091,1012,9295,3903,2552,63320,792
    Secured5915061,8525851,6802,8582,3562,41012,839
        Total1,8401,5325,0611,6874,6098,2485,6115,04333,631
Net value—Average per estate, 1978–793,4057,99514,93921,94830,92560,181136,060318,44537,193
Net value—Average per estate, 1977–783,4308,02714,68321,86130,89960,400135,106305,16334,019

Realty comprised 31.2 percent of gross New Zealand assets in 1978–79 while the proportion of cash was 17.2 percent. The 1977–78 figures were 32.4 percent and 16.9 percent.

In the following table deceased persons estates are analysed by occupations. These figures refer to the year ended 31 March 1979.

Occupational GroupUnder $6,000$ 6,000 to 9,999$ 10,000 to 19,999$ 20,000 to 23,999$ 24,000 to 39,999$ 40,000 to 99,999$ 100,000 and OverTotal
 Number of Estates
Physical life scientists, technicians, etc.1362917644
Architects, engineers, technicians, aircraft and ships officers29237620626718295
Medical, dental, and related workers12102214195418149
Teachers, clergy and jurists15175615546233252
Artists, authors, athletes, sportsmen and related workers651231313153
Administrative and managerial workers342510152131255141739
Clerical and related workers94641976417714114751
Transport and communication workers2615301725191133
Sales workers48461015311714037542
Protective service workers, armed forces, etc.1110227171582
Housekeepers, cooks, waiters, maids, etc.1711311019191108
Caretakers, launderers, hairdressers, and related service workers151535141591104
Farmers and farm managers6750156622114814191446
Agriculture, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters2523722739286220
Miners, quarrymen, well drillers, etc.116847238
Metal and chemical processers7719999262
Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers, etc.1152355958
Food, beverage, and tobacco processers2927762247269236
Tailors, dressmakers, etc.7367153142
Shoemakers and leather goods makers841335740
Machinery fitters, assemblers, instrument makers, electrical fitters and related electrical and electronic workers5957134471076711482
Glass formers, potters, printers and related workers5121681711372
Painters, bricklayers, carpenters and other related construction workers6452126571008322504
Stationary engine operators, material and freight handlers, transport equipment operators827617954126698594
Labourers, and occupations not stated or not in employment10247221840683150311352357142
                  Total17071288335712592849274198714188
NOTE: In this table for the separate occupation classes, estates in any value group numbering less than three have been included with the number for the value group below; where this was not possible no net estate distribution has been shown. As the full distribution for each occupation or value group has been given in the totals, this procedure means that in some cases the sum of individual groups will not agree with the totals.

RACING TAXATION—The Government taxation on totalisator turnover from 1 September 1976 is at the rate of 8.5 percent on gross on-course investments and 9.0 percent on gross off-course investments, subject to a rebate of 2 1/2 percent on the first $100,000 of gross investments received by a club in any one year. Total deductions from gross on-course investments are as follows: (a) totalisator duty, 8.5 percent; (b) club or Totalisator Agency Board's commission, 7.5 percent in respect of win and place dividends and 10.18 percent on doubles, quinellas, and trebles investments; (c) 0.5 percent levy for the purposes of the Stakes Subsidy Account; and (d) 0.5 percent levy for the purposes of the Amenities Account. In the case of special races, win and place investments, a commission of 8 percent is deducted and on special doubles, quinellas, and trebles, a commission of 10.68 percent is deducted, and in these cases the 0.5 percent levy for the Amenities Account is waived.

The Racing Act 1971 came into operation on 1 August 1972. Under this Act the 1/2 percent levy on gross turnover for racecourse improvements, and an additional 1/2 percent levy for supplementary stakes paid by clubs on specified races, are paid to the New Zealand Racing Authority for distribution to totalisator clubs. The Totalisator Agency Board pays its profits to the authority which determines its distribution to totalisator clubs.

The Racing Amendment Act 1977 came into force on 1 August 1978. It included provision for the issue of restricted totalisator licences to registered non-totalisator racing, trotting, and greyhound racing clubs. The Act also lowered the legal minimum betting age from 20 to 18 years.

The Minister of Internal Affairs granted totalisator licences for 489 days in the racing year 1979–80. Of these 489 days, 307 were allocated to racing and hunt clubs and 182 to trotting clubs.

The following table gives figures of totalisator duty, and the amount of turnover retained by clubs or the Totalisator Agency Board.

ItemYear Ended 31 July
19761977197819791980
* Retained by clubs and T.A.B.
 $(thousand)
Totalisator duty27,93232,10335,29040,82144,115
Amount of totalisator turnover retained by clubs or T.A.B.28,03532,99236,14241,26144,564
Unpaid fractions*1,2301,3091,4501,6381,788
Amenities Account1,4621,5851,7442,0132,161
Stakes Subsidy Account1,6031,8322,0112,3222,507

The following figures relate to the racing year, which ends on 31 July.

ItemGallopingTrotting
197819791980197819791980
Racing daysNo.307307307182182182
RacesNo.276229933010163817621782
Stakes$(000)8,0708,9209,7964,3335,1435,328
Average per race$2,9222,9803,2542,6452,9192,990
 $(million)
Totalisator turnover—
    On course 74.483.887.839.344.948.1
    With T.A.B. 199.3232.2254.189.2103.7111.4
              Total 273.6316.0341.9128.5148.6159.5
Amount paid in dividends 221.5255.8276.8104.0120.2129.1

Totalisator turnover for the year ended 31 July 1980 rose by 7.9 percent, from $464.6 million in the previous year to $501.4 million. Data on greyhound racing, not included in the previous tables, are given in the following table.

ItemYear Ended 31 July 1980
* Retained by clubs.
Number of racing days60
Number of races596
 $(000)
Amount of stakes69
Totalisator turnover—
    Doubles686
    Other1,647
                Total2,333
Amounts paid in dividends1,893
Government taxes—
    Totalisator duty117
Amount of totalisator turnover retained by clubs310
Unpaid fractions*13

Of the amount placed on the totalisator for greyhound racing during the 1979–80 racing season, 81.1 percent was returned to bettors by way of dividends, Government taxes absorbed 5.0 percent, and 13.3 percent was retained by clubs.

An average of $38,875 per racing day was placed at greyhound racing meetings. Stakes paid totalled $69,214, the average per race being $3,914.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on public account taxation will be found in the following publications:

The Public Accounts (Parl. paper B. 1 [Pt. I and II])

Financial Statement (“Budget”) (Parl. paper B. 6)

Report of the Inland Revenue Department (Parl. paper B. 23)

The Information Service of the Inland Revenue Department has available a range of tax guides, pamphlets, leaflets, etc., giving up-to-date information on the rights and obligations of taxpayers.

26 C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS

The principal legislative measure which is concerned with public indebtedness is the Public Finance Act 1977. The money comprising the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of New Zealand. No portion of the public estate is pledged for either principal or interest.

At 31 March 1980, 34.5 percent of the public debt was owing to overseas investors, and 27.3 percent was held by Government departments or institutions such as the Post Office, the Government Superannuation Board, and the Earthquake and War Damage Commission.

Most of the present public debt was borrowed for national development. A National Development Loans Account into which money for national development is paid was established within the Public Account, as from 1 April 1942. Money from this account, now renamed the Loans Account, is transferred as required to the Consolidated Fund or to accounts now outside the Public Account such as Electricity Supply or the Housing Corporation. Transfers and appropriations during the latest 3 years are given in section 26A.

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT—The total public debt outstanding at 31 March of the two latest available years is shown in the following table. A 50-year summary of the public debt is included in the Statistical Summary section.

Type and CurrencyOutstanding 31 MarchIncrease or Decrease
19791980
 $(thousand)
External debt—
    Pounds sterling164,490168,725+4,235
    Deutschemarks838,903991,363+152,460
    Netherlands guilders244,424264,536+20,112
    Japanese yen227,365392,231+164,866
External debt—
    Swiss francs887,8271,091,210+203,383
    French francs18,33818,126−212
    Canadian dollars35,05643,084+8,028
    Australian dollars14,70619,836+5,130
    United States dollars442,758537,254+94,496
    IBRD40,95334,641−6,312
    Other5,2966,536+1,240
Internal debt—
    Long-term5,416,5786,090,623+674,045
    Floating debt482,825688,250+205,425
                  Total8,819,51910,346,415+1,526,896

The net increase in the public debt during the year ended 31 March 1980 of $1,526.9 million amounted to 17.3 percent, compared with increases of 17.8 percent in 1978–79, 19 percent in 1977–78, 13.2 percent in 1976–77, and 32.3 percent in 1975–76. In 1979–80, external debt rose by 22.2 percent and internal debt by 15.0 percent. Of the total debt of $10,346.4 million outstanding at 31 March 1980, external debt represented 34.5 percent. This compares with 33.1 percent in 1979, 32.7 percent in 1978, 29 percent in 1977, and 26.3 percent in 1976.

ItemAmount
* Drawing under multi-currency credit agreement.
External Debt
 NZ$(million)
Loans raised (gross value)—
    For general purposes—
        Deutschemark loans113.2
        Japanese yen loan235.2
        Swiss franc loan119.4
        United States dollars50.7*
 518.5
        Capital equipment credit arrangements—
            Australian dollars6.7
            Canadian dollars11.2
            Indian rupees2.6
            Swiss francs0.1
            Pounds sterling11.7
            United States dollars20.7
 53.0
For repayment of loans—
    Swiss franc loans97.1
    Deutschmark loan53.7
 150.8
        Total value of loans raised722.3
Increase in debt due to changes in currency values249.1
                Gross increase in external debt971.4
Loans repaid—
    Deutschemark loans127.0
    French franc loan0.9
    Netherlands guilder loan7.1
    Sterling loan25.6
    United States dollar loans5.5
    Canadian dollar loan6.6
    Japanese yen loan9.1
    Swiss franc loan90.6
Capital equipment credit arrangements—
    Australian dollars2.5
    French francs1.3
    Hong Kong dollars1.0
    Japanese yen8.5
    Singapore dollars0.7
    Pounds sterling16.0
    United States dollars9.5
    Canadian dollars1.9
World Bank10.2
              External debt repaid324.0
    Net increase during year647.4
    External debt at 31 March 19792,920.1
    External debt at 31 March 19803,567.5
Internal Debt
 NZ$(million)
Loans raised (gross value)—
    For general purposes—
        Public issues—
            Cash loans757.5
            Government savings stock53.2
            Inflation-adjusted savings bonds42.3
        Special issues—
            Reserve Bank190.0
 1,043.0
    Treasury bills2,264.1
    For repayment of loans—
        Special issues—
            Government agencies222.6
    Conversion of loans—
        Public issues11.9
        Special issues—
            Government agencies291.9
 303.8
                Gross increase in internal debt3,833.5
Loans repaid—
    Public issues324.6
    Special issues—
        Government agencies, etc.64.1
        Private savings banks81.4
        Reserve Bank121.4
 591.5
    Treasury bills2,058.7
    Loans converted—
        Public issues11.9
        Special issues—
            Government agencies291.9
 303.8
    Internal debt repaid or converted2,954.0
Net increase in internal debt during year879.5
Internal debt at 31 March 19795,899.4
Internal debt 31 March 19806,778.9

A detailed allocation of the public debt as at 31 March 1980 is now given.

AllocationLoan CapitalEquity CapitalTotal Allocations
 $(thousand)
(a) Loans and investments in corporation and Government agencies—
    Air New Zealand Ltd.5,00054,00059,000
    Bank of New Zealand 12,65612,656
    Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand 38,90038,900
    Development Finance Corporation of N.Z.19,16725,82544,992
    Energy: Electricity Division2,026,019  
    IBRD projects18,681  
    Capital equipment credit arrangements159,202 2,203,902
    Energy: Geothermal3,700 3,700
    Energy: Mines Division117,219  
    Capital equipment credit arrangements995 118,214
    Housing Corporation1,413,500 1,413,500
    Housing Account (Housing Corporation)736,250 736,250
    IBRD Harbour projects3,968 3,968
    Natural Gas Corporation of N.Z. Ltd.13,534 13,534
    New Zealand Export-Import Corporation1,8582,0003,858
    New Zealand Steel Ltd.6,0005,00011,000
    Petroleum Corporation of N.Z. Ltd.20,64686,655107,301
    Post Office510,953  
    Capital equipment credit arrangements3,920 514,873
    Railways277,457206,283 
    IBRD projects11,993  
    Capital equipment credit arrangements60,462 556,195
    Rural Banking and Finance Corporation1,057,500 1,057,500
    Shipping Corporation of N.Z. Ltd. 22,21022,210
    Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.2,200 2,200
    Tourist Hotel Corporation of New Zealand14,32611,44825,774
   6,949,527
(b) Other debt formerly allocated to Works and Trading Account—
    Airport development  45,43.5
    Forest (State)  233,943
    General public works  627,690
    Land settlement  290,930
(c) Non-productive debt—
    Capital liability remitted  2,544
    Consolidated Account—
        Transfer from Loans Account  1,408,000
        Capital equipment credit arrangements—
            Defence  17,731
            Foreign Affairs  4,381
            Health  5,527
            State Services Commission  4,985
            Transport  1,460
    Currency adjustments  471,410
    International finance organisations—
        Cash portion of subscriptions  50
    Loans Account  27,680
    Loans Redemption Account  255,122
          Total public debt  10,346,415

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS—The gross indebtedness of the Central Government and the amount of indebtedness per head of population are given in the following table. Figures for previous years are shown in a table in the Statistical Summary.

As at 31 MarchAmountPer Head of Population
 $(m)$     
19754,2001,359.17
19765,5581,778.82
19776,2892,002.69
19787,4842,378.91
19798,8202,804.57x
198010,3463,286.14

INTEREST—The following table shows the payments of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchInterestInterest on Overseas Debt as Percentage of Export IncomeRecovery of Interest from Government Enterprises and InvestmentsNet Interest CostNet Cost as a Percentage of Total Taxation
OverseasNew ZealandTotal
 $(thousand)
197668,817201,196270,0133.1184,91385,1002.7
1977110,359256,678367,0373.5277,96389,0742.3
1978133,204331,220464,5243.9364,57799,9472.2
1979174,243415,868590,1114.5450,295139,8162.8
1980220,149537,644757,7934.5539,049218,7443.6

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT—The maturity years of the debt outstanding at 31 March 1980 are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between overseas and internal debt.

Loans Maturing in Financial Year Ending 31 March*DueTotal Debt (Nominal Amount)
OverseasNew Zealand
PublicDepartmental and Other
* In respect of many of the loans the Government has the option to redeem the securities at an earlier date.
 $(thousand)
1981216,16097,432207,005520,597
1982190,952321,985224,366737,303
1983300,556488,025308,7631,097,344
1984361,146344,86587,851793,862
1985714,760685,085172,1861,572,031
1986418,382180,405557,7871,156,574
1987302,505158,430219,400680,335
1988282,393354,662263,202900,257
1989130,813110,494268,686509,993
1990110,50292,84958,303261,654
199139,815167,23390,219297,267
199249,297128,362166,332343,991
1993168,76349,778125,302343,843
199473,94727,13478,438179,519
1995207,551  207,551
Treasury Bills 688,250 688,250
Inflation Adjusted Savings Bonds 56,044 56,044
                  Totals3,567,5423,951,0332,827,84010,346,415

OWNERSHIP OF PUBLIC DEBT—As shown in the preceding table, a substantial proportion of the public debt outstanding is held by various Government departments and quasi-Government organisations. A summary of these investments for the latest 3 years is as follows:

StockholderAt 31 March
197819791980
 $(thousand)
Investments held by accounts within the Public Account5,9715,9715,771
Earthquake and War Damage Commission281,344324,844372,090
Government Life Insurance84,34791,305106,450
Government Superannuation Board445,487519,949588,688
Maori Trustee1,7031,9671,971
National Provident Fund44,50064,35042,700
Post Office1,053,9281,053,9281,246,928
Public Trustee1,9882,2383,613
Reserve Bank344,596290,208330,168
Housing Corporation58,16674,17378,829
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation31,91544,49550,382
State Insurance Office400300250
Meat Industry Account57,286
                Total2,411,6312,473,7282,827,840

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on the public debt will be found in the public Accounts (Parliamentary paper B.1 [Pt. I and II]) and in the Budget (Parliamentary paper B.6).

Chapter 27. Section 27 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Table of Contents

The constitution and franchise of local authorities are described in Section 2, History, Government, and International Relations.

Local government is concerned with the provision of facilities for the population of a limited area, with finances levied from that area. The major authorities are city, borough, and county councils. These authorities raise money mainly by rates on property and by loans. They expend it on the provision of roads, water supply, sewerage, transport, recreational, and other services. Electric power boards and harbour boards, among the larger of the other local authorities, collect revenue from consumers or users in payment for the facilities or services provided. Hospital boards, which supply their returns to the Department of Health, are omitted from most of the statistics contained in this section. A special note is made where they are included, while summarised data relating to hospital boards will be found in Section 5B.

In general, the local authority year ends on 31 March. Exceptions are harbour boards (other than Greymouth) where the year ends on the preceding 30 September, the Hutt Valley Drainage Board and the Wellington Regional Water Board where the year ends on the last day of February, the Marlborough Forestry Corporation where the year ends on the last day of November, and the Marlborough Nassella Tussock Board where the year ends on the last day of December.

RATING—Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are, except where the assets purchased provide revenue to meet the loan charges, ultimately liquidated by rate revenues—known then as special rates. The law relating to the making and levying of rates is contained in the Rating Act 1967. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:

  1. General, for general purposes.

  2. Special rates imposed to secure the repayment of loan money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be; and

  3. Separate rates levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land and buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

There are three main systems of rating: (a) by capital (land and improvements) value; (b) by annual value; and (c) by unimproved value or land value (as values are revised, the unimproved values system is being phased out in favour of land valuation).

For rating on either the capital value or the land value, the rating roll is based on the district valuation roll prepared by the Valuation Department. Where the rating is on the annual value, the local authority generally prepares its valuation roll on the basis of the valuations made by its own valuers. Separate rates require to be struck on the annual value, and when the annual value has not been entered in the valuation roll, the annual value is required to be taken as 6 percent of the capital value. Provision is made for the Valuer-General to act as a local authority valuer where an annual roll is to be prepared.

At present, for Chatham Islands county, import and export dues are charged in lieu of rates on land. However, since April 1981 the Chatham Islands County Council has been authorised to use a system of rating as well as collecting dues, provided that the income from the combination of rates and import and export dues does not exceed the maximum permissible under a rating system only. In the case of pest destruction boards the system normally used is by rating on an acreage basis, though occasionally some boards rate according to the number of sheep and/or cattle carried.

The system of rating normally attributed to a local authority is that applicable to the general rate, but it is stressed that, in many instances, subsidiary rates of the local authority are levied in accordance with other systems.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities to levy a local authorities petroleum tax on motor spirits and diesel fuel up to a prescribed maximum, and divided the country into tax areas for this purpose. All tax areas decided to make levies at maximum rates from February or March 1971. The 1970 Act has since been superseded by similar provisions in the Local Government Act 1974. The proceeds of any tax imposed are distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenue. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden of taxpayers. The maximum tax rate permissible is, at present, 0.66 cents per litre on motor spirits, and 0.33 cents per litre on diesel fuel.

With harbour boards, 2 types of rates are applicable, namely: (a) harbour improvement rates, based on so much per ton of cargo by weight or measurement; and (b) harbour rates on rateable property, which are levied according to the system of rating in force by each of the local authorities within the harbour boards' rating areas. However, the Rating Act 1967 gives to harbour boards the power to have a system of rating different from that in force in all or some of its constituent local authority districts.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The sources of revenue of all local authorities, including electric power boards, are shown by broad classes in the following table. The figures from 1976–77 exclude fire boards, which were taken over by the Fire Service Commission on 1 April 1976.

Year Ended 31 MarchRates, Levies, Fines, etc.*Grants from Central and Local GovernmentSales of Commodities and Services incl. Water RatesOther ReceiptsTotal Receipts
* Includes rates other than water rates, $279,433,000, and other taxes, fines, etc., $33,856,000 in 1978; and rates other than water rates, $336,188,000 and other taxes, fines, etc., $35,334,000 in 1979.
 $(thousand)
1975195,056100,928429,00739,023764,014
1976236,213115,206488,44341,728881,590
1977272,54597,322627,03749,2331,046,139
1978313,288116,652798,61857,2861,285,848
1979371,522145,591892,57169,5271,479,210

Rates were equivalent to $75.60 per head of population in 1975–76, $88.55 per head during 1976–77, $98.92 per head during 1977–78, and $117.98 during 1978–79..

A fairly large proportion of the receipts of urban local authorities result from the sales of commodities or services, for instance, sales of electric power and gas, and fares collected for public transport.

The payments of all local authorities during each of the latest available 5 years has been as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchLabour and Related CostsPurchases of Commodities and ServicesAll InterestOther PaymentsTotal Payments
 $(thousand)
1975237,014367,44446,28656,529707,274
1976285,899415,62552,00759,355812,886
1977295,983513,95659,21066,325935,475
1978346,971664,07871,00884,6541,166,710
1979433,098764,25485,160100,2831,382,795

Receipts and payments of various classes of local authorities for the year ended 31 March 1979 are shown below.

Receipts
Local AuthorityRates Levies, Fines, etc.Grants from Central and Local GovernmentSales of Commodities and ServicesOther ReceiptsTotal Receipts
 $(thousand)
City and borough councils259,28841,101262,01832,293594,701
County councils74,98744,47423,9657,547150,973
District councils9,0874,1625,0611,03219,341
Electric power boards1666370,0635,657375,803
Harbour boards877160100,1289,840111,004
Regional authority1,89724,44534,2727,92068,534
Urban drainage boards10,7583,1831,01995515,916
Catchment boards7,21515,2183,8101,83128,074
Pest destruction boards3,1735,5821601799,093
Urban transport board2,8422173,4773776,913
Other local authorities1,3826,98388,5981,89698,858
            Total371,522145,591892,57169,5271,479,210
Payments
Local AuthorityLabour and Related CostsInterestPurchases of Commodities and ServicesOther PaymentsTotal Payments
 $(thousand)
City and borough councils188,01332,427273,02540,015533,479
County councils49,3176,58676,8866,745139,534
District councils6,9658999,42064717,930
Electric power boards66,41011,301276,56425,684379,960
Harbour boards48,84615,24039,26212,535115,883
Regional authority28,3019,72316,8103,67458,508
Urban drainage boards5,0313,5263,04312911,729
Catchment boards9,6426064,77596915,992
Pest destruction boards4,989702,9712858,316
Urban transport board4,6412711,1941,0637,170
Other local authorities20,9434,51160,3048,53794,294
            Total433,09885,160764,254100,2831,382,795

TERRITORIAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The following table shows total receipts and payments of territorial local authorities for the years ended 31 March 1977, 1978, and 1979. The local authorities petroleum tax introduced in February 1971 produced $18.2 million in 1977–78 and $18.6 million in 1978–79 for the general purposes of territorial authorities.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197719781979
Receipts $(million)
Rates and grants in lieu223.5258.5310.8
Other taxes and fines30.633.134.7
Grants and contributions from Central Government57.066.438.4
Grants and contributions from local authorities17.823.225.9
Sales of main product130.8171.4192.1
Other commodities and services98.9111.5133.3
Interest10.013.616.8
Miscellaneous current receipts26.226.232.0
              Total594.8703.9834.0
Labour and related costs182.8215.1272.7
Interest paid35.741.849.7
Levies and grants to Central Government and local authorities21.226.430.7
Bulk purchase for resale64.585.595.6
Other commodities and services190.1236.6280.8
Other current payments12.410.820.4
          Sub-total506.7616.2749.8
          Less capitalised payments24.930.540.2
          Total481.8585.7709.6

A wide variety of public utilities and amenities are provided by territorial local government, the main activities being electricity supply, water supply, roading, sewerage, drainage, and refuse collection. The table below shows the current receipts and payments for a number of selected activities for the years ended 31 March 1977, 1978, and 1979.

Excluded from the figures are sales and purchases of fixed assets and repayments of loan moneys.

Activity1976–771977–781978–79
ReceiptsPaymentsReceiptsPaymentsReceiptsPayments
 $(million)
Electricity supply80.472.0109.990.7122.2106.2
Passenger transport29.127.632.931.938.737.7
Water supply47.643.255.445.167.755.3
Road construction and maintenance106.196.7127.0109.0148.1125.2
Refuse, sewerage, and drainage48.042.160.957.472.170.5
Abattoirs8.88.310.610.212.411.5
Libraries12.411.715.014.018.317.4
Parks and domains33.027.938.634.547.844.5

Many of the services provided are also trading undertakings. Generally speaking, territorial local authorities are restrained from operating trading undertakings that are particularly profitable. Public transport undertakings, which are usually a substantial burden upon ratepayers, are particularly unprofitable. The only major exception is electricity distribution, from which a few territorial local authorities make surpluses.

Grants and Subsidies—A substantial portion of local authority revenues is derived from grants and subsidies, especially those from the National Roads Board. Notes on some of these grants and subsidies are given below.

National Roads Board—The finance available from the National Roads Fund represents an important source of revenue for territorial local authorities (See section 12D.)

Forest Service Fifths—The New Zealand Forest Service distributes to territorial local authorities grants equal to one-fifth of net revenue received from the sale of timber, and in the case of national endowment land, one-tenth of net revenue from the sale of timber.

Water and Sewerage Subsidies—From 1960 until 1969 a sewage treatment subsidy was available to local authorities with populations of less than 20000. In 1969 this scheme was replaced by a more comprehensive water and sewerage subsidy scheme administered by the Department of Health, which provided assistance towards certain loan repayments on existing works and towards the capital costs of new works. There was a subsidy limit of $100,000 for any one project. Up to 31 March 1972 $5.9 million had been approved in respect of this and the earlier scheme. In 1972 the subsidy limit was abolished. In 1979–80 water and sewerage subsidies totalled $14.1 million compared with $11.0 million the previous year.

Rural Water Supply Scheme—The Rural Water Supply Scheme is administered by the Ministry of Works and Development and provides for subsidies towards the cost of piped water supply to rural areas. As from December 1974 the Government subsidy rate has been $1 for $1.

Housing for the Elderly—Since 1950 this form of housing has been recognised as being, in the main, the responsibility of local authorities, with the Government providing the necessary finance through subsidies and long-term concessional loans. The cost of flats for the elderly is met by a minimum loan or cash contribution of $3,500 per unit with the balance of the approved cost provided by subsidy. During the year ended 31 March 1980 some 608 flats were completed and the subsidy totalled $5.47 million. During the 5 years 1976 to 1980 the total subsidy was $36.4 million.

Urban Renewal—Grants for urban renewal have been available for local authorities since 1945. Expenditure on these schemes was fixed at $7.5 million per annum for 3 years from 1 April 1979. For the year ended 31 March 1980 payments totalled $4.05 million, $2.59 million less than for the previous year.

Civil Defence—A dollar-for-dollar subsidy towards some items of civil defence costs is paid by the Ministry of Civil Defence.

Rural Electricity Distribution—The Rural Electricity Reticulation Council has since 1947 provided subsidies towards the cost of rural electricity distribution lines. The chief beneficiaries have been power boards, but small amounts have been paid to territorial local authorities.

Noxious Weeds Eradication—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates the subsidy scheme on the cost of noxious weeds eradication.

Urban Passenger Transport—Municipal and private urban passenger transport operators receive capital assistance from the New Zealand Urban Public Passenger Transport Council. This amounted to $0.5 million for 1979–80, the same amount as for the previous year. The Auckland Regional Authority, Wellington City Council, Christchurch Transport Board, and Dunedin City Council no longer receive assistance from the Council, following the introduction by the Government in 1977 of the bus replacement programme amounting to $50 million over 5 years.

Local Authorities Petroleum Tax—Territorial authorities and united and regional councils receive the proceeds of a tax of 0.33 cents a litre on diesel fuel and 0.66 cents a litre on petrol. For 1979–80 this tax produced $17.6 million compared with $18.2 million in 1978–79 and $18.2 million in 1977–78.

BORROWING—Under the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Authorities Loans Board.

As a general rule, local authorities may raise a loan by special order and without a poll of ratepayers, but in the case of a local authority that is a rating body, a poll of ratepayers is to be taken if—

  1. The Local Authorities Loans Board requires a poll to be taken; or

  2. Before the date fixed for the meeting of the local authority to confirm the resolution to raise the loan not less than 5 percent of the ratepayers demand a poll; or

  3. The local authority itself decides to take a poll.

A poll cannot be required in cases such as renewal loans, loans raised for emergency expenditure by reason of flood, storm, earthquake, etc., or loans for work of national and local importance and carried out by an agreement between the Government and a local authority.

Where a poll is required it shall be deemed to be carried if a bare majority of the valid votes recorded is in favour of the proposal. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospitals Act 1957 a hospital board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow. Harbour boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour works from special empowering legislation and similar authority is given for the capital works of certain other local authorities.

The Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 places the determination of rates of interest in the hands of the Local Authorities Loans Board, subject to the approval of the Minister of Finance of the maximum rate.

The interest rates current on and from 26 September 1980 are as follows: 1 and 2 years, 12.0 percent; 3, 4, and 5 years, 12.5 percent; 6, 7, and 8 years, 13.5 percent; 9 years and over, 13.0 percent.

Loans Sanctioned, Authorised, Raised, and Uplifted—The following summary of the operations of the Local Authorities Loans Board during 5 recent years shows concisely the trend of local authority borrowing during that period. Hospital boards and the Fire Service Commission are included.

YearValue of Total ApplicationsSanctioned
New WorksRedemption Loans
$(million)
1975–76441.7297.021.2
1976–77259.7168.120.2
1977–78308.2213.317.5
1978–79391.1279.124.7
1979–80298.9229.821.0

The following table shows loans authorised during year ended March 1980, with amounts raised and uplifted to 31 March 1980 on these authorisations.

Local AuthorityAmounts Authorised Year Ended 31 March 1980Amounts Raised to 31 March 1980Balance Not Raised at 31 March 1980Amounts Uplifted to 31 March 1980
$(thousand)
Territorial
    Cities and boroughs59,91318,46641,44717,546
    County councils13,2535,6107,6434,836
    District councils2,2881,1201,168864
    Regional authority1,182457725457
    Town districts4040-40
Other
    Catchment districts1,277611666611
    Electric power and gas boards83,19814,47268,72614,472
    Harbour boards17,3747,22710,1477,227
    Pest destruction boards2565120521
    Urban drainage boards4,9742,1242,8502,124
    Urban transport board193193-193
        Total183,94850,371133,57748,391

The following table shows comparative debt figures. Hospital boards are included.

Year Ended 31 MarchAmounts Sanctioned by Loans BoardGross Indebtedness at Beginning of YearAmount UpliftedPrincipal RepaidGross Indebtedness At End of Year
 $(thousand)
1975314,400917,802161,70592,439987,067
1976318,200987,067196,31277,3341,106,045
1977188,3001,106,045239,66266,1961,279,511
1978230,8001,279,511219,36276,6731,422,200
1979305,8001,422,200266,96680,8991,608,267

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross public debt of local authorities, and the annual charge thereon for the latest 5 years. This does not include hospital board debt.

Year Ended 31 MarchCross Public DebtAnnual Loan Charge
AmountRare Per HeadAmountRate Per Head
 $(000)$     $(000)$     
1975840,843271.2107,61334.7
1976933,671298.4103,98333.2
19771,053,974335.9108,00734.4
19781,138,550356.4127,90640.0
19791,270,957404.5142,78245.4

In the following table gross public debt is classified by types of local authority. It should be noted that the debt of electric power districts shown in the following table does not represent the complete local authority debt on account of electric power activities, since a considerable portion of the city and borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose.

Year Ended 31 MarchCities, Boroughs and Town DistrictsCountiesElectric Power DistrictsHarbour DistrictsUrban Drainage DistrictsUrban Transport DistrictOther DistrictsTotal
$(thousand)
1975355,66867,983101,941140,48636,9862,171135,608840,843
1976397,45878,295116,271148,49839,6372,345151,167933,671
1977435,20184,934134,189189,87542,8923,398163,4851,053,974
1978459,65993,275151,982201,09846,2513,642182,6431,138,550
1979510,038102,449178,570232,14850,9243,405193,4241,270,958

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on local government, especially the financial aspects, will be found in the following publications.

Local Authority Statistics—Department of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Local Authorities Loans Board—(Parl. paper B. 17).

Report of the Local Government Commission (Parl. paper G. 9).

Report of the Valuation Department (Parl. paper G. 26).

Local Authority Finance in New Zealand—Report of the Local Authority Finance Committee (1973).

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Forms of Financial Assistance Available to Local Authorities—Department of Internal Affairs (1980).

Chapter 28. Section 28 INCOMES AND INCOME TAX

Table of Contents

Particularly in times of relatively rapid inflation, comparisons between money incomes in different years should be made with caution. To be meaningful, comparisons should be made in terms of effective or real income, i.e., money in relation to the costs of goods and services. However, it is not easy to measure these changes as there is no one index that adequately gives a measure of the changing purchasing power in all circumstances. This is because the purchasing power of money is conditional to a large extent on the patterns of expenditure out of income, and these may and do differ substantially from person to person.

The elements of individual and company income and the taxation requirements of a modern welfare state are closely related. Statistics of incomes and income tax are compiled annually by the Department of Statistics. Complete details and methods of compilations are given in the annual statistical report on Incomes and Income Tax.

INCOME TRENDS: PERSONS—The data required for the statistical compilation of incomes do not become available for a lengthy period after the end of the income year. This, coupled with the necessary time taken by the statistical processing, means a long time lag before final results of the compilation are available.

In the following table average and median incomes of self-employed persons in selected industries and professions have been estimated from a restricted sample on a provisional basis. The averages are based on total income derived from all sources and not on income from self employment alone. Incomes of self-employed persons include an element of interest return on capital investment as well as a reward for the person's own efforts.

Type of Self EmploymentIncome YearIncome Year
1977–78*1978–79x1979–801977–78*1978–79x1979–80

* Final figures.

Arithmetic mean.

 AveragesMedians $
Agriculture and livestock production—
    Dairy farming6,1207,6009,4005,1206,3508,000
    Sheep farming9,70010,50012,8007,9209,10011,400
    Other farming6,4107,5008,4005,2206,2007,500
Manufacturing6,9707,7008,6004,9405,5005,900
Construction7,7708,3008,8006,6907,4507,750
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels7,2808,4509,4005,8206,5007,500
Transport and storage7,2108,4509,0006,2907,3507,450
Business, community, social, and personal services—
    Legal practitioners19,98027,40030,60018,64023,70026,700
    Chartered accountants19,20022,10023,30017,87021,70022,200
    Medical practitioners (including surgeons, specialists, and physicians)29,07033,80034,20026,54030,10031,100
    Dental practitioners20,87023,80025,75020,29022,90023,500
Other services8,0909,35010,4005,8106,7507,650

COMPANIES—The provisional estimates of assessable income for companies are given in the next table. They are calculations based on the income trends revealed by a small sample of returns. The sample is confined to those income returns which are available at an early date. Companies with balance dates later than 30 June would be almost completely unrepresented in the sample.

The estimates are given with the warning that the figures are subject to a possible considerable margin of error and should therefore be used with caution.

Industry Division1977–78*1978–79x1979–80
Number of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income
* Final figures.
  $(m) $(m) $(m)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing740816.9745020.7750020.9
Mining and quarrying3066.53007.93009.1
Manufacturing10242328.610300425.010500468.8
Electricity, gas, and water211.7202.4202.8
Building and construction791941.4780035.6780022.8
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels23492270.923200359.723000378.1
Transport, storage, and communication272033.4275027.6280029.0
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services23658317.224000370.124500403.1
Community, social, and personal services466420.1480024.4500026.8
                Total804301,036.7806201,273.4814201,361.4

FINAL DATA ON INCOMES—As stated at the beginning of this section, final data on incomes do not become available until a considerable time after the end of the income year. The previous tables in this section are provisional estimates based on restricted samples of tax returns. The summary tables following show final figures, with 1977–78 as the latest year. Final figures are published in detail in the annual report Incomes and Income Tax, published by the Department of Statistics. For individuals, the statistics are in normal years substantially based on a 5 percent sample for all incomes of less than $16,000; there is a complete enumeration of all incomes of $16,000 and over. The data for companies are derived from a complete enumeration.

The broad principle adopted in calculating the assessable income is that any expenditure or loss exclusively incurred in the production of assessable income for any year may be deducted from the total income from any assessable source for that year. Depreciation is allowed, varying rates for different classes of assets being fixed. The assessable income is approximately equivalent to the net profit as determined by the normal commercial accounting systems after the deduction of special taxation incentive allowances. Before the deduction of these allowances it is, on the whole, rather higher than the commercial net profit, since certain types of expenditure which are regarded as a revenue charge in commercial accounts are not permissible deductions for income tax purposes.

Capital profits are not assessable and capital losses are not deductible.

Classification of Source of Income—The New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification was adopted as from 1975–76 for both companies and self-employed persons. Details of companies and persons by industry are therefore not strictly comparable with the series for years prior to 1975–76 as published in earlier Yearbooks.

Classes of Taxpayers—“Persons” comprise all assessments for individual persons. Partnership returns are ignored in the compilation, as the individual shares of partnership income are included in the individual tax assessments. The incomes of deceased persons' estates are not included, as the greater part of these are transferred to assessments of the beneficiaries.

The term “companies” not only covers companies incorporated under the Companies Act and other Acts relating to the formulation of companies, but also includes associations (incorporated or unincorporated), and aggregations of individuals (other than partnerships) which form separate and distinct entities for income tax purposes. Government departments which are liable to pay income tax are included, but most local and public authorities are not taxable even in respect of their trading operations, and consequently are not included in these statistics.

Summary—The following tables summarise the main items of information for income years.

PERSONS
YearNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeExemptions*Rebates*Taxable Income*Income Tax Assessed

* From 1969–70 exemptions and taxable income were estimated where incomes and tax data were derived from tax deduction certificates. The special exemption of $135 for each child was reduced to $35 for 1972–73 and repealed as from 1 April 1973. From 1974–75 personal, spouse, dependent relative, and housekeeper exemptions were replaced by tax rebates.

Because of revised processing methods, returns of incomes of persons for 1974–75 and 1976–77 were not processed.

From 1975–76 income reported solely on tax deduction certificates is not included. The statistics for 1975–76 and later years are therefore not comparable with those for earlier years.

  $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1971–7215174904,457,350892,950 3,551,250873,810
1972–7315744605,124,480830,330 4,279,1201,021,900
1973–7416503706,087,800834,830 5,236,0001,295,890
1974–75      
1975–7615770807,908,250438,370300,8107,470,4701,857,170
1976–77      
1977–78164902010,232,790483,120444,7609,751,0102,582,750
COMPANIES
YearNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income*Ordinary Dividends ReceivedIncome Tax Assessed

* In ascertaining assessable income any expenditure exclusively incurred in the production of the income for the year may be deducted.

Ordinary dividends received are exempt from tax in the hands of the receiving company and are therefore not included in “Assessable income”.

Estimate. Returns for 1974–75 were not processed.

§ Includes non-resident withholding tax.

 $(thousand)
1971–7268639672,95565,636271,100
1972–7371304861,55381,300352,996
1973–74743201,032,68799,434423,695
1974–7576950988,900  
1975–76789521,032,277100,068418,639
1976–77807121,233,410130,952511,501§
1977–78804301,036,694221,476452,152§

A strict comparison of the figures for any year with those of another is not possible, as changes in compilation practice and numerous amendments in income tax law have affected the comparability of the figures.

The next table shows some additional data concerning companies, relating to the income year 1977–78.

Industry DivisionStocks at End of PeriodIncomeExpenditure
Sales and ServicesInterest and RentsPurchasesSalaries and WagesInterest and RentsDepreciationGross Profit
 $(million)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing120.7589.011.0106.9149.447.734.8294.0
Mining and quarrying8.6308.22.1 29.69.18.4 
Manufacturing2,130.111,155.557.26,042.51,997.3289.8261.22,683.6
Electricity, gas, and water1.928.10.415.24.10.60.810.0
Building and construction259.71,808.513.8888.1404.642.534.3406.7
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels2,233.115,112.079.911,709.11,300.2330.5112.82,615.2
Transport, storage, and communication10.51,350.210.054.7296.255.3103.2 
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services58.91,577.81,268.389.9470.5716.363.4 
Community, social, and personal services25.1509.79.9124.7189.820.414.999.3
Total 1977–784,848.832,439.01,452.519,031.04,841.71,512.2633.76,108.9
          1976–774,393.429,992.41,173.418,198.54,288.91,166.5631.65,951.6
          1975–763,582.924,725.6963.714,654.43,708.3935.3644.15,248.8

One point which should be noted is that the purchases figures for the Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry, and Fishing Industry Division and the Mining and Quarrying Industry Division do not include purchases for forestry companies or for mining and quarrying companies. It was found that there was a considerable lack of uniformity in such data for that type of company. This was probably connected with differing treatments of royalty and equivalent payments.

The amount of gross profit shown in the accounts is used in these statistics, despite the wide variations in the conceptions of gross profit. No attempt has been made to secure uniformity of calculation for individual companies, but of course the total gross profit for each industry should correspond with that industry's average conception of gross profit. In some industries, such as the transport industry, it is not normal practice to calculate gross profit, and in some cases the gross profit is recorded in these statistics as nil. Estimates of the amount of gross profit were, however, made when any company did not calculate the gross profit, and it was the custom of the industry concerned to show this figure.

The abridged version of the full industry classification for which data are given in this publication does not reveal the individual industries where the gross profit is not generally calculated. Apart from “Mining and quarrying”, and “Transport, storage, and communication”, there are a number of industries included in “Community, social, and personal services” which do not show a gross profit.

Companies with Overseas Affiliations—Two types of companies operating in New Zealand but subject to some degree of overseas control have been identified. The 2 types are:

  1. branches of overseas organisations operating in New Zealand;

  2. New Zealand-registered companies with 25 percent or more of their equity shareholding subject to overseas control.

The second category includes not only companies in which overseas residents have a 25 percent or greater shareholding, but also companies which are subject to this degree of control without themselves having any overseas owners. For instance, if a New Zealand company was 50 percent owned by another New Zealand company, which itself was 50 percent overseas owned, the company would qualify as having 25 percent overseas control. These are generally termed “second generation” companies.

Overseas companies whose only New Zealand income is from investments, patent rights, royalties, copyrights, and the like, are not included in the 1482 companies selected, as they are not considered to be active in the New Zealand economy. Also excluded are those overseas companies such as air and shipping lines, which enjoy exemption from New Zealand income tax under the terms of double taxation agreements with their own countries.

The 25 percent minimum equity criterion used to classify objectively a New Zealand company as subject to some degree of overseas control, approximates the definition of international private direct investment used by such organisations as the International Monetary Fund. Although the measure of overseas control of New Zealand firms varies according to a great number of circumstances, a minimum holding of 25 percent does provide a consistent and practical criterion for determining its presence.

In the following table, 4 significant values for the 1482 overseas controlled companies are shown in industry groups both as absolute values, and as percentages of the totals for all companies assessed for income tax in the 1977–78 income year. The figures for assessable income indicate that overseas-affiliated companies are, on average, larger units than are wholly New Zealand controlled companies. On the other hand it must be remembered that the New Zealand companies include Government trading departments which may follow profit policies different from private sector companies and for which capital values are not included in shareholders' funds. The figures would also suggest that there is some concentration of branches and subsidiaries of overseas companies in the nine manufacturing groups and mining and quarrying; these industries offer scope to large concerns with access to capital and technical expertise.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeIncome Tax AssessedSalaries and WagesDividends Paid

* Companies with overseas affiliations.

All New Zealand companies including those with overseas affiliations.

Percentage of companies with overseas affiliations to all New Zealand companies.

 $(thousand)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishingOverseas*314392045,93358
 All N.Z.740816,9227,617149,3783,844
 Percent0.42.62.74.01.5
Mining and quarryingOverseas*361,4256744,13037,635
 All N.Z.3066,5212,96629,64938,991
 Percent11.821.922.713.996.5
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobaccoOverseas*5416,9687,689107,3444,132
 All N.Z.99178,41235,322532,10729,786
 Percent5.421.621.820.213.9
    Textile, wearing apparel and leather goodsOverseas*363,5531,59832,9983,477
 All N.Z.127627,53212,379249,6059,145
 Percent2.812.912.913.238.0
    Wood and wood products including furnitureOverseas*88773943,06320
 All N.Z.124615,2566,841162,41416,456
 Percent0.65.75.81.90.1
    Paper and paper productsOverseas*528,2423,71618,1623,143
 All N.Z.105731,08213,988211,80514,538
 Percent4.926.526.68.621.6
    Chemicals and chemical petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic productsOverseas*11840,41218,21790,18212,874
 All N.Z.73360,46427,251174,02723,118
 Percent16.166.866.851.855.7
    Non-metallic mineral products, except products of petroleum and coalOverseas*159,3454,20517,1413,554
 All N.Z.42019,4568,75464,3707,090
 Percent3.648.048.026.650.1
    Basic metal industriesOverseas*1092441618,0081,170
 All N.Z.1291,99990046,7335,308
 Percent7.846.246.238.522.0
    Fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipmentOverseas*18052,12623,618165,12917,469
 All N.Z.383790,95441,112531,80428,920
 Percent4.757.357.431.160.4
    Other manufacturing industriesOverseas*141,3866243,40697
 All N.Z.5533,3981,52924,432586
 Percent2.540.840.813.916.6
Electricity, gas, and waterOverseas*274,4061,98615,9241,256
 All N.Z.794043,03819,404408,6939,792
ConstructionPercent0.310.210.23.912.8
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotelsOverseas*36687,53139,345155,51321,477
 All N.Z.23492270,876121,9201,300,21674,776
 Percent1.632.332.312.028.7
Transport, storage, and communicationOverseas*425,4642,47439,418747
 All N.Z.272033,44015,151296,20712,467
 Percent1.516.316.313.36.0
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business servicesOverseas*462130,78852,043179,81926,961
 All N.Z.23658317,204127,941470,458119,622
 Percent2.041.240.738.222.5
Community, social, and personal servicesOverseas*315,2092,3676,905856
 All N.Z.466420,1409,078189,7862,817
 Percent0.725.926.13.630.4
All industriesOverseas*1482369,095159,571863,075134,924
 All N.Z.804301,036,694452,1524,841,685397,256
 Percent1,835.635.317.834.0

CENSUS OF POPULATION AND DWELLINGS 1976: Incomes of Individuals—The following statistics on incomes were compiled from the Census of Population and Dwellings taken on 23 March 1976.

The table below divides into income groups the persons actively engaged in the labour force and also the total population.

The question asked for income for the year ended 31 March 1976 from all sources, without deduction of taxes, superannuation, life insurance, rates, etc. Social welfare benefits (age, family, etc.) and war pensions were not included.

Income GroupPersons Actively Engaged*Total Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

* Working 20 hours or more per week.

Includes part-time workers working less than 20 hours per week.

               $      
Nil—56247885135095764569058771482333
      1– 99918938331745211284263187268271531
  1,000– 2,99972831120453193284106768196993303761
  3,000– 3,99984761823841671459336194338187699
  4,000– 4,9991294586612919558713504372521207564
  5,000– 5,9991584074778120618816208051431213511
  6,000– 6,9991108841995613084011300521744134749
  7,000– 7,99981399998691385827031095593658
  8,000– 8,9995790945286243758938527164209
9,000– 9,9993500523643736935730288638616
10,000–12,4994859425815117549718342452142
12,500–14,999181697721894118667117519842
15,000–19,9991410452214,6261445185815309
20,000 and over14387491148781479279515587
Not specified14628822922857160671180527872
                  Total8650984072351272333156204215673413129383

Persons actively engaged but with relatively small incomes would include considerable numbers of school leavers who began work late in 1975 or in early 1976 as well as persons unemployed but seeking work, and those assisting relatives without pay.

The following table provides 1976 Census incomes data by age of recipient, for persons 15 years and over.

Age Group (Years)Income CroupTotal Inc. Sot Specified
Under $1,000$1,000–$2,999$3,000–$5,999$6,000–$8,999$9,000–$14,999$15,000 and over
 Males
15–19747833564738630166613416153335
20–2487281637178460229812477292131644
25–346284107568816084795275185360226515
35–44360662845698859413300198556167616
45–642598916784108931797494071813617289798
65 and over676092064719247602832471402118992
              Total186999106489390416254632104113292431087900
 Females
15–19833733389927706152255147402
20–24502311610155230451220040127931
25–341340333229739761118141567284222123
35–4478629371853371285031783364162112
45–641677505418253318114883082677293195
65 and over1254222308785111491828283160515
              Total63943819675121823837960748516531113278

Income Earners in Each Household—An analysis of income earners in each household was made from the information collected at the Census of Population in 1976. For this analysis an income earner was defined as one who received $500 or more a year, excluding social welfare benefits and war pensions. A summary of the analysis is given in the following table.

Number of Household MembersNumber of Private Households WithTotal Households
No Income Earners'*1 Income Earner2 Income Earners3 Income Earners4 Income Earners5 or More Income Earners
* Includes a number of households where income of members was not specified.
15531988577----143896
24459986787126392---257778
39472591595233827494--148463
452577789858415196179906-171093
5284146623374641354863022386109164
61513205311720979293852196552999
77287554649436281950112521479
839031702697166610046679594
9 or more422232822211731104210478791
            Total12054139262730323075613240567190923257

Household Incomes—In the following table private households consisting of one complete family only (that is consisting of husband and wife with or without unmarried children of any age living at home) are shown by total household income and by composition. The total income figure is the estimated income before tax, excluding Social Welfare benefits, for the year ended 31 March 1976.

Total Income of HouseholdNumber of Households ComprisingTotal
Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife With
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
$       
Nil–21962102242022514813723914
1– 49941772631286348404719
500– 99910227448235116724111139
1,000– 1,499432338625111568635206
1,500– 1,999352939128514468634480
2,000– 2,49928725914362831361084426
2,500– 2,999459712029896623042498003
3,000– 3,9999516413640682462112284622150
4,000– 4,999118287706868149192386151537035
5,000– 599913833110531523883653445198053914
6,000– 6,9991103496291499782883453171449115
7,000– 7,9991101488911498285653424164548521
8,000– 8,9991079276651270675343016150743220
9,000– 9,9991191370781076366412723131240430
10,000–12,499302981433619408120305077255383702
12,500–14,9991188576361078873063102163242349
15,000–19,99982036182965567263268175035784
20,000 and over36013196542045572268130420346
Not specified20341584202815609188949018
                  Total18763893395131478805613504619353547471

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on income tax will be found in Section 26B Public Account Taxation. Other publications containing information and data on incomes and income tax include the following:

Incomes and Income Tax—Department of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Inland Revenue Department (Parl. paper B. 23).

Census of Population and Dwellings 1976

Vol. 5 Incomes and Social Security Benefits.

Bulletin No. 21 Incomes.

Chapter 29. Section 29 BANKING AND CURRENCY

Table of Contents

The core of the New Zealand banking system comprises a central bank (the Reserve Bank of New Zealand) and 5 commercial or trading banks. There are also 12 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank, while each trading bank has a private savings bank subsidiary. In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, etc., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits (short-term and long-term) to clients. In some instances deposits are repayable to the client's order at call—virtually a system of cheque issuing. Particularly during the 1960s, an expansion in the size and scope of near-banks (or non-banking financial institutions) was a feature in New Zealand as in many other countries, but this trend has been reversed to some extent in recent years, largely because of the removal of most interest rate controls. The Reserve Bank's publication Monetary Policy and the New Zealand Financial System (February 1979) provides a general oversight of the financial system and the implementation of monetary policy in New Zealand.

RESERVE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND—The Reserve Bank of New Zealand, the central bank, was originally established in 1933 as a privately-owned institution, but became a fully State-owned institution in 1936. A brief survey of its historical development was included in this section in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks. The 1933 Act establishing the bank was the culmination of proposals ranging back to 1886 that a central bank or a State trading bank should be set up in New Zealand. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 and amendments provided the Reserve Bank with powers in line with modern central banking practice and monetary policy. It provided the Government and the Reserve Bank with flexible authority to take such monetary action as might be appropriate to the times with respect to any financial institution.

Functions of the Bank—Section 8 of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, as amended in 1973, states the primary functions of the bank, its basic relationships with Parliament, the Government, and the Minister of Finance, and lays down the criteria for Government monetary policy. The section reads:

  1. The primary functions of the bank shall be—

    1. To act as the central bank for New Zealand; and

    2. To ensure that the availability and conditions of credit provided by financial institutions are not inconsistent with the sovereign right of the Crown to control money and credit in the public interest; and

    3. To advise the Government on matters relating to monetary policy, banking, credit, and overseas exchange; and

    4. Within the limits of its powers, to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government as communicated in writing to the bank under subsection (2) of this section, and to any resolution of Parliament in relation to that monetary policy.

  2. For the purposes of this Act, the Minister may from time to time communicate to the bank the monetary policy of the Government, which shall be directed to the maintenance and promotion of economic and social welfare in New Zealand, having regard to the desirability of promoting the highest level of production and trade and full employment, and of maintaining a stable internal price level.

  3. The bank shall, as directed by the Minister, regulate and control on behalf of the Government—

    1. Money, banking, banking transactions, any class of transactions of financial institutions, credit, currency and the borrowing and lending of money;

    2. Rates of interest in respect of such classes of transactions as may from time to time be prescribed;

    3. Overseas exchange and overseas exchange transactions.

  4. The bank shall make such loans to the Government and on such conditions as the Minister decides from time to time, in order to ensure the continuing full employment of labour and other resources of any kind.

The bank also has a number of subsidiary functions including:

  1. Banking functions for the Government, Government trading organisations, and the primary produce marketing authorities as well as for the trading banks.

  2. Management of the note and coin issue.

  3. Management of public and local authority debt.

  4. Management of foreign exchange reserves.

  5. The administration of various acts including the Overseas Investment Act 1973, the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948, and the Private Savings Bank Act 1964.

  6. The administration of various regulations including the Financial Services Regulations 1979 (surveillance of prices) as well as regulations concerning the trustee and private savings banks and the public sector securities requirements of other financial institutions.

  7. Maintaining relations with international organisations such as IMF, IBRD and OECD.

  8. Economic research.

Whilst the bank must give effect to Government monetary policy, or to resolutions of Parliament related thereto, the directors are given a fair degree of independence and responsibility in the carrying out of the policy laid down, and in the management of the bank and the conduct of its business.

The exercise of the Reserve Bank's powers is at the discretion of the directors, but the consent of the Minister of Finance is required in certain special cases. The consent of the Governor-General in Council is required before the bank can engage in trade or have a direct interest in any commercial, industrial, or financial institution, or purchase, or lend against, the shares of a trading bank or financial institution. The Government is required to entrust to the bank, and the bank to undertake, free of charge to the Government, all Government banking transactions.

The Reserve Bank has 10 directors, comprising the Governor, the Deputy Governor, the Secretary to the Treasury, and seven other directors appointed by the Governor-General in Council.

Bank Notes—The bank retains the sole right of issue, and has authority for the calling in, with the consent of the Minister, of any note or series of notes issued by the bank. Notes called in cease to be legal tender, but remain a liability of the bank. Provisions covering the defacing of bank notes and their reproduction or imitation without the prior consent of the bank are in the Reserve Bank Act.

Overseas Exchange—Part IV of the Reserve Bank Act 1964 deals with overseas exchange and other transactions affecting the overseas resources of New Zealand. The bank has the authority to fix the actual exchange rates used in its operations, and may also prescribe or approve rates of exchange to be used by other persons in foreign exchange transactions. These rates are fixed by the bank in accordance with directives given to the bank by the Minister of Finance. The Governor, with the prior consent of the Minister, may temporarily suspend dealings in foreign exchange.

Since the holding of external reserves is dependent on aspects of economic policy and conditions beyond the control of the Reserve Bank, the bank's duty is described as “to endeavour, within the limits of its powers, to maintain, in addition to any holdings of gold, an adequate level of overseas reserves”. The bank keeps the Minister of Finance informed of the overseas exchange position and prospects. To assist it in carrying out this duty to hold reserves, the bank has a statutory power to require trading banks to sell to it their foreign exchange holdings in excess of maximum amounts prescribed by the Reserve Bank.

Comprehensive provisions for exchange control regulations are set out in Part IV of the Act, as are provisions for regulations covering dealings in gold. This part of the Act also provides for an indemnity under which changes in the New Zealand currency value of the bank's overseas assets (less offsetting changes in the New Zealand currency value of its overseas liabilities) are settled between the bank and the Government.

Regulation of Banking and Credit—In Part V of the 1964 Act, trading banks are required to make monthly returns to the Reserve Bank detailing their principal liabilities and assets. Statutory authority has been provided for obtaining such subsidiary returns and other information from trading banks as the Reserve Bank may require.

This section authorises the application of reserve ratios. Subject to the approval of the Minister, the trading banks may be required to hold balances at the Reserve Bank or to hold assets of specified kinds, including balances at the Reserve Bank. The minimum requirements may be laid down as a percentage of deposit liabilities or of assets, as a percentage of parts of such deposit liabilities or assets, or as percentages of both, or in any other manner. Different percentages may be laid down for different classes of deposit liabilities or assets.

The Reserve Bank is authorised to give directions to trading banks as to the policy to be followed in relation to advances, discounts, and investments and in relation to rates of interest or discount.

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act 1973 extended the controls previously exercised over the trading banks to include all financial institutions. The Amendment Act provided the monetary authorities with forms of control over non-bank financial institutions including the power to make recommendations or give directives, to specify rates of interest, to require the holding of specified assets, and to inspect books and request information. Apart from these direct controls over financial institutions, the Reserve Bank may influence the financial system by buying and selling Government securities. Fuller information on instruments of monetary control and their operation is given later in this section.

Statistics collected from trading banks, finance companies, building societies, the short-term money market, the commercial bill market, life assurance companies, stock and station agents, and all savings banks appear regularly in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Liabilities and Assets—Details of the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank at the end of June for the latest 5 years, and weekly averages for calendar years are shown in the following tables.

LIABILITIES OF RESERVE BANK
YearBank NotesDemand DepositsOther LiabilitiesTotal Liabilities
StateMarketingBanksOther
$(million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
1976382.8145.022.412.4466.7357.01,386.3
1977414.9164.933.411.4538.1455.61,618.4
1978447.4198.713.84.6507.1529.21,700.8
1979492.5219.646.72.4438.3576.41,775.8
1980539.0226.371.21.0366.6762.11,966.2
At End of June
1976367.5110.419.10.1472.1320.91,290.1
1977405.2155.037.015.2542.5438.31,593.1
1978432.9163.010.311.3494.0516.51,628.0
1979481.8167.452.8414.7554.71,671.4
1980513.8229.165.0386.3721.51,915.7
ASSETS OF THE RESERVE BANK
YearGoldOverseas AssetsInvestments in New ZealandAdvances in New ZealandAll Other Assets in New Zealand
Short-term*InvestmentsSpecial Drawing RightsStateMarketing OrganisationsOther Advances and Discounts
* Current account balances and short-term bills.
$(million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
19760.7178.853.49.9583.393.9369.636.460.3
19770.7166.755.725.8796.9113.3377.134.547.8
19780.7242.953.351.2496.8256.5428.7123.447.3
19790.7213.49.338.3668.4129.5525.3121.969.1
19800.7163.79.631.2582.4308.5642.3151.676.3
At End of June
19760.7148.437.16.5564.011.8416.226.878.5
19770.7201.468.324.7780.047.9407.129.733.3
19780.7352.057.954.7466.5158.7462.736.838.1
19790.7167.88.939.8776.517.7549.342.668.1
19800.767.29.423.9493.7486.2725.151.258.2

TRADING BANKS—There have been trading banks in New Zealand since the early days of settlement and they have conducted their business according to the general principles which have long been traditional in British banking institutions. With the exception of the Bank of New Zealand, which became a fully State-owned bank with the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act 1945, the banks are owned by private shareholders. New Zealand has a branch banking system with nearly 1050 branches and agencies in New Zealand and a world-wide network of agents and correspondents. The general business of banking is governed by the Banking Act 1908. Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act 1908 and the Cheques Act 1960 are the laws relating to cheques drawn on a bank.

Banks accept deposits from the public for either a fixed term or on an “on demand” basis. Fixed term or time deposits bear interest, but unlike demand deposits cannot be operated on by cheque. Cheques drawn on current accounts are efficient and widely used instruments for the settlement of commercial and private debts. Since 1979 cheques have been complemented by the introduction of bank credit cards which combine facilities for settlement of private debts and provision of credit. The fundamental principle of bank advances policy is to confine advances as far as possible to financing customers' current trade or seasonal requirements. The major form of bank lending to customers is still by way of overdraft but term lending, mainly for medium terms of from 2–5 years, has grown rapidly from approximately 3 percent of total bank lending in December 1971 to 34 percent in December 1980.

With the enactment of the Private Savings Banks Act 1964 the trading banks established savings banks from 1 October 1964 on a similar basis to that of the Post Office Savings Bank, offering ordinary, investment, thrift club, home lay-by, and special purpose accounts.

There are 5 trading banks in New Zealand, 3 of these institutions—the Bank of New Zealand, the ANZ Banking Group (New Zealand) Ltd., and the National Bank of New Zealand Limited—being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of New Zealand. The New Zealand activities of the ANZ Banking Group were incorporated as a subsidiary in 1979, and an offer of shares to the public has been made in 1980. The other two banks—the Bank of New South Wales, and the Commercial Bank of Australia Limited—are incorporated in Australia. The 5 trading banks jointly own a computer company, Databank Systems Ltd. Databank had a national network of computer centres operating by the end of 1969. This network handles the daily operations of the banks, including the clearing of cheques.

Bank of New Zealand—The Bank of New Zealand became a wholly State-owned trading bank on the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act in 1945. At 31 March 1980 it had 233 branches and 153 agencies in New Zealand, a branch and a sub-branch in London, 6 branches in Australia, and 7 branches, 1 sub-branch, and 14 agencies in Fiji. It also has representative offices in Japan, Singapore, New York, and Los Angeles. The bank owns 50 percent of the shareholding of the Bank of Western Samoa and 20 percent of the capital of the Bank of Tonga.

In common with other trading banks, the Bank of New Zealand operates a savings bank in New Zealand. In addition, it has a 40 percent shareholding in BNZ Finance Company Limited and a 50 percent interest in the Sydney-based finance company, Hunter BNZ Finance Ltd.

Trading income (including income from investments) of the Bank of New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1980 was $138.0 million compared with $114.2 million the previous year and $88.6 million in 1977–78. Of the 1979–80 total of $138.0 million, operating expenses took $108.0 million and provision for taxation $16.8 million, leaving a net profit of $13.2 million compared with $12.0 million in the previous year and $7.5 million in both 1976–77 and 1977–78.

The total assets of the bank and its subsidiaries as at 31 March 1980 amounted to $3,747.0 million. Among the main items were advances, bills discounted and sundry debts ($2,376.7 million), Government and local body securities ($756.6 million), and cash on hand, items in transit, and deposits with bankers ($316.8 million). Bank properties and equipment were valued at $95.5 million. The principal item of liabilities was deposits at $3,068.3 million.

Liabilities and Assets of Trading Banks—Since the Reserve Bank commenced operations the trading banks have been required to submit at monthly intervals a return of certain liabilities and assets in respect of New Zealand business. Monthly averages for the latest 5 calendar years and figures as at the last Wednesday in June are given in the next table.

SELECTED LIABILITIES OF TRADING BANKS*
YearLiabilities in New ZealandLiabilities Outside New ZealandTotal Liabilities
DepositsOther Liabilities
DemandTime

* Trading bank business only, excludes liabilities of savings bank subsidiaries, shareholders' funds, capital liabilities to overseas head offices, contingencies, interbank accounts, and transit items within New Zealand.

Compensatory deposits included.

$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19761,305.81,329.160.484.52,779.8
19771,340.01,772.971.2107.83,291.9
19781,471.52,360.073.1112.94,017.5
19791,652.02,966.978.0129.64,826.5
19801,787.43,626.885.8146.75,646.7
At End of June
19761,353.91,329.375.584.92,843.6
19771,357.21,775.343.1112.13,287.7
19781,451.82,278.444.7118.43,893.3
19791,667.22,737.695.5122.44,622.7
19801,813.63,462.078.8129.65,484.0
SELECTED ASSETS OF TRADING BANKS
YearCoinReserve Bank NotesDemand Deposits Held in Reserve BankOverseas AssetsInvestmentsLoans*Other AssetsTotal Selected Assets

* Includes advances, discounts and term lending but excludes interbank lending.

Includes interbank lending, land and buildings.

$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19765.568.914.1183.7666.31,814.5141.32,894.3
19775.770.111.0213.8638.82,352.8160.43,452.6
19786.568.44.3272,21,091.82,631.5162.74,237.4
19797.066.90.2x326,41,180.53,321.8180.35,082.9x
19807.568.70.3416.11,441.13,820.9179.85,934.4
At End of June
19765.062.3199.1736.01,780.6140.72,923.7
19775.262.915.2233.2639.62,360.4141.43,457.9
19785.762.110.4284.41,025.62,528.7166.84,083.7
19796.463.0390.8995.43,288.7159.94,904.2
19807.266.6440.61,436.63,714.4180.75,846.1

Deposits and Advances of Trading Banks—The averages of total deposits (together with the amount per head of mean population), and of total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits for each of the latest 5 calendar years, are given in the following table.

YearDepositsAdvances
Not Bearing Interest*Bearing InterestTotal*Per Head of Mean PopulationTotal AmountRatio to Deposits

* Consists of all demand deposits including Government deposits.

Includes compensatory deposits (introduced March 1978).

Provisional.

  $(million) $     $(m)percent
19761,193.01,420.72,613.7838.751,808.769.2
19771,338.81,762.73,101.5991.622,352.875.9
19781,464.02,346.5x3,810.51,201.872,631.570.0
19791,638.32,945.84,584.21,466.523,321.872.5
19801,786.23,609.85,396.01,723.303,829.171.0

Interest rates on trading banks overdrafts are given in the following table.

Rate Charged PercentPercentage of Total Overdrafts at Each Rate as at End of March
1977197819791980
Less than 65.64.64.23.7
6 and less than 848.89.94.50.6
8 and less than 1045.746.946.73.2
10 and less than 1224.224.742.9
12 and less than 1414.616.829.7
14 and less than 163.113.5
16 and less than 184.9
18 and less than 201.2
20 and over0.1
 100.0100.0100.0100.0

The following table gives interest rates on trading bank term loans.

Rate Charged PercentPercentage of Total Term Loans at Each Rate as at End of March
1977197819791980
Less than 60.80.10.1
6 and less than 830.410.42.40.4
8 and less than 1053.728.816.91.0
10 and less than 128.719.219.617.0
12 and less than 146.341.561.035.9
14 and less than 1637.2
16 and less than 188.0
18 and less than 200.3
20 and over0.1
 100.0100.0100.0100.0

The maximum permitted average interest rate on bank overdrafts was 6 percent from 31 August 1965 until 3 March 1976, when the restrictions on overdraft rates were abolished. This control had been in operation since early in World War II.

An analysis of overdrafts and term lending by the New Zealand trading banks is given in the following table.

Group9 March 19778 March 197814 March 197912 March 198011 March 1981
 $(million)
1. Farming, forestry, hunting, and fishing—
    (a) Mainly dairy farming51.958.270.787.4108.6
    (b) Mainly sheep farming54.470.096.9114.5168.1
    (c) Other farming74.790.3124.1146.4190.1
    (d) Farm services17.420.224.631.645.3
    (e) Forestry, hunting, and fishing13.520.025.630.638.3
            Sub-total211.8258.8341.8410.5550.4
2. Mining and quarrying4.94.511.08.99.1
3. Manufacturing—
    (a) Dairy companies, factories, etc.28.131.338.750.051.4
    (b) Freezing works, meat companies, etc.266.4273.6367.7392.7402.2
    (c) Other food, beverages, and tobacco57.364.274.095.4115.0
    (d) Textiles, footwear, and clothing64.858.976.992.885.2
    (e) Pulp and paper and paper products25.837.050.559.356.8
    (f) Metal products, machinery, and engineering112.6142.2169.6199.4211.9
    (g) Transport equipment27.765.437.257.888.6
    (h) Other manufacturing128.7147.5179.7229.0275.1
            Sub-total711.5820.2994.31,176.21,286.0
4. Construction113.9117.7142.9153.1167.2
5. Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services4.74.04.06.022.8
6. Transport, storage, and communication45.059.486.789.6133.5
7. Commerce, trade, and finance—
    (a) Wholesalers, mainly importers71.982.5103.5154.6195.3
    (b) Wholesalers, other46.258.565.580.880.3
    (c) Retailers141.8154.1174.3217.2225.8
    (d) Woolbuyers104.798.7122.2180.4159.3
    (e) Stock and station agents53.961.458.882.987.0
    (f) Finance companies (mainly merchant banks /stand-bys)22.113.316.321.622.3
    (g) Other financial institutions62.170.080.587.4105.0
            Sub-total502.7538.5621.0824.7875.0
8. Local bodies, n.e.i.9.98.813.17.713.8
9. Services157.3160.1214.2235.5286.4
10. Personal—
    (a) For housing purposes196.3207.1324.1349.5400.7
    (b) Other174.4170.0279.0322.2496.8
            Sub-total370.7377.1603.1671.6897.5
            Total2,132.32,349.13,032.33,583.94,241.5

The following diagram illustrates the level of trading bank advances in March of the last 3 years.

Trading Bank Credit Authorities—The following table shows calendar-year averages and end of June figures for unexercised overdraft and term-loan authorities, total credit limits, and the percentage utilisation of credit limits.

YearUnexercised Overdraft and Term Loan AuthoritiesTotal Credit LimitsUtilisation of Credit Limits
 $(million)$(million)Percentage
 Average for Calendar Year
1976787.42,601.969.8
1977821.23,174.074.1
19781,016.23,647.772.1
19791,177.24,499.173.8
19801,372.65,193.573.6
 At End of June
1976750.82,531.470.3
1977785.33,145.675.0
19781,020.33,549.071.3
19791,187.44,476.173.5
19801,300.15,087.373.0

MONEY AND CREDIT AGGREGATES—The money supply and selected liquid assets of the public, and claims of monetary institutions by sector, as at 31 March of each of the latest 4 years are shown in the following tables. The table showing the money supply and selected liquid assets of the public sets out the deposit liabilities of the major financial institutions accepting deposits from the public. Institutions included in the table are the trading banks, the Reserve Bank (currency in circulation), the private and trustee savings banks, the P.O.S.B., finance companies, stock and station agents, and the official money market dealers. The table showing the claims of monetary institutions by sector deals with the asset side of those institutions' balance sheets. The domestic breakdown of assets is according to investments with the Government (predominantly holdings of Government securities), and with the private sector (including local authority securities, loans, etc.), plus the Reserve Bank's net advances to the marketing and stabilisation sector. The sum of these 3 classifications provides a “domestic credit” aggregate which, when adjusted for institutions' net overseas assets and a residual item, can be reconciled to the money supply and selected liquid assets of the public aggregate.

From December quarter 1977, when the annual growth rate of the money supply and selected liquid assets of the public was 12.5 percent, the growth rate increased rapidly to reach 22.5 percent by March 1979. From this level it has steadily declined to an estimated growth rate of 12.8 percent for December 1980.

The growth rate of domestic credit has followed much the same cycle, reaching its low point in March 1978 at 11.3 percent, peaking in March 1979 at 21.0 percent, and falling to an estimated growth rate of 13.3 percent in December 1980. Private sector credit growth, a major component of domestic credit, after falling through the second half of 1979 and 1980, started to rise again from October 1980.

Money Supply and Selected Liquid Assets of the PublicAs at 31 March
1977197819791980

* Notes and coin on issue from Reserve Bank minus till money of trading banks.

Trading bank demand deposits minus Government deposits and trading bank deposits held by financial institutions included in table.

Net of deposits of included institutions with each other.

Money supply (M1)
 $(million)
    Notes and coins*367.6403.5454.8491.3
    Demand deposits1,303.91,290.11,539.71,602.3
    Savings bank cheque accounts18.126.840.953.0
                Total1,689.61,720.42,035.42,146.6
    Annual rate of increase5.9%1.8%18.3%5.5%
Other demand deposits
    Private savings banks446.9462.8536.2517.8
    Trustee savings banks673.7674.0778.4783.6
    P.O. savings bank837.4887.7970.1980.5
    Stock and station agents87.567.269.676.3
    Finance companies43.648.896.2120.8
    Money market23.920.431.835.0
                Total2,113.02,160.92,482.32,514.0
Total demand deposits and money supply (M2)3,802.63,881.34,517.74,660.6
Annual rate of increase5.7%2.1%16.4%3.2%
Time and fixed deposits
    Trading banks1,443.31,844.22,395.83,061.0
    Private savings banks175.1209.2317.0430.7
    Trustee savings banks271.9419.2593.8777.3
    P.O.S.B.494.2550.9637.8708.9
    Stock and station agents22.923.246.455.0
    Finance companies512.3686.8826.71,102.3
    Money market3.26.21.24.2
                Total2,922.93,739.74,818.76,139.4
Money supply and selected liquid assets of the public (M3)6,725.57,621.09,336.410,800.0
Annual rate of increase15.6%13.3%22.5%15.7%
Claims of Monetary Institutions by SectorAs at 31 March
1977197819791980
$(million) (annual % changes in parentheses)
Government3,076.5(9.3)3,330.1(8.2)3,841.6(15.4)4,065.7(5.8)
Marketing and stabilisation398.3(8.4)431.2(8.3)536.4(24.4)529.7(−1.2)
Private sector3,816.5(28.7)4,353.7(14.1)5,441.1(25.0)6,611.6(21.5)
Domestic credit7,291.3(18.6)8,115.0(11.3)9,819.1(21.0)11,207.0(14.1)
Overseas−314.9−209.4−181.9−208.0
Residual−250.9−284.6−300.8−199.0
                Total6,725.5(15.6)7,621.0(13.3)9,336.4(22.5)10,800.0(15.7)

RECENT MONETARY CONDITIONS AND POLICY—The stimulatory measures taken by the Government through the second half of 1977 proved insufficient to achieve their aim of forestalling the weakness in economic activity which had become evident in mid-1977. However, further easing of monetary policy in February 1978, including relaxation of reserve requirements for trading banks,savings banks, and finance companies, coupled with expansionary fiscal policy measures, induced a turnaround in the activity downturn. From the March quarter of 1978 the growth rates of monetary aggregates began to rise.

Although the intention of these measures to ease monetary conditions was to ensure that monetary policy did not act as a restraint on the balanced recovery of economic activity that official policy was seeking to achieve, the rapidity of the acceleration of the growth of the monetary and credit aggregates through 1978 caused concern. In order to moderate this accelerated growth in liquidity, in August 1978 the Minister of Finance announced the introduction of a guideline for the growth of private sector credit from the main deposit-taking institutions of 10 to 15 percent for the year ended March 1979. This guideline was intended to reflect the Government's view on what would be an appropriate growth rate of private sector credit given the economic recovery desired by the authorities.

In addition, in August 1978, interest rates on Government securities were raised. This move was part of a new policy emphasis designed to improve monetary control by increasing the private sector's holding of Government debt and financing the budget deficit in a non-inflationary manner. This move was supported by the opening of the first issue of New Zealand Government Savings Stock (in October 1978) which, because of its competitive interest rate and security and liquidity attractions, was highly successful.

Nevertheless, the rate of growth of liquidity in the economy at the end of 1978 remained high, with indications in the trading bank credit limit figures of likely further expansions of credit growth. Consequently the policy margin of free reserves used in calculating the setting of reserve asset ratio requirements for trading banks was reduced in March 1979 from $100 million to $50 million and subsequently to zero in July 1979. Finance company reserve requirements were also increased from 15 percent to 20 percent, effective from 1 April 1979. In addition, the private sector credit guideline was lowered to a range of 8 to 12 percent for the growth rate of private sector credit over the year to March 1980. With respect to public debt policy, further increases in interest rates on Government securities were instituted for the April–May 1979 cash loan, which was coupled with a second Savings Stock issue. The cash loan proved to be very successful, and a moderate amount of funds were also subscribed to the savings issue.

Private sector credit figures for the September 1979 quarter indicated that the restrictive monetary policy measures of the preceding six months were beginning to have the desired effect, and were reinforcing the decline in the growth rate of money supply and selected liquid assets evident a quarter earlier. This downward trend continued through the December 1979 quarter and into 1980. By early 1980 it became clear that the tight policy measures instituted earlier could be relaxed, and accordingly ratio requirements for private and trustee savings banks were reduced, and the free reserves margin for trading banks was eased from a target of zero to $50 million. Later it became clear that trading bank lending had slowed to a growth rate of below the rate of inflation, and the free reserves target was eased further to a “neutral” policy position of $100 million.

A general slackening in economic activity through mid-1980 meant that, even with a neutral monetary policy stance, growth rates of monetary and credit aggregates continued to slow through the year. By mid-year all the major aggregates were growing at rates slower than the rate of inflation. The only major exception to this was finance company lending which had through 1980 continued to expand at almost twice the rate of inflation. In response to this development, finance company ratio requirements were increased from 22 1/2 percent to 25 percent, at a time when little pressure was being placed by the authorities on other financial institutions.

This steady slowdown in monetary growth continued into the September 1980 quarter, at which stage a renewed expansion in trading bank credit limits presaged a return to higher rates of growth of credit. Indications that this was already happening appeared around October 1980 as trading bank credit growth started to rise, after having bottomed out over the three preceding months.

MONETARY INSTRUMENTS: Trading Banks—In June 1973, a new system of controlling trading bank operations was introduced. The reserve assets ratio scheme consists of a conventional liquidity requirement with the minimum ratios expressed as percentages of trading bank demand and time deposits. The ratios are varied on two grounds. First, to take account of seasonal and random influences on bank liquidity and, secondly, to put into effect a change in credit policy. A bank unable to meet its reserve requirement has to borrow the shortfall from the Reserve Bank on conditions determined by the Reserve Bank. In July 1980 these conditions changed so that, rather than having to hold penal borrowings as non-interest-bearing deposits, banks will now hold these borrowings as deposits which will bear interest at rates which may be varied by the authorities. The interest rate on these deposits will reduce as the level of borrowing rises, providing a flexible and progressive extension to the penal borrowing arrangements. The percentage reserve requirements, which are usually set monthly, were until August 1980 normally less for time deposits than for demand deposits, in order to continue to give the banks an incentive to compete for term deposits. However, by August 1980 time deposits had grown sufficiently for this distinction to be removed. Reserve assets consist of trading banks' holdings of notes and Government securities and of the time and demand balances of the trading banks at the Reserve Bank. Details of the reserve ratios are published in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Savings Banks—All Post Office Savings Bank deposits are invested in Government and public corporation securities apart from cash requirements and loans to the private sector (introduced in 1973 and subsequently extended).

The trustee and private savings banks have been required to invest a proportion of their deposits, after allowing for statutory cash requirements, in Government securities. The savings banks ratios have been high compared with other financial institutions. Since March 1968 the ratios have been reduced in stages, primarily to increase investment in housing mortgages, but also to rationalise ratio controls across various institutions.

Finance Companies—Capital issues control on finance companies was abolished in 1962 and “voluntary” agreements on investments existed until capital issues control was reintroduced in February 1967. These controls were abolished again in June 1969. The finance companies were then required to invest a prescribed percentage of their “borrowings” in Government securities. The initial ratio of 10 percent which was to be attained by July 1970 was phased in over 4 quarters. This ratio has been varied since as a tool of monetary policy. In October 1975 it was increased from 10 percent to 15 percent; in February 1978 it was reduced to 12 1/2 percent; in October 1978 it was raised to 15 percent; in April 1979 it was increased to 20 percent; in October 1979 it was increased to 22 1/2 percent; and in July 1980 to 25 percent.

Life Insurance Companies—Between 1965 and 1969 there were several “voluntary” agreements with the insurance companies regarding investment in Government securities. In October 1969 the bases of the present controls were introduced. The insurance companies “voluntarily” agreed to invest 30 percent of their “assets” in public sector (Government and local authority) securities with a minimum of 22 1/2 percent in Government securities. By October 1973, when this arrangement was formalised, the minimum Government securities ratio had been reduced to 22 percent and it was later reduced to 19 percent with an overall ratio of 29 percent. However, in July 1980 the minimum ratio in Government securities was raised to 20 percent and the overall ratio in public sector securities to 30 percent.

Building Societies—From November 1970 the building societies were required over a 5-year transitional period to reach and maintain 5 percent of their “assets” in public sector securities (with a minimum of 3 percent in Government securities). The 1976 Budget announced the phasing-in, over a 10 year period, of a 15 percent public sector securities requirement, with a minimum of 11 percent in Government securities. The savings banks operations of authorised building societies are also required to invest a proportion of their deposits in Government securities.

Private Superannuation Funds—In June 1970 the private superannuation funds were given a 5-year transitional period in which to place 30 percent of their assets in public sector securities in order to qualify for tax exemptions. This agreement was formalised in August 1975 and provision was made for the ratio to increase by 2 percent annually to 40 percent by April 1980. Up to 10 percent of the increased requirements could be met by authorised “housing” investments.

Official Money Market Dealers—From the time of their official recognition late in 1962, dealers have been subject to deposit limits and controls on assets they can hold. Currently, dealers must hold at least 60 percent of their funds in Government Securities.

Reserve Bank Lending Rate—In effect, the Reserve Bank's lending rate is the rate at which trading banks may borrow from the bank if they need to do so in order to maintain the statutory minimum ratio requirements. The lending rate does not apply to advances to the State or marketing organisations, but it does apply to the official money market dealers who are accorded lender-of-last-resort facilities by the bank.

The rate was increased from 10 percent to 12 percent from 1 May to 10 November 1977, but then reverted to 10 percent in order to reduce trading bank competition for short-term deposits and thus put downward pressure on interest rates in line with general economic policy at the time. In November 1978 the discount rate was raised to 12 percent and in January 1979 to 13 percent in order to maintain relationship with market rates, which had risen, and to reinforce the restraints on credit growth. In July 1980 it was raised to 14 percent in connection with the changes to the penal borrowing arrangements outlined above.

Interest Rate Controls—As pan of its stabilisation policy, the Government introduced the Interest on Deposits Regulations in March 1972. These regulations prescribed maximum rates of interest payable by non-bank financial institutions. After being amended in 1974 and 1975, the regulations were revoked in March 1976.

Until March 1976, when the fixed rates were changed to maximum rates, the interest payable on deposits at trustee and private savings banks was, like the POSB, absolutely controlled. While there have been no changes in the rate of interest on “other” accounts, the interest rates on investment accounts have increased several times in recent years, making them more competitive with other deposit instruments. In 1977 the restrictions on savings bank investment accounts were largely removed.

One of the few remaining controls over interest rates is a restriction on lending rates on all lending which comes within the ambit of the Moneylenders Act. This limit is 15 percent.

Directives—The Reserve Bank can also issue directives to supplement the other instruments. For instance, for many years the trading banks have been subject to qualitative lending directives which specify high and low priority lending categories. At present, farming, exporting, and housing are high priority sectors while personal (excluding housing), importing, and lending to financial institutions are low priority. Finance for stockholding was given higher priority from October 1976. The savings banks have also been issued with directives concerning the investment of funds released by reductions in the Government securities ratios in housing mortgages.

Public Debt Policy—On 14 August 1978 the Minister of Finance announced measures designed to develop public debt policy as an active monetary policy instrument. He also made public the intention to use open market operation? as a monetary policy instrument. These policy instruments are used to change the rate of growth of the money supply by making an alternative asset in the form of Government securities, relatively more or less attractive in the eyes of the private sector.

In line with this aim, interest rates on Government securities have been adjusted in line with market conditions so that a deeper and wider market in Government securities can be developed.

INTEREST RATES ON DEPOSITS: Savings Banks—The interest rate paid on ordinary, thrift club, special purpose, and home lay-by accounts at the Post Office, trustee savings banks, and private savings banks is set at 3 percent. The Post Office Savings Bank (POSB) and trustee savings banks also offer school, home ownership, fishing vessel ownership, and farm ownership accounts with the same rate of interest. In addition, qualifying home lay-by, home ownership, and farm ownership account holders are eligible for grants and subsidies of various sorts aimed at encouraging saving for home and farm purchase. Private savings banks also offer farm and fishing vessel ownership accounts, as well as home lay-by accounts.

Deposits can earn 3 1/2 percent interest in National Savings Accounts with the POSB and some trustee savings banks after a qualifying period.

No interest is paid on personal cheque accounts but non-profit institutions may receive 3 percent interest on accounts with cheque facilities.

Housing bonds, which were introduced in September 1976 by the POSB and trustee savings banks, can earn 9 percent interest for a 5-year term.

As from August 1977 the savings banks were given the freedom to set the structure of, and the interest rates on, investment and other term deposit accounts, and the deposit limits were removed. The POSB requires the concurrence of the Secretary to the Treasury regarding changes in rates. Prior to August 1977 the structure and maximum interest rates of savings bank investment accounts were fixed by Order in Council.

Trading Banks—Interest is not payable on deposits of less than 30 days. All other interest rates are free from control.

Other Deposit-taking Institutions—The Interest on Deposits Regulations were revoked in March 1976 and deposit rates with non-banks are now free from control.

Other Deposits and Interest Rates—References to rates of interest on mortgages will be found in Section 30A (Mortgages), while interest on Government debt is referred to in Section 26C (State Indebtedness), and interest on local authority debt in Section 27 (Local Government Finance).

SAVINGS BANKS—Savings banks include the Post Office Savings Bank, the trustee savings banks, and the savings banks operated by the trading banks. In recent decades there have been major changes in savings bank operations. Following an amendment to the Trustee Savings Bank Act passed in 1957, the 5 trustee savings banks that had survived from the middle of the last century were joined by 8 new trustee savings banks between 1959 and 1964. In 1972, 2 of these banks merged and there are now 12 trustee savings banks. Another major change was the formation of private savings banks by the 5 trading banks, following the passing of the Private Savings Bank Act in 1964.

As from April 1973 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been able to advance personal loans. In March 1973 the responsibilities for the administration of the trustee savings banks and the private savings banks was transferred from the Treasury to the Reserve Bank. Trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been allowed to offer cheque facilities since 1974.

The following table shows the total amounts of transactions in savings bank accounts, including accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, private savings banks, National Savings accounts, and school savings bank accounts, but excluding National Savings bonds.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestAmount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March
* Includes interest paid out on Investment accounts.
 $(million)
19764,155.877.93,964.9268.72,689.4
19774,853.488.04,713.8227.62,917.1
19785,712.9104.75,502.7314.83,231.9
19797,561.4150.77,070.0642.13,874.0
198010,011.2202.59,836.0377.74,251.7

In the following table the accounts in the 3 types of savings banks are classified by amount groups. Balances in the Post Office Savings Bank and the trustee savings banks are as at 31 March 1980. In the private savings banks, balance dates range between 31 March and 31 October. National Savings and school savings accounts are included.

BalancePost Office Savings BankTrustee Savings BanksPrivate Savings Banks
Number of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of Total
$           
Under 259552820.235044014.221685314.7
2–199161324854.6112583345.669063946.9
200–99940124813.654669122.133179022.5
1,000–1,9991449364.92173498.81103027.4
2,000–3,9991108683.81441975.8726975.0
4,000 and over881202.9852563.5514883.5
              All accounts2953948100.02469766100.01473769100.0

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK: Operation—The business of the Post Office Savings Bank started on 3 February 1867, when branches were established at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Hokitika. At 31 March 1980 there were 1168 branches of the bank throughout New Zealand. Deposits may be made at any of these branches.

Term Deposit accounts were introduced on 17 September 1979 to provide customers with a wider range of investment opportunities. These accounts offer the flexibility of 8 different terms ranging from 30 days to 3 years and provide interest rates which relate both to the term and to the amount invested.

Conversion of Post Office Savings Bank accounts to computer operation was extended during 1979 with the inclusion of national savings accounts, investment accounts, and cheque accounts. At the end of March 1980 some 3 million accounts were operating through 669 terminals situated at 316 offices throughout the country.

Net holdings in Bonus Bonds have continued to grow and at 31 March 1980 savings held in this way totalled $215.7 million. During the year 352465 prizes to the value of $12.3 million were distributed to prize winning bondholders.

The following table covers the activities of the Post Office Savings Bank.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of March*Total Amount of DepositsInterestTotal Amount of WithdrawalsExcess of Deposits, Plus Interest, Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

* Includes Ordinary National Savings and School Saving Accounts.

Includes interest paid on investment accounts.

Excludes National Savings Bonds and coupons.

 (000)  $(thousand)  
197629371,175,69435,3071,132,13478,8661,265,783
197730761,328,13338,5491,296,60170,0811,335,864
197831571,558,73945,8741,495,343109,2701,445,134
197930161,977,44853,9061,858,667172,6871,617,821
198031962,543,23464,5922,522,78585,0411,702,862

The Post Office Savings Bank assets as at 31 March included investments in the name of the Postmaster-General totalling $1,558.8 million in 1979 and $1,679.3 million in 1980, made up as follows:

Asset19791980
 $(thousand)
Government Stock1,155,9271,246,928
Housing Corporation of New Zealand Stock217,408217,408
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation of New Zealand Stock122,700122,700
Personal and housing loans62,80192,303
                  Total1,558,8361,679,339

Depositors and bondholders balances held at 31 March 1979 and 1980 are set out in the following table.

Accounts19791980
 $(thousand)
Ordinary892,448900,506
6 months investment8,74212,420
1 year investment86,90496,857
2 year investment87,51283,240
3 year investment181,316206,402
Term deposits9,523
National Savings12,65611,008
Thrift club38,76137,649
Home ownership10,69011,743
School9,94611,444
Home lay-by269213
Farm ownership460650
Fishing vessel ownership1
Cheque35,20843,171
Budget service74149
Money transfer statement5
Bonus bonds196,413215,710
National Development Bonds19,19516,232
New Zealand Savings Certificates14,21316,446
Housing Bonds7,6147,462
Special farm ownership3,6846,968
Special home ownership7,78513,651
Special fishing vessel ownership1435
New Zealand Savings Bonds and coupons206205
Adverse Event Bonds
Balance in transit3,9041,380
          Total1,618,0151,703,069

PRIVATE SAVINGS BANKS—The Private Savings Bank Act 1964 came into force on 1 October 1964. Under this Act the 5 trading banks all formed private savings banks. These banks may transact business only in premises ordinarily occupied and used by the parent bank. In addition to ordinary deposits, these banks may accept investments similar to the trustee savings banks, by way of deposits in Home Lay-by, Investment accounts, Thrift Club, and Special Purpose accounts.

The following table relates to private savings banks.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest CreditedTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Plus Interest over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 (000)  $(thousand)  
197611121,100,87816,6571,029,04188,494556,848
197712431,260,66619,3041,214,82465,146621,995
197813171,394,93521,4871,365,55850,863672,858
197913351,805,62942,5651,667,813180,381853,238
198014742,362,16862,8952,329,78195,282948,520

Private savings banks assets at 31 March 1980 included $458.2 million invested in Government securities, $30.5 million in local authority securities, and $463.2 million in mortgages and other loans. Government securities must be held for amounts equal to 58 percent of deposits in ordinary and investment accounts.

TRUSTEE SAVINGS BANKS—The trustee savings bank movement is generally regarded as having originated in Scotland in 1810. The movement spread quickly, and the first such New Zealand bank was established in Wellington in 1846, 20 years before the New Zealand Post Office Savings Bank commenced business. By 1870 nine trustee banks were in existence but four, namely Lyttelton, Wellington, Napier, and Nelson, did not survive the turn of the century. The five remaining banks, Auckland (1847), New Plymouth (1850), Dunedin (1864), Southland (1864), and Hokitika (1866), grew in strength and their activities became an important factor in New Zealand's economic structure. Since 1957 a number of new trustee savings banks have been established, and the total is now 12. The legislation dealing with trustee savings banks is contained chiefly in the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948. In February 1980 the Government Stock requirement of the trustee savings banks was reduced from 39 percent to 38 percent of investments in order to provide greater funds for new housing. A proportion of depositors' balances must be kept as cash in hand or on current account, namely 5 percent up to $20 million, and 24 percent of the amount in excess of $20 million. Repayment of deposits is guaranteed by the State.

In addition to ordinary deposits, trustee savings banks may accept investments similarly to the Post Office Savings Bank, by way of deposits in Investment accounts.

The following tables relate only to trustee savings banks.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest CreditedTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 No.  $(thousand)  
197618572821,879,22825,9301,803,769101,390866,816
197719625222,264,57730,1952,202,37492,398959,215
197821264412,759,21337,3452,641,863154,6951,113,910
197922996993,778,30754,7313,544,013289,0251,402,935
198024697665,105,83274,9944,983,437197,3891,600,324
NOTE—This statement includes national savings accounts.

The following table shows the results of the transactions, inclusive of National Savings accounts, of each of the trustee savings banks during 12 months ended 31 March 1980.

BankNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest CreditedTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 No.  $(thousand)  
Auckland9861681,719,88527,8251,679,01068,700615,818
Waikato175516486,5055,123477,00514,623112,351
Bay of Plenty119032395,0044,227389,05510,17683,666
Taranaki105263230,2073,379223,8559,73171,307
Eastern and Central149545389,2923,835383,6549,47382,556
Wanganui69486190,7771,915187,9874,70537,122
Wellington District118609199,9713,391199,0104,35256,893
Westland3057449,7021,13147,3063,52722,330
Canterbury389005793,45112,604761,61544,440269,396
South Canterbury4553498,7541,58695,9024,43832,063
Otago182606249,8766,239243,88512,230122,196
Southland98428302,4083,739295,15310,99494,626
                  Total24697665,105,83274,9944,983,437197,3891,600,324

Following is a summary of trustee savings banks' assets at 31 March 1980. The total assets include an amount of $483,000 securing National Savings deposits, all of which is invested in New Zealand Government securities. Under the Trustee Savings Banks Act, however, National Savings deposits are not regarded as assets of the Trustee Savings Banks, and for this reason are shown separately.

BankMortgagesNew Zealand Government SecuritiesLocal Authority DebenturesCash in Hand and on Call at BankTotal Assets*(Includes Other Assets but not National Savings Deposits)National Savings DepositsTotal Held Including National Savings Deposits
* Total assets include $93 million in fixed deposits.
 $(thousand)
Auckland306,997228,31336,56516,170632,745355633,100
Waikato58,87640,6632,0434,887112,011112,011
Bay of Plenty42,60332,9921,4142,13784,30884,308
Taranaki33,67826,25326159471,2352071,255
Eastern and Central45,16530,42233170282,48082,480
Wanganui20,41313,22344142036,74036,740
Wellington District28,64621,6207811,58957,48457,484
Westland12,4847,8593131,32622,50322,503
Canterbury133,095100,76812,70312,065283,056283,056
South Canterbury15,06612,1002,2611,56133,19233,192
Otago61,70044,3637,4182,955124,11995124,214
Southland40,89635,2887,4373,76796,3671396,380
                Total799,619593,86471,96848,1731,636,2404831,636,723

STOCK AND STATION AGENTS—Many of the existing stock and station agents first commenced business as general merchants or retailers in the early days of the country's settlement. However, during the greater part of their history, the main financial operations have been in the supply of merchandise, machinery and implements, and the provision of finance to the farming community. The companies have developed a specialised banking business involving the maintenance of current accounts for farmers, the acceptance of time deposits, and the granting of secured and unsecured advances. It is a widespread practice for farmers to have current accounts with their stock and station agents to which the proceeds of the sale of livestock and produce are placed and farm and personal expenses charged. Any surplus may be left on current account or placed with the agents on fixed deposit. Stock and station agents have top-tier borrowing priority with the trading banks in order to obtain additional funds to lend for seasonal and farming development needs.

Financial data as at 30 June are given for the stock and station agents operating in New Zealand. The statistics refer to the whole of the companies' trading operations including, in some cases, activities additional to normal stock and station transactions, such as retail trading in consumer goods.

The deposit figures include only moneys received for an agreed term and rate of interest and exclude amounts secured by mortgage or debenture, and amounts in credit on current account. Secured advances to customers include those made on mortgage or chattel security. The figure for merchandise and commodity stocks includes all types of trading stock which are regarded as current assets, but excludes livestock, goods held on consignment, or motor vehicles used by the company.

The following table summarises the financial statements of 22 stock and station agents. Quarterly information, including details of interest rates, is published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ItemAt 30 June
19761977197819791980
 $(thousand)
Deposits held38,78637,87240,12952,76964,148
Customers' credit balances on current account79,97486,79169,11888,73292,869
Advances to customers—
    (a) On current account (unsecured)81,128108,166107,319129,232152,906
    (b) Other advances (secured)42,69049,31153,07152,00954,595
Investments—
    (a) Government securities1,4431,4981,1181,1231,094
    (b) Fixed deposits12,8898,1326,6639,470948
    (c) Other investments25,91332,57536,79036,89233,598
Cash balances (in hand and at bank)6073,9665,0947,5628,268
Bank overdrafts outstanding24,05565,86649,35642,96462,086
Merchandise and commodity stocks69,25994,341100,101108,755126,705
 Percentage of Deposits
Interest rates paid on deposit—
    Under 5 percent14.711.35.02.01.9
    5 percent and under 6 percent20.819.18.16.82.1
    6 percent and under 7 percent29.221.514.312.98.2
    7 percent and under 8 percent21.521.913.110.74.8
    8 percent and under 9 percent11.018.014.98.04.4
    9 percent and under 10 percent2.84.37.19.78.5
    10 percent and under 11 percent2.919.921.114.1
    11 percent and under 12 percent0.27.112.612.2
    12 percent and over0.810.516.243.8

FINANCE COMPANIES—In 1971 there were 27 finance companies designated “large” by the Reserve Bank for statistical purposes. Their assets amounted to 90 percent of the total assets of 526 surveyed finance companies. There has been rapid growth of these large companies in recent years as people have responded to higher interest rates on deposits and debentures and to the improved services offered. The large finance companies have developed simple and easily operated means of accepting money. Furthermore, many companies offer flexible deposit plans to depositors with large sums. In April 1977, the statistical coverage was expanded and since then 30 “large” finance companies (i.e. those with outstanding advances at that time in excess of $1 million) have been providing regular data. Between 1977 and 1980, considerable changes have occurred in the finance company sector including several takeovers and mergers. Because of these changes, there are now only 27 companies included in the large finance companies survey.

Although the finance companies have faced increasing competition from trading banks, savings banks, and other financial institutions for deposits over the last few years, total deposits (including debentures and notes) of large finance companies have continued to grow steadily, increasing by 27.5 percent during the year ended 31 March 1980 to reach a total of $1,070.6 million.

Net outstanding loans, advances, leasing, and factoring rose by $242.3 million or 30.2 percent in 1979–80, showing a higher rate of increase than in the previous year. This upsurge in lending was particularly strong over the latter part of 1979 and continued into 1980.

Finance companies' interest rates paid on deposits have been rising gradually since late 1978 and by March 1980 advertised maximum rates had reached a peak of 16.5 percent.

The public sector security ratio for finance companies was increased from 15 percent to 20 percent with effect from 1 April 1979. As the rate of growth in finance company lending continued to rise, and remained in excess of Government credit guidelines, the ratio was further increased to 22.5 percent from 1 October 1979, and again to 25 percent from. 1 July 1980.

Statistics of deposits, debentures, and notes held by the large companies for which the Reserve Bank collects statistics are shown in the following table.

TermAt 31 March
197619771978x*1979x*1980*
* Owing to changes in coverage, the figures for 1978 and later years are not directly comparable with those for earlier years.
 $(million)
At call20.034.130.770.171.3
Under 3 months19.644.572.896.0150.0
3–5 months15.331.765.680.6102.5
6–11 months13.229.2125.8146.6203.8
12–23 months16.0102.6150.8190.6289.4
2 years and over216.9203.9212.5255.8253.6
        Total301.1446.0658.2839.71,070.6

Gross loans and advances of these finance companies outstanding at 31 March 1979 and 1980 are shown in the following table.

Sectoral Analysis19791980
* Includes advances to dairy and meat processing companies.
 $(million)
Agricultural—
    Farming/fishing50.8x82.3
    Forestry13.028.3
                  Sub-total63.8x110.6
Industrial—
    Manufacturing*66.378.8
    Heavy construction, engineering, mining, and quarrying67.468.9
    Residential construction, property development61.570.7
                  Sub-total195.2218.4
Distribution/Transport—
    Transport, storage115.7149.8
    Motorcars—retail, H.P.128.7144.7
    Motorcars—wholesale, floor-plan41.770.7
                  Sub-total286.1365.2
Mercantile—
    Wholesalers, importers15.318.6
    Exporters9.613.1
    Retailers39.260.5
                  Sub-total64.192.2
Service industries n.e.i.50.280.7
Personal—
    Housing—
        New houses and flats42.4x54.6
        Existing houses and flats53.858.2
    Other personal109.2x153.1
                  Sub-total205.4x265.9
Other, n.e.i.1.7x10.6
                  Total866.5x1,143.6

A common feature of finance company lending is the regular repayment required on most loans and the short turnover period of assets, often averaging less than a year. This enables finance companies to switch their lending rapidly from one purpose to another. Interest rates in March 1980 ranged from 23 percent to 29 percent for personal loans, and from 20 percent to 24 percent for commercial loans.

MERCHANT BANKS—The major expansion of merchant banking in New Zealand occurred in 1971, when the Government allowed overseas companies to participate in their establishment. The merchant banks offer a wide range of financial services to industrial clients and also manage investment portfolios and deal in and accept commercial bills. The merchant banks engage in underwriting new share issues by companies, advise on and finance mergers and takeovers, and lend money for expansion to growing companies. The merchant banks played an important role in the expansion of the commercial bill market.

STRUCTURE OF FINANCIAL SYSTEM—The changing structure of the New Zealand financial system is shown by movements in the money supply and other major liquid assets of the public; a comparative table of selected liquid assets is now given. (Source: Reserve Bank Bulletin.)

Deposits, etc.At 31 MarchPercentage at 31 March
1979198019791980
(a) On an institutional basis$(million)
Trading banks3,935.54,663.342.243.2
Private savings banks853.2948.59.18.8
                Sub-total4,788.75,611.851.352.0
Post Office Savings Bank1,618.11,703.017.315.8
Trustee savings banks1,402.91,600.315.014.8
Stock and station agents116.0131.31.21.2
Finance companies922.91,223.19.911.3
Official money market33.039.20.40.4
Notes and coins454.8491.34.94.5
                Total selected liquid assets9,336.410,800.0100.0100.0
(b) On a functional basis    
Money supply2,035.42,146.621.819.9
Other demand deposits2,482.32,514.026.623.3
                Sub-total4,517.74,660.648.443.2
Time and fixed deposits4,818.76,139.451.656.8
                Total selected liquid assets9,336.410,800.0100.0100.0

COINAGE AND CURRENCY: Decimal Currency—Under the Decimal Currency Act 1964 a system of decimal currency was introduced in New Zealand on 10 July 1967 with the dollar as the monetary unit. The dollar is equivalent to the previous 10 shillings. The equivalent in decimal currency of the shilling is 10c. There are coins for $1 (not in general circulation), 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c, and Reserve Bank notes for 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 100 dollars. The coins are cupro-nickel, except for the one and two cent pieces which are bronze. Notes and coins have distinctive New Zealand designs.

Issue of Notes and Coin—Since 1 August 1934 the Reserve Bank has had the sole right to issue bank notes in New Zealand. Coin is the responsibility of the Treasury but is distributed by the Reserve Bank. Notes and coin are issued solely in response to the demands of the public. In assessing likely requirements there are seasonal factors to be considered, as well as basic economic conditions such as national income, the levels of salaries and wages, changes in price levels generally, and the total volume of money. In addition, methods and frequency of payments affect the amount to be issued.

Legal Tender—Under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 notes issued by the Reserve Bank are constituted legal tender for any amount. In terms of the Decimal Currency Act 1964, dollar coins are legal tender for any amount, coins of 5, 10, 20, and 50c for any amount not exceeding five dollars, and coins of 1 and 2c for any amount not exceeding 20c.

Restrictions on Export of Currency—Under the Exchange Control Regulations 1978 the taking or sending of money from New Zealand is forbidden except with the consent of the Reserve Bank. The Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1978 (Amendment No. 1) permits travellers to take out up to $100 of New Zealand money in notes or coin of any denomination. The export of any other New Zealand notes or coin or the currency of any other country requires specific consent.

NEW ZEALAND EXCHANGE RATES—The relationship between the New Zealand pound and sterling in the 1960s and earlier years was described in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

During 1971 the value of the United States dollar underwent severe pressure on overseas currency markets. The United States Government reacted by suspending the gold convertibility of the dollar in August 1971. The U.S. dollar was then floated against all other currencies, against which it rapidly depreciated.

The consequent breakdown of the Bretton Woods international monetary system and the introduction of widespread floating necessitated a re-establishment by the International Monetary Fund of a system which, while being more flexible, would promote an orderly basis for conducting foreign exchange transactions. The Smithsonian Agreement of December 1971 introduced a temporary regime intended to facilitate the resumption of fixed par values and stable exchange rates on a more liberal basis. The United States dollar was devalued at this time by a change in the official price for fine gold from US$35 to US$38 per troy ounce and, at the same time, there was a general realignment of several other important currencies.

As part of the arrangements, member countries had the choice of maintaining their existing par values against gold as the basis for their exchange rates, or of establishing a “central rate” against another currency as its “official” exchange rate. To retain an existing par value resulted in a currency revaluation against the United States dollar (after the change in gold price to US$38 per ounce); New Zealand along with the United Kingdom and Australia opted for this arrangement. At the same time New Zealand, like Australia, nominated the United States dollar as its intervention currency instead of sterling as previously. This enabled New Zealand to quote fixed rates upon the United States dollar while the rates for sterling fluctuated from time to time according to the relationship between the U.S. dollar and sterling in free overseas currency markets.

In addition, the Smithsonian arrangements established wider margins within which spot exchange rates were permitted to move and New Zealand availed itself of this facility. The revised margins were 2 1/4 percent either side of parity or central rate (previously 1 percent) and, where an intervention currency was used to establish rates for other currencies, twice this margin for currencies other than the intervention currency. New Zealand established its fixed United States dollar selling rate (US$1.1887) at the maximum permissible level below the United States dollar (US$1.2160).

It was evident soon after the Smithsonian Agreement was introduced that the arrangements made to promote exchange stability were not flexible enough to accommodate the rapidly changing economic circumstances between nations. A further breakdown occurred in 1972 when 18 currencies including sterling were floated, and the United States dollar again came under severe pressure. In February 1973 the United States dollar was devalued by 10 percent to US$42.222 per fine ounce of gold (from US$38). New Zealand maintained its gold parity, thus appreciating against the United States dollar to an equivalent par value of US$1.35111 = NZ$1. The fixed telegraphic selling and buying rates NZ/USA became US$1.3207 and US$1.3337, respectively.

New Zealand's Currency Basket and Recent Exchange Changes—With the continuation of widespread floating through 1973, the New Zealand dollar, tied to the United States dollar, was experiencing a gradual depreciation against most other currencies, since most were strengthening against the United States dollar on the overseas currency markets. This depreciation was not warranted as far as New Zealand's balance of payments was concerned, and as it was inducing inflationary pressures, it was decided to terminate the fixed relationship between the New Zealand and the United States dollar. On 9 July 1973, the New Zealand dollar was adjusted upwards by 3.24 percent relative to the United States dollar, the amount needed to restore the relationship existing in mid-February, immediately following the devaluation of the United States dollar. From that date, New Zealand's exchange rates have been calculated daily in a manner which preserves unchanged the average value of the New Zealand dollar against a “basket” comprising the currencies of New Zealand's main trading partners. Thus, from 9 July 1973 until the revaluation in September 1973, the average value of the New Zealand dollar was held at the level that existed on 15 February 1973. The average is a trade-weighted one, and thus movements in the overseas value of the currencies in the basket are reflected in alterations in their value against the New Zealand dollar according to their relative importance in New Zealand's international trade and other current overseas payments. This method of calculating New Zealand's exchange rates obviates some of the fluctuations that would occur in some rates if its currency were pegged to one particular currency. At that time New Zealand advised the IMF that it would no longer maintain a fixed relationship relative to the United States dollar.

On 9 September 1973, the New Zealand dollar was revalued by a further 10 percent against the basket of currencies in view of a very strong balance of payments and in an effort to reduce domestic inflation.

A devaluation of the New Zealand dollar by approximately 6.2 percent against the basket of currencies was made on 24 September 1974. At the same time the Australian dollar was devalued by 12 percent. This was a time of reversal in New Zealand's terms of trade and a heavy drain on overseas reserves following rapid domestic expansion.

In view of a continuing deterioration in the terms of trade and weaknesses in the balance of payments, the New Zealand dollar was again devalued on 14 August 1975, this time by 15 percent against the basket of currencies. It had become evident that the anticipated increase in export receipts expected to follow from a recovery from the world recession of 1974 was not eventuating. The objective of the devaluation was to restore the income of farmers and to stem New Zealand's rising import bill.

Following the devaluation of the Australian dollar by 17.5 percent on 29 November 1976 the New Zealand dollar was devalued by 2.73 percent against the basket of currencies, with effect from 30 November 1976. After a number of minor revaluations of the Australian dollar during December 1976, the New Zealand dollar was revalued by 2 percent on 20 December 1976.

On 21 June 1979 the New Zealand dollar was devalued by 5 percent against the basket of currencies to assist exporters to retain their profitability overseas.

From this time onward, it was decided to make small adjustments to the exchange rate (each of less than half of 1 percent) reflecting the rate of cost increases in New Zealand relative to the increases in the costs of its trading partners.

Following on from the devaluation of 21 June 1979, an Exchange Rate Index was introduced. This index, which measures the value of the New Zealand dollar against the basket of currencies, stood at 90.9 at the end of February 1981. The index has a base of 100.0 at the end of June 1979.

New Zealand's exchange rates are still calculated daily employing the basket of currencies of New Zealand's main trading partners as discussed in the previous paragraphs. The currency composition of the basket is updated regularly in accordance with changing trade patterns.

A New International Exchange Rates System—During the period since the Smithsonian Agreement, extensive international discussions have taken place on aspects of international monetary reform, including the question of an agreed set of principles to replace that Agreement. These discussions resulted, inter alia, in a quite wide-ranging amendment to the International Monetary Fund's Articles of Agreement. The amendment was formally implemented on 1 April 1978. The amended Articles introduced a revised code of conduct for exchange rate policies and practices of member countries, intended as a permanent international frame-work. Although the amended Articles allow for the reintroduction of a par value system (i.e., a fixed rate system) along the lines of the one in existence prior to 1971, it is now understood and widely accepted that a more flexible framework is required in present circumstances. Under the amended Articles, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has adopted a set of principles for the guidance of members, which call for countries to collaborate with the IMF and with each other in order to assure orderly exchange arrangements and to promote a stable system of exchange rates. These objectives are similar to those sought in the past, but attention is now focused more on surveillance of economic policies which have a bearing on exchange rates, rather than on the rates themselves. Thus, members are now permitted greater flexibility in altering their exchange rates consistent with the Articles, and have greater freedom to alter their exchange rate practices than existed formerly. IMF surveillance of exchange rate policies in the current international environment will be largely a judgmental matter, in which due consideration is to be paid to the social and economic circumstances of the individual countries.

The “currency basket” method used in New Zealand to determine exchange rates is in line with the amended IMF framework, and thus the introduction of the amended Articles had no implications for New Zealand's exchange rate practices.

OVERSEAS RESERVES—The trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly intervals showing among other things overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on account of New Zealand business.

Statistics of New Zealand's official overseas reserves are shown in the following table and, over a longer period, in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook. The figures are as at the last Wednesday of the month. (Source: Reserve Bank of New Zealand).

As atAssets of N.Z. Banking SystemTreasury-held Overseas SecuritiesOther Government-held Overseas SecuritiesGoldReserve Position at I.M.F.Special Drawing Rights§Total

* Comprises foreign exchange and overseas investment of the Reserve Bank and the trading banks in respect of New Zealand business. A small item “Liabilities in Other Currencies” has been deducted from the Reserve Bank's overseas assets while gross foreign liabilities on account of New Zealand business have been deducted from the trading banks' overseas foreign assets.

Gold holdings of the Reserve Bank at cost.

Equal to the gold subscription less any drawings of the gold tranche.

§ Allocations less exchange transactions.

NZ$(million)
End of June
1976299.1239.326.30.76.5571.9
1977399.3286.723.90.72.524.7737.8
1978554.4287.323.90.713.954.7934.8
1979386.1428.933.20.743.539.8x932.2
1980367.3273.146.50.723.9711.6
End of December
1976359.3285.323.90.79.8679.0
1977257.6258.523.91.62.540.5584.6
1978292.3175.230.82.527.856.2584.7
1979394.5371.438.60.713.1818.4
1980201.8248.249.80.70.2500.5

The following diagram shows the overseas reserves.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS—For the year ended December 1980 a current account deficit of $549 million was recorded, an increase of $13 million on the deficit recorded in the previous year. The deficit for the December year comprised a surplus on trade transactions of $885 million and a deficit of $1,434 million on “invisible” (non-merchandise) transactions.

Export receipts, at $5,820 million, were 28 percent higher than the $4,551 million recorded in 1979. Most categories of exports contributed to the increase of $1,269 million, with dairy products, other primary products, forest products, and manufactured exports showing the greatest growth in receipts in 1980.

Total import payments, at $4,935 million for the calendar year 1980, increased by 29 percent from the level of $3,840 million recorded in 1979.

The “invisibles” transactions balance continued to deteriorate during 1980, moving from the deficit of $1,247 million registered in 1979 to one of $1,434 million. Large increases in payments for freight on exports, fares, other transport payments, overseas expenses of New Zealand firms, official debt interest, and other commissions accounted for 5318 million of the increase of 5444 million which occurred. Payments, at 52,615 million, were up 20 percent while receipts increased by 28 percent to $1,181 million.

Capital transactions for the year resulted in a net capital inflow of 5371 million. This inflow comprised net official receipts of 5317 million and a private capital inflow of 554 million. In the preceding year the net official inflow was 5487 million and private capital inflow totalled $84 million. The totals given for these loans are the New Zealand dollar equivalents received at various times during the year by the New Zealand banking system and do not take into account exchange rate changes since the date of receipt which will affect the amount repayable in New Zealand currency terms when the loans fall due.

At the end of December 1980 official overseas reserves amounted to $501 million, compared with 5818 million recorded in December 1979.

A full classification of overseas exchange transactions for the 5 latest calendar years is given in the following table.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS: YEARS ENDED DECEMBER
Item19761977197819791980
 NZ$(million)
Exports—
 Receipts
    Meat783.6892.8977.11,295.51,481.4
    Wool610.7663.2667.4850.6995.7
    Butter199.0178.0241.5230.6374.1
    Cheese71.289.687.777.2102.7
    Other dairy products241.2297.7299.2325.3545.4
    Other animal products206.8284.2321.7402.2401.3
    Forest products243.0282.4292.5389.2588.6
    Other primary products120.3163.7178.9219.9313.4
    Manufactured exports435.8503.0582.4715.6965.4
    Miscellaneous16.625.622.644.752.0
                Total export receipts2,928.33,380.13,671.14,550.85,819.8
Other current receipts—
    Cook Islands exports0.20.91.40.80.5
    Transport182.2222.4235.4291.3353.0
    Insurance14.923.823.828.160.8
    Travel (excluding fares)157.1162.4161.8186.4219.4
International investment income—
        Interest and dividends42.345.447.145.849.7
        Other investment income8.913.612.415.722.8
New Zealand Government receipts and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand30.040.839.745.355.6
Miscellaneous—
    Commissions, royalties20.226.422.429.636.0
    Expenses of business firms13.817.327.435.939.1
    Personal receipts, legacies, and immigrants transfers137.715.5.8166.4200.6284.8
    Other current transactions25.334.235.044.059.3
            Total current receipts3,561.04,122.04,443.85,474.17,000.7
Capital transfers—
    Government borrowing430.9496.9644.7926.3833.7
    Other official receipts98.055.995.852.0282.7
    Private435.8409.7392.6372.2475.7
                Total capital receipts964.7962.51,133.11,350.51,592.1
I.M.F.—
    Drawings170.8-x
    Allocations of SDRs29.432.4
                Total receipts4,696.55,084.55,577.06,854.0x8,625.3
 Payments
Imports—
    Private2,784.12,999.22,876.53,652.14,729.0
    Government153.7159.7188.1188.1206.2
                Total import payments2,937.83,159.03,064.63,840.24,935.2
    Cook Islands imports0.50.30.40.1
    Transport334.0426.4420.3535.3713.3
    Insurance—
        Premiums9.710.918.227.833.4
        Claims1.43.13.04.04.8
        Other transfers19.722.921.414.113.7
    Travel (excluding fares)235.4294.6365.3488.0555.5
    International investment income—
        Private147.1169.8222.2200.1216.6
        Government interest.156.9196.1217.8268.9332.8
    Government expenditure overseas78.0116.3134.9189.3215.6
    Miscellaneous—
        Commissions, royalties, and rebates46.553.556.862.572.3
        Expenses of business firms90.0117.5128.6150.5217.4
        Film hire and entertainment5.34.96.98.89.2
        Religious and charitable17.716.516.720.417.1
        Personal remittances, legacies, and emigrants transfers70.390.0112.8142.8156.6
        Transfers by temporary residents24.213.59.87.38.5
        Other current transactions9.730.036.450.847.9
                Total current payments4,184.04,725.44,836.26,010.97,550.1
Capital transfers—
    Government debt repayments234.8304.9283.4332.7365.4
    Other official payments104.024.270.7285.0
    Private179.7185.2366.3287.8421.5
                Total capital518.4490.1673.9691.21,071.9
                I.M.F. repurchases34.9116.9181.8
                Total payments4,702.55,215.55,545.06,819.08,803.8
                Surplus of receipts over payments−6.0−131.0+31.9x+35.0x−178.5

NOTE—Minus sign (-) denotes a deficit.

The next table gives overseas exchange transactions in summary form for a number of June years, which fit more closely to the farm-production export season than do calendar years.

ItemYear Ended 30 June
19761977197819791980
 NZ$(million)
 Receipts
Exports—
    Meat674.5874.1896.81,196.41,326.0
    Wool512.1687.8619.2729.5967.6
    Butter185.9211.8233.0208.1299.0
    Milk powders116.7149.7157.8154.9222.8
    Other dairy products171.0221.5228.9236.6288.8
    Forest products197.6267.1288.2320.6501.2
    Manufactured exports343.6491.0511.6652.8824.2
    Other289.2427.5483.1604.6715.3
        Total exports2,490.53,330.43,418.74,103.55,144.8
Other current receipts616.9698.5752.3836.21,036.1
        Total current receipts3,107.44,028.94,171,04,939.76,180.9
Capital receipts—
    Government borrowing393.5457.3761.7760.0441.7
    Other official receipts190.675.355.596.4252.5
    Private381.3383.6509.8236.1482.2
        Total capital receipts965.4916.21,327.01,092.51,176.4
I.M.F.—
    Drawings250.259.7
    Allocation of SDRs29.432.4
        Total receipts4,323.15,004.85,498.06,061.67,389.8
 Payments
Imports—
    Government172.7158.2172.9193.0199.6
    Private2,554.22,988.42,823.63,203.54,190.1
        Total imports2,727.03,146.72,996.53,396.54,389.7
Other current payments—
    Government203.1277.7339.9439.6523.8
    Private881.71,135.01,323.61,557.01,799.4
        Total current payments3,811.84,559.44,660.05,393.06,712.9
Capital payments—
    Government debt repayments237.4264.5394.4200.9449.7
    Other official repayments181.094.999.3
    Private198.5171.1227.3383.7364.6
        Total capital payments617.0435.7621.8679.5913.6
I.M.F. repurchases14.667.2160.1
        Total payments4,428.94,995.05,296.46,139.77,786.7
Balance on trade transactions−236.5+183.7+422.2+707.1+755.1
Balance on current account “Invisible” transactions−468.0−714.2−911.1−1,160.4−1,287.1
Balance on current account−704.4−530.5−488.9−453.3−532.0
Balance on capital account+348.4+480.5+705.2+413.0+262.8
I.M.F. transactions (incl. SDRs)+250.2+59.7−14.6−37.8−63.8
Change in official overseas reserves+7.7+165.9+197.0−2.6−206.0

Overseas Travel Allowances—Since 1938, there have been restrictions on the amount of overseas travel funds made available. From June 1973 trading banks have been able to sell overseas exchange to travellers up to $1,000 a month with a maximum of $4,000 a year. Requests for higher amounts need to be referred to the Reserve Bank, which is prepared to approve all reasonable requests.

Exchange Control—Transactions affecting overseas exchange are governed by the Exchange Control Regulations 1978, made under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964. An exemption in respect of dealings in foreign currencies and securities in the hands of New Zealand residents is contained in the Exchange Control. Exemption Notice 1978.

Certain measures in exchange control and related fields were introduced by the Minister of Finance in the Budget of 16 June 1966, and are set out in paragraphs (a) to (d).

  1. Overseas Securities and Currencies: The facility previously available to New Zealand residents to sell overseas sterling area securities for New Zealand currency or other assets in New Zealand was withdrawn. These securities could then be sold only for other sterling area securities or for sterling area currencies. Therefore, if a New Zealand resident sought cash in New Zealand for his sterling area securities the only avenue available at law was to sell overseas and transfer the proceeds to New Zealand through the banking system.

    This measure, in effect, closed the market in sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency. A limited market was reopened in October 1966 (see (f) below).

    In June 1972 the United Kingdom made changes in its exchange control system. As a result the sterling area and the non-sterling area were redefined. For New Zealand exchange control purposes the sterling area incorporated the United Kingdom (including the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, and Gibraltar) and the Republic of Ireland. The non-sterling area covered all other countries outside New Zealand except Rhodesia. Exchange control transactions with Rhodesia were strictly limited because of the United Nations sanctions against that country. In 1979 the Bank of England abandoned all exchange controls but retained the concept of a sterling area as defined above. Also, in December 1979 the former sanctions against Rhodesia were revoked. The result of these 2 changes is that all currencies and securities domiciled outside New Zealand may now be dealt with freely, i.e., in the same manner as sterling area currencies and securities were previously (see also paragraph (f)).

  2. Export and Import of New Zealand Notes: A limit was set in June 1966 on the export of notes at $10 for all travellers, regardless of destination.

    The importation of New Zealand money (including postal notes, money orders, cheques, and promissory notes, but excluding travellers' cheques) was also prohibited, except that travellers to New Zealand could bring in with them up to $10 in New Zealand notes.

    From June 1971 travellers from New Zealand were able to take out up to $50 (of which not more than $4 could be in coin and the denominations of the notes could not exceed $5). For travellers to New Zealand there was no restriction on bringing in notes of $1 or $2 or $5 or coin of any denomination.

    In October 1979 an amendment to the Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1978 permitted travellers from New Zealand to take up to $100 in New Zealand currency which may comprise banknotes or coin of any denomination. A traveller may now bring into the country New Zealand banknotes or coin of any denomination.

  3. Supervision of Non-Residents' Accounts in New Zealand: The Reserve Bank was given power to exercise supervision over specific accounts in New Zealand of non-residents, with banks or elsewhere.

    The following accounts were initially declared to be controlled accounts:

    1. Those of non-resident banks;

    2. Those of non-resident travel agents;

    3. A group of seven individual accounts connected with international currency dealers.

    A subsequent notice to banks had the effect of bringing under control any accounts for the credit to which New Zealand money was received from overseas without the consent of the Reserve Bank. No change of policy was involved, this being a technical measure to ensure that transfers of funds outside the banking system were not facilitated by the operation of New Zealand accounts.

  4. London-domiciled New Zealand Government Stock: In 1920 provision was made for New Zealand residents to transfer holdings of London-domiciled New Zealand stock to the New Zealand register, a facility which provided a means of transferring funds to New Zealand outside the banking system. The volume of such transactions in subsequent years became excessive, and the following conditions were therefore applied to transfers to the New Zealand register on 16 June 1966:

    1. Stock must have been registered in the applicant's name for at least 6 months;

    2. After stock has been transferred to the New Zealand register it may not be sold for 6 months.

    Since 5 September 1969 the transfer to the New Zealand register has been limited to stock held on or prior to that date. Stock purchased subsequently may not be transferred to the New Zealand register.

  5. Overseas Investment in New Zealand: In 1973 the Overseas Investment Act was passed to make better provision for the supervision and control of overseas investment in New Zealand. The Overseas Investment Commission established under that Act administers the Overseas Investment Regulations 1974 which came into force on 28 May 1974 to give administrative effect to the Act. The secretariat for the Overseas Investment Commission is at the Reserve Bank.

    The new legislation consolidated and repeated the provisions of the Capital Issues (Overseas) Regulations 1965 and the Overseas Takeovers Regulations 1964 which formerly governed overseas investment in New Zealand.

    The Overseas Investment Regulations cover such transactions as borrowing overseas by any New Zealand incorporated company; borrowing in New Zealand or overseas, or the issue of any shares by any New Zealand incorporated company which is 25 percent or more overseas owned; borrowing in New Zealand by a New Zealand branch of an overseas company; and the issue of shares to overseas residents by a New Zealand incorporated company.

    Consent under these regulations is also required to the acquisition by any overseas resident individual or organisation of:

    1. 25 percent or more of any class of shares of, or the exercise of 25 percent or more of the voting power of, a New Zealand incorporated company.

    2. all, or substantially all, of the property in New Zealand used in carrying on a business in New Zealand where the value of the property is more than NZ$100,000. Any New Zealand incorporated company also requires the prior consent of the Reserve Bank before it borrows overseas or issues shares to overseas residents.

  6. Market in Overseas Securities: Trading in overseas securities in exchange for New Zealand currency is confined to New Zealand residents, and to securities which were registered in the names of New Zealand residents on 16 June 1966 or which devolve from such securities. All dealings must be effected through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, and both seller and purchaser must supply details of the transaction to an approved depository, with whom the scrip must be lodged. Securities so purchased may be sold for New Zealand currency under the same conditions, or sold for overseas currency through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, provided the proceeds are either remitted to New Zealand or re-invested in similar securities within three months. The new scrip must also be lodged with an approved depository. The approved depositories are the Reserve Bank in Wellington and its branches in Auckland and Christchurch.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION—New Zealand became a member of these three organisations on 31 August 1961 under the International Finance Agreements Act 1961. Their objectives and the implications of New Zealand membership were set out in parliamentary paper A.12, 1961. One of the purposes of the International Monetary Fund is to give confidence to members by making the fund's resources available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity. The bulk of a member's subscription, or quota, is paid in its own currency. The balance is paid in gold, foreign exchange, or Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) and constitutes the member's reserve tranche which may be drawn against automatically. Increasing conditionality applies to successive drawings under the 4 credit tranches, each equal to 25 percent of quota. In addition, drawings may be made under the fund's compensatory financing facility and the various special funding arrangements which are set up from time to time, such as the supplementary financing (Witteveen) facility which came into operation during 1979. The level of quotas is periodically reviewed as the value of world trade increases. An increase of 50 percent was agreed on in December 1978 to be paid in by December 1980. To supplement international reserve assets, SDRs are allocated to members from time to time in portion to their quotas. New Zealand has recently been allocated SDR 24.1 million ($29.4 million) beginning of each of the years 1979 and 1980, and SDR 23.664 million at the beginning of 1981.

New Zealand's position with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as at the end of a number of recent years is shown in the following table.

As at End of YearQuotaDrawing Outstanding*General Account Position*Special Drawing Rights (SDRs)SDR Value
Gold, Foreign Currencies and SDRsN.Z. Currency SubscriptionReserve TrancheCredit TranchesOil FacilitiesCompensatory FinancingIMF Holdings of N.Z. CurrencyHoldings as % of QuotaN.Z.'s AllocationHoldings by N.Z.

* Drawings are made by obtaining usable foreign exchange from the Fund in return for New Zealand currency which the Fund then holds in its General Account until drawings are repaid.

From time to time the IMF allocates SDRs to members with the objective of increasing international liquidity and promoting world trade. Holdings alter when SDRs are sold or purchased in exchange for foreign currency, or when payments in SDRs are made to the IMF in settlement of interest or other charges.

From 1 July 1974 the previous exchange rate of SDRs 1.12 = NZ$1 was replaced by a system of fluctuating rates determined by the IMF in consultation with participating nations.

     SDR(million)    N2$
197650.5151.550.5238.7151.5592.229369.48.40.8177
197750.5151.548.4238.7151.5590.129269.434.20.8395x
197850.5x181.527.5x209.7151.5570.224669.446.10.8187
197950.5x181.5x50.5x153.0115.5502.021693.58.90.7481
198079.5268.550.593.339.0452.8130117.70.7507

INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION—The purpose of the International Development Association (IDA) is to promote economic development in developing countries too poor to meet the costs of IBRD or other loans. Its highly concessional credits are financed by contributions from its developed country members. The IDA shares the same staff as the IBRD (and to some extent the IFC) and the three organisations are collectively known as the World Bank.

New Zealand joined the IDA in 1975, having earlier made a voluntary contribution of $5 million payable in instalments from 1970–71. As a member of the IDA, New Zealand has contributed to the fourth replenishment of its funds ($7.9 million in instalments from 1974–75), the fifth replenishment ($8.0 million from 1977–78), and has given approval for a contribution to the sixth replenishment ($10.0 million).

The principal purpose of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) is to promote the economic development of its member countries, by providing loans to governments (or loans guaranteed by governments) for development projects, and related technical assistance. The International Finance Corporation (IFC) promotes the growth of the private sector by lending or investing in business enterprises that are not guaranteed by governments. Both organisations now concentrate their efforts in the developing countries.

New Zealand has subscribed to 1887 shares in the IBRD, with a par value of US$227.8 million. Of this sum, 90 percent has not been called up, but, together with the uncalled subscriptions of other member countries, acts as a guarantee for the IBRD's major source of funds, namely borrowing in the financial markets. The balance has been paid in US dollars ($2.3 million) and New Zealand currency and promissory notes ($20.4 million). In 1980 New Zealand agreed to subscribe to a general capital increase of 1766 shares with a par value of US$213.0 million. New Zealand has subscribed to 923 shares in the IFC, with a fully paid-up value of $0.9 million.

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK—New Zealand is participating in the Asian Development Bank, whose main objective is to accelerate the economic development of the ESCAP region. New Zealand's initial contribution to the capital stock of the bank is US$22.56 million, half of which is callable. Of the paid-in portion, 50 percent is paid in convertible currency, a total of US$5.64 million, while the balance is paid in New Zealand currency. In 1971 the capital subscription was increased 150 percent, increasing New Zealand's contribution from US$22.56 million to US$56.4 million. Of the increase, 20 percent is paid in and 80 percent is callable, with a total of US$3.24 million to be paid in convertible currency. In 1977 the bank's capital was increased by a further 135 percent. New Zealand's contribution increased from US$56.4 million to US$148.3 million. Of this second capital increase, 10 percent is paid in and 90 percent is callable, with a total of US$3.7 million to be paid in convertible currency.

New Zealand also makes contributions to two special funds—the Technical Assistance Special Fund, to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$750,000 and the Asian Development Fund (ADF), to which New Zealand contributed US$6 million in 1974–1976 and NZ$4.1 million in 1977–1981. New Zealand has made an offer to contribute a further NZ$75,000 to the Technical Assistance Special Fund in 1980–81.

Two-thirds of the contributions to ADF I were tied to the procurement of goods and services from New Zealand, but all of the contributions to ADF II are fully convertible. The multi-purpose Special Fund, to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$822,370, has been consolidated with the Asian Development Fund. All New Zealand's contributions to the Technical Assistance Special Fund, along with the New Zealand currency portion of the equity capital of the bank, are non-convertible.

DEVELOPMENT FINANCE CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND (DFC)—This corporation is a development bank established by Act of Parliament for the purpose of encouraging investment in industry, and providing financial assistance and advisory services to industry. The share capital of the Development Finance Corporation is owned by the Crown and is vested in the Minister of Trade and Industry, who appoints a board of directors to control the corporation's business. The board consists of 2 Government officials and 6 others drawn from the private sector.

The corporation's principal activity is the provision of term loan finance to manufacturing, processing, construction, transport, and service industries for the purchase of plant and equipment. Development of tourist facilities is also increasingly receiving the corporation's assistance. Other forms of financial assistance including equity participation, hire purchase and leasing finance, commercial bill and mortgage money, sub-underwriting, and the provision of a contract bonding facility. In addition it offers guarantee schemes to other institutions for the provision of mortgage and overdraft facilities. It also administers two suspensory loan schemes on behalf of the Government the specific encouragement of export industries and regional development.

The Development Finance Corporation is concerned primarily with the support of projects which will advance the economic growth of New Zealand, make better use of the country's natural resources, and provide employment opportunities.

The corporation's Act requires it to “evaluate each proposal having regard to the economic worth of the industry concerned, its usefulness to the New Zealand economy, the extent to which it will be owned or effectively controlled by persons domiciled in New Zealand, and the prospects of it becoming profitable within a reasonable time”.

In the period 1 July 1973 to 31 March 1981 the corporation approved development assistance, mainly in the form of loans, to a total value of $466.2 million.

In 1976 the Government appointed the Development Finance Corporation to administer the applied technology programme which is designed to provide incentives for industrial research and development projects which will have specific commercial application.

In November 1977 an Act of Parliament established the Small Business Agency which is operated as a division of the Development Finance Corporation. The Small Business Agency provides a nationwide advisory and referral service for small businesses, and limited financial support by way of guarantees.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on banking and currency will be found in the books listed in the New Zealand Books section near the back of this Yearbook and also in the following publications.

Reserve Bank of New Zealand Annual Report (Parl. paper B. 16).

Report of the Bank of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 15).

Report of the Development Finance Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 26).

Annual Report of the Small Business Agency (Parl. paper B. 26A).

Financial Statement (“Budget”, Parl. paper B. 6).

Reserve Bank of New Zealand Bulletin—Reserve Bank (monthly).

Monetary Policy and the New Zealand Financial System—Reserve Bank (1979).

Economic Trends and Policies—Economic Monitoring Group to Planning Council (periodically).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Inflation—N.Z. Monetary and Economic Council (1977).

Report of the Post Office (Parl. paper F. 1).

New Zealand News Review—Reserve Bank (fortnightly).

Daily News Summary—Reserve Bank (daily).

Chapter 30. Section 30 INVESTMENT AND FINANCE

30 A—MORTGAGES

MORTGAGE LAW—The borrowing of money on mortgage is a principal means of financing the erection or purchase of houses and commercial buildings, and the purchase of farms. Under the Land Transfer Act 1952 “mortgage” means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing:

The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt.

The repayment of future advances, or payment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise.

The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable, or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge.

The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, see Section 10E, the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act; they take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property registered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

SUMMARY OF MORTGAGES REGISTERED—The following table shows the number of mortgages registered and amounts involved during recent years. A long-term time series showing the aggregate amount involved each year and the average rate of interest is included in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

Year Ended 31 MarchMortgage RegistrationsTotal AreaAmount Secured
Under 2 Hectares2 Hectares and OverTotalUnder 2 Hectares2 Hectares and OverTotal
  No. ha(000)$(m)$(m)$(m)
19761260302162014765033441,213.9398.61,612.4
19771379472247416042128371,375.7494.41,870.1
19781210482250114354931231,263.6546.11,809.7
19791418102753916934944491,500.7663.42,164.1
19801352242977216499651861,618.6848.92,467.5

NOTE—These figures exclude certain miscellaneous registrations, but may include minor duplications.

The 164996 mortgages in 1979–80 were in the following categories: first table 52461; first flat, 43484; subsequent table, 28741; subsequent flat, 30617; increases in amount, 9693.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED: Value by Districts—The total amount for which mortgages were registered under the Land Transfer Act, together with the number of mortgages and the area of properties involved, is shown by registration districts in the following table.

Auckland urban area, the largest centre of population in New Zealand, is in the North Auckland district.

Land Registration District1978–791979–80
NumberAmountAreaNumberAmountArea
  $(m)hectares (000) $(m)hectares (000)
North Auckland54944696.941453638768.6534
South Auckland25007346.458325519430.4668
Gisborne238234.7328232442.9456
Hawke's Bay7839107.13017077122.3343
Taranaki469665.3186526386.3308
Wellington29872339.967030120392.1869
Marlborough196725.3137177726.1217
Nelson392942.2102407049.9163
Westland9048.933100214.964
Canterbury21931283.059220007297.8711
Otago9984126.06968345128.9441
Southland589488.34075854107.2410
        Total1693492,164.144491649962,467.55186

Classification by Amounts—The following table shows mortgages by amount groups for 1978—79 and 1979–80.

Amount Group1978–791979–80
NumberAmountPercentage of TotalNumberAmountPercentage of Total
$      $(000)% $(000)%
Under 3,9991905145,3902.21662140,0561.6
4,000– 5,9991587974,8883.51439468,1462.8
6,000– 7,9991055170,2983.21030268,7662.8
8,000– 9,999742763,5012.9761465,2962.6
10,000– 14,99919692232,58110.718497216,7998.8
15,000– 19,99920482348,09416.121784372,42615.1
20,000– 49,99928513723,11733.432090830,14033.6
50,000– 149,9995410407,07218.86728517,05021.0
150,000– 199,99933254,4652.549982,9413.4
200,000 and over357144,7206.7592205,8428.3
Unspecified41655--35875--
        Total1693492,161,126100.01649962,467,463100.0

Rates of Interest—The average rate of interest on new mortgages over the last 50 years is given in a table in the Statistical Summary at the end of this Yearbook.

The average rate of interest for 1979–80 was 11.38 percent. The comparable rate for 1978–79 was 10.86 percent.

An analysis showing numbers and amounts of mortgages classified by interest rate groups is given below. It should be noted that some mortgages, principally those of trading banks, do not specify the rate of interest.

Mortgage Interest Rate1978–791979–80
NumberPercentageAmountPercentageNumberPercentageAmountPercentage
% %$(m)% %$(m)%
5 or below21662.049.42.716741.544.22.1
5 1/2 to 7 1/235393.276.64.224352.254.32.6
7 3/4 to 103773034.3690.437.73450631.4719.234.9
10 1/4 to 123878635.2540.529.53095328.2497.424.1
12 1/4 to 152343321.3400.121.83361430.6631.130.6
15 1/2 to 2021201.958.03.240493.791.44.4
20 and above22872.116.70.926737.423.41.1
        Total110061100.01,831.6100.0109904100.02,061.0100.0
Unspecified and other59288 332.5 55092 406.5 
        Grand Total169349 2,164.1 164996 2,467.5 

Mortgages by Class—In this section mortgages are tabulated by class, i.e., as first flat, subsequent flat, first table, subsequent table, and as increases on existing mortgages. The majority of housing mortgages, especially those from Government agencies, are table (or instalment) mortgages. At the 1976 Census, out of a total of 939340 inhabited permanent private dwellings, 391860 were owned with mortgage, 260590 dwellings were owned without mortgage, 253340 were rented or leased, and the balance of the dwellings were free with job, loaned without payment, or the tenure was unspecified.

The following table shows the amounts advanced and average interest rates of mortgages by class. Mortgages for which the interest rates are not specified are excluded from the calculations of average rates.

Year Ended 31 MarchClass of Mortgage
First FlatSubsequent FlatFirst TableSubsequent TableIncrease of MortgageTotal
Amount Advanced $(million)
1976585.2209.7603.3125.588.71,612.4
1977719.6249.9664.0164.472.21,870.1
1978667.3273.2630.7172.665.91,809.7
1979672.8287.1883.5223.896.92,164.1
1980768.1328.7986.3275.3109.02,467.4
Average Interest Rate (percent)
19769.789.857.128.468.878.61
197710.6910.788.629.919.379.85
1978     10.30
197911.8611.789.8511.189.7610.86
198012.4412.3410.3411.6610.2211.38

From 12 February 1958 the State Advances Corporation and its successor, the Housing Corporation, have made housing loans with provision for rebate of interest to 3 percent where the income of applicants does not exceed prescribed limits. If mortgages at 3 percent interest are excluded from the calculations, the average rate of interest on all mortgages during recent years becomes 8.70 percent in 1975–76, 9.91 percent in 1976–77, 10.38 percent in 1977–78, 10.92 percent in 1978–79 and 11.42 in 1979–80.

SOURCES OF MORTGAGE FINANCE—The following table indicates the sources of finance for mortgages registered. Of the new mortgages registered in 1979–80, 27.53 percent of the aggregate advances were obtained from Government agencies (of which the principal one is the Housing Corporation) compared with 25.49 percent in 1978–79.

Year Ended 31 MarchProducer EnterprisesCentral Govt.Local Govt.Trading Banks'*Trustee Savings BanksBuilding SocietiesInsurance and Pension FundsHouseholdsOtherTotal

* Includes related savings banks.

Includes solicitors nominee companies.

$(million)
Under 2 Hectares
1976228.6268.42.832.880.573.192.7241.1193.91,213.9
1977280.7202.12.424.3106.6113.8122.1275.6248.11,375.7
1978264.0209.62.128.6109.9104.2105.7253.0186.61,263.6
1979306.7322.42.261.5209.9113.0127.9219.2137.91,500.7
1980330.9383.32.250.6191.9129.9126.7225.7177.41,618.6
2 Hectares and Over
197647.7102.50.73.05.17.227.0143.262.2398.5
197771.8125.10.23.28.911.830.4187.255.7494.4
197867.5162.20.42.78.98.138.0211.446.9546.1
197990.8229.30.66.229.710.638.6214.343.4663.4
1980129.1296.00.38.128.515.269.0256.546.2848.9

Points to note in considering statistics of mortgages by source of finance are that most trading bank mortgages specify neither interest rates nor the amounts involved; and that, from 1976, the Government Life Insurance Office and the State Insurance Office have been included among Insurance and Pension Funds.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Monthly statistics of mortgages and an annual appendix are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

30 B—STATE FINANCE FOR FARMS AND OTHER PRIMARY INDUSTRY

The Government first entered the field of mortgage finance in 1894 with the passing of the Government Advances to Settlers Act—the objective being to provide loans at economic interest rates and on stable terms and conditions to farmers for land development purposes. The functions of the office, later known as the State Advances Department, were subsequently enlarged to allow loans for the erection and purchase of houses and loans to local authorities for the provision of public facilities. A public corporation was established with the passing of the Mortgage Corporation Act 1934–35—the share capital of $2,000,000 being subscribed equally by Government and public. In terms of the State Advances Corporation Act 1936, the Government acquired the privately-owned share of the Mortgage Corporation, extended its functions, and changed its name to the State Advances Corporation of New Zealand. Under the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation Act 1974 the rural lending activities of the State Advances Corporation passed to the newly-established Rural Banking and Finance Corporation from 1 April 1974.

RURAL BANKING AND FINANCE CORPORATION—The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation provides loans to individuals or organisations engaged in any type of farming, to the fishing industry, or to support industries in these areas. The Rural Bank consists of a chairman and 4 other directors appointed by the Minister of Finance. Two of the directors are appointed after consultation with the Federated Farmers of New Zealand (Inc).

The principal functions of the Rural Bank are to carry on the business of making loans and providing other assistance in its discretion for farming, other primary industries, and related service industries. Its powers include the acquisition of land and other property by purchase or lease and the management, development, sale, or lease of such property. The Rural Bank also has powers to give guarantees and indemnities to other lenders. In the execution of its functions and powers it is required to give effect to Government policy.

Farm Purchase—Loan finance is granted by the Rural Bank for the purchase of farm properties. Present policy is directed toward assisting young farmers and farm workers who can demonstrate a need for finance from the Rural Bank, and who have not previously owned an economic property. Loans may be granted for the purchase of land and improvements and for stock and plant.

The policy of average amounts for particular types of loans, which allows a higher sum to be granted in appropriate cases, has been continued. These lending guidelines now run at $85,000 for dairy farms and $120,000 for sheep farms under standard settlement policies.

A special settlement scheme has also been introduced under which a limited number of above-average farmers can be settled each year with loans of up to 85 percent of the available security.

Farm Vendor Finance Scheme—The purpose of this scheme is to assist suitably qualified and experienced farmers to purchase their first farm by encouraging retiring farmers to invest in their industry.

Retiring farmers who leave money in farms sold to approved purchasers will be exempt from taxation on half the interest earned by that money.

Vendors have the option of a Farm Vendor Finance Bond, or a Farm Vendor Mortgage Guarantee.

Farm Development—Loan policy in the area of farm development is to stimulate increased production and the intensification of small holdings, strengthen marginal farms, and provide buildings and other essential development. In appropriate cases, loans may be advanced on second or subsequent mortgages.

During 1979–80 loans for the promotion of land development and increased production, including Land Development Encouragement Loans and the Livestock Incentive Scheme, totalled over $138 million and made up 70 percent (by number) of all Rural Bank loans.

Suspensory loans of up to 50 percent of eligible expenditure may be provided for approved irrigation and West Coast drainage schemes.

Refinance—The Rural Bank has limited funds for refinancing onerous farm debts but will normally not provide assistance to repay existing mortgages unless the mortgagor is facing serious hardship through inability to obtain a renewal.

Loans on Stock and Plant—Loans which are essentially for the purchase of stock and plant, e.g., sharemilking propositions, are available on the security of the stock and chattels being purchased.

Sharemilkers' Suspensory Loans—A sharemilker or other short-term lessee, purchasing his first farm, who faces a tax liability through having to reduce stock may qualify for a suspensory loan if the carrying capacity of the farm he is purchasing is less than that of the property he has been farming and the stock reduction is more than 20 head. The loan is calculated on $30 per cow reduction with a maximum of $7,000 and is interest free. Subject to the borrower owning and farming the property for 10 years the suspensory loan may be written off.

Co-operative Rural Intermediate Credit Associations—Loans may be granted by the Rural Bank to cooperative rural intermediate credit associations operating in terms of the Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927 and amendments. At 31 March 1980, there were 4 co-operative rural intermediate credit associations in operation. The loans authorised through this channel during the 1979–80 year amounted to $1.25 million.

Farm Mortgage Guarantees—In recognition of the need for farmers to have access to more capital for future reorganisation and reconstruction than the Rural Bank can make available by direct loans, the Rural Bank operates a Farm Mortgage Guarantee Scheme. Under this scheme the Rural Bank protects prudent lenders with soundly administered mortgage against loss of capital.

Forestry—Where it is considered that tree planting is the best use of the land, the Rural Bank will lend to farmers for forestry projects and associated development works.

Climatic Relief—In adverse conditions, such as drought, flooding, or damage to crops from gales, the Rural Bank may provide emergency funds, by way of loan, to enable a disaster victim to resume or continue operations. The criterion is need—whether or not adequate security is available—and the motive is relief, not compensation for loss.

Farm Ownership Savings—The Farm Ownership Savings Scheme, administered by the Rural Bank, allows farm workers, sharemilkers, others associated with farming, and also students the opportunity of opening savings accounts for the purpose of buying a first farm or for the purchase of stock and plant to go sharemilking or share farming for the first time. These accounts can be opened with the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, private savings banks, and some building societies. Depositors have the option of operating one or other of the following types of accounts under the scheme:

  1. Ordinary Farm Ownership Accounts which provide for tax free purchase grants; or,

  2. Special Farm Ownership Accounts which allow depositors tax benefits on their savings.

Fishing Vessel Ownership Savings—This scheme is administered by the Rural Bank and is similar to the Farm Ownership Savings Scheme. It gives fishermen, students, and other persons connected with fishing, the opportunity of opening savings accounts to purchase their first vessel of 9 m or more, or to acquire an interest in a vessel of this size.

The accounts can be opened with the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, private savings banks, and some building societies. As with Farm Ownership Accounts, depositors have the option of operating one or other of the following types of accounts under the scheme:

  1. Ordinary Farm Ownership Accounts which provide for tax free grants.

  2. Special Farm Ownership Accounts which allow depositors tax benefits on their savings.

Industrial Lending—Loans are available to those industries in the rural sector which have export potential, which will assist regional development, or which service the primary industries. Examples include veterinary clinics, packing sheds, cool stores, grain dryers, and milk treatment plants as well as agricultural contractors. The bank assists farmers and agricultural contractors with loans for the purchase of plant and machinery.

Export Suspensory Loans—To promote the export of non-traditional agricultural, horticultural and fish products, the Rural Bank will grant to exporters suspensory loans of up to 40 percent of qualifying expenditure on plant and equipment, including fishing vessels. Upon achievement of an export target, each loan is converted to a grant and written off.

Fishing Industry—It is the policy of the Rural Bank to encourage the development of the fishing industry on a sound basis, and, to this end, it will provide loans for the purchase, building, or refinance of larger or more efficient vessels. Loans are also available for carrying out improvements, including re-engineering, to already owned vessels. Similar loans are offered for the acquisition of replacements or additional fishing gear. The Rural Bank also helps with the purchase of modern equipment and buildings for the handling, storage, freezing, and discharge of fish. Rock oyster and mussel farmers are eligible for loans assistance for development work provided they hold a lease or licence and themselves contribute a minimum of 50 percent of the risk capital. Loans are also now available to crayfishermen operating in a controlled fishery and holding a controlled continuous licence.

Special Fishing Boat Loans—These are available to experienced fishermen of proven ability and who only have modest means to obtain a loan of up to 80 percent for the purchase of a new or used vessel including gear and equipment.

Fishing Vessel Construction Suspensory Loans—These are intended to encourage the building of larger fishing vessels in New Zealand shipyards for the development of fishing for less traditional fish species. Suspensory loans of up to 40 percent of the total cost of the vessel are provided by the bank and will be written off if the catch targets set by the bank are met.

The bank also provides special suspensory loans for fishermen excluded from controlled fisheries to assist them to diversify into alternative forms of fishing.

LOAN AUTHORISATIONS—A summary of loans authorised by the Rural Bank during the years ended 31 March 1980 and 1981 is given in the following table.

Loans1979–801980–81
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
Standard settlement83464.2988074.70
Special settlement9615.4010420.05
Workers holding (“stepping stone” units)1886.4225210.36
Additional land (strengthening existing farms)27111.0830515.09
Sharemilkers' suspensory (farm purchase)1630.372110.57
Development468087.015555106.82
Irrigation561.43441.04
Irrigation suspensory460.81450.67
Stock and plant loans (sharefarmers)93415.60115825.73
Advances to Rural Intermediate Credit Associations941.25730.95
Refinance46910.782515.05
Climatic relief2753.182172.86
Estate duty672.22511.75
Department of Lands and Survey settlement130.52140.87
Livestock Incentive Scheme (loan option)185415.18226320.51
Land development encouragement181133.99175844.51
Fishing industry1028.651327.66
Rural industrial lending48328.7562030.49
 12436306.9313933369.69
Livestock Incentive Scheme, tax option801.431382.87

A breakdown of the items, Rural industrial lending and Fishing industry in the above table is given below.

Item1979–801980–81
NumberAmountNumberAmount
Rural industrial lending $(m) $(m)
    Rural industries957.981126.98
    Producer boards110.00110.00
    Coolstores and packhouses163.08213.43
    Agricultural plant and machinery (including special plant)2033.542834.81
    Agricultural contractors801.98651.67
    Rural export suspensory loans882.171383.60
                Total48328.7562030.49
Fishing industry
Loans for catching685.771093.95
Loans for processing252.28203.56
Rural export suspensory loans90.6030.15
                Total1028.651327.66

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION—Additional information will be found in the following official publications:

Report of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. Paper B.25).

Report of the New Zealand Fishing Industry Board (Parl. Paper C.6).

30 C—STATE FINANCE FOR HOUSING

HOUSING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—Under the Housing Corporation Act 1974 the functions of the State Advances Corporation in housing were amalgamated with those previously performed by the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works and Development to constitute the Housing Corporation of New Zealand, responsible to the Minister of Housing.

Housing Loans—Up to 1 April 1979 the Housing Corporation continued to concentrate the bulk of its residential lending on the prevision of loans to build or to acquire houses not previously occupied. Loans to assist home seekers purchase previously occupied houses (reinstated in 1964) were available to the extent of available funds and to applicants within strictly defined priority categories. Traditionally, successive Governments supported the building industry by encouraging loans for home building and thus recognising the strong demand for new houses, the need to add to the building stock, and the importance of the building industry as a major employer.

From 1 April 1979 onwards, major factors influenced a decline in new house building. These were a high net emigration rate, a static population, increasing unemployment, rapidly increasing building costs, and rising interest rates. The price differential favouring existing over new housing grew to as high as $12,000 and more.

As a result of this, in formulating policies the Government was conscious of the need to continue to give a measure of support to the building industry but at the same time to allow home seekers on lower incomes a greater degree of choice between building a new home or buying an existing one. The Government also considered that the private lending institutions should assume a greater responsibility for residential lending.

On 1 April 1979 a change of policy was implemented. For the first time in many years, applicants seeking a first home (whether married or single, with or without dependants) had the choice of building a new home or buying an existing property, provided the principal income earner's income was within the eligibility criteria and a personal deposit of at least 20 percent of the total ingoing (12 1/2 percent for married couples or sole persons with dependants who build) was contributed in cash, by Family Benefit capitalisation, or from sources such as a Post Office Home Ownership Savings Account, or any amount available to corporation tenants who qualify for a tenants suspensory loan.

In addition, the corporation specified that to qualify for a loan the total housing commitment including rates and fire insurance could not be more than 30 percent of gross income for a 1-income family or 35 percent of joint incomes.

A measure of support was given to the building industry with the introduction of an interest-free suspensory loan of $2,500 available to applicants building a first home (whether or not loan finance was obtained from the corporation) provided the cost of the house and site was not more than $50,000. From 1 July 1980 the building suspensory loan was increased to $4,000, but was only available to first home seekers who obtained loan finance from private lending institutions and where the total cost of the house and land was not in excess of $70,000. For the year ended 31 March 1980, 5866 building suspensory loans were approved for $14.66 million. Of these, 98 percent followed Housing Corporation mortgages. Up to 1 July 1980, applicants offered loans were required to contribute 2 percent of the amount of the loan to the corporation's general reserve fund. From that date this long standing requirement was waived.

All Housing Corporation loans are made on the security of a first mortgage of land. Each case is considered on its merits, taking into account the financial position of the applicants and the cost of the proposition. Each applicant is expected to make the maximum possible contribution from available resources.

Previous to 1 July 1980, the maximum loan was $20,000 for new houses, all interest-bearing, and for existing houses, $17,500 or 80 percent of the corporation's value of the property, whichever was the lower. However, to keep lending within the funds allocated, loans for used houses were restricted to applicants qualifying for interest concessions. That is, the principal income earner's income at the time of application, or the weekly average over the previous 12 months, was not to be more than $160 plus $10 per week for each dependent child.

On 1 July 1980 the maximum loan for new houses was increased to $24,000. At the same time an income maximum of $230 per week plus $10 per week for each dependent child was introduced, and the income limit for loans for used houses was increased to $180 per week plus $10 for each dependent child. The income limit for single people without dependants was $230 per week to qualify for either a loan to build or buy. In effect, corporation lending was restricted to applicants on modest incomes who could not afford private sector lending.

The prime interest rate since 15 March 1979 has been 9 percent, subject to review at 3-yearly intervals. Rebated interest rates of 3 percent, 5 percent, and 6 1/2 percent have also been available. To qualify for a rebated-interest loan, borrowers must not have owned a property within 5 years prior to the date of the loan application and the principal income earner's gross income (including overtime, bonus payments, and secondary employment) must not exceed certain limits: for 3 percent, $85 per week increased by $10 for each dependent child; for 5 percent, between $85 and $120; and for 6 1/2 percent, between $120 and $160, with both similarly increased by $10 for each dependent child. Loans provide for an automatic increase to the next higher rate at 3-yearly intervals.

Since February 1978, low-start mortgages have been also available to borrowers required to pay the prime interest rate to help ease the heavy burden in the early years of home ownership, particularly when secondary borrowing was necessary. Anyone granted a loan at the prime interest rate has been able to choose between:

  1. A standard table mortgage for 30 years;

  2. Interest payments for 3 years, then a standard table mortgage for 30 years; or

  3. If the loan exceeds $15,000, reduced repayments at varying rates for a term of 3 years, then a 27-year table mortgage.

Of the 14787 housing loans to build or buy homes approved during the year ended 31 March 1980 (involving $271.88 million) 4807 loans (involving $88.90 million) carried interest rebates.

Loans to refinance existing mortgages on a residential property where family income is under undue strain caused by high interest rates and/or onerous terms of repayment were introduced in the 1973 Budget. This policy was extended on August 1977 to provide for refinance where a mortgage had fallen due and could not be renewed or replaced within the private sector. For the year ended 31 March 1980 a total of 136 loans for $1.41 million were advanced. Security may be on first and subsequent mortgage.

Home Improvement and Urban Renewal Schemes—The housing improvement loan scheme originally introduced in 1972 and limited to improvement of inner city areas in the 4 main centres was extended to all localities in 1975. Loans were entertained for owner-occupier or tenanted properties on subsequent mortgage. The aim was to upgrade older houses in inner city areas and help corporation mortgagors provide essential alterations and extensions to their homes, to house a dependent elderly relative, or to provide extra bedroom space for a growing family. The loan approved, plus any prior mortgage debt, had to be within 90 percent of the corporation's value of the completed property.

On 1 September 1979, alongside this scheme, the Community Housing Improvement Programme (CHIP) came into operation.

The 2 major objectives were:

  1. To improve the condition and utilisation of existing housing stock and urban facilities.

  2. To ensure that residential renewal activity was fully integrated into urban development and management strategies at local, regional, and national levels.

The Community Housing Improvement Programme provides financial assistance to local authorities, builders, developers, and home owners for a much wider range of urban renewal activities, particularly within Neighbourhood Improvement Areas (NIA). The Neighbourhood Improvement Areas (NIA) replaced the Comprehensive Urban Renewal Areas (CURA) and Reclamation Areas of the former policy as areas where private and local urban renewal activities receive the maximum Government assistance and support.

During 1979–80 a total of 2161 loans for $14.43 million were approved for home improvements and in terms of the CHIP programme.

Armed Forces Housing and Furniture Loans—The Government announced a scheme in the 1978 Budget effective from 1 September 1978 to provide housing loans to service personnel with at least 12 years' regular service with the New Zealand Armed Forces. The housing loan interest rate is 3 percent for the first 5 years and 5 percent for the remainder of the loan term provided the servicemen or women remain in the Armed Forces, or have completed 20 years service, or reach retiring age for rank, or are medically discharged.

As well, furniture loans of $1,000 were made available to regular force personnel with 12 years' service and territorial personnel with 5 successive years' satisfactory service. The loans are interest-free provided the borrower remains in the services and maintains continuous and efficient service.

The number of loans approved from 1 September 1978 to 31 March 1980 were:

 NumberAmount
  $(m)
Houses2193.96
Furniture10030.89

Tied Housing Scheme—The scheme was introduced on 1 October 1977 to enable married employees required to live in employer-provided accommodation as a condition of employment to acquire a retirement home, even though they could not live in it immediately. The original scheme required the employee to be at least 45 years of age and within 10 years of retirement. In June 1978 the age was reduced to 40 years and the requirement that the applicant be within 10 years of retiring waived. During the year ended 31 March 1980, 107 loans for $1.83 million were approved, compared with 128 loans for $2.09 in the previous year.

Family Benefit Capitalisation—Applications for advances under the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 are received only from applicants who have already been declared eligible by the Department of Social Welfare. In the 1978 Budget the capitalisation maximum was raised from $2,000 to $3,000 and the amount of benefit capitalised from $1.50 to $3 per week. For the year ended 31 March 1980 3148 advances totalling $7.56 million were authorised by the corporation under this agency, compared with 4384 advances totalling $9.73 million in 1978–79.

Mortgage Guarantee Scheme for Housing—The corporation has statutory authority to guarantee mortgages and operates a scheme whereby an approved lender may be guaranteed repayment of a housing loan granted by the institution. In 1979–80 there were 7785 guarantees involving $77.57 million.

Loan Authorisations—A summary of loans authorised by the corporation for the latest 2 financial years ended 31 March is given in the following table.

Class of Loan1978–791979–80
NumberAmountNumberAmount
Housing loans— $(m) $(m)
    Erection8428173.005983122.31
    Purchase5912102.288804149.57
    Other purposes226713.44244416.53
    Refinance4334.411361.41
                Total housing17040293.1317367289.82
Loans to industry171.23--
                Grand total17057294.3617367289.82

The above figures include rehabilitation loans to ex-servicemen for housing purposes. They do not include loans to local authorities.

As a measure of support to the building industry, interest-free building suspensory loans of $2,500 were approved for 5866 borrowers for a total of $14.66 million. These borrowers were building new homes for personal occupation with loan finance provided from any source and the total ingoing cost of each individual house and site (excluding ancillaries) did not exceed $50,000. These loans will be written off after 7 years' personal occupation of the dwelling.

A summary of the number of housing loans under administration as at 31 March 1979 and 1980 is as follows:

Loans on MortgagesAs at 31 March
19791980
* These figures do not include loans administered by the Housing Corporation on an agency basis (e.g., hotel investment account, gas companies) or industrial loans.
Urban155858359898
Local authority234213
Urban housing12131290
Rural housing804858
Approved securities121
              Total158121162260

HOUSING ACT 1955—In addition to its lending activities the Housing Corporation has the function of administering the Housing Act 1955 on behalf of the Crown. The following are the main operations:

  1. Letting and administration of corporation rental houses and flats.

  2. Sale of corporation rental houses to tenants desiring to purchase.

  3. Loans to local authorities for the erection of rental accommodation.

Corporation Rental Housing—The number of additional dwelling units taken over by the corporation during the year ended 31 March 1980 totalled 1394. The number of tenancies administered on 31 March 1980 was 60368.

Rental accounts in arrears at 31 March 1980 were 5.84 percent of the total compared with 6.66 percent a year earlier.

Rents received from tenancies during 1979–80 amounted to $64,834,524 compared with $56,145,706 for 1978–79. Apart from interest, the largest single item of expenditure charged against rentals was the provision for maintenance of rental houses. For the year ended 31 March 1980 this amounted to $27.0 million against $22.5 million for the previous year. Rates payable to local authorities showed an increase for the year ended 31 March 1980 totalling $11,882,931 compared with the previous year's figure of $10,139,822.

References to corporation housing construction are contained in Section 19, Building Construction and Housing.

Sale of Rental Houses—Rental houses are available for sale to tenants on the following terms:

  1. Sale price to be the current market value of the property or its cost, whichever is the higher.

  2. The minimum deposit to be 10 percent of the purchase price.

  3. The balance of the purchase price together with interest payable over a term of up to 30 years on an instalment table basis.

  4. Interest at 9 percent reducible to 6 1/2, 5 1/2, or 3 percent reviewable 3-yearly while conditions of sale are complied with in the case of purchasers who would qualify for these rates for a corporation housing loan.

From the inception of the sale of rental houses up to 31 March 1980 the number of sales finalised amounted to 28599 dwellings (excluding pensioner units transferred to local authorities) for a total consideration of approximately 5203.32 million.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information will be found in the annual publication, Report of the Housing Coloration of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 13), See also section 19, Building Construction and Housing.

30 D—BUILDING SOCIETIES

Building societies are a relatively popular means of saving and investment in New Zealand and have about 490000 members. At 31 March 1980 there were 53 building societies with total assets approaching 5800 million. They provided finance for home ownership to the extent of some $124 million in 1979–80. Building societies have assisted the national economy by attracting and encouraging savings. They are encouraged by legislation, as in other countries, and are exempt from income tax except for income derived from the letting of property. The relevant legislation is the Building Societies Act 1965, the Building Societies Savings Bank Regulations 1966, and the Building Societies Regulations 1967.

The Building Societies Investment Order 1977 requires building societies to hold 15 percent of their assets in qualifying public securities.

TERMINATING SOCIETIES—These societies accept deposits but most of their funds are obtained from periodical subscriptions paid by members on their shares. In general, members contract to subscribe for a minimum period of 10 years. Subscriptions cannot be withdrawn within 10 years of membership without penalty. Field staffs are employed to recruit by direct canvassing of new members who take up subscription shares, each share entitling a member to compete for a loan of a specified amount. As funds allow, ballots are held for interest-free loans. A member winning an interest-free loan may use it to finance a home, but the popular feature of these societies is that they offer to ballot winners, as an alternative to an interest-free loan, a tax-free lump sum payment which is accepted by the great majority of ballot winners in preference to the interest-free loan.

Members may also compete for interest-bearing loans by a process of tendering or by application. The majority of loans are in fact made on an interest-bearing basis and generally if a member receives an interest-bearing loan he is then excluded from ballots. Terminating societies do not pay an annual dividend or interest on subscription shares but shareholders who maintain their subscriptions for 10 or more years receive their subscriptions back in full plus a proportion of the group's profit. Shares are segregated into groups which terminate after some 30 years. Under the Building Societies Amendment Act 1980, no further terminating societies are to be registered after 31 March 1981.

PERMANENT SOCIETIES—Whilst encouraging systematic savings these societies rely more substantially for their funds on single investment deposits and fully paid shares. Some of these societies are authorised to conduct savings banks in a manner substantially similar to the Post Office and other savings banks. A number of permanent societies maintain financial ratios which have enabled them to qualify for designation as societies with which trustees may invest trust funds by way of deposit.

Permanent societies do not conduct ballots but make loans available to members on application. The structures of permanent societies differ, some being purely co-operative, others being partly proprietary, and others being fully proprietary with all fixed capital. Permanent societies are now providing offices in most central city areas, the types of investment they offer are becoming more widely known, and share subscriptions are rising substantially.

ACTIVITIES OF SOCIETIES—Societies do not have a common balance date. The following tables have been prepared from the annual returns of societies as at their various balance dates during the 1979 calendar year. The first of these tables gives a summary of results for the latest 3 available years.

Item197719781979
Permanent Societies    
Number of societies 424341
Paid-up capital$(000)137,055153,292181,955
Number of shareholders 7493389091115,236
Terminating Societies    
Number of societies 151212
Paid-up capital$(000)316,742336,669357,957
Number of shareholders 403773392,794375,001

A summary of receipts and payments during 1979 is given in the following table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
* Ten societies are authorised by the Act to accept deposits on conditions substantially similar to the conditions pertaining to the Post Office, trustee, and private savings banks.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Receipts
Share subscriptions (excluding subscriptions on borrowing shares)181,22271,017252,239
Deposits received—
    Savings bank*7,0509337,983
    Other153,62657,291210,917
Interest and principal repaid—
    Advances on mortgage (including subscriptions on borrowing shares)52,28187,007139,288
    Advances on shares24114,08814,329
    Investments realised95,07384,305179,378
Payments
Share moneys withdrawn156,45845.680202,138
Deposits and interest withdrawn—
    Savings bank*6,8447657,609
    Other129,96852,424182,392
Advanced on mortgage60,95972,044133,003
Advanced on shares25013,18213,432
Investments made123,993107,022231,015

A summary of income and expenditure for the financial year ended in 1979 is given in the following table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesSocieties

* Mainly levies on members as provisions against losses on mortgage.

Mainly agency commissions.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Income
Interest earned on—
Advances19,98628,64148,627
Investments7,3416,63813,979
Fees, commissions and fines4171,3901,807
Income from properties881,0161,104
Net credit from shares forfeited or withdrawn at a discount-3,2463,246
Mortgagors' contributions to reserves11457468
Other*1051,1121,217
                Total income27,94842,50070,448
Expenditure
Interest incurred on borrowings7,9295,69213,621
Directors' emoluments206195401
Auditors' fees123161284
Salaries1,5115,5877,098
Other administrative expenses1,5614,0005,561
Selling and establishment expenses—written off394,8884,927
Payments for ballot loan rights—written off-5,1675,167
Expenses on properties, including depreciation1421,3451,487
Discount on shares paid in advance—written off-184184
Other2832,0862,369
                Total expenditure11,79429,30541,099
                Excess of income over expenditure16,15413,19529,349

The purposes of advances on mortgage in the 3 latest available years are shown in the following table.

Purpose of LoanPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
197719781979197719781979197719781979
  $(m)  $(m)  $(m) 
Dwellings—
    Erections5.74.93.59.06.84.214.711.71.1
    Purchases29.522.935.733.325.527.962.848.563.6
    Other purposes8.610.316.828.228.736.036.739.152.8
Business and other properties1.62.54.93.03.13.94.65.58.8
                Total45.440.661.073.564.172.0118.9104.7133.0

The following table summarises balance sheets for the financial year ended during 1979.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

* Most terminating societies bring the principal outstanding on interest-free loans into their balance sheets at its face value.

For definition and analysis see Parliamentary paper B. 14 Report of the Registrar of Building Societies.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Assets
Land and buildings3,36126,11829,479
Other fixed assets6165,4296,045
Advances on security of mortgage (less credits on borrowing shares)*214,940350,706565,646
Advances on security of shares36317,42817,791
Investments86,02282,825168,847
Cash and bank8235441,367
Appropriations in trust debit balances-1,4761,476
Other2151,6341,849
                  Total assets306,340486,160792,500
Liabilities
Paid-up capital (excluding borrowing shares)181,955357,957539,912
Reserves11,30347,61858,921
Retained profits1,35531,30132,656
 194,613436,876631,489
    Less fictitious assets15622,72722,883
 194,457414,149608,606
Deposits—
    Savings bank2,5374653,002
    Other103,52058,789162,309
    Appropriations in trust credit balances-2,7782,778
    Provisions3,1771,1164,293
    Bank overdraft1,9764,1666,142
    Other6734,6975,370
                Total liabilities306,340486,160792,500

30 E—COMPANIES

The method of carrying on business by companies is now a proved system, a system for the incorporation of persons into a separate entity for trading purposes and providing a convenient method for the investment of capital and for the limitation of liability of the people associated in the company. The incorporation of a company with limited liability provides the framework of commercial and industrial life; private companies have become a usual form of business organisation for the smaller trader.

LEGISLATION—Comprehensive legislation relating to companies is contained in the Companies Act 1955, which came into force on 1 January 1957. An important principle in the legislation is the protection of shareholders, creditors, and the general public by the requirement that there must be the fullest practicable disclosure of information concerning the activities of companies. The annual financial statements must exhibit a true and complete account of a company's affairs and transactions. A prescribed form of presentation is required, and comparative figures for the previous year must be shown.

Offers to the public require the issue of a prospectus, which must be registered with the Registrar of Companies. The Securities Act 1978 set up a Securities Commission (see below) whose responsibilities include recommending rules in this area.

Any number of persons from 2 to 25 may form a private company; a public company must have at least 7 members. A private company of not less than 7 members may, under certain conditions, be reregistered as a public company.

The Companies Amendment Act 1963 restricts company takeovers. The Companies Amendment Act 1966 deals with deposits and debentures, and came into force on 1 January 1967.

SECURITIES COMMISSION—The Securities Commission was established under the Securities Act 1978 and consists of 5 members, appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of Justice. There are also 5 alternate members. The chairman is Mr C. I. Patterson, a barrister and solicitor. The functions of the commission are to:

  1. Review the law relating to incorporated bodies, securities, and unincorporated issuers of securities, and to recommend to the Minister of Justice any changes it considers necessary;

  2. To review practices relating to securities and to comment about them; and

  3. Promote public understanding of the law and practice relating to securities. The commission is preparing proposals for new securities regulations to replace the existing law about offers of securities to the public. The commission has taken an active interest in a wide range of other topics affecting the investing public. These have included the law and practice relating to takeover operations, suspected “insider trading”, and inflation accounting. During 1979–80 the commission issued 3 publications. Background Paper on Financial Advertising Control. Review of the Law and Practice Relating to Shareholdings by Nominees, and Proposed Recommendations for Securities Regulations.

COMPANY REGISTRATIONS—The following table shows, for the latest available years, the number of new companies registered, deleted from the company register, placed under receivership, and liquidated. In comparing company registration figures for one year with another, it should not be overlooked that registrations on account of reconstruction of companies, or for other reasons, are included.

YearNew Companies RegisteredCompanies Dissolved or Struck OffCompanies Placed Under ReceivershipCompany LiquidationsTotal Number of Companies
Court OrderVoluntary
197663662083282121288106106
197752922104254201469109305
197854734298305239487110484
197957784254310485423112224
198061162957256399359115226

ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC COMPANY FINANCIAL STATEMENTS—Since 1953 the Reserve Bank of New Zealand has undertaken an analysis of the annual financial statements of a sample of public companies in New Zealand to obtain information concerning company finance and the capital market. Almost all companies whose shares are listed on the Stock Exchange are included, together with a few others. Results of these analyses are published in an annual supplement to the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

In 1977 the coverage was extended to include non-listed and overseas companies. Overseas companies are those with 25 percent or more of their voting share capital controlled by overseas interests, and include any branch of an overseas incorporated company. Only companies operating in New Zealand whose income is wholly or mainly from New Zealand sources are included.

The 1979 survey covers the analysis of the annual accounts of 929 companies received during the calendar year 1979. Of these annual accounts, 70 percent related to balance dates in 1979, and the remaining 30 percent to dates in 1978.

The percentage distribution of sources and use of funds for the latest 2 years are shown in the following table.

 19781979
Source of funds—percent
    Retained profits and depreciation47.940.6
    Other long-term sources31.824.6
    All long-term sources79.765.2
    Short-term sources20.334.8
                Total100.0100.0
Use of funds—
    Property and plant41.834.8
    Long-term investment16.518.1
    All long-term uses58.352.9
    Stocks17.411.6
    Debtors11.326.0
    Other short-term13.09.5
                Total100.0100.0

The aggregate appropriation of income for 929 New Zealand companies in the latest 2 years is shown in the following table.

Annual Accounts1978x7979
Income for year—$(thousand)
    Trading940,7101,111,251
    Investment83,073104,977
    Other non-trading49,45160,005
                Total income1,073,2341,276,233
Less—
    Depreciation251,336289,704
    Interest on fixed liabilities150,626185,066
    Directors' fees5,4046,069
    Tax on current year income175,909259,477
    Minority interests12,39712,420
                Total deductions595,672752,736
                Net profit after tax477,562523,497
Previous year's adjustments—
    Tax2,2616,955
    Other30,40133,652
                Available for appropriation510,224564,104
Appropriations—
    Goodwill, etc., written off3,2451,024
    Ordinary dividends168,471203,680
    Preference dividends10,07412,697
    Retained in reserves328,434346,703
                Total510,224564,104

Net Profits and Net Profit Ratios—Net profits (after tax) and net profit ratios are shown in the following table. This analysis includes annual accounts of companies balancing between June 1978 and October 1979, and mainly reflects trading conditions from January 1978 to August 1979. Of the 21 Industry Groups surveyed, 3 experienced a decrease in net profits and 18 experienced gains in net profits. The most significant decline occurred in the forestry and wood sector, where net profits fell by 20 percent to $40.2 million for the 23 companies surveyed. This is attributed to industrial disputes and the low level of activity in the house building industry.

The return on shareholders' funds increased in 12 of the 21 sectors. The effects of the stimulation of the economy by the Government began to show during the second half of 1978 and carried through into 1979. This, combined with the effects of improved prices for primary produce exports resulted in most industries showing higher profits than the previous year. However, towards the end of 1979 businessmen were again expressing concern over the decline in profits and efficiency in some industries, the high rate of inflation, and growing industrial unrest.

Net profits for the 929 companies surveyed rose by 9.6 percent from $478 million in 1973 to $524 million in 1979.

The relatively high rates of inflation during the survey period combined with the conventional accounting procedures used for profit calculation mean that the recorded rate of increase or decrease in profits cannot be said to reflect the “real” changes taking place.

Type of Company*Number of CompaniesNet ProfitReturn
TotalChange From Previous YearOn Shareholders FundsOn Total Resources

* For note on balance dates sec opening paragraphs of this sub-section.

The return on shareholders' funds is net tax-paid profit expressed as a percentage of shareholders' funds. This ratio demonstrates the earning power of the funds invested in the business by the shareholders.

The return on total resources is an expression of the percentage of net tax-paid profit to total tangible assets. This ratio is an indicator of the earning power of the business.

  $(thousand)percent
Manufacturing
    Meat processing3030,774+ 7,66910.04.5
    Beverages922,871+ 4,0706.64.1
    Other food4131,351+ 2,42812.27.6
        All food8084,996+ 14,1679.35.1
    Woollen mills612,712+ 3,9329.64.7
    Clothing manufactures174,111−6199.75.5
    Forestry and wood2340,171−10,5097.03.6
    Printing and publishing4314,263+ 2,31111.77.0
    Drugs and chemicals4754,783+ 24213.25.2
    Non-metallic minerals3216,403+ 6,3988.56.1
    Metals and machinery7055,199−1,76012.05.8
    Electric machinery and appliances3414,038+ 2,4329.85.3
    Other manufacturing5936,001+ 5,80313.37.8
        Manufacturing other than food331247,681+ 8,23010.55.3
        All manufacturing411332,677+ 22,39710.25.3
Other (excluding financial)
    Construction2518,345−5379.14.1
    Gas71,598+ 41012.16.3
    Mainly wholesale12860,017+ 4,65210.74.3
    Mainly retail10029,441+ 3,97411.05.7
    Stock and station agents2632,579+ 10,5099.83.6
    Transport4614,812+ 1,1968.13.9
    Property investors811,809+ 732.00.8
        Total other (excluding financial)413158,601+ 20,2779.64.1
        Total (excluding financial)824491,278+ 42,67410.04.8
Financial10532,219+ 3,26114.32.7
        Grand Total929523,497+ 45,93510.24.6

Chapter 31. Section 31 INSURANCE

31 A—LIFE ASSURANCE

The development of life assurance has gone beyond its original function of providing for old age and for dependants in case of death. In particular, it has become increasingly important as the basis of many private superannuation schemes, which provide a protection not previously available to the labour force. Whole-life assurance has been widely supplemented by endowment assurance. Under this category there are policies with titles such as “family-income”, “education”, “mortgage-protection”, or “retirement”, and persons taking out policies regard them as a means of systematic saving. Government encouragement is given by way of income-tax concessions on premiums paid, this approach being common to the governments of many countries.

The steady flow of funds to insurance companies by the payment of premiums are in the form of contractual saving, and the investment of these funds has become a major influence on the financial market. Life-assurance companies are leading lenders of long-term funds to the private sector and important investors in Government and local authority securities. Life assurance assets in 1979–80 totalled $3,305 million, of which 26.7 percent was invested in mortgages on property, 27.2 percent in Central Government and local authority securities, and 17.6 percent in company stocks, shares and debentures.

In the year 1979–80 there were 226502 new policies issued for a total sum assured of $5,229.1 million, or approximately $1,661 per head of population. The total number of policies in force at the end of the year was 2821932 for a total life assurance of $25,593 million. (These totals exclude annuities.)

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON—On the basis of the ratio of the value of life assurance in force to the national income, New Zealand is fourth to Japan, United States and Canada, as shown in the following table of selected countries. (Source: Life Insurance Fact Book, 1979, and Department of Statistics.)

Country19721977
* 1975.
 percent
Canada155157
United States153153
Sweden141131
New Zealand129149*
Japan148230
Australia110102
Netherlands111126
United Kingdom100100

In Sweden the introduction in 1963 of a large national group life plan sponsored by the Government but underwritten by private life companies helped to increase the ratio markedly. Term life cover is believed to constitute a higher proportion of the total coverage in Canada and the United States than in New Zealand, where permanent life cover is relatively high. (Purchase of assurance for a set term provides maximum immediate cover at the lowest cost and can be used to cover mortgage repayments on a house; insurance for a short term for travel purposes is also popular in the United States and Canada.) In other countries group life plans are negotiated by groups of workers and typically provide for a death benefit equal to once or twice the total of annual earnings.

GENERAL—The statutory provisions affecting life assurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act 1908, the Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910, and the Government Life Insurance Act 1953.

There are 35 life-assurance offices conducting business in New Zealand at the present time. Of these, 15 are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, Capital Life Assurance Ltd., Cuna Mutual Insurance Society, New Zealand Insurance (Life and General) Co. Ltd., Metropolitan Life Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd., the South British Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Superannuation and Mutual Savings Ltd., Primary Industries Insurance Co. Ltd., A.A. Mutual, Tasman Mutual Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Fidelity Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Marac Fire and General Insurance Co. Ltd., Equitable Life and General Insurance Co. Ltd., Invincible Life Assurance, and the Medical Life Assurance Society Ltd., and the Property Life Insurance Co. Ltd., whilst three, the Provident Life Assurance Co., Commercial Union Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd. and the Monarch Life Insurance Co. of New Zealand, are registered in this country. The balance dates of the offices vary between July and June of the following year, the financial year of the majority ending in December. The statistics given here relate exclusively to business transacted in New Zealand.

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS—The statistics in the following tables are compiled from annual returns furnished by the insurance companies for the period up to 30 June 1980. Five offices transact industrial assurance. This is essentially the same as ordinary assurance except that the premiums are payable at shorter intervals than three months and are usually collected personally by agents. In the following tables data referring to ordinary assurance business and industrial assurance business have been amalgamated. The first table shows revenue and expenditure during the latest 3 years.

Item1977–781978–791979–80
 $(thousand)
 Revenue
New and renewal premiums335,098364,107398,812
Interest, rents, etc.194,980223,016268,692
Transfers1,043207220
                  Total (incl. other)567,697629,482714,059
 Expenditure
Claims126,206119,798138,425
Annuities2,1662,4842,700
Surrenders84,016103,715106,831
Commissions38,99239,99647,791
Other management expenses55,38062,58874,532
Rates and taxes24,22828,61732,797
Transfers2,8372,0842,940
                Total (incl. other)346,891371,704419,009

The following table gives a summary of life-assurance business during the latest available 5 years. Annuity policies are excluded. Of these, 443 were issued during 1979–80, and there were 3,109 annuities in force at the end of 1979–80.

YearNew Policies IssuedPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies in Force
NumberSum AssuredNumberSum AssuredNumberSum Assured
* Because of changes in the accounting procedures of some companies the value of policies existing at the end of the year will not balance.
 (000)$(m)(000)$(m)(000)$(m)
1975–762263,392.01931,109.3266915,150.2
1976–772313,514.11811,298.4271917,371.9
1977–782263,865.21931,428.9275319,808.2
1978–792154,044.31831,508.52,78522,346.2
1979–80*2275,229.11902,025.1282225,593.0

Annual premiums on existing policies during 1979–80 amounted to $405.9 million, compared with $368.6 million during 1978–79 and $338.6 million during 1977–78.

While the upward trend shown in the figures has been influenced both by the rate of monetary depreciation and the normal growth of population, the course of life-assurance business, particularly during the past decade, has been one of steady progress.

Total discontinuances include surrenders and lapses, as well as policies maturing or terminated by death.

An analysis by cause of policies discontinued during the latest 3 years is shown in the following table. Ordinary and industrial policies have been combined.

Cause of Discontinuance1977–781978–791979–80
 $(million)
Death39.444.347.5
Maturity66.569.282.2
Surrender816.0853.7977.5
Lapse415.6429.9456.0
Other causes91.5111.4461.9
          Total1,428.91,508.52,025.1

A prominent feature of new insurances of recent years has been the increase in the average amount of the sum assured per policy.

YearAverage Amount*
* Excludes annuities and Industrial policies.
 $     
1974–7511,210
1975–7615,242
1976–7715,358
1977–7817,233
1978–7918,927
1979–8023,195

Reasons for the growth in the average amount of the sum assured per policy shown in the above table include the changing types of policies being issued, and the increasing numbers of such policies which have a high cover (for example, cover for staff superannuation purposes by business concerns, temporary insurance with a high death-risk cover, multiple death benefit and family benefit policies having a high initial cover, and “unit” policies whereby a single premium provides a high initial death cover). A further reason is the relatively high rate of inflation in recent years.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS—The principal items in the balance sheets of life-assurance companies are summarised below for the 3 latest years. As in the previous tables the figures relate to New Zealand business only. In the case of some companies other branches of insurance business are included.

Liabilities1977–781978–791979–80
 $(thousand)
Paid-up share capital6,2976,4676,638
Life-assurance and annuity funds2,617,9402,874,9333,168,691
Depreciation, reserves, and other special funds36,96840,03943,124
Claims admitted, but not paid18,07218,26523,125
Other liabilities46,12549,10763,105
                Total2,725,4022,988,8133,304,683

The assets of companies conducting business in New Zealand at the end of each of the 3 latest years were as follows:

AssetsAmountPercentage of Total
1977–781978–791979–801977–781978–791979–80
 $(million)percent
Mortgages on houses, etc.804.7840.4883.029.528.126.7
Loans on policies150.4156.7164.05.55.25.0
Central Government securities496.8541.3588.318.218.117.8
Local authority securities249.9278.2310.29.29.39.4
Real estate489.5560.2629.418.018.719.0
Company shares and debentures421.7488.8579.615.516.417.6
Outstanding premiums28.128.632.11.01.01.0
Interest accrued, etc.33.839.345.41.21.31.4
Cash26.230.939.51.01.01.2
Other assets24.324.431.10.90.90.9
                  Total2,725.42,988.83,302.6100.0100.0100.0

The Government has made agreements with life-insurance companies regarding the proportion of their new funds invested in Government and local authority securities. By September 1976 the proportion to be held in Government Securities was lowered from 21 to 20 percent, of which up to 10 percent could be in local authority securities. In addition, Life offices were required to hold 20 percent of their assets in housing and farming investments.

For 1979–80 the average rate of interest earned on the life funds of insurance companies was 59.90 percent, compared with $8.96 percent during 1978–79 and $8.41 percent during 1977–78.

In composite-insurance offices, receipts of life assurance and annuity business must be treated as a separate fund, and the interests of the policyholders are safeguarded by the fact that these funds are available only for liabilities arising from such business.

31 B—ACCIDENT INSURANCE

Until 1974 there were three principal classes of accident insurance transacted in New Zealand. These were: (a) personal, covering accidents, sickness, etc.; (b) employers' liability under statutory or common law; and (c) motor vehicle insurance. Other classes of accident insurance include the insurance of plate glass, television sets, luggage, and livestock.

The Accident Compensation Act 1972, effective from 1 April 1974, provides continuous cover against accidents of all persons in regular employment, whether at work or not, through an earners' scheme financed by levies averaging 1 percent of incomes payable by employers on behalf of employees: the levies replace employers' liability premiums under the Workers Compensation Act. (See Section 35 A, Accident Prevention, Rehabilitation, and Compensation.)

Previous to 1974 there were two classes of motor vehicle insurance—comprehensive coverage, and compulsory third-party risks cover. Owners of motor vehicles were compelled to insure against their liability to pay damages on account of the death or bodily injury of another person caused through the car-owners' negligence. However, this compulsory scheme was replaced from 1 July 1974 by a new scheme under the Accident Compensation Act 1972. This provides financial compensation for personal injuries suffered in motor vehicle accidents irrespective of blame. It is financed by levies similar to the previous insurance premiums paid by motor vehicle owners.

The number of accident insurance offices represented in the statistics for 1979–80 was 54. The head offices of the companies concerned were in the following countries: Great Britain, 9; Australia, 10; United States of America, 3; Hong Kong, 1; and New Zealand, 31.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The following table shows the principal items of revenue and expenditure. Premiums and claims are net, i.e., after deductions for acceptances of reinsurance, whether effected locally or overseas, have been taken into account.

YearNumber of OfficesRevenueExpenditure
PremiumsOther RevenueTotal*ClaimsCommissionSalariesOther ExpensesTotal*
* Excluding reserve provisions.
$(million)
1975–7664120.810.1130.997.59.415.311.0133.2
1976–7759141.111.5152.6108.211.216.914.9151.2
1977–7859164.913.7178.7119.211.617.720.7169.3
1978–7954176.914.1191.0123.312.919.522.8178.5
1979–8054197.816.6214.4130.014.323.524.9192.7

Premium receipts in 1979–80 were 11.8 percent above the 1978–79 figure, while claims had risen by 5.4 percent.

A review of the expenses incurred in transacting all accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of 5 years are shown in the form of percentages of revenue to expenditure under various heads. The percentages do not take into account reserve provisions.

YearClaims to PremiumsCommission to PremiumsSalaries to PremiumsOther Expenses to PremiumsTotal Expenses (other than Claims) to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to Total Revenue
percent
1975–7680.77.812.79.129.5110.2101.7
1976–7776.77.912.010.630.5107.299.1
1977–7872.37.010.712.630.4102.794.7
1978–7969.77.311.012.931.2100.993.5
1979–8065.77.211.912.631.797.489.9

Working expenses (excluding taxation) amounted to $43,635,000 in 1977–78, $47,971,000 in 1978–79, and $54,928,000 in 1979–80. The ratios of working expenses to premium income for each of the 3 years were respectively 26.4, 27.1, and 27.8 percent.

31 C—FIRE INSURANCE

Fire is still the main cause of property damage, but today many property owners seek protection not only against fire damage, but also against a wide range of other dangers including water damage, windstorm, explosion, breakages, theft, damage from aircraft, and impact by motor vehicles. Under houseowners' and householders' comprehensive policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, many thousands of additional claims are now dealt with each year. Increasing numbers of commercial property owners, too, are extending their fire policies to include damage from other causes.

In 1980 there were 40 fire-insurance companies conducting business in New Zealand. Of these, the head offices of 24 were in New Zealand, 8 were in Great Britain, 5 in Australia, 2 in the United States of America, and 1 in Hong Kong. The statistics in this section relate to the calendar year for about two-thirds of these companies; for the remaining companies the financial year nearest to the calendar year is used.

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS—The statistics in the following summary relate to the business conducted with the insuring public. Reinsurance transactions are not taken into account.

YearPolicies at 31 DecemberGross Cover at 31 DecemberPremium IncomeGross LossPercentage of Claims to Premium Income
 No.$(m)$(000)$(000)percent
1975–76227469541,131.997,91545,59646.6
1976–77232866248,767.5111,18748,53043.6
1977–78231398459,172.3121,84762,63251.4
1978–79224846660,317.4126,24870,35755.7
1979–80223349868,516.0192,41285,24644.3

LIABILITIES—The following table shows whole-world liabilities of fire-insurance offices. The figures refer to all departments of business underwritten. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act 1908 life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available for other classes of insurance transacted. Of the 40 fire offices, 3 also engage in life-assurance business in New Zealand.

Item1977–78 Total1978–79 Total1979–80
Overseas CompaniesLocal CompaniesTotal
 $(million)
Paid-up capital466.3473.2382.464.6447.0
Reserves2,071.12,015.01,328.6179.51,508.1
Other liabilities6,370.36,374.63,660.9531.04,191.9
                Total8,907.78,862.85,371.8774.96,146.7
Life funds8,662.57,564.59,580.6190.49,771.0
                Total liabilities17,570.216,427.314,952.4965.315,917.7

ASSETS—The following table gives the amount of assets in New Zealand as at the end of each of the latest 5 years classified under various heads. The figures given include all investments in New Zealand securities and do not relate merely to the assets held by the New Zealand branches of the companies concerned. The assets of other departments— accident, life, marine, etc.—are also included.

Assets in New Zealand1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80
 $(million)
Real estate62.778.686.787.8109.5
Central Government securities32.941.136.531.435.7
Local authority securities28.826.632.128.929.8
Company shares and debentures109.7143.0157.7160.3176.0
Mortgages, etc.48.463.673.570.673.4
Outstanding premiums46.249.659.564.170.6
Cash and other assets in New Zealand52.665.576.464.689.8
                Total New Zealand assets381.3468.0522.4507.7585.0

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—A statement of the total revenue and expenditure, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross figures include reinsurance business accepted, while the net figures comprise insurances with the public, plus reinsurances accepted, and less amounts reinsured with other offices.

It should be noted that at the closing date of the accounts it is customary to transfer to a reserve a proportion of the income received during the year. If the amount transferred to reserve in the latest year is greater than that transferred at the end of the previous year the net effect is equivalent to an increase in the latest year's expenditure and appears in the statement of net expenditure. Similarly, if the amount transferred in the latest year is less than in the previous year, the net effect appears in the statement of net revenue.

Item1978–791979–80
GrossSetGrossSet
 $(thousand)
Revenue    
Change in reserve provisions 1,693 273
Amount of fire premiums received during year175,572120,475189,663137,376
Interest and dividends 10,176 11,415
Rents 1,216 2,137
Other revenue 2,952 3,957
                Total175,572136,513189,663155,158
Expenditure    
Change in reserve provisions7,5455,64611,1868,354
Amount of fire claims paid during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage80,66960,36492,57169,140
Fire authority levies19,02115,29021,32817,280
Central Government taxes6,1706,2363,0843,253
Rents1,3421,3012,0962,066
Depreciation1,1751,1822,2712,269
Allowance and commissions on premiums to agents, subagents, and others19,34810,25819,89811,166
Salaries and wages, including commissions, on profits or bonuses18,14617,86122,12721,916
Other expenses of management11,79311,62914,26714,183
                Total165,211129,764188,828149,633

31 D—STATE INSURANCE

LIFE ASSURANCE—The New Zealand Government Life Insurance Office was founded in 1869 at a time when New Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities in regard to life assurance. The payment of all policies has always been guaranteed by the Government.

From a total of 59 policies, assuring a sum of $60,005, issued during 1869–70, the business of the office has grown to a stage when, at the end of 1979, policies numbered 467214 and the total sum assured reached $2,852 million. Among life assurance companies, the Government Life Insurance handles the second largest volume of business in New Zealand.

Income and expenditure figures of the Government Life Insurance Office for the latest 5 years are shown in the following table.

YearPremium Income (Including Purchase of Annuities)Total IncomeManagement Expenses and CommissionsTotal ExpenditureRatio of Management Expenses to Total IncomeRatio of Management Expenses to Premium Income
  $(thousand) percent
197541,25866,5957,18235,65410.7917.41
197645,72574,4368,80839,89611.8319.26
197743,22176,1139,28039,74212.1921.47
197852,12490,07110,87049,70412.0720.85
197951,83196,19012,15452,46512.6423.45

During the year ended December 1979, 7571 policies became claims by death of the life assured or by maturity. The amount paid in respect of these claims was $19,885,721. A further sum of $818,728 was paid to annuitants, and $15,281,114 was paid to policyholders who cashed bonuses or surrendered policies.

Figures showing the progress of the office during the latest 5 years are contained in the next table. Annuities are included, but bonuses are excluded.

YearNew BusinessPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies in Force at End of Year
Number of PoliciesSum AssuredAnnual*PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
* Excludes single premiums.
  $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m)
197529390340.23.723803118.72.74589001,865.430.8
197630191373.34.425132124.32.44639592,114.532.8
197727723367.94.324479135.52.54672032,346.834.6
197827148398.74.328288182.92.64660632,562.636.1
197930934500.15.029783201.02.64672142,861.738.5

The following table shows the progress of business of the Government Life Insurance Office from the date of establishment until 31 December 1979.

 PoliciesAnnuities
NumberSum AssuredReversionary BonusesAnnual Premiums
  $(million)$(000)
Total issued11162714,489.7352.172,15832,074
Total void6490571,627.9122.333,43722,313
Total in force at 31 Dec 19794672142,861.7229.838,7219,761

The office's total assets at 31 December are shown by class of investment in the following table.

Class of InvestmentAmountPercentage
1978197919781979
* Mainly premiums and interest due and accrued interest.
 $(million)percent
Mortgages on property180.0181.936.4033.64
Loans on policies27.628.25.575.22
Government securities89.598.318.1018.18
Local authority securities46.854.59.4510.08
Real estate73.888.014.9316.28
Company shares and debentures55.667.411.2512.46
Miscellaneous assets*21.222.44.304.14
                Total494.6540.7100.00100.00

FIRE, ACCIDENT, AND OTHER INSURANCE—The State Insurance Office is empowered to carry on any class of insurance business other than life assurance. As the State Fire Office it commenced business in 1905. In 1925 accident business was transferred to it from the Government Life Insurance Office and since 1947 it has undertaken marine insurance.

Its growth is indicated in the following table.

YearNet PremiumsClaimsWorking Expenses
* Includes taxation.
  $ (thousand) 
197542,25934,5695,912
197654,39238,4947,440
197765,78342,5527,054
197873,62147,6488,269
197980,31949,42616,703*

As was the case with private accident insurance companies the main classes of accident insurance transacted by the State Insurance Office prior to 1974 were motor vehicle (comprehensive and third-party risk), employer's liability, personal accident, public risk, and plate glass. With the implementation of the Accident Compensation Act on 1 April 1974, all classes of business involving the insurance of liability for personal injury by accident ceased to be risks insured by the office. The major classes of business affected were employer's liability insurance and Transport Act insurance.

The total assets of the State Insurance Office at 31 December 1979 amounted to $127.7 million, which included $66.4 million in the form of investments ($8.6 million in Government securities, $14.9 million in local body securities), and $47.3 million in fixed assets, mainly land, buildings, and plant. Of the total liabilities, reserves amounted to $73.8 million, unexpired risks to $34.4 million, and unadjusted claims to $11.2 million.

EARTHQUAKE AND WAR DAMAGE INSURANCE—The Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944 is administered by a Commission, of which the Minister of Finance is chairman. All property insured against fire is deemed to be insured to the extent of the indemnity value against earthquake and war damage. Premiums at the rate of 5c for each $100 of insurance cover are collected by the insurance companies and paid into the Earthquake and War Damage Fund (less commission of 2 1/2 percent).

Advances may be made from the Consolidated Account if at any time the amount in the Earthquake and War Damage Fund is not sufficient to meet the claims thereon.

“Earthquake damage” is defined as damage occurring as the direct result of earthquake or of fire occasioned by or in consequence of earthquake. In 1950 an extension of the scheme was instituted to provide some measure of protection to the insured against storm and flood of an abnormal or widespread nature. In 1954 the definition of disaster damage was extended to include volcanic eruption, and authority was given to the commission to accept insurance against landslip. This latter type of cover does not apply automatically. Finance is provided by crediting 10 percent of the premiums compulsorily collected under the Act to a special Disaster Fund.

Since 1 June 1967 the commission has had power to underwrite the geothermal activity insurance on a voluntary basis.

The following is a comparative statement for the latest available 5 years of the financial operations under the Earthquake and War Damage Act.

Item1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80

* At end of each period.

Includes adjustment of the cost price of investments to nominal value.

 $(thousand)
Income—
    Premiums—
        Earthquake and war damage17,24720,34123,17526,78630,566
        Disaster1,9162,2602,5752,9773,397
        Interest13,34215,43618,60023,38029,749
                Total32,50538,03744,35053,14363,712
Expenditure—
    Increase in provision for unearned premium----2,235
    Other adjustments on overseas investments----1,098
    Claims—
    Earthquake and war damage1823378021123
    Disaster5,2114,4142662,8441,501
    Salaries and expenses of management9498105111125
    Discount to insurance offices479563639746850
                Total5,9665,4121,0903,7225,932
Surplus26,54032,62443,26049,42157,780
Earthquake and War Damage Fund*239,968267,773310,535360,157410,385
Disaster Fund*4993,2555,7066,1096,800

For the year ended 31 March 1980 a total of 1643 claims were received, compared with 2174 for the previous year. The breakdown of claims was as follows: earthquake, 639; extraordinary disaster, 544; landslip, 460. Respective figures for the previous year were 270; 1754; and 150.

Earthquake Claims—As a result of seismic activity during the year 639 claims amounting to $122,968 were registered.

Disaster claims—Claims totalled only 544, which is the lowest number recorded since 1960–61.

Landslip claims—A total of 460 claims for this year resulted in payments of $2,350,405. The major landslip was at Abbotsford, where 164 claims were recorded at a cost of $1,756,177.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on insurance statistics will be found in the following publications.

Insurance Statistics—Department of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Annual Report of the Government Insurance Commissioner (Parl. paper B. 22).

Report of the State Insurance Office (Parl. paper B. 21).

Report of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission (Parl. paper B. 11).

Chapter 32. Section 32 EMPLOYMENT

Table of Contents

LABOUR FORCE—Important factors affecting the proportional size of the labour force to population include the age structure of the population, the usual age of completion of full-time education, the percentage of marred women engaged in full-time paid employment, and net migration flow. The fluctuations in the growth of the labour force follow those of births some 15 to 20 years earlier. There is a relatively greater importance of the 15–24 year age groups in the labour force as the majority of women and girls are actively engaged in the labour force at this period of their lives. At the time of the 1976 Census, 18.5 percent of the female labour force was below 20 years of age, compared with 10.0 percent of the male labour force.

The estimated annual growth of the labour force during the latest available years is shown in the following table based on Department of Labour estimates.

As at AprilMalesFemalesTotalLabour Force as a Percentage of Total Population
NumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual Increase
 (000)percent(000)percent(000)percentpercent
1973814.72.2335.52.91150.22.438.7
1974834.22.4357.16.41191.33.639.2
1975843.21.1364.52.11207.71.438.9
1976849.50.7372.52.21222.01.239.1
1977841.7−0.9388.44.31230.10.739.2

The following table shows the male and female members of the labour force by age groups at 5 censuses.

Age Group (Years)19561961196619711976
* Includes Not Specified ages at 1956 census.
Under 20(m)5384862396786697597386341
 (f)4888958224743587259875295
20–24(m)664077568291155108686120029
 (f)3363438884493216336775206
25–34(m)155628153128159117175557221787
 (f)3265830586368755168779497
35–44(m)138820149691164492158185165006
 (f)3255838317465455720675002
45–64(m)184497209456229693244476252684
 (f)4234654938686088409897816
65 and over(m)2293520153224692209219251
 (f)37933908473749104419
Total*(m)622758670506745595784969865098
 (f)194094224857280444333866407235

Though year-to-year fluctuations in the migration flow were considerable during the 10 years to 1967, the average migration gain to the population was about 10000 a year, representing approximately one-fifth of the annual increase in the population as a whole. As immigrants as a body have a higher proportion in the working-age group than the normal cross-section of population, a period of high net immigration adds rapidly to the percentage of the population in the labour force and is particularly valuable where vacancies requiring particular skills are filled by migrants. In 1968 and 1969 there was a migration loss with a loss of some workers to Australia and a consequent slowing down of the labour force growth. During the years ended March 1970 to 1974 the net annual inflow from migration rose from only 800 in 1969–70 to 33576 in 1973–74. There was a slight decline to 29643 in 1974–75, followed by a sharp decline to 6567 in 1975–76.

During the 5 latest March years there has been a substantial population loss from net migration. Figures of migration during the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE—The growth of population has been accompanied by a changing emphasis in employment. In the nineteenth century the major activities of farming, mining, and lumbering gave rise to manufacturing industries and to commercial and professional occupations. In 1881, 11.2 percent of the total population was engaged in agriculture, 13.1 percent in industries, which included mining, and 6.6 percent in commercial and professional occupations. By 1901 the proportion in tertiary activities and farming had increased, while that in secondary industries had remained constant, and mining had declined relatively in importance. The proportions were then 14.5 percent in farming, 13.1 percent in secondary industry, and 11 percent in services.

The more recent rapid development of larger urban centres has been associated a trend away from primary into secondary industries, a trend which developed noticeably after the depression of the 1930s and which was given marked impetus by the war. The broad changes in the economy are indicated by the following table. Decreases in the proportions engaged in primary production are typical of advanced economies, although it has to be noted that the farming community makes greater use of the services sector in the development of farm productivity.

Production Group1966 Census1971 Census1976 Census
Persons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour Force
Primary production14093613.713415912.013395910.5
Secondary industry38158937.238807134.743319034.1
Services50351449.159660553.370518455.4

The following figures show the estimated size and distribution of the labour force in April 1977.

Industrial Group N.Z.S.I.C.April 1977
MalesFemalesTotal
  (000) 
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing117.423.5140.9
Mining and quarrying4.40.24.6
Manufacturing industry—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco60.414.474.8
    Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather17.332.149.4
    Wood and wood products21.92.624.5
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing21.68.129.7
    Chemicals, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastics16.56.322.8
    Non-metallic mineral products10.41.411.8
    Basic metals, metal products, machinery and equipment, and other manufacturing industries76.718.795.4
        Total, manufacturing industries224.883.6308.4
Electricity, gas, and water14.01.615.6
Construction87.53.791.2
Wholesale and retail trade110.482.5192.9
Transport, storage, and communication89.021.8110.8
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.44.235.179.3
Community, social, and personal services—
    Public administration, etc.37.916.954.8
    Sanitary and similar services4.52.36.8
    Social and related community services54.297.4151.6
    Recreational services7.44.311.7
    Personal and household services33.912.546.4
        Total, community and personal services137.8133.4271.3
        Total in industry829.6385.41215.0
Armed forces in New Zealand10.20.811.0
Registered unemployed1.92.24.1
        Total labour force841.7388.41230.1
Source: Department of Labour.

More recent estimates are included in the Latest Statistical Information at the back of this Yearbook.

LABOUR FORCE PROJECTIONS—The latest available alternative labour force projections are those for the period 1979–2011. Since these are now outdated, they have not been published in this issue of the Yearbook. A new series of projections of the total New Zealand labour force will be derived when the appropriate base data become available from the 1981 Census of Population and Dwellings.

UNEMPLOYMENT—The following table shows numbers of registered unemployed and also those employed on special work or under one of the private sector job-creation programmes set up by the Government in an attempt to alleviate unemployment.

PeriodRegistered UnemployedEmployed on Special WorkPrivate Sector Job Creation Programmes
MalesFemalesTotalWith Government DepartmentsSubsidised Work With Local Authorities
* Average of March to December 1978.
Monthly average for December year
19763133222353565593581 
19774318306773856195206 
197813498883222330993944225430*
197915559968025239999471377306
1980229041359636499755470894266
At end of month
1980—Jan164531171728170842468043951
            Feb168141177328587811568843897
            Mar174231157528998782870274095
            Apr170931170828801811171404091
            May182161167929895796974103910
            Jun216511207433725813076333973
            Jul244201270037120829479584005
            Aug266191373240351764571914015
            Sep284261410342529659664184275
            Oct274391403741476637361394693
            Nov299821850548487617560235087
            Dec303081954649854698884365194

The relatively large numbers of young people included among the registered unemployed is a matter of concern, and various programmes and measures described in the following sub-section have been instituted to assist young people to obtain employment, to provide vocational guidance, and to increase their skills. These include the Young Persons Training Programme and (during the university long break) the Student Community Service Programme.

The following table shows unemployed persons by sex and age group as at the end of each quarter of 1980.

QuarterAge Group (In Years)
Under 1818–2021–2930–3940–4950 and OverTotal
 Males
Mar30713075575425381741124417423
Jun38343915764530511690151621651
Sep425952011001442892461220228426
Dec54297048991638302119196630308
 Females
Mar43663056253276451234511575
Jun44213201272181155436612074
Sep472338713292102671447714103
Dec651261964459111979047019546

PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT—The functions and duties of the Department of Labour are set out in the Labour Department Act 1954. On the employment side the duties include the provision of a complete employment service for the purpose of placing workers in employment, assisting employers to provide employment, helping persons to find better or more suitable employment, and aiding persons who require occupational readjustment or training; the collection and publication of information relating to employment and unemployment; the making of surveys and forecasts of the classes of employment required or available; the promotion of voluntary placing of suitable persons in such employment; and, in general, the promotion and maintenance of full employment. The department also operates hostels for workers, and arranges for the selection of immigrants.

In order to execute its functions, the department currently operates a network of 22 district employment offices and 17 satellite offices, representing an increase of 7 new satellite offices in the past 2 years. Modifications to the network are made in the light of local or national economic circumstances. Staffing of the District Employment and Vocational Guidance Service has been steadily strengthened and at present totals around 360 in the employment group and 103 in the vocational guidance group.

The Employment and Vocational Guidance Service of the Department of Labour has been reviewed on two occasions during the 1970s following a major restructuring and strengthening exercise put into effect during the early 1970s. The restructured service was extended into all the district offices by 1976 and this was followed by the merger of the vocational guidance and employment services. Substantial improvements in the employment service were achieved and resident vocational counselling services were made available in 18 districts and on an itinerant basis in the remaining four districts. A 5-year plan is in operation for the extension of counselling services throughout the country in association with an extended career guidance network in schools.

The review of the employment service in 1980 examined and revised the overriding goals and objectives of the service in order to make them more realistic in the light of the economic environment and more practicable so that operations could be geared to achieving the goals. The review identified the goal of the employment service as being the improvement of the labour market by helping job seekers and employers fulfil their employment needs more effectively and efficiently. Although the core responsibility of the new combined service remains the matching of workers or potential workers through their training, skills, aptitudes, and experience with the job opportunities available, the type of service required varies with the abilities and needs of the job seeker.

The department aims to meet its employment promotion objectives by offering a three-tier service tailored to the differing needs of those in the labour market. For those job seekers wanting only information on the availability of suitable employment opportunities, the department has introduced a Job Self Service provision which not only streamlines the process whereby job seekers are matched with appropriate vacancies but provides a greater degree of discretion and choice for the job seeker. This service ensures a more rapid and simplified method of filling employers' vacancies with people who are appropriate and interested in the employment offered by attracting a wider spectrum of job seekers to peruse the vacancy display boards.

For those job seekers who require more advice and help, the employment service offers a placement service based on the establishment of personal contacts and knowledge of the job seekers and a continued liaison with employers and other organisations. The employment service's knowledge of the local labour market and the job seekers' needs ensures a greater willingness of employers to notify a wide range of vacancies and more effective interviewing of clients and their subsequent placement in employment.

There are other job seekers who are less advantageously placed to compete in the labour market and for whom a counselling service is provided. The expertise of employment officers and vocational guidance counsellors with particular skills, training, and knowledge is brought together in order to help the disadvantaged overcome whatever bars exist to their obtaining and retaining employment. Wherever appropriate, there is extensive collaboration with the wide range of community organisations concerned with their problems.

The employment service operates a number of programmes designed to help disadvantaged workers obtain suitable employment. These include the Work Skill Development Programme, which aims to develop work habits and basic work skills; the Work Rehabilitation Programme for those who have limited prospects of unsubsidised employment and require extended rehabilitation; and the Young Persons Training Programme, which provides basic training in social or occupational skills. The last of these includes a range of pre-employment skills training; institute-based occupational skill training jointly funded with the Department of Education; and work-based training.

Disabled job seekers who require training over an extended period before they become fully competitive with other workers may be assisted by a subsidy paid to the employer by the Department of Labour, This reduces as achievement increases, but enables the worker to maintain a normal standard of living. Modification grants may also be paid to employers to adjust equipment or access within the workplace to enable them to employ specific disabled job seekers.

Further job creation and training programmes are administered by the Department of Labour in both the private and public sectors, and special assistance is given for those affected by structural adjustment policies. The main purpose of these schemes is to alleviate the effects of the temporary high levels of unemployment by structuring additional employment and training. In the private sector, the Additional Jobs Programme and the Farm Employment Scheme provide formerly unemployed persons with full-time subsidised employment, while the Additional Apprentice Incentive Scheme, the Apprentice Instructor Wage Subsidy, and the Special Engineering Apprentice Training Scheme are intended to stimulate additional training. In the public sector, the Project Employment Programme is aimed at providing short-term employment pending placement in regular employment, while the Student Community Service Programme provides a wide variety of employment for tertiary students during the university vacation, and the Winter Employment Programme provides for seasonal workers who are unable to find unsubsidised work in their off-season. The two remaining job creation programmes relate to projects in voluntary welfare agencies and to community-based activities, the latter being financed by grants from the Community Employment Initiatives Fund. Each of the public sector schemes is designed to provide short-term employment for job seekers who cannot be placed in unsubsidised employment or subsidised private sector employment, and is targeted to meet the needs of particular groups of job seekers.

As an aid to employment, the department operates five hostels and assists with accommodation for all classes of workers, workers-in-training, and job seekers, especially for young people away from home for the first time.

A feature of district employment service developments is the involvement of community interests in the work of the new service. Employment advisory committees have been established in Auckland, Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, Rotorua, Gisborne, Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, Buller-Westland, Canterbury, South Canterbury, and Southland. Further committees are planned for New Plymouth, Wanganui, and Nelson. The committees act on a local level as a direct link between the community and the employment service. Their membership comprises representatives of employer and employee-related organisations and other groups active in the community. Their role is to provide guidance in the operations of the service within the context of the local labour market, so that the needs of employers, job seekers, and those who have special problems in employment are interpreted and met in the best possible way. At present they have a major role in identifying and establishing skill-training courses under the Young Persons Training Programme.

Regional meetings of chairmen of these committees have been held in order to share particular local problems and experience. It is intended that such meetings should become a regular means of exchanging ideas.

VOCATIONAL TRAINING—Meeting the employment needs of industry and commerce in order to improve productivity growth rates and enhancing an individual's chances of contributing to his/her development and to the economy are vital functions of vocational training. The development and organisation of training within New Zealand on a national basis is the responsibility of the Vocational Training Council (VTC).

The council has the following membership, appointed jointly by the Ministers of Education and Labour: a chairman; the Director-General of Education; the Secretary of Labour; 2 members nominated by the N.Z. Employers' Federation; 2 members nominated by the N.Z. Federation of Labour; 1 member nominated by the N.Z. Manufacturers' Federation; 1 member nominated by the Technical Institutes Association; 1 member nominated by the Authority for Advanced Vocational Awards; and not more than 5 other members (3 appointments have so far been made under this provision).

In addition, the council has 3 associate (non-voting) members: an appointee of the State Services Coordinating Committee; an appointee of the Combined State Unions; and the chairman of the University Grants Committee.

Under the Vocational Training Council Act 1968 the council's functions are prescribed as advisory to Government, State departments, industry, commerce, agriculture, social welfare, and other interested organisations.

The objectives of the Vocational Training Council within the constraints of the Act are to:

  1. Encourage the implementation of systematic training and development schemes to ensure that New Zealand has the people at all levels of employment with the requisite knowledge and technical skills to perform their tasks efficiently.

  2. Ensure that people as individuals have the opportunity to continue to develop.

  3. Raise the standards of knowledge, skill and effectiveness.

  4. Encourage those directly responsible for achieving the foregoing objectives.

Recommendations may relate to improved training, the development of new or established facilities, the co-ordination of training schemes, levies or other methods for the financing or encouragement of training, the award of scholarships, the fostering of research, the carrying out of inquiries and investigations in any field of training, and maintenance of an adequate information service.

However, the activities of the council considerably exceed that of an advisory or recommendatory role. The council has been, and still is, deeply involved in the promotion of fully-integrated and meaningful training in the majority of industries and local authorities.

The Vocational Training Council encourages a systematic approach to training at all levels in all sectors of the economy, linked to proper manpower development policies with in-built tangible recognition for proven efficiency. There is emphasis on industry self-help and on joining in company manpower schemes.

Representative voluntary industrial and commercial training boards have been established for 29 industries. Boards include members from employer, employee, educational, and other specialist groups. A major incentive has been the Government grant of $22,410 a year to encourage the appointment of executive training officers to work for industry training boards. There are now 61 of these positions established. Industry training boards, among other things, examine existing training and assess the need for revised or new schemes. This involves both the identification of the level of skills of the person required (machine operator, graduate, tradesman, supervisor, etc.) and the numbers required at each level.

Further, the council has concerned itself with “back-up” research and investigational studies and with promoting training programmes for particular groups within the community. This is done through a series of advisory committees. Specialists in areas such as women and employment, apprenticeship and trade training, management and supervisory training, and Polynesians in the work force meet to organise projects in these areas and to make recommendations to the council.

APPRENTICESHIPS—Under the Apprentices Act 1948 orders governing apprenticeships are made by the Arbitration Court, which consists of a judge, a workers' member, and an employers' member. Orders are made on the recommendations of New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees, which consist of 4 representatives of employers, 4 representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of each committee. The New Zealand committees are in effect policy-making committees. There are 37 committees, which normally meet once or twice a year. Committees covering larger industries, e.g., engineering, carpentry, and printing, meet 3 or 4 times per year.

Day-to-day administration of the Apprentices Act and the apprenticeship orders is carried out by the District Commissioners of Apprenticeship in conjunction with local apprenticeship committees, of which there are 241. They consist of 3 representatives of employers, 3 representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the District Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of all committees for the district for which he is appointed. District Commissioners delegate chairmanship to other officers of the Department of Labour when necessary.

In the majority of industries there are provisions in apprenticeship orders for the attendance of apprentices at technical classes, both during working hours and in the evening. In most industries technical training is concentrated into an annual course of 3 or 4 weeks' duration. In some cases courses are longer with the advent of extended institute training, as in the carpentry and joinery, engineering, and aircraft engineering industries.

The general policy regarding apprentice education is determined by the Department of Education in co-operation with New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees. That department itself operates a Technical Correspondence Institute, which provides courses of instruction for those apprentices who live too far from any school to allow them to attend evening classes.

A statutory body, the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, conducts examinations for apprentices (see Section 7A, Education). The examinations are voluntary and, except in the electrical, radio, plumbing, and gasfitting trades (where legislation is required), no examination test is required for the practice of a trade. Trades which have extended trade training, e.g., carpentry and engineering, have internal assessment conducted by technical institutes in place of the 1st and 2nd qualifying examinations. There is very close liaison between New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees and the board, the Commissioner of Apprenticeship being a member of the board.

In 1972 the Apprentices Act was amended so that apprenticeships in all trades are now open to women as well as to men.

The number of apprenticeship contracts registered and the number completed during the 2 latest March years, and in force at the end of each year, are indicated in the following table.

TradeApprenticeship Contracts
Registered During Year Ended 31 MarchCompleted During Year Ended 31 MarchIn Force at 31 March
197919807979198019791980
Aircraft100959057478513
Baking85965452272286
Boilermaking47395353202179
Bricklaying37256554182131
Carpentry8727231623110638803309
Clothing39632138106121
Coachbuilding52737434236518911723
Electrical55452954950421532082
Engineering89092564857832673497
Footwear repair and making614431419
Footwear manufacturing67831820185210
Furniture321301230175905941
Glazing39293832162146
Greenkeeping213114185662
Hairdressing77660636229917801745
Heating and ventilating28212022112104
Horticulture841044045289307
Industrial instrumentation1418135264
Jewellery49543932182188
Masonry42121211
Motor trades142412781222106051415039
Moulding1314974339
Painting and paperhanging196185153130665647
Photo-engraving46474042156158
Piano repairing and tuning1437
Plastering33284031130118
Plumbing25725328724712521169
Printing246272232255852800
Radio80118105103350337
Refrigeration engineering46464239155160
Retail meat39434125924912141212
Saddlery, leather, etc.322519219382
Sheetmetal working1131207967425441
Shipbuilding35263219163152
Signwriting30332215113121
Timber industry29462735102101
Woollen milling34812
Others33474322128124
              Total75717019682358002717326357

In addition to the numbers of apprentices shown above, there were at 31 March 1980, 3442 apprenticeship contracts in force in Government departments, of which 806 were registered during the year ended 31 March 1980.

TRAINING COURSES FOR MAORIS AND PACIFIC ISLANDERS—Vocational training to broaden employment opportunities for Maori and Pacific Island youths has the support of industry and the educational and apprenticeship authorities. Time spent on trade courses is credited towards the normal apprenticeship which is completed with employers in the usual way.

The training schemes are run in conjunction with technical institutes in Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Palmerston North, Wellington, Petone, and Christchurch; community colleges in Whangarei, Rotorua, Napier, and Invercargill; and senior technical divisions in Tauranga, Gisborne, and Wanganui. Entry has in the past been restricted to rural school leavers, but is now being intensified to provide more training opportunities for urban youth. Trainees taken into the schemes and their parents enter into a training agreement to ensure regularity of attendance at classes and good conduct on the course and in return are paid a weekly training allowance.

In 1980 a total of 55 courses in 28 trades and occupations were conducted at technical institutes and community colleges. The trades and occupations included agriculture, horticulture and farm training, auto diesel, carpentry, carving and Maori language, chef cooking and catering, coachbuilding and panel beating, electrical wiring, fishing, fitting and turning, fitting and welding, general merchandising, hairdressing, hotel receptionists, joinery, meat retailing, motor mechanics, painting and decorating, plumbing, secretarial and typing, sheetmetal, and technician courses in building and engineering. In addition, job entry training courses providing training in basic skills for 384 school leavers and unemployed, designed to enhance job placement, are conducted in provincial centres. A further 60 school leavers were recruited for clerical training. One hundred and two sponsorships for accountancy and management, computer programming, and New Zealand Certificate Courses were also made available to students with the necessary qualifications, thus broadening the base of career opportunities. The intake of school leavers and other young people for 1980 totalled 1391.

In conjunction with education authorities, employer organisations, and church organisations a total of 1391 positions for trades and occupations are being made available. The courses being offered for 1981 cover a very wide range. They include:

Farming, agriculture and horticulture4 courses
Trade courses—
    automotive3 trades
    building6 trades
    engineering2 trades
    retail2 trades
Other careers and vocations12 occupations
Short-term skills courses25 courses

Farm Training—Special arrangements have again been made for 6 Maori boys to enter Telford Farm Training Institute this year. This is a comprehensive 1-year course covering important theoretical and practical aspects of farming and farm management. The department meets full cost of board and school fees at the institute.

Agriculture and Horticulture—Agriculture and horticulture courses are spread over 24 weeks, comprising 10-weeks induction at Flock House, Feilding, and 2-weeks local block course, followed by 12 weeks with local farmers and horticulturists. Trainees are fully integrated into the appropriate regional cadet scheme at the completion of the period.

Automotive, Building, and Engineering Trades—Except for carpentry, which is of 2 years' duration, all courses in this group involve 1 year's training.

Other Careers and Vocations—With the exception of general merchandising, social work trainees, clerical cadets, and computer/accounting sponsorship courses, all other courses are of 1 year duration.

General Merchandising—A 6-month course, allowing for 2 intakes each year, with normal standard training allowance being paid during the period of training.

Special Work and Clerical Cadet Trainees—These are recruited and appointed to the Department of Maori Affairs in terms of the provisions of the State Services Act. Training is over a 2-year period, the first year with this department and then secondment to other statutory welfare agencies in the second year to broaden their experience and skills. Permanent placements are found at the conclusion of the 2-year period. These are not necessarily with Department of Maori Affairs. Salaries are in accordance with the educational qualifications.

Computer N.Z. Certificate and Accountancy Sponsorships—Sponsorships are being offered in computer N.Z. Certificate and accountancy/commerce courses to be conducted at both provincial and urban technical institutes as a means of encouraging more school leavers into the private sector. Eligibility is open to both urban and rural youth who must have the requisite educational qualifications for acceptance into the courses. Sponsorships involve the Department of Maori Affairs meeting tuition fees, and an amount towards the cost of books. Additional assistance is provided where parental hardship is established. Students will also be eligible for the standard tertiary bursary.

Short-term Basic Skills Courses—These courses were instituted in 1979 to replace former pre-employment courses. They are planned to meet the needs of those who would not qualify for trade training. Structure and content of courses are designed for employment opportunities relevant to local conditions in provincial centres, as well as in Auckland and Wellington.

Basic Skills Training for Urban Youth—This type of training was established at Petone in September 1978 as a pilot scheme. It provided for 6-weeks' basic training over a variety of job occupations, such as welding, car engine repairs, panelbeating, spray painting, and typing. The course started out of concern for unemployed youth and was supported by business firms, industry, and the Maori community in the Petone/Hutt Valley area. The project is currently being evaluated with a view to establishing similar training facilities in other urban centres.

STATISTICS OF EMPLOYMENT: Employment Surveys—Since February 19.30 the Department of Labour has carried out an annual employment survey in February and quarterly sample surveys in May, August, and November. These surveys are carried out by means of inquiries to employers of labour and the results are published in the Labour and Employment Gazette. Returns are required from all establishments in which 2 or more persons are engaged on a full-time equivalent basis (2 part-time workers are regarded as equivalent to 1 full-time worker). Government and local authority employment is included. Employers in farming, hunting, trapping, fishing, waterfront work, seagoing work, private domestic service, and armed forces are not required to submit half-yearly returns. The following tables are based on these surveys.

A summary of employment is given in the following table.

Date of SurveyFull-time Employees and Working ProprietorsPart-time WorkersHalf-yearly Percentage Rate of Labour Turnover*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemales

* The relationship between the number of terminations over the previous half-year and the average number of employees during the same period.

Estimates from Quarterly Employment (sample) Survey.

       percentpercent
1978—Apr638597303402941999335481064471399951725
        —Oct625623305828931451339421093371432791727
1979—Apr638792317059955851339501123681463181723
        —Oct62434331850394284634464115699150163....
1980—Feb64240532454996695431934113138145072....
        —May63670232482596152733139115352148491....
        —Aug61578031840293418233116116828149944....
        —Nov62662131917394579433838120745154583....
1981—Feb63411932272095683932108117536149644....

EMPLOYMENT BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Employees of local authorities are principally engaged in the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric, and water supply, and transport), and community services.

In the following table particulars are given of the number of all direct wage-earning employees who were actually in the employ of the various classes of local authorities (hospital boards excluded) at 15 April of each of the latest 3 years inclusive. Besides permanent staff, including administrative and professional employees, the statistics include part-time, casual, and temporary employees, and subsidised workers, but exclude those employed by contractors.

Local Authorities*Employees at 15 April
197719781979

* For numbers see Section 2.

As at 30 September.

Abolished from 1 April 1929.

§ Gas board employees are included with electric power board employees.

|| Total includes employees of licensing trusts (2961 employees in 1979) and hydatids districts (30 employees in 1979).

Catchment boards856923987
City and borough councils194492019020815
County councils548455795729
Crematorium board111
District councils465606809
Electric power boards6568§6870§6899§
Harbour boards376639673871
Harbour bridge authority122130131
Land drainage boards313834
Local railway board111011
Museum authority142129132
Nassella tussock boards15711752
Plantation board131213
Pest destruction boards780754741
Regional authority240426682721
River boards776
Road tunnel authority4343
Town boards192221
Urban drainage boards468505505
Urban transport board473477477
Valley authority363838
Water supply boards149156141
              Total44232||46062||47125||

PUBLIC SERVICE EMPLOYMENT—Permanent staff in the Public Service as at 31 March 1980 totalled 64830, of whom 42245 were males and 22585 females. In addition, the Public Service gave employment to 1601 temporary staff and 17932 wage workers, giving a total for all employees of 84363 (56161 males and 28202 females) compared with 84516 as at 31 March 1979. These figures do not include the staffs of the Post Office, the railway service, the Police (except civilian staff), education boards, hospital boards, or universities.

UNEMPLOYMENT—Except for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, almost no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available. Such information is, however, available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Department of Labour (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade unionists were collected from trade union secretaries by the Department of Statistics from 1925 to 1930. A table showing figures of unemployment from June 1931 to March 1939 will be found on page 854 of the 1940 Yearbook. Monthly average figures of registered unemployed for each year from 1946 are given in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

Census Data on Unemployment—The great disadvantage of the population census as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only. Unemployment figures from the 1971 Census were 8757 males and 7411 females. Figures from the 1976 Census give a total of 14392 males and 11945 females, Of these, 4205 of the males and 6112 of the females were in the 15–19 years age group.

The following table gives relevant census data on unemployment during this century. Prior to 1951 Maoris were not included.

CensusNumber of Males UnemployedProportion per 1000 Male Wage and Salary Earners
31 March 1901846748
12 April 1906818939
2 April 1911715230
15 October 1916592026
17 April 19211106139
20 April 19261069434
24 March 19363577496
25 September 1945582316
17 April 1951790218
17 April 1956555812
18 April 196146749
22 March 196651258
23 March 1971875713
23 March 19761439221

The 1936 figure includes men on rationed relief work, but excludes men (16222) partly unemployed but not on relief work. The 1945 figure includes ex-servicemen recently returned from overseas who had not then resumed work. At the time of the 1951 Census the waterfront dispute was in progress and it was estimated that approximately 15000 workers in that and other industries were not in work. Evidently many of these were not returned as unemployed; it is likely that a number changed to other industries, while some may not have considered themselves to be unemployed.

Unemployment Benefit—Unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act have been payable since 1 April 1939. The number in force at 31 March of each of the latest 6 years is shown in the following table.

As at 31 MarUnemployment Benefit
19752894
19765127
19773651
197817484
197917894
198020850

Subject to the conditions set out in Section 6A, the unemployment benefit may be claimed as of right. Registration at a district office of the Department of Labour is a compulsory prerequisite to eligibility for the benefit. Hence it is considered that the great majority of workers becoming involuntarily unemployed would register for employment in order to validate a claim for the benefit.

Close liaison is maintained between the Department of Social Welfare and the Department of Labour to prevent the payment of benefit where work is available. In addition to the requirement that a benefit applicant must register for work at an employment office, all unemployment beneficiaries must report once weekly at the employment office.

VACANCIES, PLACEMENTS, AND UNEMPLOYED PERSONS—In addition to the annual employment survey in February and quarterly (sample) employment surveys in May, August, and November, the Department of Labour maintains a monthly record of registered unemployment, vacancies, placements, and job creation programmes. Data on unemployment given earlier in this section were derived from this record, as are the following tables.

The following table contains a summary of the numbers of notified vacancies, placements, and registered unemployed persons as recorded by the Department of Labour.

DateNotified Vacancies at End of MonthPlacements During MonthRegistered Unemployed Persons at End of Month
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Monthly Average for Calendar Years
19761287379166623567793135313322235356
19771197326152321888563044431830677385
1978  175143241684600813498883222330
1979  168739531930588315559968025239
1980  1476336617085074229041359636499

A breakdown of the monthly average numbers of unemployed by usual occupation and sex is shown in the following table for the 2 latest calendar years. Because of rounding, figures for individual occupations may not add exactly to the given total

Usual Occupation19791980
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

* Includes typists, machinists, and other related workers.

Includes sawmill workers.

Includes those who have been attending university full-time.

Professional, technical, and clerical*815141913022328
Storemen, storewomen, packers46691729142
Sales workers, shop assistants, etc3619615501296
Farm and forestry workers9273941705547
Drivers77846119179
Tradesmen and tradeswomen85230132170
Freezing workers194551213950
Process/factory workers1201175320102444
Cooks and other domestic workers, etc.41215676081999
Labourers52614097428664
All other occupations10516101475796
School leavers (no previous full-time job)1490234924483179
                  Total1555996802290413596

STATISTICS FROM CENSUS OF POPULATION 1976—Figures of the industrial and occupational distribution of the labour force by industry major divisions and occupation major groups at the 1976 Census of Population are given in the 2 following tables.

Industry Major DivisionAge Group (Years)Total
15–2425–4950 and Over
 Number of Persons
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing274987207229330128900
Mining and quarrying963286612305059
Manufacturing8536915863361722305724
Electricity, gas, and water37077884373815329
Construction305986238419155112137
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels5623911087749006216122
Transport, storage, and communication268276171822742111287
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services27817384951348079792
Community, social, and personal services8187713183549537263249
Activities not adequately defined1597613427533134734
                Total3568716601912552711272333
Occupation Major GroupAge Croup (Years)Total
15–2425–4950 and Over
* Includes related workers.
 Number of Persons
Professional and technical*521129850728202178821
Administrative and managerial1287272611236040908
Clerical*750759062740216205918
Sales workers240697127829933125280
Service workers26017494332053195981
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters278957196930826130690
Production workers* , transport equipment operators, and labourers13839724150288937468836
New workers seeking employment42583414293
Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately described68539013413720003
Workers not reporting any occupation9085671281603
                Total3568716601912552711272333

Employment Status—The following table shows the employment status of persons in the labour force, and also persons not actively engaged, excluding children under 15 years, at the 2 latest censuses. Part-time workers, i.e., those working less than 20 hours per week, have been classified as “not actively engaged.”

Employment Status1971 Census1976 Census
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Employer of labour59815810367918709871250083487
Own account worker621851010172286767511476091511
Wages or salary earner6514993070649585636993263638441063170
Unemployed8757741116168143921194526337
Relative assisting, unpaid25035360367032053875
Not specified2463834329729729813953
Total, actively engaged in the labour force78496933386611188358650984072351272333
Not actively engaged181375652798834173222802706043928845
                Grand total9663449866641953008108790011132782201178

Industrial Distribution: Divisions—The industrial distribution of the labour force analysed by industrial major divisions and divisions as recorded at the 1976 Population Census is shown below.

Industrial Major Division and DivisionMalesFemalesTotalPercentage
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing—
    Agriculture and hunting95428227541181829.3
    Forestry and logging748335178340.6
    Fishing27869828840.2
                  Total 19761056972320312890010.1
                  Total 19711106651822912889411.5
Mining and quarrying—
    Coalmining15906016500.1
    Crude petroleum and natural gas production690677570.1
    Metal-ore mining29820318
    Other mining22617323340.2
                  Total 1976483922050590.4
                  Total 1971508817752650.5
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco5628212505687875.4
    Textile, wearing apparel, and leather industries1692431444483683.8
    Wood and wood products including furniture222092715249242.0
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing233918334317252.5
    Chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products174106973243831.9
    Non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal101391593117320.9
    Basic metal industries570960063090.5
Fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment6880015679844796.6
Other manufacturing industries2857216050170.4
                  Total 19762237218200330572424.0
                  Total 19712070887402228111025.1
Electricity, gas, and water—
    Electricity, gas, and steam127521527142791.1
    Waterworks and supply10163410500.1
                  Total 1976137681561153291.2
                  Total 1971121051168132731.2
Construction—
    Building and construction687652860716255.6
    Allied trades385301982405123.2
                  Total 197610729548421121378.8
                  Total 1971906713017936888.4
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels—
    Wholesale trade4340415230586344.6
    Retail trade66110577331238439.7
    Restaurants and hotels1374519900336452.6
                  Total 19761232599286321612217.0
                  Total 19711172378107819831517.7
Transport, storage, and communication—
    Transport and storage675429142766846.0
    Communication2022214381346032.7
                  Total 197687764235231112878.7
                  Total 197184861183201031819.2
Finance, insurance, real estate, and business services—
    Financial institutions1127111333226041.8
    Insurance93165867151831.2
    Real estate and business services2430117704420053.3
                  Total 19764488834904797926.3
                  Total 19713781126963647745.8
Community, social, and personal services—
    Public administration and defence4197017637596074.7
    Sanitary and similar services4094337774710.6
    Social and related community services536569349314714911.6
    Recreational and cultural services104135101155141.2
    Personal and household services2192910781327102.6
    International and other extra-territorial bodies5372617980.1
                  Total 197613259913065026324920.7
                  Total 197111088710564021652719.4
Activities not adequately defined—
                  Total 19762126813466347342.7
                  Total 197185565252138081.1
                  Grand total 1976 actively engaged8650984072351272333100.0
                  Grand total 1971 actively engaged7849693338661118835100.0

Occupations—The occupational classification in major and minor groups is given for 1976 in the following table, with major group totals for 1971.

Occupational Major Croup and Minor GroupMalesFemalesTotal

* Includes related workers.

Including workers not classifiable by occupation.

Professional and technical*
    Physical scientists and technicians331215404852
    Architects, engineers and technicians29892175531647
    Aircraft and ships officers3177223199
    Life scientists and technicians375525026257
    Medical, dental, and veterinary workers *117142919840912
    Statisticians, mathematicians, systems analysts and technicians17764302206
    Economists647116763
    Accountants980976110570
    Jurists34531673620
    Teachers227853032653111
    Workers in religion27713773148
    Authors, journalists, and writers*20959333028
    Sculptors, painters (artists), photographers302612054231
    Composers and performing artists16849902674
    Athletes, sportsmen*838128966
    Professional, technical n.e.c.*412335147637
                  Total 197610485773964178821
                  Total 19718195057440139390
Administrators and managerial workers—
    Legislative officials and government administrators76349812
    Managers (excluding those in wholesale and retail trade, catering and lodging services, and in farming)37272282440096
                  Total 197638035287340908
                  Total 197127348105528403
Clerical workers—
    Clerical supervisors552816047132
    Government executive officials54204565876
    Stenographers, typists, and card-and tape-punching machine operators4523725337705
    Bookkeepers, cashiers*144352550939944
    Computing machine operators84262377079
    Transport and communication supervisors61972766473
    Transport conductors5555560
    Mail distribution clerks203418603894
    Telephone and telegraph operators126156296890
    Clerical n.e.c*332955707090365
                  Total 197670019135899205918
                  Total 197170034110347180381
Sales workers—
    Managers (wholesale and retail trade)14928291817846
    Working proprietors (wholesale and retail trade)11981714419125
    Sales supervisors, and buyers684410147858
    Technical salesmen, commercial travellers, and manufacturers' agents1336296914331
    Insurance, real estate, securities and business services salesmen, and auctioneers1054186011401
    Salesmen and shop assistants*198533472154574
    Sales workers n. e. c.10936145
                  Total 19767761847662125280
                  Total 19717654338683115226
Service workers (incl. Armed Forces)—
    Managers (catering and lodging services)221415323746
    Working proprietors (catering and lodging services)370728876594
    Housekeepers and related service supervisors28527653050
    Cooks, waiters, bartenders*64321322519657
    Maids and related housekeeping service workers n.e.c.73884929230
    Building caretakers, charworkers, and cleaners*5783546311246
    Launderers, drycleaners, and pressers104424703514
    Hairdressers, barbers, beauticians*106445075571
    Protective service workers1050539510900
    Service workers n.e.c.3953715811111
    Armed Forces1062673611362
                  Total 1976463514963095981
                  Total 1971424854636388848
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters—
    Farm managers and supervisors54251795604
    Farmers57204995767161
    Agricultural and animal husbandry workers357651171147476
    Forestry workers67381156853
    Fishermen and hunters*3518783596
                  Total 197610865022040130690
                  Total 197111241517235129650
Occupational Major Group and Minor GroupMalesFemalesTotal
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers—
    Production supervisors, overseers and general foremen (non-clerical) and excluding agriculture, transport, sales and service supervisors, overseers and foremen)17849174919598
    Miners, quarrymen, and well-drillers*215022152
    Metal processers26991602859
    Wood preparation workers and paper makers86413669007
    Chemical processers*19143382252
    Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers*461237818393
    Tanners, fellmongers, and pelt dressers8562251081
    Food and beverage processers38358452142879
    Tobacco preparers and tobacco product makers141319460
    Tailors, dressmakers, sewers, and upholsterers*48652016325028
    Shoemakers and leather goods makers201927034722
    Cabinet makers and related woodworkers55794636042
    Stone cutters and carvers1978205
    Blacksmiths, toolmakers, and machine tool operators70656327697
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers—continued
    Machinery fitters, machine assemblers, and precision instrument makers (except electrical)50555193752492
    Electrical fitters and electrical and electronics workers26689353330222
    Broadcasting station and sound equipment operators and cinema projectionists400102502
    Plumbers, welders, sheet-metal and structural metal preparers and erectors2559571626311
    Jewellery and precious metal workers8382481086
    Glass formers and potters*23526693021
    Rubber and plastics product makers451818186336
    Paper and paper-board products makers6144621076
    Printers*8425290111326
    Painters1416525814423
    Production and related workers n.e.c.326117925053
    Bricklayers, carpenters, and other construction workers5346115753618
    Stationary engine and related equipment operators n.e.c.3217133230
    Material handling and related equipment operators, dockers, and freight handlers37038782144859
    Transport equipment operators40955170042655
    Labourers n.e.c.34043620840251
                  Total 197640307165765468836
                  Total 197136616857959424127
Workers not classifiable by occupation—
    New workers seeking employment171125824293
    Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately described13821618220003
    Workers not reporting any occupation (excluding armed forces)9656381603
                  Grand total 1976, actively engaged8650984072351272333
                  Grand total 1971, actively engaged7849693338661118835
NOTE: n.e.c. denotes—not elsewhere classified.

WOMEN IN THE LABOUR FORCE—During the past 40 years there has been a marked change in the composition of the New Zealand labour force. The female component of the labour force has increased from 21.2 percent in 1936 to 32.0 percent in 1976.

The percentage of women and girls of 15 years of age and above who were actively engaged in the full-time labour force for each population census during the past 40 years is as follows: 1936, 24.9; 1945, 26.0; 1951, 25.0; 1956, 26.0; 1961, 27.7; 1966, 30.9; 1971, 33.8; and 1976, 36.6. Between 1936 and 1976 the male labour force increased by 64.0 percent and the female labour force by 186.9 percent.

Despite these marked increases the New Zealand female participation rate in the labour force is not as high as that in some overseas countries.

The following table shows for a selected group of countries the percentage of the females in each age group and in the female population as a whole who are actively engaged in the labour force. As with all international statistics, comparisons should be made with caution owing to differences in definitions of “actively engaged” (especially as regards women assisting without pay in family businesses), social customs, different methods of data collection, and the different age structures of the populations. The table is derived from the ILO publication, Yearbook of Labour Statistics 1979.

CountryFemale Labour Force Participation Rate
Age Croup (Years)Female Population 15 years and above
15–1920–2425–4445–5455–5960–6465+

* 16 to 19 year of age.

Population 16 years of age and above.

Percentage of female population aged 55 to 64 years.

§ Based on sample survey of labour force.

 Percentage
Canada (1976)42.667.653.849.339.527.66.945.0
United States (1978)43.368.461.756.848.132.87.848.2
Japan (1978)§20.268.349.260.451.038.415.847.3
Germany, Fed. Rep. of (1978)§44.169.955.048.339.012.23.438.7
Netherlands (1977)§37.964.033.125.515.89.11.428.5
Sweden (1975)§46.5*65.568.271.757.735.13.549.7
United Kingdom (1975)54.660.951.761.439.96.142.9
Australia (1976)50.365.053.350.735.218.25.146.3
New Zealand (1976)51.158.840.243.529.013.92.836.6

Married women in the New Zealand labour force have increased until, in 1976, 56.7 percent of the total female labour force consisted of married women.

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of the female labour force are given in the following table.

ItemCensus
19451956196619711976
Number of married women in labour force2960662033116314166472231104
Percentage of female labour force17.732.041.549.956.7

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of all married women increased from 3.6 in 1936 to 32.6 in 1976.

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of all married women in the same age group are given in the next table.

Age (Years)Census
193619451956196619711976
 Percentage of Married Women in the Labour Force
16–195.718.218.523.530.340.3
20–244.317.419.426.734.344.0
25–293.710.311.715.820.728.8
30–343.68.011.316.424.331.5
35–393.68.413.921.831.841.7
40–443.98.716.626.935.346.3
45–494.47.817.527.735.944.2
50–544.26.115.525.230.737.8
55–594.24.610.818.522.025.4
60–642.82.55.29.511.211.4
65+1.61.01.62.12.42.4
All ages—
    16+3.77.712.919.926.132.6

Participation of married women in the labour force may be said to follow this pattern—higher than average percentages below 25 years of age when the economic desirability of a second income in the purchase and furnishing of a home is likely to be at its greatest; lower than average percentages between 25 and 34 years when younger families are being cared for; higher than average percentages at 35–54 years when family responsibilities have diminished; and lower than average percentages at 55 years and beyond when retirement causes increasing withdrawals from the labour force.

The increasing tendency for women to continue in employment after marriage until the birth of the first child and to re-enter the labour force as family responsibilities lessen has been aided by a combination of factors, including the progressively younger ages at marriage, changing social attitudes particularly toward the role of married women, and possibly to a greater awareness and acceptance of family planning.

LEVEL OF EDUCATION ATTENDED—The 1976 Census of Population included a question on educational levels attended. Figures of educational levels attended by members of the labour force of 15 years of age and above, are given by occupation major group in the following table. Part-time members of the labour force (less than 20 hours weekly), are included in the relevant major group. It should be noted that each person is included under every applicable level, and so may be included more than once. For example, a person who proceeded through secondary school to a university, technical institute, or teachers college will be included under Secondary School and also under the appropriate tertiary institution. The final column, “Attendance at other tertiary levels”, covers the remaining vocational training institutions, including nursing schools, business and secretarial colleges, and professional institutes.

Occupation Major GroupEducation Level Attended
Secondary School (Form III Onwards)UniversityTechnical InstituteTeachers CollegeNo Attendance at Sec. School, Uni, Tech Inst or Teachers CollegeAttendance at Other Tertiary Levels

* Includes related workers.

Not engaged in any paid employment.

 Males
Professional, technical*102889526363306219498244811780
Administrative and managerial workers343367243804386235172509
Clerical*63294820810188148674263290
Sales workers70682632710893115393803023
Service workers408363016543891374989601
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters8898762136305870214672039
Production* , transport equipment operators, and labourers3357238136813733464671819156
New workers seeking employment1687594062410
Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described96475847301434483144
Workers not reporting any occupation7595735191988
Not applicable1192722265675682404881182394
                Total8681121151351636753081821174043954
 Females
Professional, technical*8487724218858731026185733663
Administrative and managerial workers2905368262208365225
Clerical*143155634715334484294558867
Sales workers4848912852001126397011568
Service workers55688181532301415140193040
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters227951052817157236911245
Production* , transport equipment operators and labourers570309091840912145851170
New workers seeking employment2552416993031
Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described52022041851361633113
Workers not reporting any occupation5602322227812
Not applicable42639127249173382353720527720242
                Total84964463511496856494226069170176

WORKING LIFE EXPECTANCIES—A table of working life displays the manner in which rates of participation in, entry to, and withdrawal from, the labour force vary with age for the given population group. Also included are expectancies of future working life and retirement life, assuming that the rates displayed in the table continue unchanged. The main applications of these tables are to economic and social studies relating to large groups of people. Individuals frequently do not conform to group patterns and, therefore, applications of any statistics from the tables must be made with caution.

Abridged tables of working life for males and females, based on labour force data from the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings and the 1975–77 Life Tables (Total Population), are now given.

Exact Age (Years)Percentage of Population in Labour ForceNumber in Labour Force, per 100000 Live BirthsChanges in the Labour Force in the Following 5 Years of Age, per 100000 Live BirthsExpectation of Work Life of Person in Labour Force (Years)Expectation of Retirement Life of Person in Labour Force (Years)
Total Entries*Total Withdrawals

* Entries of females into the labour force below the horizontal line are secondary entries by those who withdrew at younger ages for family formation.

The working life expectancies for females allow for the possibility of a second spell of labour force membership after a period of non-membership due to family formation.

Difference between life expectancy and working life expectancy.

§ These are withdrawals at all ages 80 and above.

Males
158349153045.710.0
2085.882961979882041.110.1
2596.091939215063736.510.2
3098.29345230165731.710.2
3598.69309646105526.910.3
4098.592087180422.210.4
4598.190283342017.610.5
5097.186863629713.210.6
5594.380566172399.010.8
6079.963327350825.610.5
6540.228245179464.88.1
7017.71029964344.65.4
759.1386527634.03.7
804.111021102§3.32.4
Females
15870571752318.843.0
2071.169534120323808216.940.1
   *   
2544.64348419951382721.231.0
3032.63165212194507222.924.4
3540.1387749662278120.721.9
4047.5456554039384616.821.0
4548.3458482262659713.020.3
5044.54151369596569.719.1
5535.932552143866.817.8
6020.818166110925.115.4
658.6707446354.612.0
703.3243916174.58.5
751.38225654.35.7
800.5257257§4.03.2

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on employment will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Labour (Parl. paper G. 1).

Report of the State Services Commission (Parl. paper G. 3).

Labour and Employment Gazette—Department of Labour (quarterly).

1976 Census of Population and Dwellings: Vol. 4, Labour Force—Department of Statistics.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Prices, Wages, and Labour—Department of Statistics (annual).

New Zealand Tables of Working Life—Department of Statistics.

Pocket Digest of Statistics—Department of Statistics (annual).

New Zealand Standard Classifications—Department of Statistics-New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations (NZSCO).

New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC).

The Department of Labour publishes a wide range of booklets, reports, and pamphlets on topics connected with its functions and responsibilities, especially employment opportunities and vocational guidance.

Chapter 33. Section 33 WAGES

Table of Contents

The rules underlying the New Zealand system of industrial relations have traditionally been embodied in legislation. In both the private and public sectors, statutes confer bargaining rights on certain registered/recognised unions and specify various procedures for the conduct of negotiations.

In the private sector, the main body of rules covering industrial relations is contained in the Industrial Relations Act 1973. By a process of registration, unions secure bargaining rights for the class of workers they represent, and also access to various procedures for the settlement of disputes associated with the renegotiation of the collective agreement (dispute of interest) and its subsequent interpretation or application (dispute of right).

In the case of disputes of interest, the emphasis is on the parties reaching a settlement through the process of collective bargaining. The parties can agree to negotiate a voluntary settlement of the dispute. The resultant collective agreement is registered with the Arbitration Court and binds the immediate parties (usually an individual employer and employees). Alternatively, either party may apply for the dispute to proceed through the more orthodox conciliation and arbitration channels. Arbitration is neither compulsory nor inevitable. It is at the discretion of the applicant to withdraw from the arbitration proceedings. Moreover, the Arbitration Court may refuse to arbitrate if it is not satisfied that the parties have made a genuine attempt to settle. An agreement arrived at through conciliation or an award of the Court, automatically binds all persons in the industry to which it relates (whether parties to it or not) as well as any person who subsequently becomes connected with or engaged in the industry (termed “blanket coverage”).

The emphasis in respect of disputes of right is on their peaceful resolution, and accordingly the process of arbitration is rather more in evidence. A dispute proceeds through a disputes committee chaired by an independent person who may either make a decision, or refer the matter to the Arbitration Court for a decision in the event of the parties failing to agree.

Separate enactments cover bargaining relationships in the agriculture sector, on the waterfront, and in aircrew services. In the public sector, the principal enactment covering collective bargaining is the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977. This Act provides for the recognition of service organisations, and specifies various procedures for the issuing of determinations prescribing conditions of employment in the State Services and for the resolution of disputes associated with the application of determinations. The procedures are essentially designed to guarantee the union bargaining rights in respect of the issue of determinations. A Police Staff Tribunal, established by the Police Act 1958, makes orders as to the remuneration and conditions of service of the members of the Police.

Pay fixing in the State Services is linked to the private sector by way of the principle of fair comparability. White collar groups move in relation to the average surveyed movement in the private sector. Blue collar groups (including tradesmen) currently have their rates adjusted by the movement in the main private sector trades awards, supplemented for the first time this year, by a detailed pay research exercise.

WAGES IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR—The following stratas can be identified in the wage determination system in the private sector.

  1. The Minimum Wage—Since 1945 the national adult minimum wage has been determined by Orders-in-Council issued under the Minimum Wage Act. The minimum wage essentially affords protection to the non-unionised sector, which is relatively small, encompassing such groups as domestics, gardeners, rest home employees, etc. It has usually been fixed at a level slightly below that determined by the unionised sector for an unskilled adult, having regard also to the level of the unemployment benefit. In other words, the minimum wage has followed rather than pushed wages in the unionised sector (see later in this section).

  2. National Awards—For all intents and purposes, the legally enforceable minimum wage rate for the unionised sector is determined by the national awards. These are arrived at by way of the conciliation and arbitration system, and have the effect of automatically binding all workers and employers in the industries to which they relate. The vast majority of awards are negotiated annually. Only occasionally is the Arbitration Court called upon to exercise its arbitral function, and then only on one or two clauses in the document. Compliance with award conditions is primarily the responsibility of inspectors of awards who undertake routine inspections of factory and commercial premises, and investigate specific complaints. They also initiate enforcement and recovery actions on behalf of workers in terms of the Industrial Relations Act 1973.

    National (or near-national) awards number approximately 200. They are primarily craft/occupation structured, and can extend across many different firms and industries (e.g., the Metal Trade Award, the Clerical Workers Award). Because of the structure of awards, wage rates are determined almost exclusively on the basis of historic relativity, which produces a high degree of synchronisation in the “award round”. Economic criteria such as ability to pay and productivity are difficult to accommodate in an award which covers firms and industries of quite different economic characteristics. The award movement is important in that it provides the basis for the movement in related ruling rate agreements (although it is noted that in some regions the award rate is the paid rate).

  3. Voluntary Settlement Collective Agreements—In most of the major industries, the main awards are supplemented by what are termed voluntary settlement collective agreements. Such agreements commonly cover an individual employing unit (or group of units in a particular locality) and the workers engaged in the particular craft. Occasionally, the agreement covers a combination of crafts within the employing unit(s) and is referred to as a composite collective agreement. The latter requires the various unions within the undertaking to come together and formulate a common set of claims on the employer.

    Strictly speaking, voluntary settlement collective agreements supersede the award, and in this sense prescribe the legally minimum rates of wages for the workers covered. Because they are negotiated under (and registered in terms of) the Industrial Relations Act they are enforceable in the same way as awards. Currently they number approximately 600.

    Voluntary settlement collective agreements invariably provide for a margin above the award, and in this sense reflect market conditions (ability to pay, productivity, etc.). However the movement in the wage rates in many such agreements is primarily determined by the parent award and in this sense market requirements are only partially accommodated.

  4. Informal House Agreements—These may simply be expressed in terms of a money margin above the award rate or they may prescribe a comprehensive code of employment. The latter are analogous to voluntary settlement collective agreements, but are not registered under the Industrial Relations Act and are therefore not enforceable in terms of that Act. By their nature, informal house agreements are limited to a single employing unit in an area in which market forces are producing above-award differentials. There is no precise information available as to the extent or nature of such agreements.

  5. General Wage Adjustments—The New Zealand wage determination system has traditionally had the facility for the making of general wage adjustments. Under the General Wage Orders Act 1977, the Arbitration Court had the power to make a periodic review of rates of remuneration in awards and collective agreements upon application of the central workers organisation. This Act was repealed in August 1979 by the Remuneration Act. This Act transferred the power to make general wage adjustments from the Arbitration Court to the Executive. An increase of 4.5 percent took effect on 3 September 1979 and a further general increase of 4 percent took effect from 1 August 1980.

With the passing of the Remuneration Act Repeal Act 1980, there is now no permanent legislation providing for general wage adjustments. However the Economic Stabilisation (Cost-of-Living Increase) Regulations 1980, promulgated as a result of a recent tripartite wages accord, provide for the Arbitration Court to make, on one occasion in 1981, a general order amending the rates of remuneration in all awards and collective agreements. A number of factors are to be taken into account by the Court in determining whether an order should be made, the main one being to maintain and improve living standards so far as it is within the capacity of the economy to sustain such an increase. Other factors are the promotion of employment and economic growth; the maintenance of stability in the balance of payments; the promotion of industrial harmony; movements in the incomes of wage and salary earners relative to those of other sections of the community; movements in the Consumers Price Index and other price movements, including the terms of trade; movements in rates of remuneration; changes in the rates of personal income tax; and any other relevant changes in fiscal policy. In May 1981 the Arbitration Court made a 5 percent cost-of-living increase to operate from 11 June.

WAGES POLICY DISCUSSIONS—Under the Remuneration Act, the executive was empowered to intervene selectively in wage negotiations to preserve stability in rates of remuneration. These powers were used on three occasions:

  1. to fix an award for bulk freight forwarding (stores) employees;

  2. to freeze heads of remuneration in respect of engine drivers, boiler attendants, firemen, and greasers;

  3. to fix basic rates of wages for employees of New Zealand Forest Products Co. Ltd.

The intervention in the dispute at New Zealand Forest Products produced a dead-lock between the Government and the various unions, represented by the Federation of Labour. The settlement between the Government and the Federation of Labour which resolved the dispute included a commitment on the part of the Federation of Labour to enter into wages policy discussions with the Government and the Employers Federation.

These commenced before the start of the 1980–81 wage round and focused both on longer term reforms to the wage-fixing system (industry negotiations) and on matters of more immediate concern (the wage round, selective intervention). On 6 August 1980 an agreement was reached between the parties in the following terms:

  1. The parties acknowledged that the Government has a responsibility to act where necessary to promote economic stability. Having been assured that the round will proceed on a reasonable basis, the Government will repeal the Remuneration Act at the earliest possible date.

  2. The parties agreed to the instituting of a cost-of-living adjustment under the auspices of the Arbitration Court.

  3. The parties agreed that the proposals for an Arbitration Court hearing on the minimum wage, and the establishment of industry groupings … would be further discussed with a view to reaching agreement in time for implementation before the commencement of the 1981–82 wage round.

In terms of this accord, the Remuneration Act 1979 was repealed on 4 November 1980. Settlements in the current wage round have been of the order of 13–14 percent in addition to the 4 percent general increase of 1 August 1980.

Other Regulations—The Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 are still in force in a heavily amended form. Regulation 6 provides that no industrial agreement shall fix any rate of remuneration unless that rate is to continue in force for a period of at least 12 months unless there are special reasons to justify a shorter period. Part IIIA contains the redundancy provisions which are the second most important principles in the Regulations. Redundancy payments are limited to a sum not exceeding 2 percent of total ordinary pay derived in the 12 months prior to the redundancy, multiplied by the number of years' service for the employer, not exceeding 20. In other words, the rule is that the payment should not exceed one week of pay per year of service up to 20. However, the Arbitration Court may approve more favourable payments if it is satisfied that there are exceptional circumstances which render the normal payment inadequate.

WEEKLY EARNINGS—In the past the Department of Labour has carried out half-yearly surveys of employment and wages in April and October. These surveys were replaced from the beginning of 1980 by an annual employment survey in February and quarterly sample surveys in May, August, and November. For these surveys returns have been required from all establishments in which at least 2 persons (on a full-time equivalent basis) are engaged. This includes working proprietors. Government and local authority employment is included, but not farming, hunting, fishing, waterfront and seagoing work, or domestic service in private households. The armed forces are excluded.

The following table shows the average weekly payout per person (covering males and females, adult and juvenile) derived from these surveys during the latest 5 years. Comparison is made with the weighted average nominal wage rate for adult workers as used in the wage rates index covering rates prescribed by all determining authorities.

Date of SurveyWeekly Wage Payout per Person*Average Nominal Weekly Wage Rate for Adult Workersas at End of Preceding Month
Aggregate Payout Including Overtime for 1 Week Divided byAggregate Ordinary-time Earnings Divided By Full-time and Half Part-time Employees
Full-time and Part-time EmployeesFull-time and Half Pan-time Employees

* Including allowances and special payments (bonuses, penal and shift allowances, paid leave, and commission).

Relates to adult males only up to and including 1977. From 1978 relates to all adult workers. Weighted average of the sample rates used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index.

From February 1980 refers to rate as at mid-point of current month.

 $     $     $     $     
1976—April104.99112.23102.84100.22
    October110.77118.81109.75106.67
1977—April120.54129.16118.16117.38
    October123.91133.30124.00118.60
1978—April132.75142.68132.18132.27
    October140.40151.25140.65142.64
1979—April153.75165.57153.45153.59
    October165.57178.78167.45157.15
1980—February 192.31178.37x180.11x
    May 198.16184.84182.42
    August 207.32195.11190.01
    November 215.15201.11204.42
1981—February 231.32215.89 

HOURLY EARNINGS—In the following table average hourly earnings from the half-yearly and later surveys are shown; estimated average ordinary time worked by full-time employees has been obtained by dividing aggregate ordinary-time hours worked during one week by the sum of full-time employees plus half of the part-time employees; hence if there are any part-time workers the sum of the average ordinary-time hours and overtime hours will not be equal to the average time worked by full-time and part-time employees as shown in the last column.

DateAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For All Workers Covered by Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For: Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $     $     $     hourshourshours
1976—April2.763.982.8437.22.537.0
    October2.954.053.0137.22.436.8
1977—April3.184.403.2537.22.737.1
    October3.344.553.4037.12.236.4
1978—April3.575.033.6537.02.336.4
    October3.795.243.8637.12.236.3
1979—April4.145.834.2337.12.336.4
    October4.525.994.5937.02.138.9
1980—February4.82x6.904.9337.0x2.239.0
    May4.997.065.0937.02.038.9
    August5.277.365.3637.01.8 
    November5.447.595.5437.02.0 
1981—February5.928.206.0336.52.0 

In the preceding table all industries are combined. A dissection by industry groups is available from the annual employment survey made each February, but not from the sample surveys made later in the year. The following table relates to the February 1980 survey. Results from the February 1981 survey were received too late for inclusion in this table.

Industrial GroupAverage Hourly Earnings For All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For: All Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For: Full-time and Pan-time Employees Combined
 $     $     $     hourshourshours
Forestry and logging4.776.564.8636.92.139.1
Mining and quarrying5.377.055.5936.45.441.8
Manufacturing—
    Seasonal food processing6.168.006.3934.44.939.3
    Other food, beverages and tobacco4.386.464.5837.44.441.5
    Textiles, clothing and leather4.015.924.0936.91.738.5
    Wood and wood products4.286.624.4636.23.139.2
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing5.277.735.4335.72.638.2
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics5.056.775.1937.53.340.8
    Non-metallic mineral products4.676.874.8838.02.742.1
    Metal products and engineering4.847.145.0237.61.940.8
    Machinery (except electrical)4.646.554.7737.72.640.4
    Electrical machinery and equipment4.436.504.5337.91.339.8
    Transport equipment4.968.095.1537.72.640.2
    Other manufacturing4.166.094.2237.63.938.8
            Sub-total, manufacturing4.907.225.0936.63.239.7
Electricity, gas, and water5.127.555.2738.22.640.8
    Construction4.646.524.8139.03.942.8
Wholesale, retail, etc.—
    Wholesale trade4.856.344.9038.31.239.4
    Retail trade3.855.503.9036.91.438.0
    Restaurants, hotels, etc.3.955.774.0132.82.134.1
            Sub-total, wholesale, retail, etc.4.255.864.3036.71.437.8
Transport and communication—
    Transport and storage (excl. seasonal)5.167.295.4038.14.942.9
    Seasonal storage and warehousing4.156.004.2737.52.539.9
    Communication4.806.534.8838.92.140.9
            Sub-total, transport, etc.4.997.115.1838.43.842.1
Financing, insurance, etc.—
    Finance4.745.744.7537.90.538.4
    Insurance5.449.185.4537.50.137.6
    Real estate and business services5026.685.0436.60.637.1
            Sub-total, financing, etc.4.986.415.0037.20.537.7
Industrial GroupAverage Hourly Earnings For All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For: All Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary-TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For: Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $     $     $     hourshourshours
Community and personal services—
    Public administration and defence5.457.015.4837.30.938.2
    Sanitary services, etc.4.146.074.2132.82.734.1
    Education services5.255.725.2535.00.135.0
    Research and scientific institutes6.337.406.3437.50.337.7
    Health services4.866.214.8838.21.039.1
    Other community services4.846.534.8736.00.836.6
    Recreational and cultural services5.147.095.2234.21.835.6
    Personal and household services3.905.963.9738.31.539.6
            Sub-total, services4.996.455.0136.70.837.4
            Total, all surveyed industries4.826.904.9337.02.239.0

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE RATES INDEX—The Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index, which is shown in the following table, represents the movements in all minimum or mandatory rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court or any special industrial tribunal or determined from time to time by some statutory authority. It covers all adult male and female employees. In selecting the occupations to be used for measuring wage and salary rate changes regard has been paid to all significant awards, agreements and determinations and the more important occupations (from the point of view of numbers employed) described by these documents. The index covers 284 awards and agreements within the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court (Part 1 of the Index) with 461 selected occupations from these awards and agreements. For other agreements and determinations within the jurisdiction of other industrial tribunals and determining authorities (Part 2 of the Index) 210 occupations have been selected.

The awards and agreements used in Part 1 define only the legal minimum rates of pay, although in many cases, particularly with industrial agreements, these are the rates actually paid. On the other hand most of the rates used in Part 2 are normally mandatory. (A series of wage rate indexes following this Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index is based on prevailing or actual rates of pay.)

The following factors were taken into account in selecting the representative awards and agreements:

  1. The numbers of workers covered by the respective awards and agreements. All of the more important awards and agreements—so far as numbers of workers covered are concerned—are included in the index;

  2. The industrial coverage. The selection of awards and agreements appropriate for the various narrowly defined industry groups ensures that each industry is represented by its own award or agreement, or that for a closely related industry; and

  3. The geographic coverage. Not all district awards or agreements could be used but a balanced representation of the major industrial districts was obtained.

The latest index, which was introduced in the January-February 1979 Monthly Abstract, is much wider in scope than the index it replaced. Because of this, any linking of the 2 indexes for the purpose of measuring long-term trends in nominal wage and salary rates must suffer some limitations. Nevertheless some such measure was required and linked series at All Groups level were supplied back to the December quarter 1975. These were shown in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

The following table shows the industry and occupation grouping of the index. The industry grouping conforms to the production groups of the New Zealand System of National Accounts, and the occupation groups are major groups of the New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations.

The use of standard production groups means that the classification is consistent with National Accounts, the General Price Index, and the series of integrated economic censuses.

The index is calculated for rates effective at mid-quarter.

NOTE: Index numbers in the following table were correct at the time of entry but, because of the possible incorporation of retrospective increases in wage and salary rates in awards, collective agreements, and determinations, they may be subject to later revisions. They may be checked against the appropriate table in the latest Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

INDEX NUMBERS OF NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE RATES—ADULT EMPLOYEES*
Base: For each group, average rates ruling for December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
GroupDec Quarter 19771980Dec Year 1980
Mar QuarterJun QuarterSep QuarterDec Quarter

* Comparisons of the index numbers for one grouping of rates with those for other groupings indicate relative movements in average rates in the different groups, not relative levels of average rates of wages and salaries. Because of possible retrospective increases in the wage or salary rates in forthcoming awards, collective agreements or determinations, etc., the more recent index numbers should be treated as provisional.

These indexes measure changes in the rates (minimum and mandatory) within the jurisdiction of the stated wages and salary determining authorities.

Derived in each case by dividing the nominal (or money) Wage Rate Index Number by the corresponding Consumers Price Index Number and multiplying by 1000.

Part 1—Rates within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court
Industry Group      
Agriculture100014901495158916511554
Fishing and hunting100014181512160316041534
Forestry and logging100014351464152215451490
Mining and quarrying100014301468152716361514
Food, beverages, and tobacco100014991520159416221553
Textiles, apparel and leather100014501463152115351492
Wood and wood products100013831467152615381477
Paper, printing and publishing100014311473153315751502
Chemicals, petroleum and plastics100014351441149215651474
Non-metallic mineral products100014281470153615941502
Basic metals100014251426148416451480
Machinery and metal products100014031409146715891464
Other manufacturing100013791600166416761580
Electricity, gas and water100013891402145616711477
Construction100014561466152515621502
Trade, restaurants and hotels100014661493155315771518
Transport and storage100014601465152416411520
Communication1000     
Insurance and financing100013541425149715061444
Community and personal services100013901442149915621462
Central Government100014901498155717501570
Local Government100013901405147416331475
Private non-profit services100014171435149915551476
                  All industries combined100014391464152815891501
Occupation Group      
Professional, technical and related workers100014031411148415651464
Administrative and managerial100013951436150015811478
Clerical and related workers100014461474153915771508
Sales workers100014721476153515481506
Service workers100014521502156716161532
Agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry workers100014731498158916411549
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers100014291455151615921492
                  All occupations combined100014391464152815891501
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups100010801055106310661064
Part 2—Rates Prescribed by Other Industrial Tribunals or Determining Authorities
Industry Group      
Agriculture100013161316136915841396
Fishing and hunting1000     
Forestry and logging100013331333138616461424
Mining and quarrying100013061306135814691360
Food, beverages and tobacco1000     
Textiles, apparel and leather1000     
Wood and wood products100013281328138116101412
Paper, printing and publishing100013291329138216411410
Chemicals, petroleum and plastics100014071407146415081446
Non-metallic mineral products1000     
Basic metals1000     
Machinery and metal products100013361336139616681432
Other manufacturing1000     
Electricity, gas and water100013411341139916331427
Construction100013291329138516441421
Trade, restaurants and hotels100013381338139716401427
Transport and storage100013531400145616271459
Communication100013321332138516151416
Insurance and financing100013311331138416041412
Community and personal services100013181318137115961401
Central Government100013341334138716121416
Local Government1000     
Private non-profit services1000     
                  All industries combined100013351339139316161420
                    Occupation Croup      
Professional, technical and related workers100013311331138316001411
Administrative and managerial100013461346140016201428
Clerical and related workers100013341334138916091416
Sales workers100013841384144216761471
Service workers100013381338139116791435
Agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry workers100013251325137816181412
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers100013451371142816461447
                  All occupations combined100013351339139316161420
Index of Effective Rates —All Groups1000100296596910851004
Part 3—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of all Determining Authorities
Industry Group      
Agriculture100014871492158416501553
Fishing and hunting100014181512160316041534
Forestry and logging100013811395145015981456
Mining and quarrying100013631381143615461432
Food, beverages and tobacco100014991520159416221559
Textiles, apparel and leather100014501463152115351492
Wood and wood products100013821465152415391473
Paper, printing and publishing100014251466152515781498
Chemicals, petroleum and plastics100014351441149215651483
Non-metallic mineral products100014281470153615941507
Basic metals100014251426148416451495
Machinery and metal products100013981404146215941464
Other manufacturing100013791600166416761580
Electricity, gas and water100013761385144016601465
Construction100014181426148415881479
Trade, restaurants and hotels100014651492155215781522
Transport and storage100014101435149216341493
Communication100013321332138516151416
Insurance and financing100013481402147415301438
Community and personal services100013791422148315681463
Central Government100013431343139716201426
Local Government100013901405147516331476
Private non-profit services100014171435149915551476
                  All industries combined100014001418147815991474
Occupation Group      
Professional, technical, and related workers100013401341139615951418
Administrative and managerial100013621375143316071444
Clerical and related workers100013971412147315911468
Sales workers100014691473153215521506
Service workers100014121444150516381500
Agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry workers100014461467155116371525
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers100014161442150216001490
                  All occupations combined100014001418147815991474
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups100010501022102810731043

PREVAILING WEEKLY WAGE RATES INDEX—A new series of wage rate indexes was released by the Department of Statistics in March 1980. Known as the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index, this series measures the movements in the overall level of prevailing or actual rates of pay for all adult employees whose minimum or mandatory rates of pay are fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court or any special industrial tribunal or determined from time to time by some statutory authority, and includes house agreements registered with the Court.

This index has the same weighting pattern and coverage of awards and agreements as the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index (see previous pages). It is possible, therefore, to compare the 2 series so as to measure “wage drift”. For the 12 months ended December 1979 the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index (wage rates actually paid) moved by 14.4 percent, whilst the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index (award rates) moved by 14.1 percent, a drift of 0.3 percentage points.

Part 2 of the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index is identical with part 2 of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index.

The payrates surveyed for the index are those actually paid to the employees engaged in the nominated positions and are measured at the payday for the period which includes the 15th day of the mid-month of the quarter.

The Effective Prevailing Wage Rates Index (index of effective rates) adjusts the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index for the movements in the consumer price levels. This index is derived by dividing the Prevailing Wage Index for each quarter by the corresponding Consumers Price Index, and multiplying by 1000.

Like the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index, the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Indexes for more recent quarters are subject to later revision resulting from any backdating of awards, agreements, and determinations.

INDEX NUMBERS OF PREVAILING WAGE RATES—ADULT EMPLOYEES
Base: For each group, average rates prevailing for December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
CroupDec Quarter 19771980
Mar QuarterJun QuarterSep Quarter
Part 1—Rates within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court
Industry Group    
Agriculture1000145315081609
Fishing and hunting1000133513791464
Forestry and logging1000143414561537
Mining and quarrying1000145214901557
Food, beverages, and tobacco1000152215391612
Textiles, apparel, and leather1000146414711530
Wood and wood products1000139314771537
Paper, printing, and publishing1000143614981555
Chemicals, petroleum and plastics1000145214671526
Non-metallic mineral products1000146415111593
Basic metals1000147414831543
Machinery and metal products1000144414601522
Other manufacturing1000141114411623
Electricity, gas, and water1000138013951469
Construction1000147114811544
Trade, restaurants, and hotels1000145914931557
Transport and storage1000145014761544
Communication1000   
Insurance and financing1000135214271491
Community and personal services1000140414321519
Central Government1000149915111573
Local Government1000139914051478
Private non-profit services1000143314531518
                  All industries combined1000144914781547
Occupation Group    
Professional, technical, and related workers1000143414491533
Administrative and managerial1000139714491501
Clerical and related workers1000142914781538
Sales workers1000145014631530
Service workers1000145714941574
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters1000143814951600
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators and labourers1000145614801545
    All occupations combined1000144914781547
Index of Effective Rates—All groups1000108710651076
Part 2—Rates Prescribed by Other Industrial Tribunals or Determining Authorities
Industry Group    
Agriculture1000131613161369
Fishing and hunting1000   
Forestry and logging1000133313331386
Mining and quarrying1000130313031338
Food, beverages, and tobacco1000   
Textiles, apparel, and leather1000   
Wood and wood products1000132813281381
Paper, printing, and publishing1000132713271382
Chemicals, petroleum, and plastics1000140714071464
Non-metallic mineral products1000   
Basic metals1000   
Machinery and metal products1000131813181390
Other manufacturing1000   
Electricity, gas and water1000133113311395
Construction1000132013201383
Trade, restaurants and hotels1000132413241391
Transport and storage1000135413541456
Communication1000133113311385
Insurance and financing1000132613261384
Community and personal services1000131813181371
Central Government1000133413341386
Local Government1000   
Private non-profit services1000   
                  All industries combined1000133413341392
Occupation Group    
Professional, technical, and related workers1000133113311383
Administrative and managerial1000134513451395
Clerical and related workers1000133513351387
Sales workers1000138013801440
Service workers1000133713371391
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters1000132513251378
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators 2nd labourers1000133813381425
                  All occupations combined1000133413341392
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups10001001961968
Part 3—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of all Determining Authorities
Industry Group    
Agriculture1000145115041605
Fishing and hunting1000133513791464
Forestry and logging1000138213931459
Mining and quarrying1000137313911441
Food, beverages, and tobacco1000152215391612
Textiles, apparel, and leather1000146414711530
Wood and wood products1000139214751535
Paper, printing, and publishing1000143114891546
Chemicals, petroleum, and plastics1000145214671526
Non-metallic mineral products1000146415111593
Basic metals1000147414831543
Machinery and metal products1000143614511513
Other manufacturing1000141114411623
Electricity, gas, and water1000136613771448
Construction1000142714341497
Trade, restaurants, and hotels1000145914921556
Transport and storage1000140614201503
Communication1000133113311385
Insurance and financing1000134614041467
Community and personal services1000139114151496
Central Government1000134413451397
Local Government1000139914051478
Private non-profit services1000143314531518
                  All industries combined1000140814271492
Occupation Group    
Professional, technical, and related workers1000134513471403
Administrative and managerial1000136213791430
Clerical and related workers1000138914171473
Sales workers1000144814601527
Service workers1000141514401510
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters1000141914671563
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators and labourers1000143914601528
                  All occupations combined1000140814271492
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups1000105610281038

EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES—Except for one line, the Index of Effective Rates, at the foot of each table, the index numbers quoted in the foregoing tables relate to nominal and prevailing weekly wage rates only—that is, they are based on actual or equivalent money rates without any allowance being made for changes during the period under review in the prices of those goods and services which are purchased out of wages earned. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance, for a rise in wage rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing power of money. Index numbers of effective (or “real”) wage rates are arrived at by dividing the index numbers of nominal or effective wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices (both series of index numbers having first been set on a common time base) and multiplying the result by the base value of 1000.

The following table accordingly shows a comparison of nominal, prevailing, and effective weekly wage rates together with the Consumers Price Index for the year ended December.

The base of the index numbers is in each case December Quarter 1977 (= 1000).

YearConsumer Prices (All Groups)Nominal Weekly Wage Rates—Adult Males*Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates—Adult Employees
ActualEffectiveActualEffective
* From 1978 the index covers all adult workers.
19725145171006....
19735565781040....
19746186571063....
19757087471055....
19768288351008....
19779479491002....
197810601077101610821021
197912061244103212521038
1980141214711041....

The continuous index of consumer prices required for the foregoing table has been obtained by linking together the successive series of the Consumers Price Index and converting the whole to the base: December quarter 1977 (= 1000).

In making use of these results it should not be overlooked that the index numbers of nominal rates apply only to full-time employment at award or mandatory rates of pay. They do not take into account either, on the one hand, above-award rates or overtime earnings, or on the other, short-time deductions. The index numbers of prevailing weekly wage rates, on the other hand, are based on the actual rates of pay of employees in the nominated positions. The consumer prices index numbers do not take cognisance of all classes of household expenditure. For example, income tax, charitable and other gifts, overseas travel, and domestic help are omitted (see section 23).

MINIMUM WAGE RATES—Enforceable minimum wage rates are determined under various statutes, the most universally applicable being the Minimum Wage Act 1945. This Act provides that workers of 20 years of age and upwards must receive not less than the rates prescribed under the Act. In the great majority of cases, however, workers are subject to wage orders, awards, or industrial agreements relating to the particular industries in which they are employed and which provide somewhat higher enforceable minimum rates. The minimum wage for males is currently set at a rate which is lower than the standard rate for unskilled labour.

As from 11 June 1981 the minimum rates for all workers (male or female) became $2.14 an hour if paid by the hour or on piecework, $16.86 a day if paid by the day; and $84.17 a week in other cases. On and after 1 April 1977, minimum rates for female workers became the same as for males.

FARM EMPLOYEES—The numbers of paid permanent employees on farms at 30 June 1979 and the aggregate totals of salaries and wages (including bonuses) paid drying the year ended 30 June 1979 are shown by types of farm in the following table. The salaries and wages of casual employees totalled $28,206,466 for the year ended 30 June 1979.

Farm Type**Working Owners Leaseholders, and SharemilkersPaid Permanent EmployeesSalaries and Wages Paid (Permanent Employees)Casual EmployeesUnpaid Family

* 75 percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§ Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

|| More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

** These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

 Number $(000)Number 
Dairy farming*23796590126,2315735929
Sheep farming*20547755933,90917276158
Beef farming*73488963,3921641799
Pig farming*8023241,76115179
Cropping*16112731,36976319
Dairy farming with sheep6332321,04430178
Dairy farming with beef11774692,06333311
Dairy farming with other48513757723102
Sheep farming with dairy16558257831
Sheep farming with beef6683552228,7279131872
Sheep farming with cropping13736122,75379482
Sheep farming with other45619190143156
Beef farming with dairy239542581278
Beef farming with sheep12956183,546112434
Beef farming with other298602421477
Cropping with sheep6192321,08869162
Cropping with other199572921974
Pig farming with other222100471855
Mixed livestock4982276113,9634121563
General mixed farming§17497603,540189513
Poultry farming||87210204,221146192
Market gardening and flowers||232010205,082685504
Orchards||331317489,8321719723
Tobacco growing||2702991,44333986
Nurseries||59511986,04332799
Plantations||408410830,05129561
Other farming224810635,343233599
                  Total, all farm types8470537272188,399826322736

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on wages will be found in the following publications:

Prices, Wages, and Labour: Pt. B. Wages and Labour—Department of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Labour and Employment Gazette—Department of Labour (quarterly).

Report of the Department of Labour (Parl. paper G. 1).

Equal Pay Implementation in New Zealand—Report of a Special Committee (Parl. paper G. 1A).

Chapter 34. Section 34 INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND WORKING CONDITIONS

Table of Contents

The rules underlying the New Zealand system of industrial relations have traditionally been embodied in legislation. In the private sector, statutes confer bargaining rights on certain registered/recognised organisations and specify various procedures for the conduct of negotiations. Various institutions are also available to assist the parties in resolving their differences.

The main body of rules covering industrial relations in the private sector is contained in the Industrial Relations Act 1973. By a process of registration, unions secure bargaining rights for the class of workers they represent, and also access to various procedures for the settlement of disputes associated with the renegotiation of the collective agreement (disputes of interest) and its subsequent application (disputes of right).

In the case of disputes of interest, the emphasis is on the parties reaching a settlement through the processes of collective bargaining. The parties may agree to negotiate a voluntary settlement of the dispute. Alternatively, either party may apply for the dispute to proceed through the more orthodox conciliation and arbitration channels. It should be stressed that the applicant may, at any time, withdraw his claims from conciliation. Moreover, the Arbitration Court may refuse to arbitrate (i.e., make an award) if it considers that the parties have not made a genuine attempt to settle in conciliation.

In the case of disputes of right, the emphasis is on their peaceful resolution, and accordingly the process of arbitration is rather more in evidence. The disputes proceed through a system of disputes committees chaired by an independent person who may either make a decision in the event of the parties failing to agree or refer the matter to the Arbitration Court for a decision. Personal grievance issues proceed directly to the Court for a decision in the event of the parties failing to agree.

The Act provides for the registration and enforcement of collective agreements. An agreement so registered is binding on the immediate parties to it (and their members). Additionally, an agreement arrived at through the process of conciliation, or an award of the Court, automatically binds any person who subsequently becomes connected with or engaged in the industry to which it relates.

Separate enactments cover bargaining relationships in the agriculture sector, on the waterfront, and in the aircrew services.

INSTITUTIONS: The Arbitration Court—The Arbitration Court has the broad responsibility for the registering of settlements as collective agreements, the making of awards, and the settlement of disputes of right referred to it under the Act.

The Court attempts, by means of a common membership, to achieve consistency in the decisions of the various wage fixing tribunals, e.g., public sector, waterfront, aircrew, agricultural.

The constitution of the Court varies according to the matters before it and the wishes of the parties. The full Court comprises 5 persons: 1 Judge and 2 sets of members, nominated by the Employers' Federation and the Federation of Labour. The full Court is limited to hearing disputes of interest and then only at the request of one or both of the parties. In all other circumstances, the Court comprises 3 persons: being 1 Judge and 1 set of nominated members. An establishment of 3 Judges (with jurisdiction over other wage fixing tribunals) together with 2 sets of nominated members creates the possibility of 2 courts and 1 tribunal (or 1 court and 2 tribunals) sitting simultaneously.

The specific functions of the Arbitration Court are to:

  1. hear and determine any question connected with the construction of any award or collective agreement;

  2. hear and determine any question connected with the construction of the Industrial Relations Act or any Act relating to industrial matters;

  3. make an order determining the rights of parties under any award or collective agreement;

  4. order compliance with any award or collective agreement;

  5. make an order determining the validity of any award or collective agreement (this power was not in the 1973 Act and is designed to cope with situations in which a union negotiates an agreement which covers workers who are not covered by its membership rule);

  6. hear and determine enforcement and recovery actions;

  7. hear and determine appeals from disputes committees;

  8. hear and determine matters referred to the Court relating to the grievance procedure;

  9. hear and determine questions relating to the registration and jurisdiction of unions;

  10. inquire into and determine questions relating to disputed elections.

The Industrial Conciliation Service—The New Zealand system of industrial relations has historically been governed by a formal system of conciliation and arbitration—and the Industrial Conciliation Service has long been an integral part of that system.

The service consists of conciliators appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister. The conciliator acts to convene conciliation councils for the hearing of disputes of interest, and to take any other steps considered advisable in reaching fair and amicable voluntary settlements of such disputes. More specifically, a conciliator sets dates for the hearing of disputes, appoints assessors to constitute the council, and calls or strikes out parties to a dispute. He is also responsible for recording and reporting the procedures of a conciliation to the Court and referring unsettled disputes to the Court for determination.

In practice, what does this mean? The conciliator really has 2 roles. During the formal proceedings he acts as a chairman. That is, he occasionally calls the council to order, ensures that they stick to the topic, and suggests the time for a break in the formal proceedings. It is during the break in formal proceedings that the conciliator really gets into action. He moves from one room to the other, listens to what each party is saying, drops hints, and makes suggestions. In short, he acts as a link between the parties and assists them in moving to common ground. Above all, he ensures that the negotiations keep going.

The Industrial Mediation Service—The mediation service is relatively new to the industrial relations scene. It was established by an amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1970.

The service consists of mediators appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister after consultation with the central organisations. A mediator acts to “assist employers, unions, and workers to carry out their responsibilities to establish and maintain harmonious industrial relations”. The mediator has no power to impose his services on the parties to a dispute and may merely offer his assistance. With the agreement of the parties however he may decide issues referred to him. The mediator is on no account to be involved in a dispute of interest while conciliation or arbitration proceedings are in progress.

Once involved in a dispute, the mediator's approach is, of necessity, a flexible one. As with the conciliator, his objective is to assist the parties in arriving at a settlement themselves. This involves getting the parties talking to one another, and keeping them talking. In certain circumstances, it might be appropriate for the mediator to request that the Minister appoint a compulsory conference, perhaps with himself as chairman with decision-making powers. At other times, it might be appropriate to get the parties together in an informal way as a prelude to more formal discussions.

The Industrial Relations Council—This is an advisory body comprising representatives at national level of employer organisations, worker organisations, and the Government, under the chairmanship of the Minister of Labour. The council provides permanent machinery for tripartite consultation on industrial affairs. Some specific matters to which the council gives consideration are: the formulation and implementation of manpower policies; the formulation of codes of practice relating to industrial relations; and ways and means of improving industrial relations, industrial organisations, and industrial welfare. Various sub-committees have been formed to consider a range of policy issues.

The council went into recess in August 1979 after the Federation of Labour withdrew in protest at the repeal of the General Wage Orders Act 1977 by the Government, and the introduction of the Remuneration Bill.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS—The New Zealand system of conciliation and arbitration is based on the voluntary registration of industrial unions and industrial associations. The Industrial Relations Act 1973 simplified and consolidated procedures developed over the years under the former Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. A sliding scale operates to determine the minimum number required to form a union depending on the number of industrial districts in which the union has coverage. A union of employers with coverage of up to 1 full industrial district is to have a minimum of 6 members or more than 75 percent of employers engaged in the industry in the area concerned who together employ more than 75 percent of the workers so engaged, with an absolute minimum of 3. A union of workers with coverage of up to 1 full industrial district is to have a minimum of 30 members or more than 50 percent of the total number of workers engaged in the industry in the area concerned, with an absolute minimum of 10 members. The prime minimum and the absolute minimum figures increase progressively with coverage of a greater number of industrial districts. If the membership of a union falls below the minimum requirements the union may be deregistered. The great majority of unions of workers and employers in the private enterprise field are registered under the Industrial Relations Act.

Further provisions of the Industrial Relations Act 1973 operate to deter multiple unionism and simplify the procedures for amalgamation of unions. It is hoped that this will give impetus to amalgamation of unions.

Restrictions on the exercise of welfare activities by unions have been removed and unions are able, subject to membership approval, to devote any percentage of subscription to welfare activities. A union may apply funds to futherance of political objects if this is decided by a secret ballot of members.

A 1978 amendment to the Industrial Relations Act significantly altered the procedures governing the insertion of an unqualified preference (union membership) provision in awards and collective agreements. The amendment inserted a new rule in the rules of every union. Its purpose is to ensure that all union members have the opportunity of endorsing or opposing the insertion of an unqualified preference provision in unions awards and industrial agreements. The new rule, which must be followed every 3 years, requires each union to give written notice to its members to seek an unqualified preference clause in its awards and collective agreements. That intention is to be discussed at a special meeting called for the purpose. A secret ballot supervised by an officer of the Department of Labour is to be conducted at the meeting. The union will not seek or agree to the insertion of the unqualified preference provision unless the majority of valid votes cast in the ballot are in favour. As an alternative to the special meeting procedure the union may request the Registrar of Unions to conduct a postal ballot of persons covered by a particular award. An unqualified preference provision once inserted in an award or collective agreement becomes a condition of employment and any worker who is not a union member must join the appropriate union upon taking up employment (usually within 14 days).

Fishing Industry Union Coverage Act 1979—Special legislation governing union coverage in the fishing industry was passed in 1979. This Act excludes existing unions from the fishing industry and provides that only 1 union may be registered in respect of the industry. The consent of the Minister of Labour is required prior to registration.

Maternity Leave and Employment Protection Act 1980—This legislation provides that a female employee who becomes pregnant or who assumes the care of a child by adoption is entitled to 26 weeks unpaid maternity leave. To qualify for leave she must have been employed for 18 months immediately preceding the expected date of delivery by the same employer and work at least 15 hours per week.

An employer is presumed to be able to keep open the position of a female employee until the end of her maternity leave, unless he proves that the position cannot be kept open because either a temporary replacement is not reasonably practicable because of the key position in the enterprise which the female employee holds, or because the situation becomes redundant. Where her position cannot be kept open, a female employee is entitled to 26 weeks' preference over other applicants for any vacancy which is substantially similar to the position held by her before she began maternity leave.

The Act makes it unlawful to dismiss a female employee by reason of her pregnancy, her state of health during her pregnancy, her indicating that she wishes to take maternity leave, or her assuming the care of a child by adoption. A procedure for the settlement of maternity leave complaints by a process of conciliation and arbitration is provided.

UNIONS OF WORKERS—In the years subsequent to 1936, when changes in the law enabled national unions of workers to be formed and introduced compulsory membership of unions, two tendencies were visible. The first was the immediate creation of many new small unions, the number of unions jumping from 410 in 1935 to 499 in 1937, as many small groups of workers for the first time became unionised and secured an award. Later, a tendency for small unions to amalgamate into New Zealand unions became evident, so that the total number of unions declined at the same time as the number of larger unions increased. By 1942 the result of these changes was to leave the number and membership of the small unions little different from what they were in 1928, but substantially to increase the number of large unions, and to increase greatly their membership.

Compulsory unionism resulted in a great numerical strengthening of the existing unions with consequential increase in their financial strength, while the legislation enabling national unions to be formed helped to consolidate these gains: at the same time it resulted in the unionisation of many small groups of workers who were previously unorganised. Since 1962 the State has not imposed compulsory union membership.

The union movement remains diverse, with 279 separate registrations and some important unions and the professional associations outside it* . In size, the registered unions range from over 51000 members down to 8, with many of them having fewer than 100. Amalgamation is proceeding and significant consolidation has occurred in recent years.

Most unions are still occupational, or craft-based, and the industry agreements that are becoming more common—especially at the informal bargaining level—require the co-operation of numerous unions .

The Act provides for a worker to seek a certificate of exemption from any union-membership provision on grounds of conscience.

Federation of Labour—The great increases in the membership of the trade unions brought about by compulsory unionism and the formation of national unions were factors facilitating the formation of the Federation of Labour in 1937 as an organisation representative of the trade union movement as a whole on a national basis.

The supreme authority of the Federation of Labour is the annual conference of delegates representing affiliated unions. Between conferences the business of the federation is carried on by a National Executive Committee and a National Council. The executive consists of the president, vice president, secretary, and 6 members elected directly by the conference. The National Council, which meets regularly twice a year, and at other times as required, consists of members of the National Executive and is representative of each local trades council. It is the governing body of the federation between meetings of the conference. The local organs of the federation are the local trades councils, 20 in number, and 1 trade union committee, to which all local unions and branches of unions affiliated to the Federation of Labour are entitled to send representatives. The trades councils meet once a month to carry on the local business of the federation and they maintain close contact with the National Executive by means of exchange of minutes of meetings. Within each district the trades council has local autonomy, but where any matter affects other districts the National Executive or the National Council usually deals with it.

UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS—By registering, the employers secure all the rights of a union and can exercise them, with only minor differences, in the same manner as a union of workers.

Compulsory membership of unions does not apply to employers and in many cases their unions are maintained with a nominal membership.

Employers are more organised for negotiations with unions than figures of membership and the prevalence of local unions of employers might suggest. The New Zealand Employers Federation is the central organisation of employers and the chief co-ordinating body of employers in all matters of industrial relations and employment. It comprises 4 regional divisions (the Auckland Provincial, Wellington Regional, Canterbury, and Otago-Southland Employers Associations) plus national and North or South Island organisations that are admitted to membership of the Federation's General Council. There are nearly 70 in this latter category.

Individual company membership of the 4 regional divisions of the federation now exceeds 10000, and these employers receive advice, assistance, and representation from the associations' specialist industrial staff. In addition to work in the negotiations and advocacy field, the Employers Federation has staff handling research and information services.

A new constitution adopted by the federation in 1971 was designed to achieve greater unity amongst employers and employer organisations associated with the federation, and greater employer sector participation has been provided in the formulation of the federation's policies.

STATISTICS: Unions of Workers—The numbers and membership of workers' unions at the end of the year according to industry groups is shown in the following table. Where the members of a union are employed in more than 1 industry they have been classified to the predominant industry for the union concerned.

* Mainly the State Services organisations, and the pulp and paper workers.

The Engineers Union.

More than a dozen; for example, in the forest products agreements and in the Hutt Valley motor vehicle assembly plants agreement.

Industrial Group197719781979
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.517130516548516760
Mining and quarrying448744863404
Manufacturing—
    Metal products and engineering155204715516381559025
    Texiles, clothing, and leather232990123295332029915
    Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal404981440530303954266
    Wood and wood products, including furniture816960817596817989
    Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing510580616458716690
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics104026104115104319
    Non-metallic mineral products7175357385719
    Other manufacturing869475447417
Construction134466414451446438
Road and rail transport173721717359681635644
Air transport519795196652142
Shipping and stevedoring301398630136702913334
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.297072527724402674519
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.368620437880883193093
Government and local authority, n.e.c.101513010163411017717
Recreational services103467103967114397
Social community services including health, education, etc.,439914433844529
Other personal and community services131267712136681214646
                  Total292473432289486533277506963

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership.

At 31 DecemberUnder 100100–199200–299300–499500–9991000–19992000–29993000–49995000–999910000 and OverTotal
Number of Unions
197590262333343418101410292
197687292132373613131311292
197786282329433116121311292
197881322230403513121212289
197978262423413412131313277
Membership
19754324359857051327823750451354365636497100476178572454991
1976399241165136126082487350092314794848692601191070464453
1977418139855659110592928444140374544474494533198393473432
1978378744055365119382707950599315354690787779217139486533
197936823714577588152688847889278385048895614236260506963

The following table shows the total membership of industrial unions of workers at intervals since 1940. In 1936 the membership of industrial unions had more than doubled, growing from 80929 in 1935 to 185527 in 1936. This was a result of the 1936 amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act which made union membership compulsory whenever an award or industrial agreement existed.

As at End of YearNumber of Members
1940248081
1945229103
1950275779
1955304520
1960332362
1965353093
1970378465
1972394748
1973427692
1974436623
1975454991
1976464453
1977473432
1978486533
1979506963

Unions of Employers—The numbers and membership of registered industrial unions of employers as at the end of the year are shown in the following table according to industrial groups. Some employers belong to two or more unions.

Industry Group197719781979
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.104438115154113705
Manufacturing—
Metal products and engineering, etc.811548113381176
Textiles, clothing, and leather104761049110486
Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal214802145521430
Wood and wood products, including furniture950195349541
Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing851185398543
Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics821382168305
Non-metallic mineral products245234232
Other manufacturing120119119
Construction567163567101566523
Road and rail transport418204183041856
Air transport234234233
Shipping and stevedoring410141004102
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.515355153651635
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.551319455132755413065
Government and local authority, n.e.c.429942984301
Recreational services181164184
Social community services, including health, education, etc.278428103899
Other personal and community services673556825677
                  Total216335842163430521632412

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS—Associations of 2 or more unions in different districts in the same industry can be registered as industrial associations. As at 31 December 1979 there were 13 industrial associations of employers and 27 of workers, the former having 105 affiliated unions and the latter, 133.

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS—The following table shows the proportion of workers belonging to registered unions to the total number of wage earners in the country. The figures for total wage earners are derived from census enumerations.

Census YearTotal Wage EarnersEnd of Year Nearest to Census DateNumber of Workers on Rolls of Registered Unions*Percentage of Wage Earners on Rolls of Registered Unions*
* There are a number of associations of employees not registered. These include many State servants and mine workers, chemical fertiliser workers, agriculture workers, etc.
1956 (Apr)653358195530452047
1961 (Apr)750882196033236244
1966 (Mar)870813196535309341
1971 (Mar)958563197037846539
1976 (Mar)1063170197545499143

STATISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES—In the tables which follow only those disputes are included which resulted in a strike, penalty, or lockout, or where organised “go slow” or other passive-resistance methods were clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes. Stoppages in which no demand is made on the employer (or the employees in the case of a lockout) are not included—for example any stoppage which is the result of disagreement by workers with measures taken (or not taken) by Government or other authority, as distinct from employers, is excluded. To avoid confusion with the term “dispute” as used in industrial relations legislation, these statistics have been called “industrial stoppages”. A long-term series of stoppages is given towards the back of this Yearbook.

The figures for stoppages include details of stopwork meetings unless, as on the waterfront, provision is made for these in the relevant award or agreement. In all cases unauthorised stopwork meetings are included, also unauthorised delays in resuming work after recognised stopwork meetings. A single stoppage may include or may consist of one stopwork meeting or several stopwork meetings; if several such meetings are included, these may be held at different times or at different places, provided all relate to the same issue.

The following table shows incidence rates of stoppages during recent years.

YearNumber of Wage and Salary Earners*Workers Involved in Stoppages as Percentage of Wage and Salary EarnersWorking Days Lost per 1000 of Wage and Salary Earners

* October estimates.

Ratios for 1977, 1978, 1979, and 1980 are worked on 1976 number of salary and wage earners.

 (000)  
1973987.411.73275.17
19741015.86.98180.83
19751024.57.30209.50
19761034.319.44472.24
1977 15.41422.32
1978 15.27367.98
1979 15.29369.23x
1980 10.45348.13

Industrial stoppages during recent years are summarised in the following table. The totals of stoppages include lockouts (if any). Where several occasions have been grouped as 1 stoppage the largest number of workers involved on any 1 day have been included under the relevant headings. Workers indirectly involved have also been included. “Partial strike” indicates a reduction of the normal rate of output.

Calendar YearNumber of StoppagesDurationNumber of Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostAverage Days Lost per Worker InvolvedApproximate Loss In Wages
Complete StrikePartial Strike*TotalTotal (Working Days)Average (Working Days)

* Reduction of normal rate of output.

Includes lockouts and penalties (2 lockouts in 1979).

      (000)(000) $(000)
19764513448519864.082014882.4310,840
1977538245622173 1/23.871594372.7410,560
1978405641113473.231583812.4110,948
1979507x1452318633.561583822.4112,698
1980352-3521283 1/23.651083603.3317,708

In the following table industrial stoppages are classified according to the industry in which they took place. The figures relate to stoppages which terminated during the 12 months ended December 1980.

INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES 1980
IndustryNumber of StoppagesDuration (Working Days)Number of Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
* From 1976 any stoppage which has involved workers in more than I industry has been counted once in each respective industry (number and duration) but as a single stoppage in the total of all industries. In 1980 there were 5 extra cases and 14 extra days' duration.
     $(000)
Agriculture, hunting-----
Forestry, logging-----
Mining, quarrying-----
Meat export works134347.5593301472727,378.3
Other slaughtering, preparation, and preserving meat431.03682754144.2
Dairy products; fruit, vegetable, and fish canning and preserving; vegetable oils, animal oils and fats1033.522414160131.9
Grain milling, bakery products, sugar, confectionery, etc.213.0261315.4
Beverage industries, tobacco14.07281.1
Textile, wearing apparel, leather goods59.5942165347.2
Wood, wood products (incl. furniture)213.5373166750.5
Paper, paper products; printing and publishing10120.04250960895,622.4
Chemicals; chemical, petroleum, and coal products1434.5582125247.7
Rubber and plastic products1232.5219057424.1
Non-metallic mineral products717.5569167858.3
Basic metal industries1262.025086578322.5
Metal products, machinery including electrical1433.01226315198.1
Transport equipment953.0223910892375.3
Professional and scientific equipment-----
Other manufacturing-----
Electricity, gas, water212.5256151440.9
Buildings264.022711434455.3
Construction other than buildings1360.017403849167.4
Ancillary building and construction services29.517823.3
Wholesale trade955.510173735145.3
Retail trade313.0317316564573.0
Restaurants and hotels-----
Land transport2052.043643246114.3
Water transport45100.016051301991,274.1
Airtransport615.0815166056.6
Services allied to transport35.01231877.2
Communication-----
Financing, insurance, real estate, etc.714.53096213774.2
Community, social, and personal services888.0344237282.9
Several industries14.021431.5
                  Total, all industries*3521283.510809536006917,708.0

The following table gives an analysis of stoppages by duration during 1979.

DurationNumber of StoppagesNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
    $(000)
1 day and less27276061418681,401.2
Over 1 day but not over 2 days731447422334820.2
Over 2 days but not over 3 days43795419259737.0
Over 3 days but less than 1 week2730609373301.9
1 week but less than 2 weeks67261131372064,973.8
2 weeks but less than 4 weeks278819513831,453.2
4 weeks but less than 8 weeks9571727618947.4
8 weeks and over515997728552,063.8
        Total52315819538189612,698.4

NOTE: A week is considered to be 5 working days.

CAUSES—In the next table the causes of stoppages occurring during 1979 are shown. A breakdown in negotiations over a range of matters rather than over any 1 or more of the other categories of cause is recorded under “General Breakdown in Negotiations”.

Under the heading “Wages” are included stoppages concerning wages, overtime, or rates of piecework. Stoppages concerning the hours of work, leave and holidays are included under the heading “Period of Work”.

“Conditions of Work” includes safety, health, and general working conditions. Such matters as supervision, work allocation, manning levels, dismissals, redundancy, etc., are included under “Managerial Practice”.

Stoppages caused by workers striking in sympathy with demands of other workers, demarcation, victimisation, and other union matters are included under “Union Matters”.

The number of stoppages, number of workers involved, and working days lost are shown for each cause.

InvolvementCause of StoppageTotal
General Breakdown in NegotiationsWagesPeriod of WorkConditions of WorkManagerial PracticeUnion Matters*and other Causes
* Union matters: 128 stoppages; 34672 workers involved; 49537 working days lost.
Number of—
Stoppages681011388108145523
Workers involved48958246061552161262666940284158195
Working days lost197700538202476276494641953832381896

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT—Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes causing stoppages in 1979. “Private negotiations” take place when discussions have occurred between employers and workers without intervention of a third party. Third parties intervening may include the industrial mediator, conciliators, the Department of Labour, the Minister of Labour, the Federation of Labour, etc.

A settlement is classified as “Voluntary return to work” where no negotiations have taken place, no conditions are changed, and workers simply return to work or decide to drop their claims.

Method of SettlementNumber of StoppagesNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
    $(000)
Private negotiations10214229513241,539.6
Intervention of third party6513731616561,781.4
Voluntary return to work3491297672675079,328.0
Other7468140949.4
            Total52315819538189612,698.4

WORKING CONDITIONS—A considerable proportion of the persons comprising the labour force of New Zealand have their working conditions determined either directly or indirectly by virtue of the provisions of the Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971, the Factories Act 1946, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Shops and Offices Act 1955, the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, the Agricultural Workers Act 1977, the Construction Act 1959, the Machinery Act 1950, the Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act 1960, the Bush Workers Act 1945, the Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937, the Shearers Act 1962, or the Industrial Relations Act 1973. Legislative authority covering the working conditions of substantially the greater portion of the remaining participants in the labour force is contained in the State Services Act 1962, the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, the Government Railways Act 1949, the Post Office Act 1959, the Police Act 1958, the Fire Services Act 1975, the Education Act 1964, the Hospitals Act 1957, the Hospital Employment Regulations 1963, and the Waterfront Industry Act 1976.

Notes on Acts which have as their prime purpose the protection of workers from accidents in the course of their employment have been included in Section 35D, Occupational Safety.

HOURS OF WORK—Employees in most occupations have had the benefit of a 40-hour 5-day week since 1946, with the first legislation in this regard being enacted in 1936.

HOLIDAYS—The Annual Holidays Act 1944 provides for an annual holiday of 3 weeks duration paid at the worker's average weekly earnings during the year of entitlement. A worker who has been employed for less than 1 year, on termination of his employment, is entitled to proportionate annual holiday pay for the period of employment. An employer is required to keep a record (holiday book) containing particulars of employment, annual holidays, and amounts paid in respect of each worker in his employment.

Public holidays include Christmas Day, Boxing Day, New Year's Day, 2 January (or a day in lieu), Waitangi Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Anzac Day, Labour Day, the Sovereign's Birthday, and the provincial anniversary day (or a day in lieu). Labour Day is deemed to be the fourth Monday in October. Waitangi Day is 6 February. Anzac Day (the 25th day of April) is a day of commemoration, being the anniversary of the first landing of troops on Gallipoli in 1915, and in terms of employment is observed as if it were a holiday. Observance of Waitangi Day and Anzac Day cannot be transferred to another date.

Other statutes dealing with holidays are the Anzac Day Act 1966, Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952, and the Waitangi Day Act 1976.

FACTORIES ACT—The Factories Act 1946 applies to “any building, office, or place in which 2 or more persons are engaged or in which 1 or more persons are employed directly or indirectly, in any handicraft, or in preparing or manufacturing goods for trade or sale ”.

Restrictions on Employment—No boy or girl under 16 years of age may be employed in any factory unless a certificate of fitness is issued by an Inspector of Factories.

Safety, Health, and Welfare—The safety measures have reference to dangerous liquids, harmful noise, means of access and safety of employment, and means of escape in case of fire. The employer is required to keep a register of all accidents of which he has any knowledge, and first-aid appliances must be provided and maintained. The health and welfare provisions are very extensive and include reference to such matters as air space, cleanliness, ventilation, canteens, the care of employees, amenities, and other things to be supplied by the employer to secure employees' health or welfare. Regulations are made under the Act to ensure employees health and safety when dealing with toxic or hazardous substances such as asbestos or lead.

SHOPS AND OFFICES ACT: Hours of Work—For shop assistants the hour of commencing work for persons under 16 years must not be earlier than 7 a.m., except that newspapers may be delivered from 6 a.m. by persons aged 12 years and under 16, and milk by persons aged 14 years and under 16 from the same hour. Persons under 18 years may not be employed after 10.30 p.m. The Act also provides that persons under 18 years cannot be employed in restaurants before 5 a.m. or after 10.30 p.m.

Shop Trading Hours—On 1 October 1977, the Shop Trading Hours Act 1977 replaced the trading hour provisions of the Shops and Offices Act 1955 and the various awards and collective agreements. The Act was further amended on 12 November 1980 to allow, among other things, for Saturday trading from 7 a.m. to 9 p.m.

Shops may now open at any time between 7 a.m. and 9 p.m. Mondays to Saturdays inclusive but are to be closed outside these hours and on Sundays, and statutory holidays unless an extension of opening hours has been authorised by the Shop Trading Hours Commission.

The Act provides that “approved” goods may be sold at any time. Goods other than those on the “approved” list are “restricted” goods. If an occupier intends to open his shop to sell “approved” goods outside the hours mentioned above, then all “restricted” goods must be out of sight of the public or kept in a part of the shop that is closed off.

Provision is made for the granting of orders authorising a shop occupier to open at times other than those mentioned above. The majority of the shop occupiers in an “area” (which may be a street, mall, or municipality area) can also apply for such an order to cover the whole of the area.

“Approved” Goods—These are listed in a Schedule contained in an Order made under the Act. “Approved” goods include bakers' and pastrycooks' goods, building supplies and handyman requisites, condiments, confectionery, dairy produce, drinks, fish, frozen foods, fruit and flowers, fuels, gardening supplies, aquarium flora and fauna, miscellaneous groceries, magazines and periodicals, meats and smallgoods, medicinal and household goods, motor accessories, photographic goods, plants, prepared and cooked foods, tobacco, etc., vegetables, and a number of miscellaneous lines.

The 1980 Amendment also makes special provision for bona fide “dairy-mixed businesses” to allow them to open on a 7-day-week basis. Dairies need only complete a simple application form which is lodged with the Shop Trading Hours Commission. The application, together with a report from an inspector is then considered by the commission without the need for a formal hearing. If the application is granted, the dairy may open outside the hours set by the Act. If it is declined the shop must observe the legally-permitted hours or, if the proprietor wants to open outside those hours, he or she must confine the display and sale of goods to those items on the “approved” goods list.

Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions—The Shops and Offices Act 1955 also makes provision for the safety, health, and welfare of assistants. Particular matters that are covered relate to dangerous liquids and noxious gases, limitation of loads, safe means of access, construction and maintenance of floors, passages, and stairs, fire precautions, lighting, cleanliness, ventilation, drinking water, drainage, washing facilities, clothing, accommodation, seating and first-aid facilities, rest rooms for women, sanitary conveniences, temperature and heating appliances, accommodation for meals, etc.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT—Under the Agricultural Workers Act 1977 regulations have been made setting out minimum standards of accommodation to be supplied for agricultural workers.

Restrictions on Employment of Children—Under the Agricultural Workers Act no child under the age of 15 years may: (a) be employed in any agricultural work during such times as the child is required to attend school under the Education Act; (b) be required to lift any weights, or to perform any task, likely to be injurious to his health; (c) work more than 8 hours in any 1 day.

Safety and Health—The Agricultural Workers Act requires employers to take reasonable precautions for the safety and health of employees and provides for the instruction of employees as to dangers and precautions, miscellaneous protection, the provision of protective clothing or equipment as appropriate, and the moderation, insulation, or provision of protection against, harmful noise.

Fixing of Wages and Conditions of Employment—The Act institutes a new system for fixing wages and conditions of employment somewhat akin to that which operates for workers in other industries. The emphasis is on voluntary and conciliated settlement of disputes, but in cases of no agreement a specialised Agricultural Tribunal can make an award. A significant new concept is the registration of a single employers' organisation and a single employees' organisation for each class of agricultural work. The registered organisations have exclusive rights of representation for the particular class. Certain classes of work are defined and certain organisations are deemed to be registered from the commencement date of the Act, November 1977. Machinery is provided in the Act for amendment of the definitions of classes of work and for the registration of replacement organisations. This whole new system has been integrated into the all-encompassing wage fixing machinery under the newly-constituted Arbitration Court. A Judge of that Court is the President of the Agricultural Tribunal.

SHEARERS ACT—Under the Shearers Act 1962 an employer is required to provide amenities for all shearers employed by him. Where 5 or more shearers are to be accommodated on the farm suitable accommodation must be provided. Minimum standards of amenities and accommodation are prescribed by the Shearers Regulations 1963.

SHIPPING AND SEAMEN LEGISLATION—The general superintendence of matters relating to merchant ships and seamen in New Zealand is the responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport.

Competence, Safety, and Welfare Provisions—The Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 makes provision to ensure competence on the part of navigational officers, engineers, and certain crew members. Rules or regulations under that Act set out the qualifications and examination standards for persons to obtain the appropriate certificates in New Zealand, and there are provisions for the acceptance of certain certificates granted in other Commonwealth countries. The number and qualifications of persons required to man ships of various classes are set out in statutory scales.

The seaworthiness of ships is covered by annual survey for compliance as to condition and equipment, and regulations govern the day-to-day operations of ships to ensure their safe navigation and operation.

The pay and many conditions of employment are determined by industrial awards or agreements between shipowners and employee organisations. There are also legislative measures to ensure compliance with some of the international conventions or recommendations relating to the employment of seafarers.

MINING LEGISLATION—Consolidating legislation was passed as the Mining Act 1971 and this became law after its attendant regulations were gazetted early in 1973.

Working Conditions—In the coal-mining industry working conditions are determined by agreement reached at annual conferences between the coal-mine owners and the employee organisations.

Restrictions on Employment—No person under the age of 16 years may be employed underground in any coal mine, or in any alluvial mine, or on or about any dredge; while the minimum age in respect of underground work in a quartz mine is 19 years. No youth may be employed in a mine for more than 8 hours per day or 48 hours per week except in cases of emergency.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY—Measures for occupational safety, involving the Machinery Act 1950, the Construction Act 1959, and a number of other Acts, are discussed in Section 35D.

WORKING CONDITIONS OF STATE SERVANTS—Apart from remuneration (which is discussed in Section 33—Wages) the working conditions of State servants are controlled by legislation set out in the following paragraphs.

Members of the Public Service are governed by the State Services Act 1962 and the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977. Included in the functions of the State Services Commission are the provision of suitable office accommodation, the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions, and also the regulation of a variety of points connected with control—e.g., leave, hours of work.

The Government Railways Act 1949 and the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977 furnish the legislative framework for determination of the working conditions of railway employees. There is a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, the principal function of which is to adjudicate on single service conditions of work in respect of railway employees.

Working conditions for Post Office employees are determined by the administrative authority, the Postmaster-General, with the Director-General as executive head. Power is vested in the Minister by virtue of the Post Office Act 1959. There is a Post Office Staff Tribunal whose function it is to hear and determine applications referred to it in respect of conditions of employment of Post Office staff.

There are other legislative enactments which apply to the relevant sections of general Government employees. Members of the Police are governed by the Police Act 1958 and the Police Regulations 1959, while there is also a Police Staff Tribunal. The 3 armed services are controlled by the Defence Act 1971.

The Education Act 1964 and amendments authorise, either by regulation or through the agency of education boards, the employment of teachers and other members of the education service. Payment and conditions of service are covered by determinations issued under the machinery set up by the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977.

In the hospital service, medical officers are employed under section 52 of the Hospitals Act 1957, paramedical groups under the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, and clerical, trades and other support groups under awards issued in accordance with the Industrial Relations Act.

WATERFRONT INDUSTRY—Work within the waterfront industry is governed by the Waterfront Industry Act 1976. The Act defines waterside work as the loading and unloading of ships, barges, lighters, and other vessels, together with certain other work customarily performed within wharf limits by waterside workers. Work within the waterfront industry includes waterside work and certain other work carried out within wharf limits such as the driving or operation of mechanical cargo-handling equipment, tallying, the shoring and unshoring of cargo, and the work of foremen stevedores and timekeepers. Separate bodies are empowered by the Act to carry out, on the one hand, legislative and judicial functions, and on the other administrative functions only.

Waterfront Industry Tribunal—The legislative and judicial body is the Waterfront Industry Tribunal, which consists of 2 members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister, and as chairman the Chief Judge of the Arbitration Court or a judge of the Arbitration Court nominated by him. The members are appointed for a term of 3 years. The tribunal is a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The functions of the tribunal are, firstly, to prescribe the terms and conditions of employment for work within the waterfront industry, and here the tribunal's procedure is similar to that followed by the Government Service Tribunal. To assist with this function, the Act also provides for the Minister of Labour to direct the establishment of conciliation councils each consisting of an independent chairman and an equal number of employers' representatives and workers' representatives. These councils conduct conciliation proceedings on any application to the tribunal which concerns 2 or more ports and the chairman is appointed by the Minister for a term not exceeding 1 year. Secondly, the tribunal is required to settle any disputes that arise in relation to work within the waterfront industry and for this function has the assistance of Port Conciliation Committees which consist of an equal number of employers' and workers' representatives with an independent chairman. Thirdly, the tribunal is a general appeal court from decisions of Port Conciliation Committees (with certain limitations) and to determine appeals from any orders or decisions of the Waterfront Industry Commission imposing levies or charges and in respect of the provision of amenities for waterside workers, as well as against refusal of the commission to register an applicant for entry on the Register of Employers of Waterside Workers.

Waterfront Industry Commission—The Waterfront Industry Commission, which is the administrative body, consists of an independent chairman, 2 members nominated by the Union of Employers, and 2 members nominated by the New Zealand Waterside Workers' Federation. All 5 members are appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour for a term not exceeding 3 years. The functions of the commission are, firstly, to carry out all administrative work in connection with guaranteed wage payments, annual and statutory holiday payments, and systems of payments by results for waterside workers, and to perform these functions for other workers in the waterfront industry if requested by the employers and workers concerned. Secondly, the commission is responsible for the provision of amenities for waterside workers and for the equipping, operation and management of these amenities which include waiting rooms or assembly halls, restaurants, canteens, and first aid rooms. The commission provides such amenities costing not more than $50,000 each at any port and approves schemes for the provision by harbour boards of amenities costing more than $50,000 each at any port.

Of the remaining functions of the commission, the main ones are the determination of the number of workers to be entered on the Bureau Register for each port so as to ensure the supply of sufficient waterside labour for its efficient working, to be the sole employer of waterside workers for the purposes of the Accident Compensation Act 1972, to train waterside workers in first aid, to publish statistical information in relation to the waterfront industry, and to register employers of waterside labour providing they meet the statutory requirements.

The organisation of “registered” waterside workers is on the basis of separate port unions with one association or federation of unions. The port unions and the association are registered through the Registrar of Industrial Unions in the Department of Labour.

The following graph shows industrial stoppages over a series of years (See pages 818–821).

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION—Information on working conditions in many industries can be obtained from the appropriate Acts or awards. Many of the Acts are mentioned in this section. Further information on industrial relations, etc., can be found in the following publications.

Prices, Wages, and Labour: Pt B Wages and Labour—Department of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Labour and Employment Gazette—Department of Labour (quarterly).

Report of the Department of Labour (Parl. paper G. 1).

Report of the Waterfront Industry Commission (Parl. paper G. 2).

Report of the State Services Commission (Parl. paper G. 3).

Wages, Hours, and Employment—Department of Labour (6–monthly).

Industrial Stoppages Report—Department of Labour (annual).

Yearbook of Labour Statistics—International Labour Office (annual).

Chapter 35. Section 35 PERSONAL SAFETY

35 A—ACCIDENT PREVENTION, REHABILITATION, AND COMPENSATION

The Accident Compensation Act 1972, which took effect from 1 April 1974, was undoubtedly one of the most significant developments in social welfare for many years.

The 3 main objectives of the legislation are: (a) to promote safety in every walk of life; (b) to urge forward the concept of prompt and effective rehabilitation of all people injured by accident so as to restore them to the fullest physical, mental, social, vocational, and economic usefulness of which they are capable; and (c) to provide prompt, fair, and reasonable compensation so that every accident victim will be treated according to his real needs.

Cover, embracing all 3 objectives, extends to virtually everyone in New Zealand, from the smallest child to the oldest citizen.

Accident prevention, which is of great importance to the Accident Compensation Corporation, is promoted by a safety division which aims at co-ordination existing organisations and maintaining its own advisory programme.

Similar stress is laid on rehabilitation, and a staff of field officers has been established in main centres to make personal contact with the injured person and to ensure' that all necessary rehabilitative measures are effectively undertaken.

As far as compensation is concerned, the Accident Compensation Act:

  1. provides immediate benefits for every person who suffers personal injury by accident in New Zealand, regardless of his or her fault and wherever the accident occurred in New Zealand;

  2. entitles the injured person to compensation both for permanent physical disability and also for loss of earnings on an income-related basis;

  3. provides for regular adjustment in the level of payment to injured persons in accord with variations in the value of money; and

  4. provides for everyone an effective insurance against personal injury by accident in New Zealand.

In all, New Zealand has a comprehensive system, the essence of which is that the community itself recognises its responsibility for both the accident toll and its effects, and finances and provides for the victims of all accidents however their injuries are caused.

ACCIDENT COMPENSATION CORPORATION—The Accident Compensation Amendment Act 1980, replacing the three-man Accident Compensation Commission by the Accident Compensation Corporation, came into effect on 1 January 1981. It provided for the corporation to consist of:

  1. not more than six members whose qualifications or experience are likely to be of assistance in carrying out the functions of the corporation, and who are to be appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour;

  2. the managing director of the corporation;

  3. the general manager of the State Insurance Office.

The members of the corporation, acting as a board of directors, are responsible for policy; whereas the managing director is the chief executive officer of the corporation and responsible for the efficient and economic administration of its functions and the supervision of its staff.

The head office of the corporation, based in Wellington, has safety, medical and rehabilitation, compensation, legal, finance, and administration divisions, each headed by a controller. There are regional offices in Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin; and district offices at Whangarei, Rotorua, Tauranga, Gisborne, New Plymouth, Napier, Nelson, and Invercargill.

SAFETY—By virtue of its legislative duty as a matter of prime importance to take an active and coordinating role in the promotion of safety in all the different areas where accidents can occur, the corporation is involved in the prevention of accidents of every kind, whether they happen at work, on the roads, in the home, on the playing field, or in the outdoors. It has been recognised by industry that accidents have no economic boundaries, since a worker's productivity is affected equally whether he is injured on the job or off the job.

As accidents are reduced there is a corresponding reduction in the need for compensation and rehabilitation and a lessening of the financial drain on the whole community, of which compensation and other “direct” costs are only a portion.

The corporation's safety division comprises specialists in various aspects of accident prevention—including occupational, rural, home, and recreational safety.

Education and training form the cornerstone of their activities. An extensive range of residential and in-plant training courses is available, each course tailored to meet the requirements of a different level of employee—top and middle management, safety officers and engineers, supervisors, apprentices, and the rank-and-file worker.

The safety division also assists and co-ordinates the efforts of organisations already doing valuable work in accident prevention, and makes financial grants for specific projects.

REHABILITATION—Prompt and successful rehabilitation reduces the need for compensation by returning people to economic usefulness more quickly, as well as in some cases providing them with a vocation and self-respect they might otherwise have lost altogether.

In many ways, however, rehabilitation goes hand in hand with compensation. By removing anxiety and economic fear, adequate compensation in itself helps to achieve rehabilitation of the injured. From the outset, earner and non-earner alike are assured of retaining a reasonable enjoyment of life and a reasonable standard of living, despite even the most severe disability.

The corporation's interests in rehabilitation extend to co-operating with existing work—some of it of an extremely high standard already—and to developing the whole concept to give the injured person the best possible treatment.

Rehabilitation extends to such matters as reducing the possibility of permanent disability; assisting those who are disabled to make the best possible use of what ability remains or can be inculcated by new training, further education, or other special help; re-establishing people in employment; modifying homes or workplaces to provide for incapacitated people; providing a wide assortment of rehabilitation aids; and adapting a car to hand-control so that transport to work is available.

To achieve these objectives, the corporation employs a field force of rehabilitation liaison officers whose function it is to counsel and advise claimants in respect of their needs and who recommend to the corporation what should be done to assist them.

Their services are readily available to all who have cover under the Act, earners and non-earners alike.

COMPENSATION—People are covered against personal injury by accident under 3 schemes in the accident compensation system:

  1. Earners' scheme—This provides for everyone who receives remuneration either as an employee or as a self-employed person in New Zealand. Persons who have cover under the earners' scheme are entitled to both earnings-related compensation and other benefits as summarised below.

  2. Motor vehicle accident scheme—This covers everyone injured by the use of a motor vehicle. Motor accident victims qualify for all benefits including, if they receive earnings in New Zealand, earnings-related compensation.

  3. Supplementary scheme—This brings in all those not otherwise covered, among them tourists and visitors to New Zealand; and people not earning, such as housewives, children, students, and retired people. Persons who have cover under the supplementary scheme do not normally qualify for earnings-related compensation but they are eligible for all other benefits.

BENEFITS PROVIDED: Earnings-related Compensation—The earners' scheme provides for the payment of compensation for loss of earnings at the rate of 80 percent of normal average earnings at the time of the accident, subject to a present maximum of $288 a week. No payment is made by the corporation for the first week following the accident but if it happens at work (including travel to and from work), an employer is generally required to pay an employee his normal rate of pay (excluding overtime) for this period.

If the injured person has more than one job he receives full pay for the first week from his employer on the job on which the accident occurred and the corporation pays compensation based on the amount he would have earned from the other jobs.

After the first week, earnings-related compensation is paid by the corporation to all earners, regardless of how or where the accident occurred.

Weekly payments generally cease at the age of 65 years, but can continue until the normal retiring age for a particular job. If the accident occurs after 60 years of age, payment continues for a further 5 years; if it occurs after 65 years of age then up to the age of 70 years; and if the accident happens after the age of 70 compensation is payable for 1 year; assuming in all these cases that the injured person was an earner at the time of the accident.

Appropriate adjustments to the amount of compensation payable are made for partial incapacity. In some special circumstances, compensation for loss of potential earnings may be awarded.

Earnings-related compensation constitutes taxable income, PAYE tax being deducted at source.

Other Compensation—Provision is made for a wide range of benefits, including compensation for medical and hospital expenses, cost of transport to hospital, or wages paid to an attendant or nurse, and for reasonable expenses resulting directly from the accident.

In addition, the injured person may qualify for payment of a lump sum for permanent loss or impairment of bodily function up to a maximum of $7,000; and for loss of capacity to enjoy life, for pain and mental suffering, and for disfigurement, up to a maximum of $10,000.

Fatal Claims—In the event of a fatal accident the corporation pays reasonable funeral expenses.

Also, the dependent spouse of an earner who has died as a result of an accident can qualify for half the earnings-related compensation the deceased would have received had he or she been totally incapacitated but still living. For each of up to 3 dependent children, an additional one-sixth may be paid. Thus a widow with 3 or more children could qualify for the full earnings-related compensation her husband would have received had he been totally incapacitated. In addition, a lump sum of up to $1,000 is payable to the totally dependent widow, plus up to $500 for each dependent child, to a maximum of $1,500 for the dependent children. Partially dependent widows and children receive a proportion of these amounts.

The same provisions would apply to dependent or partially dependent widowers.

Housewives—As well as the appropriate benefits listed under “Other Compensation” and “Fatal Claims”, housewives who are injured in an accident may, if justified, qualify for the cost of home help;or, in certain circumstances, the husband may be compensated for loss of earnings while he is looking after the house until the injured wife can resume her duties.

FINANCING OF COMPENSATION FUNDS—Accident compensation is a form of compulsory insurance in which the community as a whole accepts responsibility for the accidents which inevitably will afflict a proportion of its members, as a consequence of the kind of life that society today demands as its right.

The community pays in these ways:

  1. Levies on employers (including the Crown) and on self-employed to pay for the earners' scheme. They are paid through the Inland Revenue Department (as agent for the corporation).

  2. Levies on vehicle owners are paid to another agent for the corporation, the Post Office, to pay for the motor vehicle accident scheme.

  3. General taxation pays for the supplementary scheme through the Consolidated Account.

The employer pays levies on a risk-related scale, ranging from 50 cents to $5 per $100 of wages paid, and he classifies his employees for the appropriate levy in accordance with the industrial activity in which he is engaged. There are special classes for staff on clerical-management and commercial travelling duties, so that the employer can pay for them at a lower levy rate than that for employees engaged directly in his industrial activity. The maximum amount on which levy is payable is $18,720 a year for each employee.

A levy of 1.07 percent of earnings applies to self-employed people, regardless of their industrial activity, but the limit of income on which the levy may be imposed is $18,720 a year. Hence, the maximum payable by any self-employed person is $200.30 a year.

Levies for the motor vehicle accident scheme are collected when motor vehicles are registered or reregistered.

HANDLING OF CLAIMS—The corporation itself deals with claims in Otago. In all other areas the State Insurance Office is the claims handling agent for all cases except New Zealand seamen, whose claims are dealt with by P. & I. Services Limited. Claims are made by a worker injured at his place of employment notifying his employer and filling in a claim form which the employer then forwards to the State Insurance Office; or, in other cases, by direct notification to the State Insurance Office. Claims need to be supported by a medical certificate.

It is intended that there should be no long delays in providing compensation. An injured worker who is hurt at work will receive his pay in full from his employer for the first week if he is unable to work. If his incapacity continues beyond the first week, earnings-related compensation should become available promptly, so that, effectively, there is no break in his flow of income. He will continue to be paid locally, without delay.

The corporation's objective for the self-employed is that earnings-related payments should begin equally promptly, after the first week. Difficulties often arise, however, in determining the weekly amount which on a fair and just basis truly reflects loss of earning capacity. More complex arrangements are necessary and these are set out in pamphlets available from all corporation and State Insurance offices.

Naturally, it will take time to assess permanent disability, loss of faculty, potential earnings, pain and suffering, loss of enjoyment of life, and the like; but here again it is firmly intended that delays will be minimised and early payments made once the disability has reached a stable condition.

REVIEWS AND APPEALS—Decisions by the corporation acting either itself or by its agents are subject to a right of appeal. The claimant can first apply to the corporation for a review of the decision. This review will be conducted by the corporation itself, or by a hearing officer appointed by the corporation. From any decisions made on a review there is a right of appeal to an appeal authority, who has full power to confirm, modify, or reverse any decision by the commission. There is a further right of appeal to the High Court, on a question of law, a matter of general or public interest, or a matter which for any other reason should be heard by the High Court, and to the Court of Appeal on questions of law only.

CLAIMS RECEIVED—The following table sets out the number of claims received, according to the fund with which they were identified. It should be noted that not all claims result in compensation being paid—especially those made to protect the claimant's entitlement when incapacity has not yet arisen but may do in the future.

ClaimsYear Ended 31 March
19761977197819791980
Earners' Fund—
    Work accidents716il68148628266331857080
    Non-work accidents3853539079406554264539665
                Total11014610722710348110596396745
Motor Vehicle Fund1104210464115631142211150
Supplementary Fund946912544173941798418496
                Total claims130657130235132438135369126391

COMPENSATION PAID—The following tables analyse compensation paid and medical expenditure incurred according to the fund charged and the type of payment. It must be pointed out that in many cases compensation will continue to be paid beyond the year in which a claim is made, sometimes until the claimant is aged 65. Hence the claims shown for any given year are not identical with the claims for which compensation was paid in that year. It could therefore be misleading to attempt to match claims with compensation payments. The true cost of any year's claims is not likely to be known until many years later.

Compensation and Medical ExpenditureYear Ended 31 March
19761977197819791980
 $(thousand)
Earnings-related compensation33,70139,67044,30350,21153,421
Dependants' allowances1,6013,5745,1176,5438,328
Funeral expenses9921,2771,5051,3431,395
Non-economic loss (i.e., lump sums)2,9919,37218,11016,83316,254
Medical treatment8,85611,15812,80014,85115,857
Hospital treatment1,1091,9162,3032,7342,817
Dental treatment9461,6892,1211,7461,726
Compensation and Medical ExpenditureYear Ended 31 March
19761977197819791980
 $(thousand)
Conveyance for medical attention6309041,4912,2322,792
Rehabilitation70168220200300
Other7921,0881,2121,3361,521
                Total51,68870,81689,18298,029104,411
Fund ChargedYear Ended 31 March
19761977197819791980
 $(thousand)
Earners' Compensation Fund40,76654,47965,77771,14775,552
Motor Vehicle Compensation Fund6,0739,22113,24115,28916,697
Supplementary Compensation Fund4,8497,11610,16411,59312,162
                Total51,68870,81689,18298,029104,411

35 B—COMPENSATED ACCIDENTS

The tables in this section cover accidents in the calendar year 1979. They are confined to claims where victims or their dependants have been compensated for one or more of the following:

  1. loss of earnings beyond the first week of incapacity;

  2. permanent incapacity;

  3. non-economic loss;

  4. funeral expenses;

  5. damage to teeth, artificial aids, or clothing;

  6. medical treatment and transport expenses;

  7. cost of home help;

  8. rehabilitation costs; or

  9. certain other unusual costs.

The tables largely exclude injuries causing less than 8 days' incapacity (for which the corporation is not required to pay compensation) and those entailing medical treatment only (for which the doctor is normally reimbursed direct). In addition, the corporation does not always receive claims in the case of non-earners who are injured, which limits the significance of the tables of non-work injuries, especially where children are concerned.

Suicides and self-inflicted injuries are not normally compensable. Any appearing in the tables are the results of the corporation's discretion to pay compensation under certain circumstances or of the fact that some compensation was paid before it was established that injury was self-inflicted.

Since claims continue to be received and processed some months after the end of 1979, all figures should be treated as provisional only.

The tables in this Yearbook do not exhaust the range of accident details recorded by the corporation, nor do they attempt to present many of those parameters in combination. The Accident Compensation Corporation is happy to respond to requests for more specific or detailed statistics required for a definite purpose by any organisation or individual.

ENVIRONMENT—The environments in which accidents occurred in 1979 are summarised in the following table in which accident victims are divided into 2 groups—earners and non-earners—and a fuller analysis given of each group.

COMPENSATED ACCIDENTS 1979
EnvironmentEarner-Status
EmployedSelf-employedBoth Employed and Self-employedUnemployedNot Adequately DescribedTotal Earners
Work environments—
    Working at workplace3692140202-1440957
    Working away from workplace909---99
    Travelling to or from work3169184---3353
    Not adequately described----23182318
                Total4018042132-233246727
Home environment117246447586412497
Road environment612019926536389
Sport or recreational environments—
    Athletics955---100
    Court games1374951541479
    Equestrian32933113367
    Field sports66738-15711
    Football codes5651237210235923
    Flying746---80
    Hunting13610--2148
    Shooting343-1-38
    Pedestrian sports1359--2146
    Water sports78481-63874
    Winter sports35212-14369
    Wheeled sports70128-22733
    Martial sports1505-11157
    Other sports73932-49784
                Total112215944325811909
Other environments4116229237474431
Not adequately described3---25252528
                Total73364587917192502984481

It should be noted that “work” takes precedence over other environments. For example, an accident to a truck driver occurring on the road during the normal course of his employment would be classified under “work” and not under “road”.

LOCALITY—An analysis of the localities in which accidents occurred by cities, boroughs, towns, and counties is available on request from the Accident Compensation Corporation.

COMPENSATED ACCIDENTS' 1979
Non-earner-StatusOther or Not Adequately DescribedTotal Non-earnersTotal
Preschool ChildSchool StudentTertiary StudentHousewifeUnemployedRetiredInvalidity BeneficiaryVisitor from Abroad
40957
99
3353
2318
46727
381114010140858963403022405216549
698643540410330720431018558244
-24---1--126126
-126311914-522601739
271-19-3--196463
-105324312--2149860
-52111416--1315666489
-4-1-----585
-21----1-4152
-2---2---442
-12-417-8133179
71441144151711941068
15621012-45-117486
-36--221--41774
-13111--1118175
15197-2221051222651049
25131322218315879212177813687
941420174044934227462824276858
-4--1---197919844512
56947418424342426709421120511209696577

WORK ACCIDENTS—The following table analyses compensated work injuries occurring in 1979 by the industrial groups in which the victims were working, and whether the accident resulted in fatality or permanent disability, or temporary incapacity only. The groups are those of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC).

Because “first-week” incapacity does rot usually result in a claim on the Accident Compensation Corporation, it is not possible to compile injury frequency and severity rates as in the past. However, a column is included in the table showing the labour force engaged in each industrial group according to the 1976 Census of Population. From this has been calculated an “injury rate”—that is, the number of compensated accidents per 1000 workers. Although not a comprehensive figure this rate will give a guide to the relative frequency of more serious injuries between the various industrial groups.

It is generally not feasible to make valid comparisons between the figures in the following table and those published for 1973 and earlier years by the Government Statistician. The earlier figures, being derived from claims made under the now-repealed Workers' Compensation Act, included first-week-only incapacities. On the other hand, they excluded injuries to self-employed people (notably farmers) and all but a few injuries incurred while travelling to and from work; these factors would have particularly affected the number of fatalities shown.

WORK ACCIDENTS 1979
Industrial GroupFatalityPermanent DisabilityTemporary DisabilityTotalLabour Force*Injury Rate

* As recorded at 1976 Census of Population.

Compensated claims per 1000 of labour force.

Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing—      
    Agriculture and livestock production121723576376010664135
    Agricultural services9266326671041264
    Hunting, trapping, and game propagation347279112970
    Forestry-157067215028143
    Logging3143293462806123
    Fishing59154168288458
                  Total322405469574112890045
Mining and quarrying—
    Coal mining151811871650113
Crude petroleum and natural gas production--454575759
Metal ore mining1-151631850
Other mining129699233442
                Total37337347505969
Manufacturing—
    Food61359440958162697153
    Beverages-6236242475351
    Tobacco-14041133731
    Textiles2224334571564329
    Wearing apparel except footwear-10200210250368
    Leather and products of leather substitutes and fur (except footwear and apparel)-7135142316345
    Footwear (except vulcanised or moulded rubber or plastic footwear)-48488452619
    Wood, wood and cork products (except furniture)486115612461674074
    Furniture and fixtures (except primarily of metal)-13225238818429
    Paper and paper products2155165331280242
    Printing, publishing, and allied industries-182833011892316
    Industrial chemicals16160167448037
    Other chemical products12135138729519
    Petroleum refineries1-151650931
    Miscellaneous products of petroleum and coal--393947083
    Rubber products14320325528661
    Plastic products, n.e.c.-14246260634341
    Pottery, china, and earthenware-14546146931
    Glass and glass products-3107110256643
    Other non-metallic mineral products110273284769737
    Iron and steel basic industries19324334375789
    Non-ferrous metal basic industries-6158164255264
    Fabricated metal products (except machinery and equipment)355114412022121857
    Machinery (except electrical)-182993172485613
    Electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies2166406581549842
    Transport equipment2299359662194744
    Professional and scientific equipment, measuring and controlling equipment, n.e.c., and photographic and optical goods--101096010
    Other manufacturing industries15111117501723
            Total28495177091823230572460
Electricity, gas, and water—
    Electricity, gas, and steam2167557731427954
    Waterworks and supply--3131105030
            Total2167868041532952
Construction—
    Building and construction13177457947697162543
    Allied trades40512
            Total131774579476911213743
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels—
    Wholesale trade5349219605863416
    Retail trade-561465152112384312
    Restaurants, cafes, and other eating and drinking places-132802932847410
    Hotels, motels, rooming houses, camps, and other lodging places19446456517188
            Total61123112323021612215
Transport, storage, and communication—
    Land transport956217422394511150
    Water transport214115811741788766
    Air transport92197208839925
    Services allied to transport-1353652877
    Communication-88198273460324
            Total20814383448411128740
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services—
    Financial institutions-38285226044
    Insurance-15152151833
    Real estate-1141568912
    Business services (except machinery and equipment rental and leasing)5448258743406026
    Machinery and equipment rental and leasing-33538105436
            Total552100710647979213
Community, social, and personal services—
    Public administration and defence140221022515960738
    Sanitary and similar services2−7308317747142
    Education services-10276286643234
    Research and scientific institutions-1363758686
    Medical, dental, and other health and veterinary services319144014626355423
    Welfare institutions-1141564722
    Business, professional, and labour associations--101018755
    Other social and related community services-3138141505728
    Motion picture and other entertainment services136973676311
Libraries, museums, botanical and zoological gardens, and other cultural services, n.e.c.14647196424
Amusement and recreational services, n.e.c.19202212678731
Repair services, n.e.c.4245295571889929
Laundries, laundry services, and cleaning and dyeing plants25254345216
Domestic services4425362
Miscellaneous personal services7109116782315
International and other extra-territorial bodies798
            Total121275443558226324921
Not adequately described331012340247434734
        Total, all industries15414084516546727127233337

MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENTS—Compensated accidents in which a motor vehicle was involved during 1979 numbered 13054, or 13.5 percent of all accidents. The following table analyses these cases according to the type of motor vehicle, and whether the victim was an earner and in a work or non-work environment.

Motor VehicleEarnerNon-earnerTotal
WorkNon-work
Motorcar1187358210695838
Rental car29516
Taxi19181148
Truck68918575949
Bus1473857242
Tractor4224420486
Motor cycle170434093335446
Other1511329
                Total41857296157313054

TYPE OF ACCIDENT—In the following table, accidents during 1979 have been analysed by type according to a classification recommended by the International Labour Organisation. In addition, the Accident Compensation Corporation analyses work accidents by agency and source of injury, and non-work accidents by external cause of injury; classifications recommended by (respectively) the International Labour Organisation and the World Health Organisation. Since these 2 classifications are not compatible the analyses are not published here; however, specific information regarding the statistics is available on request from the corporation.

Type of AccidentEarnerNon-earnerTotal
WorkNon-work
Fall—
    From bridge44210
    From building1630955
    From deck315119
    From furniture83187159429
    From gangway2316
    From horseback20735487648
    From ladder567405821054
    From pole77
    From roof1039211206
    From scaffolding190483241
    From tree255435114
    From cablecar (moving)6118
    From cablecar (stationary)66
    From motor vehicle (moving)57112421211934
    From motor vehicle (stationary)3428935466
    From train (moving)341136
    From train (stationary)48149
    From other vehicle or mobile machine (moving)69110085012200
    From other vehicle or mobile machine (stationary)151215177
    From any vehicle due to collision29653482912
    From wall59216
    On stairs or steps (while handling object)969323212
    On stairs or steps (other)92913894262744
    Through opening23427
    From other elevation9638494562268
    Into cavity or hole1668920275
    Into excavation, pit, quarry, or shaft43750
    Into tank or well11
                Total55786529206314170
Slipping, tripping, stumbling, on same level—
    While handling object127617562643296
Other2909466223089879
                Total41856418257213175
Struck by falling object—
    Collapse of building, wall, chimney, scaffolding, goods, etc.238435
    Cave-in66
Other falls of coal, earth, rocks, etc.—
    In mine or quarry2323
    Avalanche257
Other32234
    Object falling from load while loading or unloading12841133
    Object falling from stack while stacking or unstacking12611137
    Object falling due to collision112
    Failing tree, branch, or limb168183189
    Object dropped76917323965
    Other falling object48713726650
                Total1765359572181
Stepping on object—
    Sharp object13631425475
    Other199657271
    Total33537932746
Striking against object—
    Stationary object (excluding as a result of a fall)160310634513117
    Stationary object due to collision3647552561375
    Moving object99725826414220
                Total2964440013488712
Struck by object (not falling object)—
    Flying particles or fragments, due to collision213
    Flying particles or fragments, other34011531486
    Motor vehicle74210515122305
    Other road vehicle or mobile machine1703126227
    Vehicle on rails2610541
    Rolling log48250
    Object thrown237360156
    Swinging load, hook, boom, etc.757183
    Hand tool485510171145986
    Other moving object2296449317108499
                Total85756801246017836
Caught in object—
    Block, sling, or rope3614353
    Coupling or hook29231
    Door, due to collision106521
    Door, gate, lid, etc.31919367579
    Machinery under power1892279662237
    Machinery over-running6118
    Machinery at rest68977
    Other machine or appliance50017951730
                Total28606831933736
Caught between objects—
    Stationary object and object handled6128911712
    Stationary object and moving motor vehicle3141274
    Stationary object and stationary motor vehicle231437
    Stationary object and other moving vehicle or mobile machine826189
    Stationary object and other stationary vehicle or mobile machine22426
    Stationary object and moving rail vehicle23124
    Stationary object and stationary rail vehicle1212
    Stationary object and other moving object2011198328
    Moving object (not falling or flying object)53492104
                Total1059323241406
Over-exertion—
    Lifting rail vehicle66
    Lifting other object5088736615885
    Pushing or pulling rail vehicle55
    Pushing or pulling hand truck771087
    Pushing or pulling other object69013211833
    Operating machinery1032105
    Use of hand tool7191687894
    Handling or throwing object945156151116
    Strenuous or sudden movement311231892526553
                Total10745439334615484
    Repetitive movement444585507
Exposure to heat—
    Sun2911
                Total2911
Exposure to cold—
    Snow or ice, outdoor11
    Atmospheric, outdoor
    Environmental, indoor213
                Total224
Contact with heat or cold—
    Hot liquid51632293931
    Molten metal983101
    Controlled flames (blowlamp, etc.)7716295
    Other flames12421067401
    Other hot substances or objects22515428407
    Very cold substances or objects112
                Total10417061901937
Exposure to or contact with electricity—
    Contact with electric current4615667
    Exposure to lightning
    Exposure to electric flash1515
    Exposure to welding glare16117
                Total7715799
Harmful material, substance, or radiation—
    Contact with sharp material or object234514331623940
    Contact with chemical240244268
    Inhalation of gas, fumes, etc.633470
    Absorption of other harmful substance12394136
    Exposure to radiation44
    Other4322671
                Total281414951804489
Miscellaneous types of accidents—
    Explosion5636698
    Exposure to noise or vibration18232187
    Exposure to air pressure713222
    Immersion25256110
    Occupational dermatitis173173
    Other occupational disease314314
    Other, occupational305305
    Physical violence18213081821672
    Venomous bite or sting166426
    Other animal violence28716950506
                Total152415873023413
Other, ill-defined, or not stated2757359723178671
                Total46727377541209696577

INJURIES—The following table analyses 1979 compensated work injuries according to their type and bodily site. The classification, while including all categories recognised by the World Health Organisation's International Classification of Diseases (eighth revision), has been extended to permit the separation of bodily sites in all cases, along with information not previously available. For example the fingers—which are the most frequently injured part of the body—are now shown separately.

Data on injuries are compiled from certificates given by medical practitioners at the time each claim is made. Therefore, diagnoses must be regarded as preliminary, although most will not be expected to change.

Site of InjuryType of InjuryContusion or Crushing (With Intact Skin)Dislocation (without Fracture)Effect of Foreign Body Entering OrificeFracture (Including Fracture Dislocation)Superficial InjuryInjury to Internal Organ (Includes Brain)Laceration or Open WoundInjury to Serve or Spinal CordFracture of Spine with Cord LesionSprain or Strain (Joint or Adjacent Muscle)ScaldOther or Ill-definedTotal
Amputation or Enucleation (Traumatic)Bum
Head—
Brain—
    Concussion264264
    Cerebral laceration or contusion77
    Subarachnoid, subdural, or extradural haemorrhage33
    Intracranial haemorrhage, other or unspecified88
    Intracranial injury, other or unspecified5252
Cranial bones—
    Vault of skull44
    Base of skull2020
    Nasal bone6666
    Jaw6464
    Other face bone2222
    Skull fracture, other or n.o.d.3333
Other—
    Eye or orbit24667252505132522581
    Other cranial nerve33
    Ear34213161636
    Nose51621134
    Teeth11311131
    Rest of mouth423128
    Scalp12681196
    Rest of face143935125234221
    Multiple or ill-defined111281072913990
Neck—
    Spine (cervical)9271644525504
    Sympathetic nerve77
    Rest of neck1921112108125
    Multiple or ill-defined5121238251
Trunk—
Back or spine—
    Dorsal1652412226222316
    Lumbar19248725410738851214236
    Sacral spine or sacroiliac region37711267136101051176
    Back n.o.d. or spine n.o.d.291203188105230414222596
Intra-thoracic organ—
    Traumatic pneumothorax or haemothorax2424
    Lung or bronchus—foreign body only
    Lung—injury n.e.i.2626
    Heart77
    Oesophagus or stomach—foreign body only22
    Intra-thoracic organ—n.e.i. or unspecified33
Intra-abdominal organ—
    Liver55
    Spleen1919
    Kidney1717
    Intestines—foreign body only
    Anus or rectum—foreign body only
    Digestive system n.o.d.—foreign body only
    Gastro-intestinal tract n.e.i.44
    Pelvic organ, incl. genito-urinary2727
    Intra-abdominal organ, n.e.i. or unspecified4545
Other—
    Rib472472
    Sternum61622
    Chest n.e.i.8295121222051553
    Pelvic region n.e.i. (incl. abdominal wall)635261512661310795
    Other site in trunk8123418
    Multiple or ill-defined43311335125622122
Upper limb—
    Clavicle1018616212
    Shoulder or scapula41821846481231084481553
    Upper arm—not fracture112631978432146
Humerus, fracture only—
    Upper end3131
    Lower end1313

n.e.i.—not elsewhere indicated, n.o.d.—not otherwise defined.

Site of InjuryType of injuryContusion or Crushing (With Intact Skin)Dislocation (without Fracture)Effect of Foreign Body Entering OrificeFracture (Including Fracture Dislocation)Superficial InjuryInjury to Internal Organ (Includes Brain)Laceration or Open WoundInjury to Serve or Spinal CordFracture of Spine with Cord LesionSprain or Strain (Joint or Adjacent Muscle)ScaldOther or ill-definedTotal
Amputation or Enucleation (Traumatic)Burn
Shaft or n.o.d.4444
Elbow41841372399712330224777
Forearm, not fracture2711103428219150353706
Radius or ulna, fracture—
    Upper end or n.o.d.196196
    Shaft4545
    Lower end170170
    Wrist3070185002417816691791543
    Hand1174333541322513041610631152623
    Hand with digit, fracture33
    Finger326676644666941841072311510376482
    Index (only)10414170617613016088301132260
    Middle (only)66101621014994846925181380
    Ring (only)51711214126694992225907
    Little (only)414100121285555842414931
    Unspecified462512845167154286
    More than one602695362254291953718
    Thumb53161932321811814896152142273
    Finger(s) with thumb51092346622103
    Multiple or ill-defined2232839154316654226
Lower limb—
    Hip15610484211033228
    Thigh, not fracture12139114151810875445
Femur, fracture only—
    Lower end99
    Shaft or n.o.d.8888
    Knee3409661137430421643932707
    Lower leg, not fracture633002145497530145151373
Tibia or fibula, fracture—
    Shaft9696
    Upper end or n.o.d286286
    Ankle2511614382327816833362369
    Foot2107417546982266123513691729
    Great toe61974173206216379
    Other toe833210414312194
    Multiple or ill-defined12762621640149144276
Multiple (excluding two organs of a pair)—
    Face with limb33885351494
    Rest of head with limb3743113132
    Head with trunk4103512111138
    Trunk with limb24855151018993277
    Upper with lower limb275748465314652285
    Rib or sternum, with upper limb1124
    Rib or sternum, with lower limb11
    Neck with limb2424250
    More than two sections of body5267273623612975262
Toxic or adverse effect (of)—
    Medicinal agent22
    Lead or lead compound242242
    Gas, fume, or vapour2424
    Other toxic substance226226
    Electricity1010
    Drowning or non-fatal submersion77
    Other cause2525
Occupational disease—
    Leptospirosis228228
    Occupational deafness215215
    Viral exothermic8484
    Brucellosis5252
    Infectious hepatitis3838
    Other2121
    Ill-defined site123467341714842235868
    Ill-defined injury23822382
All sites4098964500510257673816175389663410166375390417546727

n.e.i.—not elsewhere indicated, n.o.d.—not otherwise defined.

35 C—FARM ACCIDENTS

While the increasing mechanisation on 70452 farm holdings in 1979 is principally responsible for the high output per unit of labour engaged in farm production, it is equally responsible for the high number of accidents to persons associated with agricultural production.

Normal farm activities and the bringing into production of new land utilised in 1977 some 33000 trucks, 52000 disc harrows, 89000 agricultural tractors, and 20000 fertiliser spreaders. These have taken a high annual toll in accidents and deaths. These figures are further aggravated by the use of some 50000 chain saws, 32000 farm bikes, and large numbers of chemical-spraying plants.

The increasing use of chemicals in agriculture for weed control, and as pesticides and therapeutants, has added to the hazards to which those engaged in the agricultural industry are subjected. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries undertakes educational activities to endeavour to reduce the accident rates.

Tables in this section present information compiled by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health on accidents and deaths sustained on farms. Domestic accidents or accidents in farm homes are excluded.

Accidents on Farms—The following table shows the number of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals in 1979 after treatment for injuries sustained in farm accidents (excluding motor vehicle accidents). Readmissions are included.

Cause of AccidentsAge of Patients (In Years)Total Patients
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
Machinery, n.e.c.9132212662
Falls654961266207
Animals1911211216912514
Accidental poisoning617215150
Firearms264113
Fire and flames54211
Hot substances, corrosive liquids, or steam768122
Struck by falling object615285357
Cutting or piercing instruments266068335192
Other and unspecified farm mishaps64911176812352
                Total, 1979376383454222451480

Deaths from Accidents on Farms—Deaths from accidents on farms are shown by cause and age group of deceased in the following table. This refers to the years 1977 and 1978, the latest for which the data are available.

Cause of Fatal AccidentAge of Deceased (In Years)Total Deaths
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
197719781977197819771978197719781977197819771978
Farm machinery3522744211713
Electric current11121
Falls112
Firearms122124
Blow from falling or projected object113243
Drowning or submersion42143
Other and unspecified55151321167
                Total131475127124314731

35 D—OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

The legislation on occupational safety is principally contained in the following statutes (and the regulations made under them). The last two items were actually made under the Public Works Act 1928 but are always quoted in their own right.

The Factories Act 1946, section 44 to 79; the Machinery Act 1950; the Bush Workers Act 1945; the Construction Act 1959; the Shops and Offices Act 1955, First Schedule; the Accident Compensation Act 1972; the Coal Mines Act 1925; the Mining Act 1971; the Explosives Act 1957; the Dangerous Goods Act 1974; the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950; the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952; the Quarries Act 1944; the Health Act 1956 in so far as it relates to occupational health (see Section 5A); the Petroleum Act 1937; the Geothermal Energy Act 1953; the Electricians Act 1952; the Electric Linemen Act 1959; the Agricultural Workers Act 1977; the Electrical Wiring Regulations 1976; and the Electrical Supply Regulations 1967.

Department of Labour—This department has the largest overall responsibility for the prevention of accidents in industry. The principal statutes it administers are: the Factories Act 1946, which is concerned with safety, health, and welfare in factories; the Construction Act 1959, which covers safety, health, and welfare of workmen on construction work as defined in the Act; and the Machinery Act 1950, which is concerned with the inspection of all machinery (with some exceptions covered by other legislation) in work places and the safety of persons working with such machinery. The department also administers regulations under these Acts, and other statutes dealing with specific spheres of occupational safety, health, and welfare, e.g. the Bush Workers Act 1945, the Agricultural Workers Act 1977 (sections 5 and 6) and the Shops and Offices Act 1955. In addition the department supervises more than 1225 collective agreements and awards, many of which include specific safety, health, and welfare provisions relating to particular occupations and processes.

The administration of this safety legislation is based primarily on regular inspection of work places and requisitioning for improvements, together with investigation of reported breaches of legislation by employers and workers and investigation of a large number of accidents including serious and fatal accidents in industries coming within the scope of the legislation. The department employs some 194 inspectors of factories (including 14 who specialise in bush undertakings), together with some 58 safety inspectors appointed under the Construction Act 1959, all of whom are qualified by special examination. Their work is substantially preventive. The department also engages in a large amount of occupational safety education.

A Joint Committee on Occupational Health and Safety of the Departments of Labour and Health and the Accident Compensation Corporation ensures that the educational work in this field is co-ordinated and that unnecessary overlapping of functions is avoided.

Machinery Act—The Machinery Act 1950, with certain exceptions, applies to all machinery and places an obligation on the owners of machines to securely fence moving and dangerous parts. The Act also covers amusement devices, which require a certificate from a registered engineer that the device is mechanically and structurally safe for the purpose intended. The Act also requires the testing and certification of tractor safety frames used in agricultural operations.

Construction Act—The Construction Act 1959, the provisions of which are in addition to and not in substitution for the safety provisions of any other Act, promotes the safety and welfare of persons engaged in construction work, a description which covers a wide variety of work including new construction, maintenance, and demolition of buildings, roads, harbour works, railways, canals, bridges, dams, pipelines, earthworks, etc. Certificates of competency are issued after examination to scaffolders, safety supervisors, and construction blasters.

A register of suitably qualified construction divers, crane operators, and construction riggers is maintained.

Explosives and Dangerous Goods Acts—Responsibility for the administration of the Explosives Act 1957 and the Dangerous Goods Act 1974 was transferred to the Department of Labour from the Department of Internal Affairs with effect from 1 April 1979.

Ministry of Transport: Safety of Ships—A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960 and the International Load Line Convention 1966, to both of which New Zealand is a signatory. Both conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters.

Aircraft—The Ministry of Transport is responsible for promoting the safety of aircraft and crews engaged in private and commercial carriage of the public and commercial carriage of goods, including agricultural aviation.

Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes—All boilers and power cranes are inspected and certificated once a year and lifts twice a year. In the calendar year 1979 there were 23541 inspections of boilers and unfired pressure vessels, 6630 inspections of lifts, and 3999 inspections of cranes. Forty-two accident investigations were carried out under the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act.

Ministry of Energy—The Mining Act 1971 and the Quarries Act 1944 make provision for the safety of persons working in mines (both underground and opencast) and in quarries. The definition of a quarry covers the construction of electric power generation works, dams for public water supply, tunnels, and opencast coal quarries.

The ministry is also responsible for the administration of Acts designed to ensure the safety of electrical apparatus and installations and of electrical workers.

Ministry of Works and Development—On each major construction project the Ministry of Works and Development appoints a senior technical officer to act in the capacity of safety officer.

Occupational Health Centres—The Department of Health provides occupational health centres at strategic points in Takapuna, Auckland, Rotorua, Mount Maunganui, Petone, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Attendances at occupational health centres and waterfront clinics in 1979 totalled 21162 first attendances and 17903 re-attendances.

Further Information—The Occupational Health and Toxicology Branch of the Department of Health issues a number of occupational health publications including the following:

Diseases Arising from Occupation.

Factory First Aid.

Laboratory Safety.

Motor Garage Hazards.

Plastics.

Other publications containing information on occupation safety include the following:

Safety Supervisors Guide—Department of Labour.

The Public Health (Parl. paper E. 10).

Labour and Employment Gazette—Department of Labour (quarterly).

Report of the Department of Labour (Parl. paper G. 1).

Chapter 36. Section 36 TOKELAU

Tokelau, a non-self-governing territory under New Zealand's administration, consists of 3 small atolls in the South Pacific with a total land area of 10 square kilometres and a population of just over 1600.

General Introduction: Geographic—The 3 atolls of Tokelau lie between latitudes 8° and 10° south and longitudes 171° and 173° west. They are Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo. The central atoll, Nukunonu, is 92 kilometres from Atafu and 64 kilometres from Fakaofo.

Western Samoa, 480 kilometres to the south, is the nearest sizeable neighbour.

Topography—Each atoll consists of a number of reef-bound islets encircling a lagoon. These islets, known as motu, vary in length from 90 metres to 6 kilometres, and in width from a few metres to 200 metres. At no point do they rise higher than 5 metres above sea level.

Nukunonu, the largest atoll, is 5.4 square kilometres in area. Fakaofo is 2.6 square kilometres, and Atafu 2 square kilometres.

Constitutional History—The islands now known as Tokelau became a British protectorate in 1877, although it was not until 1889, when Commander Oldham of the HMS Egeria visited the atolls, that formal declarations to this effect were made. The British Government annexed the group (then known as the Union Islands) at the request of the inhabitants in 1916 and included it within the boundaries of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony.

In 1925, however, the British Government transferred administrative control of the Union Islands to the Governor-General of New Zealand, who was authorised to delegate his powers to the Administrator of Western Samoa. (As a result, the Union Islands were separated from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands colony.) Formal sovereignty was transferred to New Zealand under the 1948 Tokelau Islands Act, which included Tokelau within the boundaries of New Zealand.

People—Although Tokelau lies in a border zone between Micronesia and Polynesia, its inhabitants are Polynesian. They retain linguistic, family, and cultural links with Western Samoa, which are maintained by contact between their administrations by radio broadcasts and church ties. The culture of Tokelau is, however, distinctively shaped by its atoll environment, which has its closest parallel in Tuvalu, with which there are also many links.

Tokelauan is normally spoken on the atolls, but most Tokelauans speak some English, which is taught as a second language.

Population—The census of 25 October 1976 recorded the following population (estimated figures for 1980 in parentheses):

 MaleFemaleTotal
Atafu263(284)283(293)546(577)
Nukunonu169(177)194(197)363(374)
Fakaofo315(310)351(359)666(669)
 747(771)828(849)1575(1620)

Administration—Active overall responsibility for Tokelau lies with the Administrator of Tokelau, who is responsible to the Minister of Foreign Affairs. In practice, most of the powers of the Administrator are exercised by the Official Secretary of the Office for Tokelau Affairs, which, by agreement with the Government of Western Samoa, is based in Apia. The office itself co-ordinates the activities of the members of the Tokelau Public Service working on the atolls.

New Zealand has taken steps to ensure that the Tokelau Public Service is properly responsive to, and equipped to meet, Tokelau's needs and wishes. Increasingly the Administrator, and the Official Secretary in his role as the Administrator's representative, act in a supervisory capacity only, with the Tokelau Public Service operating under the overall direction of the village representatives.

Considerable practical assistance is received from the Government of Western Samoa, whose officers (medical and public health officials, for example) are made available to the Tokelau Public Service on request. Moreover, Samoa has generously arranged for United Nations and other experts working in Samoa to make available their expertise to Tokelau.

Judiciary—The Tokelau Islands Amendment Act 1970 gives the High Court of Niue civil and criminal jurisdiction in Tokelau as if that court had been established as a separate Court of Justice in Tokelau It also gives the High Court of New Zealand concurrent jurisdiction in respect of civil matters and also criminal offences where the offender is found in New Zealand and where the offence with which he is charged, if committed in New Zealand, would have been an indictable offence under New Zealand law. (In addition the District Courts in New Zealand have limited jurisdiction in respect of those criminal offences for which the High Court of New Zealand has jurisdiction.) The Act further gives the High Court of New Zealand jurisdiction to determine cases stated by and appeals from final judgments of the High Court of Niue in either civil or criminal jurisdiction. Provision is also made in the Act for the appointment of Tokelauan commissioners, currently the faipule on each of the 3 atolls, who exercise a limited jurisdiction in respect of civil and criminal matters, and from whose judgments a right of appeal lies to a judge of the High Court of Niue.

Crime Prevention—There are 7 Tokelauan police officers—3 on Fakaofo, and 2 each on Atafu and Nukunonu. They are responsible to the village authorities for the enforcement of law and order and to the Tokelau Public Service for their various civil duties.

There is little crime in Tokelau, and there are no prisons. Punishment generally takes the form of public rebukes, fines, or labour.

Public Service—Most of the 174 staff of the Tokelau Public Service are Tokelauans. Efforts are continuing to attract New Zealand-based Tokelauans with appropriate skills and qualifications to the Tokelau Public Service.

Local Government—In the villages of Nukunonu and Atafu the dominant political institution is a council of elders (taupulega), comprising the head of each family group, together with the faipule and pulenuku. In Fakaofo the taupulega is made up of the faipule, the pulenuku, and selected village elders; meetings involving all the heads of family groups are held only infrequently. The faipule represents the village at large in its dealings with the administering power and the public service and presides at meetings of the council and the court. The pulenuku is responsible for the administration of village affairs such as the scheduling of work, cleanliness, water supplies, and the inspection of plantations. The village clerk (failautuhi) keeps records of village meetings and transactions.

Matters concerning Tokelau as a whole are discussed at the General Fono (which usually convenes at least once a year), to which each atoll send, a delegation lead by its faipule.

New Zealand has been conducting a programme of political education in Tokelau with the aim of enabling the Tokelauans to understand better and play a more active role in the running of their own affairs. A recent important development has been the forming of a budget advisory committee of the General Fono, consisting of 3 elders from each atoll, in order to involve the Tokelauan leaders directly in the establishment of priorities of expenditure for Tokelau's annual budget.

Suffrage—The faipule and pulenuku are democratically elected by universal adult suffrage at 3–yearly intervals.

Economic Conditions—Tokelau's size, isolation, and lack of land-based resources allow little scope for economic development. The principal revenue earners are copra, stamps, souvenir coins, and handicrafts. Money is also remitted to Tokelauan families from relatives in New Zealand.

Tokelau has in the past had a subsistence economy, based in the main on the resources of the sea, the plant cover of the atolls (chiefly the coconut and pandanus palms and certain types of tree used for housing and canoe-making), and livestock. There has been little demand for the material standards of more developed countries, but increasing contacts with Western Samoa and New Zealand have stimulated a desire amongst the people to advance their living standards.

Public revenue is derived from an export tax of 10 percent on handicrafts, from shipping and freight charges, the sale of postage stamps and coins, from customs duties, and the return from radio and telegram services. New Zealand's budgetary aid for the year ended 31 March 1980 was $1.35 million.

Village Revenue—Village revenue is derived principally from overseas remittances—funds sent by the Tokelauan communities in New Zealand for village and church projects, for example—and from the export tax levied on copra at the rate of 10 percent ad valorem of its f.o.b. value at the port of Apia. This revenue is paid into special funds, the utilisation of which is determined by the authorities of the village. The funds attract a 2: 1 subsidy from Tokelau's general budget.

A co-operative store has been operating on each atoll since 1978.

Development Assistance—Substantial assistance is provided by the South Pacific Commission, the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation, the International Labour Organisation, and the United Nations in areas such as technical training, health, fishery development, and village development.

Land Tenure and Usage—All land is held by customary title in accordance with the customs and usages of the inhabitants. The Tokelau Islands Amendment Act 1967 provides that the people of Tokelau may dispose of their land among themselves according to their customs, but they may not alienate land by sale or gift to non-indigenous inhabitants. Land holdings pass from generation to generation within the families, being held by the head of the family group. Some land is held in common.

Principal Crops—Tokelau's soil is thin and infertile and has resisted all efforts to increase its productivity by the application of fertilisers. Apart from copra, agricultural products are of a basic subsistence nature. Food crops consist of coconuts, pulaka, breadfruit, ta'amu, pawpaw, the fruit of the edible pandanus, and bananas.

Livestock and Fisheries—Livestock comprises pigs and fowls. Ocean and lagoon fish and shellfish are available in quantity, and form a staple constituent of the diet. The most common species of fish caught are tuna, bonito, trevally, and mullet.

At the request of the General Fono, New Zealand implemented Tokelau's extended economic zone on 1 April 1980 and entered into negotiations with third countries on the declaration and licensing of the zone as appropriate. The benefits of Tokelau's 200–mile Exclusive Economic Zone will accrue to the Tokelauans.

Transport and Communications—Transport by ship is Tokelau's only physical link with the outside world. Chartered vessels travel to Tokelau from Apia five or six times a year.

Social Conditions—Society is centred on the extended family group (kaiga). Village affairs are the prerogative of the council of elders (taupulega), which includes representatives of all the family groups.

Labour and Employment—Copra production and the manufacture of plaited ware and woodwork are the only industries of significance in Tokelau, and no supervision of employment conditions in these industries is necessary. Most labour is devoted to procuring food from lagoon, ocean, or plantation, to village maintenance, and to the production of woven mats, fans, and curios. The various public works programmes and projects also provide employment.

Health—The health authorities in Tokelau receive advice and guidance from Apia, the South Pacific Commission, and the World Health Organisation. Each atoll has its own hospital and medical staff. In addition, each atoll has an active women's committee, and to these committees much credit is due for their work in village health and sanitation.

Education—Each island has a modern and well-equipped primary school catering for children between the ages of 5 and 15. Schooling is free and attendance is close to 100 percent. Pre-school classes are also run in each village.

The New Zealand Department of Education provides advisory services to the three principals and also helps with the provision of materials and equipment. The schools are usually inspected annually by a senior officer of the department, although there was no inspection in 1979 owing to shipping problems.

Tokelau's teaching establishment stands at 40 qualified teachers and 15 teacher aides. The schools are equipped with radio sets, tape recorders, and slide and movie projectors. Each island has a parents' committee which helps in the raising of funds and in the organisation of school activities.

Schooling in Tokelau is aimed both at preparing children for life in Tokelau and at equipping them to pursue their studies or undertake a career in New Zealand.

In January 1979 an expatriate education adviser was appointed for a term of 2 years to assist the Director of Education to review school curricula and to upgrade teaching standards.

Chapter 37. Section 37 TRAVEL AND TOURISM

Table of Contents

Travel between countries in and around the Pacific has developed rapidly in recent years and international jet air services have made New Zealand fairly easily accessible to tourists of all countries. Although in recent years the tourist industry has shown the effects of more difficult economic conditions, it was for more than 2 decades the fastest growing sector in international commerce; in some countries it became the largest industry.

In New Zealand a healthy domestic tourist industry has led to the growth of all services necessary for New Zealand's wider participation in this expanding industry. There has been a considerable surge in building of hotels and motels and the provision of complementary transport and other service facilities. New scenic routes have been developed, while facilities have been improved and extended in major resort areas. There is a network of convenient air services.

Various travel associations (the Pacific Area Travel Association, for example) and international airlines have predicted that the Pacific area will experience a higher than average rate of growth in tourism during the remaining years of this century. This prediction is based on the belief that, as traditional holiday areas become overcrowded, travellers will seek new destinations in relatively unspoiled areas.

Travel Arrivals and New Zealand Residents Departing Temporarily—Overseas travel, once largely the prerogative of the wealthy or adventurous, is now within the reach of a large proportion of the population in developed countries. Between 1965 and 1970 the surge in overseas travel resulted in almost doubling the annual total of overseas visitors to New Zealand. In more recent years the rate of increase has declined, reflecting less favourable conditions on the world economic scene.

At the end of 1978 the Tourism Advisory Council, an advisory body to the Government, predicted an average increase in visitor arrivals for New Zealand of 8 percent through the 1980s. Because of rising fuel prices and air fares, the current rate of growth is around 7 percent.

The following table shows overseas visitors to New Zealand during recent years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTouristsPersons on BusinessTemporary Work or Working HolidayOtherTotal Overseas Visitors*
Holiday or VacationStay with Relations or FriendsTotal
* Does not include through passengers, defined as passengers (mainly on cruise ships) who do not stay ashore in New Zealand. They totalled 136927 in 1975–76, 140920 in 1976–77, 162733 in 1977–78, 176586 in 1978–79, and 176822 in 1979–80.
197624324869576312824379861095022826381586
19772364906988830637839838846825538380222
19782345927484030943244060901228436390940
197924748376701324184448821393135747418744
198024322996236339465467421542043568445195

New Zealand residents departing temporarily (i.e., for less than 12 months) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchTouristsPersons on BusinessTemporary Work or Working HolidayOtherTotal N.Z. Residents Departing Temporarily
Holiday or VacationStay with Relations or FriendsTotal
197613670850362187070313941056011634240658
197713692450150187074331721159213160244998
197815320064268217468379921237216452284284
197919302865900258928464921655221792343764
1980238167101190339357480051961419832426808

Some of the permanent movement shown in migration statistics in Section 3 concerns travel. Persons intending to be absent for 12 months or more are shown as permanent departures; when they return to New Zealand after 12 months' absence they are shown as immigrants intending permanent residence. Persons arriving on working holidays or for educational purposes are not normally classified internationally as visitors or tourists.

Auckland is the main point of arrival and receives initially 69 percent of all visitors: most of the visitors arrive by air.

Travel Receipts and Payments—Travel receipts and payments (excluding fares) as recorded by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchAustraliaUnited StatesCanadaUnited KingdomJapanOtherTotal
NZ$(million)
Receipts
197694.224.12.012.50.89.4143.1
1977102.635.42.410.41.48.6160.8
197894.738.42.313.72.39.3160.7
197999.234.02.516.92.510.8165.9
1980105.547.33.124.43.513.4197.2
Payments
197670.029.53.148.11.141.6193.4
197788.043.14.853.21.654.4245.1
1978115.546.24.266.42.165.6300.0
1979155.363.46.387.32.273.7388.3
1980221.288.26.1101.6 82.8499.5

From a survey made by the Tourist and Publicity Department a few years ago it was estimated that overseas visitor expenditure in New Zealand during the 12 months ended October 1973 was $76.7 million. This was broken down into expenditure per visitor from selected countries and regions as shown in the following table.

ItemVisitors from
AustraliaUnited States and CanadaUnited KingdomJapanEuropeOther
Total expenditure ($m)41.717.94.71.42.28.8
Expenditure per tourist ($)—
    Accommodation1068974969173
    Meals353637273835
    Transport576648465650
    Excursions12798107
    Social181225142016
    Souvenirs and gifts373231332229
    Personal9793520
    Other1620931610
                Total290269242230258240
Average length of stay (days)16.511.327.45.716.620.0

This survey refers to all overseas visitors. In addition to tourists, it includes persons from overseas visiting relatives or friends, and expenditure by persons in New Zealand on business.

Countries of Origin—The countries or areas of origin of all visitors other than through passengers to New Zealand during years ended 31 March are given in the following table.

Country1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80
Australia231358222804216444217776214478
Canada1255012870128081352416988
United States4954052364542885890870168
United Kingdom2641225468279642866434672
Other countries64726667167943699872108889
All countries384586380222390940418744445195

Visitors who are not New Zealanders require permits to enter the country, and temporary permits or student permits are issued as appropriate. Those people who are accorded the right of free entry are not required to apply to make visits. They are granted entry on arrival. Others may make visits without visas under agreements we have entered into with a number of countries, including Japan and United States. Residents of other countries must obtain entry authorities before they set out and these are obtained through the various New Zealand posts overseas. The British posts also have some authority to act in the absence of an accredited New Zealand post. Short-term visitors are asked to submit to very little formality. Those coming under the visa abolition agreements must intend remaining no longer than the periods set out in the agreements, which vary from 30 days to 3 months, and all visitors must have sufficient funds for maintenance, and fully paid tickets which will take them out of the country.

ACCOMMODATION IN NEW ZEALAND—Accommodation has been developed by the private and public sector, with the Government's Tourist Hotel Corporation (THC) operating establishments in 12 areas. The THC has mainly concentrated its activities in isolated resort areas where private enterprise finds it uneconomic to operate. The development by both sectors has provided hotels of an excellent standard in all main centres and resorts. These establishments usually operate on a room-only basis with meals as an optional extra.

There are large numbers of high standard motor hotels and motels throughout New Zealand and scores of motor camps.

Motor camping is a popular form of holidaymaking during the summer months (December to Easter). Campers provide their own tents and equipment (a number of companies specialise in hiring out camping equipment) and the camps provide community washing, cooking, and toilet facilities. Some camps offer limited cabin accommodation.

Tourist arrivals are highest from October to March. These arrivals, taken in conjunction with the demand from the New Zealand summer holiday period, can impose a strain on available hotel accommodation at the major tourist resorts.

Inventory of Accommodation—An inventory of accommodation has been compiled by the Tourist and Publicity Department. It relates only to hotels licensed to supply liquor and to motels. Licensed hotels have been grouped, as far as possible, according to physical standards provided:

Group 1—are hotels having all or most rooms with private bath/shower and toilet, ample good quality public rooms, and excellent standards of maintenance.

Group 2—are hotels of good overall quality. They have a sufficient proportion of their rooms with private bath/shower and toilet to meet normal demands from people requiring these facilities. A much greater proportion than of Group 1 are older hotels.

Group 3—are hotels providing good, simple accommodation but which are not able to be included in Groups 1 and 2.

Establishments of a motel character having a tourist hotel licence or restaurant licence are counted as hotels in that they may provide hotel facilities for their guests. Motel units when run as part of an hotel are included as accommodation of that hotel.

Motels are defined as establishments providing self-contained units or apartments with bath/shower and toilet. They may include kitchen and dining-room facilities. They may (but usually do not) provide restaurant services on the premises. Tourist flats and holiday flats which do not supply ready made-up beds, and where linen, etc., is available for hire, are excluded.

Private hotels and guest houses (also holiday flats not catering for overnight travellers) have not been included. Private hotels and guest houses, however, provide a significant proportion (up to 20 percent) of all available commercial accommodation. In the following table statistics for licensed hotels and motels are set out by regional areas, as at 31 March 1980.

RegionRooms in Licensed HotelsUnits in Motels
Group 1Group 2Group 3
Northland3241692301103
Auckland18072781501611
Waikato141193118503
King Country79821952
Coromandel-Thames2525147343
Rotorua - Bay of Plenty9153581871502
Taupo2399242492
East Coast64205180223
Hawke's Bay25651211583
Taranaki21650193364
Wanganui - Tongariro National Park22590147243
Manawatu-Horowhenua17549192395
Wairarapa677087
Wellington1011300189489
Marlborough15169153405
Nelson232181369
Westland391190164398
North and Mid Canterbury959439287903
South Canterbury - North Otago52483205337
Otago1131347216750
Southland184147156261
Fiordland552110
            Total96683217343711523

NOTE—Licensed hotels are here grouped principally according to availability of rooms with private facilities: Group 1—all or most rooms so equipped; Group 2—sufficient private facilities for general availability; Group 3—a smaller proportion of rooms with private facilities.

ASSISTANCE TO THE TOURIST INDUSTRY: Accommodation—From 1962 the Tourist Accommodation Development Scheme has provided assistance in the form of loans and guarantees to encourage the building of new tourist accommodation of an acceptable modern standard and the extension of existing hotels and motels where there was a significant shortage of accommodation.

Under this scheme an additional 2226 rooms have been provided.

There are special depreciation allowances for taxation purposes which apply to approved accommodation projects.

Tourist Facilities—The Tourist Facilities Development Scheme, introduced in 1969, provides loans and guarantees to encourage the development of tourist facilities other than accommodation in key tourist areas.

Export Incentives—The 1979 budget provided new incentives for the development of New Zealand tourism. The Export Marketing Development Incentive, which came into effect on 1 April 1980, provides a tax rebate of 67.5 percent for certain types of expenditure incurred in promoting New Zealand tourism internationally. The export performance incentive and the export promotion grants scheme also came into effect on 1 April 1980 and provide tax rebates or grants to approved projects.

The new measures are expected to result in improved profitability for tourism operators and in increased promotional and marketing activities overseas.

TRANSPORT—All main cities, towns, and tourist resorts are served by regular road or rail services and there is an extensive network of internal air services. In addition to the inter-island air services, the North and South Island are also linked by roll-on roll-off ferry services operating between Wellington and Picton.

Touring by drive-yourself hire car is a popular way of seeing the country. Several companies provide a nation-wide car-hire service. All main centres also have chauffeur-driven cars available. Coach tours of a high standard and covering a range of prices and periods are operated by a number of companies.

At several locations, but particularly in the alpine and lake regions of the South Island, set or charter air tours are available.

Travel Services—Fully accredited travel agencies are available throughout New Zealand. Most of the major international agencies are represented or have affiliates in the country and there are the Government Tourist Bureaus which offer a national service for overseas visitors and New Zealand travellers.

WIDE RANGE OF ATTRACTIONS—With features such as the amazing thermal areas, magnificent lakes and fiords, glaciers, alpine regions, and unrivalled fishing, and other sporting opportunities, New Zealand combines in a comparatively small area a host of attractions. In addition to these natural attractions, the dignity and charm of the Maori people offers for study a culture which is unique to New Zealand.

Thermal Areas—New Zealand is distinctive in having a wide range of volcanic phenomena and associated thermal spas. The chief concentration is in the volcanic belt north-east from the three major volcanoes (all usually quiet), in the centre of the North Island. The Rotorua locality is a noted centre of thermal activity, with a wide variety of geysers, mud-pools, pools of boiling water, and steam blowholes.

Many mineral springs are reputed to have a beneficial effect and mineral baths are maintained by private interests in many places.

Rotorua, with its great variety and abundance of hot springs, is a well-known New Zealand spa. At Taupo and Wairakei hot mineral waters feed into attractive swimming pools.

Weather—New Zealand lies wholly within the South Temperate Zone. The weather is sunny and rather changeable, but is neither excessively hot in summer nor uncomfortably cold in winter. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2000 hours of sunshine a year.

Seasons—The seasons in New Zealand are the opposite of those in the Northern Hemisphere:

Summer: December, January, February.

Autumn: March, April, May.

Winter: June, July, August.

Spring: September, October, November.

SPORTING ATTRACTIONS: Fishing—A wide variety of salt-water fish abound in the coasts, bays, and harbours and in both North and South Islands many streams, rivers, and lakes provide excellent rainbow and brown trout fishing.

Sizes of New Zealand trout vary from district to district depending on environment, climate, food available, and angling pressure. Average trout weights are as follows: North Island—rainbow 1 kg and brown 2i kg in the Rotorua lakes, rainbow 2 1/4 kg and brown 2 kg in Lake Taupo, rainbow and brown 1 kg in river systems; South Island—rainbow and brown l-l£; kg in lake systems, sea-run brown 2i kg in West Coast rivers, sea-run “Quinnat” salmon 5i kg in the east coast rivers, land-locked salmon 1–1 1/4 kg.

Big-game Fishing—The v arm waters off the east coast of the North Island provide some of the best surf, line, and scuba fishing in the world. The main bases for line fishing from charter boats are at Whangaroa, Bay of Islands (Russell, Otehei Bay, and Waitangi), Tutukaka, Mercury Bay (Whitianga), and Tauranga (Mayor Island).

The most prized catches are broadbill, black marlin, striped marlin and blue marlin, while other types of big game fish found in New Zealand waters are mainly tiger shark, hammerhead shark, mako shark, thresher shark, kingfish (yellow tail), and tuna. The best catches are usually made in February but fishing is good from December to April.

Shooting and Hunting—The principal game birds are duck, swan, pheasant, quail, geese, and chukor, but the sport is limited, the main season usually extending for about 6 weeks from early May.

There are fewer restrictions, however, on stalking—no limit on the number of game animals that can be taken, no licence required, and the season is open all year round. However, commercial hunting operations have severely limited the numbers of some game animals (deer of several species, elk, chamois, and thar), that once abounded in the forest and alpine regions. Wild pigs, goats, and wallaby are still numerous in several areas of the country. A guide is essential for the success of a hunting expedition.

Ski-ing—The ski-ing season in New Zealand extends from mid-July to late October in the North Island and from early July to late September in the South Island. With the operation of ski planes and helicopters in the Mount Cook region, very good spring ski-ing is available to experienced skiers in the alpine snowfields in and around the Mount Cook National Park.

In the North Island the main ski-ing centre is Mount Ruapehu in the Tongariro National Park. Equipment and instruction is available for skiers, and facilities include 3 chairlifts, 2 T bars, 4 poma lifts, and many rope tows. A new ski field with excellent facilities has been developed at Turoa on the southwest slopes of Mount Ruapehu. Mount Egmont is the North Island's other principal ski area.

In the South Island the principal areas are Coronet Peak (Queenstown), Mount Hutt, Tekapo, Lake Ohau, Porter Heights, Treble Cone (Wanaka), and the Mount Cook region (access by ski plane or helicopter). Coronet Peak, 19 km from Queenstown, has the best powder snow conditions in New Zealand, lying on extensive undulating slopes of varying gradients. Facilities at commercial ski fields are of a high standard and equipment and professional instruction is available at reasonable rates.

Mountaineering and Tramping—The proximity of mountain and forest to the main centres of population encourages tramping in New Zealand. Both North and South Islands have appealing tramping routes and parties can set out to enjoy the beauty and challenge of lonely country.

In the Waitakere and Hunua Ranges near Auckland, the central ranges of the North Island, at Mount Egmont, Tongariro National Park, and the Urewera area, and in the South Island's Fiordland and Golden Bay, there are numbers of tracks with high mountain traverses and passages through beautiful scenery.

Other Sports—A wide range of other sports is available. Golf courses are to be found in all parts of the country. Horse racing takes place throughout the year. Rugby football, soccer, and cricket are widely played during their seasons. There are facilities for bowls, tennis, skating, squash, and most other sports in most parts of the country.

Shopping and Souvenirs—Articles of a particularly New Zealand character include attractive jewellery made from paua shell, greenstone, and gem stones, Maori carvings in native timbers, records of Maori singing, pottery depicting Maori emblems, and natural or dyed lambskin rugs and clothing.

Tourist and Publicity Department—The Tourist and Publicity Department is responsible for the promotion of New Zealand overseas as a tourist destination and also operates a comprehensive travel service. Bureaus are sited in Auckland, Rotorua, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Queenstown, and Invercargill, with agencies in other parts of New Zealand. There are overseas offices in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, London, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York, Toronto, Tokyo, and Frankfurt. The department also supplies general New Zealand publicity material, publications, films, photographs, and displays for use within New Zealand and overseas to create a background knowledge of New Zealand, its people, and way of life.

Other Tourist Organisations—The New Zealand National Travel Association, an organisation representing private travel interests in New Zealand, is also concerned with the development of the tourist industry.

The Travel Agents Association of New Zealand (TAANZ) represents travel agents and tour operators promoting international travel to and from New Zealand.

New Zealand is a foundation member of the Pacific Area Travel Association which was formed in 1952 as a tourist promotional body for the Pacific area.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Books, guides, and other publications on the tourist attractions of New Zealand are, of course, numerous. A small selection is listed in the section on New Zealand books near the back of this Yearbook. The sub-section on National Parks and Reserves in section 10B, Public Lands, may also be of interest. The Tourist and Publicity Department (see above) is always pleased to be of assistance.

The following publications are concerned mainly with the present and future development of tourism as an industry.

Report of the Tourist and Publicity Department—(Parl. paper G. 25).

Report of the Tourist Hotel Corporation—(Parl. paper G. 24).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Accommodation Surveys—Tourist and Publicity Department.

N.Z. Accommodation Inventory and Room Occupancy Rates—Tourist and Publicity Department.

New Zealand Visitor Statistics—Tourist and Publicity Department.

Report of the Tourism Advisory Council (November 1978)—Tourist and Publicity Department.

Chapter 38. Section 38 MISCELLANEOUS

Table of Contents

HUMAN RIGHTS—An Act to establish a Human Rights Commission and to promote the advancement of human rights in New Zealand in general accordance with the United Nations International Covenant on Human Rights was passed by Parliament in November 1977 and came into force in September 1978.

The Human Rights Commission, established by the Act of the same name, has the general functions of promoting, encouraging, and co-ordinating programmes and activities in the field of human rights, and the specific functions of investigating alleged breaches of the wide-ranging provisions against discrimination on grounds of sex, marital status, or religious or ethical beliefs set out in Part II of the Act. (Part II also makes unlawful any discrimination on grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origin in a number of areas of activity not already covered by the Race Relations Act 1971).

The membership of the commission consists of the Chief Human Rights Commissioner (the chairman), the Chief Ombudsman, the Race Relations Conciliator, and up to three others appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Justice.

An Equal Opportunities Tribunal was constituted under the same Act. The Tribunal consists of a chairman, who must be a barrister or solicitor of the High Court, and two other persons appointed by the chairman for the purposes of each hearing from a panel maintained by the Minister of Justice. The principal function of the Equal Opportunities Tribunal is to adjudicate in civil proceedings brought by the commission alleging discriminatory practice under Pan II of the Act.

RACE RELATIONS—The Race Relations Act 1971 was designed to affirm and promote racial equality in New Zealand and implements the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. Discrimination is unlawful on the grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins for; (a) access by the public to places, vehicles, and facilities; (b) provision of goods and services; (c) employment (including employment of independent contractors); (d) land, housing, and other accommodation. It is also unlawful to publish or display any advertisement or notice which indicates an intention to commit a breach of any of these provisions.

A breach of any of the provisions may be the subject of an investigation by the Race Relations Conciliator.

The Act also makes it an offence to incite racial disharmony.

The most important role for a race relations mediator is in situations where misunderstanding due to different racial backgrounds or concepts on the part of the parties has occurred. Potential racial incidents can often be avoided by a mediator with an explanatory role. This extension of the conciliator's duties from an area confined to complaints of racial discrimination to one where discrimination may not have occurred, but where racial misunderstanding exists, is in keeping with the aims of the Act of affirming and promoting racial equality in New Zealand.

There are offices for receiving complaints under the Human Rights Commission Act and the Race Relations Act in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

METRICATION—The Metric Advisory Board was set up by the Government in 1969 to encourage, advise, and assist the progressive adoption within New Zealand of the metric system of weights and measures. The conversion to this system was substantially completed by the end of 1976.

New Zealand's decision to change to the metric system was based almost entirely on the necessity to keep in step with her overseas trading partners. The metric system is not only simpler and more efficient than the imperial system but also has the benefits of internationally agreed definitions and standardisation. The modern version of the metric system known as the “International System” (also called SI—“Systeme International d' Unites”) has been adopted for use in New Zealand. This system has also been adopted by other countries that have recently changed, or are in the process of changing, to the metric system. A table showing the relationships between British (Imperial) units and SI (Metric) units is included in the front pages of this Yearbook.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE MARKS—The legislation concerned with patents, designs, and trade marks is the Patents Act 1953, the Trade Marks Act 1953, and the Designs Act 1953. The total number of applications for the grant of letters patent, and for the registration of designs and trade marks during the financial year 1979–80 was 8208, which was 258 more than in the previous year.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade marks and designs for March years.

YearPatentsTrade MarksDesigns
1974–7532383618371
1975–7633983828416
1976–7732723757531
1977–7830853799451
1978–7932214155574
1979–8032504468490

Patents—The 3250 applications received during 1979–80 were broadly classified as follows: chemistry, 1174; mechanical engineering, 899; building technology, 323; home science, 271; electrical engineering, 326; primary industries, 257.

Applications originating in New Zealand totalled 1092; the United States, 770; the United Kingdom, 376; Australia, 206; Switzerland, 155; West Germany, 180; France, 79; Japan, 82; Italy, 29; the Netherlands, 84; Sweden, 44; and the balance of 153 from 26 other countries.

Trade Marks—During the year 1979–80 applications for trade marks totalled 4468. The countries from which the applications for the registration of trade marks originated were: New Zealand, 1902; United States, 1092; Great Britain, 341; Australia, 273; West Germany, 133; France, 128; Japan, 157; and Switzerland, 100; with the remaining 342 distributed among 34 other countries.

Trade marks registered during 1979–80 totalled 2246. Renewal of registration of 3374 trade marks was effected during the year.

COPYRIGHT—Under the Copyright Act 1962, copyright comes into existence automatically upon the completion of any original literary, dramatic, musical, or artistic work (including photographs). No registration is necessary (or even possible), nor is any other formality required for securing copyright protection.

Copyright also exists in New Zealand for sound recordings, cinematograph films, broadcasts, and published editions (typography) of literary, dramatic, and musical works.

Copyright in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works (except photographs) continues until 50 years after the author's death, if the works are published in the author's lifetime, and until 50 years after publication or 75 years after death (whichever is shorter) if they are unpublished at the death of the author. Copyright in photographs, sound recordings, cinematograph films, and broadcasts continues until 50 years after the making, and in editions until 25 years after publication.

Copyright in New Zealand in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works and in cinematograph films extends to all countries which are parties to the International Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Berne Copyright Union) and to all countries which are parties to the Universal Copyright Convention. In some cases, sound recordings, broadcasts, and published editions are also protected overseas. New Zealand is a party to both conventions. Most countries of the world have acceded to the one or the other or both conventions.

In 1976, New Zealand acceded to the Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorised Duplication of their Phonograms. The Convention obliges each contracting state to protect the producers of phonograms (i.e., records, cassettes, and other exclusively aural fixations of a performance or other sounds) against the unauthorised reproduction of their phonograms, and against the importation and distribution to the public of such unauthorised reproductions.

In New Zealand certain disputes relating to performing rights of copyright works, sound recordings, or films may be determined by the Copyright Tribunal.

INDUSTRIAL DESIGN COUNCIL—The New Zealand Industrial Design Council was established under the Industrial Design Act 1966 to promote the development of industrial design with the object of improving the quality, efficiency, packaging, and appearance of goods produced in New Zealand. It works closely with relevant Government departments, statutory bodies, and professional design organisations, and maintains regular contact with the manufacturers' and retailers' federations and other organisations interested in industrial design. Products which meet high standards of design and manufacture are awarded the prestige Designmark label and included in the Index of Designmark Products. The Council gives assistance through its field advisory service to improve products which do not meet these standards. This can include the recommendation of designers from its designer service. The Council publishes a monthly magazine Designscape and maintains a library at its Wellington headquarters.

STANDARDS COUNCIL—The Standards Act 1965 established the Standards Council as the governing body of the Standards Association of New Zealand (SANZ). Its aims are to improve efficiency and stimulate development in industry and commerce by providing standards documents, which will also assist in promoting public and industrial welfare, health, and safety. The association administers the standard certification mark scheme, which encourages improved quality control in industry with consequent improvement in the quality of consumer goods.

It also provides a service known as Technical Help to Exporters (THE) which provides assistance to manufacturers whose products need to comply with the standards and regulations of overseas markets.

The Council regards international standardisation as an important factor in facilitating international trade. The Association is the New Zealand member of the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and the Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC). The SANZ library holds about 170000 overseas or international standards. Copies of all standards, from whatever source, can be obtained from the association's sales service.

The association publishes new and revised New Zealand Standards and amendments. Details of these and of other national and international standards activities are given in a monthly publication, Standards. An index, published annually, lists all the standards in use in New Zealand.

The association depends on the subscriptions of members and on sales of standards for a large proportion of its income. Sales of standards exceed $380,000 annually and the subscribing membership of the association, which includes most of the more prominent manufacturers and local authorities, totalled 1751 at 31 March 1980.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE—In the early years of settlement in New Zealand those who wished to make provision for the administration of their estates on their deaths often experienced difficulty in selecting a suitable person competent and willing to act as trustee. That difficulty was natural in a new country where the colonists were fully occupied with their own affairs, and were unable to give to the property or business of another the close attention that was demanded.

In these circumstances the Public Trust Office was established in 1872 (it is now constituted under the Public Trust Office Act 1957) under the administration of the Public Trustee, a corporation sole with perpetual succession and a seal of office. The main purpose of the original Act was to provide a means of overcoming the difficulties that have been mentioned and to make available to the public a trustworthy administrator of the estates of deceased persons at a reasonable cost, the integrity of the Public Trustee and his officers being guaranteed by the State. That continues to be the chief function of the Office, but since its establishment the range of services has been considerably extended. The Public Trustee now acts in many capacities, e.g., as administrator in intestate estates; executor and trustee under wills; trustee under marriage and other settlements; trustee of benefit or relief funds; agent or attorney for absentees or persons desiring to be relieved of business worries; sinking fund commissioner for local authorities; administrator of unclaimed lands and property; manager of the estates of protected patients; manager (when so appointed by the court) of the estates of aged and infirm persons unable to attend to their own affairs; and trustee of compensation moneys. The wills of persons desiring the Public Trustee to act as their executor and any subsequent will or codicil may be prepared and held in safe custody by him, free of charge. With certain qualifications the Public Trustee may act jointly with another person or persons.

In lieu of obtaining probate or other grant of administration, the Public Trustee may file in an office of the High Court an election by him to administer an estate (testate or intestate) if the gross value of the property in New Zealand is estimated not to exceed $15,000. If after the filing of the election the value of the property is found to exceed $20,000 the Public Trustee must obtain a grant of probate or administration in the ordinary way.

During the year ended 31 March 1980, 8350 estates and funds valued at $110.2 million were accepted for administration. Estates and funds under administration at 31 March 1980 numbered 33714 and were valued at $478.6 million.

Capital moneys becoming available for investment either form part of the Common Fund of the Office or are invested in securities authorised by S.30A of the Public Trust Office Act 1957. Testators or settlors also have the option of specifically excluding investment in the Common Fund in which case the provisions of S.4 Trustee Act as amended by S.3 Trustee Amendment Act 1974 apply.

Interest is allowed on moneys in the Common Fund at the rate fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council and is free of all commission and other charges. Both capital and interest are guaranteed by the State, thus affording the complete security that it is the object of the Office to provide. On the other hand, moneys invested pursuant to S. 30A or directed to be invested in specific securities do not carry the State guarantee and, subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee, any loss resulting from their investment falls upon the estate concerned. Commission is charged on the collection of the interest.

Charges and commission rates are contained in the Public Trust Office Regulations 1958.

New investments completed during the year ended 31 March 1980 totalled $14.4 million. The investments held by the Office at 31 March 1980 totalled $113.8 million. These figures relate exclusively to Common Fund investments, and do not include other special investments made on behalf of estates, or investments which constitute assets of estates when the latter came under the Public Trustee's administration and which are still held as assets of those estates.

During the year ended 31 March 1980, 28603 wills appointing the Public Trustee executor were deposited with him for safe custody. The total number of such wills held on deposit at 31 March 1980 was 315581. During the year ended 31 March 1980 effect was given in 13195 cases to changes desired by testators.

BANKRUPTCY—The law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Insolvency Act 1967 and the Insolvency Regulations 1970. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the High Court.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of $10 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of the court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in this case. Not less than $200 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due to them. In such a case, after approval of the court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the assignee on a resolution by creditors. A person adjudged bankrupt is discharged three years after the date of adjudication unless discharged sooner.

Another form of financial failure is covered by private assignments, of which there was 1 in 1973, and 2 in 1974. Private assignments are not included in official bankruptcy statistics. There were none in 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1979, or 1980.

Transactions in Bankruptcy—The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last 5 years is now given. A long-term record of the more important features will be found in the Statistical Summary given later in this volume.

YearBankruptciesCourt Orders for Liquidation of CompaniesTotal Commercial Failures
Petitions by DebtorsAdjudications on Petitions by Creditors

* Includes 2 estates relating to 1975.

Includes 1 order under Pt. IV Administration Act 1969 and 1 order under Pt. XVII Insolvency Act 1967.

Includes 1 order under Pt. IV Administration Act 1969 and 2 orders under Pt. XVII Insolvency Act 1967.

1976209100150459*
1977290129207626
1978325182285792
1979302194336834
1980355250367975

In the case of a partnership, each partner is counted in the total of transactions and also the partnership. The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by official assignees.

In some cases of company liquidation, subsequent court orders are given for the winding up of companies to be transferred to private liquidators.

The table following shows for each of the last 6 years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the proportion of dividends, preferential claims, and secured claims, to debts.

YearAverage Debts Proved per EstateProportion of Dividends, etc., to Debts
 $percent
197518,7315.0
197620,7867.3
197722,9034.8
197822,0665.2
197929,479x5.2x
198030,2283.7

Apart from dividends, preferential and secured claims, and Government commission, payments made from assets realised include cost of actions, solicitors' fees, and expanses incurred in managing estates for the benefit of creditors.

In the following table bankruptcies during 1979 and 1980 are classified according to amount groups of stated liabilities. With ail partnerships the liabilities for each partner are included, but not the partnership. Company liquidations are included.

Liabilities19791980

* Excludes 1 partnership, 90 companies, and 24 private bankruptcies. Includes 1 bankruptcy for which liabilities were nil.

Excludes 1 partnership, 90 companies, and 24 private bankruptcies. Includes 1 bankruptcy for which liabilities were nil.

Under $2,000114115
$2,000 and under $5,000157190
$5,000 and under 510,000115133
$10,000 and under $20,000120145
$20,000 and under $50,00089160
$50,000 and under $100,0003768
$100,000 and over2547
                Total657*858

Occupational Groups of Bankrupts—All persons adjudged bankrupt (whether self-employed, employers of labour, or salary and wage earners) have been classified in the following table according to the occupation in which they were last employed.

Occupational Group19761977197819791980

* Excludes partnerships as follows: 1976, nil; 1977, 3; 1978, nil; 1979, 5 and 1980, 1.

Excludes 21975 estates shown in total figures for 1976.

Excludes 4 annulments.

§ Excludes 1 annulment and 1 transfer.

|| Excludes 3 annulments.

Professional, technical, and related workers7417916
Administrative and managerial workers511212231
Clerical and related workers125899
Sales workers2954676297
Service workers2723254152
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters3444665678
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers144219242236221
Not gainfully employed/actively engaged49525958100
Total*307412505§493604||

The occupational status of individual bankrupts is given in the following table. With all partnerships the occupation of each partner is included, but not the partnership.

YearOccupational Status
Working for Salary or WagesEmployer of LabourWorking On Own Account But Not Employing LabourNot Gainfully EmployedTotal*

* Excludes partnerships as follows: 1975, 6; 1976, nil; 1977, 3; 1978, nil; and 1979, 5.

Excludes 2 estates relating to 1975 and 1 for which the occupational status is not known.

Excludes 3 annulments.

1976122619924306
19771717811350412
19781896718762505
19791816316386493
1980158102239105604

INTERNATIONAL INDICATORS OF STANDARDS OF LIVING—Relative standards of living cannot be compared by taking per-head incomes or expenditure alone. Environmental and other factors are being increasingly recognised as components of the quality of life, a much less easily measured concept. In assessing standards of living, consideration is now given to the development of social indicators parallel with purely economic terms of measurement. These include health and personal safety; equality of educational opportunity; employment and quality of working life; leisure satisfaction; social welfare provisions; social opportunity and quality; social, cultural, and communication capabilities; housing and community facilities; and the physical environment.

Methods of measurement of these factors are being recommended on an international basis. In these wider terms of reference New Zealand's position is appreciably improved.

Some comparative indicators related to standards of living are set out in the following table. In other sections of the Yearbook there are international comparisons on life expectancy, infant mortality, medical and dental services, energy, libraries, and newspaper circulation.

ItemNew ZealandUnited StatesCanadaAustraliaUnited KingdomSwedenJapan

* 1975

1974

England.

Persons per vehicle—
    Cars (1979)2.41.82.32.53.72.95.1
    Total vehicles (1979)2.01.41.82.03.32.73.2
Number per 1000 of population—
    Radios (1976)8651882*1011770706390530
    Television sets (1976)259571*428351317363235*
    Telephones (1978)545744632415415717442
Consumption per head—
    Coffee (1977) kg1.254.333.501.701.744.961.24
    Sugar (1977) kg53.146.447.855.8 42.929.0
    Steel (1977) kg280618550365349463512
    Wool (1975) kg3.90.20.21.52.00.21.2
    Cotton (1974) kg9.87.57.810.14.57.86.3
    Artificial and synthetic fibres (1974) kg8.714.411.712.59.311.37.0
    Newsprint (1977) kg27.841.650.338.325.932.020.3
Public education expenditure as a percentage of GNP (1976)5.56.07.86.3*6.27.75.5*
Persons per hospital bed (1975)991521098011166 

GAMING AND LOTTERIES—The Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977, passed by Parliament during the 1977 session, came into force on 1 April 1978. This legislation replaced the Gaming Act 1908, which was itself based on legislation passed in the 1870s.

The Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977 discarded many of the former restrictions. The basic principle that gambling may not be conducted for private gain has been retained, but for minor forms of gambling it is not necessary to obtain licences or permits provided conditions laid down in the Act are met. Provision has also been made for the authorisation of additional forms of gambling if the public demand for them becomes sufficient. Some prohibitions are necessary in the public interest. Where large numbers of participants and substantial amounts of money could be involved, licences continue to be required.

The 1977 Act identifies, and provides for the control of, 4 forms of gambling: games of chance (such as housie); bookmaking and betting (other than betting on horse racing and greyhound racing); prize competitions (such as football pools); and lotteries (previously called raffles). It is a self-contained body of New Zealand statute law on gambling with the exception of betting on horse racing and greyhound racing which is still controlled through the Racing Act 1971.

During the year ended 31 March 1980, 72 Golden Kiwi jackpot lotteries, 8 Golden Kiwi Half-Million-Dollar Lotteries, and 3 $20 Lotteries were drawn. The 2 Double-Banger and 1 Sweepstake lotteries provided two draws for different major prizes within the $20 ticket price. These lotteries were specially promoted to mark the Golden Jubilee year of lotteries promoted on behalf of Government for charitable, cultural, and like causes.

Raffles licensed by the Department of Internal Affairs during the year totalled 1825, compared with 1692 during the previous year. This number was considerably reduced during 1978–79 as a result of the new Act which does not require a licence where the prizes do not exceed $500 in value.

The aggregate financial results of New Zealand lotteries are shown for the last 5 years (there were, of course, numerous privately-run lotteries in addition to these).

Item1975–761976–771977–78x1978–79x1979–80
Number of lotteries 6673638086
Gross sales$(000)11,62415,07321,25039,25053,750
Commission on sales$(000)1,0221,4191,9923,1954,120
Expenses$(000)5216787891,2121,748
Prizes$(000)6,2348,24012,02722,50031,493
Lottery duty$(000)1,1621,5072,1253,9255,375
Direct profit$(000)2,6853,2284,3178,41811,014

The net profits from these lotteries are required by the Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977 to be distributed for charitable, philanthropic, or cultural purposes or for other purposes beneficial to the community. The New Zealand Lottery Board has the responsibility of apportioning profits of lotteries to various distributing authorities which consider applications for assistance and make grants. Allocations made by the board in 1978–79 and 1979–80 are shown in the following tables.

Recipient1978–791979–80
 $     $     
Welfare of Aged Persons Distribution Committee700,0001,000,000
Welfare Services Distribution Committee800,0001,500,000
Medical Research Distribution Committee300,000350,000
Scientific Research Distribution Committee300,000350,000
General Purposes Distribution Committee2,435,0005,107,500
Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council600,000800,000
Minister of Internal Affairs (S. 93)350,000700,000
Lottery funds directed to the arts370,000
New Zealand Film Commission500,000
 5,855,00010,307,500

The General Purposes Distribution Committee received an allocation of $5,107,500 in 1979–80 and made the following grants:

Organisation or Purpose
* Redirecting Youth Development Using Minibikes.
 $
Surf Lifesaving Association of New Zealand180,000
New Zealand Water Safety Council240,000
New Zealand Mountain Safety Council220,000
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust25,000
Local Authorities Community Facilities Fund1,500,000
Children's Health Camps100,000
Cultural Facilities Scheme450,000
Community Development Fund1,200,000
Civil Defence—publicity100,000
New Zealand Literary Fund25,000
Maori Purposes Fund Board—small marae projects30,000
New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport100,000
Y.M.C.A. (R.Y.D.U.M. programme*)27,500
New Zealand Litter Control Council85,000
Sports Foundation100,000
Outward Bound Trust50,000
Historic Places Trust500,000
New Zealand Olympic and Commonwealth Games Association100,000
The Achilles22,810
Army Memorial Museum50,000
 5,105,310
Uncommitted2,190
 5,107,500

LIQUOR LICENSING—The principal source of legislation governing the sale of liquor in New Zealand is the Sale of Liquor Act 1962. As a general rule, that Act provides that no liquor may be sold without the appropriate licence or a club charter, and licences may only be authorised if it is shown that they are necessary or desirable in particular localities. The Act also serves to regulate the conduct of the licensed trade and the provision and standard of accommodation, amenities, and service provided for the public.

The Licensing Control Commission established under that Act has the following functions:

To ascertain the requirements of the public as to the provision of accommodation services and other facilities on licensed premises; to determine what new licences and club charters are necessary or desirable; and to authorise their issue. It is also the commission's function to prescribe and enforce standards of accommodation, facilities and services on licensed premises, and to hear appeals from licensing committees decisions.

There are 21 licensing committees throughout the country. These are serviced by the local District Courts. Each committee has five members, of whom four are nominated by the local authorities in the area. The chairman is a District Court judge. The functions of licensing committees are to issue licences, renew licences annually, and hear applications for the cancellation or suspension of licences on the grounds of lack of hygiene or fire safety or the failure of the licensee to conduct the premises in a proper manner.

There is a right of appeal to the Licensing Control Commission from most decisions of a licensing committee except on a matter of law or character, in which case the appeal is to the High Court. Some of the commission's decisions are themselves subject to appeal to the High Court and an appeal may be brought in any case on a point of law. Such appeals lie with the administrative division of the High Court.

The types of licences which may be granted include hotel, tavern, and tourist house (premises and keeper's) licences, and wholesale, wineseller's booth, airport, ship, food and entertainment, and club licences. The food and entertainment licence and the club licence were introduced in 1980 to replace respectively the restaurant, theatre, cabaret, and caterer's licences and the general ancillary licence. Accordingly, at 1 April 1981 all existing licences of those former types converted automatically into food and entertainment or club licences. With both new types of licence the Licensing Control Commission has a discretion to fix hours (within broad statutory parameters) and conditions appropriate to the particular licensee.

A number of permits for specific purposes are also provided for under the Act. For example, a vineyard bar permit is available to the holder of a wine makers licence. It authorises the sale of wine made by him for consumption on the premises. Similarly, a permit is available to the owners of unlicensed restaurants whereby patrons may bring their own liquor to the restaurant for consumption with their meal.

Licences either in force or authorised at 31 March 1979 comprised 785 hotel premises licences, 315 tavern premises licences, and 85 tourist house premises licences. A total of 351 chartered clubs were in existence. Wine resellers licences authorised totalled 375 and wholesale licences totalled 176. There were also 5 theatre, 5 airport, 25 cabaret, 30 caterers, and approximately 1000 general ancillary licences in force.

The Sale of Liquor Act was amended in 1979 to empower a licensee or manager to refuse to admit to a public bar any person whom he has reasonable cause to believe will, if admitted to the premises, engage in violent, quarrelsome, insulting, or disorderly conduct, or provoke other persons to engage in such conduct on the premises.

New Licences—The Licensing Control Commission decides after a public inquiry, at which all interested parties may make representations, whether the issue of any new hotel or tavern premises licences or a wholesale or wine resellers licence are necessary or desirable in particular localities. In the case of a hotel or tavern premises licence the commission prescribes the minimum standards of accommodation, services, and other facilities that must be provided. There is provision for a poll of residents to be taken to determine whether they desire that a hotel or tavern be established in their locality. If the majority of votes recorded at the poll is against the issue of the licence, the commission may not authorise such a licence unless special circumstances exist. Subject to the result of any such poll, the commission may then call for applications for the new hotel or tavern premises or wholesale licence and may grant it to the most suitable applicant. When the commission decides to issue a new wine reseller's licence, however, the matter is then referred to the appropriate licensing committee, which then invites and considers applications for the licence. Applications for all other types of licences may be made at any time and are considered at public hearings in various centres throughout the country.

Hours of Sale—The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 governs the hours of sale. A special general poll was held on 23 September 1967 concerning the closing hours for the sale of liquor in hotels, taverns, and chartered club bar rooms. Since 1917 the closing hour had been 6 p.m. The proposal for later closing was carried, and the new hours of 11 a.m. to 10 p.m. came into effect from 9 October 1967. Hotels and taverns may also seek authority to open earlier than 11 a.m., but may not be open for more than 11 hours each day. The Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1976 allowed for further extensions upon application for individual hotels or taverns. Orders may be made permitting these to remain open until 11 p.m. on Friday or Saturday or on Christmas Eve and until 12.30 a.m. on the morning of New Year's Day. Any such extension is in addition to the 11 hours per day during which liquor may normally be sold to the public. With certain exceptions, sales from hotels and taverns are prohibited on Sundays and Christmas Day and Good Friday.

Legislation in 1960 authorised hotels to serve liquor to guests and lodgers partaking of a meal for consumption with that meal. An amendment in 1976 extended the hours, which are now from 9 a.m. on any day to 1 a.m. the following morning. A further amendment in 1980 applied these hours to those taverns which operate a dining room or restaurant facility.

Prior to the 1980 amendment, different hours were prescribed for restaurant, theatre, cabaret, and caterer's licences. With the change to the new food and entertainment licence, however, the commission is authorised to fix hours of sale between 9 a.m. on any day appropriate to the particular licensee and 3 a.m. on the following day. Different times may be fixed for different days of the week and for different periods of the year. Similarly, the hours under a club licence are set by the commission on an individual basis, but must generally be between 11 a.m. and 10 p.m. on any day. The permits for unlicensed restaurants authorise consumption by patrons of their own liquor until 11.30 p.m. on any day, and the vineyard bar permit authorises sales until 9 p.m. except on Sundays, Good Friday, or Christmas Day.

Drinking Age—The Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1969 made provision from 24 October 1969 for the sale of liquor to persons of the age of 20 years; liquor may also be supplied to persons of 18 years of age or above if the person is accompanied by a spouse of 20 or more years of age or a parent. The 1976 amendment to the Act also provided for a family lounge permit, whereby parents may take their underage children into designated parts of hotels, taverns, or chartered clubs. The 1980 amendment replaced the word “parent” in both instances by the phrase “parent or guardian”, and further provided that a child accompanied by, and in the care of, any other adult member of his or her family may now be admitted into a family lounge bar. Liquor may be supplied to an unaccompanied person of 18 years of age or above as part of a meal provided in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

Licensing Trusts—The system of trust control in New Zealand is an alternative to the traditional means of controlling liquor outlets through privately-held licences supervised by licensing committees, and the Licensing Control Commission gives the public an indirect control over the conditions under which liquor is sold. Licensing trusts are elected by the residents and are responsible to them, similar to local bodies.

The first licensing trust in New Zealand was set up in 1944 following the carrying of restoration in the former Invercargill no-licence district. There are now eight district trusts—Ashburton, Clutha, Geraldine, Invercargill, Masterton, Mataura, Oamaru, and Porirua. In addition an increasing number of local trusts scattered throughout New Zealand are operating hotels and taverns. Because of the circumstances of the remaining no-licence districts and their relation to the metropolitan areas of Auckland and Wellington, legislation was introduced in 1963 providing a special procedure if any of those areas should carry restoration. A new form of trust control, known as suburban trusts, was introduced.

Prior to 1975, six suburban trusts had been constituted: Johnsonville; Terawhiti; Wellington South (in Wellington); and Mt Albert; Portage; and Waitakere (in Auckland). These trusts held licences under the Sale of Liquor Act and had a preferential right to all hotel, tourist house, or tavern premises licences, or wholesale licences authorised by the commission in their areas. In 1975 these trusts and the Birkenhead Local Licensing Trust were converted into district trusts, which did not hold such licences and were then not subject to the jurisdiction of the Licensing Control Commission. They were also free to choose the nature of the liquor outlets and where and when they should be established.

The 1976 Amendment to the Licensing Trusts Act converted these trusts back to suburban trust status, bringing them under a degree of supervision by the Licensing Control Commission but not to the same extent as that which prevailed prior to 1975. The trusts are still free to establish what outlets they see fit without the need to hold licences under the Sale of Liquor Act, but the commission's approval must first be obtained. This allows the commission to consider the requirements of the particular area of which the suburban trust is part, as well as providing an appropriate forum in which objections to the trust's proposals may be heard. Local residents also have the right to apply to the commission for a poll to be conducted to determine if any proposed new premises should be established in their area.

There are also local licensing trusts which are established to operate a new hotel or tavern authorised by the commission. Local trusts are set up following the carrying of a poll to determine if the residents desire that a new licence be issued to a trust.

The Licensing Trusts Act was again amended in 1977, principally to permit licensing trusts to operate catering facilities on the same basis as holders of a caterer's licence may operate their premises under the Sale of Liquor Act.

In addition the same right to apply for later hours on Fridays, Saturdays, Christmas Eve, and New Year's Eve that private licences enjoy under the Sale of Liquor Act was conferred on licensing trusts by this amendment. The Licensing Trusts Act was further amended in 1980 to apply to licensing trusts those changes made by the Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1980.

GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS—A general election of Parliamentary representatives was held on 28 November 1981, voting in New Zealand for both General and Maori electorates taking place on that day. Results of this will be shown in the next edition of the Yearbook.

The strength of the political party representation among members of Parliament after the election held on 25 November 1978 was National 51, Labour 40, Social Credit, 1. The relative strengths after the eight preceding general elections were as follows: November 1954, National 45, Labour 35; November 1957, Labour 41, National 39; November 1960, National 46, Labour 34; November 1963, National 45, Labour 35; November 1966, National 44, Labour 35, Social Credit 1; November 1969, National 45, Labour 39; November 1972, Labour 55, National 32; November 1975, National 55, Labour 32.

The total numbers of electors on the roll for the election in 1978 was 2487594, of whom 1721443 (69.2 percent) recorded their votes.

The following table shows for the four general elections previous to that of 1981 the number of votes recorded by the main political parties, along with the percentages that the various party votes represent of the total valid votes.

Political PartyVotes RecordedPercentage of Total Valid Votes
19691972197519781969197219751978
Labour59205567766963631969107644.1848.3739.7040.41
National60596058142276036568099145.2241.5047.4439.82
Social Credit121576932311191232747569.076.657.4316.07
Values2746783213412201.965.192.41
Others20577213633757221301.531.520.231.29
        Total valid votes1340168140115216027771710173100.00100.00100.00100.00
Informal votes116459088824311270
        Total votes recorded1351813141024016110201721443

NATIONAL LICENSING POLL—The licensing poll of 25 November 1978, held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the eighteenth at which the three issues—national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. Official figures of the 1978 poll, together with those of five preceding polls, were as follows:

Voting Issue196319661969197219751978
For national continuance79176781776090396293177810944451053268
For State purchase and control157581176946242499244003235374252154
For national prohibition235959198859176055203791250640374194

POLL ON TERM OF PARLIAMENT—On 23 September 1967 a special general poll was held on a proposal that the term of the House of Representatives be changed. Votes for a maximum of 3 years, as at present, totalled 678960; votes for a maximum term of 4 years totalled 317973.

TIME-SERVICE ARRANGEMENTS—One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand. The New Zealand Gazette of 31 October 1868 contained a Government announcement to the effect that the time corresponding to longitude 172° 30' east of Greenwich (exactly 11 1/2 hours in advance of Greenwich time) was to be adopted as the New Zealand Mean Time throughout the colony.

This New Zealand Mean Time, 11h 30 min. in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.), was observed continuously up to 1927, when on 6 November clocks were advanced 1 hour until 4 March 1928. Summer Time, with clocks advanced only 30 minutes (to 12 h ahead of G.M.T.), became standard practice in the summer months under the Summer Time Act 1929.

The Daylight Saving Emergency Regulations of 1941 provided for the continuance of Summer Time throughout that year, and its continued observance during subsequent war years was provided for by regulations made annually.

By the Standard Time Act of 1945 the time of the meridian 180° east of Greenwich (12 h in advance of G.M.T.) was adopted as the Standard Time for New Zealand. Thus, what was formerly known as “Summer Time” became “New Zealand Standard Time” as from 1 January 1946.

The Time Act of 1974 consolidated the Standard Time Act of 1945 and also enabled the Governor-General, by Order in Council, to introduce 1 hour of daylight saving for specified periods. This time is designated New Zealand Daylight Time, and is 13 h in advance of Universal Time (or Greenwich Mean Time). The first period specified for the use of New Zealand Daylight Time was from 3 November 1974 to 23 February 1975.

Time in the Chatham Islands is 45 minutes ahead of that kept in New Zealand.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the New Zealand Time Service, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is checked daily against the caesium beam primary frequency standard at the Physics and Engineering Laboratory, Lower Hutt, and against radio signals from other observatories throughout the world. The error is usually much less than one millisecond.

The Observatory provides a time service over Station ZLW and stations operated by the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand.

BOOK PUBLISHING—The following table classifies the publications for 1979 and 1980 which have been included by the National Library of New Zealand in the New Zealand National Bibliography.

Subject19791980
BooksPamphletsTotalBooksPamphletsTotal
General45761215479133
Religion, theology, philosophy364278254671
Sociology, statistics70811514874122
Political science, economics117222339122208330
Law, public administration, social welfare8511419981152233
Education666413067107174
Trade, communications, transport4043834075115
Linguistics, philology122142675101
Sciences73100173117123240
Technology, and trades115175290137192329
Agriculture, forestry90861765893151
Domestic science232750271340
Commercial management1935542971100
Fine arts, etc.528013293141234
Entertainment, sport71411125867125
Literature79851645498152
Geography, travel413879243559
History, biography866515110140141
                  Total112013762496116116892850

The New Zealand National Bibliography, which commenced publication in 1967, is issued monthly and cumulated annually by the National Library of New Zealand. It lists works published in New Zealand and also works published overseas by authors normally resident in New Zealand, and works that deal in whole or part with New Zealand. It includes books, pamphlets, art prints, music scores, sound recordings, maps, new serials, and serials that have ceased publication.

As at 31 January 1981 there were 5429 periodicals (other than parish and school magazines) being received regularly under the legal deposit provisions of the Copyright Act.

PUBLIC HOLIDAYS—These are listed below.

Holiday19791980198119821983
* Actual date of Queen's Birthday, 21 April 1926.
New Year's Day1 January1 January1 January1 January1 January
Waitangi Day6 February6 February6 February6 February6 February
Good Friday13 April4 April17 April9 April1 April
Easter Monday16 April7 April20 April12 April4 April
Anzac Day25 April25 April25 April25 April25 April
Queen's Birthday*4 June2 June1 June7 June6 June
Labour Day22 October27 October26 October25 October24 October
Christmas Day25 December25 December25 December25 December25 December
Boxing Day26 December26 December26 December26 December26 December

In addition to the above, there is in each provincial district a holiday for the provincial anniversary. The actual anniversary days are as follows: Northland, 29 January; Auckland, 29 January; Taranaki, 31 March; Hawke's Bay, 1 November; Wellington, 22 January; Marlborough, 1 November; Nelson, 1 February; Canterbury, 16 December; Westland, 1 December; Otago and Southland, 23 March.

When Anniversary Day falls on Friday or later, the holiday is observed on the next Monday; if earlier, it is observed on the preceding Monday. In some cases the holiday is taken on the local show day or some other day of local significance; in Taranaki it is the second Monday in March to avoid a clash with Easter observance.

RECREATION AND SPORT—Although New Zealand has traditionally been considered an outdoor sporting nation results from a 1975 national survey indicated that activities based around the home may be the most popular form of recreation. Reading, gardening, and sewing appeared to be the most popular recreational pursuits. Other home-based activities such as knitting, visiting and entertaining friends, cooking and baking, and house maintenance are also enjoyed by many New Zealanders for their recreational value. The popularity of dining-out, as providing a change for the busy housewife and a break from the humdrum of every day living, is reflected in the rise in the number of restaurants and eating places catering for a wide variety of tastes and incomes.

Sport, however, plays an important part in the recreation of New Zealanders. Rugby union is the leading winter sport. Soccer, netball, and indoor basketball are also popular winter sports. Swimming is a very popular summer activity and salt-water fishing, tennis, boating, and cricket also have large followings. Of the all-year-round sporting activities, golf is popular followed by billiards, snooker and pool, indoor bowls, and squash. An interesting feature of sport in New Zealand is the large number of activities that involve small groups, such as swimming, fishing, tennis, boating, and golf, as distinct from the team sports. A substantial proportion of these small group activities are enjoyed more for their socially relaxing value than for any competitive element they may contain. As well as participating in sport, many New Zealanders enjoy watching sports as a recreational activity.

The New Zealand outdoors is enjoyed by many in other ways: of those activities regarded as recreational, driving, travelling, climbing, and tramping are all very popular. So too are hunting and shooting and fishing in New Zealand's many rivers, lakes, and streams. Many people enjoy picnics and barbecues.

Cultural pursuits are also important. Music is a popular recreational activity, and painting and sketching, going to the cinema or theatre, dancing, woodwork, making models and miniatures, and photography are also enjoyed by a lot of New Zealanders.

Many of the competitive recreational activities are organised through local clubs, some of which (especially in the case of the sporting activities) are affiliated to national organisations. Promising players, performers, and artists have opportunities through a variety of ways, to reach national levels in their activities. In many sports the ultimate level to be reached is to represent New Zealand at the Olympic and Commonwealth Games.

Opportunities and facilities exist for those interested in outdoor education and recreation. The Youth Hostels Association of New Zealand operates 50 hostels in centres ranging from Kaitaia in the north to Invercargill in the south. In the more remote areas the New Zealand Forest Service and several tramping clubs have built huts.

Short courses in outdoor recreation are run by the Outward Pound School in Queen Charlotte Sound, and the Outdoor Pursuits Centre near Turangi. Educational authorities and some voluntary organisations have established outdoor recreation and education camps throughout the country where young people are encouraged to enjoy and make use of the natural environment.

Attempts have been made to introduce social education programmes into the schools and this has involved the introduction of a wider range of recreational activities, with encouragement to students to continue with these activities after leaving school.

Most of the tertiary education institutions have facilities and staff available to serve the physical recreation needs of the student body.

In November 1972 a Minister of Recreation and Sport was appointed. The Recreation and Sport Act 1973 provided for the establishment of a Ministry of Recreation and Sport and a New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport. The general functions of the council are to foster and promote the total wellbeing of, and the fullest use of leisure by, the residents of New Zealand; to advise the Government on any matters relating to recreation and sport; to investigate developments in recreation and sport, and disseminate knowledge and information about such developments. The sum of $5.1 million was expended through the ministry during 1979–80 to support community recreational activities, together with an additional $2.7 million made available by the New Zealand Lottery Board to provide funds for community development activities and the financing of community facilities.

From the Government moneys provided for the recreation and sport programme, $3,143,000 was distributed through local authorities to assist local activities, and $1,241,000 was allocated to national recreational organisations. Subsidy assistance for the salaries of new recreation advisers employed by local authorities totalled $133,000, and $184,000 was provided to national youth organisations by way of capitation and physical welfare grants. A further $140,000 was provided to assist special recreational and sport projects.

The ministry also operates a programme to support the employment of detached youth workers who work with groupings of young people whose needs are not separately met by existing programmes and services. The scheme is intended to cater especially for those young people who have failed to respond to more conventional methods of social work, and for whom structured youth organisations have no appeal. Grants amounting to $150,000 were made to groups to employ such workers.

Grants amounting to $106,000 were made from a Youth Initiatives Fund to provide financial help for projects carried out by young people, preferably on their own initiative. The projects were required to be of a social, cultural, recreational, employment, or community nature, and to be of benefit to the community.

New Zealand is party with other Commonwealth nations in the Commonwealth Youth Programme. Established in 1973 the Commonwealth Youth Programme is a six-point plan of practical action: operating regional youth development centres, administering youth bursaries and study fellowships, investigating applied research, developing youth information services, assisting local youth projects, and supporting youth programmes. In New Zealand the Commonwealth Youth Programme is administered by a National Liaison Committee serviced by the Ministry of Recreation and Sport. The National Liaison Committee is composed of representatives from the Ministry of Recreation and Sport, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Department of Education, the Department of Maori Affairs, and the National Youth Council.

The New Zealand Mountain Safety Council and the New Zealand Water Safety Council, which are also serviced through the Ministry of Recreation and Sport, received allocations from lottery profits of $220,000 and $240,000 respectively in 1979–80. These councils work closely with 40 local mountain safety committees and 43 local water safety committees in promoting the safe use of New Zealand's mountain, bush, and water areas.

NATIONAL ANTHEMSGod Defend New Zealand, the words written by Thomas Bracken and the music composed by John J. Woods, was written in the early 1870s and formally adopted as the New Zealand national hymn in 1940. In November 1977 it was announced that, with the consent of Her Majesty the Queen, the Government had decided that the national anthems of New Zealand shall be the traditional anthem, God Save the Queen and God Defend New Zealand, both being of equal status as national anthems appropriate to the occasion.

GOD DEFEND NEW ZEALAND

  1. God of nations at Thy feet In the bonds of love we meet. Hear our voices, we entreat, God defend our Free Land. Guard Pacific's triple star From the shafts of strife and war, Make her praises heard afar. God defend New Zealand.

  2. Men of ev'ry creed and race Gather here before Thy face, Asking Thee to bless this place, God defend our Free Land. From dissension, envy, hate, And corruption guard our State, Make our country good and great, God defend New Zealand.

  3. Peace, not war, shall be our boast, But, should foes assail our coast, Make us then a mighty host, God defend our Free Land. Lord of battles in Thy might, Put our enemies to flight, Let our cause be just and right, God defend New Zealand.

  4. Let our love for Thee increase, May Thy blessings never cease, Give us plenty, give us peace, God defend our Free Land. From dishonour and from shame Guard our country's spotless name, Crown her with immortal fame, God defend New Zealand.

  5. May our mountains ever be Freedom's ramparts on the sea, Make us faithful unto Thee, God defend our Free Land. Guide her in the nations' van, Preaching love and truth to man, Working out Thy glorious plan, God defend New Zealand.

NEW ZEALAND ENSIGN—The national flag is the New Zealand Ensign described in a Gazette notice of 27 June 1902. Its specifications are given in an Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. The basis is the Union Jack in the upper left quarter, and on a blue ground to the right the Southern Cross is represented by four five-pointed red stars with white borders.

NEW ZEALAND COAT OF ARMS—The New Zealand Coat of Arms was pictured and described as a frontispiece in the 1969 and earlier issues of the Official Yearbook. It appears on the title page and the spine of the present volume.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Some information on the many subjects mentioned in this section will be found in the following publications.

Annual Report of the Human Rights Commission (Parl. paper E. 6).

Report of the Race Relations Conciliator (Parl. paper E. 17).

Report of the Department of Justice (Parl. paper E. 5).

Report of the New Zealand Industrial Design Council (Parl. paper G. 16).

Report of the Standards Council (Parl. paper G. 15).

Accounts and Reports of the Public Trust Office (Parl. paper B. 9).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Licensing Control Commission (Parl. paper E. 8).

Report of the New Zealand Lottery Board (Parl. paper G. 7B).

The General Election 1978 (Parl. paper E. 9, 1979).

Licensing Polls 1978 (Parl. paper E. 9B, 1979).

Report of the Trustees of the National Library of New Zealand (Parl. paper G. 13).

Report of the New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport (Parl. paper E. 20).

Chapter 39. Section 39 OFFICIAL

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND

His Excellency The Hon. Sir David Stuart Beattie, G.C.M.G., Q.C.

Official Secretary—James Brown.

PREVIOUS VICE-REGAL REPRESENTATIVES

Governors since 1840 and Governors-General since 1917 are listed below.

Vice-Regal RepresentativeAssumed OfficeRetired
THE DEPENDENCY PERIOD  
Lieutenant-Governor  
Captain William Hobson, R.N.30 Jan 18403 May 1841
THE CROWN COLONY  
Governor  
Captain William Hobson, R.N.3 May 184110 Sep 1842
Captain Robert FitzRoy, R.N.26 Dec 184317 Nov 1845
Captain George Grey18 Nov 184531 Dec 1847
Governor in Chief  
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.1 Jan 18487 Mar 1853
THE SELF-GOVERNING COLONY  
Governor of New Zealand  
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.7 Mar 185331 Dec 1853
Colonel Thomas Gore Browne, C.B. (later K.C.M.G.)6 Sep 18552 Oct 1861
Sir George Grey, K.C.B. (later P.C.)4 Dec 18615 Feb 1868
Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.M.G. (later P.C.)5 Feb 186819 Mar 1873
The Rt. Hon. Sir James Fergusson, Bt., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., P.C.(later G.C.S.I.)14 Jun 18733 Dec 1874
The Rt. Hon. the Marquess of Normanby, K.C.M.G., P.C. (later G.C.B., G.C.M.G.)9 Jan 187521 Feb 1879
Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, G.C.M.G. (later Lord Rosemead, P.C.)17 Apr 18798 Sep 1880
The Hon. Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, G.C.M.G. (later Lord Stanmore)29 Nov 188023 Jun 1882
Lieutenant-General Sir William Francis Drummond Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B.20 Jan 188322 Mar 1889
Vice-Regal RepresentativeAssumed OfficeRetired
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G.2 May 188924 Feb 1892
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G.7 Jun 18926 Feb 1897
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Ranfurly, G.C.M.G.10 Aug 189719 Jun 1904
The Rt. Hon. Lord Plunket, G.C.M.G., K.C.V.O. (later K.B.E.)20 Jun 19048 Jun 1910
The Rt. Hon. Lord Islington, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., P.C. (later G.B.E.)22 Jun 19102 Dec 1912
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O.19 Dec 191227 Jun 1917
Governor-General of New Zealand  
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O., P.C.28 Jun 19177 Jul 1920
The Rt. Hon. Viscount (later Earl) Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O.27 Sep 192026 Nov 1924
General Sir Charles Fergusson, Bt., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., D.S.O., M.V.O. (later G.C.B.)13 Dec 19248 Feb 1930
The Rt. Hon. Viscount Bledisloe, G.C.M.G., K.B.E, P.C.19 Mar 193015 Mar 1935
The Rt. Hon. Viscount Galway, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., O.B.E., P.C.12 Apr 19353 Feb 1941
Marshal of the Royal Air Force the Rt. Hon. Lord Newall, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.M.G., C.B.E., A.M.22 Feb 194119 Apr 1946
Lieutenant-General the Rt. Hon. Lord Freyberg, V.C., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., K.B.E., D.S.O.17 Jun 194615 Aug 1952
Lieutenant-General the Rt. Hon. Lord Norrie, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., C.B., D.S.O., M.C.2 Dec 195225 Jul 1957
The Rt. Hon. Viscount Cobham, G.C.M.G., T.D. (later KG., G.C.V.O., P.C.)5 Sep 195713 Sep 1962
Brigadier Sir Bernard Edward Fergusson, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., D.S.O., O.B.E. (later Rt. Hon. Lord Ballantrae, K.T.)9 Nov 196220 Oct 1967
Sir Arthur Espie Porritt, Bt., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., C.B.E. (later Rt. Hon. Lord Porritt)1 Dec 19676 Sep 1972
Sir (Edward) Denis Blundell, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.B.E., Q.S.O.27 Sep 19725 Oct 1977
The Rt. Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, K.G., G.C.M.G., C.H., Q.S.O.26 Oct 197723 Oct 1980
The Hon. Sir David Stuart Beattie, G.C.M.G., Q.C.6 Nov 1980 
SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PRIME MINISTERS
SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856
Name of MinistryName of Prime MinisterAssumed OfficeRetired
1. SewellHenry Sewell7 May 185620 May 1856
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May 18562 Jun 1856
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 Jun 185612 Jul 1861
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 Jul 18616 Aug 1862
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug 186230 Oct 1863
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.30 Oct 186324 Nov 1864
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov 186416 Oct 1865
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct 186528 Jun 1869
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 Jun 186910 Sep 1872
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sep 187211 Oct 1872
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse, M.L.C.11 Oct 18723 Mar 1873
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar 18738 Apr 1873
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 Apr 18736 Jul 1875
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 Jul 187515 Feb 1876
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb 18761 Sep 1876
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sep 187613 Sep 1876
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sep 187613 Oct 1877
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct 18778 Oct 1879
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct 187921 Apr 1882
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 Apr 188225 Sep 1883
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sep 188316 Aug 1884
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug 188428 Aug 1884
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug 18843 Sep 1884
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sep 18848 Oct 1887
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct 188724 Jan 1891
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan 189127 Apr 1893
27. SeddonRt. Hon. Richard John Seddon1 May 189310 Jun 1906
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 Jun 19066 Aug 1906
29. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bt., K.C.M.G.6 Aug 190628 Mar 1912
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar 191210 Jul 1912
31. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey10 Jul 191212 Aug 1915
32. Massey (National)Rt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey12 Aug 191525 Aug 1919
33. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey25 Aug 191910 May 1925
34. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C., M.L.C.14 May 192.530 May 1925
35. CoatesRt. Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, M.C.30 May 192510 Dec 1928
36. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bt. G.C.M.G.10 Dec 192828 May 1930
37. ForbesRt. Hon. George William Forbes28 May 193022 Sep 1931
38. Forbes (Coalition)Rt. Hon. George William Forbes22 Sep 19316 Dec 1935
39. SavageRt. Hon. Michael Joseph Savage6 Dec 19351 Apr 1940
40. FraserRt. Hon. Peter Fraser, C.H.1 Apr 194013 Dec 1949
41. HollandRt. Hon. Sir Sidney George Holland, G.C.B.,C.H.13 Dec 194920 Sep 1957
42. HolyoakeRt. Hon. Keith Jacka Holyoake20 Sep 195712 Dec 1957
43. NashRt. Hon. Walter Nash, C.H.12 Dec 195712 Dec 1960
44. HolyoakeRt. Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H.12 Dec 19607 Feb 1972
45. MarshallRt. Hon. John Ross Marshall, C.H.7 Feb 19728 Dec 1972
46. KirkRt. Hon. Norman Eric Kirk8 Dec 197231 Aug 1974
47. RowlingRt. Hon. Wallace Edward Rowling6 Sep 197412 Dec 1975
48. MuldoonRt. Hon. Robert David Muldoon, C.H.12 Dec 1975 

THE MINISTRY

Prior to General Election in November 1981

Rt. Hon. R. D. MULDOON, C.H., Prime Minister, Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Legislative Department, Minister in Charge of the Audit Department, Minister in Charge of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service.

Rt. Hon. D. MacINTYRE, D.S.O., O.B.E., E.D., Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Fisheries, Minister in Charge of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation.

Rt. Hon. D. S. THOMSON, M.C., E.D., Minister of Defence, Minister of State, Minister of State Services, Leader of the House of Representatives, Minister in Charge of War Pensions, Minister in Charge of Rehabilitation.

Hon. W. F. BIRCH, Minister of Energy, Minister of National Development, Minister of Regional Development.

Hon. J. B. BOLGER, Minister of Labour.

Hon. G. F. GAIR, Minister of Health, Minister of Social Welfare.

Hon. H. C. TEMPLETON, Minister of Customs, Minister of Statistics, Deputy Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Inland Revenue Department, Minister in Charge of Friendly Societies.

Hon. W. E. COOPER, Postmaster-General, Minister of Broadcasting, Associate Minister of Finance.

Hon. D. F. QUIGLEY, Minister of Housing, Minister of Tourism, Minister in Charge of the Public Trust Office, Minister in Charge of the Government Life Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the State Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission.

Hon. W. L. YOUNG, Minister of Works and Development.

Hon. V. S. YOUNG, Minister of Lands, Minister of Forests, Minister in Charge of the Valuation Department, Minister in Charge of Publicity, Minister in Charge of the Government Printing Office.

Hon. D. A. HIGHET, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Local Government, Minister of Recreation and Sport, Minister of Civil Defence, Minister for the Arts.

Rt. Hon. B. E. TALBOYS, C.H., Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Overseas Trade.

Rt. Hon. L. R. ADAMS-SCHNEIDER, Minister of Trade and Industry.

Hon. C. A. McLACHLAN, Minister of Transport, Minister of Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services, Minister of Railways.

Hon. M. L. WELLINGTON, Minister of Education.

Hon. J. K. McLAY, Attorney-General, Minister of Justice.

Hon. M. B. R. COUCH, Minister of Maori Affairs, Minister of Police.

Hon. A. G. MALCOLM, Minister of Immigration, Associate Minister of Transport, Associate Minister of Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services, Associate Minister of Railways.

Hon. Dr I. J. SHEARER, Minister for the Environment, Minister of Science and Technology.

Parliamentary Under-Secretaries:

K. R. ALLEN, Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Trade and Industry.

K. M. COMBER, Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Internal Affairs, Local Government, Recreation and Sport, Civil Defence, and the Arts.

R. L. G. TALBOT, Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Agriculture and Fisheries.

B. E. BRILL, Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Energy, National Development, and Regional Development.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Prior to General Election in November 1981

Prime Minister—Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, C.H.

Leader of the Opposition—Rt. Hon. W. E. Rowling

Speaker—Hon. Sir Richard Harrison, E.D.

Chairman of Committees—J. F. Luxton

Clerk of the House—C. P. Littlejohn, LL.M.

NameElectoral District
* Government member.
For General Electorates
Adams-Schneider, Rt. Hon. L. R.*Waikato
Allen, K. R.*Tauranga
Arthur, Hon. Sir Basil, Bt.Timaru
Austin, H. N.*Bay of Islands
Austin, W. R.*Awarua
Bailey, Hon. R. L.Heretaunga
Bassett, Dr M.Te Atatu
Batchelor, Mrs M. D.Avon
Beetham, B. C.Rangitikei
Bell. R. L.*Gisborne
Birch, Hon. W. F.*Rangiriri
Bolger, Hon. J. B.*King Country
Brill, B. E.*Kapiti
Burke, K.West Coast
Butcher, D.Hastings
Caygill, D.St Albans
Christie, G.Napier
Colman, Hon, F. MacD.Pencarrow
Comber, K. M.*Wellington Central
Connelly, Hon, M. A.Yaldhurst
Cooper, Hon. W. E.*Otago
Couch, Hon. M. B.*Wairarapa
Courtney, M. F.Nelson
Cox, M. E. C.*Manawatu
Douglas, Hon. R. O.Manurewa
East, P. C.*Rotorua
Elliott, J. G.*Whangarei
Elworthy, J. H.*Waitaki
Falloon, S. J.*Pahiatua
Faulkner, Hon. A. J.Roskill
Fraser, Hon. W. A.St. Kilda
Freer, Hon. W. W.Mount Albert.
Friedlander, A. P. D.*New Plymouth
Gair, Hon. G. F.*North Shore
Gerbic, F.M.Onehunga
Gray, R. M.*Clutha
Harrison, Hon. Sir Richard, E.D.*Hawke's Bay
Hercus, Mrs A.Lyttelton
Highet, Hon. D. A.*Remuera
Holland, Hon. E. S. F.*Fendalton
Hunt, J. L.New Lynn
Hunt, T. deV.*Pakuranga
Isbey, E. E.Papatoetoe
Jones, D. M. J.*Helensville
Jones, N. P. H., Q.S.M.*Invercargill
Kidd, D. L.*Marlborough
Kirk, N.J.Sydenham
Knapp, G. T.East Coast Bays
Lange, D. R.Mangere
Luxton, J. F.*Matamata
MacDonell, B. P.Dunedin Central
MacIntyre, Rt. Hon. D., D.S.O., O.B.E., E.D.*East Cape
McKinnon, D. C.*Albany
McLachlan, Hon. C. C. A.*Selwyn
McLay, Hon. J. K.*Birkenhead
McLean, I.*Tarawera
Malcolm, Hon. A. G.*Eden
Marshall, C. R.Wanganui
Maxwell, R.Waitakere
Minogue, M. J.*Hamilton West
Moore, M.Papanui
Muldoon, Rt. Hon. R. D., C.H.*Tamaki
O'Flynn, F., Q.C.Island Bay
Palmer, G.Christchurch Central
Peters, W. R.*Hunua
Prebble, R.W.Auckland Central
Quigley, Hon. D. F.*Rangiora
Ridley, J.Taupo
Rodger, S.Dunedin North
Rowling, Rt. Hon. W. E.Tasman
Schultz, L. C.*Hauraki
Shearer, Hon. Dr I. J.*Hamilton East
Talbot, R. L. G.*Ashburton
Talboys, Rt. Hon. B. E., C.H.*Wallace
Templeton, Hon. H. C.*Ohariu
Terris, J.Western Hutt
Thompson, G. W. F.*Horowhenua
Thomson, Rt. Hon. D. S., M.C., E.D.*Taranaki
Tizard, Hon. R. J.Otahuhu
Townshend, C. B.*Kaimai
Walding, Hon. J.Palmerston North
Wall, Dr G. A.Porirua
Waring, Marilyn*Waipa
Wellington, Hon. M. L.*Papakura
Wilkinson, Hon. P. I.*Kaipara
Young, T. J.Eastern Hutt
Young, Hon. V. S.*Waitotara
Young, Hon. W. L.*Miramar
For Maori Electorates 
Gregory, Dr B.C.Northern Maori
Reweti, P. B.Eastern Maori
Tirikatene-Sullivan, Hon. Mrs T. W. M.Southern Maori
Wetere, K. T.Western Maori
PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS
ParliamentPeriod of Session
Thirty-fifth26 April 1967—24 November 1967
26 June 1968—19 December 1968
15 May 1969—24 October 1969
Thirty-sixth12 March 1970—13 March 1970
1 April 1970—3 December 1970
25 February 1971—25 March 1971
9 June 1971—17 December 1971
8 June 1972—20 October 1972
Thirty-seventh15 February 1973—16 March 1973
5 June 1973—23 November 1973
4 February 1974—29 March 1974
28 May 1974—8 November 1974
25 March 1975—10 October 1975
Thirty-eighth23 June 1976—14 December 1976
28 February 1977—4 March 1977
May 1977—16 December 1977
11 May 1978—6 October 1978
Thirty-ninth17 May 1979—14 December 1979
15 May 1980—12 December 1980
20 May 1981—

LEGISLATION 1980—During the Parliamentary session of 1980, 168 Public Acts were passed.

PUBLIC GENERAL ACTS OF NEW ZEALAND—The following list shows the departments responsible for the administration of the Public Acts of general application in New Zealand which were in force at January 1981 or which had been passed to come into force at a later date.

The list does not include references to Acts that are spent or expired or to Amending Acts, Appropriation Acts, Finance Acts, or other Acts containing miscellaneous provisions, such as Statutes Amendment Acts, Local Legislation Acts, Reserves and Other Lands Disposal Acts, and Maori Purposes Acts.

ActDepartment
Accident Compensation Act 1972Labour
Accident Insurance Companies Act 1908Justice
Acts Interpretation Act 1924Justice
Administration Act 1969Justice
Admiralty Act 1973Transport
Adoption Act 1955Justice
Adult Education Act 1963Education
Age of Majority Act 1970Justice
Aged and Infirm Persons Protection Act 1912Justice
Agricultural and Pastoral Societies Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Chemicals Act 1959Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Pests Destruction Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Workers Act 1977Labour
Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act 1934Agriculture and Fisheries
Agriculture (Emergency Regulations Confirmation) ActsAgriculture and Fisheries
Air Services Licensing Act 1951Transport
Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971Labour
Airport Authorities Act 1966Transport
Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council Act 1976Justice
Alcoholics Act 1966Justice
Animal Remedies Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Animals Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Animals Protection Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Annual Holidays Act 1944Labour
Antarctica Act 1960Foreign Affairs
Antiquities Act 1975Internal Affairs
Anzac Day Act 1966Internal Affairs
Apiaries Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Apprentices Act 1948Labour
Arbitration Act 1908Justice
Arbitration Clauses (Protocol) and the Arbitration (Foreign Awards) Act 1933Justice
Arbitration (International Investments Disputes) Act 1979Labour
Architects Act 1963Internal Affairs
Archives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Armed Forces Canteens Act 1948Defence
Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971Defence
Arms Act 1958Police
Atomic Energy Act 1945Energy
Auckland Harbour Bridge Act 1950Works and Development
Auctioneers Act 1928Justice
Aviation Crimes Art 1972Transport
Bank of New Zealand Act 1979Treasury
Banking Act 1908Treasury
Beer Duty Act 1977Customs
Berryfruit Levy Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Bills of Exchange Act 1908Treasury
Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951Justice
Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950Transport
Broadcasting Act 1976Broadcasting
Corporation Building Performance Guarantee Corporation Act 1977Housing Corporation
Building Research Levy Act 1969Scientific and Industrial Research
Building Societies Act 1965Justice
Burial and Cremation Act 1964Health
Bush Workers Act 1945Labour
Bylaws Act 1910Internal Affairs
Carriage by Air Act 1967Transport
Carriage of Goods Act 1979Justice
Charitable Trusts Act 1957Justice
Chartered Associations (Protection of Names and Uniforms) Act 1930Internal Affairs
Chateau Companies Act 1977Justice
Chatham Islands County Council Empowering Act 1936Internal Affairs
Chattels Transfer Act 1924Justice
Cheques Act 1960Treasury
Children and Young Persons Act 1974Social Welfare
Children's Health Camps Act 1972Health
Chiropractors Act 1960Justice
Cinematograph Films Act 1976Internal Affairs
Citizenship Act 1977Internal Affairs
Civil Aviation Act 1964Transport
Civil Defence Act 1962Internal Affairs
Civil List Act 1979Prime Minister
Clean Air Act 1972Health
Clerks of Works Act 1944Labour
Coal Mines Act 1979Energy
Commerce Act 1975Trade and Industry
Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908Internal Affairs
Commonwealth Countries Act 1977Foreign Affairs
Commonwealth Fabric Corporation Act 1962Treasury
Commonwealth Games Symbol Protection Act 1974Internal Affairs
Companies Act 1955Justice
Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act 1934–35Justice
Companies Special Investigations Act 1958Justice
Construction Act 1959Labour
Consular Privileges and Immunities Act 1971Foreign Affairs
Consumer Council Act 1966Trade and Industry
Consumer Information Act 1969Trade and Industry
Continental Shelf Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Contracts Enforcement Act 1956Justice
Contraception, Sterilisation, and Abortion Act 1977Justice
Contractual Mistakes Act 1977Justice
Contractual Remedies Act 1979Justice
Contributory Negligence Act 1947Justice
Cook Islands Act 1915Foreign Affairs
Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964Foreign Affairs
Co-operative Companies Act 1956Justice
Co-operative Dairy Companies Act 1949Justice
Co-operative Forestry Companies Act 1978Forest Service
Co-operative Freezing Companies Act 1960Justice
Copyright Act 1962Justice
Cornish Compares Management Act 1974Justice
Coroners Act 1951Justice
Costs in Criminal Cases Act 1967Justice
Counties Insurance Empowering Act 1980Internal Affairs
Courts Martial Appeals Act 1953Defence
Crimes Act 1961Justice
Crimes (Internationally Protected Persons and Hostages) Act 1980Justice
Criminal Justice Act 1954Justice
Crown Grants Act 1908Lands and Survey
Crown Proceedings Act 1950Justice
Customs Act 1966Customs
Customs Law Act 1908Customs
Customs Orders Confirmation Act 1980Customs
Dairy Board Act 1961Agriculture and Fisheries
Dairy Industry Act 1952Agriculture and Fisheries
Dangerous Goods Act 1974Internal Affairs
Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act 1952Justice
Decimal Currency Act 1964Treasury
Declaratory Judgments Act 1908Justice
Deeds Registration Act 1908Justice
Defamation Act 1954Justice
Defence Act 1971Defence
Demise of the Crown Act 1908Internal Affairs
Dental Act 1963Health
Department of Social Welfare Act 1971Social Welfare
Deputy Governor's Powers Act 1912Internal Affairs
Designs Act 1953Justice
Development Finance Corporation Act 1973Treasury
Dietitians Act 1950Health
Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities Act 1968Foreign Affairs
Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975Social Welfare
Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act 1950Labour
Disabled Soldiers' Civil Re-establishment Act 1930Social Welfare
Distillation Act 1971Customs
Distress and Replevin Act 1908Justice
District Courts Act 1947Justice
District Railways Act 1908Works and Development
Dogs Registration Act 1955Internal Affairs
Domestic Actions Act 1975Justice
Domestic Air Travel Tax Act 1980Customs
Domicile Act 1976Justice
Door to Door Sales Act 1967Trade and Industry
Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944State Insurance Office
Economic Stabilisation Act 1948Trade and Industry
Education Act 1964Education
Education Lands Act 1949Education
Electoral Act 1956Justice
Electric Linemen Act 1959Energy
Electric Power Boards Act 1925Energy
Electrical Registration Act 1979Energy
Electrical Supply Authorities Association Act 1930Energy
Electricity Act 1968Energy
Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953Social Welfare
Employment Agents Act 1908Labour
Enemy Property Act 1951Public Trust
Energy Resources Levy Act 1976Energy
Engineering Association Act 1961Works and Development
Engineers Registration Act 1924Works and Development
English Laws Act 1908Justice
Equal Pay Act 1972Labour
Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968Inland Revenue
Evidence Act 1908Justice
Explosives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Export Guarantee Act 1964Treasury
Extradition Act 1965Justice
Factories Act 1946Labour
Family Benefits (Home Ownership) An 1964Social Welfare
Family Courts Act 1980Justice
Family Proceedings Act 1980Justice
Family Protection Act 1955Justice
Farm Ownership Savings Act 1974Treasury
Fees and Travelling Allowances Act 1951Treasury
Fencing Act 1978Justice
Fertilisers Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Fire Service Act 1975Internal Affairs
Fisheries Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Fishing Industry Board Act 1963Agriculture and Fisheries
Fishing Industry (Union Coverage) Act 1979Labour
Fishing Vessel Ownership Savings Act 1977Treasury
Food and Drug Act 1969Health
Foreign Affairs Act 1943Foreign Affairs
Foreign Travel Tax Act 1976Customs
Forest and Rural Fires Act 1977Forest Service
Forestry Encouragement Act 1962Forest Service
Forests Act 1949Forest Service
Franklin-Manukau Pest Destruction Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Friendly Societies Act 1909Treasury
Frustrated Contracts Act 1944Justice
Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 (U.K.)Justice
Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977Internal Affairs
Gaming Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Gas Industry Act 1958Energy
Gas Supply Act 1908Energy
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Act 1948Customs
Geneva Conventions Act 1958Foreign Affairs
Geothermal Energy Act 1953Energy
Government Life Insurance Act 1953Government Life Insurance Office
Government Railways Act 1949Railways
Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960State Service Commission
Government Superannuation Fund Act 1956Treasury
Guardianship Act 1968Justice
Harbours Act 1950Transport
Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act 1967Lands and Survey
Health Act 1956Health
Heavy Engineering Research Levy Act 1978Scientific and Industrial Research
Higher Salaries Commission Act 1977Labour
Hire Purchase Act 1971Justice
Historic Places Act 1980Internal Affairs
Hive Levy Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Home Ownership Savings Act 1974Treasury
Hospitals Act 1957Health
Hotel Association of New Zealand Act 1969Justice
Housing Act 1955Housing Corporation
Housing Corporation Act 1974Housing Corporation
Hovercraft Act 1971Transport
Howard Estate Act 1978Public Trust Office
Human Rights Commission Act 1977Justice
Human Tissues Act 1964Health
Hunter Gift for the Settlement of Discharged Soldiers Act 1921Lands and Survey
Hydatids Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Illegal Contracts Act 1970Justice
Immigration Act 1964Labour
Impounding Act 1955Internal Affairs
Imprisonment for Debt Limitation Act 1908Justice
Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910Public Trust
Income Tax Act 1976Inland Revenue
Incorporated Societies Act 1908Justice
Indecent Publications Act 1963Justice
Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1908Justice
Industrial Design Act 1966Trade and Industry
Industrial Relations Act 1973Labour
Industrial Societies Act 1908Justice
Industrial Training Levies Act 1978Labour
Industries Development Commission Act 1961Trade and Industry
Infants Act 1908Justice
Inferior Courts Procedure Act 1909Justice
Inland Revenue Department Act 1974Inland Revenue
Innkeepers Act 1962Justice
Insolvency Act 1967Justice
Insurance Companies' Deposits Act 1953Justice
Insurance Law Reform Act 1977Justice
International Air Services Licensing Act 1947Transport
International Departure Tax Act 1979Treasury
International Energy Agreement Act 1976Energy
International Finance Agreements Act 1961Treasury
Invercargill Licensing Trust Act 1950Justice
Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959Energy
Joint Council for Local Authorities Services Act 1977Internal Affairs
Joint Family Homes Act 1964Justice
Judicature Act 1908Justice
Juries Act 1908Justice
Kermadec Island Act 1887Foreign Affairs
Kitchener Memorial Scholarship Trust Act 1941Education
Labour Department Act 1954Labour
Lake Coleridge Water Power Act 1915Energy
Lake Waikaremoana Act 1971Maori Affairs
Lake Wanaka Preservation Act 1973Prime Minister
Land Act 1948Lands and Survey
Land Drainage Act 1908Internal Affairs
Land Purchase Act 1977Lands and Survey
Land Tax Act 1976Inland Revenue
Land Transfer Act 1952Justice
Land Transfer (Hawke's Bay) Act 1931Justice
Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948Justice
Law Practitioners Act 1955Justice
Law Reform Act 1936Justice
Law Reform Act 1944Justice
Law Reform (Testamentary Promises) Act 1949Justice
Legal Aid Act 1969Justice
Legislative Council Abolition Act 1950Legislative
Legislature Act 1908Legislative
Libraries and Mechanics' Institutes Act 1908Internal Affairs
Licensing Act 1908Justice
Licensing Trusts Act 1949Justice
Life Insurance Act 1908Justice
Limitation Act 1950Justice
Lincoln College Act 1961Education
Liquid Fuels Trust Act 1978Energy
Litter Act 1979Internal Affairs
Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963Internal Affairs
Local Authorities Loans Act 1956Treasury
Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Elections and Polls Act 1976Internal Affairs
Local Government Act 1974Internal Affairs
Local Railways Act 1914Works and Development
Machinery Act 1950Labour
Manapouri - Te Anau Development Act 1963Works and Development
Maori Affairs Act 1953Maori Affairs
Maori Affairs Department Act 1968Maori Affairs
Maori Community Development Act 1962Maori Affairs
Maori Education Foundation Act 1961Education
Maori Housing Act 1935Maori Affairs
Maori Purposes Funds Act 1934–35Maori Affairs
Maori Reserved Land Act 1956Maori Affairs
Maori Soldiers Trust Act 1957Maori Affairs
Maori Trust Boards Act 1955Maori Affairs
Maori Trustee Act 1953Maori Affairs
Maori Vested Lands Administration Act 1954Maori Affairs
Margarine Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Marginal Lands Act 1950Lands and Survey
Marine and Power Engineers' Institute Industrial Disputes Act 1974Labour
Marine Fanning Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marine Insurance Act 1908Justice
Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Marine Pollution Act 1974Transport
Marine Reserves Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marketing Act 1936Agriculture and Fisheries
Marriage Act 1955Justice
Massage Parlours Act 1978Justice
Massey University Act 1963Education
Master and Apprentice Act 1908Labour
Masterton Licensing Trust Act 1947Justice
Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968Health
Maternity Leave and Employment Protection Act 1980Labour
Matrimonial Property Act 1976Justice
Meat Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Control Act 1921–22Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Prices Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966Health
Medical Practitioners Act 1968Health
Medical Research Council Act 1950Health
Mental Health Act 1969Health
Mercantile Law Act 1908Justice
Merchandise Marks Act 1954Trade and Industry
Military Decorations and Distinctive Badges Act 1918Defence
Military Manoeuvres Act 1915Defence
Milk Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Minimum Wages Act 1945Labour
Mining Act 1971Energy
Mining Tenures Registration Act 1962Justice
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Ministry of Energy Act 1977Energy
Ministry of Transport Act 1968Transport
Ministry of Works Act 1943Works and Development
Minors' Contracts Act 1969Justice
Misuse of Drugs Act 1975Health
Moneylenders Art 1908Justice
Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act 1936Treasury
Motor Spirits Distribution Act 1953Track and Industry
Motor Spirits Duty Act 1961Customs
Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933Energy
Motor-Vehicle Dealers Act 1975Justice
Mount Egmont Vesting Act 1978Lands and Survey
Municipal Association Act 1939Internal Affairs
Municipal Insurance Act 1960Internal Affairs
Music Teachers Registration Act 1928Education
Mutual Insurance Act 1955Public Trust
National Art Gallery, Museum, and War Memorial Act 1972Internal Affairs
National Development Act 1979Works and Development
National Expenditure Adjustment Act 1932Treasury
National Housing Commission Act 1972Housing Corporation
National Library Act 1965Education
National Parks Act 1980Lands and Survey
National Provident Fund Art 1950Treasury
National Research Advisory Council ArtState Services 1963 Commission
National Roads Act 1953Works and Development
National Savings Act 1940Treasury
Native Plants Protection Act 1934Lands and Survey
Nature Conservation Council Act 1962Lands and Survey
Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908Defence
New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement Act 1965Trade and Industry
New Zealand Bank Act 1861Treasury
New Zealand Boundaries Act 1863 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution (Amendment) Act 1947 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Amendment (Request and Consent) Act 1947Internal Affairs
New Zealand Council for Educational Research Art 1972Education
New Zealand Council for Postgraduate Medical Education Art 1978Health
New Zealand Council of Law Reporting Act 1938Justice
New Zealand Counties Association Act 1949Internal Affairs
New Zealand Debt Conversion Art 1932–33Treasury
New Zealand Export-Import Corporation Art 1974Trade and Industry
New Zealand Film Commission Art 1978Internal Affairs
New Zealand Geographic Board Art 1946Lands and Survey
New Zealand Government Property Corporation Act 1953Treasury
New Zealand Library Association Act 1939Education
New Zealand Maori Arts and CraftsTourist and Institute Act 1963 Publicity
New Zealand Planning Act 1977Works and Development
New Zealand Ports Authority Act 1968Transport
New Zealand Register of Osteopaths Incorporated Act 1978Health
New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969Justice
New Zealand Society of Accountants Act 1958Treasury
New Zealand Walkways Act 1975Lands and Survey
Newspapers and Printers Act 1955Justice
Ngarimu V.C. and 28th (Maori) Battalion Memorial Scholarship Fund Act 1945Education
Niue Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Niue Constitution Art 1974Foreign Affairs
Noxious Plants Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Nurses Act 1977Health
Oaths and Declarations Act 1957Justice
Occupational Therapy Act 1949Health
Occupiers Liability Act 1962Justice
Offenders Legal Aid Act 1954Justice
Official Appointments and Documents Act 1919Internal Affairs
Official Secrets Act 1951Justice
Ombudsmen Act 1975Justice
Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Act 1976Health
Orakei Block (Vesting and Use) Act 1978Lands and Survey
Orchard Levy Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Overseas Investment Act 1973Treasury
Overseas Representatives Act 1942Foreign Affairs
Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation Act 1972Education
Partnership Act 1908Justice
Passport Act 1980Internal Affairs
Patents Act 1953Justice
Patriotic and Canteen Funds Act 1947Internal Affairs
Pawnbrokers Act 1908Justice
Payment of Jurors Act 1919Justice
Penal Institutions Act 1954Justice
Perpetuities Art 1964Justice
Pesticides Act 1979Agriculture and Fisheries
Petroleum Act 1937Energy
Pharmacy Act 1970Health
Phosphorus Matches Act 1910Labour
Physiotherapy Act 1949Health
Plant Varieties Act 1973Agriculture and Fisheries
Plants Act 1970Agriculture and Fisheries
Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Act 1976Health
Police Act 1958Police
Police Offences Act 1927Justice
Political Disabilities Removal Act 1960Labour
Pork Industry Act 1974Agriculture and Fisheries
Post Office Act 1959Post Office
Potato Industry Act 1977Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Board Act 1980Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Regulations Confirmation Act 1980Agriculture and Fisheries
Private Investigators and Security Guards Act 1974Justice
Private Savings Banks Act 1964Treasury
Private Schools Conditional Integration Act 1975Education
Property Law Act 1952Justice
Protection of British Shipping Act 1936Transport
Public Authorities (Party Wall) Empowering Act 1919Works and Development
Public Bodies' Contracts Act 1959Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Leases Act 1969Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Meetings Act 1962Internal Affairs
Public Contracts Act 1908Labour
Public Finance Act 1977Treasury
Public Holidays Act 1955Labour
Public Safety Conservation Act 1932Justice
Public Service Investment Society Management Act (No. 2) 1979Justice
Public Trust Office Act 1957Public Trust
Public Works Act 1928Works and Development
Quantity Surveyors Act 1968Works and Development
Quarries Act 1944Energy
Queen Elizabeth The Second Arts Council of New Zealand Act 1974Internal Affairs
Queen Elizabeth The Second National Trust Act 1977Land and Survey
Queen Elizabeth The Second Postgraduate Fellowship of New Zealand Act 1963Education
Queen Elizabeth The Second Technicians Study Award Act 1970Education
Race Relations Act 1971Justice
Racing Act 1971Internal Affairs
Radiation Protection Act 1965Health
Rangitaiki Land Drainage Act 1956Internal Affairs
Rates Rebate Act 1973 Internal Affairs Rating Act 1967Internal Affairs
Real Estate Agents Act 1976Justice
Reciprocal Enforcement of Judgments Act 1934Justice
Recreation and Sport Act 1973Ministry of Recreation and Sport
Regulations Act 1936Justice
Rehabilitation Act 1941Social Welfare
Remuneration Act Repeal Act 1980Labour
Rent Appeal Act 1973Housing Corporation
Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964Reserve Bank
Reserves Act 1977 Lands and Survey Restricted Drugs Act 1960Health
River Boards Act 1908Internal Affairs
Road User Charges Act 1977Transport
Royal New Zealand Air Force Act 1950Defence
Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind Act 1963Education
Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Royal Powers Act 1953Foreign Affairs
Royal Society of New Zealand Act 1965Scientific and Industrial Research
Royal Titles Act 1974Foreign Affairs
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation Act 1974Treasury
Rural Housing Act 1939 Housing Corporation Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927Housing Corporation
Safety of Children's Night Clothes Act 1977Trade and Industry
Sale of Goods Act 1908Justice
Sale of Liquor Act 1962Justice
Sales Tax Act 1974Customs
Sand Drift Act 1908Lands and Survey
Scientific and Industrial Research Act 1974Scientific and Industrial Research
Sea Carriage of Goods Act 1940Trade and Industry
Seal of New Zealand Act 1977Internal Affairs
Seamen's Union Funds Act 1971Labour
Secondhand Dealers Act 1963Justice
Secret Commissions Act 1910Justice
Securities Act 1978Justice
Securities Transfer Act 1977Justice
Securities Advertising Act 1977Justice
Services Export Development Grants Act 1973Trade and Industry
Sharebrokers Act 1908Justice
Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937Labour
Shearers Act 1962Labour
Shipping and Seamen Act 1952Transport
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973Transport
Shop Trading Hours Act 1977Labour
Shops and Offices Act 1955Labour
Shorthand Reporters Act 1908Justice
Simultaneous Deaths Act 1958Justice
Small Claims Tribunals Act 1976Justice
Social Security Act 1964Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1969Social Welfare
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941Works and Development
Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952Internal Affairs
Stamp and Cheque Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Standards Act 1965Trade and Industry
State Insurance Act 1963State Insurance Office
State Services Act 1962State Services Commission
State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977State Services Commission
Statistics Act 1975Statistics
Status of Children Act 1969Justice
Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Statutes Drafting and Compilation Act 1920Parliamentary
Counsel Office Statutory Land Charges Registration Act 1928Justice
Stock Foods Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Submarine Cables and Pipelines Protection Act 1966Transport
Summary Proceedings Act 1957Justice
Superannuation Schemes Act 1976Treasury
Surveyors Act 1966Lands and Survey
Swamp Drainage Act 1915Lands and Survey
Taranaki Harbours Act 1965Transport
Taranaki Scholarships Trust Board Act 1957Education
Tarawera Forest Act 1967Maori Affairs
Technicians Training Act 1967Labour
Tenancy Act 1955Labour
Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977Foreign Affairs
Testing Laboratory Registration Act 1972Scientific and Industrial Research
Timber Floating Act 1954Forest Service
Time Act 1974Internal Affairs
Tobacco-growing Industry Act 1974Trade and Industry
Tokelau Act 1948Foreign Affairs
Tourist and Health Resorts Control Act 1908Tourist and Publicity
Tourist and Publicity Department Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
Tourist Hotel Corporation Act 1974Tourist and Publicity
Town and Country Planning Act 1977Works and Development
Toxic Substances Act 1979Health
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Radiolocation Act 1933Customs
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Canada) Ratification Act 1932Customs
Trade and Industry Act 1956Trade and Industry
Trade Unions Act 1908Treasury
Trademarks Act 1953Justice
Trades Certification Act 1966Education
Tramways Act 1908Works and Development
Transport Act 1962Transport
Treaties of Peace (Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Finland) Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Peace (Japan) Act 1951Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975Maori Affairs
Trespass Act 1980Justice
Trustee Act 1956Justice
Trustee Companies Act 1967Justice
Trustee Companies Management Act 1975Justice
Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948Reserve Bank
Tuberculosis Act 1948Health
Unclaimed Moneys Act 1971Treasury
Underground Water Act 1953Works and Development
Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919Labour
Unit Titles Act 1972Justice
Unit Trusts Act 1960Justice
United Nations Act 1946Foreign Affairs
United Nations (Police) Act 1964Police
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration Act 1944Foreign Affairs
Universities Act 1961Education
University of Albany Act 1972Education
University of Auckland Act 1961Education
University of Canterbury Act 1961Education
University of Otago Ordinance 1869 and University of Otago Amendment Act 1961Education
University of Waikato Act 1963Education
Unsolicited Goods and Services Act 1975Justice
Urban Transport Act 1980Transport
Valuation of Land Act 1951Valuation
Valuers Act 1948Valuation
Vegetables Levy Act 1957Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Services Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Surgeons Act 1956Agriculture and Fisheries
Victoria University of Wellington Act 1961Education
Visiting Forces Act 1939Foreign Affairs
Vocational Awards Act 1979Education
Vocational Training Council Act 1968Education
Volunteers Employment Protection Act 1973Labour
Wages Protection Act 1964Labour
Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act 1939Labour
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act 1910Works and Development
Waikato Valley Authority Act 1956Works and Development
Wairarapa Cadet Training Farm Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Waitangi Day Act 1976Internal Affairs
Waitangi Endowment Act 1932–33Forest Service
Waitangi National Trust Board Act 1932Lands and Survey
Wanganui Computer Centre Act 1976Justice
War Expenses Act 1939Treasury
War Funds Act 1915Internal Affairs
War Pensions Act 1954Social Welfare
Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967Works and Development
Waterfront Industry Act 1976Labour
Weights and Measures Act 1925Labour
Western Samoa Act 1961Foreign Affairs
Westport Harbour Act 1920Transport
Wheat Board Act 1965Trade and Industry
Wheat Levy Act 1974Trade and Industry
Wild Animal Control Act 1977Forest Service
Wildlife Act 1953Internal Affairs
Wills Act 1837 (U.K.)Justice
Wine Makers Levy Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Act 1965Internal Affairs
Wool Industry Act 1977Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Labelling Act 1949Trade and Industry
Wool Testing Authority Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries

ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS—Administrative tribunals have gradually developed over a period of more than 50 years. As a rule they are set up by Act of Parliament or under powers conferred by statute. Their growth is related to the continuing expansion of governmental activity and responsibility for the general well-being of the community. This development is common to many countries. Useful references are The Citizen and Power: Administrative Tribunals—a survey by the Department of Justice, and the reports of the Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee, published annually.

Appeals from Administrative Tribunals—An Administrative Division of the High Court (then the Supreme Court) was established by the Judicature Amendment Act 1968. The Division consists of up to four Judges of the High Court, who are assigned to the Division by the Chief Justice. One of the most important functions of the Division is to determine appeals from such administrative tribunals as are specified by statute. It also hears and determines applications for judicial review and for prerogative writs and other classes of applications and proceedings referred to it by the Chief Justice or specified by statute. Judges who are at present assigned to the Division are the Chief Justice, the Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E.; the Hon. G. D. Speight; the Hon. J. C. White, M.B.E.; and the Rt. Hon. D. W. McMullin.

JUDICIARY

Judges of the Court of Appeal and High Court

Chief Justice: Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E.

Court of Appeal: Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E. (ex officio): Rt. Hon. Sir Owen Woodhouse, K.B.E., D.S.C., President; Rt. Hon. Sir Robin Cooke; Rt. Hon. I. L. M. Richardson; Rt. Hon. D. W. McMullin; Rt. Hon. E. J. Somers.

High Court: Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E.; Hon. L. F. Moller; Hon. G. D. Speight; Hon. C. M. Roper; Hon. J. C. White, M.B.E.; Hon. J. P. Quilliam; Hon. P. T. Mahon; Hon. J. B. O'Regan; Hon. M. F. Chilwell; Hon. M. E. Casey; Hon. J. A. Ongley; Hon. R. I. Barker; Hon. J. F. Jeffries; Hon. M. H. Vautier; Hon. J. B. Sinclair; Hon. J. R. Mills, C.M.G.; Hon. T. M. Thorp; Hon. G. E. Bisson; Hon. A. D. Holland; Hon. L. M. Greig; Hon. J. P. Cook, O.B.E., E.D.; Hon. R. C. Savage; Hon. M. Hardie Boys; Hon. E. M. Prichard.

OMBUDSMEN

Since 1962 there has been an Ombudsman whose principal function has been to inquire into complaints from members of the public relating to administrative decisions of Government departments and related organisations. Jurisdiction was extended in 1968 to hospital and education boards and, under the Ombudsmen Act 1975, to all other local authorities and certain national boards and organisations. Provision was made under the new Act for the appointment of a Chief Ombudsman and one or more other ombudsmen, who may be permanent or temporary. Complaints must be made in writing. Investigations are conducted in private but an ombudsman can decide not to investigate where, for instance, the subject matter is trivial or the complainant has not a sufficient personal interest in the subject matter of the complaint.

Where an ombudsman forms the opinion that a complaint can be sustained he is required in the case of a Government department or Government organisation to report that opinion and any recommendation that may be made to the department or organisation concerned and to make a copy of the report available to the responsible minister. In the case of a local organisation the ombudsman is required to report the opinion formed to that organisation and to make a copy of the report available to the mayor or chairman.

An analysis of the complaints made to the Ombudsmen during the latest available year is given in the following table.

Action on ComplaintYear Ended March 1980
Declined, no jurisdiction174
Declined or discontinued613
Sustained, recommendation made31
Sustained, no recommendation made86
Not sustained534
Abandoned before investigation214
Still under investigation as at 31 March439
Total number of complaints2091

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND HOLDERS OF CHIEF ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS
DepartmentChief Administrative Positions
TitleName
* The Director-General of the Housing Corporation acts also as permanent head of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation.
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry ofDirector-GeneralM. L. Cameron, B.AGR.SC.
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralA. C. Shailes, B.A., A.C.A.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralD. P. Neazor, LL.M., Q.C.
CustomsComptrollerP. J. McKone
Defence, Ministry ofSecretaryD.B.G. McLean, M.SC., B.A. (OXON.)
 Chief of Defence StaffRear-Admiral N. D. Anderson, C.B., C.B.E.
 Chief of Air StaffAir Vice-Marshal D. E. Jamieson, C.B., O.B.E.
 Chief of General StaffMajor-General B. M. Poananga C.B., C.B.E.
 Chief of Naval StaffRear-Admiral K. M. Saull
EducationDirector-GeneralW. L. Renwick, M.A.
Energy, Ministry ofSecretaryW. M. Duncan, B.E., M.I.C.E., M.A.S.C.E., M.N.Z.I.E.
Environment, Commission for theCommissionerK. Piddington, M.A.
Foreign Affairs, Ministry ofSecretaryM. Norrish, M.A.
Government Life Insurance OfficeCommissionerH. D. Peacock, F.I.A.
Government Printing OfficeGovernment PrinterP. D. Hasselberg, ACCTS.PROF.
HealthDirector-GeneralH. J. H. Hiddlestone, M.D., CH.B., FRCP., F.R.A.C.P.
Housing CorporationDirector-GeneralE.J. Babe, B.COM., A.C.A., D.P.A., DIP.R.V.
Inland RevenueCommissionerR. T. Phillips, A.C.A.
Internal AffairsSecretary and Clerk of WritsJ. N. L. Searle, F.C.A., B. COM.
JusticeSecretary for JusticeJ. F. Robertson, A.C.A., D.P.A.
LabourSecretary of LabourG. L. Jackson, A.C.A.
Lands and SurveyDirector-GeneralP. H. C. Lucas, ACCTS. PROF.
LegislativeClerk of House of RepresentativesC. P. Littlejohn, LL.M.
Maori AffairsSecretary and Maori TrusteeI. P. Puketapu, B.A.
New Zealand Forest ServiceDirector-GeneralG. M. O'Neill, B.SC., B.SC. FOR. (EDB.)
New Zealand Security Intelligence ServiceDirector of SecurityP. L. Molineaux, M.A., LL.B.
PoliceCommissionerR. J. Walton, O.B.E., Q.P.M., E.D.
Post OfficeDirector-GeneralW. H. Hickson
Prime Minister'sPermanent HeadG. Hensley, M.A.
Public Trust OfficePublic TrusteeN. W. Currie, A.C.A.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerT. M. Hayward, F.C.I.T.
Rural Banking and Finance Corp.*
Scientific and Industrial ResearchDirector-GeneralD. Kear, B.SC., PH.D.(LOND.), A.R.S.M.
Social WelfareDirector-GeneralS.J. Callahan, A.C.A., D.P.A.
State Insurance OfficeGeneral ManagerG. D. Pringle, F.I.D., A.I.D.
State Services CommissionChairmanM. C. Probine, M.SC., PH.D.(LDS), F.I.P.
StatisticsGovernment StatisticianJ. H. Darwin, M.SC., B.A., PH.D. (MANCUN.)
Tourist and PublicityGeneral ManagerW. N. Plimmer, M.A.
Trade and IndustrySecretaryJ. W. H. Clark, B.A., ADMIN, PROF., D.P.A.
Transport, Ministry ofSecretaryA.J. Healy, A.C.A.
TreasurySecretaryB. V. J. Galvin, B.A., M.P.A.(HVD)
ValuationValuer-GeneralM. R. Mander, DIP. V.F.M., R.V.
Works and Development, Ministry ofCommissionerJ. J. Chesterman, F.N.Z.I.E.

FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS THE STATE SERVICES

The State services comprise, in the widest sense, all servants of the Crown other than those holding political or judicial office. They include the 34 departments of the Public Service, and the Post Office, Railways Department, Legislative Department, Parliamentary Counsel Office, and other State organisations such as Government corporations and agencies, the Police, the armed forces, and the teaching and health services.

Under the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, the State Services Co-ordinating Committee is constituted as the principal adviser to the Minister of State Services and the official negotiating body with service organisations on all personnel matters which in the opinion of the committee significantly affect more than one employing authority. The committee consists of the following or their representatives: Chairman of the State Services Commission; Secretary to the Treasury; Director-General of the Post Office; General Manager of Railways; Secretary of Defence; Director-General of Health; and the Director-General of Education. Other State service employing authorities may be co-opted as members of the committee from time to time.

Apart from proposals concerning salaries and related conditions of employment, the committee discusses more general personnel matters referred to it by the Government, individual employing authorities, and employee organisations, and tries to achieve a reasonable degree of inter-service uniformity.

Brief summaries of the functions of Government departments are now given.

Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of—The main functions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries are to promote and encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, and fishing industries with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing their production.

Audit Office—The Audit Office is responsible for auditing throughout the public sector—the Public Accounts, Government departments, Government trading corporations, local authorities, producer boards. The audit is wider than the normal company audit and encompasses the twin areas of: Financial—independent opinion on annual financial statements produced by above bodies.

—periodic review over financial control systems not directly related to the production of external financial statements.

Value for money—periodic reviews of the systems in both Central and Local Government for ensuring the efficient and effective use of public funds.

The Auditor-General, the statutory head of the Audit Office, has an annual duty to report to Parliament on any matters arising from audits which he desires to bring to public attention. In recent years these reports have concerned themselves with many aspects of financial management and administration generally in the public sector.

Crown Law Office—The primary function of the Crown Law Office is to act as the legal adviser of the Government and Ministers in matters affecting the Crown and Government departments. In addition the Solicitor-General performs most of the statutory and ex officio duties of the Attorney-General's office and is himself entrusted by statute with various specific rights, duties, and functions. In range and activity the legal work of the Crown Law Office corresponds with the activities of the Government itself, and just as those activities have extended in the past 30 years into commerce and social services, as well as the purely governmental sphere, so the scope of the Crown Law Office's legal work has widened accordingly.

Customs Department—The principal functions of the Customs Department are the detection and investigation of offences against the Customs Acts; administration of Customs prohibitions and restrictions; advising the Government on matters of tariff and other means of protection for local industry; collection of indirect taxation (Customs Duty, excise duty, sales tax, beer duty, motor spirits duty, international departure tax, and domestic air travel tax); investigations into values and origins of goods; participation in the negotiation of international and bilateral trade agreements; administration of the import licence issue procedures in conjunction with the Department of Trade and Industry; and the provision of administrative support for all functions of the department.

Customs responsibilities involve the entry and clearance of ships and aircraft, passenger processing, liaison with New Zealand and overseas agencies in the control of international traffic, ensuring staff are trained to a satisfactory standard, protection and assistance to domestic industry, thus allowing growth in productivity, exports and employment; collecting the optimum level of indirect taxation as set out in the relevant legislation; the facilitation of international trade to the benefit of New Zealand in accordance with the Government's policies; and the issue of import licences and control of exports from New Zealand.

Defence, Ministry of—Functions include the provision of the resources required to enable Defence Headquarters to undertake the central command, control, management, and administration of the defence forces and the Ministry of Defence, and also maintaining and operating the defence communications network.

Education, Department of—The primary objective of the department is to ensure that suitable education facilities and services are readily available for all children of compulsory school age (from 6 to 15 years); for children who by choice start school at the age of 5 years; for the rapidly increasing number of pupils over the age of 15 who stay on at school; for suitably qualified school leavers who seek or are required to undertake education and training on leaving school in secondary schools, teachers colleges, or technical institutes; and for adults wishing to continue their education, whether for vocational or non-vocational purposes. Associated with this objective is the responsibility for administering government policy in the maintenance and development of pre-school education.

In carrying out these objectives the department's main activities are the provision of professional and administrative services for the support of the education system, the administration of primary and secondary education, special education, the training of teachers, technical and continuing education, and the National Library.

Energy, Ministry of—The Ministry of Energy was established by Order in Council on 1 April 1978 following the passing of the Ministry of Energy Act late in 1977. The new ministry brought together the former “energy” departments of Electricity, Mines, and Energy Resources. It was established to advise the Government on the formulation, implementation, co-ordination, and continuing review of effective and efficient energy policies for New Zealand. In carrying out this function the ministry must take into account energy sources and resources; exploration, assessment, research and development, production, supply, distribution, consumption, and conservation; needs of industry, commerce, transport, and domestic users; needs of regions; international responsibilities; environmental and social issues; organisational and administration methods; and future patterns, changes, problems, and the need for planning.

The ministry is responsible for administering licensing for the prospecting and mining of petroleum, coal, and other minerals. This includes the regulation and inspection of raining operations to ensure acceptable operating safety standards.

One of the roles of the ministry is to encourage the active exploration and the proper development and use of the country's natural resources. To this end a substantial sum is provided for assistance to oil exploration. The policy of assisting the mineral industry with technical advice and financial help by way of grants and contingently repayable loans continues as in the past.

The ministry is also responsible for the production and marketing of coal from the State coal mines.

The primary purpose of the Electricity Division of the ministry is to operate and maintain the bulk electricity supply system and to extend it so that the electricity needs of New Zealand are supplied safely, continuously, and economically. A further requirement is to undertake or promote measures to achieve greater economy and efficiency in the use of electricity as a means of reducing the future rate of growth of electricity requirements.

Environment, Commission for the—The commission provides advice and administrative support to the Minister for the Environment, promotes the co-ordination of Government policies in the environmental field, and initiates new policy proposals for the consideration of the Minister and others. It also audits environmental impact reports prepared by Government departments and other organisations on proposed new major works with significant environmental consequences.

Foreign Affairs, Ministry of—The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has the primary responsibility for advising and assisting the Government on the whole range of its relations with the outside world. This includes advising foreign governments of New Zealand's policies and keeping the New Zealand Government informed of overseas developments affecting New Zealand's interests. Policy formulation is undertaken in relation to New Zealand's economic, trade, political, and security needs, with the preparation of recommendations to the Government being carried out in close association with a number of other Government departments.

Other functions include the administration of New Zealand's official programme of aid to developing countries and responsibility for all official New Zealand information and publicity activities overseas other than those relating specifically to trade promotion or tourism.

The Ministry is the agency through which other governments and their representatives in New-Zealand communicate with the New Zealand Government. It also undertakes foreign affairs and defence functions for the Cook Islands and Niue after consultation with their respective heads of government. It administers Tokelau.

In addition, the Ministry is responsible for operating and administering New Zealand's official representation overseas, which comprises a network of 47 diplomatic and consular posts. A full list of these can be found in the Official Section at the end of this Yearbook. These posts represent and pursue New Zealand's interests overseas through a variety of ways, including participation in international negotiations, the gathering of information, and the promotion of a favourable New Zealand image. The posts perform services overseas on behalf of all Government departments and give assistance to New Zealanders overseas, whether travelling in official or private capacities. On behalf of other Government departments, posts are responsible for the overseas issue of passports and visas.

Forest Service, New Zealand—Management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards maintaining an exotic forest estate sufficiently large and diverse to meet future domestic timber and other forest produce needs and to provide for exports whilst also protecting, conserving, and, where possible, perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests.

Development and management of a wood resource for new forest-based industries leads to continuing employment opportunities and other socio-economic benefits regionally.

Implementation of a multiple-use forest policy involves the establishment and maintenance of forests for wood production, soil and water conservation, scenery preservation, the provision of recreational areas, and biological reserves.

Government Life Insurance Office—The operations of the Government Life Insurance Office are essentially a single activity which is to provide full and progressive life insurance and superannuation facilities for the people of New Zealand.

The office is a mutual life insurance office operating in active competition with private offices.

Government Printing Office—The function of the department is to supply the requirements of printing, stationery, and allied services to Government departments. It follows that the volume of demand from client departments regulates to a large extent the development or expansion of the Printing Office.

Health, Department of—The principal functions of the Department of Health are:

  1. To administer the Health Act 1956, the Hospitals Act 1957, the Mental Health Act 1969, Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, the Toxic Substances Act 1979, the Clean Air Act 1972, and all other public Acts relating to the promotion or conservation of human health.

  2. To advise local authorities in matters relating to environmental health.

  3. To prevent, limit, and suppress communicable and other diseases.

  4. To promote or carry out research and investigation in public health fields and the prevention and treatment of disease.

  5. To publish reports, information, and advice concerning public health.

  6. To organise and control medical, dental, and nursing services, so far as such services are paid for out of public moneys.

  7. Generally to take all such steps as may be desirable to secure the preparation, effective carrying out, and co-ordination of measures conducive to public health.

  8. To provide advisory information and processing services to hospital boards and various health agencies.

Housing Corporation—The Housing Corporation is the chief government agency for providing finance for home ownership. It also provides home improvement loans, mortgage guarantees, and some refinance assistance.

Its other main function is the provision of publicly-owned housing. Activities include land acquisition and development, land sales, house construction, the management of its rental houses, sale of houses, loans and subsidy for pensioner accommodation, and urban development and redevelopment.

The corporation in its own right, or as agent, provides industrial loans and agency services including: administration of the Home Ownership Savings Act 1974; advances under the Family Benefit Capitalisation scheme; rehabilitation concessions to ex-servicemen; subsidies for hostel accommodation for young people; loans for hotel/motel accommodation, private schools, medical centres, and home insulation; and loans and mortgage guarantees to provide tourist accommodation and facilities.

Inland Revenue Department—The main function of the Inland Revenue Department is to assess and collect various taxes and duties. The principal of these is income tax which is collected in part by PAYE deductions from salaries and wages, in part by the payment of provisional tax during the year of derivation of income, and in part by an end of the year assessment. Of the other revenues collected the most significant comprise stamp duty, estate and gift duties, land tax, and totalisator duty. The department also collects accident compensation levies on behalf of the Accident Compensation Corporation.

Internal Affairs, Department of—The department is primarily responsible for administering Government policies and legislation relating to local government, the development of cultural and recreational services, and the protection of indigenous wildlife. The department attends to formal constitutional matters relating to the summoning and prorogation of Parliament. The Local Government Division administers policies and legislation relating to regional and local government, the New Zealand Fire Service, the Chatham Islands, and the control of Lake Taupo. It also services the Local Government Commission schemes.

The Recreation Arts and Youth Division is responsible for administering Government policies and legislation relating to cultural matters, the recreation and sport programme, and youth activities. It administers a large number of community funding programmes. The New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport, the National Museum, National Art Gallery, the New Zealand Historic Places Trust, the National Archives, and the Film Censor are all serviced by the department. The Historic Publications Branch is also part of the department and the work of the Commonwealth Youth Programme within New Zealand is co-ordinated by the department.

The Ministry of Civil Defence implements Government policy for assistance to local authorities in carrying out their civil defence obligations and for co-ordinating the planning and use of Government resources in civil defence emergencies.

The Wildlife Service, in addition to Managing the wildlife resources of two major acclimatisation districts, is responsible nationally for the protection of New Zealand fauna. It administers legislation on freshwater fishing, game hunting, and the conservation of rare native birds.

The department also administers the legislation relating to horse and greyhound racing, gaming and lotteries, New Zealand citizenship and passports. It operates the translation service for Government departments and administers the cleaning of Government offices. Administrative matters relating to the office of the Governor-General and his staff are also the department's responsibility. Reception of guests of the Government, State functions, meeting the costs of internal and overseas travel by Ministers of the Crown and parliamentary delegations are other responsibilities. The department meets the cost of commissions of inquiry and carries out many administrative functions in relation to these.

Justice, Department of—The functions of the department may be classified broadly under the headings of penal policy and administration; law reform; the administration of justice; commercial affairs (including the administration of the Companies and Insolvency Acts); electoral; registration work including land titles, trade marks, patents, and births, deaths, and marriages; and social measures of a preventive nature. The Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, Legal Aid Act 1969, the Race Relations Act 1971, and the Summary Instalment Order provisions of the Insolvency Act 1967 have taken the department further into the broad area of social administration. The department is, through its Tribunals Division, responsible for the administration of the Sale of Liquor Act 1962, the Indecent Publications Act 1963, and the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 (Appeal Board provisions), together with other various tribunals.

Labour, Department of—The principal responsibilities of the Department of Labour are to promote and maintain full employment through the provision of a complete employment service, to ensure through the work of its field staff that workers are employed under safe and healthy working conditions, to promote good industrial relations, and to collect and publish relevant information. In addition, it administers a complex variety of statutes; among the most important are the Industrial Relations Act, the Factories and Construction Acts, and those dealing with weights and measures, apprenticeship, and immigration.

Lands and Survey, Department of—As the Government's major land administering agency, the department manages, controls, or is involved with the administration of about 10.3 million hectares of land, which represents approximately 38 percent of New Zealand's land area. Some 5.7 million hectares of this area is Crown leasehold, 2.6 million hectares is national parks and reserves, 680004 hectares is being developed for farming purposes while the balance falls into miscellaneous categories (mountain tops, vacant Crown land, lake and riverbeds, etc.).

The department is also the national survey and mapping organisation, thus providing economies and effective co-ordination of all activities. This work includes control surveys as the basis for cadastral surveys and basic topographic mapping, land title surveys, large scale topographical surveys for engineering and management purposes, land development servicing, fixing of marine and air navigation aids and aerodrome obstruction surveys, earth deformation studies, and land environmental planning.

Maori Affairs, Department of—The broad functions of the Department of Maori Affairs are to assist the Maori and Pacific Island peoples, particularly in social, economic, and cultural matters. For example, Maori land owners are assisted by the way of title reform and capital advances to make full use of their resources, and through its Community Services Division, the department gives encouragement in the fields of education, employment, housing, and health.

New Zealand Police—The role of the Police is:

    1. To protect life and property, by guarding, patrolling, and anticipating danger not only from criminal acts, but also those which are natural, accidental, or unintentional.

    2. To safeguard the liberties of the individual and preserve the public peace, by seeking to create and maintain conditions under which people may go about their lawful affairs undisturbed and protected from harmful and dangerous conduct.

    3. To prevent crime and to seek, identify, and eliminate the causes of crime.

    4. To detect offenders if crime is committed.

  1. To encourage and advise the community on how to protect their persons and property from criminal behaviour.

  2. To provide guidance and assistance:

    1. In helping young people to achieve social maturity.

    2. In cases of tragedy, or family and/or other personal crisis.

Post Office—The Post Office is charged with the operation and development of postal and telecommunications systems, both internal and overseas; the Post Office Savings Bank; and with handling a wide range of payments and receipts for Government departments and other organisations.

Prime Minister's Department—Since December 1975 the Prime Minister's Department has been established as a separately administered department with its own permanent head.

General services provided by the department include servicing the Cabinet, its committees, and the Executive Council; advising the Prime Minister on policy matters as required; and providing a public information service on ministerial matters for the news media.

The External Intelligence Bureau centralises the intelligence functions in the general field of international affairs; it receives direction and policy guidance from the New Zealand Intelligence Council.

Public Trust Office—The Public Trustee provides a wide range of services as trustee, executor, manager, and attorney. He also acts as sinking fund or depreciation fund commissioner for many local authorities when so appointed, and additionally holds other funds on their behalf. He is required to provide a number of statutory services irrespective of whether these are remunerative.

Railways Department, New Zealand Government—The fundamental and continuing aim of New Zealand Railways is to take its part in the operation and development of the nation's transport services by means of a strong, successful, and efficient organisation consisting of rail, road, and inter-island sea services which will help to increase the wealth and well-being of the community.

The main objectives are:

  1. To provide services of the highest standard possible consistent with an overall requirement of economic and safe operation, within the constraints imposed by available labour, equipment, and investment capital.

  2. To trade as a business enterprise.

  3. To earn sufficient revenue to cover operating and renewal costs, to build up a contingency reserve, and to provide whatever proportion of development capital circumstances allow.

Rural Banking and Finance Corporation—The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation was established on 1 April 1974 with the principal function of making loans and providing other assistance for farming and other primary industries and for related service industries.

Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of—The department exercises the functions of providing background scientific research for economic development, land use, and environmental control in several major areas.

Agriculture—Agriculture is a priority area, it being the mainstay of the country's economy. Increasing emphasis is placed on (a) new crops, including those suitable for irrigated land and mechanical harvesting, to meet the demands of the rapidly expanding food processing industry; (b) the breeding of new and better varieties of pasture, particularly for hill country farming; (c) pests and disease control, and (d) the curing, drying, storage, processing, and packaging of agricultural products.

Manufacturing—Particular emphasis is given to improved industrial liaison and advisory services, electronic and electrical work, metal cutting and forming, industrial vibration and acoustic problems, and new product development.

Minerals—Continuing emphasis is given to prospecting, finding new uses for and testing the processing of local raw materials with a view to substantially increasing the “added value” component before export.

Energy—Aspects of prospecting for, storage, and processing of energy resources are investigated. Advice is given on building and maintenance of energy-generating installations and on efficiency of use and conversion of energy in building and appliances. Processes for production of motor fuels from crops, coal, and wastes are being developed and tested, including economic aspects. Emphasis is being given to investigating the extent and possible additional utilisation of indigenous energy resources such as coal, natural gas, oil, and geothermal steam. Alternative forms of energy, i.e., solar, wind, ocean, are being investigated.

Natural Environment—Surveys are made of geology, soils, oceanography, flora, and fauna. Studies involve the environmental impact of major development proposals, including pollution problems.

Other Scientific Services—There are increasing demands for scientific services from Department of Health (food and drug analysis), Ministry of Transport (blood alcohol analysis), and Police Department (forensic), and for work related to road safety.

Social Welfare, Department of—The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are:

  1. To administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Children and Young Persons Act 1974; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; the Rehabilitation Act 1941; and the Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Minister may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities.

  5. Maintain close liaison with and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among any organisations and individuals engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

State Insurance Office—The State Insurance Office transacts all classes of fire, accident, and marine insurance in New Zealand. Its function is to maintain a competitive insurance service.

It administers the Export Guarantee Office, which provides credit insurance for exporters, and also acts as claims-handling agent for the Accident Compensation Corporation.

Statistics, Department of—The Department of Statistics has the following broad functions:

  1. To collect, compile, analyse, abstract, and publish economic, financial, production, and social statistics, and to make estimates, forecasts, projections, and statistical models;

  2. To advise and inform the Minister of Statistics on statistical policy matters;

  3. To define and promote standard concepts, procedures, definitions, and classifications;

  4. To examine all proposals by other departments for commencing or commissioning new statistical surveys, and to prepare submissions to the Minister of Statistics for his approval;

  5. To review periodically the collection, compilation, analyses, abstraction, and publication of all official statistics;

  6. To maintain liaison with international organisations or agencies requiring or making use of New Zealand statistics.

Pay Research—The Pay Research Unit conducts pay research investigations into specified classes of work carried on in the State Services and comparable work carried on outside. The work is assigned by the Pay Research Council which comprises an equal representation of official and staff organisations.

Tourist and Publicity Department—The main functions of the Tourist and Publicity Department are to promote travel to, within, and beyond New Zealand; to develop domestic tourism and to stimulate off-season travel; to promote New Zealand overseas in the interests of tourist industry development; to administer schemes for financial assistance for the provision of accommodation and other tourist facilities; to operate and sell tours and provide a complete travel service to assist overseas travel agents; and to provide, within New Zealand, information and publicity services for Ministers of the Crown and Government departments. It also provides research services for the Tourism Advisory Council, an advisory body established in 1977 to report and make recommendations to the Minister of Tourism on all aspects of tourism.

Trade and Industry, Department of—The principal statutory functions of the Department of Trade and Industry are to promote and encourage the improvement and development of industry and commerce and promote and encourage the export trade of New Zealand.

The diversification of New Zealand's exports, in the sense of both markets and products, is a major concern of the department. Trade negotiations with other countries both individually and in international forums is of critical importance and increasing in volume as trading horizons are widened. Equally, the department is involved with an increasing number of exporters in the development of new markets and the maintenance and expansion of existing markets in a growing list of countries.

On the internal economic side, the emphasis is now on consultation with industries regarding their plans for expansion in production and export. In addition, increasing attention is being given to technological and productivity advances in industry. The department is trying to ensure that its administration of legislation on prices, monopolies, and mergers and take-overs, while fair to the consumer, does not inhibit either industrial development or the aims of increasing production, maintaining maximum levels of employment, and raising levels of productivity and exports.

Transport, Ministry of—The ministry is responsible for providing Government with the information and advice necessary for the development of an efficient and economic transport policy.

The principal objective of the Road Transport Division is to promote the safe and efficient movement of people and goods on the roads and streets of New Zealand.

The main objective of the Marine Division is to promote the safety of shipping in and beyond New Zealand waters, to ensure the safe handling of cargo at New Zealand ports, and the safe operation of boilers, pressure vessels, cranes, and lifts throughout New Zealand.

The main objective of the Civil Aviation Division is continuation of 'the existing high standards of civil aircraft operation. The ministry will continue its programme of providing improved facilities associated with the safe operation of aircraft particularly in regard to navigation aids, surveillance radars, aircraft and airport security, and general aviation supervision.

The Meteorological Service is responsible for the provision of information and advice to all sections of the community on the atmosphere, environment, weather, climatic conditions, and pollution of the air.

Treasury—The role of Treasury is:

  1. To control the receipt, custody, and payment of the Government's finances as directed by statute and Government decisions.

  2. To keep the Government informed on the existing external and internal economic situation, the effects of existing policy and trends and prospects for the future.

  3. To advise the Government on the level and content of its expenditure and receipts, and assess the most effective allocations of limited resources among competing expenditure proposals.

  4. To advise on, and implement, various aspects of the Government's financial and economic policies.

These general functions involve financial and economic management and investigating divisions of Treasury in the following particular tasks; the allocation of funds to departments; the investment of public funds; the raising, repayment, and conversion of loans; the preparation and co-ordination of economic situation reports, forecasts, and policy advice; and the preparation of the Budget and the annual Estimates of Expenditure.

The following specialist functions are also carried out by Treasury:

  1. The Superannuation Division administers the Government Superannuation Fund, and the National Provident Fund. The division also operates the local authorities investment pool which involves the granting of loans to local authorities and the investment of surplus funds.

  2. The Government Actuary's office provides specialist services for the Government Life Insurance Office and Government superannuation, registered friendly societies, and Government departments as required. The Government Actuary is also the Registrar of Building Societies.

  3. The Government Stores Board is the central controlling agency for the purchase, custody, and disposal of Government stores.

Valuation Department—The major activity of the department is the preparation of valuation rolls for all districts in New Zealand, to maintain these rolls up to date with changes in property holdings, ownership, occupancy, and development and to revise the values at not more than 5–yearly intervals.

Works and Development, Ministry of—In addition to the carrying out of Government works, the ministry has responsibility under the Minister's direction of executing projects and undertakings of national significance. Its objectives include investigation, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of these works, having due regard to standards and costs, and the best practical means whereby environmental conditions can be conserved, restored, or enhanced. In most cases, completed works are taken over for operation and maintenance by operating departments such as the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy, and New Zealand Railways.

Further roles of the department include the development of natural resources and the encouragement, investigation, and co-ordination of proposals for regional planning, as well as the task of assembling information on the building and construction industries, and the programming of national capital formation including Government works.

Specific statutes administered by the department include the Public Works Act (which, inter alia, provides the Crown and local authorities with land acquisition powers), the Town and Country Planning Act, the National Development Act, the National Roads Act (the department services the National Roads Board), Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, Water and Soil Conservation Act (which involves the department in water allocation and quality control activities), and some local Acts.

Staff of State Services—The following table shows employment levels in the public sector.

OrganisationStaff Numbers at 31 March
19761977197819791980

* Source: Annual Reports; calculated on head count basis.

Includes Cook Strait ferry staff.

Comprises teaching, non-teaching, and ancillary staff and all university staff. Sources: Department of Education and University Grants Committee. Teaching staff are calculated as average full-lime equivalents except for the 1980 figure which is full-time staff only, and provisional.

§ Source: National Health Statistics Centre; calculated as average full-time equivalents.

|| Effective strength of uniformed police plus cadets, matrons, staff on retiring leave, etc.

Includes Legislative Department, Parliamentary Counsel Office, Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, N.Z. Council 'or Educational Research, Ombudsmen's Office, Privacy Commissioner's Office, Vocational Training Council, and other bodies financed by Government funds.

** As at February 1980.

Public Service*7919978894832428451684363
Railways*2220921993219152207621794
Post Office*3890738230388943939539465
Education585095910857038x5734658574
Hospital services§4601846897478284866848532
Armed forces*1242012456127621273912641
Police||45014598482848825088
Other (estimated)700700700750750
                Total262463262876267207x270372271207
Percentage of total labour force x20.9920.7120.8920.8020.71
Labour force as at April x12505001269400127880012998001309400**

In New Zealand, with its long tradition of Government activity in many spheres, the work of the State Services covers a broad field. The Government decides when a new service is to be provided or a new function undertaken. Work loads increase as a result of such factors as legislative changes or population growth, but are offset to some extent by improvements in efficiency. Since February 1976 the total staff ceiling of the public service has been frozen, with priority demands for additional staff in departments being met from a “pool” of positions to which each department contributes a fixed percentage of its total staff ceiling. It should be noted that staff ceiling figures are calculated on full-time equivalent positions while the figures in the tables are actual head counts and also include staff appointed under the separate ceilings for training and for unemployment-related functions. Recent trends have been for more staff for research and resource development and expanded social services.

The consumption expenditure of Central Government and Local Government as percentages of the appropriation of national disposable income is shown in the following table.

Year Ended MarchFinal Consumption Expenditure ofNational Disposable IncomeExpenditure as Percentage of National Disposable Income
Central GovernmentLocal GovernmentCentral GovernmentLocal Government
* Provisional.
 $(m)$(m)$(m)%%
1975–761,51921310,373x14.62.0
1976–77*1,733220x12,428x13.9x1.8x
1977–78*2,106x271x13,674x15.4x2.0x
1978–79*2,565333x15,719x16.3x2.1
1979–80*2,93739918,99215.52.1

STATE SERVICES COMMISSION—The State Services Act 1962 provides for a State Services Commission of up to four persons appointed by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.

In respect of departments of the Public Service, the Commission is responsible for—

  1. Reviewing the machinery of Government, including the allocation of functions to and between departments, the desirability of or need for the creation of new departments and the amalgamation or abolition of existing departments, the co-ordination of the activities of departments, and the extent and nature of controls exercised by any one department over the operations of another department;

  2. Reviewing the efficiency and economy of each department;

  3. The provision of suitable office accommodation and the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions of all employees in the Public Service;

  4. Approving and reviewing establishments of staff;

  5. Acting as the central personnel authority for the Public Service;

  6. Prescribing basic training programmes, furnishing advice on and assisting with the training of staff, and making recommendations to the Minister on the facilities necessary for the proper training of staff;

  7. Providing management consultation services, including advice as to efficient work and control methods and techniques, data processing equipment, and problems of organisation.

It has complete independence in dealing with individual employees of the Public Service, but is made responsible to a Minister in all other matters.

When directed by the Minister charged with the administration of the Act, at the request of the Minister responsible for another part of the State Services, e.g., the Post Office or the Railways Department, the Commission must associate itself with the head of that particular part of the service in an investigation of its organisation, methods, or procedures. The Commission must also, when requested by the head of (or the Minister in Charge of any part of) the State Services, provide management consultation services.

Computer Services—The Computer Services Division of the State Services Commission is responsible for the control, co-ordination, planning, and provision of electronic-data processing services within the Public Service. The division's head office is in Cumberland House, Willis Street, Wellington.

It maintains 4 computer centres:

Cumberland Computer Centre, Cumberland House, for accounting and payroll applications for the majority of Government departments.

Pipitea Computer Centre, Thorndon Quay, for Valuation, Social Welfare, and Inland Revenue systems.

Trentham Computer Centre, Anzac Road, Trentham, to support bulk processing of the Statistics Department and scientific users.

Wanganui Computer Centre, Wairere House, Bute Street, Wanganui, to service the Police, Transport, and Justice Departments.

An engineering and scientific computer centre in the Vogel Building, Wellington, is operated by the Ministry of Works and Development as agent for the State Services Commission.

The division also maintains 4 data preparation centres located in Blenheim, Palmerston North, Waikanae, and Upper Hutt.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE: Recruitment—The recruitment of public servants is conducted by the State Services Commission through its recruitment officers and district representatives, and by departments in collaboration with the Commission. Details of career openings in the Service are regularly supplied to schools, and career leaflets are published.

Promotion—Promotion in the Public Service is based on merit. Appointments to positions above basic level may be made either from people within the Public Service or from people outside the service. In making appointments the State Services Commission requires departments to adhere to the principle of equal employment opportunity. Accordingly, any person may apply to join the Public Service, without regard to race, colour, national or ethnic origins, sex, marital status, and religious beliefs or the absence thereof. Public servants have certain rights of appeal to the Public Service Appeal Board.

Classification and Grading—Since 1963 the Commission has prescribed occupational classes, according to the nature of the duties required to be performed. Each occupational class is graded according to relative levels of responsibility and skills required, and individual positions are allocated a grade or grades within that class.

Remuneration—Salary rates are prescribed in accordance with the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977 and are in general related to the levels of remuneration of persons doing comparable work in employment outside the Public Service. Adequate margins are maintained for skill and responsibility.,

Efficiency and Economy—In fulfilling its responsibility for reviewing efficiency and economy in the Public Service, the Commission, in collaboration with departments, reviews and analyses systems, standards, and controls; new training methods and materials; modern technical processes and equipment; and lays down clearly defined systems of delegation of authority and of discipline.

Staff Training and Education—A comprehensive Service training and education policy is provided, and future staffing needs of the Public Service are studied.

Elimination of Discrimination—The public service has tended to be ahead of the private sector in the introduction of provisions to eliminate discrimination, e.g., equal pay, maternity and paternity leave, preferential re-entry after resigning to care for a pre-school child, and equal access to housing finance for male and female staff on transfer.

Statistics: Staff—The detailed distribution of staff among departments in the Public Service is shown in the Commission's annual report to Parliament (Parliamentary paper G. 3). At 31 March 1980 there were 64830 permanent officers and 1601 temporary staff (excluding casuals) employed; a year earlier the comparable figures were 64111 and 1578 respectively. These figures do not include wage workers, who totalled 17932 in 1980.

STATUTORY BOARDS AND COMMITTEES—The following is a list of the main statutory boards and committees grouped according to the Government department responsible for the administration of the legislation or the servicing of the boards. The order of departments is generally that followed in the Yearbook for coverage of the main subject matter.

Foreign Affairs, Ministry of
Advisory Committee on External Aid and Development.
New Zealand/Australia Foundation Board of Trustees.
New Zealand/Japan Foundation Board of Trustees.
Health, Department of
Advisory Committee on Hospital Board Funding.
Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health.
Advisory Committee on Tuberculosis.
Ambulance Transport Advisory Board.
Anaesthetic Mortality Committee.
Anaesthetic Technicians Training Committee.
Artificial Aids Technical Advisory Committee.
Board of Health.
Board of Health Committee on Care of the Aged.
Board of Health Committee on Child Health.
Board of Health Epidemiology Advisory Committee.
Board of Health Maori and Polynesian Health Committee.
Board of Health Maternity Services Committee.
Central Committee on Training of Orthopaedic Technicians.
Children's Health Camps Board.
Chiropodists Board.
Civil Defence Medical Planning Committee.
Clean Air Council.
Committee on Adverse Drug Reactions.
Committee on Drainage and Sanitary Plumbing.
Congenital Anomalies Advisory Committee.
Consultant Advisers in Pathology Committee.
Dental Benefits Central Advisory Committee.
Dental Technicians Board.
Dietitians Board.
Dietitians Salaries Grading Committee.
Drug Assessment Advisory Committee.
Engineers Salaries Grading Committee.
Fluoridation Advisory Committee.
Food Standards Committee.
Hospital Medical Officers Advisory Committee.
Hospital Services Committee.
Hospital Works Committee.
Hospitals Advisory Council.
House Surgeons Establishment Committee.
Industrial Chemicals Committee.
Laboratory Officers Salaries Grading Committee.
Laboratory Services Advisory Committee.
Laboratory Services Fees Negotiating Committee.
Maternal Deaths Assessment Committee.
Maternity Benefits Negotiating Committee.
Medical Councils Advisory Committee on Medical Manpower.
Medical Officers Salaries Grading Committee.
Medical Radiographers Board.
Medical Services Advisory Committee.
Medical Technologists Board.
National Co-ordinating Committee.
National Technical Committee on Standards and Quality Control in Medical Clinical Laboratories.
Northland Health Services Advisory Committee.
Nutrition Advisory Committee.
Occupational Therapy Board.
Opticians Board.
Pharmaceutical Advisory Committee.
Pharmaceutical Benefits Negotiating Committee.
Pharmaceutical and Therapeutics Advisory Committee.
Pharmacy Board of Appeal.
Physiotherapy Board.
Physiotherapy Board Examination Committee.
Poisons Committee.
Radiation Protection Advisory Council.
Radiographers Salaries Grading Committee.
Radiological Services Advisory Committee.
Registrars Review Panel.
Review Committee.
Secretarial and Clerical Officers Salaries Grading Committee.
Senior Medical Officers Overseas Study Grants Selection Committee.
South Auckland Plunket Child Health Committee.
Special Advisory Committee on Health Services Organisation.
Standing Committee on Health Centres.
Toxic Substances Board.
Transfusion Advisory Committee.
Wellington Health Services Advisory Committee.
Social Welfare, Department of
Advisory Committee on Child Care Centres.
National Advisory Committee on the Prevention of Child Abuse.
N.Z. Council of Social Services.
N.Z. Social Work Training Centre.
Social Development Council.
Social Science Research Fund Committee.
War Pensions and Rehabilitation
War Pensions Board.
War Pensions Appeal Board.
War Pensions Medical Research Trust.
Rehabilitation Board.
N.Z. Artificial Limb Board.
Advisory Council for the Community Welfare of Disabled Persons.
Education, Department of
Authority for Advanced Vocational Awards.
Central Advisory Committee.
Education Boards Employment Review Committee.
Integration Advisory Committee.
Maori Education Foundation.
Music Teachers' Registration Board.
N.Z. National Commission for UNESCO.
National Council of Adult Education.
National Library Board of Trustees.
Ngarimu V.C. and 28th (Maori) Battalion Memorial Scholarship Fund Board.
Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation.
Primary Teachers Appointments Appeal Board.
School Certificate Examination Board.
Teacher Assessment and Classification Appeal Board.
Teachers Court of Appeal.
Teachers Disciplinary Board.
Technical Institute and Community College Boards Employment Review Committee.
N.Z. Trades Certification Board.
Vocational Training Council. (Joint appointments Ministers of Education and Labour.)
Justice, Department of
Accident Compensation Appeal Authority.
Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council.
Borstal Parole Boards.
Prison Parole Board.
Town and Country Planning Appeal Boards.
Legal Aid Board.
Legal Aid Appeal Authority.
Co-operative Dairy Companies Tribunal.
Indecent Publications Tribunal.
Copyright Tribunal.
Crimes Compensation Tribunal.
Chiropractic Board.
Licensing Control Commission.
Licensing Committees (there are 22 of these committees).
Land Valuation Tribunals (there are 21 of these tribunals).
Motor Vehicle Salesmen Registration Boards.
Motor Vehicle Disputes Tribunals.
Hotel Investment Account Advisory Committee.
Law Reform Council.
Property Law and Equity Reform Committee,
Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee.
Representation Commission.
Small Claims Tribunals.
Contracts and Commercial Law Reform Committee.
Torts and General Law Reform Committee.
Criminal Law Advisory Committee.
District Courts Rules Committee.
Real Estate Agents Licensing Board.
Release to Work Committee.
Rules Committee.
Ministry of Defence
Armed Forces Canteen Council.
Police Department
Disciplinary Inquiry Tribunal.
Police Promotion Board.
Police Appeal Board.
Police Staff Tribunal.
Medical Appeal Board.
Transport, Ministry of
Air New Zealand.
Air Services Licensing Appeal Authority.
Air Services Licensing Authority.
Marine Council.
Maritime Appeal Authority.
New Zealand Ports Authority.
New Zealand Urban Public Passenger Transport Council.
Regional Transport Licensing Authority (Auckland).
Road Traffic Safety Research Council.
Shipping Industry Tribunal.
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand.
Small Boat Safety Committee.
Transport Advisory Council.
Transport Licensing Authorities (5).
Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.
Transport Charges Appeal Authority.
Railways Department
Government Railways Appeal Board.
Government Railways Industrial Tribunal.
Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of
Building Research Association of N.Z. Inc.
Carter Observatory Board.
Cawthron Institute Trust Board.
Coal Research Association of N.Z. Inc.
N.Z. Dairy Research Institute.
Fruit Research Advisory Committee.
Hop Research Committee.
Meat Industry Research Institute of N.Z.
N.Z. Atomic Energy Committee.
N.Z. Committee of Culture Collection of Microorganisms.
N.Z. Concrete Research Association.
N.Z. Fertiliser Manufacturers Research Association.
N.Z. Heavy Engineering Research Association (Inc.).
N.Z. Leather and Shoe Research Association Inc.
N.Z. Logging Industry Research Association.
N.Z. Pottery and Ceramics Research Association.
Potato Research Advisory Committee.
Research Institute of Textile Services.
Ross Dependency Research Committee.
Tobacco Research Advisory Committee.
Wheat Research Committee.
Wool Research Organisation of N.Z. Inc.
Testing Laboratory Registration Council.
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of
Agricultural Chemicals Board.
Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.
Animal Remedies Board.
Apple and Pear Prices Authority.
Citrus Marketing Authority.
Dairy Factory Managers' Registration Board.
Dairy Industry Loans Council.
Dairy Products Prices Authority.
Fisheries Licensing Authority.
Fishing Industry Board.
Hop Marketing Committee.
Kiwifruit Marketing Licensing Authority.
Meat Export Prices Committee.
Meat Industry Authority.
Milk Prices Authority.
Nassella Tussock Boards (Marlborough and North Canterbury).
National Dairy Association of New Zealand Ltd.
National Hydatids Council.
N.Z. Honey Marketing Authority.
N.Z. Meat Producers Board.
N.Z. Milk Board.
N.Z. Pork Industry Council.
N.Z. Potato Board.
N.Z. Poultry Board.
N.Z. Wheat Board.
N.Z. Wool Board.
N.Z. Wool Testing Authority.
Plant Varieties Office.
Pork Marketing Board.
Raspberry Marketing Committees (Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago).
Raspberry Marketing Council.
Veterinary Services Council.
Veterinary Surgeons' Board. (Excludes advisory or technical committees appointed under section 13 of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953).
Works and Development, Ministry of
Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority.
Building Industry Advisory Council.
Clerks of Works Registration Board.
Engineering Associates Registration Board.
Engineers Registration Board.
National Roads Board.
National Water and Soil Conservation Authority.
Quantity Surveyors' Registration Board.
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council.
Water Resources Council.
Lands and Survey, Department of
Land Settlement Board.
Marginal Lands Board.
National Parks and Reserves Authority.
Maritime Parks Board.
National Parks and Reserves Boards.
Nature Conservation Council.
N.Z. Survey Board.
N.Z. Geographic Board.
N.Z. Walkway Commission.
Land Use Advisory Council.
National Land Inventory Committee.
Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust.
N.Z. Forest Service
N.Z. Forestry Council.
Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee.
Forest Disease Control Advisory Committee.
Forest Parks Advisory Committees (16)
Timber Preservation Authority.
Indigenous Forest Timber Advisory Committee.
National Recreational Hunting Advisory Committee.
Maori Affairs, Department of
Maori Land Board.
Maori Purposes Fund Board.
Licensed Interpreters Board of Examiners.
Valuation Department
Valuers Registration Board.
Housing Corporation of New Zealand
Housing Allocation Committees
Ministry of Energy
N.Z. Gas Council.
Board of Examiners—Coal Mines Act 1979.
Board of Examiners—Mining Act 1971.
Coal Mines Council.
Coal Mining Industries Welfare Council.
Coal Promotion Council.
Electricians Registration Board.
Electric Lineman Training Committee.
Rural Electrical Reticulation Council.
Electrical Wiring Regulations Committee.
N.Z. Energy Research and Development Committee.
Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand and subsidiary companies.
Liquid Fuels Trust Board.
Major Projects Advisory Group.
CNG Co-ordination Committee.
Demand Restraint Advisory Committee.
Clean Air Council.
Interdepartmental Committee on Heating of Public Buildings.
Trade and Industry, Department of
Industries and Commerce
Advisory Committee on Heavy Engineering Industry.
Commerce Commission.
Consumer Council.
Development Finance Corporation (in relation to invention, development and industrial research and development.)
Distribution Council.
Electronics Advisory Committee.
Emergency Protection Authority.
Industries Development Commission.
Manufacturing Development Council.
Motor Spirits Licensing Authority.
N.Z. Industrial Design Council.
N.Z. Wheat Board.
Pacific Islands Industrial Development Committee.
Regional Development Councils (11).
Standards Association of N.Z.
Tobacco Board.
Overseas Trade
Export Development Grants Advisory Committee.
Export Guarantee Advisory Committee.
N.Z. Export Import Corporation.
Trade Promotion Council.
Treasury
Commission for the Future.
Committee on Women.
Government Stores Board.
Local Authorities Loans Board.
National Provident Fund Board.
National Provident Fund Investment Committee.
N.Z. Planning Council.
Government Superannuation Board.
Labour, Department of
Agricultural Tribunal.
Arbitration Court.
Advisory Committees on Employment (12).
Building Industry Technical Training Council.
Exempted Goods Committee under Shops and Offices Act.
Higher Salaries Commission.
Industrial Conciliation Service.
Industrial Mediation Service.
National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women.
Public Service Appeal Board.
Vocational Training Council. (Appointments made by Minister of Education and Minister of our, acting jointly.)
action Act Advisory Committee.
Public Service Classification and Grading Committee.
Aircrew Industrial Tribunal.
Equal Pay Review Committee.
Waterfront Industry Commission.
Industrial Relations Council.
Shop Trading Hours Commission.
New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees (37).
Dental Technicians Training Council.
Conscientious Objection Committee.
Tourist and Publicity Department
Tourism Advisory Council.
Internal Affairs, Department of
Architects' Education and Registration Board.
Architects' Investigation Committee.
Council for Maori and South Pacific Arts.
Fauna Protection Advisory Committee.
N.Z. Historic Places Trust.
N.Z. Lottery Board and Distribution Committees (5).
N.Z. Fire Service Commission.
N.Z. Canteen Fund Board.
N.Z. Patriotic Fund Board.
N.Z. Racing Authority.
Totalisator Agency Board.
Arts
ANZAC Fellowship Selection Committee
Authors Fund Advisory Committee.
Cultural Facilities Advisory Committee.
Films Censorship Board of Review.
Film Trade Board.
Literary Fund Advisory Committee.
National Art Gallery, Museum and War Memorial Board and Councils (4).
N.Z. Film Commission.
Art Galleries and Museums Fund Advisory Committee.
Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council.
Regional Arts Councils (3).
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Board.
Civil Defence
National Civil Defence Committee.
National Civil Defence Planning Committees for: Communications; Fire Fighting Services; Law and Order; Medical; Public Information; Emergency Supply; Movement Control in an Emergency; Transport; Emergency Welfare; Energy; Volcanic Hazards.
Local Government
Interdepartmental Advisory Committee on the Chatham Islands.
Joint Council for Local Authority Services.
Local Government Commission.
Lake Taupo Advisory Committee.
Recreation and Sport
N.Z. Council for Recreation and Sport.
State Services Commission
Classification and Grading Committee.
Education Service Committee.
Hospital Service Committee.
Government Service Tribunal.
National Research Advisory Council.
Public Service Appeal Board.
State Services Co-ordinating Committee.
Public Sector Tribunal.
Wanganui Computer Centre Policy Committee.
Wanganui Computer Centre Management Committee.

HONOURS AND AWARDS

Since the preceding issue of the Yearbook the Queen has been graciously pleased to approve the following awards, for services rendered in connection with New Zealand:

Companion of the Queen's Service Order for Community Service (Q.S.O.):

Dame Norma Janet Holyoake, D.C.M.G.

Companion of the Queen's Service Order for Public Services (Q.S.O.):

Rt. Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, K.G., G.C.M.G., C.H.

NEW YEAR HONOURS LIST 1981

CIVIL LIST

Ordinary Dame Commander of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (D.B.E.):

Mrs Whina Cooper, C.B.E., J.P.

Ordinary Knight Commander of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.):

Dr The Honourable Thomas Robert Alexander Harries Davis.

Knights Bachelor:

Charles Hilgendorf, C.M.G., J.P.; Austin George Wilson, O.B.E.

Ordinary Members of the Third Class, or Companions of the Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George (C.M.G.):

John Clarke; The Honourable Richard Geoffrey Gerard; Noel Vernon Lough.

Ordinary Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

James Warne Ardagh, O.B.E.; Miss Doreen Vera Blumhard;; Francis Rei Paul Hamon; Mrs Mary Wilhelmina Margaret Lythgoe; Arthur William Baden Powell, F.R.S.N.Z.; Dr Edwin Ian Robertson, O.B.E., F.R.S.N.Z.; Dr Frank William Eden Rutter.

Ordinary Officers of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Harry Herbert Ayres; Leo George Wellington Carrington; George Cooler Cruickshank; Murray Charles Day; Bernard Lancelot Ebbett; Stuart Carlton Hay; Hamish Henry Coidy Keith; Nevile Sidney Lodge; Donald Mitchell McKenzie; Lloyd Morgan; Walcott Eyre Wilder Ormond; John Wellesley Evan Raine; Desmond Bruce Smith; William John Watt; Mrs Iona Williams, J.P.; Ray Roberts Wilson.

Companions of the Queen's Service Order for Community Service (Q.S.O.):

Dr Joseph Richard Dawson, E.D.; Mrs Kathleen Muriel Evans; Norman Thomas Veech Gusscott; Mrs Kathleen Mullins; Henry Russell Rice, J.P.; Mrs Anne Margaret West.

Companions of the Queen's Service Order for Public Services (Q.S.O.):

Wilfred James Allingham; Dr Henry Rongomau Bennett; Dr Graham Bruce Alistair Cowie; Charles George Cran, J.P.; Dr Richard Kenneth Dell, F.R.S.N.Z.; Stewart Hector James Duff, J.P.; Arthur Gordon Spratt, J.P.; Daniel Lindsay Studholme.

Ordinary Members of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Mrs Maude Louisa Ashley; Eric Douglas Baynton; Maurice Reginald Billows; Colin Brenton-Rule; John Cunningham Chalmers; Wadier Assid Corban; John Middleton Garrett; Miss Olga Estelle Harding; Clarence Alfred Healey; Richard Bower Heathcote, J.P.; Reginald Ernest Hermans, M.C.; Francis Jellyman; Temporary Squadron Leader George Alfred Kay; Ashley Robert Lewis, J.P.; Lawrence Hamilton McClelland; Miss Rita McEwan; Ian Crawford McGregor; The Reverend Francis George McKean; Dr James Graham Power; Richard John Rassie; Francis John Stanton; Mrs Catherine Edith Cydie Strang; Hemi Wiremu.

Queen's Service Medal for Community Service (Q.S.M.):

Frederick John Stanley Adam; Mrs Oleen Winifred Marge Adrian; Bartholomew Michael Dennehy; Noel Edwin Gordon Dick; Mrs Hester Loughrey Gentles; Ernest Moreland Groube; William Hastings Jones; Mrs Agnes Gwendolene King; Mrs Amrita Norma Large; Miss Marjory Mahala Lill; Miss Rosalie Hazel Lill; Mrs Williamina Margaret McHardy; Mrs Dorothy Helen Meadows; Mrs Mary Lorna Lois Metherell; Mrs Isobel Brunton Mills; Mrs Martha Edna Moon; Donald Dalmore Munro; Charles Edward Pethybridge; Leonard Harry Sigglekow; Mrs Mary Eileen Orella Smith; Mrs Dorothy Waititi; Mrs Airini Elizabeth Woodhouse; Mrs Constance Ethel Wright.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

George Witika Brown; Mrs Christina Kelly Davey; Frederick Denbee; Geoffrey Neville Dyer, J.P.; Mrs Alice Marjorie Fieldhouse; Dr Thomas Michael Francis Fitzgerald; David Stewart Goulding, J.P.; Trevor William Hick, J.P.; Alan Purdie Jesson, J.P.; Ian Henderson Johnson; Allan George Lather; Mrs Daphne Irene Lawrence; Mrs Margaret Jean Leaf, J.P.; Miss Ada Lucy Lee; Gordon Buckingham McGeorge, J.P.; Henry James Martin, J.P.; Colin Harry Stuart Miller, J.P.; Frederick Sidney Phillips, J.P.; Albert Pomeroy; Ronald Maxwell Stewart; Gilbert Richard Yeoman, E.D.

Queen's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.F.S.M.):

George Raymond Heaven; Peter Henry Thompson; Colin James Flanagan.

POLICE LIST

Ordinary Members of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

James Morgan; Robert Stronach Mitchell.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

Harold Mark Vincent Burgess.

Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.P.M.):

Kenneth Owen Thompson, M.V.O.

MILITARY LIST

Ordinary Member of the Military Division of the Third Class, or Companion, of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (C.B.):

Air Vice Marshal David Ewan Jamieson, O.B.E.

Ordinary Commander of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Air Commodore Ian Murray Gillard, O.B.E., A.F.C.

Ordinary Officers of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Captain Alexander David Nelson; Colonel Donald Stuart McIver; Wing Commander Te Waaka Hemi Morete.

Ordinary Members of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Warrant Officer Leigh George Morley, B.E.M.; Lieutenant Commander George Ross Gibson, V.R.D.; Warrant Officer Yeoman of Signals Wiremu Nepia Bartlett; Warrant Officer Ordinance Artificer Geoffrey John Ockleston; Warrant Officer Class II (now Lieutenant) Michael David Flattery-Donohoe; Warrant Officer Class I Robert George Blankley; Warrant Officer Class I Edward William Bruce; Warrant Officer Barry Ruthven Thurston.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C):

Master Helicopter Crewman Ivan William Toothill.

British Empire Medal, Military Division (B.E.M.):

Chief Petty Officer Radio Supervisor Gary James Johnston; Petty Officer Electrician David Thomas Lilley; Sergeant David Ward Chambers; Sergeant Robert John McCloughen; Staff Sergeant Paul Herbert Robinson; Flight Sergeant Desmond John Lyall; Flight Sergeant Thomas Richard Statham; General Service Hand Ronald Sidney Mead.

QUEEN'S BIRTHDAY HONOURS LIST 1981

CIVIL LIST

Ordinary Knights Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.):

Dr Alan Stewart, C.B.E.; The Right Honourable Sir (Arthur) Owen Woodhouse, D.S.C.

Knights Bachelor:

(Edward) Michael Coulson Fowler; Frederick Reed Alan Hellaby.

Ordinary Member of the Civil Division of the Third Class, or Companion, of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (C.B.):

Dr Robert Martin Williams, C.B.E.

Ordinary Members of the Third Class, or Companions, of the Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George (C.M.G.):

The Right Reverend Manu Augustus Bennett; Albert Eaton Hurley; Norman Colin McLeod.

Ordinary Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Mervyn Miles Nelson Corner, O.B.E., M.C., J.P.; Dr David Russell Hay; John Brownlow Horrocks, M.C., E.D.; John Desmond Rose, E.D.; Emeritus Professor John Tenison Salmon, F.R.S.N.Z.; Denis Vaughan Sutherland, J.P.

Ordinary Officers of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Patrick John Booth; (John) Brian Brake; Noel Stewart Coad; Henry Patrick Glen; Winifred Mary, Mrs Goddard; Claude Walter Green, E.D.; Jon Oliver Feilden Hamilton; Athol Sydney George McGeady; Noel Victor Mangin; Professor Eric Musard Nanson; John Joseph O'Dea; Donald Carthew Oliver; Jack Boland Rolfe, J. P.; Hugh Sew Hoy; John McCoubrie Stewart; William Arthur Harold Thompson; Eric William Thomas Tindill; Dr Donald William Urquhart; Harold Jeffery Whitwell.

Companions of the Queen's Service Order for Community Service (Q.S.O.):

John Francis Callagher; Allan David Dick; Barbara, Mrs Goodman; Harold Victor Haines; Hugh McKerrell, J.P.; James Rafferty; Nora Nellie, Mrs Steed; Harold Lane Thomas.

Companions of the Queen's Service Order for Public Service (Q.S.O.):

Herbert James Bowkett Coe; George Gee, J.P.; James Ernest Greenslade; William Herewini, J.P.; Thomas McCristell, M.B.E., J.P.; John Lyle Noakes, M.B.E., J.P.; Ronald Francis Taylor.

Ordinary Members of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Rowland Newton Angove; George Easton Barber; Miss Barbara Isobel Louise Basham, J.P.; Clifford Halley Benson; Edward Henry Raymond Boyd; Donald William Cimino; Joyce Isabel, Mrs Clarke; Robert Maurice Conly, A.E.; Lieutenant Commander William George Costello; Jane Labatt, Mrs Crosse; Enid Joan, Mrs Durbin; Alexander Edwards, J.P.; Geoffrey Philip Howarth; Frederick Stanley Hutchings, J.P.; Helen Agnes, Mrs Jackman; Miss Patricia Frances McKelvey; Graham Neil Kenneth Mourie; Anthony Audrey St Clair Murray-Oliver; Brian Patrick Quinn; William Eaton Roberts, J.P.; George Colin Spratt; Dr Alan Samual Turner; Miss Elisabeth Marjorie Urquhart; John Gardiner Woolf.

Queen's Service Medal for Community Service (Q.S.M.):

Muriel Rhoda, Mrs Barber; Zylpha May, Mrs Bennett; Miss Winefride Marie Blake (Sister Mary Winefride); Colin Campbell; Dorothy Christian Gordon, Mrs Cook; Hazel Daphne, Mrs Dawson; Letitia Joan, Mrs Douglas; Mingao Noho Whane, Mrs Edwards; Leonard Edward Frances; Irene Mary, Mrs Gordon; Alexander John William Grant, J.P.; Florence Marie, Mrs Harsant; Manatenoki Sally, Mrs Karena; Mary Edith Evelyn, Mrs Knight (Mrs Painter); Odette Vivienne, Mrs Leather; Miss Marjorie Mary Maddren; Miss May Elizabeth Marriott: Isaac Frank Miller; James Nicholas; Victor John Carruthers Nicholson; J.P.; Wendy McGowan, Mrs Northcroft; Ivy Nora, Mrs Norton; Miss Irene Angola Oliver; Morris James William Paulger; George Arthur Pinckney; Hannah Maude Sheila Wilder, Mrs Sherratt; Henare Tuwhangai; Colleen Elizabeth, Mrs Beaton; Mabel, Mrs Bridge; Miss Pauline Dorothy Collins; Elizabeth Sandison, Mrs Daly; Frederick Arthur Hitchener; Minnie Te Miri, Mrs Kamo; Sylvia Theresa, Mrs Kenny, J.P., Hugh Francis Malcolm Logan; Dr Ronald Diarmid MacDiarmid; Colin Chalmers Monteath; Arthur Stewart Ombler, J.P.; Miss Dawn Rosemary Petersen; Joseph Herbert Hugh Pierce, M.B.E., E.D., J.P.; Miss Naomi Rickard, J.P.; Alois Schicker, J.P.; Alice May, Mrs Stuart; The Reverend Robert Beaumount Tait; Mitchell Daniel Tupari Walters, J.P.; Elsie Irene, Mrs Wiley.

Queen's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.F.S.M.):

Philip Hori Douche, J.P.; Clement Augustus Cornes; Graham Charles Howey, J.P.

POLICE LIST

Ordinary Officer of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Bryan William Gibson.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Service (Q.S.M.):

Lawrence Cecil Gabites; Hugh Graham Endicott-Davies.

Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.P.M.):

Edward John Trappitt. M.B.E.

MILITARY LIST

Ordinary Commander of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Commodore Eric Robinson Ellison, O.B.E.

Ordinary Officers of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Captain Geoffrey Frank Hopkins; Colonel Robert Angus Bums, E.D.; Group Captain Graeme Bernard Gilmore.

Ordinary Members of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Warrant Officer Seaman Ronald Arthur Francis Owen; Warrant Officer Stores Accountant Alan Thomas Johnson; Major Peter Lawerence Holes; Warrant Officer Class I Robin John Church; Major Frederick Lang Dennerly; Flight Lieutenant Gavin Robert Leckner; Squadron Leader Sydney Marcus Elliott.

Ordinary Member of the Royal Red Cross, First Class (R.R.C.):

Lieutenant Colonel Helen Judith Macann, A.R.R.C.

British Empire Medal, Military Division (B.E.M.):

Staff Sergeant Lance Gordon King; Sergeant Rex Charles Johnson; Corporal Tere William Kururangi; Temporary Sergeant James Edward Bolton; Sergeant Rodney Eric Lush; Sergeant Donald John Ashton; Sergeant Robin John Allan.

NEW ZEALAND'S REPRESENTATIVES OVERSEAS

Australia—High Commission, Commonwealth Avenue, Canberra, A.C.T. 2600.

Consulate-General, 60 Park Street (comer Park and Elizabeth Streets), Sydney, N.S.W. 2000 (G.P.O. Box 365, Sydney, N.S.W. 2001).

Government Tourist Office, 115 Pitt Street, Sydney, N.S.W., 2000 (G.P.O. Box 614, Sydney N.S.W. 2001).

Consulate-General, 330 Collins Street, Melbourne, Vic. 3000 (G.P.O. Box 2136T, Melbourne, Vic. 3000).

Government Tourist Office, 332 Collins Street, Melbourne, Vic. 3000 (G.P.O. Box 2136T, Melbourne, Vic. 3001).

Consulate, Watkins Place Building, 288 Edward Street, Brisbane, Qld. 4001 (G.P.O. Box 62).

Government Tourist Office, Watkins Place Building, 288 Edward Street, Brisbane, Qld. 4001 (G.P.O. Box 62).

Consulate, 5th Floor, St. George's Court, 16 St. George's Terrace, Perth, W.A. 6000 (G.P.O. Box X2227, Perth, W.A. 6001).

Austria—Embassy, Hollandstrasse 2/XII, A-1020 Vienna (Postal address: Postfach 1471, A-1011 Vienna).

Bahrain—Consulate-General, 1st Floor, Manama Centre Building, Government Road, Manama. (Postal address: P.O. Box 5881, Manama, Bahrain).

Bangladesh—High Commissioner resident in New Delhi.

Barbados—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Belgium—Embassy, Boulevard du Regent 47–48, 1000 Brussels.

Britain—High Commission, New Zealand House, Haymarket, London SW 1Y 4TQ.

Brunei—High Commissioner resident in Kuala Lumpur.

Burma—Ambassador resident in Kuala Lumpur.

Canada—High Commission. Metropolitan House, 99 Bank Street, Ottawa, Ontario KIP 6G3. Consulate-General, Suite 2922, 2 Bloor East, Toronto, Ontario M4W IA8. Consulate, Suite 1160–701, West Georgia Street, I.B.M. Tower, Vancouver (P.O. Box 10071, Pacific Centre), Vancouver, B.C. V7Y 1B6.

Chile—Embassy, Avenida Isidora Goyenechea 3516 Las Condes, Santiago.

China, People's Republic of—Embassy, Ritan Dongerjie No. 1, Chao Yang District, Peking.

Cook Islands—Office of the New Zealand Representative, 1st Floor, Philatelic Bureau Building, Takuvaine Road, Avarua, Rarotonga (P.O. Box 21, Rarotonga).

Czechoslovakia—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Denmark—Ambassador resident in Brussels.

Egypt, Arab Republic of—Ambassador resident in Rome.

European Communities—Ambassador resident in Brussels. N.Z. Mission to the European Communities, Boulevard Duregent, 47–48, 1000 Brussels.

Fiji—High Commission, Ratu Sukuna House, corner of Victoria Parade and MacArthur Street (P.O. Box 1378), Suva.

Finland—Ambassador resident in Moscow.

France—Embassy, 7 ter, rue Leonard de Vinci, 75116 Paris.

Consulate-General, 4, Boulevard Vauban, Noumea, New Caledonia (Postal Address: Boîte Postale 2219).

New Zealand Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Ltd., rue du General de Gaulle, Papeete.

Germany, Federal Republic of—Embassy, Bonn Centre, HI 902, Bundeskanzlerplatz, D-5300 Bonn. Government Tourist Office, Rathenauplatz 1A, D-6000 Frankfurt Main.

German Democratic Republic—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Greece—Embassy, 15–17a Tsoha Street, Ambelokipi, Athens, T.T. 618.

Guyana—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Holy See—Ambassador resident in Paris.

Hong Kong—Commission, 3414 Connaught Centre, Connaught Road (G.P.O. Box 2790), Hong Kong.

Hungary—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

India—High Commission, 39, Golf Links, New Delhi 110003.

Indonesia—Embassy, Jalan Diponegoro No. 41, Menteng, Jakarta. (Postal address: Kotak Pos. 2439 DKT).

Iran—Embassy, Avenue Mirzai Shirazi, Afshin Street, No. 29 (P.O. Box 128), Tehran.

Iraq—Embassy, 2D/19, Zuwiya, Jadriyah, Baghdad (near Baghdad University), (P.O. Box 2350 Alwiyah).

Ireland—Ambassador resident in London.

Italy—Embassy, Via Zara, 28, Rome 00198.

Jamaica—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Japan—Embassy, 20–40 Kamiyama-cho, Shibuya-Ku, Tokyo 150.

Kiribati—High Commissioner resident in Suva.

Korea—Embassy, 2nd Floor, Publishers Association Building, No. 105–2, Sayan-dong, Chongro-ku (G.P.O. Box 1059), Seoul.

Lao People's Democratic Republic—Ambassador resident in Bangkok.

Luxembourg—Ambassador resident in Brussels.

Malaysia—High Commission, 193 Jalan Pekeliling (P.O. Box 2003), Kuala Lumpur.

Maldives—Ambassador resident in Singapore.

Malta—High Commissioner resident in Rome.

Mexico—Ambassador resident in Washington.

Mongolian People's Republic—Ambassador resident in Moscow.

Nauru—High Commissioner resident in Suva.

Nepal—Ambassador resident in New Delhi.

Netherlands—Embassy, Lange Voorhout 18, 2514 EE The Hague.

Niue—Office of the New Zealand Representative (P.O. Box 78), Niue.

Norway—Ambassador resident in The Hague.

O.E.C.D.—Mission, 7 ter, me Leonard de Vinci, 75116 Paris.

Pakistan—Ambassador resident in Tehran.

Papua New Guinea—High Commission, 6th Floor, Australian Government Building, Waigani, Port Moresby (P.O. Box 1144, Boroko, Port Moresby).

Peru—Embassy, Avenida Salaverry 3006, San Isidro (Postal address: Casilla 5587), Lima.

Philippines—Embassy, 10th Floor, Bankmer Building, 6756 Ayala Avenue (P.O. Box 2208, Makati Commercial Centre), Makati, Metro, Manila.

Poland—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Romania—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Saudi Arabia—Ambassador resident in Rome.

Singapore—High Commission, 13 Nassim Road, Singapore 1025.

Solomon Islands—High Commission, Soltel House, Mendana Avenue (P.O. Box 697), Honiara.

Spain—Ambassador resident in Paris.

Sri Lanka—High Commissioner resident in Singapore.

Sweden—Ambassador resident in The Hague.

Switzerland—Consulate-General, 28A chemin du Petit-Saconnex, CH-1209 Geneva (Postal address: Case Postale 84, CH-1211 Geneva 19).

Thailand— Embassy, 93 Wireless Road (P.O. Box 2719), Bangkok 5.

Tonga—High Commission, Tungi Arcade, Taufa'ahau Road, Nuku'alofa (P.O. Box 830).

Trinidad and Tobago—Acting High Commissioner, Furness Withy Building, 84–86 Independence Square (P.O. Box 823), Port of Spain

Tuvalu—High Commissioner resident in Suva.

Vanuatu—High Commissioner resident in Honiara.

United Nations—New Zealand Permanent Mission to the United Nations, One U.N. Plaza, 25th Floor, New York, N.Y. 10017.

New Zealand Mission to the Office of the United Nations in Geneva, 28A chemin de Petit-Saconnex, CH-1209 Geneva, (Postal address: Case Postale 84, CH-1211 Geneva 19).

United States—Embassy, 37 Observatory Circle, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008.

Consulate-General, Suite 530, 630 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10020.

Consulate-General, Alcoa Building, Suite 970, 1 Maritime Plaza, San Francisco, Ca. 94111.

Consulate-General, Suite 1530, Tishman Building, 10960 Wilshire Boulevard, Los Angeles, Ca. 90024.

New Zealand Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Ltd., Suite 1700, Waikiki Business Plaza, 2270 Kalakaua Avenue, Waikiki, Ha, 96815.

U.S.S.R.—Embassy, 44 Ulitsa Vorovskovo, Moscow, 121069.

Western Samoa—High Commission, Beach Road (P.O. Box 208), Apia.

Yugoslavia—Ambassador resident in Rome.

DIPLOMATIC, CONSULAR, AND OTHER REPRESENTATION IN NEW ZEALAND

Argentina—Embassy of the Argentine Republic, 13th floor, Dalmuir House, 114 The Terrace, Wellington.

Australia—Australian High Commission, 72–78 Hobson Street, Thorndon, Wellington. Consulate-General, Lorne Towers, 10 Lorne Street, Auckland.

Austria—Hon. Consul-General, Commerce House, 126 Wakefield Street, Wellington.

Belgium—Embassy of Belgium, 1–3 Willeston Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 40, Devore Street, St. Heliers Bay, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 132 Tuam Street, Christchurch.

Brazil—Hon. Consul, 8 Commerce Street, Auckland.

Britain—British High Commission, Reserve Bank Building, 2 The Terrace, Wellington.

Consulate-General, Norwich Union Building, Queen Street, Auckland 1.

Hon. Consul, 44B Glandovey Road, Fendalton, Christchurch.

Canada—Canadian High Commission, ICI House Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Chile—Embassy of the Republic of Chile, 12th Floor, Robert Jones House, Jervois Quay, Wellington. Hon. Consul, c/o Hoescht (NZ) Ltd., 280–288, Parnell Road, Auckland.

China—Embassy of the People's Republic of China, 2–6 Glenmore Street, Wellington.

Cook Islands—Consular Office of the Cook Islands, 330 Parnell Rd, Parnell, Auckland.

Costa Rica—Hon. Consul-General, 2–12 Parnell Road, Auckland.

Czechoslovakia—Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, 12 Anne Street, Wellington.

Denmark—Hon. Consul-General, 105–109, The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul-General, Princes Court, Princes Street, Auckland.

Danish Trade Representative, Princes Court, Princes Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 100 Cumnor Terrace, Woolston, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, 12–20 St. Andrew Street, Dunedin.

Ecuador—Hon. Consul, Databank House, 175 The Terrace, Wellington.

Egypt, Arab Republic of—Embassy of the Arab Republic of Egypt, Dalmuir House, The Terrace, Wellington.

El Salvador—Hon. Consul, Gladstone Buildings, 5 Anzac Street Takapuna, Auckland.

Fiji—Fiji High Commission, 2nd Floor, Robert Jones House, Jervois Quay, Wellington.

Finland—Hon. Consul-General, 126 Wakefield Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Enfield Street, Auckland 3.

Hon. Consul, Durham Courts, cnr. Durham and Wordsworth Streets, Sydenham, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, Mutual Fund Building, 11 Bond Street, Dunedin.

France—Embassy of France, 14th Floor, Robert Jones House, 1–3 Willeston Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, comer of Princes Street and Eden Crescent, Auckland 1.

Office of the Trade Representative for France, U.D.C. Building, cnr. Albert and Wyndham Streets, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, c/o Fletcher, Humphreys and Co. Ltd., 904–908 Colombo Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, c/o University of Otago, Dunedin.

Germany, West—Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany, 23rd Floor, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 1st Floor, Queen's Arcade Building, Customs Street East, Auckland 1.

Greece—Hon. Consul-General, 270 Wakefield Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Prudential Assurance Building, 9 Manukau Road, Epsom, Auckland.

Holy See—Apostolic Nunciature, 112 Queen's Drive, Lyall Bay, Wellington 3.

Iceland—Hon. Consul-General, 88 Oriental Parade, Wellington.

India—Office of the High Commissioner for India, Lamphouse Chambers, 49 Willis Street, Wellington.

Indonesia—Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, 9 and 11 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington 1.

Ireland—Hon. Consul, 2nd Floor, Dingwall Building, 87 Queen Street, Auckland.

Israel—Embassy of Israel, 13th Floor, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Italy—Embassy of Italy, 38 Grant Road, Wellington.

Hon. Consular Agent, 1 Princes Street, Auckland.

Office of the Trade Representative for Italy, 95 Queen Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consular Agent, c/o Aldurwood Supplies Ltd., 98 Vagues Road, Christchurch.

Hon. Consular Agent, 356 High Street, Dunedin.

Japan—Embassy of Japan, 7th and 8th Floors, Norwich Insurance House, 3–11 Hunter Street, Wellington.

Consulate-General of Japan, 6th Floor, National Mutual Building, 37–45 Shortland Street, Auckland.

Consular Office of Japan, Allan McLean Building, 210 Oxford Terrace, Christchurch.

Kiribati—Hon. Consul, 33 Great South Road, Otahuhu, Auckland.

Korea—Embassy of the Republic of Korea, 12th Floor, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Rainger House, 150 Victoria Street West, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 126 Cashel Street, Christchurch.

Malaysia—High Commission of Malaysia, Chase-NBA House, 163–165 The Terrace, Wellington. Hon. Consul, 14 Hazeldean Road, Christchurch.

Mexico—Hon. Consul, Tatra House, 96 Tory Street, Wellington.

Nauru—Consulate-General of Nauru, Samoa House, Level 3, 283 Karangahape Road, Auckland.

Netherlands—Royal Netherlands Embassy, 10th Floor, Investment Centre, Corner Ballance and Featherston Streets, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, c/o Russell and Somers Ltd., 83 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, Amsterdam House, 161–163 Kilmore Street, Christchurch.

Norway—Hon. Consul-General, 38–42 Waring Taylor Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 13 Brighton Terrace, Mairangi Bay, Auckland 10.

Hon. Consul, 164 Hereford Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, 365 Princes Street, Dunedin.

Papua New Guinea—Papua New Guinea High Commission, Construction House, 82 Kent Terrace, Wellington.

Peru—Hon. Consul, Hon. Vice-Consul, 83 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Philippines—Embassy of the Philippines, Level 30, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Hon. Consul-General, 93–97 Dominion Road, Mount Eden, Auckland 1.

Poland—Embassy of the Polish People's Republic, 17 Upland Road, Kelburn, Wellington.

Portugal—Hon. Consul, 47–51 Fort Street, Auckland.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 352 Stuart Street, Dunedin.

Romania—Consulate-General, 100 Evans Bay Road, Wellington.

Singapore—High Commission, 17 Kabul Street, Khandallah, Wellington.

South Africa—Consul-General, 1st and 5th Floors, Molesworth House, 101–103 Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Sri Lanka—Hon. Trade Commissioner, c/o Anderson Hay and Co., Huddart Parker Building, Wellington.

Sweden—Royal Swedish Embassy, 8th Floor, Greenock House, 39 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 37 St Georges Bay Road, Parnell, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 178 Cashel Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 40 Jetty Street, Dunedin.

Hon. Vice-Consul, The Crescent, Invercargill.

Switzerland—Embassy of Switzerland, Panama House, 22–24 Panama Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 48 Carr Road, Mount Roskill, Auckland.

Thailand—Royal Thai Embassy, 2 Burnell Avenue, Wellington.

Tonga—New Zealand Agents for the Government of Tonga, Cnr Church Street and Beachcroft Avenue, Onehunga, Auckland 6.

Turkey—Hon. Consul-General, 5th Floor, 228 Queen Street, Auckland.

Tuvalu—Hon. Consul, 33 Great South Road, Otahuhu, Auckland.

U.S.A.—Embassy of the United States of America, 29 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington 1.

Consulate-General, Cnr Shortland and O'Connell Streets, Auckland.

Consular Agent, c/o Lawrence Anderson Buddle, P.O. Box 13250, Christchurch.

U.S.S.R.—Embassy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 57 Messines Road, Karori, Wellington.

Western Samoa—High Commission for Western Samoa, 1A Wesley Road, Kelburn, Wellington.

Consulate-General, 4th Floor, Maota Samoa, 283 Karangahape Road, Auckland.

Yugoslavia—Embassy of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 24 Hatton Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 4th Floor, A.M.P. Building, corner of Queen and Victoria Streets, Auckland.

Countries with diplomatic representation in Canberra, Jakarta, or Tokyo with cross-accreditation to New Zealand are: Austria, Bangladesh, Brazil, Burma, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, German Democratic Republic, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Laos, Mexico, Mongolia, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sri Lanka, Turkey, and Viet Nam.

Fuller information is set out in the booklet New Zealand: Diplomatic Corps and Consular and Other Representatives, published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Wellington.

Chapter 40. STATISTICAL SUMMARY

TOTAL POPULATION AND EXTERNAL MIGRATION
YearPopulation*Mean Population*Natural IncreaseNet Migration
At 31 MarchAt 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 March

* Does not include armed forces personnel overseas.

Excluding tourists on cruising liners, crews, and members of armed forces, etc.

Provisional.

19301489203150680914780271493019156772385
19311511703152276214984161514215158055109
1932152554515347351517940152706214660−3172
1933153802815471241530119153959014342−2595
1934155012515583731542651155153213410−2335
1935156099215696891554297156223313486−3150
1936157392715846171565263157523113737−1114
1937158721116017581578757158997214681−353
19381604479161831315942751606763139712386
19391624714164163916113621628512169394963
19401640901163364516334471637305210706028
1941163623016312761635715163094822123714
1942163433816364031630419163957219701209
1943163409416420411640191163563517562541
1944164390016762861637570165579520988107
19451679972172781716645851694641238481018
19461756756178121417106801759526298042343
19471789476181745317702911798262322563038
19481828025185380618076111834655317775756
19491864560189204218437671871748312634181
19501902883192762918813171909092312477880
19511938032197052219179341947529309707522
195219847302024556195872919961493295015664
195320375532074781200950620488263353422032
195420877402118434206137620949103517915441
19552130927216473421057672138946363717030
19562175373220913221502902182833368358092
195722211692262814219410822325913756311492
195822755152315900224609322858524025515408
19592326129235974622988142334617406709992
19602370166240356723456022377010418873213
19612414296246124323880042426654436081620
196224745882515835244140024848734293318832
196325278682566915249835725369124211113639
196425824072616970255011425891503944115484
196526289002663843260121926353523707111991
196626767782711318264719626826043622512021
196727259142744963269468027276583801514435
1968275266227729332735207275351237648−8090
1969277721028040592760077278010138199−10848
1970281598728521372788839281960237210−2060
19712861000289660028313002864200401517845
197229067002954400287550029129003841410851
197329670003015800292770029708003541525475
197430306003079000298640030319003407533167
197530890003127900304700030870003152529141
19763124500314830030975003116200296485192
1977314040031519003120700312770028218−16270
1978314590031514003128900312940026360−22156
1979314470031509003129200312440026869−26544
1980314850031641003124800313130023866−22299
VITAL STATISTICS
YearNumbersRates per 1000 of Mean PopulationDeaths Under 1 Year per 1000 Live Births*Marriages
Live Births*DeathsDeaths Under 1 YearLive Births*DeathsNumberRate per 1000 Mean Population

* Figures have been revised to exclude registrations under Section 24 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1925 and Section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 (late registration).

Provisional.

19302882213145111219.308.8038.58114947.70
19312886713062107719.068.6337.31102546.77
19322753512875103918.038.4337.73104926.87
19332720412862104317.678.3538.34110677.19
19342722013810106017.548.9038.94117887.60
19352715013664112817.388.7441.55127448.16
19362839514658116818.039.3141.13144489.17
19372989615215117818.809.5739.40149739.42
19383084516874153719.2010.5049.83159599.93
19393287215933137120.199.7841.711779110.92
19403694515875136222.569.7036.871808411.04
19413917017047156224.0210.4539.88138308.48
19423781818117138823.0711.0536.70127757.79
19433468417122135021.2110.4738.92120217.35
19443803717049147322.9710.3038.73136468.24
19454153417686144924.5110.4434.89166939.85
19464752417720152427.0110.0732.072109611.99
19474969817442148727.649.7029.921904710.59
19484906217285135026.749.4227.52177509.67
19494884117578146826.099.3930.06173549.27
19504933118084136425.849.4727.65170998.96
19514980618836137425.579.6727.59169158.69
19525184618896147525.979.4728.45170618.55
19335188818354133525.338.9625.73172248.41
19545405518876130225.809.0124.09175578.38
19555559619225136525.998.9924.55177958.32
19565653119696131325.909.0223.23175318.03
19575842520862142026.179.3424.30176147.89
19586055620301141626.498.8823.38183058.01
19596179821128147726.479.0523.90183157.84
19606277920892142026.418.7922.62189097.96
19616539021782149026.958.9822.79194268.01
19626501422081133126.168.8920.47195727.88
19636452722416126925.448.8419.67198567.83
19646230222861119324.068.8319.15207208.00
19656004722976117422.793.7219.55217028.23
19666000323778106422.378.8617.73229498.55
19676102223007110222.378.4318.06235158.62
19686211224464116422.568.8818.74240578.74
19696236024161105722.438.6916.95249718.98
19706205024840104022.018.8116.76259539.20
19716446024309106622.518.4916.54271999.50
1972632152480198821.708.5115.63268689.22
1973607272531298520.448.5216.22262748.84
1974593362526192219.578.3315.54254128.38
1975566392511490418.358.1415.96245357.95
1976551052545776617.688.1713.90241547.75
1977541792596177017.328.3014.21225897.22
1978510292466970316.317.8813.78224267.17
19795227925340x653x16.738.11x12.49x22326x7.15x
1980505422667665016.148.5212.86229817.34
EDUCATION
Roll Numbers at Educational Institutions
At 1 JulyPrimarySecondaryHigher
State SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsState SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsTechnical Institutes (Full-time Students)Teachers' CollegesUniversity Institutions (Including Extra-mural and Part-time Students)
Includes kindergarten trainees.
19302192742661729.844513 11554801
193122097626448310534602 11655111
193221723626390309444512 9905171
193320358926097304734315 4435085
193420187026584309154430  5059
193520013526923316114743 4295101
193621349727540318945108 11855218
193721207627507321155595 13465238
193820996128271343456059 15225707
193920864127972356926266 15885979
194020843327868352736379 14575528
194120859527836332536451 15035065
194220872126983323916483 14634373
194320688428521348937184 17755953
194420729229223407238121 16787267
194521174229583442798933 14318425
194621812930581449859424 157511361
194722980431929452499968 163411874
194823524332818451099793 187511964
1949244377339414651210243 232111598
1950254664357754823210511 268411515
1951265230371095068211045 270410956
1952282699393425412411622 27101069
1953298481412775955812476 276910831
1954311541427976634413627 283410803
1955320580440867211714970 284710851
1956332049462617535415832 296311077
1957344959479537884316265 321811761
1958356224484188269916984 360212881
1959365761515498950817663 375314388
196037182552887993651929371383815809
19613764755407910963220752221381416820
19623843135529311852322290441422317214
19633925955634112497823603532453618303
19644042575715412870924439620469119640
19654155825724413209425073857479022145
196642991656050136104255851163502224302
196744504554910141922262321355515626313
196845511953782152422270201485609628821
196946130552407155873279101661691231494
197046546050904157797284411882758734446
197146709751009160839292672236779137257
197246869250859166851298043118808838482
197347027350711171978302013378781138995
197447309950574177582310143561761639949
197547457850745187950318043840721142436
197647511349899197912323794513752146207
197747362149309199734322814946683447706
197847214448893202756322875960623448511
1979x46762148355198124320046286582049188x
1980x46098345619195090312566842591951522
JUSTICE
YearMagistrates' Courts*Supreme Court*Prisoners in Jail at End of Year (Undergoing Sentence)
Summary ConvictionsRate per 1000 of Mean PopulationPersons SentencedRate per 1000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1000 of Population as at 31 Dec

* From 1 April 1980 the name of the Supreme Court was changed to the High Court, and Magistrates Courts became District Courts.

Provisional. See page 238. Excludes minor traffic offences.

19302519216.875380.3615231.01
19312325915.366000.4016141.06
19322323615.226360.4215220.99
19332035513.225310.3414100.91
19341965412.674900.3211990.77
19351967212.594720.3011120.71
19362145013.624620.299150.58
19372356314.825070.327900.49
19382376214.784880.307770.48
19392477415.215710.358950.55
19402567015.675470.338630.53
19412452915.045420.339880.61
1942  4570.2810340.63
1943  4940.3010240.62
1944  5600.349450,56
1945  6190.379980.58
1946  6550.379920.56
19472018711.227400.4110880.60
19482191011.947170.399860.53
19492202111.766760.369410.50
19502110211.056420.3410430.54
19512240911.506440.3310400.53
19522715113.607040.3510830.54
19532899414.151790.0910880.52
19543148815.031480.0711960.57
19553244415.161470.0711180.52
19563530216.172040.0913620.62
19573696916.551990.0914740.66
19583539315.482060.0916420.72
19593183713.362120.0917140.73
19603397014.292860.1217770.75
19613531814.552940.1218180.75
19623831215.412650.1217070.69
19633912815.423090.1217650.69
19643954915.242420.0916890.65
19653996515.163040.1216530.63
19664214915.702800.1018980.71
19674749117.403180.1219830.73
19685235119.013510.1320230.73
19695401019.423140.1119670.71
19705556019.703600.1323650.84
19716170121.544040.1425440.88
19726527422.424760.1624470.83
19736847723.064790.1623700.78
19747276224.005450.1822950.74
19758265526.786690.2225930.82
19769167529.427100.2327130.86
197710867834.746870.2227110.86
1978  7250.2324240.77
1979  7140.2327420.87
SUMMARY OF PRICE MOVEMENTS (I)
Base: December Quarter 1977. (= 100 for terms of trade. For all other indexes = 1000.)
YearImport PricesExport PricesTerms of TradeWholesale Prices*
Pastoral and DairyAll ExportsImportedHome ProducedAll Commodities
* Wholesale Prices Index replaced by General Price Index (which see) from December quarter 1977. This index was later renamed the Producers Price Index.
193010611811610993122109
19319989899091108102
19329481818691102100
19339680818496100102
19349510110010595103103
193593979810595111107
19369311211111995114107
193799132130131103122116
193899122121122104125118
193999119118119106133122
1940114138136119125136136
1941127141140110140144149
1942140145143102154151161
194315515215097170153172
194416215915898175156177
1945165172170103178159180
1946184189186101177162181
1947219239233106181173187
1948224266259116204190209
1949204258251123199194207
1950223366355159211221226
1951261430416159246257263
1952285343334117278279292
1953269383372138264295290
1954265390379143252309287
1955270400389144256309290
1956277391380137263326301
1957287386374130270323305
1958285327319112279331313
1959279374364130286335318
1960282362353125282338319
1961284342334118283336318
1962277348341123283333316
1963277385373135289339322
1964282420407144289357334
1965282405393139295368343
1966282401389138300374349
1967287364355124311380357
1968338389382113348399382
1969351414405115364420401
1970372415407109387445425
1971395456441112416478457
1972411551531129444512489
1973433930680157471591551
1974549693669122556617595
197572464266392701661674
197689286987498849813825
197798010141003102966959961
19781017x10811066105x   
1979114913121291112   
198015071505149499   
SUMMARY OF PRICE MOVEMENTS (II)
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
YearImport Prices (All Groups)Export Prices (All Groups)Wholesale Prices*Consumers PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
ImportedHome ProducedAll CommoditiesFoodAll Groups
* See note to previous table.
Year Ended 31 March
1940  108135124133137273
1945  176156177144159361
1950  200197209179185420
1955265383252311288277256490
1960279371285336318303299657
1963274347284333317312315768
1964279387290343325322322887
1965282403290360337341335996
1966282391296370345348345946
1967282381302375350357356874
1968299355319384362381378805
19693413903544043873953951044
19703544073674254064134131234
19713784113944534334474461189
19723974634254854654824901078
19734175734495295025055211232
19744446944846055645735701373
19755936505886166066286371051
19767707107436917097147371059
19779239248798558638438551109
19789831000   9769801023
19791027x1107   107710871139
198012341371   129912571182
1981     15441463 
Year Ended 30 June
1940 134113136128134139276
1945 167177157178144160364
1950213287203202213183187432
1955266378254311289279257499
1960282373284338319303299706
1963276356286334318314317785
1964280402289348328326325917
19652813962923633393443381004
1966282393297372346351348929
1967282372305377353364361852
1968311361328387367383381831
19693463993584093924004001111
19703604083724304114194191249
19713854194024624424564581151
19724024864304934724894991087
19734216194545485165185311303
19744736935036135765885831326
19756266346226246236426601018
19768257787847297487467671059
19779419649098928988388831097
19789961012   100410081044
19791045x1167   112411191143
198013261419   135813101322
1981     16021515 
PRICE AND WAGE MOVEMENTS
Bases: December Quarter 1977 for CPI and share prices (= 1000); 31 December 1974 for wage rates (= 1000).
YearConsumers' PricesShare Prices (All Groups)Weekly Wage Rates (Adult Males)
FoodAll GroupsNominalEffective*

* Index numbers of effective or “real” wage rates are obtained by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices and multiplying by 1000.

See Wages section of this Yearbook and Latest Statistical Information section for wage rates for all adult employees on new base.

1930122135283121582
1931106125228112583
193297115216103579
19339110925299586
193497111295100585
1935104115312102573
1936109119297113617
1937119127300123628
1938124131281129639
1939131136268131624
1940134142281135614
1941138148281139610
1942141152284145617
1943142156330150622
1944144159359152620
1945144161378164661
1946144162418171684
1947153167441177686
1948173181427189677
1949177184412200707
1950195194463213712
1951224216505243730
1952247232417255712
1953262243416272725
1954275254479293747
1955282260508303754
1956298269524309743
1957297275572323706
1958302287540327738
1959303298612333724
1960308300782349754
1961311306755355752
1962312314751364752
1963318320849373755
1964337331977385753
196534634397x408771
1966353352899420773
1967378373804442767
1968390389961459764
19694094091202485769
19704364351233548815
19714754811076672906
19724985141170734926
19735545561381819955
19746186181123932978
197568370810361059969
197681082811261184926
197794894710261346921
1978104910601114
1979123112061209
198014831412 
LABOUR FORCE, UNEMPLOYMENT, AND INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES
YearTotal Labour Force*Registered Unemployed Monthly AverageIndustrial Stoppages
MalesFemalesTotalNumberTotal Duration (Days)Workers InvolvedWorking Days Lost

* Estimated labour force as at 15 April of each year. The Department of Labour publishes estimates as at 15 April and 15 October of each year. April estimates are frequently a little higher than those for the following October because of seasonal employment.

The National Employment Service was established as from 1 April 1946 under the Employment Act 1945. Prior to 1942 a State Placement Service had operated a system of local labour exchanges. From 1342 to the end of March 1946 this was merged in the Industrial Manpower Division of the National Service Departments.

The Department of Labour has recently revised the estimated labour force figures back to 1971 to conform with the benchmarks provided by 1971 and 1976 Census of Population data.

§ Estimates based on February 1980 survey.

 (000)(000)(000)   (000)(000)
1948544.6170.3714.96710160828.593.5
1949550.8172.5723.39212367261.5218.2
1950559.2176.7735.93812956791.5271.5
1951560.4180.3740.738109346436.91157.4
1952572.2182.4754.6475010816.328.1
1953588.1178.6766.7857314522.219.3
1954601.8185.2787.0586113616.220.5
1955609.2191.1800.3566521120.252.0
1956619.5194.4813.92595039013.623.9
1957629.6200.3829.93945116515.528.2
1958641.7206.2847.97854915213.718.8
1959651.3210.5861.811887322918.829.7
1960660.6215.0875.66336034414.335.7
1961670.5224.8895.33767135316.638.2
1962680.9230.7911.610409649839.993.2
1963693.7236.2929.98496036614.954.5
1964709.8248.1957.96509333334.866.8
1965728.9262.5991.451310528715.321.8
1966745.6280.41026.046314546233.199.1
1967759.4293.11052.538528934728.5139.5
1968756.2287.21043.4688115362237.5130.3
1969764.7296.51061.2292616968344.0138.7
1970779.2311.51090.716003231394110.1277.3
1971777.5x326.9x1104.4x3115313138986.0162.6
1972787.5x332.8x1120.3x5684266125760.4134.5
1973807.8x348.0x1155.8x23213941892115.9271.7
1974830.6x373.7x1204.3x955380153070.9183.7
1975843.2x385.2x1228.4x4166428182974.8214.6
1976853.1x397.4x1250.5x53564871986201.1488.4
1977857.6x411.8x1269.4x73855622174159.4436.8
1978860.3418.51278.8223304111347157.9380.6
1979863.3436.51299.8252395231863158.2381.9
1980863.1446.31309.4§364993511280108.1360.0
POSTAL AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Year Ended 31 MarchMail Posted*TelephonesTollsTelegramsMoney Orders and Postal NotesRevenueExpenditure

* Calendar year until 1945. Includes letters, other articles, and parcels.

Installed as at 31 March. At 31 March 1980 there were 1114910 subscribers (including applicants).

 million(000)millionmillionmillion$(m)$(m)
1930271161.311.46.04.77.37.2
1931233161.710.75.53.67.47.4
1932218160.89.53.93.37.56.7
1933231155.69.03.43.56.66.5
1934243155.19.13.54.06.46.4
1935263159.19.93.44.56.66.6
1936267166.611.43.84.67.17.1
1937274178.613.14.34.57.87.7
1938304192.014.54.64.78.58.5
1939296206.215.64.94.39.19.1
1940266217.915.74.53.49.79.2
1941262228.316.14.23.210.19.6
1942 235.416.94.53.110.510.0
1943 238.417.65.73.011.210.4
1944 244.818.16.33.011.810.3
1945237256.719.56.53.012.611.8
1946 265.821.07.3 13.312.7
1947294282.322.77.13.316.414.3
1948301300.623.96.73.417.116.4
1949319322.825.36.73.418.018.0
1950343348.527.16.93.418.118.4
1951358370.027.26.93.321.821.2
1952347394.628.37.03.424.624.8
1953358425.229.37.03.426.626.7
1954359456.331.17.03.431.731.0
1955386496.334.07.33.534.734.0
1956408534.536.57.63.737.136.7
1957412568.338.87.53.640.039.9
1958439605.241.97.53.544.244.1
1959446641.343.97.23.645.345.2
1960464686.047.57.33.848.548.4
1961495744.851.77.54.153.353.2
1962507801.955.57.24.460.160.0
1963526850.658.27.14.264.964.8
1964534902.061.07.24.470.270.1
1965551962.664.47.24.677.876.6
19665731025.167.67.34.787.084.9
19675761085.169.17.24.991.593.6
19685681119.467.76.14.8106.6100.8
19695751155.568.35.94.9112.8106.6
19705951202.667.05.74.9119.5117.1
19716151262.467.95.55.5129.8143.5
19726221304.764.85.15.4169.8169.5
19736451358.167.15.05.5186.9188.9
19746691444.073.94.95.4206.3212.5
19756991531.277.64.65.2236.5257.2
19767071610.480.74.35.1262.9301.6
19776621674.179.43.64.3367.5346.3
19786511715.383.03.54.1440.0402.3
19796601677.386.23.2 514.5464.9
19806541730.089.52.8 604.3533.4
19816591799.598.22.5 710.7622.1
GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS
Year Ended 31 MarchKilometres Open for TrafficRevenue Train-KilometresRail Passenger JourneysGoods and LivestockRevenue*Expenditure*
* Figures relate to railway operation only.
  (000)(000)tonnes(000)$(000)$(000)
193153461815722814707013,56212,812
193253351636519151591811,57810,604
193353351581818367557910,6789,668
193453431635619047573311,2589,754
193553431710119654612111,81610,278
193653431778320358628812,48811,046
193753431910021235692213,80812,676
193853482056422441763715,18414,584
193953412103923266766016,01015,328
194054562151224454779717,52415,886
194154562182326277856119,38816,814
194254562249728611861020,76817,806
194355682436536133903024,83020,040
194456392467038611917226,93022,732
194556392060432995909824,89623,394
194656782165432418935826,21025,100
194756782119328869947925,64827,290
194856752206725887967627,92830,180
194956752236226168982130,67833,576
1950567523208258951010832,12434,722
195156832277724824977037,00037,450
195256951990921292998740,19443,030
1953568921580214551018745,17845,510
195456392207923272979047,36447,242
1955561523207247351050254,01851,084
1956550723953250751084955,74253,550
1957550124304253771049157,01457,388
1958557823858248171049860,02062,128
1959550423504254371053359,64661,010
1960536923303261341071260,54261,516
1961536423775262331100462,85862,978
1962536224056263241099663,39063,632
1963525123456256651020562,75266,874
1964525424008257341126867,64867,946
1965523724669251371216472,78671,932
1966523224829238891207974,75373,228
1967516924718237231171975,02875,151
1968501822272221861075171,65371,880
1969492921641222611097174,60272,892
1970492921396210311177983,19479,8e6
1971484721877207841204086,99996,502
19724807213762011511493101,296107,277
19734805213991856512322112,162117,197
19744799224471894413378125,789135,363
19754797222291889412883124,921166,657
19764797220532003513197137,287194,829
19774724213031847813601202,419214,796
19784668200731640212577212,748251,863
19794577201501674911721237,266287,241
19804516187821601111755274,369331,360
19814449190801493411392331,783384,477
AGRICULTURE
SeasonWheat for ThreshingYield of
AreaYieldYield per HectareOatsBarleyPeas for ThreshingPotatoes
 hectarestonnestonnestonnestonnestonnestonnes
1929–30954821970322.0654474171248008132195
1930–311007722062742.0561265189996570153957
1931–321087621791551.6551133121888420118617
1932–331224303008722.46931181272415933131151
1933–341158302459242.12588321657819005133148
1934–35912121614791.77342951099311881110874
1935–361006202411132.40599231690515315122946
1936–37897551951102.17639651694113091128341
1937–38752511644662.19479172462910138149141
1938–39765991514341.9847262244211053289078
1939–401042202180032.09377602077015327143370
1940–41984182260522.3056518241862018295634
1941–421044102359972.2662503294082319091042
1942–431161442672432.30509622398724201141276
1943–44946101961862.07332821888824187164104
1944–45744161903002.56763713141128238127704
1945–46651741480292.27507474246422233142503
1946–47572251460992.55487394596833508117620
1947–48500801235342.47517744735431008157506
1948–49593701621542.73674705117432528111404
1949–50506501333492.63475425519933822137601
1950–51585841706972.91331664314717031121700
1951–52364041058752.9144807494921987670962
1952–53514861231612.3943276485331672296171
1953–54460591301802.83171537564725957158445
1954–55420831119512.66290684517624098146472
1955–5627712723522.61353344607517278102293
1956–5726605802953.02524056474223015147578
1957–58339681014372.99264938056528491159627
1958–59537881643533.06285906035422585152332
1959–60660282367853.59331157114325142159324
1960–61755902533573.35426277746725331193495
1961–62753882132482.83342218075320765191049
1962–63913572491982.73186639529327230184357
1963–64825402739973.322808013099529985203999
1964–65744502502983.364524910590723891246965
1965–66807452917843.614352011407728798234563
1966–67933053477593.732818013401432185187358
1967–681266514423303.494475421939936300235835
1968–691299754566483.515214823256956617256350
1969–701083942872122.655771217444649601253204
1970–71975283256463.345975225932051856209927
1971–721065963891563.654945733549057519219970
1972–731076903761113.494496525826159733244211
1973–74674142145823.186322624156952882206192
1974–75576561798743.125021926288147522225522
1975–761037423881783.744182028549554515248321
1976–77962363540353.685799727209645023270497
1977–78909323287563.615154025869059051237291
1978–79871562950283.385824926358063407203285
1979–80859523057683.566203922834769252213557
LIVESTOCK
YearBeef CattleDairy Cows in MilkTotal Dairy-CattleTotal CattleSheepPigs
* Coverage to 1959 relates to holdings of 1 acre and over; thereafter to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries, except that Manukau City has been included since Manukau County was absorbed by the city. Since 1970 the coverage applies to 1 hectare and over. Figures previous to 1980 are as at 31 January of year stated, except for sheep which are as at 30 June. From 1980 all figures are as at 30 June.
 (000)(000)(000)(000)(000)(000)
1930 1390 377030841488
1931 1479 404429793469
1932 1562 407228692506
1933 1703 415527756584
1934 1796 426428649653
1935 1807 425729077755
1936 1803 421730114801
1937 1785 435231306795
1938 1743 446932379749
1939 1724 452831897676
1940 1719 449631063706
1941 1759 4.53931752769
1942 1757 4642 689
1943 1715 4448 605
1944 1648 443933200573
1945 1679 459133975594
19462066166226004667 549
1947204816582586463432682546
1948207817142638471632483548
1949204117472681472332845545
1950208818502867495533857555
1951214918982911506034786564
1952228219062883516535384566
1953247819622968544636193628
1954263419993110574538011649
1955280819953079588739117681
1956    40255 
1957286119982948580942382602
1958291519672970588646026628
1959297019313004597346876692
1960*301918872973599247134660
1961333419293111644648462655
1962346219683136659848988686
1963355819973133669150190766
1964356820113128669651292771
1965362820323174680153748716
1966385620883362721857343667
1967424121313506774760030603
1968454922323698824760474614
1969481223043793860559937553
1970504823213729877760276578
1971*528022393539881958913617
1972541422003360877460883580
1973573321903355908856684507
1974614221403273941555883507
1975652820803125965355320500
1976676920923008977756400505
1977650520742966947259105536
1978619720532932912962163539
1979558220402917849963523503
1980*516219992969813168772434
AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION
SeasonWool ProductionMilkfat ProductionSawn Timber Production*Meat Production§
Total Production (Greasy Equivalent)Average Price (Greasy Wool)Total ValueTotal ProductionYield per Cow in Milk||Average Revenue per kg

* Year ended 31 March.

Milkfat for butter making only. These figures do not include payments for non-fat solids in the whole milk delivered for butter manufacture; therefore they cannot be used as a measure of total income from milk or manufacture.

Provisional.

§ Year ended September.

|| Calculated from 1966–67 on “at factory” basis.

 tonnes (000)c per kg$(m)tonnes (000)kgc per kgm3 (000)tonnes (000)
1930–31117104312.31469821.12540 
1931–321229.6611.8154982021363 
1932–3312694611.918010416.53392 
1933–3413220.3526.819410716.53467 
1934–3512012.0214.418610217.46576 
1935–3613816.7823.119810922.97691 
1936–3713728.8639.720811525.18722 
1937–3813518.4524.919711227.93762 
1938–3914916.8425.118110430.31748 
1939–4014122.4433.219511230.69793 
1940–4115122.4935.521111930.69807 
1941–4215620.5137.019811230.86765 
1942–4315425.6441.318510631.42807 
1943–4415025.6640.217610533.44828 
1944–4516925.6845.319611537.30802 
1945–4616625.5144.116910038.96814550
1946–4716633.0054.518511043.54835569
1947–4816446.1475.819010948.881017558
1948–4916647.4278.920711751.081109565
1949–5017769.78123421111353.641128586
1950–51177161.38285.522211656.951246538
1951–5218573.83136.322511763.561357612
1952–5319084.86160.924012268.341357587
1953–5419392.33178.422311171.471354598
1954–5520691.25188.322811370.171454647
1955–5621084.86177.823811869.821477693
1956–57223100.60224.023511770.001409681
1957–5822575.62170.125012767.791409699
1958–5924566.27162.325012960.251503743
1959–6026282.03214.724512969.451638785
1960–6126774.12197.724912861.551687770
1961–6226671.98191.724812560.801635834
1962–6328178.70221.325312660451517841
1963–64279101.17283.126513164.291572866
1964–6528377.40218.828213867.621737836
1965–6631576.46241.129214068.941787843
1966–6732264.77208.429613568.951770905
1967–6833050.42166.528912465.5416211002
1968–6933261.86205.430112565.8116971030
1969–7032856.48185.327811366.1818061051
1970–7133453.42178.427911670.0718531055
1971–7232266.46214.229212773.5417491082
1972–73309143.96444.528012276.7717871097
1973–74285139.19396.426111876.662054990
1974–7529491.75269.827312880.8920861089
1975–76312157.12489.9296137744220031234
1976–77303219.58664.230314381.8622121152
1977–78311190.43591.927913196.8019611160
1978–79321218.85701.5301142 18651119
1979–80357265.09945.0322151 20101151
MANUFACTURING
YearEstablishmentsPersons*EngagedSalaries*and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsOther Expenses of ProductionValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)Value of Land and Buildings, Plant and Machinery

* For the year 1915–16 and earlier, figures refer to productive employees only.

Figures based on Integrated Economic Census of Manufacturing (see Section 18 Manufacturing). Not directly comparable with figures for earlier years.

Includes ancillary units.

§ Purchases and other expenses.

|| Turnover.

Value Added.

 No.No.  $(million)  
1905–063381451987.226.6..43.2..19.1
1910–113421421428.737.5..57.1..24.0
1915–1636574467310.659.7..83.8..31.6
1920–2138946297223.5106.0..151.0..51.4
1925–2646437021228.3102.614.5156.9..64.8
1930–3150477062527.890.616.9143.437.069.0
1935–3653917870126.2113.717.3167,537.566.4
1940–41625210478448.6186.022.4274.867.784.3
1941–42622510827553.6193.024.1291.275.587.5
1942–43598510617958.9203.825.1311.684.089.3
1943–44606210922162.8214.127.3329.789.897.0
1944–45634011353468.4233.029.1357.296.697.5
1945–46684711888675.8234.130.6367.1103.9103.6
1946–47749812492583.0262.734.6411.3115.8111.6
1947–48782213050495.9349.740.2518.4130.5126.6
1948–497852132427102.8390.143.9572.8141.0147.2
1949–507815133245112.5430.048.3634.7158.8156.0
1950–518113138435130.0533.857.7760.4171.6175.2
1951–528546144352150.1581.564.0862.0219.7195.0
1952–538511143164157.0637.970.5927.9222.9218.2
1953–548377146488173.2665.780.5990.4247.8244.5
1954–558366153575196.8730.695.71,101.2278.6276.5
1955–568515158238215.9769.6113.11,171.9294.4337.1
1956–576793143040203.3766.280.61,152.0277.7334.4
1957–586774148641219.8810.588.71,233.4303.5349.9
1953–596757153811235.3808.596.71,257.4321.9380.9
1959–606709156778250.0846.3101.51,345.0366.8415.7
1960–616875165572277.3905.0111.01,441.9393.9462.8
1961–626984171108296.9936.7120.51,532.4439.3521.6
1962–637025174417312.2964.1128.41,596.7461.9591.8
1963–647317181399338.61,115.0139.31,832.0531.7626.5
1964–657554191995378.81,292.5156.22,081.6580.6693.3
1965–667659203165418.81,360.0174.92,260.7664.0792.1
1966–677838207999451.71,402.3193.82,354.9691.0874.3
1967–687788204510454.21,427.1203.92,404.9704.0912.2
1968–697667207703483.51,591.0224.72,645.8757.1969.0
1969–707686220108559.61,791.4255.12,994.8867.11,130.4
1970–717600229104676.02,014.6306.73,407.4995.71,239.3
1971–727783232424780.32,288.6354.43,874.31,130.71,436.9
1972–737669235648875.42,787.2561.54,611.31,301.71,634.0
1973–7476902445221,042.23,112.8683.75,250.91,502.4..
1974–7588832924481,389.04,664.0§6,433.0||2,144.0..
1975–7692122986921,576.04,993.0§7,264.01||2,351.0..
1976–7797383061771,802.06,381.0§8,987.0||2,865.01..
1978–79x105202983312,293.87,595.5§10,925.7||3,478.0..
COAL CONSUMPTION
YearFactoriesShippingRailGas WorksHouseholdsPublic Hospitals and Central HeatingElectricity GenerationTotal
* Estimated.
tonnes(000)
1930499251440244....1732615
1931402180375224....1882249
1932396151394210....251941
1933431141388207....82012
1934443163425208....82155
1935463157450208....102240
1936508156466224....102241
1937517155520225....152317
1938550154522230....152312
1939684128538246....342449
1940693154572262....822540
1941732125577268....1112702
1942749148658276....752759
1943746135671292....762826
1944765121613305582..492823
1945758126643315604..672871
1946747111626320549..622838
194778893601328607..622356
1948..78586328630....2842
194985856561316650..672892
195083250486306610..912778
195187538451264549..642494
195290437442294599..1312772
19539083442328355987452555
195494636405270559881392651
1955100429377272528861202612
1956104933316265549861362700
1957107028273260559761792627
1958108825242275559802512735
1959104314231280549793632753
1960101592232815491006112965
196110038219283544986122917
19629698190266478963472474
1963104991862725251046072807
19641046101692624901075952821
1965102991432644901224402664
1966101010122245488*1284992645
19679286101252427*1442322270
1968938650231396*1552572143
1969920513172376*1635462311
197091010154345*1635422306
19719255*109300*1644422114
1972934*99290*1875582188*
1973948*91284*1938272461*
19741120*109289*2818142613*
19751077*89234*2448442488*
19761149*80288*2407302487*
19771125*80290*265610*2370*
19781075*75240*2675252182*
19791050*79220*2305302109*
SUMMARY OF OVERSEAS TRADE*
YearExports (f.o.b.)Imports (c.d.v.)Imports (c.i.f.)
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population

* Figures are in terms of New Zealand currency. Gold and specie excluded.

Previous to 1955 c.d.v. + 10 percent.

Provisional.

§ Valuation for 1979, 1980, and 1981 is v.f.d.(value for duty).

 $(m)$     $(m)$     $(m)$     
193168.745.4048.231.8253.034.99
193268.945.1044.829.3449.332.28
193379.351.5246.530.2151.233.22
193492.059.2857.036.7262.740.39
193590.257.7266.042.2672.646.49
1936110.770.2880.551.0888.556.18
1937130.582.11102.164.22112.370.63
1938114.271.04100.862.71110.868.98
1939112.869.2989.855.1298.760.63
1940143.687.7089.154.4198.059.84
1941131.380.5089.454.8198.360.29
1942159.197.0597.959.72107.765.69
1943140.685.98173.2105.87190.5116.46
1944152.792.24157.194.87172.8104.35
1945160.794.85100.159.09110.265.00
1946200.2113.80130.173.95143.181.34
1947256.8142.78233.9130.06257.3143.06
1948294.4160.48233.7127.37257.0140.11
1949293.3156.72218.2116.59240.0128.25
1950364.9191.12287.1150.41315.9165.45
1951494.6253.95375.5192.80413.0212.08
1952479.5240.22458.9229.88504.8252.87
1953470.7229.74327.2159.70359.9175.68
1954488.0232.92426.3203.48468.9223.83
1955518.1242.20501.3234.37574.2268.47
1956554.5254.02469.5215.51536.8245.91
1957552.5247.48523.4234.42594.1266.09
1958499.9218.68505.5221.14570.0249.38
1959586.6251.26410.1175.64462.7198.21
1960604.6254.35506.2212.94564.5237.48
1961567.4233.76576.4237.48649.7267.64
1962 (Jan-Jun)332.6134.32237.495.88264.3106.74
Year ended June
1963627.5249.42523.7208.16576.6229.18
1964737.3286.72637.4247.88694.0269.91
1965742.2282.95662.7252.64724.5276.20
1966767.3288.54729.4274.31792.8298.13
1967727.2268.57752.2277.79813.2300.32
1968820.5299.04622.9227.03674.7245.91
1969989.1357.56799.2288.91852.9308.32
19701,086.7388.3944.3337.41,007.2359.9
19711,131.73981,070.6376.71,155.5406.6
19721,375.0476.41,152.7399.41,239.0429.3
19731,792.0609.31,282.2436.01,374.1467.3
19741,787.3595.51,861.8620.42,036.7678.5
19751,621.5529.72,492.0814.02,763.1902.6
19762,386.9768.72,730.1879.32,961.6953.8
19773,228.71,033.53,244.41,038.53,538.01,132.5
19783,313.51,058.73,018.2964.53,276.71,046.9
19794,067.41,299.93,574.1§1,142.83,840.51,227.4
1980x5,152.21,648.34,809.6§1,538.75,172.61,654.8
19816,035.11,922.95,542.2§1,765.95,976.31,904.2
EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE
YearWool
GreasyScoured and WashedTotal, including Slipe*
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
* Including fine animal hair.
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
19306995411.257401.58946715.3
1931750688.250120.99603411.0
1932846838.665971.010803611.5
193310413011.391411.512986714.8
19349507720.274992.011602825.0
19357888910.371551.510099714.2
193611872421.176581.914261426.6
193710620430.949821.912806738.1
193810201219.457091.612305224.4
193910274818.458591.512582323.3
194010476224.293422.913620933.8
19417331517.4111643.79785925.2
19429777823.3173985.813950136.7
19436962318.5113534.09381327.0
19445861815.8134594.88554725.4
1945309968.4251639.57541425.4
194611994935.8189267.516574553.2
194711675040.02302511.617024563.9
194814723764.81825311.819097289.0
194914844766.91840011.719489793.1
1950137201110.61509716.4178704149.3
1951111820188.51081524.5143727256.4
1952154629122.71535416.6198723164.0
1953137903124.71468618.2177630169.2
1954137692130.81614220.4178216176.9
1955146417138.11872323.2189408187.9
1956151350136.61844922.0194163183.1
1957153478161.21941125.3195880212.1
1958162595122.01871317.7207333160.1
1959188118137.42120919.4240037179.5
1960182542152.92358925.3236947205.0
1961197367152.92433824.3251723200.7
1962 (Jan-Jun)12818697.81532514.6163039127.5
Year ended June
1963204338163.22959628.5261724214.5
1964195139201.83200939.7256547271.6
1965180920149.93231436.1241066208.6
1966212149170.23715837.8278228231.9
1967158468117.73606732.9227150174.1
196818229799.74891535.6268427158.2
1969205260131.46591355.1307915212.4
1970196430119.37468463.3303053204.2
1971173926100.28222565.7293499187.9
1972177990119.19662984.1312374228.6
1973160325224.294849152.5288082424.0
1974120927189.366976131.3213158361.6
1975102871107.786997125.4218198261.7
1976142605220.1105432197.7272369456.4
1977124625283.3103005304.6253899648.2
1978111346228.7106385297.9242913580.0
1979117612271.3121198365.0258775683.3
1980127501366.9140.756516.7285043930.8
YearBeef and VealLamb and MuttonAll Meat
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
1930212891.517323319.220507121.9
1931239421.217593115.721026117.8
1932271910.919563115.023600116.9
1933471641.919392716.026433019.7
1934456261.917724519.025246023.8
1935470202.218448020.026450325.5
1936432262.317718520.226009824.5
1937509113.018492922.027488329.4
1938525143.618485822.427297730.2
1939621114.520387922.230005130.8
1940759856.023785727.835442939.4
1941402093.510219224.526848333.2
1942466144.522101027.629167635.6
1943258312.318874823.922417327.6
194471410.619401623.021113725.0
1945299232.924311430.328722935.2
1946624886.725578635.934308746.5
1947684648.725964345.135336258.7
1948689768.125343343.834900857.2
1949599666.726104943.034955654.4
1950599717.025800945.634344257.2
1951435675.821207439.627892950.7
19525742110.329971760.938416278.8
1953450989.925612960.532904778.8
19546048714.728144878.0367237100.5
19559558126.826234683.8383562121.2
195611967529.227439487.2420635127.7
195711740231.325466887.0394531128.1
195811762751.127391085.5411773146.9
19599027944.432681087.0441574142.4
19609999244.435045497.24741881523
19619702444.434827889.9467883144.2
1962 (Jan-Jun)4955821.621881152.528228280.6
Year ended June
196312877758.835846698.2516376169.5
196412119753.1368993107.2522744180.0
196512139357.4366434135.0519742208.5
196610119754.6369234121.4501983193.1
196710625163.9367842119.5505425200.8
196812933889.3413227147.0581251256.2
1969133226109.1473286175.5645443304.5
1970177704154.2439344182.9658534364.3
1971180858170.4425311186.5647785385.7
1972185390187.2446913178.1674335393.3
1973203529241.3441837257.5691992535.5
1974183326235.5348950256.5570406529.5
1975192445161.8385263238.7616545438.0
1976228111241.4397408297.4674867586.2
1977260639312.1402501387.5716703756.5
1978225776313.0374888389.7647057756.8
1979244628487.1460500528.57518321,087.2
1980215624523.4405695583.96615181,183.6
YearButterCheeseMilk, Dried and Condensed
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
19309572423.79210412.968950.7
193110102421.3831308.958270.5
193211103121.3909599.972730.5
193313387723.31007389.580010.6
193413282420.11008189.497800.8
193514170327.2877648.894270.7
193614205130.68424110.2107690.8
193715119234.08368010.7112100.7
193813282533.08181811.993150.6
193912412632.28520911.7111340.8
194013324036.510330716.5119930.8
194111500731.612021119.7134451.4
194212180633.913653823.7125131.4
194310261929.410211018.3118801.2
194411723137.17895014.983601.1
194510516738.68882919.0153472.0
194610343839.77696216.9172682.4
194712975857.78844123.2203023.3
194813781167.57683722.4269664.4
194915004070.99544625.3349425.7
195014048671.710149329.1412846.6
195114983083.010833033.3474637.9
1952186982112.39272031.16373913.1
1953161660102.910298736.76400112.6
195413460789.69187432.8459498.2
1955153388102.08640727.4517427.2
1956170137106.39030344.5529168.8
195714740376.98989635.86879811.5
195817820777.79086324.8538827.6
1959196075111.68479144.27150911.5
1960159572100.38068837.16128711.1
196116768978.88901339.8512678.4
1962 (Jan-Jun)8607841.55299021.3307264.4
Year ended June
196316722790.99368937.0643679.5
1964184875109.68900035.17376811.0
1965192180119.69474640.78805018.9
1966193472109.69803741.710115222.0
1967203163109.410436045.113523529.8
1968204467112.210028147.414045030.3
1969206378114.88766142.613473323.1
1970198021109.79058244.318435131.1
1971194464113.99268148.016045234.1
1972187680183.98846466.319192576.5
1973176619137.19525579.219775787.4
1974162146109.56848161.8278333130.6
1975164171122.16476348.4159869103.1
1976206788204.28064078.014782684.6
1977212929253.97904684.9240423108.5
1978177265240.97015476.6242041129.5
1979192200277.26336975.5200522125.6
1980231002360.669241105.9268.536214.3
YearCaseinApples and Pears*Grass and Clover Seeds
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
* Whole fruit only.
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
193029110.3240821.318570.3
193126880.2243161.320810.3
193221730.1286771.617440.2
193324730.2260981.440800.3
193429330.3284311.624770.3
193533100.3188591.036400.4
193641070.4223791.240630.5
193739390.5171100.929520.4
193821030.2280531.523110.5
193919570.1190081.123280.6
194012370.1107540.523240.7
19416300.119344801.1
194225014841911.2
19437500.18446091.3
1944305980512.9
19458180.17284613.6
19467550.155150.376513.9
194726340.710974693.3
194841901.2182361.788823.4
194955481.296910.882303.0
195056271.3129741.483374.2
195159871.9126751.444922.5
195284982.6250694.183044.2
195387452.5209203.491073.7
195482772.5225413.193605.6
1955124873.7188872.640342.7
1956136234.2292504.174383.2
1957143554.5260313.682582.4
1958203866.2331754.675303.0
1959296488.8348154.846342.0
1960286558.4348394.865263.4
1961294948.8371224.867022.6
1962 (Jan-Jun)149564.6407565.630511.2
Year ended June
1963302468.4337844.783083.6
19644218911.3385495.392583.5
19655259416,8440666.146342.0
19664298520.0515927.1103223.2
19674326518.6401555.5113373.2
19684092318.1415435.7119193.7
19695002621.7440756.191613.5
19706198925.8577429.479393.6
19716953430.2555969.297194.9
19724211325.46063510.7116404.4
19732772822.06956913.4159546.5
19743996528.66896313.593098.9
19751711914.78111019.71141110.0
19762426327.17793021.260714.5
19776238459.76066916.61239610.8
19785994060.58170826.593209.9
19795237262.38544430.490449.8
198058564112.59439436.61028814.0
YearHides and SkinsSausage CasingsTallow*
* From 1929 to 1948 figures cover only inedible tallow, and unrendered fats of bovine cattle, sheep, or goats are included in all figures.
 $(m)$(m)tonnes$(m)
19304.41.6250231.4
19312.50.8236370.8
19322.10.5257840.9
19333.70.8284701.0
19344.41.3281061.0
19354.81.6256831.3
19366.61.3265141.3
19374.51.5263561.3
19384.81.5300881.1
19395.11.4296050.9
19406.51.8346861.4
19418.21.6399591.6
19429.51.8526102.3
19438.82.2446602.1
19449.02.1270511.2
194510.02.2312191.8
194611.52.8251532.1
194720.83.1261384.7
194818.94.5203854.3
194913.44.1258405.1
195020.05.3300714.3
195125.77.8301345.1
195219.99.8493959.4
195321.44.9404333.9
195420.96.4394965.1
195518.48.1441315.7
195621.29.8402545.3
195720.29.3469496.1
195816.69.0520836.8
195926.58.3544196.6
196026.67.0604225.9
196124.37.3586496.3
1962 (Jan-Jun)15.26.0366353.1
Year ended June
196325.410.5603524.8
196430.412.0773517.2
196531.711.1588557.1
196640.010.9515866.7
196733.612.0664137.0
196839.89.9746377.0
196955.410.9717426.6
197048.714.0735519.2
197150.614.16583810.2
197262.215.4696518.9
197395.914.2729509.7
197467.017.25376913.8
197562.718.87163716.4
197677.423.59613025.8
1977128.625.89545133.0
1978144.027.08530432.4
1979181.830.28959942.4
1980180.133.58568343.4
YearTimberWood PulpNewsprint
 $(m)tonnes(000)$(m)tonnes(000)$(m)
19300.6
19310.3
19320.5
19330.5
19340.6
19350.7
19360.5
19370.4
19380.4
19390.3
19400.4
19410.4
19420.2
19430.1
19440.1
19450.1
19460.3
19470.4
19481.0
19491.1
19500.7
19511.5
19521.2
19531.340.4
19541.8201.6
19552.5282.3
19562.1484.0263.1
19571.8665.3364.3
19582.9705.5425.3
19594.4785.8445.4
19604.2715.6506.2
19614.4655.0475.4
1962 (Jan-Jun)2.6332.7222.3
Year ended June
19634.1705.5738.0
19645.0675.510911.5
19656.5574.711311.9
19666.5716.011911.9
19677.3735.99610.1
196816.5766.212715.8
196928.5897.412316.1
197034.1827.212215.8
197137.1979.411114.0
197240.911311.313116.5
197345.614214.112316.2
197447.824325.710314.5
197528.231243.512120.8
197632.036058.813234.3
197750.442070.017651.8
197861.843169.919051.6
197978.445686.220355.7
1980126.0479120.222381.0
NEW ZEALAND'S OFFICIAL OVERSEAS RESERVES
As at Last Wednesday of Each QuarterAssets of N.Z. Banking SystemTreasury-held Overseas SecuritiesOther Government-held Overseas SecuritiesGoldInternational Monetary FundTotal
Reserve PositionSpecial Drawing Rights
$(million)
1962—Mar113.758.15.80.522.5200.5
1963—Mar167.265.05.80.522.5260.9
1964—Mar166.572.65.80.522.5267.8
1965—Mar159.367.118.10.522.5267.5
1966—Mar116.361.512.70.2190.1
1967—Mar116.356.613.10.3186.3
1968—Mar200.376.914.50.2291.8
1969—Mar183.180.515.31.2280.1
1970—Mar204.887.516.10.823.6332.7
1971—Mar172.4117.317.40.745.119.6372.6
1972—Mar331.4186.318.90.745.147.5629.9
            Jun425.2216.218.90.745.151.6757.7
            Sep450.6210.218.90.745.152.1777.5
            Dec435.7209.825.60.745.152.1768.9
1973—Mar561.9235.022.30.745.152.1917.2
            Jun764.3209.122.30.745.151.91,093.5
            Sep656.0199.620.00.745.151.9973.3
            Dec502.1202.522.50.745.151.9824.8
1974—Mar477.1182.121.70.748.151.9778.5
            Jun289.4185.021.70.745.151.7593.6
            Sep324.4174.321.10.70.8521.8
            Dec335.8220.724.20.70.5581.8
1975—Mar281.8230.923.90.74.8542.1
            Jun316.2222.923.90.70.5564.2
            Sep322.4221.126.40.74.8575.4
            Dec290.9224.126.40.74.6546.7
1976—Mar374.2274.026.30.79.7684.8
            Jun299.1239.326.30.76.5571.9
            Sep303.5247.326.30.716.1593.9
            Dec359.3285.323.90.79.8679.0
1977—Mar390.7284.223.90.721.2720.6
            Jun399.3286.723.90.72.524.7737.8
            Sep250.4292.123.90.72.532.7602.2
            Dec257.6258.523.91.62.540.5584.6
1978—Mar471.7424.323.91.613.848.3983.6
            Jun554.4287.323.90.713.854.7934.7
            Sep341.4275.928.90.729.562.8739.2
            Dec292.3175.230.82.527.856.2584.7
1979—Mar411.2266.933.20.743.548.4803.9
            Jun386.1428.933.20.743.539.8932.2
            Sep381.1412.036.70.760.219.0909.7
            Dec394.5371.438.60.713.1818.4
1980—Marx464.8238.841.90.737.4783.6
            Junx367.3273.146.50.723.9711.6
            Sep398.4261.949.80.725.7736.5
            Dec201.8248.249.80.736.30.2536.7
1981—Mar379.0253.449.00.736.341.7760.1
            Jun358.8256.848.00.736.721.5722.5
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsDeficitSurplus
From TaxationFrom Other SourcesTotal

* Excludes duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act; $1.9 million in 1958–59, $4.7 million in 1959–60, $2.0 million in 1960–61, $0.8 million in 1961–62, $0.8 million in 1962–63, $0.8 million in 1963–64.

Includes transfers from Loans Account ($730 million). Reserve Account ($90 million), and Trust Account ($20 million).

Includes transfer from Loans Account ($678 million).

§ Includes transfer from Loans Account ($956 million).

$(million)
CONSOLIDATED FUND
193137.28.946.149.43.3 
193232.413.145.449.74.3 
193331.213.945.145.1  
193434.112.947.048.41.4 
193540.411.952.349.0 3.3
193643.19.252.351.8 0.6
193753.98.462.361.4 0.9
193863.326.389.688.0 1.6
193964.622.887.485.8 1.6
194065.628.293.893.2 0.6
194168.732.2102.998.5 3.5
194270.338.7109.1105.8 3.3
194372.437.8110.2101.8 8.3
194484.031.1115.1110.7 4.5
194591.428.5119.9117.4 2.4
194696.731.1127.8125.3 2.5
1947181.435.2216.6207.4 9.2
1948192.242.0234.2230.7 3.6
1949202.141.0243.0237.8 5.3
1950207.742.3250.0241.4 8.6
1951244.443.2287.5271.0 16.5
1952313.947.7361.6336.3 25.3
1953308.547.1355.6349.0 6.6
1954312.452.2364.6361.0 3.6
1955325.057.4382.4368.8 13.7
1956334.960.0394.9386.6 8.3
1957345.667.0412.6405.9 6.7
1958317.969.3387.2387.50.3 
1959409.771.1480.8*480.0* 0.8
1960552.976.8629.7*628.4* 1.3
1961474.894.0568.7*567.9* 0.8
1962508.393.0601.3*600.6* 0.6
1963471.5101.8573.3*581.2*7.9 
1964512.6120.6633.2*635.9*2.7 
CONSOLIDATED REVENUE ACCOUNT
1965783.2120.5903.7894.5 9.2
1966852.2122.2974.5970.9 3.5
1967918.8132.51,051.31,050.6 0.7
1968949.4147.31,096.71,095.3 1.4
1969992.1162.51,154.61,146.9 7.7
19701,102.0170.51,282.51,275.1 7.4
19711,363.0203.21,566.21,560.9 5.3
19721,617.3203.41,820.71,812.3 8.4
19731,830.9304.92,135.82,141.05.2 
19742,291.6220.52,512.22,509.8 2.4
19752,760.5285.53,046.13,034.9 11.2
19763,084.0598.53,682.53,684.11.6 
19773,737.5490.34,227.84,225.1 2.7
19784,500.0576.05,076.05,073.8 2.2
CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNT
19794,830.41,687.66,518.06,512.8 5.2
19805,880.51,650.0x7,530.6x7,529.1x 1.4
19816,861.52,144.4§9,005.9§9,004.2 1.8

NOTE—The figures shown in the above table are not on a comparable basis over the whole period.

NATIONAL INCOME, SOCIAL SECURITY BENEFITS, AND WAR AND OTHER PENSIONS
Year Ended 31 MarchNational Disposable Income*Expenditure on Cash Benefits and Pensions
Family BenefitsNational Super-annuation||Other Cash Benefits§||All Cash BenefitsWar and Other Pensions||Total

* For years prior to 1972, net national income at factor cost plus indirect taxes and net current transfers from the rest of the world and less subsidies.

|| Includes supplementary assistance, 1955–76 inclusive.

Includes family benefit capitalisation.

Includes special Christmas payments.

Prior to February 1977, universal superannuation plus age benefit.

** Includes special family benefit payment.

§ Includes benefit on death from 1976 onwards.

†† Provisional.

Amount ($million)
19404630.513.05.218.73.822.5
19501,02629.734.610.074.310.184.4
19551,73136.458.012.6107.015.4122.4
19602,28571.485.518.6175.522.5198.0
19653,26874.7110.322.6207.627.3234.9
19704,43279.8155.834.4270.030.4300.4
19715,08681.0177.240.4298.631.6330.2
19726,28880.5203.050.2333.734.4368.1
19737,239135.1249.166.0450.238.7488.9
19748,428167.2305.378.4550.943.0593.9
19759,129159.5365.898.7624.048.4672.4
197619,373172.9477.6133.5784.051.2835.2
197712,428163.9601.3183.0948.266.61,014.8
197813,674186.8**926.5233.31,346.668.31,414.9
197915,719††161.51,162.9313.61,638.077.01,715.0
198018,992††229.91,334.1369.11,933.174.72,007.8
1981 312.61,556.8471.32,340.776.52,417.2
Expenditure as Percentage of National Disposable Income
1940 0.12.81.14.00.84.9
1950 2.93.41.07.21.08.2
1955 2.13.40.76.20.97.1
1960 3.13.70.87.71.08.7
1965 2.33.40.76.40.87.2
1970 1.83.50.86.10.76.8
1971 1.63.50.85.90.66.5
1972 1.33.20.85.30.55.9
1973 1.93.40.96.20.56.7
1974 2.03.60.96.50.57.0
1975 1.74.01.16.80.57.4
1976 1.74.61.37.60.58.1
1977 1.34.81.57.60.58.2
1978 1.46.81.79.80.510.3
1979 1.07.42.010.40.510.9
1980 1.27.01.910.20.410.6

Source: Report of the Department of Social Welfare.

INDEBTEDNESS OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—AMOUNT OF DEBENTURES AND STOCK IN CIRCULATION (Nominal Amounts)
As at 31 MarchDomiciled inTotalPer Head of Population
United States and World BankLondon and Europe, etc.AustraliaNew Zealand

* Provisional.

Amounts outstanding overseas other than in Europe, U.S.A., or with the World Bank. External debt is now usually shown by currencies rather than by countries (see section 26C).

   NZ$(million) $     
1931309.18.4234.7552.1365.20
1932268.97.8236.8511.5335.30
1933270.45.7236.7512.9333.50
1934269.45.8278.0553.2356.90
1935269.64.4234.9508.8325.90
1936265.03.2244.5512.7325.80
1937261.11.8260.1523.0329.30
1938261.51.8264.9528.0329.10
1939261.31.8292.5555.6341.90
1940263.31.8328.3593.4361.70
1941264.41.8380.4646.5395.10
1942255.11.7461.6718.4439.60
1943264.21.7609.4875.3535.60
1944265.91.7733.51,001.1608.90
1945266.21.7806.51,074.5639.60
1946189.11.7945.51,136.3646.80
1947189.11.7966.01,156.8646.40
1948166.41.6988.21,156.2632.50
1949159.91.31,068.81,230.0659.70
1950156.31.31,130.21,287.8676.70
1951155.61,178.81,334.5688.60
1952155.61,151.81,307.3658.70
1953155.61,179.81,335.4655.40
1954175.61,233.21,408.7674.80
1955195.61,261.61,457.2683.80
1956191.61,278.81,470.4675.90
19578.9200.91,304.51,514.2681.70
19587.9199.21,357.11,564.2687.40
195947.1236.61,349.01,633.1702.10
196037.9235.51,415.61,689.0712.60
196137.0216.31,483.01,736.3719.20
196225.1254.01.528.61,807.7730.50
196341.5272.51,620.41,934.3765.18
196441.8279.91,700.02,021.7782.89
196554.3276.51,908.82,139.6813.87
196688.3244.81,922.82,256.0842.78
1967107.3283.42,021.32,412.0884.42
1968170.7329.42,116.52,616.6950.56
1969179.2336.22,261.02,776.5999.74
1970184.2341.62,351.32,887.11,021.71
1971178.6397.82,430.53,007.01,051.06
1972159.4494.12,533.03,186.61,096.55
1973135.1428.92,939.13,503.11,180.75
1974113.3351.93,269.33,734.51,232.07
1975180.1682.63,336.94,199.71,359.17
1976304.91,158.34,094.75,557.91,778.82
1977517.11,309.54,462.66,289.22,002.75
1978564.71,882.05,037.17,483.82,378.91
1979483.72,436.45,899.48,819.52,818.46x
1980571.92,534.0461.76,778.910,346.43,311.06*x
19811,225.82,355.9654.47,381.011,617.13,673.4*
FINANCES OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES*
Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsTotal Gross Indebtedness
RevenueOther ReceiptsTotal
From Rates and LeviesFrom Other Sources  

* Exclusive of hospital boards.

Debt up to 1967 shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent. As from 1968 the gross public debt is shown in New Zealand currency only, including overseas debt

§ Excludes Fire Districts, which were taken over by the Fire Service Commission on 1 April 1976.

Includes petrol tax $16.7 million in 1972–73, $18.0 million in 1973–74, $17.8 million in 1974–75, $17.9 million in 1975–76, $18.1 million in 1976–77, $18.2 million in 1977–78, and $18.6 million in 1978–79.

$(million)
193012.020.711.944.544.1142.4
193111.320.49.741.444.4145.4
193211.018.110.039.140.2144.8
193310.517.09.837.237.8145.0
193411.016.58.536.135.5142.0
193511.017.29.037.237.4142.5
193611.218.09.939.038.7140.8
193712.019.19.440.540.4137.1
193813.121.19.743.944.1136.1
193914.022.613.550.050.2136.4
194014.624.414.553.551.4139.0
194114.725.410.250.349.5136.0
194214.926.07.248.048.1133.2
194315.527.46.149.046.5130.3
194415.629.64.950.047.6126.5
194515.830.15.050.950.4122.5
194617.330.86.454.454.7120.0
194719.133.08.560.661.0115.6
194819.634.410.064.064.9114.2
194921.638.212.372.071.6113.2
195023.340.716.280.279.3112.6
195125.243.416.785.386.5112.2
195229.048.121.398.497.7115.7
195330.855.231.5117.4116.7128.9
195432.864.641.0138.5136.4146.9
195536.570.642.1149.2148.0158.6
195637.876.850.9165.4167.1176.0
195741.379.160.7181.2181.5198.2
195845.484.771.1201.2196.6229.4
195948.897.869.6216.2213.2255.9
196051.5101.783.6236.8231.2287.1
196155.0108.788.1251.8245.0318.8
196258.0118.978.7255.6267.5337.6
196362.4125.596.2284.1286.5370.2
196468.3153.2120.0351.5329.6401.8
196577.2164.0122.7363.8361.1436.2
196680.5176.4119.0375.8387.5461.4
196785.9191.2119.4396.5401.6485.0
196892.4200.2137.3430.0420.7533.5
196999.9223.7149.1472.6456.6564.3
1970108.1240.2155.1503.3492.1597.2
1971117.9262.7155.5536.1539.2629.8
1972126.3297.6169.6593.5604.7667.1
1973148.5330.9216.6696.0674.2722.4
1974153.8395.3274.0823.1799.8787.4
1975192.2431.6345.7969.5985.8840.9
1976236.6490.5402.11,129.21,139.4933.7
1977§277.8628.1444.91,350.81,291.91,054.0
1978§316.0806.1469.71,591.71,575.71,138.6
1979§382.0898.2572.21,852.41,815.31,271.0
POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK
Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts a: End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest Credited to DepositorsTotal Amount of Withdrawals During Year*Excess of Deposits plus Interest over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year

* From January 1988 includes interest paid out on investment accounts; and from October 1969 includes interest paid on National Development Bonds redeemed.

Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

Excludes 15,439 accounts credited with $0.6 million transferred to Apia, Western Samoa.

§ Includes School Savings Accounts from 1 April 1964. From 1 October 1969 includes National Development Bonds, and from 1 March 1970 Post Office Bonds.

|| From 1968–69 includes ordinary, National Savings, and School Savings Accounts, with balance dates as at March, June, and December respectively.

 Number  $(million)  
1931–3287709038.93.250.9−8.886.5
1932–3379709733.92.939.3−2.484.1
1933–3479826238.92.535.65.789.7
1934–3581761748.42.641.99.198.8
1935–3684067151.22.847.17.0105.8
1936–3788085761.33.054.110.3116.1
1937–3892080566.13.359.310.2126.3
1938–3994682260.93.569.2−4.9121.4
1939–4096056550.33.258.9−5.4116.0
1940–41114279258.53.350.611.2127.2
1941–42129848368.43.750.821.3148.5
1942–43139989680.33.853.830.3178.8
1943–441494136107.94.471.241.0219.8
1944–451570586121.35.584.642.2262.1
1945–461605981148.66.5114.041.0303.1
1946–471634548155.17.5129.333.3336.4
1947–481652765157.78.2143.522.4358.8
1948–491679692153.68.7142.020.3379.1
1949–501730072197.99.7161.646.0425.1
1950–511760541189.310.2179.619.9445.0
1951–521800709215.610.8198.927.5472.5
1952–531835552216.911.4207.620.7493.3
1953–541868788237.212.1214.934.4527.7
1954–551900649255.712.8243.624.9552.6
1955–561927422255.213.3256.412.1564.7
1956–571971731279.116.3265.829.4594.1
1957–582013664311.717.9291.238.5632.6
1958–592052626294.218.5307.45.3637.9
1959–602084837326.318.9311.034.1672.0
1960–612116675374.620.1350.144.6716.6
1961–622143586383.421.0383.720.7736.7
1962–632190757409.122.0397.233.9770.6
1963–642245339471.623.6442.952.3822.8
1964–652563154506.725.1501.730.0855.8§
1965–662604058507.825.8521.911.8867.6
1966–672639890525.626.0542.09.6877.3
1967–682646284488.127.2512.42.9879.3
1968–692677631||487.728.0507.97.8887.1
1969–702710202568.528.2561.834.9922.0
1970–712745267620.929.6626.424.1946.1
1971–722769190663.528.9676.216.3962.4
1972–732838441782.430.5736.576.31,038.7
1973–742941206913.031.9843.8101.11,139.8
1974–752953893976.634.1963.747.11,186.9
1975–7629371101,175.735.31,132.178.91,265.8
1976–7730764131,328.138.51,296.670.11,335.9
1977–7831570331,558.745.91,495.3109.31,445.1
1978–7930160001,977.453.41,858.2172.71,617.8
1979–803,196,0532,543.264.62,522.885.01,702.8x
1980–81 3,217.874.63,161.2131.31,834.1
MORTGAGES AND LAND TRANSFERS
Year Ended 31 MarchMortgagesAverage Rate of Interest On Sew MortgagesLand Transfers
RegisteredDischargedNumberConsideration
* Land sales restrictions removed in 1950.
 $(m)$(m)percent $(m)
193077.756.76.353211261.7
193160.440.16.252562644.1
193226.820.16.281694326.4
193318.316.35.881538122.0
193415.618.25.561576019.1
193523.727.55.061862824.4
193632.535.14.732304431.2
193739.439.64.602517837.7
193838.038.74.652626946.7
193940.133.24.582896547.3
194035.228.24.692805744.2
194132.531.94.692882851.5
194229.130.24.732820746.5
194324.333.44.722765748.3
194431.240.14.633370176.3
194536.242.04.513328464.9
194645.046.64.103806076.7
194762.251.93.854299489.9
194864.150.83.904880180.9
194970.646.83.983656476.8
195072.046.23.993905881.3
1951*91.664.54.0957938158.7
1952135.974.54.1556609218.3
1953147.462.84.2948378201.4
1954140.872.04.4952615228.8
1955169.282.34.6956571273.4
1956192.570.74.7649100241.9
1957182.475.45.0945334229.4
1958199.192.25.2450573279.4
1959217.188.85.1549153255.2
1960239.0102.35.0152855285.4
1961300.8136.65.0161412375.6
1962331.5133.85.2757813360.1
1963295.1135.65.5153566336.3
1964339.8168.85.7059836419.9
1965420.0206.85.7869548536.2
1966487.7230.06.0771508592.6
1967493.4239.36.3168639589.2
1968467.8236.16.6463925541.8
1969482.3260.96.7465655576.5
1970573.9328.16.7772624724.4
1971703.0376.56.8883610918.9
1972759.8415.87.4086042985.4
1973940.7510.57.581051931,339.9
19741,301.7672.97.861257962,133.0
19751,477.2601.58.25968472,135.1
19761,612.4654.18.61980032,202.8
19771,870.1863.49.851019682,691.6
19781,809.7851.510.30857052,538.6
19792,164.1 10.86912292,964.6
19802,467.5 11.381001763,575.9
19812,655.2 12.891102824,400.3
BANKRUPTCIES AND NEW COMPANY REGISTRATIONS
YearBankruptciesNew Company Registrations*
Number of BankruptciesAmount Realised by Official AssigneeAmount of Debts ProvedNumber of Sew RegistrationsAmount of Nominal Capital

* Public, private, and overseas.

The extraordinarily high figure for 1934 is due to the inclusion of all overseas companies (numbering 187 with an aggregate nominal capital of $386 million) which had previous to 1934 established places of business in New Zealand and which were reregistered in 1934 under Part XII of the Companies Act 1933.

Since 1954 company liquidations are included in the total.

  $(000)$(000) $(m)
1930780166.61,654.789313.4
1931848217.62,084.479516.6
1932661151.31,249.881213.7
1933450123.4979.883014.6
193432689.1517.8933401.5
193525782.1451.081048.5
193626066.0339.794219.9
1937222111.9343.488812.2
1938267129.0460.982413.2
193926788.3451.068117.8
194021384.8250.63917.6
194116570.9142.028822.5
19428259.564.51981.9
19434537.840.12703.1
19445126.9102.14643.0
19454537.1236.47416.8
19465241.997.0143522.1
19477431.189.5181319.2
1948148100.6286.6175117.4
194917976.8406.3215716.0
195014298.5251.8207420.4
195114396.5273.6202025.6
1952168112.5502.3174466.8
1953215144.3762.0204186.1
1954277165.1826.9268555.5
1955304224.8764.6269536.7
1956390261.11,095.5325541.2
1957437360.71,564.53502161.1
1958495369.61,638.3303461.5
1959618389.81,510.4273794.2
1960495331.21,337.8376774.0
1961425303.61,415.8356771.7
1962591446.12,138.4335145.1
1963566441.11,660.3416574.1
1964507325.51,784.9505490.0
1965507335.62,307.5556385.8
1966507378.52,033.55609187.3
1967652373.92,312.24829102.7
1968820487.23,743.55010190.1
1969659746.53,743.56403286.6
1970596466.53,660.16431282.9
1971477604.43,471.75490359.0
1972461698.54,133.565474,271.1
1973329783.02,991.08837249.4
1974324606.03,009.07749471.8
19754871,041.09,122.07815104.6
19764591,392.09,541.06366..
19776261,564.014,314.05292..
19787922,860.017,410.45473..
19798342.003.524.585.85778..
19809754,169.229,472.56116..

Chapter 41. CHRONOLOGY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS

NOTEWORTHY EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND

1642 European discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769 Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1791 Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792 First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1814 Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1820 Hongi's visit to England.

1823–28 Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1825 First attempt at colonisation, by an expedition under Captain Herd.

1827 Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1831 Tory Channel whaling station established. Application of 13 chiefs for the protection of King William IV.

1833 Mr James Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834 Waimate Pa, near Opunake, shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which HM troops employed in New Zealand.

1835 Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand”. Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1838 Pelorus Sound discovered.

1839 Governor of New South Wales authorised to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840 Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841 Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842 Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843 Affray with Maoris at Wairau.

1844 Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845 Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846 Arrival of first steam vessel (HMS Driver) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Maori hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847 Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848 Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Otago founded.

1850 Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its Interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852 Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854 Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855 First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856 Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857 Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858 New Provinces Act passed.

1860 Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861 Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovery at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862 Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. White Swan, with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened—Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863 Wreck of HMS Orpheus on Manukau Bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Maori affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand, portion of Christchurch-Lyttelton line, opened.

1864 Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including battles of Rangiaowhia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. First major discovery of gold on West Coast of South Island.

1865 Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Maoris defeated at Wairoa.

1866 Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

1867 Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868 Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner Rifleman and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Maoris.

1869 Continuation of fighting with rebels and pursuit of Te Kooti. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870 Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail service. Possession taken of Bounty Island. Inauguration of Vogel public works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University.

1871 Commencement of railway construction under public works policy.

1872 Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873 Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Co.

1874 In pursuance of immigration and public works policy, 31774 assisted immigrants arrived.

1875 Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company.

1876 New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877 Education Act passed, providing for free compulsory education.

1878 Completion of the Christchurch-Invercargill railway.

1879 Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata coal mine explosion, whereby 34 lives lost.

1881 Wreck of s.s. Tararua, with loss of 130 lives.

1882 First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883 Direct steamer communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1886 Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887 Annexation of Kermadec Islands.

1888 British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1890 Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1892 Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure.

1893 Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Prime Minister. Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. Wairarapa, with loss of 135 lives.

1896 Brunner Mine explosion, causing 67 deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898 Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899 Labour Day instituted. New Zealand contingent (the first of 10) sent to South Africa.

1901 Penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902 Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. Elingamite, with loss of 43 lives.

1903 Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1905 Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner”.

1906 Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier. Advances to Workers Act passed.

1907 New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908 Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland.

1909 S.s Penguin wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of 75 lives. Battle cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910 Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911 Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912 Public Service placed under Commissioner Control.

1913 Extensive strikes.

1914 Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal mine disaster, with loss of 43 lives.

1915 New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operation on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. Pensions for miners introduced.

1916 New Zealand Division transferred to Western Front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918 S.s Wimmera sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast, with loss of 26 lives. Otira Tunnel pierced. End of First World War. Great influenza epidemic, causing nearly 7000 deaths.

1919 Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, Prime Minister.

1920 Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921 Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate.

1922 Meat-export trade placed under control of a board.

1923 Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed, and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Dairy Produce Export Control Act passed.

1924 Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor Vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licencing of motor vehicles. Pensions for blind persons introduced. S.s Ripple foundered off Cape Palliser with loss of 16 lives.

1925 Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand.

1926 Family allowances Act passed.

1928 Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman Sea.

1929 Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused 17 deaths.

1930 Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed.

1931 Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 percent in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Mortgagors' relief legislation passed.

1932 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rentals, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference.

1933 Exchange rate raised to £;125 N.Z. for £;100 London (telegraphic transfers). Sales tax instituted. Conversion of internal public debt with reduction in interest rates, and provision made for local authorities interest reduction and loans conversion. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England.

1934 First official trans-Tasman airmail. Reserve Bank incorporated and commenced business. First licensed air transport service commenced operations.

1935 Rural Mortgagors' Final Adjustment Act passed, and Court of Review established. Labour Government assumed office for first of four successive terms.

1936 Inauguration of inter-Island trunk air services. Reserve Bank nationalised. System of basic prices for butter and cheese introduced. Forty-hour week became operative. Powers of Court of Arbitration restored.

1938 Social Security Act passed. Introduction of import selection and control.

1939 Declaration of war with Germany. Recruitment for 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Arrangements for purchase of farm products by Britain.

1940 Departure of First Echelon of 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Death of the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage; succeeded in office by Hon. P. Fraser. Declaration of war with Italy. RMS Niagara sunk off New Zealand coast by enemy mine.

1941 Declaration of war with Japan. Territorial Forces mobilised.

1942 Complete mobilisation of Military Forces ordered. Introduction of control of industrial manpower. Compulsory enrolment of all male British subjects between ages of 18 and 65 inclusive, in Emergency Reserve Corps. Lend-lease reciprocal aid extended to include Australia and New Zealand. Rationing introduced. Mobilisation of women for essential work.

1943 North African campaign brought to a successful conclusion. 2nd NZEF (3rd Division) took part in action against Japanese in the Pacific Area.

1944 Australia-New Zealand Agreement 1944, providing for collaboration on matters of mutual interest.

1945 War in Europe ended (8 May). War Cabinet dissolved. War in Pacific ended. Japan formally surrenders (15 August). South Island Main Trunk Railway opened, through rail connection from Picton to Bluff established.

1946 Family benefit of $1 per week made universal as from 1 April.

1947 Local Government Commission appointed. First woman Cabinet Minister in New Zealand appointed. Marketing of dairy produce taken over by Dairy Commission. Statute of Westminster adopted by New Zealand Parliament.

1948 Licensing Control Commission appointed. Adjustments of exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20 August.

1949 Referendum agrees to compulsory military training.

1950 Control of land sales, except of farm land, lifted. Control of sterling funds and securities relaxed. Abolition of petrol and butter rationing. Legislative Council Abolition Act passed. K-force sailed from Wellington for Korea.

1951 Prolonged waterfront dispute. United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed Pacific Security Treaty.

1952 Accession of Queen Elizabeth II.

1953 Armistice agreement signed in Korea. New Zealand's worst railway disaster occurred at Tangiwai on Christmas Eve, with a death roll of 154 persons. Arrival of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, on 23 December, the first occasion on which a reigning monarch had visited these shores.

1954 The Executive Council and Cabinet held meetings at Auckland on 25 May to mark the centenary of parliamentary government in New Zealand. New Zealand signed the South-east Asia Treaty at Manila.

1955 Pulp and paper mill at Kawerau began operation. Rimutaka tunnel opened for traffic in November.

1956 Roxburgh and Whakamaru power stations in operation. Colombo Plan Conference held in Wellington.

1957 New Zealand Antarctic Expedition established Scott Base at Pram Point, McMurdo Sound. Separate Court of Appeal constituted.

1958 Import selection and exchange allocation brought into force to conserve overseas exchange. PAYE taxation on incomes introduced. Power generated from geothermal steam at Wairakei and from coal station at Mercer.

1959 Auckland Harbour Bridge opened (May). Reconstructed Wellington Airport opened for traffic (July). Twelve nations, including New Zealand, signed treaty to preserve Antarctica for peaceful scientific research for all time.

1960 Government signed agreement for company to use power from Te Anau-Manapouri Lakes system for large aluminium smelting industry. Regular television programmes began in Auckland.

1961 Tasman Empire Airways became wholly owned by New Zealand (later renamed Air New Zealand). New Zealand joined International Monetary Fund, International Bank For Reconstruction and Development, and International Finance Corporation.

1962 Cook Strait rail-ferry service commenced with Aramoana. New Tasman cable link completed as part of Commonwealth Pacific cable.

1964 Three Cook Strait cables, each of 25 miles, laid as part of inter-Island transmission project. Oil refinery opened at Whangarei.

1965 Limited free trade agreement negotiated with Australia. Cook Islands became self-governing. Auckland International Airport came into use.

1966 Labour force reached 1000000. Licensed television sets reached 500000. Collier Kaitawa sank off Cape Reinga with loss of 29 lives.

1967 Matahina electric power station brought into operation. Explosion at Strongman mine caused 19 deaths. Decimal currency introduced on 10 July ($2 equal to former unit of £;).

1968 T.E.V. Wahine foundered in Wellington Harbour in severe storm with loss of 51 lives. Jet planes introduced in internal air services.

1969 Electric power generated from giant Manapouri project. Construction of aluminium smelter at Invercargill commenced. First output from steel mill at Glenbrook. Oil strike off shore at Taranaki. Voting rights extended to 20-year-old persons.

1970 Natural gas from Kapuni supplied to Auckland.

1971 Negotiations by Britain with members of European Economic Community secure New Zealand's position by special arrangement for her butter and cheese exports to the United Kingdom; Britain decides to join EEC in 1973 and later signs Treaty of Accession. Major shipments of ironsand to Japan from Taranaki coast. Bluff aluminium smelter in commercial operation and first exports made. All seven generators installed at Manapouri hydro-electric station. Natural gas reticulation to Wellington completed. Introduction of first steps of metric conversion for weights and measures.

1972 Containerised shipping service in operation from Auckland and Wellington to United Kingdom and Europe. Labour Government assumed office under Right Hon. N. E. Kirk.

1973 Britain joined European Economic Community. Wool Marketing Corporation established. Farm income equalisation scheme extended. Trade negotiations with China; embassy opened in Peking. New Zealand became member of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Agreement reached for development of Maui field of natural gas off shore from Taranaki. Timber and pulp mill opened at Whirinaki, Napier. New Zealand currency placed on “near float arrangement” of relationships with major trading partners. Colour television introduced. First step of Equal Pay Act in effect. New Zealand Shipping Corporation established. Construction of 100-megawatt Rangipo hydro-power station and 550-megawatt Huntly coal-fired power station approved.

1974 Tenth British Commonwealth Games held in Christchurch. New Plymouth thermal power station in operation. Fourth Cook Strait rail-ferry brought into service. Self-government granted to Niue after referendum. Death of the Prime Minister, Right Hon. N. E. Kirk; succeeded in office by Right Hon. W. E. Rowling.

1975 Further Government participation in off-shore oil exploration announced. New trade deals established with Middle-East countries, Japan, and U.S.S.R. (Jul) New Zealand's terms of trade reached lowest level since the Second World War. (Oct) Permanent stabilisation scheme for meat prices announced. Conversion of New Plymouth power station from oil to natural gas under way. National Government, under Right Hon. R. D. Muldoon, assumed office.

1976 In February, cuts in subsidies on electricity, rail charges, and Post Office charges. (Apr) Subsidies on bread, eggs, butter, and flour abolished. (Jun) Cost-of-living wage order of 7 percent or $7 per week, whichever was less, issued. E.E.C. set import quotas for New Zealand butter in the years 1978–80 of 125000 tonnes, 120000 tonnes, and 115000 tonnes. (Jul) Wool Income Stabilisation Scheme introduced. (Aug) Price and rent freeze until end of year introduced. New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement extended for further 10 years. Controversy over New Zealand's sporting links with South Africa resulted in African nations walk-out at Olympic Games in Montreal. Storm caused severe flooding in Hutt Valley.

1977 The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh visited New Zealand in February as part of the Silver Jubilee celebrations. New national superannuation scheme came into operation. (March) General Wage Order of six percent announced. New Zealand Planning Council formed. (June) Commonwealth Heads of Government Conference sponsored Gleneagles agreement on sporting contacts with South Africa. (July) Budget included announcement that future energy policy will include on-shore oil exploration by the Government, continued Government involvement with oil companies in off-shore exploration, and an increase in exploratory and development work on coal and geothermal steam resources. (September) Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act passed, establishing 200-mile-wide economic zone around New Zealand coast. (October) Act passed establishing Ministry of Energy, combining functions of Mines Department, Electricity Department, and Ministry of Energy Resources. Difficult economic conditions, with inflation as a major problem and an increasing problem of unemployment, continued throughout year. There were also continued population losses from net migration.

1978 Merger of New Zealand Wool Board and New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation came into effect on 7 February. Also in February, severe drought hit farmers in Wairarapa. (April) Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977 in force; Foreign fishing boats required to be licensed to operate within 200-mile limit. National Airways Corporation merged with Air New Zealand. (June) Budget included major changes in personal tax rates, increased financial assistance to farming industry, and additional energy policy measures. (July) Registered unemployed topped 25000. Arbitration Court made general wage order of 7 percent on first $100 of weekly income. (September) Japan and New Zealand signed fishing agreement. Government approved programme for large-scale production' of methanol from Maui gas by 1985–86 to cut oil imports. (Oct) Widespread floods in Southland. (Nov) National party retains power at General Election with greatly reduced majority. Another year of difficult economic conditions with relatively heavy unemployment and continuing population losses from net emigration.

1979 (Apr) First stage of Maui gasfield development completed. Price control phased out over a wide range of commodities and services; replaced by price surveillance scheme. International seminar on statistical organisation held in Wellington under ESCAP auspices. Electricity concessions made to South Island industries. (May) Price rises announced for motor spirit, diesel, home heating oil, coal, and rail and road service charges. Expansion to Marsden Point oil refinery approved. Sales tax of 20 percent announced on caravans, light trailers, boats, etc. Bulk electricity tariff raised by 60 percent. (June) Budget included new system of exchange rate adjustment, new export incentives, and changes in tax structure. (Aug) General Wage Orders Act 1977 repealed. General wage increase of 4.5 percent authorised from 3 September. Severe landslip at Abbotsford. (Sep) Plans for Maui gas, including building of methanol plant, announced by Government. (Nov) Air New Zealand D.C. 10 crash on Mount Erebus in Antarctica, killing 257 passengers and crew. 25th Commonwealth Conference held in Wellington. Another difficult year with relatively high unemployment, inflation, and population losses from net migration.

1980 (Jan) Widespread flooding in Southland. New Zealand troops included in Zimbabwe peace-keeping force. (Mar) $500 million Eurodollar loan raised to finance a hydrocracker for expansion of Marsden Point oil refinery. Petrocorp given approval to build New Zealand's first methanol plant. (Apr) Proposal for second aluminium smelter announced. (May) Weekly “Carless day” scheme suspended. (Jun) New housing package announced to assist depressed house-building industry. (Jul) Budget included 4 percent general wage increase, improvements in employment promotion and training, increased taxes on alcohol and tobacco, and changes in tax rebate scheme for low-income families. $600 million expansion of New Zealand Steel Ltd. plant announced. Aluminium smelter proposal approved. (Aug) Registered unemployed exceeded 40000. (Oct) Remuneration Act repealed as part of 3-pronged wage policy agreement with F.O.L. and Employers' Federation. Act passed legalising Saturday trading. (Nov) Mini-budget included changes to personal income tax scale and employment-related measures. Another year of relatively high unemployment and continued inflation. Population losses from net migration continued, but on a decreasing scale.

Chapter 42. Select Bibliography New Zealand Books

Compiled in the New Zealand Bibliographic Unit, National Library, Wellington

The following list of books has been compiled to give New Zealand and overseas readers a selective approach to the country's literature and sources of information. Entries are arranged alphabetically under appropriate subject headings which are in approximate order of the Dewey Classification. Selection has covered books published in New Zealand as well as book published overseas about New Zealand. Works of less than 75 pages have been indicated by an asterisk.

The New Zealand National Bibliography, published monthly and cumulated annually, lists books, pamphlets, music, maps, periodicals, and selected non-book materials. It is prepared in the New Zealand Bibliographic Unit, and available from the National Library of New Zealand, Private Bag, Wellington.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY, AND ENCYCLOPAEDIAS

BAGNALL, A. G., New Zealand National Bibliography to the Year 1960. Wn, Govt. Print., 1970–80. Vol. 1, to 1889. $80. v2–4, 1890–1960. $85.

DUNMORE BOOK OF NEW ZEALAND RECORDS, edited by P. Dunmore. Palmerston North, Dunmore Press, 1977. $8.95.

ELLIS, N., comp. New Zealand Associations, Societies & Clubs; A National Directory. 2nd ed. Wn, Victoria University Press with Price Milbum, 1979. $4.50.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF NEW ZEALAND, edited by A. H. McLintock. Wn, Govt. Print., 3 v. o.p. $15.

FISCHER, B. Guide to New Zealand Book Collecting and Handbook of Values. Dn, City Publishers, 1977. $15.95.

GUIDE TO NEW ZEALAND INFORMATION SOURCES. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1975. Bibliographies have been published on plants and animals, farming, field and horticultural crops, education, livestock farming, fisheries, forestry, religion, and official publications.

HEBLEY, D. A. Off the Shelf; Twenty-one Years of New Zealand Books for Children. Ak, Methuen, 1980. $6.95

HEINEMANN NEW ZEALAND DICTIONARY, edited by H. W. Orsman. Ak, Heineman Educational, 1979. $11.95.

* MILLETT, A. P. U. and F. T. H. COLE. Bibliographical Work in New Zealand 1980; Work in Progress and Work Published. Hamilton, University of Waikato Library, 1980.

NATIONAL REGISTER OF ARCHIVES AND MANUSCRIPTS IN NEW ZEALAND. Wn, National Library of New Zealand, 1979. $11 with binder for each volume.

NEW ZEALAND BOOKS IN PRINT 1979. Melbourne, Thorpe, 1979. A$16.50.

NEW ZEALAND LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. Bibliography of New Zealand Bibliographies. Wn, 1967.

OXFORD NEW ZEALAND ENCYCLOPAEDIA. London. O.U.P., 1965. o.p.

RODGER, D. M. Theses of the History of New Zealand. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1968–72. 4 v.

TAYLOR, C. R. H. A Bibliography of Publications on the New Zealand Maori, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1972. $24.95.

TAYLOR, C. R. H. A Pacific Bibliography. 2nd ed. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. o.p.

UNION CATALOGUE OF NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS PRESERVED IN PUBLIC LIBRARIES, NEWSPAPER OFFICES, AND LOCAL AUTHORITY OFFICES. 2nd ed. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1961. $1.30.

UNION LIST OF SERIALS IN NEW ZEALAND LIBRARIES. 3rd ed. Wn, National Library of New Zealand, 1969–70. 6 v. $25. Interim edition on microfiche. 1976. $45.

UNION LIST OF THESES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW ZEALAND, 1910–1954. Wn, New Zealand Library Association, 1956. o.p. Supplement, 1955–1962. $2.00. Supplement, 1963–1967. $4. Supplement, 1968–1971. $4. Supplement, 1971–1975. $9. Supplement, 1976–1978. $19.60. See also Rodger above.

* WOOD, G. A. A Guide for Students of New Zealand History. Dn, McIndoe, 1973. $2.95

SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

ADOLESCENCE IN NEW ZEALAND; A Book of Readings. Editor, Robert A. C. Stewart. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1976. 2 v. $7.50 each.

Beyond New Zealand; The Foreign Policy of a Small State, edited by John Henderson, Keith Jackson, and Richard Kennaway. Ak, Methuen, 1980. Pbk: $14.95

BEDGGOOD, D. Rich and Poor in New Zealand. Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 1980.

BURNETT, A. A. AND R. BURNETT. The Australia and New Zealand Nexus. Canberra, Australian Institute of International Affairs, 1978. $5.

BUSH, G. W. A. Local Government and Politics in New Zealand. Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 1980. $19.95

CLARK, K. J. The Two-way Street; A Survey of Volunteer Service Abroad. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1978. $8.

CLEVELAND, L. The Politics of Utopia; New Zealand and its Government. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1979. $13.95.

CONTEMPORARY NEW ZEALAND; Essays on the Human Resource, Urban Growth, and Problems of Society, edited by K. W. Thomson and A. D. Trlin. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1973. $6.00.

* DOLLIMORE, H. N. The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliament House. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973. 90c.

FAMILIES IN NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY, edited by P. G. Koopman-Boyden. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. $13.95.

FOREIGN POLICY SCHOOL, 13th, Australia and New Zealand Relations, edited by Ralph Hayburn, Dn, University of Otago, 1978. $4.95.

GLYNN, J. F. The New Zealand Policeman; The Developing Role of New Zealand Police. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1975. $4.25.

GRIMSHAW, P. Women's Suffrage in New Zealand. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $8.50.

GUSTAFSON, B. S. Labour's Path to Political Independence. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1980. $18.50

HANSON, E. A. The Politics of Social Security. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1980. $14.20

HILL, L. B. The Model Ombudsman; Institutionalising New Zealand's Democratic Experiment. Princeton, N. J., Princeton University Press, 1976. US$16.50.

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS IN NEW ZEALAND, by John Deeks and others. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. $13.95.

JONES, T. C. A Hard-won Freedom; Alternative Communities in New Zealand. Ak, Hodder & Stoughton, 1975. Hbk: $8.95. Pbk: $5.95.

JULIAN, R. Brought to Mind; A Study of Informal Family Day Care in Four Geographical Areas in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1977. $7.50.

MACLEAN, F. S. Challenge for Health; A History of Public Health in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $3.50.

N.Z. DEPT. OF LABOUR. Research and Planning Division. Immigration and Immigrants; A bibliography. Wn, Dept. of Labour, 1975.

NEW ZEALAND FOREIGN POLICY; Occasional Papers, 1973–74. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1975. 75c.

NEW ZEALAND FOREIGN POLICY, Statements and Documents, 1943–1957. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $9.

NEW ZEALAND IN WORLD AFFAIRS, Vol. I. Wn, Price Milburn for the New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1977. Hbk: $8.50. Pbk: $4.50.

NEW ZEALAND MINISTRY OF ENERGY. Energy Strategy '79. Wn. Office of the Minister of Energy, 1979. $5.50.

NEW ZEALAND PARLIAMENTARY RECORD, 1840–1949, edited by G. H. Scholefield. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. $3.50. Supplement 1950–1969, edited by J. O. Wilson. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969.

NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY; Contemporary Perspectives, edited by S. D. Webb and J. Collette. Sydney, J. Wiley, 1973.

NEW ZEALAND PLANNING COUNCIL; Employment: Towards an Active Employment Policy. Wn, 1980. Pbk: $5.25.

N.Z. TASK FORCE ON ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PLANNING. New Zealand at the Turning Point. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $4.50.

PALMER, G. Unbridled Power; An Interpretation of New Zealand's Constitution and Government. Wn, O.U.P., 1979. $8.95.

POLITICS IN NEW ZEALAND, A Reader, edited by S. Levine. Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 1978. Hbk: $17.50. Pbk: $9.95.

THE POPULATION OF NEW ZEALAND, edited by R. J. W. Neveille and C. J. O'Neill. Ak, Longman Paul, 1979. Pbk: $11.95

RELIGION IN NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY, edited by Brian Colless and Peter Donovan. Palmerston North, Dunmore, 1980. Hbk: $14.95. Pbk: $11.95

ROTH, H. O. Trade Unions in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

SCOTT, C. D. Local and Regional Government in New Zealand; Function and Finance. Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 1979. $6.95.

SOCIAL CLASS IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by David Pitt. Ak, Longman Paul. 1977. Hbk: $8.75. Pbk: $5.75.

SOCIAL WELFARE AND NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY, edited by A. D. Trlin. Wn, Methuen, 1977. $15.35.

SPIRIT OF AN AGE, New Zealand in the Seventies. Essays in honour of W. B. Sutch, edited by John L. Robson and Jack Shallcrass. Wn, Reed, 1975. $7.50.

STATE SERVANTS AND THE PUBLIC IN THE 1980s, edited by R. M. Alley. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1980. Pbk: $7

URBANISATION IN NEW ZEALAND; Geographical Essays, edited by R. J. Johnson. Wn, Reed Education, 1973. Hbk: $6.55. Pbk: $4.15.

ECONOMICS AND BANKING

BLYTH, C. A. Inflation in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, 1977. $3.95.

BURTT, D. J. Trans-Tasman Development and Trade. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, 1977. $3.

CAREY, R. H., and F. W. HOLMES. A Preliminary Bibliography of New Zealand Economics and Economic History. Wn, Victoria University of Wellington, 1967. o.p.

EQUITY INVESTMENT, 1978–79; A Ten Year Review of New Zealand and Selected Australian Companies Listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges. Wn, Berl Publications, 1978.

FIGGE, A. H. Introduction to Economic Policies in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $5.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT POLICY IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by R. H. Carey. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1975. $4.50.

FRANKLIN, S. H. Trade, Growth and Anxiety; New Zealand Beyond the Welfare State. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. Hbk: $29.95. Pbk: $24.95.

GREENSMITH, E. I. The New Zealand Wool Commission. Wn, New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation, 1976.

HAWKE, G. R. Between Governments and Banks; A History of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973, $7.50

JOHNSTON, T. R. The Law and Practice of Company Accounting in New Zealand. 5th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1978. Hbk: $30. Pbk: $25.

LANE, P. A. Economy in the Balance; An Introduction to the New Zealand Economy. Wn, Methuen, 1976. $5.95.

LLOYD PRICHARD, M. F. An Economic History of New Zealand to 1939. Ak, Collins, 1970. $11.60.

—–Economic Practice in New Zealand, 1954/55–1967/68. Ak, Collins, 1970. $5.60.

MONETARY POLICY AND THE NEW ZEALAND FINANCIAL SYSTEM, edited by R. S. Deane and P. W. E. Nicholl. Wn, Reserve Bank of New Zealand, 1979. $5.

N.Z. COMMITTEE OF ENQUIRY INTO INFLATION ACCOUNTING. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $1.75.

OLIVER, H. M. Printing and Publishing in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Economic Research, 1976. $2.

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT. New Zealand. Paris, O.E.C.D., 1979. $3.20.

PRESTON, D. A. Government Accounting in New Zealand. Wn. Govt. Print., 1980.

LAW

BROOKS, B. T. The Practice of Industrial Relations in New Zealand. Ak, Commerce Clearing House (New Zealand), 1978. $16.75.

DOYLE, M. W. Criminal Procedure in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1978. $8.95.

DUNCAN, P. C. The Layman and the Law in New Zealand. Rev. ed. Wn, J. McGregor, 1976. $1.95.

FAMILY GUIDE TO NEW ZEALAND LAW. Surrey Hills, NSW, Readers Digest, 1980. $33.

HINDE, G. W. and M. S. HINDE. New Zealand Law Dictionary. 3rd ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1979. $26.

MCBRIDE, T. J. New Zealand Civil Rights Handbook. Wn, Price Milburn, Butterworth, 1980. $15.50.

MULHOLLAND, R. D. Introduction to the New Zealand Legal System, 3rd rev. ed, Wn, Butterworth, 1979. $25.00.

NEW ZEALAND LAWS, STATUTES, ETC. Reprint of the Statutes of New Zealand, 1908–57. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958–1961. 16 v. $11.75 ea.

NEW ZEALAND ROYAL COMMISSION ON THE COURTS. Report of the Royal Commission on the Courts, 1978. Wn, Govt. Print., 1978. $5.80.

NORTHEY, J. F. Index to New Zealand Legal Writing. Ak, Legal Research Foundation, 1977. Annual supplements also published.

O'KEEFE, J. A. B. Introduction to New Zealand Law. 4th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1980. $29.50.

WILLIAMS. D. A. R. Environmental Law in New Zealand. Wn, Butterworth, 1980. $39.95

WOMEN AND THE LAW IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by K. Turner and P. Vaver. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975. $3.60.

EDUCATION

ADVISORY COUNCIL ON EDUCATIONAL PLANNING. Directions for Educational Development. Wn, 1974. $2.25.

ART IN SCHOOLS; The New Zealand Experience. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1978. $14.25.

BARRINGTON, J. M. and T. H. BEAGLEHOLE. Maori Schools in a Changing Society, An Historical Review. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1974. $8.

BOSHIER, R. Adult and Continuing Education in New Zealand, 1851–1978; A Bibliography. Vancouver, Adult Education Research Centre, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia; Toronto, International Council for Adult Education, 1979. $7.75.

CAMPBELL, W. J. Realities of Teacher Development. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1977. Gratis.

CUMMING, I. and A. CUMMING. History of State Education in New Zealand, 1840–1975. Wn, Pitman, 1978. $19.95.

EDUCATION AND THE EQUALITY OF THE SEXES; Conference on Women and Education sponsored by the Committee on Women and the Department of Education, 23–27 November 1975, Victoria University of Wellington. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1976. Gratis.

FITZGERALD, T. K. Education and Identity; A Study of the New Zealand Maori Graduate. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1977. $8.

FORWARD TO BASICS, edited by J. Shallcrass. Wn, New Zealand Education Institute, 1978. $9.95.

GADD, D. B. H. Cultural Difference in the Classroom; The Special Needs of Maoris in Pakeha Schools. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1976. $2.65.

MCDONALD, G. Maori Mothers and Pre-school Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1973. $4.

MCLAREN, I. A. Education in a Small Democracy, New Zealand. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974. $13.25.

MEADE, A. comp. New Zealand Early Childhood Care and Education: Bibliography, 1965–1978; with annotations. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1979. $4.

NEW ZEALAND COMMITTEE ON HEALTH AND SOCIAL EDUCATION. Growing, Sharing, Learning; The report of the Committee on Health and Social Education. 2nd ed. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1978. $3.

NEW ZEALAND COMMITTEE ON SECONDARY EDUCATION. Towards Partnership. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1976. $2.80.

NEW ZEALAND DEPT. OF EDUCATION. Education and the Equality of the Sexes; a list of resources. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1978. Gratis.

NEW ZEALAND EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND DEVELOPMENT CONVENTION. 2nd, University of Canterbury, 1979, Early Childhood in New Zealand: Their needs, our concern. Ch, Christchurch Teachers College, 1979. $5.

* NEW ZEALAND EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL. Review of Educational Developments, 1974–1978: Progress on Recommendations of the Educational Development Conference. Wn, Educational Development Council, 1978. $1.85.

NEW ZEALAND NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON MAORI EDUCATION. He huarahi. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1980. $3.95.

NEW ZEALAND RESEARCH CCOMMITTEE ON OPEN PLAN SCHOOLS. Report on Open Plan Education in New Zealand Primary Schools. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1977. $3.25.

PARTON, H. The University of New Zealand. Ak, Auckland University Press; Wn, C.U.P., 1979. $16.

POLICIES FOR PARTICIPATION; Trends in Educational Administration in Australia and New Zealand, edited by J. E. Watson. Wn, New Zealand Educational Administration Society, 1977. $7.

RAMSAY, P. D. K. and others. The Family and the School in New Zealand Society; An Introduction to the Sociology of New Zealand Education. Carlton, Vic., Pitman, 1975. $12.95.

ROTH, H. O. A Bibliography of New Zealand Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1964. $2.25.

SEMINAR ON ASPECTS OF TERTIARY EDUCATION, Wellington, 1968. Trends and Issues in Higher Education: seven papers presented at a seminar organised by the Association of University Teachers of New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research and the Association of University Teachers of New Zealand, 1970. $2.40.

WILLIAMS, B. M. Structures and Attitudes in New Zealand Adult Education, 1945–75. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1978. $10.

THE MAORI PEOPLE, PAST AND PRESENT

TE AO HURIHURI; The World Moves On; Aspects of Maoritanga, edited by M. King. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975, reprinted 1977. Pbk: $6.95.

BEST, E. Games and Pastimes of the Maori. Wn, Board of Maori Ethnological Research for the Dominion Museum, 1924. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $17.

—–The Maori as He Was. Wn, Dominion Museum, 1924. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $6.50.

MAORI AGRICULTURE. Wn, Board of Maori Ethnological Research for the Dominion Museum, 1925. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $13.50.

BIGGS, B. G. Let's Learn Maori; a Guide to the Study of the Maori language. Wn, Reed, 1975. $3.85.

BIGWOOD, K. V., and H. DANSEY. The Maori in Colour. Wn, Reed, 1976. $9.95.

BUCK, Sir P. The Coming of the Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1974. $8.95.

CLARK, P. J. A. Hauhau; The Pai Marire Search for Maori Identity. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975. $9.40.

CONCISE MAORI HANDBOOK; compiled by A. W. Reed. Wn, Reed, 1978. $8.95.

CONFLICT AND COMPROMISE; Essays on the Maori Since Colonization. Wn, Reed, 1975. $6.55.

DUFF, R. S. The Moa-hunter Period of Maori Culture, 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $17.50.

FIRTH, R. W. Economics of the New Zealand Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $8.75.

MAIN, W. Maori in Focus. Wn, Millwood Press, 1976. $12.95.

MAORI IS MY NAME; Historical Maori Writings in Translation, edited by John Caselberg. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. Hbk: $6.95. Pbk: $3.95.

THE MAORI PEOPLE IN THE NINETEEN SIXTIES, A Symposium edited by E. G. Schwimmer. Ak, Longman Paul, 1972. $12.65.

METGE, J. The Maoris of New Zealand: Rautahi. London, Routledge, 1976. Hbk: $21.55. Pbk: $10.35.

POOL, D. I. The Maori Population of New Zealand, 1769–1971. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $8.35.

REED, A. W. Treasury of Maori Exploration; Legends Relating to the First Polynesian Explorers of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1977. $10.95.

RYAN, P. M. A Dictionary of Modem Maori. Ak. Heinemann Educational, 1974. $7.65.

SALMOND, A. Hui; A Study of Maori Ceremonial Gatherings. Wn, Reed, 1975. Hbk: $9.95. Pbk: $5.95.

SCHWIMMER, E. G. The World of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

SELECTED READINGS IN MAORI; edited by B. Biggs, P. Hohepa, and S. M. Mead. Wn, Reed, 1967.

SIMMONS, D. R. The Great New Zealand Myth; A Study of the Discovery and Origin Traditions of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1976. $19.95.

TIHE MAORI ORA; Aspects of Maoritanga, edited by M. King. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. $4.95.

WILLIAMS, H. W. A Bibliography of Printed Maori to 1900, and Supplement. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $4.50.

WILLIAMS, W. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. 7th ed., by H. W. Williams. Rev. and augmented by the Advisory Committee on the Teaching of the Maori Language, Department of Education. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $7.50.

SCIENCE, GENERAL

BIOGEOGRAPHY ECOLOGY IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by G. Kuschel. The Hague, Dr W. Juur, 1975.

DIRECTORY OF NEW ZEALAND SCIENCE. 5th ed., Wn, New Zealand Association of Scientists, 1975. $8.

ELLIS, N. E. The New Zealand Environment; a bibliography of material available through New Zealand public libraries, including a select list of overseas publications, 1968–1974. Wn, Nature Conservation Council, 1975. Supplements also published.

* HOARE, M. E. Beyond the Filial Piety; Science History in New Zealand. Melbourne, Hawthorn Press, 1977.

LANDSAT II OVER NEW ZEALAND; Monitoring Our Resources From Space, edited by P. J. Ellis, I. L. Thomas and M. J. McDonnell Wn, DSIR, 1978. $20.

MORTON, J. E. and M. MILLER. The New Zealand Sea Shore. 2nd ed. London, Collins, 1973. $18.95.

NEW ZEALAND'S NATURE HERITAGE. Ak, Hamlyn, 1976.

GEOLOGY

ADKIN, G. L. and B. W. COLLINS. A Bibliography of New Zealand Geology to 1950. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1967. o.p. Index, compiled by D.L. Jenkins, published Wn, D.S.I.R., 1976. $5.50.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NEW ZEALAND GEOLOGY, 1951–1969, complied by Guyon Warren and others. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1977. $7. Updates Adkin.

COTTON, Sir C. A. Geomorphology. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1958. $3.25.

EIBY, G. A. Earthquakes. London, Heinemann, 1980. $18.45.

FLEMING, Sir C. A. The Geological History of New Zealand and its Life. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1979. $7.60.

GAGE, M. Legends in the Rocks; An Outline of New Zealand Geology. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1980. $35.

GEOCHEMISTRY, 1977; A Collection of Papers by New Zealand Geochemists in Honour of S. H. Wilson, compiled by A. J. Ellis. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1977. $20.

GEOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND, chief editor, R. P. Suggate, associate editors, G. R. Stevens, M. T. Te Punga. Wn, Govt. Print., 1980. 2v. $92.

GRINDLEY, G. W., H. J. HARRINGTON, and B. L. WOOD. The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2000 000. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1959. $3.25.

KINGMA, J. T. The Geological Structure of New Zealand. New York, Wiley, 1974. $69.

NEW ZEALAND WATER AND SOIL DIVISION. Land Use Capability Survey Handbook; a New Zealand Handbook for the Classification of Land. Rev. ed. Wn, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, 1971.

SALMON, J. H. M. A History of Goldmining in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.70.

SOIL BUREAU, Soils of New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1968. 3 v. (Its Bulletin 26.) $15.

STEVENS, G. R. Rugged Landscape; The Geology of Central New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.50. New Zealand Adrift. Wn, Reed, 1980. $19.95.

THOMPSON, B. N. and L. O. KERMODE. New Zealand Volcanology. 3 v. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1965.

ZOOLOGY

BULLER, Sir W. L. Birds of New Zealand. New ed. by E. G. Turbott. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1967. $49.95.

BULL. P. C. and P. D. GAZE and C. J. R. ROBERTSON. Bird Distribution in New Zealand; A Provisional Atlas, 1969–1976. Wn, Ornithological Society of New Zealand, 1978. $10.

CHAPMAN, M. A. and M. H. LEWIS. An Introduction to the Freshwater Crustacea of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1976. $19.50.

CUSA, N. W. and R. M. LOCKLEY. New Zealand Endangered Species. Ak, Cassell, 1980. $27.95.

DOAK, W. T. Fishes of the New Zealand Region. Rev. ed. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1978. $16.75.

FALLA, R. A., R.B. SIBSON. and E. G. TURBOTT. A New Guide to Birds of New Zealand and Outlying Islands. Rev. Ed.; ed. London; 1979. $14.95.

FORSTER, R. R., and L. M. FORSTER. Small Land Animals of New Zealand. Dn, McIndoe, 1970. Pbk: $6.95.

FORSTER, R. R. New Zealand Spiders. Ak, Collins, 1973. $10.60.

GIBBS, G. W. New Zealand Butterflies. Ak, Collins, 1980. $45.

LESLIE, M. A. Animals of the Rocky Shore of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1968. o.p.

MCDOWALL, R. M. New Zealand Freshwater Fishes; A Guide and Natural History. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1978. $26.75.

MARSHALL. J., F. C. KINSKY, and C. J. R. ROBERTSON. The Fiat Book of Common Birds in New Zealand. 3 v. Wn, Reed, 1972–75. $7.50.

MILLER, D. Common Insects in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $11.95.

OLIVER. W. R. B. New Zealand Birds. Reprinted. Wn, Reed, 1974. $18.50.

PENDERGAST, J. G., and D. R. COWLEY. An Introduction to New Zealand Freshwater Insects. Ak, London, Collins, 1966. $1.80.

POWELL, A. W. B. New Zealand Mollusca: Marine, Land and Freshwater Shells. AK, Collins, 1979. $60.

—–Shells of New Zealand, An Illustrated Handbook, 5th ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $12.

SHARELL, R. New Zealand Insects and Their Story. Ak, Collins, 1971. $15.95.

—–The Tuatara, Lizards, and Frogs of New Zealand. London, Collins, 1966. $8.40.

SOPER. M. F. New Zealand Birds, 2nd ed. Ch., Whitcoulls, 1976. $19.50.

WILD ANIMALS IN NEW ZEALAND, compiled under the direction of A. L. Poole. Wn, Reed, 1970. $11.95.

BOTANY

ALLISON, K. W. and J. CHILD. The Mosses of New Zealand. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1971. $9.95.

CONNOR, H. E. The Poisonous Plants in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $9.75.

EAGLE, A. L. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand in Colour, two hundred and twenty-eight botanical paintings. Ak, Collins, 1975. $50.

Also published 1978 in 2 volumes as Eagle's 100 Trees of New Zealand, and Eagle's 100 Shrubs & Climbers of New Zealand. $15 each.

FISHER, M. E. New Zealand Ferns in Your Garden. Ak, Collins, 1976. $9.95.

FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961–3 v1 by H. H. Allan, 1961. $15.00; v2. by L. B. Moore and E. Edgar, 1970. $6.75. v3 by A. J. Healey and E. Edgar, 1980. $18.50.

HEATH, E. W. and R. H. CHINNOCK. Ferns and Fern Allies of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

LAING, R. M., and E. W. BLACKWELL. Plants of New Zealand. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $3.85.

MARK, A. F., and N. M. ADAMS. New Zealand Alpine Plants. Wn, Reed, 1973. Hbk: $19.50. Pbk: $17.95.

MOORE, L. B. and J. B. IRWIN. The Oxford Book of New Zealand Plants. Wn, O.U.P., 1978.$40.00.

PARHAM, B. E. V., and A. J. HEALY. Common Weeds in New Zealand; An Illustrated Guide to Their Identification. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $6.75.

POOLE, A. L., and N. M. ADAMS. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1980. $15.95.

SAINSBURY, C. O. K. Handbook of the New Zealand Mosses, Royal Society of New Zealand. $5.00.

TAYLOR. G. M. Mushrooms and Toadstools in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.50.

WILSON, H. D. Wild Plants of Mount Cook National Park; Field Guide. Ch, Field Guide Publication, 1978. $9.50.

SALMON, J. T. The Native Trees of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1980. $75.

TECHNOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE

ALLSOP, F. The First Fifty Years of New Zealand's Forest Service. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973. $4.50

ATKINSON, J. D. DSIR's First Fifty Years. Wn, Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1976. $5.

CALDER, D. H. Seeing the Southern Sky. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1977. $3.95.

CHURCHOUSE, E. J. The Pamir Under the New Zealand Ensign. Wn, Millwood Press, 1978. $29.50.

THE ENGINEERING HISTORY OF ELECTRIC SUPPLY IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by L. B. Hutton and F. N. Stace. Wn, Electric Supply Authority Engineers' Institute of New Zealand, 1958–75. 3 v.

FISHER, M. E., E. SATCHELL, and J. M. WATKINS. Gardening with New Zealand Plants, Shrubs, and Trees. Rev. ed. Ak, Collins, 1975. $12.50.

GIBBS, H. S. New Zealand Soils. Wn, O.U.P., 1980. Pbk: $10.50.

HADFIELD, J. W. Arable Farm Crops of New Zealand. Rev. by J. H. Claridge. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1972. $9.50.

HARRISON, R. E. Handbook of Bulbs and Perennials for the Southern Hemisphere. 2nd. ed. Rev. Palmerston North, R. E. Harrison, 1971. $12.95.

—–Handbook of Trees and Shrubs. New ed. Rev, Wn, Reed, 1979. $14.95.

HEALY, A. J. F. Indentification of Weeds and Clover. Wn, Editorial Services, 1976. $9.50.

LANGER, R. H. M. Pastures and Pasture Plants. Wn, Reed, 1973. $12.95.

LEVY, E. B. Grasslands of New Zealand. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1970. $5.50.

LEITCH, D. B. Railways of New Zealand. Ak, L. Fullerton; Newton Abbot, Devon, David and Charles, 1972, $8.95.

MCCASKILL, L. W. Hold This Land; A History of Soil Conservation. Wn, Reed. 1973. $9.50.

MCLEAN, I. The Future for New Zealand Agriculture; Economic Strategies for the 1980s. Wn, Fourth Estate Books, 1978. $4.50.

MATTHEWS, B. W. Gardens of New Zealand. Ak; Hamlyn, 1975. $9.95.

METCALF, L. J. The Cultivation of New Zealand Trees and Shrubs. Wn, Reed, 1972. $12.80.

MUNRO, M. N. and J. MUNRO, A Taste of New Zealand in Food and Pictures. Wn, Reed, 1977. $5.95.

NEW ZEALAND FARMERS' VETERINARY GUIDE. 4th. ed. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Exporter, 1972. $6.

NEW ZEALAND INSECT PESTS, edited by D. N. Ferro. Lincoln, Lincoln University College of Agriculture, 1976. S15.

NEW ZEALAND MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES. New Zealand Agriculture. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $6.

NEW ZEALAND ROYAL COMMISSION ON NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION IN NEW ZEALAND. Nuclear Power Generation in New Zealand; Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry. Wn, Govt. Print., 1978. $4.

NOONAN, R. J. By Design; A Brief History of the Public Works Department, Ministry of Works. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $18.50.

PAINTER, G. The Herb Garden Displayed. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1979. $28.50.

SCHOFTELD, J. C. Materials for the New Zealand Potter. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $3.75.

SIMPSON, T. E. Kauri and Radiata: Origin and Expansion of the. Timber Industry of New Zealand. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1973.

TROUP, G. S. Steel Roads of New Zealand; An Illustrated Survey. Wn, Reed, 1973. $12.95.

WARD, A. H. A. Command of Co-operatives; The Development of Leadership, Marketing and Price Control in the Co-operative Dairy Industry of New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Board, 1975. $5.60.

WATKINSON. J. G. and SMITH, R. New Zealand Fisheries. Wn, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1972.

YEREX, D. Deer Farming in New Zealand, Wn, Deer Farming Services Division, Agricultural Promotion Associates, 1979. $11.50.

ARTS

ARCHEY, Sir G. E. Whaowhia; Maori Art and its Artists. Ak, Collins, 1977. $19.95.

BARROW, T. T. Decorative Art of the New Zealand Maori. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1975. $4.50.

—–Maori Art of New Zealand. Wn, Reed; Paris, Unesco Press, 1978. $5.95.

BRAKE, B., J. M. MCNEISH and D. SIMMONS. Art of the Pacific. Wn, O.U.P., 1979. $35.95

CAPE, P. I. New Zealand Painting Since 1960; A Study in Themes and Developments. Ak, Collins, 1979. $29.50.

—–Please Touch: A Survey of the Three-dimensional Arts. Ak, Collins, 1980.

—–Prints and Printmakers in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1974. $19.50.

CONTEMPORARY NEW ZEALAND PAINTERS Vol 1 A-M, photographs by M. Friedlander, text by J. and M. Barr. Martinborough, Taylor, 1980. $49.50.

DOCKING, G. C. Two Hundred Years of New Zealand Painting. Wn, Reed, 1971. $37.95.

DOWNES, P. E. Shadows on the Stage; Theatre in New Zealand; The First Seventy Years. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. $2.50.

DOWNES, P. E. and P. HARCOURT. Voices in the Air; Radio Broadcasting in New Zealand. Wn, Methuen, 1976. $3.95.

ELLIS, E. M. and D. G. ELLIS. Early Prints of New Zealand, 1642–1875. Ch, Avon Fine Prints, 1978. $80.

HAMON, R. P. F. Rei Hamon; Artist of the New Zealand Bush. 2 v. Ak, Collins, 1971–76. $54.95.

HARCOURT, P. M. A Dramatic Appearance; New Zealand Theatre, 1920–1970. Wn, Methuen, 1978. $11.95.

* HILL, P. M. New Zealand Architecture. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1976. $1.25.

HISTORIC BUILDINGS OF NEW ZEALAND; North Island, edited by Frances Porter. Ak, Cassell New Zealand, 1979. $30.

KNIGHT, F. H. Photography in New Zealand; A Social and Technical History. Dn, McIndoe, 1971.

MCLEAN, M. E. and M. ORBELL. Traditional Songs of the Maori. Ak, Auckland University Press; Wn Oxford University Press, 1979. $13.50

N.Z. ART& ANTIQUES YEARBOOK, 1977/78, volume 1; incorporating N.Z. art auction records. Wn, Newrick Associates, 1977. $14.95.

* NEW ZEALAND FOLK SONGS: Songs of a Young Country, compiled by N. Colquhon. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1972. $5.45.

THE NEW ZEALAND POSTER BOOK, 1830–1940, compiled by E. Ellis. Wn, Reed, 1977. $5.95.

NEW ZEALAND POTTERS; Their Work and Words, edited by D. Blumhardt. Wn, Reed, 1976. $16.95.

NORMAN, P. T. Bibliography of New Zealand Compositions, vol 1, 1940–1980. Ch, Nota Bene Music, 1980. Pbk: $9.50

PLATTS, U. Nineteenth Century New Zealand Artists. Ch, Avon Fine Prints, 1980. $30.

SMYTH, B. W. and HOWORTH, H. Books and Pamphlets Relating to Culture and the Arts in New Zealand; A Bibliography Including Works Published to the End of the Year 1977. Ch, Dept. of Extension Studies, University of Canterbury, Wn, New Zealand National Commission for UNESCO, 1979. 52.

STACPOOLE, J. M. Colonial Architecture in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1976. $14.95.

TAYLOR, A. and J. GLEN., C. G. Goldie, 1870–1947; His Life and Painting. Maryborough, A. Taylor, 1977. $200.

TAYLOR, A and GLEN, J. C. F. Goldie, 1870–1947; Prints, Drawings and Criticism. Martinborough, A. Taylor, 1978. $295.

THOMPSON, F., E. LITTLEWOOD and M. NORRIS. Craft Hunter's Guide, New Zealand 1980. Ak, 1980. (Available from Pitmans). $3.

SPORT, INCLUDING MOUNTAINEERING

AGNEW, I. J. Kiwis Can Fly. Ak, Marketforce, 1976. $7.95.

ALLAN, W. J. D. Power and Sail; A Complete Guide to Yachting and Boating in New Zealand. Ak, Heinemann, 1975. $9.95.

BENNETT, M. The Venison Hunters. Wn, Reed, 1979. $12.95.

BISMAN, R. W. New Zealand Trotting Greats. Ak, Moa Publications, 1977. $8.95.

BRITTENDEN, R. T. The Finest Years; Twenty Years of New Zealand Cricket. Wn, Reed, 1977. $14.95.

CARMAN, A. H. New Zealand International Cricket, 1894–1974. Tawa, Sporting Publications, 1975. $11.95.

CHESTER, R. H. and N. A. C. McMillan. Men in Black. Rev. ed. Ak, Moa Publications, 1979. $14.95.

COSTELLO, J. B. New Zealand Galloping Greats. Enl. ed. Ak, Moa Publications, 1977. $8.95.

DOOGUE, R. B., and J. M. MORELAND. New Zealand Sea Anglers' Guide. 5th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $9.95.

FORRESTER, R. and ILLINGWORTH, N. Hunting in New Zealand. New rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1979. $10.95.

HOWTTT, R. J. New Zealand Rugby Greats. Ak, Moa Publications, 1975. $7.50.

KELLY, G. M. Golf in New Zealand; A Centennial History. Wn, New Zealand Golf Association. 1971. $3.00.

LOUSLEY, D. P. Guide to the Ski Fields of the South Island, New Zealand. Dn, McIndoe, 1976. $2.95.

MEMORABLE MOMENTS IN NEW ZEALAND SPORT, edited by Don Cameron. Ak, Moa Publications, 1979. $14.95.

MOUNTIER, M. A., A. HUNTER and P. KELLY. Notable New Zealand Thoroughbreds. Martinborough, Taylor, 1980. $330.

NEW ZEALAND SPORTING CLUBS DIRECTORY 1980. Ak, Tasman, 1980. $9.95

SCANLAN, M. The New Zealand Boating Handbook. Wn, Reed, 1980. $12.95.

TEMPLE, P. Ways to the Wilderness; Great New Zealand Walking Tracks. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1977. $19.50.

TODD, S. P. DB Sporting Records of New Zealand. Ak, Moa Publications, 1976. $9.95.

LITERATURE, GENERAL

A BOOK OF NEW ZEALAND, edited by J. C. Reid and P. Cape. Rev. and enl. ed. Ak, Collins 1979. $14.95.

CURNOW, W. T. L. Essays on New Zealand Literature. Ak, Heinemann, 1973. $6.45.

MCCORMICK, E. H. New Zealand Literature; a Survey. London, O.U.P., 1959. o.p.

THOMSON, J. E. P., New Zealand Literature to 1977: A Guide to Information Sources. Detroit, Gale, 1980.

POETRY

* ADCOCK, K. F. The Inner Harbour. Oxford, O.U.P., 1979. $5.95.

ALLEY, R. Winds of Change; poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1972.

ANTHOLOGY OF TWENTIETH CENTURY NEW ZEALAND POETRY, selected by V. O'Sullivan. 2nd ed. Wn, O.U.P.,1976. Hbk: $10.50. Pbk: $7.

BAXTER, J. K. Collected Poems of James K. Baxter. Wn, O.U.P. 1980. $35.00.

BERTRAM, J. M. Charles Brasch. Wn, O.U.P., 1976. $3.65.

BRASCH, C. O. Home Grown. Ch, Caxton Press, 1974. $4.50.

CURNOW, T. A. M. Collected Poems, 1933–73. Wn Reed, 1974. $5.95.

* DALLAS, R. Steps of the Sun. Ch. Caxton Press, 1979. $6.50.

DOYLE, C. D. James K. Baxter. Boston, Twayne, 1976.

FAIRBURN, A. R. D. Collected Poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1975. $4.50

FIFTEEN CONTEMPORARY NEW ZEALAND POETS. Dn, Pilgrims South Press, 1980. $11.95

GLOVER, D. Enter Without Knocking. Enl. ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972.

HUNT, S. Collected Poems, 1963–1980. Ak, Penguin, 1980. $4.95,

* IRELAND, K. Literary Cartoons. Ak, Islands/Hurricane, 1977. $5.

* KIDMAN, F. J. On the Tightrope, poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1978. $3.75.

* MCALFTNE, R. Fancy Dress. Ak, Cicada, 1979. $4.95.

MASON, R. A. K. Collected Poems. New ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972. $3.50

MITCALFE, B. Maori Poetry; The Singing Word. Wn, Price Milburn, 1974. $6.30.

NGA MOTEATEA, edited by A. T. Ngata. 3 v. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1959–72. Collection of Maori songs. $8.95.

* NEW ZEALAND LOVE POEMS, chosen by J. Bertram. Dn, McIndoe, 1977. Hbk: $8.95. Pbk: $4.95.

OLIVER, W. H. Out of Season. Wn, O.U.P. 1980. $6.95

* O'SULLIVAN, V. G. Brother Jonathan, Brother Kafka. Wn, O.U.P., 1980. $8.95

—–James K. Baxter. Wn, O.U.P., 1976. $2.95.

PENGUIN BOOK OF NEW ZEALAND VERSE, edited by T. A. M. Curnow. Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1966.

POETRY NEW ZEALAND, vol. 3. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1976. Pbk: $3.50.

TEN MODERN NEW ZEALAND POETS, edited by H. J. McQueen. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973. $5.50.

THESE ISLANDS, A Collection of New Zealand Verse, edited by G. M. Jones. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973. $4.15.

* THOMSON, J. E. P. Denis Glover. Wn, O.U.P., 1977. $2.95.

* TUWHARE, H. NO Ordinary Sun. 3rd ed. Dn, McIndoe, 1977. $3.95.

* WEDDE, I. C. Castaly. Wn, O.U.P., 1980. $6.25.

FICTION

ANTHONY, F. S. Follow The Call, together with an unfinished novel entitled 'Dave Baird'. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975. Hbk: $7.50. Pbk'. $4.95.

BALLANTYNE, D. W. The Cunninghams. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. Hbk: $8.50. Pbk: $4.50.

BIRD, HAWK, BOGIE; Essays on Janet Frame, edited by Jeanne Delbaere. Aarhus, Dangaroo Press, 1978.

CAMPION, E. A Place to Pass Through and Other Stories. Wn, Reed, 1977. $7.95.

COPLAND, R. A. Frank Sargeson. Wn, O.U.P., 1976. $2.95

COWLEY, C. J. The Growing Season. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1979. $9.95

CRITICAL ESSAYS ON THE NEW ZEALAND NOVEL, edited by Cherry Hankin. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1976. $6.95.

CROSS. I. R. The God Boy. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1972. $4.95.

CRUMP, B. J. The Best of Crump. Ak, Crump Productions, 1974.

DAVIN, D. M. Roads from Home. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1976. Hbk: $8.40. Pbk: $4.50.

DU FRESNE, Y. Farvel and Other Stories. Wn, Victoria University Press, 1980. $7.95

EVANS, P. D. Janet Frame, Boston, Twayne, 1977.

FRAME, J. Living in the Maniototo. New York, Braziller, 1979, US$8.95.

—–Owls Do Cry. London, W. H. Allen, 1961.

—–A State of Siege. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1967.

GEE, M. G. Games of Choice. Wn, O.U.P., 1977. $4.50.

—–Plumb. Wn, OUP; London, Faber and Faber, 1979. Pbk; $4.95

GRACE, P. F. Mutuwhenua; The Moon Sleeps. Ak, Longman Paul, 1978, Hbk: $8.75. Pbk: $5.50.

—–Waiariki, Ak, Longman Paul, 1975. Hbk: $5.75. Pbk: $4.25.

—–The Dream Sleepers and Other Stories. Ak, Longman Paul, 1980. $5.95.

HILLIARD, N. H. Maori Girl. London, Heinemann, 1971. Hbk $5.25. Pbk $4.50.

—–Send Somebody Nice. London, Hale, 1976. $4.95.

HOLCROFT, M. H. Islands of Innocence; The Childhood Theme in New Zealand Fiction. Wn, Reed, 1964. o.p.

HYDE, R. The Godwits Fly. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1970. Hbk: $7.50. Pbk: $4.95.

IHIMAERA, W. T. The New Net Goes Fishing. Ak, Heinemann, 1977. $9.45.

—–Tangi. Ak, Heinemann, 1974. $4.50.

—–Whanau. Ak, Heinemann, 1974. Hbk: $7. Pbk: $4.50.

JOSEPH, M. K. A Soldier's Tale. Ak, Collins, 1976. $7.50.

KIDMAN, F. A Breed of Women. Sydney, Harper & Row, 1979. $12.95.

LEE, J. A. Children of the Poor. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1973. $4.50

MANDER, J. Allen Adair. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1971. Hbk: $7.50. Pbk: $4.95.

MANSFIELD, K. Complete Stories. Ak, Golden Press, 1974. $6.99

MIDDLETON, O. E. G. Selected Stories. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. $5.95.

MORRIESON, J. R. H. Pallet on the Floor. Palmerston North, Dunmore, 1976. Hbk: $6.95. Pbk: $4.50.

—– The Scarecrow. Ak, Heinemann, 1976. $3.95.

MULGAN, J. A. E. Man Alone. 2nd ed. Ak, Longman Paul, 1975. $4.50.

N.Z. LISTENER SHORT STORIES, chosen by B. Manhire. 2 v. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1977–78. $5.95.

NEW ZEALAND SHORT STORIES, Wn, O.U.P., 1975. 3 series. $13.95.

PICKARD, A. G. All Part of the Game; The Stories of A. P. Gaskell. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1978. Hbk: $9.95. Pbk: $5.90.

RHODES, H. W. New Zealand Fiction Since 1945. Dn, McIndoe, 1968.

SARGESON, F. Never Enough; Places and People Mainly. Wn, Reed, 1977. $6.95. Final volume of autobiography.

—– Stories. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973. $8.25.

SATCHELL, W. The Greenstone Door. Ak, Golden Press, 1973. $6.98.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. Figures in Light: Selected Stories. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1978. Hbk: $9.95 Pbk: $5.95.

—– The New Zealanders; A Sequence of Stories. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1974. $2.95.

—– Strangers and Journeys. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1972. Hbk: $7.15. Pbk: $4.15.

—– The Lovelock Version. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1980. $22.95.

SHIRLEY TEMPLE IS A WIFE AND MOTHER; 34 Stories, edited by C.C. Catley. Whatamongo Bay, Cape Catley, 1977. Hbk: $8.50. Pbk: $5.95.

STEAD, C. K. Smith's Dream. Ak, Longman Paul, 1971. $3.95.

STEVENS, J. The New Zealand Novel, 1860–1965. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1966.

SUTHERLAND, M. Getting Through, and Other Stories. Ak, Heinemann, 1977. $9.50.

WENDT, A. Sons for the Return Home. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973. Hbk: $5.95. Pbk: $3.95.

DRAMA

* BAXTER, J. K. Jack Winter's Dream, Wn, Price Milburn for Victoria University Press, 1979. $2.50.

CURNOW, A. Four Plays. Wn, Reed, 1972. Hbk: $5.50. Pbk: $3.95.

CONTEMPORARY NEW ZEALAND PLAYS, selected by H. McNaughton. Wn, O.U.P., 1974. $4.95.

HALL, R. L. Middle-age Spread. Wn, Price Milburn, 1978. $3.50.

—– Glide Time; a play in four acts set in the Public Service. Wn, Price Milburn, 1977. $3.50.

MCNAUGHTON, H. D. New Zealand Drama; A Bibliographical Guide. Ch, Library University of Canterbury, 1974. $2.95.

MCNEILL, B. The Two Tigers; a play on Katherine Mansfield and John Middleton Murry. Wn, Price Milburn, 1977. $3.50.

PLAYMARKET, A Directory of New Zealand Plays and Playwrights. Wn, Playmarket, 1978. $1.

DESCRIPTION AND TRAVEL

BIGWOOD, K. V. New Zealand in Colour, Rev. ed. Wn. Reed, 1972, 2 v. $13.

BRAITHWAITE, E. F. The Companion Guide to the North Island of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1970, $7.90.

—– The Companion Guide to the South Island of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1972. $6.80.

—– New Zealand and its People. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $10.95.

COBB, L. and J. DUNCAN. New Zealand's National Parks. Ak, Hamlyn, 1980. $15.95.

FODOR'S AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, AND THE SOUTH PACIFIC 1978, edited by Robert C. Fisher and Leslie Brown. New York, David McKay, 1978. US$9.95.

Also published London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1978. £;6.95.

NEW ZEALAND ATLAS, edited by Ian Wards. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $8.00.

NEW ZEALAND IN MAPS, edited by A. G. Anderson. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1977. £;5.50.

NEW ZEALAND AUTOMOBILE ASSOCIATION. AA Road Atlas of New Zealand. Rev. ed. Ak, Hamlyn, 1978. $7.95.

—– AA Book of the New Zealand Countryside. Ak, Hamlyn, 1978. $12.95.

PASCOE, J. D., ed. National Parks of New Zealand 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $10.50.

POPE, D. M. and J. D. POPE. Mobil New Zealand Travel Guide, North Island. 3rd ed. Wn, Reed, 1977. $7.95.

—– South island. 3rd ed. Wn, Reed, 1978. $6.95.

REED, A. W. Place Names of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1975. $10.50. and supplement, 1979. $9.95.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. The Shell Guide to New Zealand. Rev. ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $9.95.

SIERS, J. and J. HENDERSON. The New Zealanders. Wn, Milwood Press, 1975. $22.50.

SMITH, R. and W. JACOBS and G. BILLING. The New Zealanders. Rev. ed. Ch, Kowhai Publishing, 1979. $12.95.

WISE'S NEW ZEALAND GUIDE; A Gazetteer of New Zealand. 7th ed. Ak, Wise Publications, 1979. $45.

HISTORICAL WORKS

ADAMS, P. W. T. Fatal Necessity; British Intervention in New Zealand, 1830–1847. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $13.60.

BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. The Discovery of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, O.U.P., 1961. o.p.

BEGG, A. C., and N. C. BEGG. James Cook and New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969. $4.50.

BRETT, H. White Wings. Ak, Brett Printing Co., 1924–28. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1976. 2 v. $50.

Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

COOK, J. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Edited by J. C. Beaglehole. Cambridge, Hakluyt Society, 1955–5 v. to date. (Hakluyt Society. Extra series No. 34.)

COWAN, J. The New Zealand Wars. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955–1956. 2 v. $9.

FACSIMILES OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE AND THE TREATY OF WAITANGI. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $12.95.

GRANT, I. F. The Unauthorised Version: A Cartoon History of New Zealand. Ak, Cassell, 1980. $18.95.

HOLCROFT, M. H. The Shaping of New Zealand. Ak, Hamlyn, 1974. $9.50.

INGRAM, C. W. N. New Zealand Shipwrecks, 1795–1975. 5th ed. Wn, Reed, 1977. $16.95.

JACKSON, W. K. The New Zealand Legislative Council; A Study of the Establishment, Failure, and Abolition of an Upper House. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1972. $9.95.

LISSINGTON, M. P. New Zealand and Japan, 1900–1941. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $5.75.

—– New Zealand and the United States, 1840–1944. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $3.

LOOKING BACK; A Photographic History of New Zealand, compiled by K. Sinclair & W. Harrex. Wn, O.U.P., 1978. $18.95.

MCLINTOCK, A. H. Crown Colony Government in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958. $3.50.

MCNAB, R. The Old Whaling Days; A History of Southern New Zealand from 1830 to 1840. Ak, Golden Press, 1975. $4.95.

MADDOCK, S. These Antipodes; A New Zealand Album, 1814 to 1854. Ak, Collins, 1979. $29.50.

MANING, F. E. Old New Zealand; A Tale of the Good Old Times and A History of the War in the North Told by an Old Chief of the Ngapuhi Tribe. Ak, Golden Press, 1973. $6.98.

MORRELL, W. P. The Anglican Church in New Zealand; A History. Dn, McIndoe, 1973. $5.95.

—– The Provincial System in New Zealand, 1852–76. 2nd rev. ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $4.50.

NEW ZEALAND CENTENNIAL BRANCH. Making New Zealand; Pictorial Surveys of a Century. Wn, 1939–40. 2 v. o.p.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST. Leaflets on various historic sites; Booklets. See under individual authors, e.g., Standish, M. W., in following section, gratis.

NEW ZEALAND WAR HISTORY BRANCH. Documents Relating to New Zealand's Participation in the Second World War, 1939–45. Wn, 1949–63. 3 v. 1 o.p.; 2, $1.25; 3, $2.50.

NEW ZEALAND'S HERITAGE; The Making of a Nation. Ak, Hamlyn, 1977. 7 v. in 105 pts, issued weekly. $1 per issue.

OLIVER, W. H. The Story of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, Faber, 1963. Hbk: $3.50. Pbk: $1.35.

PASCOE, J. D. Exploration New Zealand. Wn, Reed. 1971. $4.50.

ROSS, J. O. This Stem Coast; the Story of the Charting of the New Zealand Coast. Wn, Reed, 1969, o.p.

SHARP, C. A. The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman. London, O.U.P., 1968. $8.

SIMPSON, A. C. The Road to Erewhon. Ak, Beaux Arts, 1976. $8.95.

—– The Sugarbag Years. Wn, A. Taylor, 1974. Hbk: $8.95. Pbk: $5.95.

SINCLAIR, K. A. History of New Zealand. Rev. ed. London, Lane, 1980. Hbk: $19.95. Pbk: $5.95.

—– The Origins of the Maori Wars. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1974. $7.90.

SUTCH, W. B. Poverty and Progress in New Zealand; A Reassessment. 2nd rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $4.95.

—– The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840 to 1966. Wn, O.U.P., 1966. Hbk: $6.50. Pbk: $3.

TAYLOR, R. Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.95.

THIRTEEN FACETS; Essays to Celebrate the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth the Second, 1952–1977, edited by I. Wards. Wn, Govt. Print., 1978. $13.95.

WAKEFIELD, E. J. Adventure in New Zealand. Ak, Golden Press, 1975. $3.95.

WOOD, F. L. W. The New Zealand People at War; Political and External Affairs. Wn, Historical Publications Branch in conjunction with Reed, 1971. $5.95.

REGIONAL AND LOCAL WORKS

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

ACLAND, L. G. D. The Early Canterbury Runs. 4th. ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1975. $14.95.

ALINGTON, M. H. Unquiet Earth; A History of the Bolton Street Cemetery. Wn, Wellington City Council, Govt. Print., 1978. $9.75.

ALLAN, R. M. Nelson; A History of Early Settlement. Wn, Reed, 1965.

ANDERSEN, J. C. Place Names of Banks Peninsula; A Topographical History. Wn, Govt. Print., 1927. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1976. $12.

Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

BAGNALL, A. G. Wairarapa. Masterton, Hedley's Bookshop, 1976. $19.50.

BARBER, L. H. The View from Pirongia; The History of Waipa County. Ak, Richards Publishing, 1978. $12.50.

BEGG, A. C. and N. C. BEGG. Port Preservation. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1973, $12.50.

BUCHANAN, J. D. H. The Maori History and Place Names of Hawke's Bay. Wn, Reed, 1973.

CAMPBELL, M. D. N. Story of Napier, 1874–1974. Napier, Napier City Council, 1975. $7.

CARKEEK, W. The Kapiti Coast; Maori History and Place Names. Wn, Reed, 1966. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1978. $30.

FIELD, T. A. Relics of the Goldfields, Central Otago. Dn, McIndoe, 1976. $6.95.

GIBBONS, P. J. Astride the River; A History of Hamilton. Ch, Whitcoulls for the Hamilton City Council, 1977. $11.50.

GILLESPIE, O. A. South Canterbury; A Record of Settlements. 2nd ed. Timaru, South Canterbury Centennial History Committee, 1971.

GUTHRIE-SMITH, W. H. Tutira; The Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969.

HALL-JONES, Fiordland Explored; An Illustrated History. Wn, Reed, 1976. $13.95.

A HISTORY OF CANTERBURY. Canterbury Centennial Historical and Literary Committee; Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1957–71. 3 v.

HOLCROFT, M. H. The Line of Road; A History of Manawatu County, 1876–1976. Dn, McIndoe for the Manawatu County Council, 1977. $10.

HOWARD, B. H. Rakiura; A History of Stewart Island. Dn, Reed, 1974. $19.95.

IRVINE-SMITH, F. L. The Streets of My City; Wellington, New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1967.

LAMBERT, T. The Story c£; Old Wairoa and the East Coast District, North Island, New Zealand. Dn, Coulls Somerville Wilkie, 1925. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1977. $40.

MCALLISTER, C. Old Taranaki and its Mountain. Wn, Millwood Press, 1976., $19.50.

MCARA, J. B. Gold Mining at Waihi, 1878–1952. Waihi, Waihi Historical Society, 1978. $16.50.

MAIN, W. Auckland Through a Victorian Lens. Wn, Millwood Press, 1977. $19.95.

MAY, P. R. The West Coast Gold Rushes. 2nd. Rev. ed. Ch, Pegasus, 1967.

OGILVIE, G. B. The Port Hills of Christchurch. Wn, Reed, 1978. $13.50.

OLIVER, W. H. Challenge and Response; A Study of the Development of the Gisborne East Coast Region. Gisborne, East Coast Development Research Association, 1971. $4.50.

REED, A. H. The Story of Northland. Wn, Reed, 1975. $6.50.

SIERS, J. and A. BRISTOW. Wellington. Wn, Millwood Press, 1974.

SMART, M. J. G. and A. P. BATES. The Wanganui Story. Wanganui Newspapers, 1972. $5.90.

SMEDLEY, B. Homewood and its Families. Wn, Mallinson Rendel, 1980. $12.95.

* STANDISH, M. W. The Waimate Mission Station, Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. 70c. Also others issued by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust.

BIOGRAPHY

HONOURS, TITLES, STYLES, AND PRECEDENCE IN NEW ZEALAND, compiled and edited by P. P. O'Shea. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $13.90. Supplement, 1980. $9.25.

WHO'S WHO IN NEW ZEALAND. 11th ed., edited by J. E. Traue. Wn, Reed, 1978. $16.95.

BASSETT, J. Sir Harry Atkinson, 1831–1892. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975. $12.00.

BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. The Life of Captain James Cook. London, Black, 1974.

BELL, G. E. Ernest Dieffenbach. Palmerston North, Dunmore Press, 1976. $12.50.

BINNEY, J. and CHAPLIN, G. and WALLACE, C. Mihaia; The Prophet Rua Kenana and His Community at Maungapohatu. Wn, O.U.P., 1979. Hbk; $19.95. Pbk; $13.50.

BURNS, P. Te Rauparaha. Wn, Reed, 1980. $29.95.

CONDLIFFE, J. B. Te Rangi Hiroa; The Life of Sir Peter Buck. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971.

CRESSWELL, W. D. The Letters of D'Arcy Cresswell. Ch, University of Canterbury, 1971. $6.

HARPER, B. Petticoat Pioneers: South Island Women of the Colonial Era. Wn, Reed, 1980. $19.95.

HENDERSON, J. M. Ratana; The Man, the Church, the Political Movement. 2nd ed. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1972. $3.95.

HILLARY, SIR E. P. Nothing Ventured, Nothing Win. London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1975. Hbk: $13.35. Pbk: $4.15.

JAMES, N. At One with the Sea. Ak, Hutchinson of New Zealand, 1979. $12.95

KING, M. Te Puea. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1977. $15.95.

LUSH, V. The Auckland Journals of Vicesimus Lush, 1850–63, ed. by A. Drummond. Ch, Pegasus, 1971. $12.50.

MACGREGOR, M. F. Petticoat Pioneers, North Island Women of the Colonial Era. Wn, Reed, 1973. 2 v. 1975. $12.95 each.

MCCORMICK, E. H. Omai, Pacific Envoy. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $21.60.

MEYERS, J. Katherine Mansfield; A Biography. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1979. $16.75.

Also published London, H. Hamilton, 1978.

NOTABLE NEW ZEALANDERS. Ak, Hamlyn, 1979. $34.50.

OGILVE, G. B. The Riddle of Richard Pearse. Wn, 1973. $4.95.

OLSSEN, E. N. John A. Lee. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1977. $14.95.

RAESIDE, J. D. Sovereign Chief, A Biography of Baron de Thierry. Ch, Caxton Press, 1977. $22.50.

ROGERS, L. M. Te Wiremu; A Biography of Henry Williams. Ch. Pegasus, 1973. $7.50.

ROLLESTON, R. William and Mary Rolleston. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.50.

SCOTT, R. G. A Stake in the Country; Assid Abraham Corban and His Family, 1892–1977. Ak, Southern Cross Books, 1977. $25.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. Love and Legend; Some 20th Century New Zealanders. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1976. $8.45.

SINCLAIR, K. Walter Nash. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1976. Hbk: $13.95. Pbk: $8.40.

—– William Pember Reeves; New Zealand Fabian. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. $6.90.

STACPOOLE, J. William Mason; The First New Zealand Architect. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P. 1971. $12.50.

STIRLING, A. M. Amiria; The Life Story of a Maori Woman, as told to Anne Salmond. Wn, Reed, 1976. Hbk: $13.95. Pbk: $9.95.

WEBSTER, P. Rua and the Maori Millennium. Wn, Price Milburn for Victoria University Press, 1979. $18.

GOLDEN FLEECE: THE EVOLUTION OF THE NEW ZEALAND WOOL INDUSTRY

New Zealand's sheep industry is a story of “adapt and survive” … an evolution of farming patterns subject to the dictates of climate, terrain, and world demand for quality products.

Today, New Zealand has over 68 million sheep; they outnumber people 20 to 1 and provide a third of the country's annual overseas income. For well over 100 years the national economy has been closely structured to the fluctuating prices meat and wool fetch on world markets. New Zealand is the largest supplier of coarse wool to world markets and it is the third largest wool-growing nation, behind Australia and the Soviet Union.

Since the early days, man and stock together have transformed a rugged natural environment into a highly productive agricultural country. It has been an on-going exercise and the result is an industry which is unrivalled anywhere in the world.

Distinct breeds of sheep have been developed … dual-purpose animals which provide high-yielding, good colour wool, and succulent roasting joints. They have established New Zealand's hallmark of quality and an enviable reputation which symbolises the nation's primary industry.

The men who control the sheep industry have helped mould a distinctive way of life. The pattern was set by pioneers who laid the foundation stone for the path New Zealand was to follow.

EARLY DAYS OF THE SHEEP INDUSTRY

The start of the New Zealand sheep industry reaches back to the earliest colonial days. Navigator and explorer Captain James Cook saw potential for a pastoral industry. On his second voyage from England to New Zealand in 1773 he landed 2 Merinos in the Marlborough Sounds, survivors of a flock brought from the Cape of Good Hope. These animals died within a few days of being put ashore.

Missionary, pastoralist, and stock breeder, the Rev. Samuel Marsden, introduced sheep in 1814 to the Bay of Islands in North Auckland. Although there is no record of their permanent survival, there are reports of New Zealand wool selling in Sydney around that time.

To make the decision to leave their homeland the early settlers were infused with a spirit of adventure. But to survive in an untamed and unknown land required courage, fortitude, and a mountain of hard work.

The pioneers found a country of contrasts, flat fertile valleys but with a predominance of steep hills and, in the backdrop, precipitous mountains and alpine ranges. Most of the land was covered in thick, almost inpenetrable, rain forests with some pockets of native grasses and tussock. They found a country surrounded by sea and exposed to the whims of climate whipped up from the oceans. In the north it was sub-tropical, but in the south it was more temperate. They also found that, after clearing native forest, the soils grew lush pasture and that, with the ample rainfall, grass grew for most of the year.

Thousands upon thousands of hectares of forest land was cleared, brought into pastures, fenced, and stocked. In this environment the sheep was the pivot between forest regeneration and grass.

The first permanent flock is credited to James Bell Wright, who landed Merinos on Mana Island near Wellington in 1834. During the next decade importations rose rapidly and by the mid-1840s sheep were firmly established in the Wairarapa, Marlborough, Canterbury, and Otago regions.

The first sheep farming ventures were trial and error. With the wide variations in New Zealand's climate, soil type, and topography it soon became apparent that while some breeds might thrive in one area, others would not. Specialist sheep were bred to suit the environment, easy-care animals, never housed in winter, and requiring a minimum of shepherding.

THE SHEEP INDUSTRY TODAY

Today, on over 30000 farms, sheep range from sea level to rocky mountainous terrain 2000 metres and higher in the Southern Alps. In many lowland districts sheep have given way to dairying or horticulture, but they still reign supreme on the hills.

Characteristic of the New Zealand pastoral scene is the one-man, one-farm concept where the family unit is the heart of the operation. On properties they own, husband, wife, and children work side-by-side as partners. They have developed as individuals, determining their own land-use and evolving highly efficient farming units.

Typically, 1 farmer runs 1500 ewes, their replacements, and some cattle. The stock graze grass pastures all year round and rarely require supplementary feed. The production figures are high—a national average of 5.5 kilograms of wool per head of sheep and nearly 100 percent lambing.

The New Zealand farmer's ingenuity and willingness to experiment with new ideas, new products, and new processes, have continued to keep the industry progressing. The tractor, the bulldozer, and the landrover are all essential tools for the larger-scale farming operation. Aerial topdressing, pioneered in New Zealand, enables farmers to fertilise steep and inaccessible hill country.

FINDING THE BEST BREED FOR THE JOB

The Merino was New Zealand's dominant breed until the late 19th century, but its influence began to wane after refrigerated shipping was introduced in 1882. The Merino was a slow-maturing wool specialist. Also counting against it was its inability to cope with the wetter North Island country newly cleared of rain forest. The dual-purpose British breeds, Lincoln and English Leicester, began to find favour in these districts. These sheep were highly suited to foraging amongst charred forest remains and keeping regrowth down. Much of the North Island pasture owes its foundation to them.

As the export meat industry developed, farmers in the South Island began searching for a dual-purpose sheep suited to the drier easier grassland tracts. English Leicester, Lincoln, and Romney were all crossed with Merino to create the New Zealand Halfbred. From successive interbreeding emerged the Corriedale, a fine-wool, meat-producing dual specialist.

Although the Merino's influence has diminished, today it has an established home, grazing native grasses and tussock to the extremes of the Southern Alps snowline. At lower altitudes, the New Zealand Halfbred finds its niche, and the Corriedale grazes rolling countryside and South Island lowlands.

Towards the turn of the century another trend began in the North Island. The Romney, New Zealand's most popular breed today, began to emerge from relative obscurity. The Lincoln and the English Leicester had done their work developing pasture, but their performance on land that had been tamed could not match the Romney.

From about 1910 the Romney's popularity gathered momentum. A distinct New Zealand type was developed, and its coarse wool and prime lamb production laid the basis for New Zealand's meat and wool industry. During the 1960s 75 percent of the national flock was Romney. Today that proportion has declined to 50 percent. Crosses based on the Romney have been found ideally suited to particular conditions—the Perendale on the hard hill country and the high-fertility Coopworth on the lowlands.

The Drysdale is another breed of Romney origin and, although a specialist carpet-wool producer, it is still considered a dual-purpose sheep.

Of the meat breeds, the Southdown has played a major part in the evolution of other “Down” breeds—Suffolk, South Suffolk, Hampshire, South Hampshire, Dorset Down, and the South Dorset Down. Two of Britain's oldest breeds, the Ryeland and the Dorset Horn, have been used to create the Poll Dorset, and these 3 breeds are the only New Zealand meat sires which owe nothing to the Southdown. Lambs from the meat breeds reach their export potential at rapid rates (between 12 and 20 weeks) and after slaughter are shipped from New Zealand, many reaching a variety of northern hemisphere markets in time for Christmas.

The annual lamb crop is more than 40 million, of which 27 million are slaughtered each year for export. The remainder is held as farm replacement stock. At the freezing works pelts from slaughtered lambs are treated with a chemical enabling the wool to be plucked or “sliped” from the skin. Slipe wool represents 15 percent of the annual 375000-tonne wool production.

SHEARING: THE BLADES METHOD AND THE LONG BLOW.

The bulk of New Zealand's wool is, however, shorn from live sheep—in some regions twice a year. Shearing is a demanding manual skill carried out on the farms in specially constructed sheds by either a contractor or the farmer and his family. A unique New Zealand shearing style, emphasising economy of effort, has been perfected and is copied by most other sheep-growing nations. The shearing gangs are responsible for sorting the wool into distinct types and packaging it for export in 150-kilogram bales. The New Zealand Wool Board helps maintain a quality control by training shearers, wool handlers, and classers.

Field superintendent in charge of shearer training for the Wool Board is Godfrey Bowen who, with his brother Ivan, largely formulated the distinctive shearing style which is recognised and copied worldwide. Certain old-time magic still exists in shearing camps, where financial incentives are high in what is recognised as one of the toughest occupations known to modern New Zealanders. Shearing still has a certain pioneering spirit. The gangs—living, sleeping, and sweating side by side—are liberally sprinkled with characters … guitar players, story tellers, humorists, beer drinkers, and “bull artists”.

The men who harvest New Zealand wool from more than 100 million sheep each year (a figure that includes the 40 million lambs born each year) have played an integral part in developing New Zealand's successful wool industry.

Today's economy-of-effort shearing style did not happen by chance. It evolved over 50 years. Before the advent of electric shears a style known then as the “blades method” was predominant. The sheep were held in an upright position and the blows were “around the body” making what has been described as “a very tidy job”.

Even after the first electric shears were developed in Australia during the 1880s, the old blade technique persisted. It took 20 more years for the “long blow” to emerge, when an Australian shearer flipped a sheep on to its back. This “new” method became fashionable in New Zealand although the blade technique dominated until about World War 1.

The emergence of Godfrey Bowen as the world champion shearer in 1953 started a new era. Mr Bowen developed and polished a distinct technique which is the pattern of today's shearing style.

SCOURING

Scouring of the New Zealand clip increased steadily during the 1970s and about 55 percent of the clip is now scoured in New Zealand. This country's developments in wool scouring technology are continuing to prove their worth and have led to efficiencies in heat saving, lanolin (wool grease) recovery, and effluent disposal. The local industry is recognised as one of the most efficient in the world, and this accounts for its recent growth.

WOOL BOARD ACTIVITIES

The New Zealand Wool Board's operations extend far beyond shearer training. Its other activities include—

  • Operating a series of market support schemes, including a minimum floor price level which provides growers with an assured base for forward planning.

  • The general promotion of wool in New Zealand. Board staff are in constant contact with all facets of the wool industry, from farming groups and manufacturers to retailers and exporters.

  • Running courses in wool handling and wool classing.

  • Providing assistance to New Zealand textile manufacturers through fashion and design services, technical assistance for new products and processes, and quality control assistance in maintaining international Woolmark standards.

  • Developing new markets for greasy and scoured wool.

  • Collating, analysing, and reporting on all available wool intelligence.

  • Ensuring that there are reliable and frequent shipping services and stable freight rates from New Zealand auction centres to the world's major wool markets. The Board negotiates with shipping companies to secure the best, though not necessarily the cheapest, freight services for the New Zealand farmer.

The Board, based in Wellington, is a statutory body, first established in 1944 and later reconstituted under the Wool Industry Act, 1977. Under the Act, the Board has extensive powers to asist it … “to obtain, in the interests of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool”.

When the 1977 Act was drawn up, the old New Zealand Wool Board was concerned to ensure that the new Board would be a producer board with a majority of woolgrowers on the directorate. This was achieved and 6 directors are elected by the Meat and Wool Boards' Electoral Committee, which represents the country's 30000 woolgrowers.

The Government appoints 2 directors, the Director-General of Agriculture is a director ex officio, and the 9 directors may nominate a further director with commercial experience. The managing director is also a member of the Board.

The Board helps shape national farming policy, advises Government, and works with the trade at all levels to ensure the “best possible long-term returns” for its “shareholders”.

MARKETING THE WOOL

About three-quarters of New Zealand's wool is sold by auction. Auction sales are held in 8 centres at about monthly intervals during the 10-month selling season from August to June. Woolbrokers (usually stock and station agency companies) act on behalf of their clients in displaying the wool for sale. Woolbuyers, who represent overseas manufacturers, purchase wool at auction in fulfilment of, or in anticipation of, orders from their principals.

Overseas shipping companies operating in Mew Zealand have their representatives at auction sales to facilitate the booking of space in ships and to ensure prompt shipment of wool after the sale.

Private sales account for about 20 percent of the clip. Local merchants visit the farms, or the grower takes all or part of his clip to the merchant to settle on a mutually acceptable price. This is normally based on current auction values. Private buyers dispose of their purchases either within the wool trade or by direct export to overseas customers.

Farmers' shipments to Bradford auctions in Britain were once popular, but now account for less than 3 percent of the clip.

Contract sales direct from the farm to a New Zealand mill involve a small amount of wool, mostly speciality carpet wool.

Technology has played a major part in marketing over the last decade. Because New Zealand exports more than 90 percent of its wool production to almost 50 countries, a faster smooth-functioning wool flow has been devised around the auction system.

This conventional method of wool selling allows for representatives from wool-buying firms to inspect the wool in bales before placing a bid at auction. There is a second and increasingly important method—sale by sample. A wool sample is automatically removed from the bale by the steel jaws of a grab sampling machine and placed in a cardboard tray. Hollow steel coring tubes are then pushed deep into the bale so a second sample can be taken for scientific analysis by a wool testing authority. Under strictly controlled conditions technicians measure the yield, fibre diameter and the amount of vegetable matter present in the wool. The testing laboratory issues an internationally accepted certificate containing this information. The samples in the cardboard trays, together with their certificates, are then displayed for inspection by the buyers.

While most of the world's wool for export is grown in the southern hemisphere, the largest consumer markets of Europe, the United States, and Japan are in the northern hemisphere. Thus, the transport of New Zealand's wool to overseas markets is an important aspect of the industry, and efficient assembly, packaging, and transportation are vital.

The role of the New Zealand Wool Board in transport and shipping is to co-ordinate the requirements of the wool industry and negotiate with shipping lines the appropriate service and tariff. A number of the export destinations are served by shipping “conferences”. Under the conference system, individual shipping companies jointly undertake to provide a regular shipping service at rates which are common to all members.

The United Kingdom and Europe are served by the New Zealand European Shipping Association (NZESA) and Japan by members of the New Zealand Eastern Shipping Company (NZESC). In using this shipping system, the Wool Board has a regular service schedule at a price which is fixed for a given period. Our wool exports are then assured of reliable shipping services and stable freight rates. At present about 80 percent of our wool exports are shipped in containers.

New Zealand is the third largest of the world's wool producers, responsible for about 12 percent of the world's total of 2500000 tonnes. Australia produces 27 percent and the USSR is next with 18 percent. However, as the overwhelming percentage of the USSR's wool production is consumed domestically, New Zealand is, in terms of exports, the second largest exporter to international trade.

In recent years, export patterns have changed as processing has begun to shift from the developed to the developing countries of Asia and Eastern Europe. There has been a steady decline in exports to the United Kingdom (always our biggest single customer until the 1979–80 season, when it was surpassed by the USSR) and to Western Europe, although together the countries in that part of the world still remain the most significant purchasing nucleus.

THE INTERNATIONAL WOOL SECRETARIAT (IWS)

New Zealand wool is promoted on world markets by the International Wool Secretariat, a partnership with Australia, South Africa, and Uruguay. These 3 countries, with New Zealand, provide about 80 percent of the raw wool entering world trade. Set up in 1937 and revived after the Second World War, the International Wool Secretariat has headquarters in London and branches in almost 30 countries. It does not own wool or wool products, nor does it trade in them. It is a non-profit making organisation which promotes wool irrespective of country of origin, and which offers a wide range of technical and fashion services to the wool textile industry, clothing manufacturers, and the retail trade.

The International Wool Secretariat has a substantial involvement in research and development. Its main technical centre is at Ilkley, in England, and there are others in the United States, France, and Japan. Research programmes are closely integrated with those of the sponsor countries. Many ideas which originated in the laboratories of the wool-growing countries have been developed to the point of commercial feasibility by the International Wool Secretariat.

New Zealand's Wool Research Organisation (WRONZ) and the IWS technical centre at Ilkley work in close co-operation. The acceptance of wool as a tufting fibre is regarded as the outstanding development in the carpet industry in recent years, and now something like 50 million kilograms of wool is used for tufted carpets each year.

The breakthrough began at Lincoln in Canterbury 9 years ago when the Wool Research Organisation conducted a series of preliminary tests showing that wool could be tufted effectively. Until then, tufting was considered suitable only for synthetic fibres; wool carpets had to be woven. But tufting was the growth area, and wool had to be part of it to compete in cost and volume.

The New Zealand contribution to the International Wool Secretariat comprises moneys collected by the Board as a 3 percent levy on total gross proceeds from wool.

MEAT AND WOOL ECONOMIC SERVICE

Another important subsidiary of the Wool Board is the Meat and Wool Board's Economic Service. Established as an independent unit in 1950, its task is to provide both boards with detailed economic data on the farming industry. The service is financed equally by the 2 boards and controlled by a joint committee. One of its main activities is a continuous survey of 525 randomly-selected sheep and beef farms, which forms the basis for many of the forward estimates and projections of incomes, production, and investment. Throughout the year, research is carried out on topics such as farm input prices, levels of farm investments, stock numbers and production, breeding trends, and soil moisture levels.

WOOL IN THE WORLD OF COMMERCE

Wool is fast becoming a scarce premium fibre—it is estimated that its share of total fibre production will be less than four percent by the turn of the century. In many products, it is approximately twice the price of synthetics at the mill door.

In recent years, there has been a strong fashion move towards quality, which has helped confirm wool's position. World-wide, consumers are showing a preference for quality and for natural fibres. They also recognise that wool's characteristics (for example, its ability to absorb moisture, its resistance to soiling, and its warmth) cannot be imitated by any one synthetic. Wool has met—and must continue to meet—strong competition from synthetics. However, continual research, product innovation and improvement, and vigorous promotional activities including the world-wide use of the Woolmark identification, have contributed to the recognition of woollen garments, carpets, and other products as goods of superior quality.

Appendix

WOOL ENTERED FOR EXPORT—1 JULY 1979 to 30 JUNE 1980
DestinationGreasySlipeScouredTotal
 tonnes
Algeria--8787
Australia647080238157
Belgium50937725017671
Bulgaria198--198
Canada20514915111865
China14141-54414685
China, Province of Taiwan5683539954598
Czechoslovakia5186-2875473
Denmark-38083
Egypt892-15802472
Eire--21372137
Finland14-166180
France19386893588326162
Germany, Democratic Republic of2604-672671
Germany, Federal Republic of47076371263017974
Greece493251110711625
Hong Kong351736863738
Hungary304-277581
India3303159492
Iran369-1432914698
Israel--183183
Italy40832311018214496
Japan54541542086026468
Korea South270-45504820
Macao--2929
Iraq--77
Mauritius--10711071
Mexico105-123228
Morocco9-206215
Netherlands7638717760515960
Norway113-235348
Pakistan461-16672128
Poland3967-614028
Portugal10778391124
Romania122--122
South Africa-9561570
Spain1280144341728
Sweden155210230
Switzerland38-644
Syria379-6381017
Thailand--4545
Tunisia--353353
United Arab Emirates--1313
USSR33331-567339004
United Kingdom6453109521258629991
United States of America43172754403011101
Yugoslavia3977-3964373
                Total12767816753140812285243

NEW ZEALAND WOOL INDUSTRY 1979–80

WORLD WOOL INDUSTRY 1979

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX 1980 REVISION

The Consumers Price Index is revised at 3-yearly intervals, with major revisions (such as the present one) alternating with minor revisions affecting weighting but not methodological changes.

The general purpose of a Consumers Price Index is to provide a statistical measure of the changing level of retail prices of goods and services purchased by households. Historically, the main use of the Consumers Price Index in New Zealand in the post-war period has been in the adjustment of wages through such tribunals as the Arbitration Court. However, during the recent period of relatively rapid inflation, it has been increasingly used as a measure of the general level of inflation as it affects consumers, and far-reaching economic policy decisions affecting the whole community have been made by the Government on the basis of movements in the index.

The wider usage and importance attached to the Consumers Price Index make it imperative that it remain an up-to-date and reliable statistical measure constructed in a manner appropriate to the needs of its users, and the purpose of the 3-yearly revisions is to ensure that this is so.

The present revision stems from the work of a Consumers Price Index Revision Advisory Committee convened by the Minister of Statistics in 1978. This committee included representatives of the New Zealand Employers Federation, the Federation of Labour, Federated Farmers, the New Zealand Retailers' Federation, Consumer Council, the National Council of Women, the Combined State Services Organisations, and the Treasury, as well as economic statisticians from the Department of Statistics and the universities.

The committee's report to the Minister of Statistics contained a number of recommendations regarding the 1980 Consumers Price Index revision, most of which confirmed existing practices, others of which suggested changes in statistical methods, the coverage of the index, and the concepts used in its construction.

Commodity item weights used in the index reflect the average expenditure pattern of private households. The primary source of expenditure information for the latest index revision was the Department of Statistics' Household Survey for the year ended 31 March 1980. A brief summary of this survey is given at the end of the Prices, Household Expenditure, and Consumer Affairs section of this Yearbook, and a full description is included in the annual report, New Zealand Household Survey 1979–80, available from the Government Printer. A representative sample of over 4000 private households took part in this survey and provided comprehensive details of their expenditure patterns. For the purposes of the Consumers Price Index, the average expenditure pattern for the year ended 31 March 1980 was re-expressed at the prices prevailing in the December 1980 quarter.

MAIN FEATURES OF THE 1980 REVISION—Changes introduced as a result of the 1980 Consumers Price Index (CPI) Revision included the following:

  1. Separate indexes were introduced for the market centres of Tokoroa and Greymouth.

  2. Medical insurance was included in the regimen of the index.

  3. The air fare component of overseas travel was included in the regimen.

  4. Concepts used in determining the outlay on house-purchase costs were modified. This involved a major change in respect of the weight for “Purchase and Erection of Dwelling Costs”. In accordance with the recommendations of the CPI Revision Advisory Committee, proceeds of sales made by households which sold their homes without acquiring replacement dwellings were netted against the gross outlay figure. In earlier revisions, only the proceeds of sales made by households which acquired replacement dwellings were included in the calculations. This more complete netting of the dollar value of property transactions in the 1980 revision contributed to a considerable fall in the weights given to the direct costs of purchase and erection of dwellings.

  5. There was a major change in the method of pricing home mortgage indebtedness. In earlier revisions, the weight for mortgage interest represented 1 year's interest commitment on those new mortgages taken out in the index base year. This practice was followed principally because there was no practicable pricing mechanism for interest paid on established mortgages.

The weight for mortgage interest has been considerably increased in the 1980 revision. It now relates to the interest paid on all outstanding mortgages by the index population in the base year. This change has been made possible by the development of a suitable pricing mechanism.

INDEX CALCULATION AND PUBLICATION—The expression base of the revised index is the December 1980 quarter, for which the index has the value of 1000. It should be noted that the base for the monthly Food Price Index is also the December 1980 quarter and not the December month.

As previously, the All-groups Index is published quarterly, and the Food Index, monthly. Prices are surveyed in 25 centres throughout New Zealand, the average price for each centre being incorporated into the index. The Department of Statistics has discontinued the series which compared price levels in individual market centres with those of the 25 centres combined, the so-called “each-on-all” series. However, the alternative “each-on-each” series, which compares the price level in each individual centre with the corresponding centre price level in the index base period, is being continued.

There are separate indexes for:

  1. Each of the seven chief market centres (Auckland, Hamilton, Napier-Hastings, Palmerston North, Wellington-Hutt, Christchurch, and Dunedin).

  2. All seven chief market centres combined.

  3. Each of the 12 secondary market centres (Whangarei, Tauranga, Rotorua, Tokoroa, Gisborne, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Masterton, Nelson, Greymouth, Timaru, and Invercargill). (iv) All 12 secondary market centres combined.

  4. New Zealand as a whole (25 market centres combined, i.e., those listed above and Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Ashburton, and Gore).

The proportions of overall private-household expenditure contributed by each group for both the revised and the superseded index are set out in the following table. A more detailed comparison covering groups, sub-groups, and groupings of related goods and services is shown in Table 1 overleaf.

GroupPercentage of Total Expenditure Covered by the Index
Former Index (Base: December 1977 Quarter)Revised Index (Base: December 1980 Quarter)
Food19.1219.62
Housing23.5318.38
Household operation17.0416.08
Apparel7.957.13
Transportation13.8418.26
Miscellaneous18.5220.53
 100.00100.00

Also shown overleaf is a historical series of annual (December year) food and all-groups index numbers equated to the new base, and the latest available quarterly figures.

FURTHER INFORMATION—At the time of going to press the Department of Statistics is intending to issue a statistical bulletin giving a more comprehensive description of the nature and scope of the revised Consumers Price Index, the methods of its construction and calculation, and its relationship to past Consumers Price Indexes. The Report of the Consumers Price Index Revision Advisory Committee 1978 is available from the Government Printer. Detailed information on the Consumers Price Index and other data on prices is shown annually in the report, Prices, Wages, and Labour: Part A—Prices, prepared by the Department of Statistics.

TABLE 1 CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—COMPARISON OF THE EXPENDITURE WEIGHTING OF THE 1980 REGIMEN WITH THAT OF THE 1977 REGIMEN
Groups, Sub-groups, and Groupings of Related Goods and ServicesPercentage of Total Expenditure Covered By the Index
Former Index (Base: December 1977 Quarter)Revised Index (Base: December 1980 Quarter)

* Air travel overseas not included in 1977 regimen.

In 1977 regimen this was included under the credit services section of the Miscellaneous group.

Food—
    Fruit and vegetables—
        Seasonal fruit and vegetables2.211.99
        Processed fruit0.370.33
        Processed vegetables0.370.39
            Total, fruit and vegetables2.952.71
    Meat, fish, and poultry—
        Beef and veal1.971.42
        Hogget and lamb0.980.70
        Pork0.320.25
        Smallgoods and prepared meat1.101.33
        Fish0.400.45
        Poultry0.340.49
            Total, meat, fish, and poultry5.124.66
    Other foods—
        Eggs0.510.43
        Dairy products1.611.99
        Bread, biscuits, and cakes1.721.65
        Other cereals and cereal products0.400.48
        Jams and spreads0.230.21
        Beverages0.950.53
        Other grocery foods1.051.23
        Soft drinks, fruit juices, and ices0.961.30
        Sweets, potato chips, peanuts0.720.97
        Meals away from home1.872.28
        Take aways1.051.20
            Total, other foods11.0512.25
            Total, all food19.1219.62
Housing—
    Rentals—
        State and municipal dwelling rentals0.910.73
        Other dwelling rentals3.112.17
            Total, rentals4.022.90
    Home ownerships—
        Purchase of dwellings11.575.53
        Expenses of purchase and financing of ownership of dwellings1.393.93
        Maintenance expenditure, rates, and insurance6.546.02
            Total, home ownership19.5015.47
            Total, housing23.5318.38
Household Operation—
    Fuel and light2.772.54
    Household furnishing—
        Electric household appliances3.762.86
        Other household appliances0.250.41
        Furniture2.272.09
        Floor coverings1.070.80
        Household textiles0.880.83
        Household equipment and utensils1.091.41
            Total, household furnishing9.338.40
    Household supplies and services—
        Household supplies1.531.98
        Post Office charges1.801.45
        Other household services1.601.70
            Total, household supplies and services4.945.14
            Total, household operation17.0416.08
Apparel—
    Clothing—
        Men's clothing1.881.66
        Women's clothing2.562.35
        Boys' clothing0.490.41
        Girls' clothing0.360.34
        Infants' clothing0.130.09
        Piece goods0.620.43
        Sewing and knitting materials0.400.36
            Total, clothing6.445.64
    Footwear—
        Men's footwear0.510.46
        Women's footwear0.720.69
        Children's footwear0.290.35
            Total, footwear1.521.49
            Total, apparel7.957.13
Transportation—
    Public transport—
        Land travel0.931.01
        Air travel, domestic0.220.41
        Air travel overseas*1.45
        Sea travel0.080.11
            Total, public transport1.222.97
    Private transport—
        Purchase of vehicles4.685.21
        Expenses of purchase of vehicles0.70
        Motor vehicle running and maintenance7.949.38
            Total, private transport12.6215.29
            Total, transportation13.8418.26
Miscellaneous—
    Tobacco and alcohol—
        Tobacco, cigarettes, and requisites2.482.41
        Alcohol5.406.72
        Total, tobacco and alcohol7.889.13
    Other supplies—
        Medical and health supplies0.350.32
        Cosmetics0.560.49
        Toiletries0.720.79
        Other personal goods0.630.89
        Stationery supplies0.250.30
        Leisure and recreational supplies2.312.40
        Newspapers, magazines, and books1.121.17
            Total, other supplies5.946.38
    Other services—
        Health services1.101.39
        Recreational, cultural, and education services1.791.65
        Accommodation, board and lodging0.580.75
        Credit services0.310.29
        Personal services0.920.95
            Total, other services4.705.03
            Total, miscellaneous18.5220.53
            Total, all groups100.00100.00
TABLE 2 CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—FOOD AND ALL-GROUPS, LONG-TERM LINKED HISTORICAL SERIES EQUATED TO BASE: DECEMBER QUARTER 1980 (= 1000)
YearFoodAll Groups
Index No.Annual Percentage ChangeIndex No.Annual Percentage Change
192981+ 2.593-
193077−4.991−2.2
193167−13.084−7.7
193262−7.577−8.3
193358−6.573−5.2
193462+ 6.974+ 1.4
193566+ 6.577+ 4.1
193669+ 4.580+ 3.9
193775+ 8.785+ 6.2
193879+ 5.388+ 3.5
193983+ 5.191+ 3.4
194085+ 2.495+ 4.4
194188+ 3.599+4.2
194289+ 1.1102+ 3.0
194390+ 1.1105+ 2.9
194491+ 1.1107+ 1.9
194591-108+0.9
194691-109+ 0.9
194797+ 6.6112+ 2.8
1948110+ 13.4121+ 8.0
1949112+ 1.8123+ 1.7
1950124+ 10.7130+ 5.7
1951142+ 14.5145+ 11.5
1952157+ 10.6156+7.6
1953166+ 5.7163+ 4.5
1954174+ 4.8170+4.3
1955179+ 2.9174+ 2.4
1956189+ 5.6181+ 4.0
1957188−0.5185+ 2.2
1958192+ 2.1193+ 4.3
1959192-200+ 3.6
1960195+ 1.6201+ 0.5
1961197+ 1.0205+ 2.0
1962198+ 0.5211+ 2.9
1963202+ 2.0215+ 1.9
1964214+ 5.9222+ 3.3
1965219+ 2.3230+ 3.6
1966224+ 2.3236+ 2.6
1967240+ 7.1250+ 5.9
1968247+ 2.9261+ 4.4
1969259+ 4.9274+ 5.0
1970276+ 6.6292+ 6.6
1971301+ 9.1323+ 10.6
1972316+ 5.0345+ 6.8
1973351+ 11.1373+ 8.1
1974392+ 11.7415+ 11.3
1975433+ 10.5475+ 14.5
1976514+ 18.7556+ 17.0
1977601+ 16.9636+ 14.4
1978665+ 10.6711+ 11.8
1979781+ 17.4809+ 13.8
1980940+ 20.4948+ 17.2
TABLE 3 CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX (1980 REVISION)
Base: Weighted average 25 centres, December Quarter 1980 (= 1000)
Group or Sub-group19801981
September QuarterDecember QuarterMarch QuarterJune Quarter
Food—
    Fruit and vegetables959100010191052
    Meat, fish and poultry948100010191032
    Other foods955100010471093
            Food954100010361073
Housing—
    Rentals971100010231058
    Home ownership955100010341080
            Housing958100010331077
Household operation—
    Fuel and light997100010051092
    Household furnishing978100010171060
    Household supplies and services961100010191036
            Household operation977100010161057
Apparel—
    Clothing969100010121064
    Footwear961100010161058
            Apparel967100010131063
Transportation—
    Public transport950100010631134
    Private transport974100010401079
            Transportation972100010441088
Miscellaneous—
    Tobacco and alcohol973100010231052
    Other supplies960100010381072
    Other services970100010411090
            Miscellaneous967100010321068
All groups965100010311072

The level of prices as measured by the All-groups Index for the June 1981 quarter was 4.0 percent above that for the March 1981 quarter and 15.0 percent above the position for the June quarter 1980.

Chapter 43. DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS SELECTED PUBLICATIONS

* Annual report usually preceded by bulletins.
General Statistical Publications
Monthly Abstract of Statistics
Pocket Digest of Statistics
New Zealand Official Yearbook
New Zealand in outline (brochure)
Catalogue of New Zealand Statistics
Annual Reports
Agricultural Statistics
Balance of Payments
Building and Construction Statistics
External Trade
    Exports (Final Statistics)
    Imports (Final Statistics)
    Report and Analysis
Household Survey
Incomes and Income Tax
Insurance Statistics
Justice Statistics*
Local Authority Statistics
Population and Migration
    Pt. A Population
    Pt. B External Migration
Prices, Wages, and Labour
    Pt. A Prices
    Pt. B Wages and Labour
Transport*
Vital Statistics
Census of Population and Dwellings 1976
Vol. 1 Location and Increase of Population
                Pt. A Population Size and Distribution
                Pt. B Population Density
                Pt. C Usually Resident Population
        2 Ages and Marital Status
        3 Religious Professions
        4 Labour Force
        5 Incomes and Social Security Benefits
        6 Education and Training
        7 Birthplaces and Ethnic Origin
        8 Maori Population and Dwellings
        9 Dwellings
      10 Households, Families, and Fertility
      11 Internal Migration
Some Other Censuses
Census of Building and Construction
Census of Distribution
    (Results of the 1977–78 Census of Distribution have been published in a series of bulletins.)
Census of Libraries
Census of Manufacturing
    (Results of the 1974–75,1975–76 and 1976–77 Censuses of Manufacturing have been published in series of bulletins. A summary of the 1976–77 data has been published in volume form, Census of Manufacturing 1976–77, and this also includes link data to the 1973–74 and 1974–75 Censuses of Manufacturing.)
Other Publications
External Trade Quarterly Bulletin
Inter-Industry Studies
Life Tables Life Annuity Tables
Demographic Bulletin (6-monthly)
New Zealand Sub-national Population Projections 1981–2001
Maps of Statistical Boundaries 1970–72
Quarterly Bulletin of Shipping and Cargo

A leaflet showing further details of statistical publications can be obtained from Government Bookshops at the following addresses—

Auckland: Housing Corporation Building, Rutland Street (P.O. Box 5344). Ph. 32919.

Hamilton: Northern Automobile Building, Alexandra Street (P.O. Box 857). Ph. 80103.

Wellington: Head Office, Mulgrave Street (Private Bag). Ph. 737320.

Wellington: World Trade Center, Cubacade (Private Bag). Ph. 849572.

Christchurch: 159 Hereford Street (Private Bag). Ph. 797142.

Dunedin: T. and G. Building, Princes Street (P.O. Box 1104). Ph. 778294.

Chapter 44. DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS STATISTICAL BULLETINS

A wide range of statistical information is published in the form of statistical bulletins, frequently before publication in an annual volume. A detailed list of Department of Statistics publications is published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics or is available from the Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington, from whence details of the Department's Information Service can also be obtained.

Summary results of the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings were published in a series of 24 national, regional, and subject-matter bulletins before publication of the subject-matter volumes.

A list of bulletins in the Miscellaneous Series is published below. Most of these bulletins are obtainable only from the Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.

Miscellaneous Series

  1. New Zealand Males and Females: A Statistical Comparison 1945–78

  2. New Zealand Tables of Working Life

  3. Concentration of Ownership in New Zealand Manufacturing Industries 1974–75

  4. New Zealand Supreme Court Criminal Statistics: Time Series to 1976

  5. New Zealand Supreme Court Divorce Statistics: Time Series to 1976

  6. New Zealand Children and Young Persons Courts Statistics: Time Series to 1976

  7. New Zealand Maori and Non-Maori Populations—Time Series

  8. 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings, The Range and Availability of Regional Statistics

  9. 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings, The Range and Availability of National Statistics

  10. Family Statistics in New Zealand 1978

  11. Survey on Driving Practices and Opinions, 1975

  12. New Zealand Children 1979

  13. New Zealand's Changing Population Structure

  14. Provisional New Zealand Input-Output Tables 1976–77

  15. Survey on Housing Conditions and Internal Migration in New Zealand, 1975

  16. Health and Health Services and Travel to Work in New Zealand

  17. New Zealand Permanent and Long-Term Migration Time Series Statistics, 1922–1979

Survey of Persons Aged 65 years and over

New Zealand Standard Classifications

Obtainable from Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.

  1. New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations (NZSCO)

  2. New Zealand Standard Country Code (NZSCC)

  3. New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC)

  4. New Zealand Standard Institutional Sector Classification (NZISC)

  5. New Zealand Statistical Classification of Exports

  6. New Zealand Statistical Classification of Imports

Chapter 45. SPECIAL FEATURES IN PREVIOUS ISSUES

SPECIAL ARTICLES
Special articles published prior to 1967 were listed in the 1980 and earlier Yearbooks.
SubjectYearbook
Scientific research in New Zealand1967
Recent constitutional changes in the South-West Pacific1968
National Development Conference 19691969
Development of forestry and forest industries1969
Captain James Cook and his three voyages of discovery in the Pacific 1768–791969
Metrication1970
Human pressures on the natural environment1970
Ministry of Works, 1871–19711971
Evolution of social security in New Zealand1972
Evolution of New Zealand dairy industry 1871–19711972
Development of the meat industry 1922–721973
New Zealand membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development1973
Tenth British Commonwealth Games 19741973
New Zealand Ports and Shipping Developments1974
Revision of Consumers Price Index 19741975
Household Sample Survey 1973–741975
Input-output analysis: an abacus for economists1975
Tourism: the invisible export1976
One hundred years of Lands and Survey1976
Royal Visit 19771977
New Zealand at the turning point1977
Education in the New Zealand community1977
Abbreviations, contractions, and acronyms1978
General Price Index1978
Abbreviations, contractions, and acronyms (revised)1979
The child and learning in a multi-cultural society1979
The New Zealand environment and changes in environmental management since 19701980
Life tables: a measure of life expectancy1980
PHOTOGRAPHIC SUPPLEMENTS
Photographic supplements published since 1967 are listed below. A capital C following the subject denotes a colour supplement.
SubjectYearbook
Attractive New Zealand1967
Universities in New Zealand1968
Forests of New Zealand1969
Natural New Zealand1970
A Century of Public Works 1871–19711971
New Zealand Environment1972
Leisure in New Zealand1973
Tenth British Commonwealth Games (C)1974
Vista of Colourful New Zealand (C)1975
Seeing New Zealand—Then and Now (C)1976
New Zealand's Primary Industries (C)1977
New Zealand from the air (C)1978
New Zealand Children (C)1979
Power for New Zealand (C)1980

Chapter 46. LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

Later statistical information has become available during the course of printing the Yearbook. Some of these statistics are entered in the Statistical Summary (pp. 916 to 946). Other information is given in the following pages. Readers are referred to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and the frequent Information Service releases of the Department of Statistics for the most recent information on many statistical series.

POPULATION

Population—The following table shows the total and Maori population by sex at the end of the latest available quarters.

Quarter EndedTotal PopulationMaori Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Provisional
 (000) (000) 
1980–Dec1581.11583.03164.1146.1144.0290.1
1981–Mar*....3162.5......
          Jun*....3117.0......

Preliminary Census Figures—The latest in the five-yearly Censuses of Population and Dwellings, which among other things provide benchmarks for intercensal population estimates, was taken on 24 March 1981. The first of the following tables shows preliminary population counts for cities and boroughs, with 1976 Census figures for purposes of comparison. Where necessary, the 1976 Census figures have been adjusted to take into account boundary changes which have occurred between the censuses. The second table shows preliminary population figures for counties. All these figures are subject to possible amendment following a complete check of census questionnaires.

CITIES AND BOROUGHS
City or BoroughCensus
19761981
North Island—
    Kaitaia44784721
    Kaikohe35673666
    Whangarei (city)3530236537
    Dargaville45594749
    Helensville12491242
    East Coast Bays (city)2349028795
    Takapuna (city)6222064755
    Devonport1100310408
    North cote992110056
    Birkenhead (city)1968321223
    Waitemata (city)7988387261
    Henderson70766669
    Glen Eden83709393
    New Lynn1046610279
    Auckland (city)150708144603
    Newmarket13531150
    Mt. Albert (city)2813126418
    Mt. Eden1981518218
    Mt. Roskill3464533347
    Onehunga1665515346
    One Tree Hill1171111076
    Ellerslie55745394
    Mt. Wellington2053319324
    Howick1394913835
    Otahuhu1055810009
    Papatoetoe (city)2286421663
    Manukau (city)139059158167
    Papakura (city)2145221986
    Pukekohe87708920
    Waiuku34943656
    Tuakau17241830
    Huntly56716452
    Cambridge78418503
    Ngaruawahia43854477
    Hamilton (city)8832290939
    Te Awamutu76197909
    Taumarunui64796532
    Paeroa37963697
    Waihi34153555
    Te Aroha32023350
    Morrinsville47835083
    Matamata50505276
    Putaruru44424169
    Tokoroa1863518665
    Mt. Maunganui1030211413
    Tauranga (city)3371536403
    Te Puke38104566
    Taupo1289813635
    Kawerau77538598
    Murupara29612963
    Gisborne (city)2969829849
    Wairoa54665451
    Napier (city)4699448224
    Hastings (city)3485335924
    Havelock North83678492
    Dannevirke56385668
    Woodville15481649
    Waitara60366000
    New Plymouth (city)3771136114
    Inglewood25952833
    Stratford54445523
    Eltham23342410
    Patea20141931
    Ohakune13991477
    Raetihi12191238
    Wanganui (city)3736036931
    Taihape28002579
    Marton49104868
    Feilding1089311507
    Foxton27892741
    Palmerston N. (city)5793160123
    Levin1475914619
    Otaki42024301
    Kapiti1497315748
    Upper Hutt (city)3061631277
    Lower Hutt (city)6455363190
    Petone88838043
    Eastbourne47794560
    Porirua (city)4230240519
    Tawa1282812195
    Wellington (city)139566134678
    Pahiatua26182602
    Masterton1946018545
    Carterton39853896
    Greytown19101788
    Featherston25322472
    Martinborough13891345
South Island—
    Picton32763230
    Blenheim1715617820
    Nelson (city)3279333442
    Richmond65876841
    Motueka43844692
    Westport49884693
    Runanga14651260
    Greymouth82827891
    Hokitika35303406
    Rangiora59916377
    Kaiapoi47444899
    Riccarton72806498
    Christchurch (city)171987164256
    Lyttelton33273178
    Ashburton1422514112
    Geraldine20552123
    Temuka37113766
    Timaru (city)2926728420
    Waimate33783367
    Oamaru1348013042
    Port Chalmers31232927
    Dunedin (city)8254677471
    St. Kilda65426144
    Green Island69796904
    Mosgiel92899261
    Milton22182193
    Kaitangata11201071
    Balclutha47404503
    Tapanui9341044
    Lawrence585599
    Roxburgh773742
    Naseby124149
    Alexandra41374297
    Cromwell12022369
    Arrowtown410489
    Queenstown31333394
    Gore91799185
    Mataura24212345
    Winton20152036
    Invercargill (city)497384921
    Bluff30162711
    Riverton15781480
COUNTIES
Administrative CountyCensus
19761981
* In the table on page 62 the area of Tauranga County is shown incorrectly as 4019 square kilometres. This should read 2020 square kilometres, and the area of all North Island counties should read 94072 square kilometres.
North Island—
    Mangonui74998446
    Whangaroa20682245
    Hokianga43514707
    Bay of Islands1662318907
    Whangarei1552217081
    Hobson53575320
    Otamatea62436481
    Rodney3015235543
    Waiheke Is.31643624
    Great Barrier Is.377573
    Franklin1846118850
    Raglan97739763
    Waikato1681416820
    Waipa1547415915
    Taumarunui59755967
    Hauraki Plains52945109
    Ohinemuri45364930
    Piako1112510337
    Matamata1312112270
    Tauranga*1856021111
    Taupo1392313869
    Opotiki67307149
    Waiapu46064651
    Waikohu31932963
    Cook82458306
    Wairoa57015812
    Hawke's Bay2012720309
    Dannevirke45764380
    Woodville14761320
    Clifton20972136
    Taranaki1051212205
    Inglewood29112743
    Stratford50844641
    Egmont56055335
    Eltham28992492
    Waimate West20741944
    Patea28882417
    Waimarino13981433
    Waitotara28892909
    Wanganui28313179
    Rangitikei1486013910
    Kiwitea18231705
    Pohangina1028871
    Oroua51825479
    Manawatu66606678
    Kairanga62606296
    Horowhenua1436614927
    Hutt2583826761
    Pahiatua21782111
    Eketahuna19711893
    Masterton41124100
    Wairarapa South26172462
    Featherston30332861
South Island—
    Marlborough1121712898
    Kaikoura35713591
    Golden Bay39374485
    Waimea1665116832
    Buller35113780
    Inangahua22712229
    Grey47584947
    Westland60135736
    Amuri27743060
    Cheviot13931526
    Hurunui61616554
    Eyre31363302
    Oxford16981819
    Malvern67026249
    Paparua3131331834
    Waimairi6833870349
    Heathcote87588824
    Mt. Herbert8691034
    Akaroa15941751
    Chatham Islands615752
    Wairewa713630
    Ellesmere82448669
    Ashburton1109110772
    Strathallan93979370
    Mackenzie87627702
    Waimate54575071
    Waitaki90968731
    Waihemo17531717
    Silverpeaks1254012205
    Bruce34463285
    Clutha56355591
    Tuapeka41233851
    Maniototo24232415
    Vincent41444269
    Lake43934802
    Southland2664326774
    Wallace1345113281
    Fiord7820
    Stewart Island513512

The provisional total New Zealand population at the 1981 Census of Population and Dwellings was 3167357, divided between the main islands as shown below.

 CensusIntercensal ChangePercentage Change
19761981
North Island22683932315094+46701+2.1
South Island860990852263−8727−1.0
New Zealand31293833167357+37974+1.2

Labour Force—The Department of Labour has recently revised figures of the estimated distribution of the labour force back to 1971 to conform with the benchmarks provided by 1971 and 1976 Censuses of Population data. (The estimated total labour force figures as at 15 April for each year back to 1971 are included in the Labour Force table in the Statistical Summary.)

The following table shows the estimated total labour force by industrial group as at 15 April for the years 1977 to 1979 and by industrial group and sex as at February 1980. For future years, labour force estimates will be produced for February because of the change from a half-yearly employment survey to an annual survey in February and quarterly sample surveys in May, August, and November.

Industrial Group1977197819791980 (February)
TotalTotalTotalMalesFemalesTotal
 (000)
Primary industry—
    Agriculture, hunting, and fishing125.4131.0129.7104.426.2130.6
    Forestry and logging8.38.810.49.00.79.7
    Mining and quarrying5.25.25.04.50.34.8
        Total, primary industry138.9145.0145.1117.927.2145.1
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco (including seasonal workers)72.273.368.960.014.374.3
    Textiles, clothing, and leather51.644.847.715.531.647.1
    Wood and wood products25.021.622.129.62.723.3
    Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing33.333.233.525.69.735.3
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics26.024.426.319.47.927.3
    Non-metallic mineral products12.011.110.88.71.710.4
    Metal products and engineering29.427.929.125.24.429.6
    Machinery (excluding electrical machinery)24.623.223.420.43.323.7
    Electrical equipment16.013.715.19.55.815.3
    Transport equipment21.920.322.118.92.821.7
    Other manufacturing6.55.76.13.82.56.3
        Total manufacturing318.5299.2305.1227.686.7314.3
Electricity, gas, and water15.716.416.313.61.815.4
Construction110.0105.597.986.35.792.0
Wholesale and retail trade, etc.—
    Wholesale trade60.359.660.245.115.660.7
    Retail trade126.8122.9126.468.161.5129.6
    Restaurants, hotels, etc.33.135.337.015.023.138.1
        Total, wholesale and retail trade, etc.220.2217.8223.6128.2100.2228.4
Transport and communications—
    Transport and storage77.676.276.865.510.976.4
    Communications34.134.434.719.614.434.0
        Total, transport and communications111.7110.6111.585.125.3110.4
Finance, insurance, etc.—
    Finance23.624.825.912.314.126.4
    Insurance15.215.015.08.95.714.6
    Real estate and business services44.144.245.026.419.646.0
        Total, finance, insurance, etc.82.984.085.947.639.487.0
Community and personal services—
    Public administration49.452.455.336.322.558.8
    Sanitary services, etc.7.47.37.74.23.47.6
    Education services64.967.968.427.840.167.9
    Research and scientific institutes5.76.36.13.51.65.1
    Health services65.469.272.418.853.171.9
    Other community services14.715.616.47.39.817.1
    Recreational services15.715.917.211.25.516.7
    Personal and household services32.832.733.421.611.232.8
        Total, community and personal services256.0267.3276.9130.7147.2277.9
        Total in industry1253.91245.81262.3837.0433.51270.5
Armed forces11.111.512.69.31.010.3
Registered unemployed4.421.524.916.811.828.6
        Estimated total labour force1269.41278.81299.8863.1446.31309.4

The following table shows the numbers of registered unemployed and those on special work during -recent months.

PeriodRegistered UnemployedEmployed on Special WorkPrivate Sector Job Creation Programme
MalesFemalesTotalWith Government Depts.With Local Authorities
Monthly average—
    1980229041359636499755470894266
End of month—
    1981—January2823219614478467750117704954
              February286132081549428596990785208
              March278171964747464452251736055
              April276611901546676418060747203
              May277641825846022438966357886
              June285081842046928436172458812
              July3062017835484554623795110031

Migration—Total arrivals and departures are classified in the following table.

CategoryYear Ended 31 March
197919801981
* Mainly on cruise ships.
Arrivals   
Permanent and long-term arrivals408084160744965
New Zealand residents returning346324439137462006
Temporary visitors418744445195463456
                Total805876925939970427
Crews172825175810170961
Through passengers*176586176822138378
                Grand total, all arrivals115528712785711279766
Departures   
Permanent and long-term departures810087602469790
New Zealand residents departing temporarily343764426805451300
Temporary visitors departing407648444424465546
                Total832420947253986636
Crews173187176795170080
Through passengers*176586176822138378
                Grand total, all departures118219313008701295094
Net inflow (+) or outflow (-)−26906−22299−15328

The following table shows permanent and long-term arrivals and departures by occupation during the 2 latest March years.

Occupational DivisionYear Ended March 1980Year Ended March 1981
ArrivalsDeparturesArrivalsDepartures
* Included in above.
Professional, technical, and related workers797112108822411120
Administrative and managerial workers76117149601635
Clerical and related workers4059908242647370
Sales workers1168286212302631
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forest workers, fishermen and hunters1018179610721746
Craftsmen, factory workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers649316210721114274
Service workers1785359918803155
Occupations not classifiable or unspecified1462225013451592
Not actively engaged16890264031877926267
                Total41607760244496569790
                Net loss3441724825
 Actively engaged*
                Total24717496212618643523
                Net loss2490417337

TRANSPORT

Railway Transport—Summarised statistics of railway transport for the latest available year are compared with previous years.

ItemUnitYear Ended 31 March
197919801981
* Including road services, rail-road ferry, and other subsidiary services.
Passenger journeys—
    Railways(000)167491601114934
    Railway road motor services(000)1974019825 
Freight carried (excl. parcels)tonnes(000)117211175511392
Revenue—
    Railway operation$(000)237,266274,369331,783
                Total*$(000)299,512349,126420,461
Expenditure—
    Railway operation$(000)287,241331,360384,477
                Total*$(000)346,786404,931471,498
Deficit$(000)47,27355,80551,037

Road Transport—Statistics of motor vehicles licensed at 31 March 1981 are compared with those for 31 March 1980.

ClassAs at 31 March
19801981
* Mostly farm tractors, etc.
Cars12972531332963
Trucks253564264548
Contract vehicles13961282
Omnibuses and service coaches33973528
Motorcycles123365137063
Power cycles20011748
Vehicles exempted from payment of licence fees*9034589435
Trailers and caravans374490379525
Miscellaneous1170510898
                Grand total21575162220990

BUILDING AND HOUSING

Building Permits—The following table presents statistics on building permits and authorisations issued during the two latest March years.

Type of Building PermitYear Ended 31 March
19801981*
NumberValueNumberValue

* Provisional.

Works which require building permits but are not in the nature of buildings, e.g. swimming pools, retaining walls, etc. includes alterations and additions.

  $(m) $(m)
New houses and flats15197462.214442521.0
Alterations and additions to houses and flats51751153.555311199.8
Other buildings (including additions and alterations)17786545.117784635.3
Total, all buildings847341,160.9875371,356.1
Other construction626630.4596325.7

Houses and Flats Completed—Houses and flats completed during the year ended 31 March 1981 totalled 14300 compared with 16000 during the previous year. The 1980–81 total includes 825 State rental dwellings built by the Housing Corporation (compared with 1173 during 1979–80). An additional 100 dwellings were created by the conversion of existing buildings.

Census Total of Dwellings—The provisional New Zealand total of occupied dwellings at the 1981 Census of Population and Dwellings was 1011983, an increase of 78723 or 8.4 percent on the 1976 Census total. Of these 1011983 occupied dwellings, 734601 (72 percent) were in the North Island and 277382 (27.4 percent) in the South Island. Occupied dwellings include houses, flats, hotels, institutions, tents, and caravans.

MANUFACTURING

Manufacturing Main Indicators—This series of indicators, which is published quarterly, is based on a sample survey of approximately 1400 firms.

Year Ended MarchSalesStocksGross Capital Expenditure
MaterialsFinished Goods*
* Includes work in progress.
  $(million)
197911,394.01,116.01,120.1467.1
198013,672.7x1,375.71,364.8571.1
198115,737.91,504.01,522.6697.0
Year Ended MarchSalaries and WagesPurchasesOther Operating ExpensesHours Worked
Includes all other operating expenses except interest, bad debts, and donations.
  $(million) (000)
19792,362.96,341.71,834.9538028
19802,801.27,987.4x2,138.4x547325
19813,257.68,861.62,472.1531535

ECONOMIC CENSUSES, 1979–80

Three separate economic censuses were carried out for the year ended 31 March 1980, covering the following sections of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification:

Major Division 7: Transport and Communication.

Division 12: Forestry and Logging.

Major Group 112: Agricultural Contracting Services.

The major economic indicators for these three censuses (see Manufacturing, Section 18 for definitions) are shown in the following table.

ItemUnitTransport and CommunicationForestry and LoggingAgricultural Contracting Services
EstablishmentsNo.83828772563
Ancillary unitsNo.136317
Persons engaged at 28 February 1980No.106226847912833
Salaries and wages paid$(000)1,069,80474,36555,331
Depreciation$(000)172,6956,36115,655
Purchases and other expenses$(000)1,630,354166,49696,124
Turnover$(000)3,216,234227,924204,304
Value added$(000)1,606,778184,030107,439
Capital expenditure, less disposals$(000)209,42126,40228,184
Forestry values—
    At 1 April 1979$(000) 1,935,543
    At 31 March 1980$(000) 2,052,363

MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

Wool—Weight, sale value, and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand in the latest 3 seasons are shown below.

SeasonWeight of Greasy Wool SoldSale ValueValue per kgIndex Numbers*Base: 1974–75 (= 1000)
* Index numbers of price of new clip greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand adjusted to a clean f.o.b. New Zealand port basis. The base is the average over all sales of 1974–75 season (= 1000).
 kg(m)$(m)C 
1977–78198.6378.2190.432066
1978–79204.4447.2218.852363
1979–80235.7624.9265.092831
1980–81258.0638.5247.48 
DOMESTIC TRADE
Retail Trade
Qtr EndedTotal TurnoverTurnover per Head of Population
In Current $In Constant Dec Qtr 1974 $ Seasonally CorrectedIn Current $In Constant Dec Qtr 1974 $ Seasonally Corrected
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedAs RecordedSeasonally Corrected
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$     $     $     
1981—
    March1,999.22,155.4836.9632.5681.9264.8
    June2,218.52,270.2847.3706.5723.0269.8

Details of retail sales and retailers' stocks by store-type group are shown in the table following.

Store-type GroupRetail StocksRetail Sales
As atQuarter Ended
31 March 198130 June 198131 March 198130 June 1981
 $(million)
Butcher, poulterer, etc.5.25.769.977.2
Grocer and dairy136.7135.0522.0552.7
Other food and drink14.314.2151.7162.2
Footwear51.650.130.642.9
Apparel169.6171.6118.9160.4
Furniture and soft furnishings106.7114.1107.9122.8
Household appliances, electrical goods, radios, T.V., etc.106.5106.3123.2142.2
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.108.0115.1149.5165.1
Chemist46.250.378.478.8
General department and variety192.3191.1209.1261.2
Other320.7340.6438.0453.0
                Total, all retail stores1,257.81,294.11,999.22,218.5
                Total, seasonally corrected1,257.91,299.22,155.42,270.2

Hire Purchase Trade—The following statistics show trade for the latest quarter (compared with the previous quarter) by surveyed businesses covering about 92 percent of total hire purchase business as recorded by the 1978 Census of Distribution.

Quarter EndedAdvances Under Hire Purchase AgreementsTotal Amount Owing Under H.P. Agreements*
Motor Buses, Trucks, and TractorsCars, Motor Cycles Caravans, etc.Plant and MachineryHousehold and Personal GoodsTotal Advances

* As at end of quarter.

Including television sets.

$(million)
1980—
    Dec41.061.619.047.7169.2724.0
1981—
    Mar33.745.216.245.1140.2763.8
    Jun36.351.117.948.8154.2780.0
Wholesale Trade
PeriodFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicals
Quarter ended—$(million)
1981—Sales or Turnover
    31 March502.4127.653.9267.8226.5131.0
    30 June553.3144.970.1303.5264.6150.0
As at—
1981—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
    31 March186.6102.158.3189.9190.1105.4
    30 June213.1104.563.8202.4202.5117.6
PeriodGeneral MerchantsMachineryElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryMiscellaneousTotal
ActualSeasonally Corrected
Quarter ended$(million)
1981—Sales or Turnover
    31 March132.3107.540.255.3372.42,016.92,124.4
    30 June132.7115.050.057.9386.72,228.52,197.3
As at—
1981—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
    31 March77.5147.142.640.3197.21,337.11,324.3
    30 June74.1143.244.441.6183.71,390.91,386.6

EXTERNAL TRADE

Exports and Imports—The following table shows the values of exports and imports during the 3 latest June years. Exports are valued f.o.b. (free on board) and imports v.f.d. (value for duty).

Class of CommodityYear Ended June
19791980x1981*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
 Value of Exports (f.o.b.)
Food and live animals, beverages, and tobacco—
    Meat and meat preparations1,094.01,192.31,520.5
    Dairy produce and eggs485.3687.7854.0
                Total (including other commodities)1,864.82,272.82,883.9
Crude materials (inedible) except fuels1,122.51,468.81,434.6
Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials, animal and vegetable oils, and fats86.2114.3119.0
Chemicals123.9193.7216.3
Manufactured goods classified chiefly by material514.9679.6790.8
Other manufactures and miscellaneous233.8283.2378.9
                Total of New Zealand produce3,946.05,012.55,823.4
Re-exports121.4139.8211.7
                Total exports4,057.45,152.26,035.1
 Value of Imports (v.f.d.)
Food and live animals, beverages, and tobacco186.6246.9259.7
Crude materials (inedible) except fuels; animal and vegetable oils and fats201.4225.6269.0
Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials502.2944.21,247.7
Chemicals453.5603.3611.8
Machinery and electrical equipment686.6862.1979.4
Transport equipment468.6572.5799.1
Iron, steel, and non-ferrous metals300.3356.8337.1
Textiles, clothing, and footwear275.8353.5334.5
Other manufactures and miscellaneous499.0644.7703.8
                Total merchandise imports                                                             v.f.d.3,574.14,809.65,542.2
c.i.f.3,840.55,172.65,976.3

Principal Exports and Imports—Some of the principal exports and imports are shown by value and volume in the following table. Figures of volume are in thousand tonnes unless otherwise indicated.

ItemYear Ended June
19801981§
Volume xValue xVolumeValue

* Bars, rods, plates, sheets, tubes, pipes, and all other shapes, sections, and fittings.

Litres(000).

Number.

§ Provisional.

 tonnes(000)$(000)tonnes(000)$(000)
Meat, fresh, chilled, or frozen—Exports
    Beef and veal215.6528,428231.5586,676
    Lamb318.2486,188401.7746,071
    Mutton87.597,70491.4107,858
                Total, incl. other items 1,183,605 1,509,582
Dairy produce—
    Skimmed milk powder172.4119,199163.2168,565
Butter231.0360,607203.1398,762
Cheese69.2105,86180.5137,688
                Total, incl. other items 685,925 851,406
Hides, skins, and furskins 180,121 129,810
Wool285.0930,760289.3891,946
Wood pulp479.3120,227523.0151,258
Other forest products 197,858 
Fruit and vegetables 128,735 170,101
Casein58.6112,52243.9117,355
Aluminium and aluminium alloys127.5162,812142.6219,997
Petroleum—Imports
    Crude2017.9366,1632055.6548,321
    Partly refined625.2174,091619.9210,482
Motor spirits663940159,554487642151,195
Distillate fuels536949105,650440958130,376
Motor cars (unassembled)67036188,51385762237,199
Iron and steel*434.7219,013371.1213,462

PRICES

Retail Prices—The 1980 revision of the Consumers Price Index is the subject of a short special feature in this Yearbook. Latest figures for the All Groups Index, which is compiled quarterly, are included in this feature. The following table shows the Food Price Index. Food is the only commodity group for which prices are surveyed each month. The base for the monthly Food Index is the December 1980 quarter and not the December month.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX - ALL FOOD GROUP
Base: December Quarter 1980 (= 1000)
MonthFruit and VegetablesMeat, Fish and PoultryOther FoodAll FoodPercentage change: all food group
Each Month on Previous MonthEach Month on same Month of Previous Year
     %%
1981–Jan990101310281019+ 1.3+ 17.9
          Feb1052101610491041+ 2.2+ 18.3
          Mar1016102810641049+ 0.8+ 16.4
          Apr1049103110841066+ 1.6+ 16.1
          May1045102710941071+ 0.5+ 15.8
          Jun1061103911001080+ 0.8+ 15.8
          Jul1087106111161099+ 1.8+ 16.9

Producers Price Index—The Producers Price Index, formerly called the General Price Index, shows that the level of prices of inputs of goods and services (excluding labour) paid in the March 1981 quarter by all industries in the economy was 17.0 percent higher than it was a year previously. This compares with a rise of 20.6 percent between the December quarters of 1979 and 1980. The following table shows the 2 latest quarters.

PRODUCERS PRICE INDEX Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000) Indexes in this series are centred on the mid-point of the period shown.
Industry CroupQuarter Ended
31 March 198130 June 1981
InputsOutputsInputsOutputs
Agriculture1769160218181597
Fishing and hunting1778146418621511
Forestry and logging1663189817371971
Mining and quarrying1575162016531782
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco1640165016531672
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries1519145715851515
Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture1745170017931777
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing1652158917301671
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products2C42185921611941
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1662161717191666
Basic metal industries1605162316441692
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment1597161816591671
Other manufacturing industries1697165017341692
Electricity, gas, and water1798164219671745
Construction1691157417551634
Trade, restaurants and hotels1647 1729 
Transport and storage1924167420941786
Communications1752133118601349
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services1628159717301694
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings1696128017531325
Community, social, and personal services1638154217101610
All markets group1699..1770..
Central Government services1658..1752..
Local Government services1714..1803..
Private non-profit services to households1677..1758..
                All industry1697..1769..

The level of prices for inputs of goods and services (excluding labour) in the June 1981 quarter was 16.6 percent higher than in the corresponding June quarter of 1980.

Capital Expenditure Price Index (CEPI)—A new series of price indexes, jointly called the Capital Expenditure Price Index, was released in May 1981 by the Government Statistician. These new indexes provided measures of price level changes of physical capital assets purchased by businesses and Government in New Zealand.

The concept of price employed is the “price to the final user” and does not include freight or installation costs, unless these are normally included in the final price. No account can be taken of special discounts. Sales Tax has been included where applicable.

Each capital expenditure asset-type index is constructed by combining the relative price changes of representative items. The importance given to each item is determined by the expenditure made on all the assets which that item represents. The relative importance of any item, vis-a-vis other price items, is known technically as the “weight” for that item.

Because expenditure on capital items tends to be irregular the weights used in the CEPI have, in general, been based on expenditure over a two to five year period ranging from 1975–76 to 1979–80. In deriving the weighting pattern for the CEPI the Department of Statistics has primarily used statistics on external trade, manufacturing, and building. These have been supplemented with data from a diversity of sources including other Government departments, marketing and producer boards, manufacturers, wholesalers, and retailers.

The following table shows index numbers for the 4 quarters of 1980 and the first quarter of 1981. It should be noted that the index numbers relate to the price levels ruling at the mid-point of each quarter.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE PRICE INDEX Base: December Quarter 1979 (=1000).
Capital AssetQuarter Ended 19801981–
MarJunSepDecMar
Residential buildings—
    Houses, flats, garages10211069112711901281
    Hostels10431082112111641222
Non-residential buildings—
    Commercial buildings10421077112011641220
    Factories10431076112811701236
    Hospitals, rest homes10461084112511661223
    Educational buildings10451082112211621224
    Motels, hotels10431079112111651221
    Farm buildings10231060110611931275
Other construction—
    Transport ways10281076111311591208
    Pipelines10611089112811741228
    Electrical works10331074110111491197
    Earthmoving and site work10481109113912031250
Land improvements—
    Land clearing10471085113512021289
    Fencing10161035112611601233
    Irrigation and land drainage10501099112411701216
    Reclamation and river control10541105113212121250
Transport vehicles—
    Cars, less than 1600 c.c.10191038109311231154
    Cars, 1600 c.c. and above10131025105310851112
    Commercial vehicles, less than 2500 kg10401069112011461196
    Commercial vehicles, 2500 kg and over999983100110211037
    Buses10361071110711741187
    Trailers10171056108811411198
    Motorcycles10001005104510591074
    Fishing boats10511094113012261271
    Fixed wing aircraft10011035112511551174
    Helicopters10951094116111571203
Plant, machinery, and equipment—
    Agricultural tractors10341037105410861112
    Self-propelled harvesting machinery10001018109711671174
    Other harvesting and mowing machinery10261057109811211134
    Soil preparation and cultivation machinery10521094112311521203
    Other agricultural machinery and equipment10471084112011471196
    Farm motor cycles10001002100310161026
    Self-propelled construction machinery10431094113111601189
    Non-self-propelled construction machinery, quarrying machinery10501086113411741264
    Food and drink processing machinery10471087111111441179
    Bottling and packaging machinery10471068113311671207
    Textile machinery10561069109911271164
    Woodworking machinery10681086112611271139
    Printing and publishing equipment10951101114911471175
    Metal-working machinery10491072109311341197
    Forklifts and mobile material-handling equipment10291055107211261151
    Mechanical hoists, conveyors, etc.10521066117812911368
    Electrical distribution equipment10801117119612401295
    Electric motors, up to 7 kw (1–9 hp)10501136114611621195
    Electric motors, 7 kw and over (over 9 hp)10371110116811681203
    Industrial engines, non-electric10821104110811301164
    Airconditioning and cooling equipment10891130114612211258
    Refrigerating equipment10041054112011351161
    Industrial boilers and heating equipment10501075115911811264
    Pumping and compressing equipment10451086112311641188
    Office and shop equipment, electronic1002977977972972
    Office and shop equipment, non-electronic10051024106510801098
    Office and shop furniture and fittings10131102103011651199
    Duplicating and photocopying machines9999969989921013
    Scales and weighing machinery10371059108111071117
    Shipping and transporting containers10791109122212631316
    Tanks, vats, and storage units10601076113311651212
    Photographic and optical equipment10211042105910841119
    Technical and scientific equipment10351075110911271166
    Medical, dental, and hospital furniture and equipment10221075109111641244
    Stereo equipment1003938874854824
    Television receivers10031006100910191027
    Peripheral data processing units10021011101810521072
    Radio-telephone and telegraphic equipment10211170122612401256
    Domestic-type furniture and furnishings10151057108711081131
    Domestic-type appliances10161114116612081238
    Domestic-type equipment and utensils10411092112211681230
    Portable power tools10401064109011361156
    Sport and recreation equipment10431061109511391193

More information on the methodology of the index is available from the Department of Statistics, to which any queries should be addressed.

WAGES

Nominal, Prevailing, and Effective Weekly Wage Rates Index—The following table of index numbers of weekly wage rates for adult employees is calculated from all adult rates effective at mid-quarter. It represents all industry and occupation groups. There are two principal indexes of wage rates, together with indexes of effective wage rates based on each.

The Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index measures changes in the mandatory or, in some cases, minimum rates of wages and salaries, prescribed by wage and salary determining authorities and industrial tribunals, including the Arbitration Court.

The Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index refers to the same industrial and occupational groups but measures movements in the actual wages and salaries paid as compared with movements in the mandatory or legal minimum rates applying to the same groups, as measured by the nominal weekly wage rates index. The differences in movements between the nominal and prevailing indexes show “wage drift”, that is, the extent to which actual wages and salaries have risen more than the legally required rates.

An Effective Weekly Wage Rates Index has been derived from each of these series. This effective weekly wage rates index is arrived at by dividing the nominal or the prevailing index by the corresponding consumers price index number and multiplying by 1000. Thus, it relates wages to prices.

Because of possible retrospective increases in wages or salaries in later awards, agreements, determinations, etc., the more recent index numbers should be regarded as provisional.

NOMINAL, PREVAILING, AND EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES INDEXES—ADULT EMPLOYEES
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
PeriodRates Within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration CourtRates Prescribed By Other Industrial Tribunals or Determining AuthoritiesRates Within the Jurisdiction of All Determining Authorities
IndexPercentage ChangeIndexPercentage ChangeIndexPercentage Change
Index of Nominal Weekly Wage Rates
December year—
    1978110714.5102611.8107713.5
    1979x127014.7120417.3124615.6
    1980150618.6142018.0147418.4
Quarter—
    1981—March17036.916160.116704.3
                  June17251.316220.416871.0
Index of Effective Nominal Weekly Wage Rates
December year—
    197810442.3968−0.110161.4
    1979x10541.09993.210341.7
    198010671.210050.610441.0
Quarter—
    1981—March11093.71052−2.910871.2
                  June1080−2.61016−3.41056−2.9
PeriodRates Within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration CourtRates Prescribed By Other Industrial Tribunals or Determining AuthoritiesRates Within the Jurisdiction of All Determining Authorities
IndexPercentage ChangeIndexPercentage ChargeIndexPercentage Change
Index of Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates
December year—
    19781114 1026 1082 
    1979128014.9120417.3125415.9
    1980152118.8142018.0148518.4
Quarter—
    1981—March17046.116160.116724.0
                  June17432.316220.416991.6
Index of Effective Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates
December year—
    19781051 968 1021 
    197910611.09983.110401.9
    1980      
NOTE—This table is derived from the wage rate tables in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, which should be consulted for the latest figures or any revisions to figures.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Public Account Taxation Receipts—This table shows direct and indirect taxation and includes estimated receipts for the 1981–82 financial year.

Source: Financial Statement (Budget) and Public Accounts.
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19801981*1982

* Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

Estimated.

Direct taxation—$(thousand)
    Income tax4,465,6445,298,9156,200,000
    Estate and gift duty49,69539,09127,000
    Land tax10,72911,59334,000
    Property speculation tax4818-
                Total—Direct taxation4,526,1165,349,6176,261,000
Indirect taxation—
    Customs duty331,622349,320402,000
    Beer duty58,15964,28375,000
    Sales tax624,104775,609920,000
    Motor spirits duty (less refunds)177,241139,507139,000
    Payroll tax-1-
    Racing duty42,75146,05952,000
    Stamp duties39,62954,26073,000
    Energy resources levy18,57519,64819,000
    Motor vehicle fees and charges45,62846,52846,000
    Mileage tax3731024,000
    Film hire tax743858
    Foreign fishing vessel entry tax3-
    Foreign travel tax9,289-
    International departure tax6,30012,449
    Domestic air travel tax 3,353
    Highways taxation139,455189,304205,000
                Total—Indirect taxation1,493,8721,701,1891,955,000
                Total—Taxation receipts6,019,9887,050,8068,216,000

The functional classification of gross Government expenditure is shown in the following table.

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF GROSS GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19801981*1982

* Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

Estimated.

Administration—$(million)
    General administration271.2327.5404.7
    Law and order201.7251.9297.1
    Government services142.9176.1225.4
    Miscellaneous services38.045.454.1
    Stabilisation171.1140.1121.4
                Total824.9941.01,102.7
Foreign relations—
    Defence346.1455.9555.5
    Foreign affairs112.7135.5140.3
Total458.8591.4695.8
Development of industry—
    Land use527.4600.9696.4
    Fuel and power442.8536.1708.2
    Other industrial services260.0307.7404.4
                Total1,230.21,444.71,809.0
Education1,019.51,302.31,487.2
Social services—
    Social welfare2,110.92,540.62,877.8
    Other social services143.3128.4140.0
                Total2,254.22,669.03,017.8
Health—
    Health1,137.51,358.21,533.7
Transport and communications—
    Transport759.7864.61,063.7
    Communications571.2685.1813.6
                Total1,330.91,549.71,877.3
Debt services and miscellaneous investment and financing transactions1,182.41,399.71,609.0
                Total9,438.411,256.013,132.5

The following table is a 5-year summary of the financing of Government expenditure. Where necessary, figures for earlier years have been revised in line with the provisions of the Public Finance Act 1977.

FINANCING OF GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE: A 5-YEAR SUMMARY
ItemFinancial Years (Years Ended 31 March)
1976–771977–781978–791979–801980–81
Net Expenditure$(million)
Administration388.3479.2603.4692.6785.8
Foreign relations288.7329.0384.7451.5577.9
Development of industry504.9629.8858.0714.2797.1
Education699.4807.5929.31,009.31,292.0
Social services1,158.91,569.31,853.52,175.02,589.7
Health689.1808.5980.11,136.21,356.3
Transport and communications230.6247.6279.1265.0332.6
Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions409.5516.8592.3770.6990.9
                Sub-total4,369.45,387.76,480.47,214.48,722.3
Miscellaneous financing transactions208.8281.0368.0372.3411.1
                Total expenditure4,578.25,668.76,848.47,586.79,133.4
Financed from—
    Taxation—
        Income tax2,828.53,482.83,655.24,465.65,298.9
        Customs, sales tax, and beer duty652.6703.0794.61,013.91,189.2
        Highways tax107.4126.3159.5139.4189.3
        Motor spirits tax100.4102.2154.2177.6139.5
        Other taxation156.0212.1226.4223.4233.9
                Total taxation3,844.94,626.34,989.96,020.07,050.8
Interest, profits, and miscellaneous receipts227.2348.0413.0539.8557.7
                Total receipts4,072.14,974.35,402.96,559.87,608.5
Amount to be financed from borrowing506.1694.41,445.51,026.91,524.9
Borrowing in New Zealand629.4799.41,214.91,502.4821.1
    Less repayments in New Zealand238.6230.4369.9591.5253.3
 390.8569.0845.0910.9567.8
    Plus sales (less purchases) of investments−12.8−134.6+152.6−207.0+207.0
    Net borrowing in New Zealand378.0434.4997.6703.9+774.8
    Internal surplus (+) or deficit (-)−128.1−260.0−448.3−323.0−750.1
Borrowing overseas421.4832.6554.4661.11,510.5
    Less repayments overseas278.9424.6267.6324.0761.2
 142.5408.0286.8337.1749.3
    Plus sales (less purchases) of overseas investments−12.7−142.2+157.2−9.4+4.5
    Net borrowing overseas129.8265.8444.0327.7753.8
Cash surplus (+) deficit (-)+1.7+5.8−4.3+4.7+3.7

Consolidated Account: Expenditure—The Consolidated Account replaced the Consolidated Revenue Account in accordance with the provisions of the Public Finance Act 1977.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19801981
Permanent appropriations—$(thousand)
    Under Special Acts of Legislature—
        Civil List3,3364,145
    Debt services—
        Interest757,793891,497
        Transfer to Loans Redemption Account60,000103,464
        Administration and management7,8314,904
                Total—Debt services825,624999,865
    Superannuation59,51175,004
    Miscellaneous77,27559,792
                Total—Permanent appropriations965,7461,138,806
Annual appropriations—
    Administration—
        General administration—
        Accident Compensation4551
        Audit3,6504,391
        Broadcasting131134
        Building Performance Guarantee Corporation1415
        Commission for the Environment628750
        Customs16,88222,474
        Inland Revenue39,13549,346
        Internal Affairs57,08563,710
        Legislative9,42110,563
        Prime Minister's Department1,1411,399
        State Services Commission52,13361,492
        Statistics10,49212,898
        Treasury8,73810,384
        Valuation8,62410,688
                Total—General administration208,119248,295
    Law and order—
        Crown Law9061,267
        Justice84,018103,107
        Police110,797139,400
        Security Intelligence Service2,2153,341
                Total—Law and order197,936247,115
Government services—
    Government Printing Office28,25633,171
    Works and Development114,671142,884
                Total—Government services142,927176,055
Stabilisation—
    Stabilisation158,618127,639
                Total—Administration707,600799,104

N.B.—More detailed notes on some items are given in similar tables in the Budget (Parl. paper B.6) and the Public Accounts (Parl. paper B. I Pt I and II).

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19801981
* Post Office (Programme V). Expenditure charged to Vote Justice in 1979–80.
 $(thousand)
Foreign relations—
    Defence—
        Defence346,091455,939
    Foreign Affairs—
        Foreign Affairs112,624135,199
                Total—Foreign relations458,715591,138
Development of industry—
    Land use—
        Agriculture and Fisheries228,513242,702
        Forest Service152,835193,877
        Lands and Survey87,897111,349
        Maori Affairs43,03232,045
        Rural Banking and Finance Corporation10,03711,514
                Total—Land use522,314591,487
    Fuel and power—
        Energy32,143102,944
    Other industrial services—
        Labour162,314169,935
        Scientific and Industrial55,47868,877
        Research Tourist and Publicity13,46715,484
        Trade and Industry28,48050,946
                Total—Other industrial services259,739305,242
                Total—Development of industry814,196999,673
Education—
    Education1,019,4751,302,324
Social services—
    Housing Corporation63,13168,137
    Internal Affairs6,3746,601
    Maori Affairs16,37321,069
    Social Welfare2,110,9042,540,567
                Total—Social services2,196,7822,636,374
    Health—
        Health1,137,5361,358,026
    Transport and communications—
        Transport118,358130,882
        Works and Development26,86223,854
        Communications* 6,649
                Total—Transport and communications145,220161,385
                Total—Annual appropriations6,479,5247,848,024
                Total—Ordinary payments7,445,2708,986,830
Unauthorised expenditure3,85017,323
Transfer to Reserve Account80,000
                Total payments7,529,1209,004,153

N.B.—More detailed notes on some items are given in similar tables in the Budget (Parl. paper B.6) and the Public Accounts (Parl. papers B. I Pt. I and II).

National Roads Fund Income and Expenditure—

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197919801981
 $(thousand)
Income   
Motor spirits duty (less refunds)109,67487,771120,540
Road user charges (less refunds)48,30251,23468,370
Other taxation, etc.1,525450394
Contributions from Consolidated Account14,00024,00016,000
Miscellaneous, including interest3,5424,7324,331
                Total income177,043168,137209,635
Expenditure   
State highways maintenance43,69150,89268,140
State highways construction41,64735,68640,489
Local authorities subsidised works66,61968,79083,412
Administration and general14,20415,84116,909
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account repaid4,000
Unauthorised652
                Total expenditure170,167171,214208,952

SUMMARY OF BUDGET PROPOSALS—The 1981 Financial Statement (Budget) was presented to Parliament by the Minister of Finance, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, on 9 July 1981. Main points included the following:

  • Continued and additional assistance to the fishing industry. More development finance for agriculture.

  • Introduction of a tax-rebate scheme applicable to interest-payments on first home mortgages, and improvements in the present home ownership savings schemes.

  • Changes in taxation included adjustments in the low income family rebate scheme, the depreciation limit on motorcars, estate duty, land tax, the international departure tax, and stamp and cheque duties. Taxes on alcohol and tobacco were increased, and a duty introduced on credit card transactions.

GENERAL FINANCE

Land Transfers—

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197919801981
Properties of under 2 hectares—
Number 818138912399642
Consideration$(m)2,206.42,578.83,247.5
Average price per hectare$236,861249,810x284,671
Properties of 2 hectares and over—
Number 94161105310640
Area hectares(000)805.21015.9920.5
Consideration$(m)758.2997.11,152.7
Average price per hectare$9429811,252
All properties: Total consideration$(m)2,964.63,575.94,400.3

Mortgages—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the latest 4 financial years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchRegisteredDischarged
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
19781435491,809.7105116851.5
19791693492,164.1131195 
19801649962,467.5131592 
19811675772,655.2134474 

The average rate of interest on new mortgages during the year ended 31 March 1981 was 12.89 percent compared with 11.38 percent during the previous year.

Overseas Exchange Transactions—The following statement gives statistics of overseas exchange transactions for the latest 3 March years and the latest June year.

(Source: Reserve Bank.)
ItemYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 30 June 1981*
197919801981
* See page 750 for earlier June year figures.
Receipts$(million)
    Exports—
        Meat1,090.91,332.41,486.31,660.8
        Wool701.6924.0998.0984.5
        Butter208.8291.2371.0431.1
        Cheese82.083.8113.5126.5
        Milk powders154.3203.7320.0359.9
        Other dairy products141.0178.4256.2256.3
        Other animal products349.8411.9378.3379.8
        Forest products292.9457.1574.7587.7
        Other primary products187.5236.8332.7319.0
        Manufactured exports613.5780.3987.51,024.1
        Miscellaneous27.741.748.656.8
                Total exports3,849.94,941.35,866.56,186.5
        Other current receipts811.7992.11,227.01,311.2
                Total current receipts4,661.65,933.37,093.67,497.7
    Capital receipts—
        Government borrowing570.7673.0x876.31,030.0
        Other official receipts94.9154.2x285.6223.6
        Private330.6424.0476.8516.2
                Total capital receipts996.21,251.21,638.71,769.9
    I.M.F.—
        Drawings-x
        Allocations of SDRs29.432.431.231.2
                Total receipts5,687.27,217.0x8,763.59,298.8
Payments
    Imports—
        Government188.8182.7205.8211.0
        Private3,001.03,951.34,892.25,099.0
                Total imports3,189.84,134.05,098.15,310.0
    Other current payments—
        Government420.2513.1547.6560.6
        Private1,478.01,768.02,163.52,351.6
                Total other current payments1,898.22,281.12,711.12,912.2
                Total current payments5,088.06,415.17,809.28,222.2
    Capital payments—
        Government debt repayments266.7379.1226.5163.2
        Other official payments94.999.3243.0243.8
        Private381.8325.1397.0415.7
                Total capital payments743.4803.5866.5822.7
I.M.F. repurchases57.1125.7164.2168.1
                Total payments5,888.57,344.38,839.89,213.0
Balance on trade transactions+660.1+807.2+768.5+876.5
Balance on invisible transactions−1,086.5−1,289.0−1,484.0−1,601.1
Current account balance−426.4−481.8−715.6−724.5
Official capital account balance+304.0+348.8+692.3+846.6
Private capital account balance−51.1+98.9+79.9+100.5
I.M.F. transactions (inc. SDRs)−27.7−93.3x−133.0−136.8
Change in official overseas reserves−179.7−20.2x−59.8+24.1
Official overseas reserves at end of period803.9783.6x723.8735.7

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Current Account Summary—The following table gives a summary of the current account of the balance of payments for the two latest March years.

Item1979–80x1980–81*
CreditDebitCreditDebit
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Exports/imports (as published in external trade statistics)4,897.54,918.25,730.05,579.0
Adjustments to balance of payments concepts7.1−395.2−90.0−434.0
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)4,904.64,523.05,640.05,147.0
                Balance on merchandise trade381.6494.0
Transportation694.1727.2869.0863.0
Travel197.2499.5239.0555.0
Insurance6.3−7.911.023.0
Other miscellaneous services134.8379.6164.0484.0
Government current transactions44.7144.366.0151.0
Exports/imports of services1,077.11,742.71,349.02,078.0
                Balance on services−665.6−728.0
International investment income136.3649.6146.0739.0
                Balance on invisibles−1,178.9−1,321.0
Transfers223.4207.8300.0244.0
                Balance on current account−781.7−770.0

INDEX

NOTE—Where more than one reference to a subject is given, the chief reference, wherever it has been possible to determine it, is indicated by bold type. Two or more references to a subject so indicated signify major, and approximately equal, importance.

Population centres, localities, and geographical features are not indexed separately, partly for reasons of space and compiling time, and partly because in the main they are included only in tables indexed under geographical classifications, e.g., cities, boroughs, counties, communities, urban areas, lakes, mountains, etc.

A

Abortion, 144
Accident Compensation—
Act, 775, 830, 832–836
claims received, 836
Corporation, 122, 126, 249, 692, 832–836, 1004
compensation paid, 836–837
levies, 326, 333
vote, 684
Accident insurance, 333, 775–776
Accidents—
aircraft, 145, 343
cases treated in hospitals, 145–146
causes of, 145–146, 843–847
compensated, 837–851
deaths from, 102, 103, 107–110, 144, 330–332, 343, 840–843, 852
drowning, 108, 109, 110
environment of, 110, 145–146, 838–839
farming, 110, 852
industrial, 108, 110, 833–847
in home, 109, 110, 145–146, 838–839
mining, 110, 840, 844
motor-vehicle, 102, 108, 109, 330–332, 843, 844–846
poisoning, 108, 109, 144, 146
railway, 145, 320, 950
road, 108, 109, 110, 145, 330–332
shipping and boating, 108, 110, 313
sport and recreational, 110, 838–839
transport, 145, 330–332, 838
water, 108, 110, 145
Accommodation licences, 873
Accommodation, tourist, 860–861
Accounts—
national, 649–665
production, 653–660
public, 680–707
Acts (see legislation)
Additional Jobs Programme, 786
Administrative tribunals, 890
Adolescent dental service, 119, 133, 135
Adoptions, 96, 159–160
Adult education, 204–205
National Council of, 176, 204
Advances—
bank, 725, 726, 728, 729–730
bank, reserve ratio, 725, 733, 734
building societies, 767–768
rural, 758–761
Advertising, radio, T.V., and press, 353–355, 356
Aerial—
photography and mapping, 290
topdressing, 343, 361, 380–381, 383
work operations, 343, 405
Africa, relations with, 30, 39, 40, 579–580
Age distribution of—
labour force, 782
persons sent to penal institutions, 241
population, 68, 78, 80, 83–84
unemployed, 785
women in labour force, 800, 801
Agricultural (see also Farms, Farming, Crops, etc.)—
aviation, 343
clubs, 190
contracting, census of, 992
machinery, 366, 384, 460, 468, 589
imports of, 610, 613, 614
pests and diseases, 208–209, 214, 215, 343, 406
production, 208–209, 368–371, 927, 929
production account, 368–371
Production Council, 378
production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 660–663, 664
products exported, 525–532, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589590, 995–996
publications, 959–960
research, 208–209, 213, 214–215, 380
services, 369
Training Council, 378, 382
Workers Act, 828
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of, 209, 214–215, 217, 276, 278, 279, 378–380, 387, 389, 417, 420, 421, 424, 685, 891, 893, 905, 1005
Air—
Force, Royal New Zealand, 257, 259, 261–262, 263
freight, 338, 339, 340–341, 342
licensing and control, 337–338
mail, 338, 339, 340–341, 345
navigational aids, 337–338
pollution, 120, 278
services, 337, 338–341
Air New Zealand, 336, 337, 338–339, 340, 444, 705, 904, 950, 951, 952
Aircraft—
accidents, 145, 343
imports and exports of, 589, 611, 612, 614
manufacture and repair, 444, 461, 469
safety of, 854
types in domestic services, 338
Alcoholic liquors—
consumption of, 124, 646
duty on, 124, 137, 621, 682, 690, 691, 1001, 1003, 1006
household expenditure on, 641–643
imports of, 608, 611, 613
manufacture of, 456, 463, 475
sale of, 872–874
Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council, 124, 904
Alcoholism, 124, 140–141
Alexander Turnbull Library, 227
Aluminium (See also Non-ferrous metals), 443–444, 445, 497, 512, 588, 589, 950, 951, 952, 996
Ambulance services, 137
Amenities of dwellings, 496
Americas, relations with the, 28, 34–35
Ammonia/urea plant, 445, 505
Angling, 424, 862
Anhydrous milkfat (AMF), 372, 530, 531, 573
Animal health, 215, 369, 378
Anniversary Days, 876
Antarctic, N.Z. activities in, 219–221, 263, 950
Ante-natal services, 122–123
Antiquities, protection of, 225, 226, 285
ANZUS Treaty, 28, 34, 37, 38, 258
Apiaries and apiculture, 379, 399
Apples, 208, 209, 384, 386, 390, 391, 393
consumption of, 645
exported, 587, 588, 600, 647, 936
marketing of, 391, 537
retail prices, 630
Apprentices, 175, 201, 202, 786, 788–789
Aquaculture (fish farming), 416, 417, 418, 420, 421, 422–423, 424,
Arable farming, 360–367, 384–394, 927
Arbitration Court, 788, 804–806, 809–810, 813, 818–819, 828, 830, 906, 949, 951
Archaeological sites, 225, 226
Area of New Zealand, 2, 267, 401
of farm land, 266, 267, 363, 364
of forested land, 267, 401
Armed Forces, 257–264, 784, 798, 806, 900, 989
housing loans for, 763
in war, 264, 948, 949, 950
superannuation, 1G9–171
Army, New Zealand, 257, 259, 260–261, 262, 263
Art galleries, 221, 223
Artificial aids (for physical disabilities), 133, 135
Arts Council, 221, 222
Arts and art publications, 221–224, 960–961
Asbestos, 435, 437, 497
Asian Development Bank (ADB), 36, 38, 40, 41, 668, 686, 753
Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN), 30–31, 37, 258, 263, 570, 571, 573, 593
Assurance, life, 255, 734, 772–775
Auckland Harbour Bridge, 321–322, 325, 905, 950
Audit Office, 684, 891, 893, 1004
Australia—
communications with, 348
exports to, 342, 412, 444, 570, 574, 577, 592, 593, 594, 595, 598, 600–602
Free Trade Agreement with, 34, 570, 571, 574–575, 619–620, 950, 951
imports from, 342, 412, 574, 577, 607–611
investment in New Zealand, 673–674
shipping to and from, 305, 306
social security reciprocity with, 157
trade, finance, etc., 33–34, 525–528, 570, 571, 574–575, 619–620, 622, 667, 670, 672, 675–676, 903
visitors and migrants, 73, 783, 859, 860
Authority for Vocational Awards, 200, 202, 787
Aviation, 336–343
agricultural, 343
Awards, cultural, 221, 223–224

B

Bacon and ham curing, 455, 462
Balance of payments, 665–676, 1008
overseas direct investments in New Zealand, 672–675
survey of companies with overseas affiliations, 672–675
Balance of trade, 575
Bananas, 538, 617, 645
Bank notes, 724, 725, 727–728, 743, 750–751
Bank of New Zealand, 705, 726–727, 947
Banking publications, 955
Bankruptcies, 769, 868–870, 946
Banks and banking, 568, 723–754, 944
assets and liabilities, 725–726, 727–728
overseas assets of, 745–746, 939
savings, 723, 724, 726, 727, 732, 734, 735–739, 743, 944
trading, 724, 725, 726–731, 733–734, 735, 743
Barley, 385, 387, 587, 588, 927
Basic metal industries, 453, 454, 459, 467
production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 657, 661–663, 664
Beds, hospital, 137, 139
Beech forests, 1, 19, 283, 402, 404, 408
Beef—
cattle, 370, 394, 395, 396, 397, 928
consumption of, 644
exports of, 525, 526, 533, 570, 572–573, 586, 588, 595, 646, 934, 995
production of, 360, 362, 374
retail prices of, 630, 632
Beer—
consumption of, 646
duty on, 621, 682, 691, 1001, 1003
production of, 456, 463, 475
retail price of, 631
Bees and beekeeping, 379, 399
Benefits, social welfare, 131–135, 148–158, 490
Bentonite, 426, 434
Berryfruit, 390, 392, 645, 647
Beverage industries, 450, 452, 453, 456, 463, 475
Beverages, consumption of, 646
imports of, 605, 608, 611, 613
Big-game fishing, 424, 862–863
Bird sanctuaries, 285, 286
Birth rate, 53, 89, 90–91, 918
Birthplaces of population, 85
Births, 53, 89–97, 918
ex-nuptial, 94–95
first, 93–94
multiple, 92
of Maoris, 89, 90
registration of, 89
reregistration of, 95
still, 89, 92, 96–97, 106
Biscuit industry, 455, 463, 475
Blind persons, benefits for and education of, 155, 181, 184
Boarding of school children, 189–190
Boilers, lifts, and cranes, inspection of, 854
Bonus Bonds, 737, 738
Book publishing, 876
Books—
imports of, 611, 614
library, 226–228
New Zealand, 953–966
Boroughs and cities, 48, 50, 52, 59–60, 270, 321, 325, 326, 791
area of, 59–60
capital and unimproved values, 297–298
councils, 50, 708–711, 713, 714
debt, 173, 712–714
franchise, 51
number of, 50
population, 59–60, 66, 985–986
Borstal training, 237, 239, 244, 246
Botany, publications on, 959
Bread (bakeries), 455, 462
retail price of, 630, 632
Breast prostheses, 133, 135
Breweries, 456, 463, 475
Brides and grooms, 112–114
Bridges and bridging, 315, 321–322, 324, 325
British postal orders, 346
British sovereignty, 23
Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, 222, 351–352, 354, 705, 876, 1004
Broadcasting, radio and TV, 351–353, 355, 684
Broadcasting Tribunal, 352
Budget, 763, 861, 1006
Building and construction (see also Housing), 479–499, 663–664, 991–992
census of, 480–484
finance, 481–484, 729, 730, 771
incomes, 715, 716, 718
persons engaged in, 481–482, 483, 784, 796
production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 657, 661–663, 665
purchases and other expenses, 481–483
salaries and wages in, 481–482, 483
turnover in, 481–483
wage rates, 808
of dwellings, 497
production of, 489
costs and prices, 479, 480, 490, 491, 494, 633–634
finance, 481–484, 729, 730, 771
incomes, 715, 716, 718
persons engaged in, 481–482, 483, 784, 796
production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 657, 661–663, 665
purchases and other expenses, 481–483
salaries and wages in, 481–482, 483
turnover in, 481–483
wage rates, 808
of dwellings, 497
production of, 489
government expenditure on, 484, 687
finance, 481–484, 729, 730, 771
incomes, 715, 716, 718
persons engaged in, 481–482, 483, 784, 796
production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 657, 661–663, 665
purchases and other expenses, 481–483
salaries and wages in, 481–482, 483
turnover in, 481–483
wage rates, 808
of dwellings, 497
production of, 489
industry—
finance, 481–484, 729, 730, 771
incomes, 715, 716, 718
persons engaged in, 481–482, 483, 784, 796
production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 657, 661–663, 665
purchases and other expenses, 481–483
salaries and wages in, 481–482, 483
turnover in, 481–483
wage rates, 808
of dwellings, 497
production of, 489
materials—
of dwellings, 497
production of, 489
on farms, 366, 485–486
permits, 485–488
work put in place, 488–489
Building—
Industry Advisory Council, 480, 905
Performance Guarantee Corporation, 480, 684, 1004
Research Association, 213, 216, 904
societies, 491, 734, 758, 765–768
Special Character Zones, 270
Bureaufax service, 347
Bursaries—
boarding, 189–190
ex-servicemen's children, 166
teachers, 192, 195, 197
university, 183, 188, 194–195, 197
Buses, 327, 328, 336
Butter (see also Dairy produce), 372, 475, 525, 529–531, 532–534, 540–541, 630, 632, 644, 935, 951
exports of, 570, 572, 585, 588, 637, 646, 995, 1007

C

Cabinet, 45–46, 883
Cables, overseas, 348
Cadet Forces, 263
Calves, slaughter and marketing of, 375
Campbell Island, 1, 2, 11, 285
Canada—
exports to, 570, 571, 572, 577, 592, 594–600
imports from, 577, 608, 610
trade, finance, etc., 34, 525, 526, 527, 570–572, 619, 620, 667, 670, 672, 972
visitors and migrants from, 73, 859, 860
Cancer—
ages of decedents, 104
deaths from, 102, 103–105, 143
lung, 104–105, 124, 143
site of disease, 104–105
Society of New Zealand, 103, 128, 135
Canned fruit and vegetables—
consumption of, 645, 647
production of, 455, 462, 475
Capital—
consumption of fixed, 650, 651, 652
of Government, 350, 687
of hotel and restaurant industry, 545, 557, 558–559
of retail and wholesale trade, 545, 546, 548–552, 554–556, 557
of service industries, 545, 560, 561, 562
in manufacturing industries, 449, 450, 453–454, 462–469, 474, 476–477, 992
on mining and quarrying, 438–440
on farms, 366–367
price index, 997–999
expenditure—
of Government, 350, 687
of hotel and restaurant industry, 545, 557, 558–559
of retail and wholesale trade, 545, 546, 548–552, 554–556, 557
of service industries, 545, 560, 561, 562
in manufacturing industries, 449, 450, 453–454, 462–469, 474, 476–477, 992
on mining and quarrying, 438–440
on farms, 366–367
price index, 997–999
finance account, 649, 652
gross fixed (formation), 651, 652, 660–664
invested in electric-power undertakings, 515, 686, 687, 705
invested in gas industry, 520
overseas, invested in N.Z., 672–675, 718–720
transfers, 747, 748, 749
value of land, 296–298
Capitalisation of family benefit, 151, 155, 490, 762, 764, 896
Cargo carried by air transport, 338, 339, 340–341, 342
Cargo handled at ports, 309–312
Caribbean, relations with, 35, 39, 41
Carpets and carpet yarns, 444, 456, 464, 475, 587, 589, 630
Casein, 371, 475, 525, 531, 532, 541, 572, 585, 587, 589, 599, 936, 996
Cassette tapes, production of, 474
Catchment authorities, 50, 274, 275, 277, 710, 791
Cattle, 215, 360, 362, 364–367, 394–396, 397, 928
hides exported (see Hides, skins, and pelts) slaughtered, 375
Cawthron Institute, 213, 216, 904
Cement—
industry, 459, 466
production of, 489
Census of Population and Dwellings, 54–63, 79–82, 985–988, 992
age distribution of population, 78, 80, 83–84
benefits and pensions, 158
country of birth, 85
dwellings data, 495–498
educational attendance levels, 202–203, 801–802
employment statistics, 794–799
ethnic groups, 84
household data, 79–82
incomes of households, 81, 721
incomes of individuals, 720, 721
internal migration, 85–86
major industrial, 794, 795–797
marital status, 78, 81–82
occupations of population, 321, 794, 797–799
religious professions, 82–83
smoking habits, 124–125
tenure of dwellings, 496, 757
transport to work, 329–330
unemployment, 792
publications, 982
Censuses, economic—
of building and construction, 480–484
of distribution, 545–563
of farm contracting, 992
of forestry and logging, 992
of gas industry, 520–524
of manufacturing, 448–474
of mining and quarrying, 437–440
of transport and communication, 992
Central Government finance (see Government finance)
Central Institute of Technology, 180, 200, 202
Cereals, 362, 384–387, 455, 463, 475, 927
consumption of, 645, 647
imports and exports of, 587, 588, 590, 605, 647
Cerebral palsy, 127
Cerebrovascular disease, 102, 103, 105
Certificates of title (land), 291
Chartered clubs, 873
Chatham Islands, 1, 11, 181, 185, 186, 192, 292, 306, 337, 419, 422, 423, 435, 708, 875, 947, 948
Cheese (see also Dairy produce), 372, 475, 525, 530, 532–533, 540–541, 630, 632, 637, 644, 935
exports of, 570, 572, 585, 588, 646, 995, 1007
Chemicals and chemical products industry, 451, 452, 454, 458, 465–466, 475, 477–478
exports of, 591
imports of, 604, 606, 608, 611–612, 613, 995
production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664
Chemists, 130, 134
Child health and welfare, 188, 119, 122–123, 148, 149, 153, 155, 159–162, 247–248
Childbirth accidents, etc., 102, 107, 144
Children's and Young Persons Courts, 159, 160–161, 233, 247–248
Children—
adopted, 96, 159–160
allowances for, 148–153, 154, 155
born, number and sexes of, 89–90, 91–95, 918
deaths of (see also Infant mortality), 98, 99, 102, 104, 105–108, 109, 110, 918
causes, 107, 108, 109, 110
delinquent, 159–162, 164, 233, 247–248
dental treatment of, 119, 126, 133
dependent, 150, 153, 154, 155, 164, 165
deprived, 159–160, 161–162
handicapped, 126, 127, 157, 159, 184
intellectually handicapped, 157, 184
involved in separation agreements, 252
killed on roads, 108, 109, 331
offences by, 247–248
restrictions on employment of, 827, 828, 829
school, 175, 181, 182, 184–190
under supervision, 159–162, 164
Children's health camps, 123, 135, 872, 903
Children's homes, 149, 159, 160, 162
China, relations and trade with, 28, 30–31, 573, 577, 593, 594, 597–601
Chiropodists, 130
Churches, 82–83
marriages in, 114–115
Cigarettes and tobacco—
duty on, 137, 621
production of, 450, 452, 453, 456, 463, 475
retail price of, 631
Cinemas, 356–359
Cities and boroughs, 48, 50, 52, 59–60, 173, 270, 297–298, 321, 325, 326, 708–711, 713, 714, 791, 985–986
Citizen radio service, 349
Citizenship, 77
Citrus fruits, 384, 386, 390, 391, 392
consumption of, 645
imports and marketing of, 538, 617
Citrus Marketing Authority, 538
Civil—
aviation, 336–343
defence, 49, 264–265, 712, 872, 907
jurisdiction, 248–249
List, 683, 1004
Clays and clay products, 425, 426, 434, 437–440, 459, 466, 489
Clean Air Council, 120, 278, 903, 906
Climate, 12–21, 760
observations for year, 18–21
Clinics—
ante-natal, 122–123
dental, 126, 133
family planning, 123
Clothing and footwear, retail prices of, 630–631
Clothing—
exports, 589, 591
household expenditure on, 641–642
imports, 606, 617
retail prices of, 630–631
Clothing industry, 450, 452, 453, 456, 464, 475, 477–478, 771
Clover (see also grass seed), 390, 587, 589
Coal, 425–431, 437, 445, 605, 630
and petroleum products industry, 452, 454, 458, 466
production account, 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664
exports of, 590
mining, 425–431, 437
research, 209, 428–429, 437
Research Association, 213, 216, 428, 437
resources, 8, 428–430, 437, 503, 506
State mines, 425, 428, 430–431, 686, 705
usage, 430, 431, 500–503, 505, 506, 512, 931
Coastal erosion, 277–278
Coastal shipping, 306
Coastline, 2, 269, 270, 273, 277–278, 285, 404
Cocoa, 645
Agreement, International, 622
manufacture, 455, 463
Co-education, 177, 187
Coffee—
Agreement, International, 622
consumption, 646, 870
imported, 608, 611, 613
retail price of, 630, 632
Coin and coinage, 743–744, 750
held by banks, 727–728, 743
Colleges, teachers', 176, 178, 180, 182, 190–192, 203, 801, 919
Colonisation, 23–24
Commerce Act 1975, 568–569, 623–624
Commerce Commission, 569, 623
Commercial radio and television, 352, 353, 354–355
Commission for the Environment, 272–273, 278, 287, 684, 1004
Commission for the Future, 301, 906
Common Agricultural Policy (EEC), 526, 532, 572
Common Law, 232
Commonwealth, 27, 28–29, 30, 40
youth programme, 40, 878
Communications, 344–359
industry production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 658, 661–663, 665
Communities, 49, 61–62
Community—
and Housing Improvement Programme (CHIP), 484, 492, 763
centres, 205
colleges, 176, 178, 180, 181, 204
councils, 49
housing, 82, 492
service by offenders, 235
services, 159–160, 161–164
Companies, 768–771, 946
finance, 730, 732, 733, 734, 741–742, 743, 769–771, 772, 775, 778, 780
income of, 717, 718, 719–720, 770
joint stock, 768–769
overseas, 672–675, 718–720, 769
private, 769
profits of, 770–771
public, 769
registered, 769, 946
share prices indexes, 640, 922, 923
taxation of, 696, 717, 719–720, 770
Compensation—
accidents involving, 837–851
criminal injuries, 249
Compressed natural gas (CNG), 207, 505, 508, 509
Concrete products industry, 459, 466, 481–482, 489, 497
Concrete Research Association, 213, 216, 904
Condensate, natural gas, 426, 432, 500, 502, 505–506
Confectionery industry, 455, 463
Confinements, 92–95
Conservation (see Natural environment), 266–278
Consolidated Account, 119, 150, 323, 325, 326, 406, 680, 681, 683–685, 688, 689–690, 703, 940
Consolidated Accounts of the Nation, 649–653
Constitution of New Zealand, 23, 25–26, 41–46, 947, 948
Construction (see Building, Housing)
Consumer—
affairs, 624
index, 625–629, 630, 805, 812, 815, 922, 923, 975–981, 996
Council, 624, 975
index, 625–629, 630, 805, 812, 815, 922, 923, 975–981, 996
prices, 630–632
index, 625–629, 630, 805, 812, 815, 922, 923, 975–981, 996
protection, 623–624
Consumers Institute, 624
Consumption of—
coal, 430, 431, 500–503, 505, 506, 931
electricity, 500–503, 506
food, 644–647
natural gas, 500–503, 505, 506
oil, 500–503, 504, 506
Contact lenses, 133
Containerisation, 305, 306
Convictions (court), 236–239, 920
for traffic offences, 239–240
of juveniles, 248
of women, 240
Convictions in District Courts, 238–239, 920
Convictions in High Court, 236–237, 920
Cook Islands, 11, 22, 28, 31–32, 39, 54, 73, 84, 169, 192, 305, 337, 345, 346, 349, 447, 573, 576, 593, 603, 616, 617, 747, 748, 948, 950
Cook Strait—
air freight services, 315
road-rail ferry service, 306, 315, 318, 319, 950
submarine power cable, 513–514
Co-operative credit associations, 759, 761
Copper ore, 434
Copra, 617
Copyright, 866
Correspondence school, 176, 178, 181, 187, 190, 205
Cotton fabrics, imports of, 609, 612, 613
Council for Adult Education, 176, 204
Council for Educational Research, 203
Counties, 48, 50, 52, 791
area of, 62–63
capital and unimproved values, 297–298
councils, 50, 708–711, 713, 714
debt, 173, 712–714
franchise, 51
populations, 62–63, 66, 987
roads and roading, 321, 322–323, 325
Court of Appeal, 46, 232, 233, 236, 249, 295, 890, 950
Courts (see also High, District, Children's etc.), 46, 160–161, 232–233, 236–240, 247–250, 920
Judges of, 46, ill, 232–233, 890–891
structures and types of, 46, 232–233
Cows in milk, 373, 397
Cranes, boilers, and lifts, inspection of, 854
Cremation, 101
Crime, law and, 232–249, 253–254, 920
Criminal—
appeals, 236
injuries compensation, 249, 904
jurisdiction, 236–241
reformation and punishment of the, 235–236, 243, 246
Crippled children (see Handicapped children)
Crops, 361–367, 379, 384–394, 927
Crown land, 279–281, 286, 291, 363
Crown Law Office, 684, 891, 893, 1004
Cultivation, area in, 363, 364
Cultural activities and awards, 221, 223–224, 225–226
Cultural Exchange Programme, 222
Currency and banking (see Banks and banking)
Customs Department, 328, 350, 582, 618–621, 636, 684, 891, 893, 1004
Customs tariff and revenue, 618–622, 682, 690–691, 1001, 1003

D

Dairy—
Board, New Zealand, 373, 529, 530, 531, 535, 540–541, 544
consumption of, 644, 647
exported, 312, 342, 525–532, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588, 590, 646, 747, 749, 935–936, 994, 995, 1007
export price index, 637, 638
household expenditure on, 642
inspection of, 379
marketing of, 525, 529–535, 540–541
prices for, 540–541, 631, 632, 929
production of, 360–367, 369, 371–373, 379
cows, 373, 394, 395, 396, 928
consumption of, 644, 647
exported, 312, 342, 525–532, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588, 590, 646, 747, 749, 935–936, 994, 995, 1007
export price index, 637, 638
household expenditure on, 642
inspection of, 379
marketing of, 525, 529–535, 540–541
prices for, 540–541, 631, 632, 929
production of, 360–367, 369, 371–373, 379
factories, 371, 372, 373, 441, 455, 462, 729
consumption of, 644, 647
exported, 312, 342, 525–532, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588, 590, 646, 747, 749, 935–936, 994, 995, 1007
export price index, 637, 638
household expenditure on, 642
inspection of, 379
marketing of, 525, 529–535, 540–541
prices for, 540–541, 631, 632, 929
production of, 360–367, 369, 371–373, 379
farming, 360–362, 364–367, 379, 383, 394, 395, 396, 715, 729, 816, 928
consumption of, 644, 647
exported, 312, 342, 525–532, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588, 590, 646, 747, 749, 935–936, 994, 995, 1007
export price index, 637, 638
household expenditure on, 642
inspection of, 379
marketing of, 525, 529–535, 540–541
prices for, 540–541, 631, 632, 929
production of, 360–367, 369, 371–373, 379
machinery, 384
consumption of, 644, 647
exported, 312, 342, 525–532, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588, 590, 646, 747, 749, 935–936, 994, 995, 1007
export price index, 637, 638
household expenditure on, 642
inspection of, 379
marketing of, 525, 529–535, 540–541
prices for, 540–541, 631, 632, 929
production of, 360–367, 369, 371–373, 379
produce, 455, 462, 475, 929
consumption of, 644, 647
exported, 312, 342, 525–532, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588, 590, 646, 747, 749, 935–936, 994, 995, 1007
export price index, 637, 638
household expenditure on, 642
inspection of, 379
marketing of, 525, 529–535, 540–541
prices for, 540–541, 631, 632, 929
production of, 360–367, 369, 371–373, 379
Research Institute, 209, 213, 216, 278, 904
Data service (Post Office), 347, 348
Databank Systems Ltd., 726
Deaf, education of, 184, 191
Death benefits, 151, 157
Death duty, estates passed for, 699–701
Death rates, 53, 89, 91, 102–107, 918
Maori non-Maori comparisons, 97–98
Deaths, 53, 89, 91, 97–110, 918
accidental (see Accidents)
by ages, 98, 99
by causes, 102–110
distribution over year, 98
due to earthquakes, 9
from external causes, 9, 108–110, 343, 330–332, 840–843, 852
from industrial accidents, 108, 110, 840–843, 852
from road accidents, 108, 109, 330–332
in fires, 256
in hospitals, 142–144, 146
in psychiatric hospitals, 142
international classification, 102
maternal, 102, 107
of infants, 105–107, 918
of Maoris, 89, 90, 106–107
of children, 102, 104, 105–108, 109, 110
registration of, 101
Debt—
hospital boards, 138–139
local government, 712–714, 724, 943
public (see also Public debt), 703–707, 942
Decimal currency, 743, 950
Deer farming, 282, 369, 370, 398
Defence, 37–38, 257–265,
civil, 49, 264–265
Council, 257, 258
expenditure on, 258, 681, 684, 687
Ministry of, 217, 257, 258, 261, 263, 891, 894, 904, 1002
policy, 37–38
services, strength of, 259–262
Degrees, university, 198
Delinquency, juvenile, 159–162, 164, 233, 247–248
Demolition of buildings, 485
Density of population, 65
Dental—
benefits (social security), 126, 133, 135
health, 119, 126, 133
nurses, 126
research, 126
services, 119, 126, 133, 135, 631
Dentists, 119, 126, 128–129, 133, 715
Departments, Government, 883, 891–907
Agriculture and Fisheries, 209, 214–215, 217, 276, 278, 279, 378–380, 387, 389, 417, 420, 421, 424, 685, 891, 893, 905, 1005
Audit Office, 684, 891, 893, 1004
Crown Law, 684, 891, 893, 1004
Customs, 328, 350, 582, 618–621, 636, 684, 891, 893, 1004
Defence, 217, 257, 258, 261, 263, 891, 894, 904, 1002
Education, 123, 124, 126, 148, 162, 176, 182, 184, 187, 189, 192, 202, 217, 222, 350, 352, 786, 788, 857, 878, 892, 894, 904, 1002
Energy, 210, 217, 428, 437, 504, 508, 510, 623, 680, 681, 685, 854, 892, 894, 905–906, 951, 1005
Foreign Affairs, 28, 38–41, 205–206, 210, 212, 222, 305, 878, 892, 894, 903, 1002
Forest Service, 211, 217, 272, 274, 282, 287, 403–407, 411, 414, 685, 711, 877, 892, 895, 905, 1005
Government Printing Office, 212, 684, 892, 895
Health, 118–136, 137, 140, 148, 149, 150, 212, 278, 350, 624, 853, 854, 892, 895, 905, 1002
Inland Revenue, 350, 684, 892, 896, 1004
Internal Affairs, 217, 221, 287, 684, 685, 871, 892, 896, 906–907, 1004, 1005
Justice, 148, 162, 217, 290, 624, 684, 892, 896, 904, 1004
Labour, 118, 121, 126, 130, 148, 149, 175, 193, 205, 217, 350, 624, 685, 784–788, 791–793, 806, 820, 826, 830, 853, 892, 896, 906, 1005
Lands and Survey, 211, 217, 279–282, 283, 287, 289, 290, 326, 350, 685, 761, 892, 897, 905, 1005
Maori Affairs, 148, 163, 287, 288, 326, 493, 685, 790, 878, 892, 897, 905, 1005
Scientific and Industrial Research, 10–11, 121, 207–213, 216, 217, 258, 274, 278, 414, 432, 435, 436, 437, 685, 875, 892, 898, 904–905, 1005
Social Welfare, 148–149, 150, 159, 160, 181, 184, 217, 250, 350, 764, 793, 892, 898, 903
Trade and Industry, 217, 382, 386, 445, 446, 447, 582, 583, 623, 624, 685, 892, 899, 906, 1005
Transport, 217, 304, 312, 322, 329, 330, 332, 334, 335, 337–338, 350, 508, 509, 829, 853–854, 892, 899, 904
Works and Development, 159, 211, 217, 271, 274, 276, 278, 287, 315, 322, 324, 350, 437, 684, 762, 854, 892, 900, 905, 1004
Dependent children, 150, 153, 154, 155, 164, 165
Deportation, 76
Deposits—
interest on, 735–736
time, 727
with building societies, 766–768
with Reserve Bank, 725, 727–728
with savings banks, 736–740, 944
with stock and station agents, 740–741
with trading banks, 727, 728
Depreciation—
in domestic trade, 545, 548–550, 551, 552, 554–556, 557–563
in manufacturing industries, 449, 462–469, 474
in mining and quarrying, 438–440
Deprived children, 159–160, 161–162
Desertion in marriage, 116
Designs, registration of, 866
Detention centres, 235, 237, 239, 244
Development Finance Corporation, 218, 446, 507, 705 753–754, 906
Diagnostic laboratory services, 132, 135
Diatomite, 434
Diesel and diesel-electric rail transport, 316–317
Dietitians, 129, 138
Diplomatic representation, 910–915
Disabled Rehabilitation League, 126
Disability allowance, 151, 157
Disabled civilians, rehabilitation of, 126, 833
Disabled servicemen, 164–165, 167–168
Diseases—
deaths from, 102–105, 107, 142–144
mental, 140–142, 143
occupational, 122
treated in public hospitals, 142–144
Displaced persons, 74–75
Disputes, industrial, 818–819, 824–826, 831, 924, 948, 949, 950
Dissolution of marriage, 116
Distance tax, 323,
Distillate fuels, 426, 431, 432, 587, 589, 996
Distribution—
census of, 545–563
by ages, 68, 78, 80, 83–84
of labour force, by industry and occupation, 783–784, 794–799, 988–989
by ages, 68, 78, 80, 83–84
of population, 57–65, 985–988
by ages, 68, 78, 80, 83–84
District—
Communities, 61, 66
Judges of, 46, 111, 232–233
Community councils, 49
Judges of, 46, 111, 232–233
Councils, 48, 60–61, 709, 710, 713, 791
Judges of, 46, 111, 232–233
Courts, 46, 161, 232–233, 238–240, 249, 250–252, 253, 499
Judges of, 46, 111, 232–233
high schools, 181, 187
planning, 270
Road Councils, 323
Diversification of trade, 531–532, 572–575
Dividends, totalisator, 702–703
Divorce, 115–116
Divorced persons, 78, 81–82
remarrying, 112, 113
Doctors, 118, 123, 128–129, 131, 132, 134, 138, 715,
Dolomite, 426, 437
Domestic assistance, 133
Domestic proceedings, 250–252
Domestic purposes benefit, 151, 152, 153, 155, 158
Domestic trade, 544–569, 808, 993–994
Dominion status, 25, 27
Drainage boards, 50, 791
Drama publications, 963
Drinking age, 874
Drivers' licences, 326
Drowning accidents, 108, 109, 110, 852
Drugs, 120–121, 212,
offences involving, 237, 238, 239, 241, 254
therapeutic, 120–121, 458, 465
Drunkenness, 238, 239, 240, 243, 334
Duties—
customs and excise, 618–621, 654, 682, 690–691, 1001, 1003, 1006
estate and gift, 689, 697–701, 1001, 1006
lottery 690, 871
Dwellings (see also Houses and flats), 479–499, 757–758, 762–765, 991–992
amenities, 496
heating of, 497
insulation of, 498, 507
materials used, 497
number of rooms and occupants, 498
tenure, 496, 757
type of, 495

E

Earthquake and War Damage Commission, 11, 703, 707, 780–781
Earthquake and war damage insurance, 780–781
Earthquakes, 9–12, 212, 781, 947, 949
Eastern Europe, relations with, 28, 29, 571, 573–574, 579
Economic—
aggregates, 649–679
and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), 36, 593
censuses (see censuses, economic)
Monitoring Group (EMG), 300
pensions, 165, 166
Economics publications, 955
Education (see also Schools), 175–206, 900, 919, 948
adult, 204–205
buildings, 178, 180, 485, 486, 489, 495, 687
community colleges, 176, 178, 180, 181, 204
continuing, 204–205
correspondence, 176, 178, 181, 187, 190, 205
dental health, 126
Department of, 123, 124, 126, 148, 162, 176, 182, 184, 187, 189, 192, 202, 217, 222, 350, 352, 786, 788, 857, 878, 892, 894, 904, 1002
expenditure on, 177–179, 180, 682, 685, 687, 870
health, 119, 121, 124, 125, 127
international, 205–206
Maori, 185, 186, 187, 189, 193, 204
of handicapped children, 184
Pacific Islanders, 182, 185, 198, 204, 206
pre-school, 177, 185,
primary, 175–176, 177, 178, 180, 181–182, 185–187, 190, 193, 919
publications, 193, 206, 956–957
road safety, 333
rural, 189
secondary, 175–176, 177, 178, 180, 181–182, 187–188, 190, 204, 801–802, 919
special, 178, 181, 184
technical, 176, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 188, 198, 199, 200–202, 788–790, 801, 802, 919
training of teachers, 178, 180, 181, 182, 190–192, 919
university, 178, 180, 181, 182, 188, 193–199, 801–802, 919
Educational—
attainments, 188
attendance levels, 202–203, 801–802
planning, 175–176, 189, 203–204
qualifications of labour force, 801–802
Research, N.Z. Council for, 203
Eels, 417, 424
Effective weekly wage rates, 810–814, 815, 1000
Eggs—
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 647
production and marketing of, 370, 398–399, 538
retail price of, 630
Elderly, housing of, 135, 164, 484, 492, 712
Elections, general, 42, 47–48, 874–875
Electoral—
Act 1956, 42, 47–48
Representation Commission, 47
roll, 47, 350, 874
Electorates, 47, 884
Electric—
appliances in homes, 496–497
boards, 50, 515, 708, 709, 710, 713, 791
capital invested in, 515
finance of, 173, 515, 517
generation, 516–518
stations, 425, 431, 950, 951
power, 369, 425, 430, 431, 500–504, 505, 506, 511–519
boards, 50, 515, 708, 709, 710, 713, 791
capital invested in, 515
finance of, 173, 515, 517
generation, 516–518
stations, 425, 431, 950, 951
Electrical machinery and appliances—
exported, 589, 591
imported, 606, 610, 611, 614, 995
industry, 453, 454, 460, 468
Electricity—
consumption of, 500–503, 506, 518–519
generation, 511–518
price of, 630
Electronics manufacture, 444, 447, 460, 468, 474
Embassies, 910–915
Emergency Protection Authority, 583
Emigration, 68–73, 783, 990
Employers Federation, 787, 806, 821
Employers, unions of, 821, 823
Employment, 782–803
and Vocational Guidance Service, 785–787
by local authorities, 791
in building industry, 481–483, 784, 796, 799
in coal mining, 430, 438, 783, 795
in domestic trade, 545–548, 550, 551, 552–554, 556–562, 784, 796, 798
in forestry, 414–415, 783, 795
in industry, 450–451, 455–462, 472, 473, 783–784, 794, 795–797
index of, 678, 679
on farms, 364–365, 783, 795, 798, 816
placement service, 785–788
programmes, 784–788, 989
promotion, 785–788
regulations affecting, 827–830
surveys of, 791
vacancies, 793
Energy, 206, 207–208, 209–210, 500–524
Advisory Committee, 505
conservation, 507–508
Ministry of, 210, 217, 428, 437, 504, 508, 510, 623, 680, 681, 685, 854, 892, 894, 905–906, 951, 1005
pricing policy, 506
research and development, 207, 209–210, 217, 445, 479, 505, 508–509
Energy resources—
development of, 445, 503–506
levy, 690, 1001
Engineering industries, 453, 454, 460–461, 468–469
Entry permits, 75–76
Environment—
Commission for, 272–273, 278, 287, 892, 894
natural, 211–212, 266–279
research in, 211–212, 217, 267, 274
Environmental—
agencies, 272–274
Council, 273
health, 118, 120
protection by industry, 275
Equal Opportunities Tribunal, 865
Erosion, 7–9, 404–405, 414
control of soil, 211, 266, 267, 277
control of coastal, 277–278
Estate and gift duty, 689, 697–701, 761, 1001, 1006
Estates—
administered by Public Trust Office, 867–868
passed for death duty, 699–701
Ethnic groups, 34
European Economic Community (EEC), 28, 29, 525, 527, 529, 530, 531, 532–534, 570, 572, 577, 594–602, 618, 619, 667, 671, 672, 951
investment in New Zealand, 673–674
Ewes, breeding, 396
Excess retention tax, 696
Exchange (currency)—
control of, 724, 744–745, 750
rates of, 744–745
transactions, overseas, 667, 724, 747–751, 1007
Excise duties, 618–621, 682, 690–691, 1001, 1003, 1006
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), 257, 258, 416–417, 419, 420, 421–422, 445, 951
Executive council, 45
Ex-nuptial infants, 94–96, 159
ages of mothers, 95
births of, 94–95
protection of, 95, 159
registration of, 94
Exotic forest, 272, 401, 402–403, 404, 407–408, 415
Expectation of life, 100–101,
Expenditure—
defence, 258, 681, 684, 687, 1005
education, 177–179, 180, 682, 685, 687, 870, 1002, 1005
Government (see Government Finance)
health, 119, 131–132, 134–135, 682, 685, 687, 1003, 1005
household, 642–643
local government, 325, 326, 709–711, 713, 943
research, 217, 218, 685, 1005
roads, 322–326, 685, 687, 688
social welfare and services, 150, 151, 167–169, 682, 685, 687, 1003, 1005
Export Guarantee Office, 448, 584
Export-Import Corporation, 448, 584, 686, 705, 906
Exports and Shipping Council, 539
Exports (see also under individual products), 312, 342, 506, 525, 526–529, 531–535, 570–580, 584–603, 651, 653, 666, 672, 932–938, 971, 972, 994–996, 1007, 1008
by air, 342
value, 585, 588–602, 747, 749
volume, 586–588, 594–602
index numbers, 636–638, 921
index numbers, 581
by ports, 312, 602
value, 585, 588–602, 747, 749
volume, 586–588, 594–602
index numbers, 636–638, 921
index numbers, 581
classification of, 590–592
value, 585, 588–602, 747, 749
volume, 586–588, 594–602
index numbers, 636–638, 921
index numbers, 581
commodities exported,—
value, 585, 588–602, 747, 749
volume, 586–588, 594–602
index numbers, 636–638, 921
index numbers, 581
destination of, 570–575, 577–580, 584, 592–602, 603
index numbers, 636–638, 921
index numbers, 581
incentive scheme, 583–584
index numbers, 636–638, 921
index numbers, 581
manufactured, 443–444, 446
index numbers, 636–638, 921
index numbers, 581
prices, 539–541, 921
index numbers, 636–638, 921
index numbers, 581
value of, 446, 575, 576, 577–580, 585, 592, 668, 670–671, 932–938
index numbers, 581
volume of, 586–588, 594–602, 933–938
index numbers, 581
Ex-servicemen—
disabled, 164, 167–168
pensions and rehabilitation, 164–168
External—
migration (see also emigration, immigration), 53, 54, 68–73, 89, 858–860, 917
trade (see Trade (external), Export's, Imports etc.,) 570–622, 932–938, 994–995
transactions account, 649, 653

F

Factories (see also Manufacturing industries), 441–478, 485, 486, 489, 827
Factory production, 441–478, 930
Falls, accidental, 108, 109, 145, 146, 844
Family—
and the law, 250–252
capitalisation of, 151, 155, 490, 762, 764
benefits, 148–153, 154, 155, 158, 941, 950
capitalisation of, 151, 155, 490, 762, 764
courts, 232, 250
health, 118, 122–123
planning, 123
Farm—
accidents, 110, 852
index of, 635
imports of, 610, 612, 613, 614
production of, 460, 468
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
advisory service, 379–380
index of, 635
imports of, 610, 612, 613, 614
production of, 460, 468
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
area in cultivation, 363, 364
index of, 635
imports of, 610, 612, 613, 614
production of, 460, 468
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
capital expenditure, 366–367
index of, 635
imports of, 610, 612, 613, 614
production of, 460, 468
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
cost price indexes, 634–636
imports of, 610, 612, 613, 614
production of, 460, 468
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
employees, 365, 783, 795, 798, 816, 828
imports of, 610, 612, 613, 614
production of, 460, 468
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
Employment Scheme, 786
imports of, 610, 612, 613, 614
production of, 460, 468
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
finance, 279, 729, 730, 740–741, 742, 758–761
imports of, 610, 612, 613, 614
production of, 460, 468
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
forestry, 282
imports of, 610, 612, 613, 614
production of, 460, 468
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
holdings, 363, 364
imports of, 610, 612, 613, 614
production of, 460, 468
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
incomes, 715, 716, 718
imports of, 610, 612, 613, 614
production of, 460, 468
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
industry reserves, 543–544
imports of, 610, 612, 613, 614
production of, 460, 468
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
machinery, 366, 384
imports of, 610, 612, 613, 614
production of, 460, 468
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
produce—
consumption of, 644, 647
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646–647, 933–937
marketing of, 525–544, 970–972, 993
indexes of, 369, 370
production, 208–209, 368–371, 371–400, 927
indexes of, 369, 370
settlement and assistance, 279–282, 288
subsidies and grants, 381–383
vendor finance scheme, 759
Farming, 18–20, 24–25, 360–400, 816, 927–929
arable, 360–367, 384–394, 927
cattle, 360, 362, 364–367, 394–396, 397, 816, 928
cost price indexes, 634–636
crops, 361–367, 379, 384–394
dairy, 360–362, 364–367, 379, 383, 394, 395, 396, 715, 729, 816, 928
sheep, 360–367, 394, 395, 396–397, 715, 729, 816, 928, 967–969
stud, 364, 367
Fathers, ages of, 92
Federated Mountain Clubs, 282, 287
Federation of Labour, 539, 787, 806, 818, 819, 821, 826, 952, 975
Feeding stuff for animals, export of, 587, 588, 590, 601
Fellmongery, 456, 464
Female suffrage, 948
Fertiliser—
imports of, 311, 605, 608, 611, 612, 613
industry, 369, 458, 465, 475
land topdressed with, 343, 361, 380–381, 383
research, 208, 213, 214, 215, 216
spread from air, 343, 361, 380–381
subsidy, 382–383
Fibreboard, 409, 411
Fibres, man-made, 456, 463
Fiction, selected New Zealand, 962–963
Film Commission, 222, 871, 906
Film-hire tax, 690
Finance—
account, capital, 649, 652
companies, 730, 732, 733, 734, 741–742, 743
Government, 150, 151, 652, 653, 654, 655, 658, 660, 661–662, 663, 664, 665, 680–707, 758–765, 940, 1001–1006
hospital board, 138–139
housing, 479, 480, 490, 491, 494, 757–758, 762–765
local government, 323, 324–326, 336, 708–714, 758–765
Fines, 234, 237, 239, 247
Fire—
calls, 255–256
levies, 778
insurance, 255, 776–778
levies, 778
on ships, 313
prevention in forests, 405–406
safety, 255
Service, 173, 255–256, 713
First births, 93–94
First Job Programme, 175
Fish—
acclimatisation, 5, 424
catch, 416, 417–418, 419, 423
consumption of, 644, 647
exported, 419, 423, 587, 588, 590, 602
imported, 605
meal, 418
processing, 455, 462
research, 420, 424
retail price, 630
species, 5, 417–418, 422–124
value of production, 417–419, 423
Fishery protection, 263
Fishing and fisheries, 380, 416–424, 445, 820
big-game, 424, 862–863
controlled fisheries, 416, 417
co-operative ventures, 416, 417, 422, 445
foreign licensed, 421–422
Government financial aid, 421, 760, 761
grounds, 416–417, 419
Industry Board, 416, 421
industry production group, 633–634, 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664
methods, 416, 419, 422
vessels, 416, 420, 421, 760
Flag, New Zealand, 879
Flats (see Houses and flats)—
granny, 492
pensioners', 484, 492
Floods and flooding, 5, 18, 19, 321, 951, 952
Flour, production and retail price of, 475, 630, 632
Fluoridation, 126
Food—
and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 36, 198
consumption, 644–647
household expenditure on, 641–642
imports of, 604, 608, 611, 613, 617, 995
industry production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664
inspection and sale of, 121, 127
marketing of, 546, 548, 552, 554, 558
production, 450, 452, 453, 455, 462–463, 475, 477–478, 771
retail prices of, 630, 632
Standards Committee, 121
Footwear and clothing, retail prices of, 630–631
Footwear industry, 450, 452, 453, 457, 464, 475
Foreign Affairs, Ministry of, 28, 38–41, 205–206, 210, 212, 222, 305, 878, 892, 894, 903, 1005
expenditure on, 681, 684, 687, 1002
Foreign fishing vessel entry tax, 690
Foreign policy, 26–41
Foreign travel tax, 690
Forest—
beech, 1, 19, 283, 402, 404, 408
census of industry, 992
conservation, 272, 274, 401, 403–406, 414
exotic, 272, 401, 402–403, 404, 405, 407–408, 415
fire prevention, 405–406
indigenous, 1, 266, 271–272, 283, 284, 401–402, 403–404, 405, 407–408, 415
industry production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664
kauri, 402, 403–404
parks, 272, 405
private, 401, 402, 404, 406–407, 409, 415
produce exported, 312, 412–413, 587, 589, 590, 601, 602, 938, 996, 1007
Research Institute, 406, 414
resources, 401–403, 407–408, 415
rimu, 402, 403, 408
Service, 211, 217, 272, 274, 282, 287, 403–407, 411, 414, 685, 711, 877, 892, 895, 905, 1005
State, 272, 274, 401–406, 411, 415
utilisation, 401, 403–404, 407–408, 444–445
Forestry, 1, 401–415, 687, 760, 771, 808, 929
development and future prospects of, 415
employment in, 414–415
research, 414
training, 414
Forty-hour week, 827
Franchise, central government, 47–48, 948, 949, 950
Freehold land, 280, 293, 363
Freight carried by—
air transport, 338, 339, 340–341, 342
rail, 316, 926, 991
shipping, 309–312
Freshwater fisheries, 424, 862
Friendly societies, 158
Frost, 16, 20
Frozen foods—
consumption of, 645
export of, 586, 587, 588, 595–597, 602, 647
production of, 475
Fruit—
berry, 390, 392, 645
citrus, 384, 386, 390, 391, 392, 538, 645
consumption of, 645
exports of, 312, 342, 585, 587, 588, 590, 600, 647, 936
imports of, 311, 342, 605, 617
industry, 361–367, 369, 371, 379, 390–393, 455, 462, 475
juices, 617
marketing of, 391–392, 537
pip, 384, 386, 390, 391, 537, 645
stone, 386, 390, 391, 645
sub-tropical, 384, 390, 391, 392
Fruit and vegetable preserving industry, 386, 388, 455, 462, 475
Fuel, light, power, household expenditure on, 642
Fuels and lubricants, imports of, 604, 605, 608, 612, 613
Furniture industry, 450, 452, 454, 457, 465, 477–478, 630

G

Gaming and lotteries, 871–872
Gas—
appliances in homes, 496–497
census of industry, 520–524
compressed natural (CNG), 207, 505, 508, 509
Council, 519, 905
generation and supply, 425–427, 431–432, 437, 438, 523–524
liquefied petroleum (LPG), 426
natural, 207, 425, 426, 431–432, 437–438, 445, 500–503, 505–506, 512–513, 517, 519–524, 687
prices, 630
subsidies, 519, 522, 648
General—
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 34, 529–530, 533, 618–619, 620
Assembly Library, 227
Elections, 42, 47–48, 874–875
Price Index (see also Producers price index), 632–634, 996–997
Wage Orders, 805, 819
Generalised System of Preference (GSP), 620
Geological survey, 211–212, 428, 436–437
Geology, 7–9, 211–212
maps and publications, 427, 433, 436, 958
Geothermal power, 210, 500, 502, 503–504, 505, 506, 512, 513, 686, 705
Geysers (see Thermal activity)
Gift duty, 689, 698
Glaciers, 4, 8, 284
Glass and glass products industry, 452, 454, 458, 466
Glasshouses, production in, 389
“Gleneagles Agreement”, 30, 951
Goat farming, 282, 398
Gold—
discovery of, 5, 24, 441, 947, 948
mining and production, 426, 432, 435
reserve, 669, 724, 726, 746, 939
Government—
departments (see Departments, Government)
employees, 789, 792, 829–830, 900, 902
finance, 150, 151, 652, 653, 654, 655, 658, 660, 661–662, 663, 664, 665, 680–707, 733, 734, 738, 740, 758–765, 940–942, 1001–1006
Life Insurance Office, 707, 773, 779–780, 892, 895, 948
Printing Office, 212, 684, 892, 895, 1004
securities, 686, 725, 733, 734, 738, 740, 741, 751, 765, 772, 775, 778, 780
Superannuation Fund, 169–171, 173, 350, 703, 707
system of, 41–46
Governors-General, 880, 881
powers, duties, etc., 42, 43, 45, 46, 246, 257, 296, 724, 819, 830, 832
Graduates, university, 190–191, 198–199
Grain—
crops, 385–387, 927
milling, 441, 455, 463
Granny flats, 492
Grants (see also subsidies)—
educational, 175, 177, 194, 197, 204
from lottery profits, 135, 218, 221, 222, 871–872, 877
research, 213, 216, 217
various, 274, 283, 287, 787, 877–878
welfare services, 119, 135, 484, 492
Grapes and vineyards, 384, 386, 389, 390, 393, 538
Grass and clover seed, 384
exports of, 587, 589, 936
Grasses and grasslands, 360–364, 380–381, 383, 384, 389–390
Grasslands and grasses research, 208, 214
Greenstone, 426, 435
Greyhound racing, 702–703, 871
Groceries, retail prices of, 630, 632
Gross—
domestic product, 151, 218, 259, 449, 523, 632, 649, 650, 651, 654–660, 672, 677–679
by production group, 654–655
fixed capital formation, 651, 652, 660–664
national product, 38, 179, 326, 570, 651
Group-living quarters, 82
Guardianship of State wards, 149, 161, 162

H

Hail, 15
Halloysite, 434, 437
Handicapped children, 126, 127, 157, 159, 184
allowances for, 157
Harbour boards, 50, 173, 270, 709, 710, 791
Harbour Bridge Authority, 321–322, 325, 791
Harbours (see also ports), 2, 270
Health, 118–147
benefits, 119, 131–135, 149–151
camps, 123, 872
child, 118, 119, 122–123
dental, 119, 126, 133
Department of, 118–136, 137, 140, 148, 149, 150, 212, 278, 350, 624, 853, 854, 892, 895, 905, 1002
education, 119, 121, 124, 125, 127
expenditure, 119, 131–132, 134–135, 682, 685, 687
family, 118, 122–123
hazards, 122
insurance, 158
management services and research unit, 127
mental, 140–142
occupational, 121–122
statistics, 127
Hearing aids, 133
Heart disease, 102, 103, 124, 143
Heavy Engineering Research Association, 213, 216, 904
Heavy traffic fees, 323
Hides, skins, and pelts exported, 312, 444, 525, 572, 585, 586, 588–589, 590, 599–600, 937, 996
High Commissions, 910–915
High Court, 46, 128, 161, 232–233, 236–238, 248–249, 252, 295–296, 856
Judges of, 232–233, 246, 891
High Priority Activities Scheme, 447
Higher Salaries Commission, 43, 906
Higher School Certificate, 183, 188, 195
Highways, 321–326, 688
taxation, 323, 682, 688, 690–691, 1001, 1003, 1006
Hire purchase trade, 567–568, 994
Historic Places Trust, 221, 225–226, 872, 906
Historic reserves, 285, 286
Historical, regional, and biographical works, 964–966
History of New Zealand, 22–28, 947–952, 964–966
Holidays, 827, 873, 874, 876
Home nursing services, 133
Homes—
accidents in, 109, 110, 145–146, 838–839
children's, 149, 159, 160, 162
joint family, 494
old people's, 135, 137
Homicide, 108, 109, 145, 237, 238
Honey, 379, 399, 538, 539, 617, 647, 905
Honours conferred, 907–910
Hops and hop gardens, 362, 379, 390, 393
Horse racing, 702, 871
Horticulture, 361–364, 379, 381, 384–394
Hospital—
accommodation, 137–138, 139
benefits, 131–135
Boards, 50, 118–119, 123, 135, 136–137, 138–139, 173, 708, 712–713
buildings, 687
districts, 136–137
employees, 138, 830, 900
expenditure, 139
finances of, 138–139
Hospitals (see also Patients), 136–147, 162, 485, 486, 489, 495, 687
beds in, 137, 139
deaths in, 142–144, 146
general, 137–138
maternity, 122–123, 132, 137, 138
old people's, 135, 137
private, 132, 134, 136, 139–140
psychiatric, 132, 137, 138, 140–142, 162, 184
public, 136, 137–139
staff of, 138, 900
waiting lists, 138
Hostels, 485, 486, 493, 495, 785, 787
pre-release, 246
school, 187
youth, 493
Hot springs, 862
Hotels and restaurants, 545, 557–559, 860–861, 873–874
industry production group, 633–634, 654, 655, 657, 661–663, 665
Hours of work, 807–809, 827
House of Representatives, 42–46, 874–875, 884, 947, 948
members of, 42–44, 874, 884
Households, 79–82, 495–498, 506
age group of head, 80
employment status of head, 79–80
expenditure, 642–643
incomes of, 81, 640, 721–722
size of, 79–81, 642, 721–722
survey, 640–643, 975
type of, 79–82
Houses and flats (see also dwellings), 479–499, 991–992
census enumerations, 495–498
completed, 485
conversion to flats, 484, 485
finance of, 479, 484, 490, 491, 492, 493, 757–758, 762–765
mortgages, 491, 496
price index, 491
sale of State, 765
State, 480, 484, 485–486, 493–494, 757–758, 762–765
Housing (see also Building and construction), 479–499, 757–758, 762–765, 991–992
community, 82, 492
Government capital assistance for, 484, 687
household expenditure on, 641–642
Maori, 493
Mortgage Guarantee Scheme, 490
of elderly, 135, 164, 484, 492, 712
rural, 484, 492
Housing Corporation, 350, 479, 480, 484, 490, 491, 492, 493–494, 499, 681, 686, 703, 705, 707, 738, 758, 762–765, 892, 895–896, 905, 991, 1005
rental house construction, 493–494
Human Rights Commission, 865
Humidity, 16–17
Hunting and shooting, 863
Hydro-electric power, 4, 5, 500, 505, 511–512, 513, 949, 950, 951
Clutha River Scheme, 513, 687
Manapouri Scheme, 511–512, 516, 950
Tongariro Scheme, 512, 516
Upper Waitaki Scheme, 511, 516
Hydrographic survey, 263
Hygiene, 118–120

I

Ice cream, 455, 462, 475, 644
Ilmenite, 432, 435, 436, 437
Immigration, 23–24, 68–73, 783, 785, 947, 948, 990
ages of migrants, 70
policy, 73–76
Immunisation, 118, 123, 125
Imports, 412–413, 571, 574–580, 604–617, 651, 653, 666, 672, 748, 749, 932, 994–996, 1008
by air, 342
by end use, 614–615
by ports, 311, 616
classification of, 604–607
licensing and control of, 582
origin of, 570, 571, 574, 577–580, 607–661, 616–617
price indexes of, 636, 638–639, 921
value of, 575, 576, 577–580, 604–611, 613–617, 668, 670–671,
volume index numbers, 581
volume of, 611–612
Incentives (production, export, etc.), 406, 447, 583–584, 861–862
Incomes—
assessable, 716, 717, 719–720
average and median, 715
company, 716, 717–720
earners in each household, 721
industrial classification of, 715, 716, 718–720
national disposable, 649, 651
of household in household survey, 640
of persons, 715, 717
of self employed, 715
Income tax, 682, 689, 691–696, 715, 717, 719–720, 765, 1001, 1003
Indebtedness (See Debt)
Index numbers of—
capital expenditure prices, 997–999
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
consumer prices, 625–629, 630, 805, 812, 815, 922, 923, 975–981, 996
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
employment, 678, 679
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
export prices, 636–638
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
external trade, volume of, 581, 636
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
farm production, value and volume, 369, 370
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
farming costs prices, 634–636
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
general prices, 632–634, 996–997
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
gross domestic product, 677–679
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
import prices, 638–639
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
producers prices (see also General price index), 996–997
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
reproduction, 91
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
share prices, 640, 922, 923
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
terms of trade, 639, 921
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
urban house property and section price, 491
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
wage rates—
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
wool prices, 540
Indigenous forest, 1, 266, 271–272, 283, 284, 401–402, 403–404, 405, 407–408, 415
Industrial—
and Staff Tribunals, 804
associations, 823
chemicals, 451, 452, 454, 458, 465, 475, 591, 604, 606, 608, 612
conciliation and arbitration, 804–806, 818–821, 822, 948, 949
Conciliation Service, 819
Design Council, 448, 866–867, 906
development, 441–448
disputes, 818–819, 824–826, 831, 924, 948, 949, 950
distribution of population, 794 795–797
injuries, 837, 847–851
Mediation Service, 819
production, 441–478, 930
relations, 804–806, 818–826, 831
Relations Council, 819
research, 210–211, 217
safety, 827, 828, 829, 830, 833, 853–854
stoppages, 818–819, 824–826, 831, 924
unions, 819–823
Industrial accidents, 110, 833–847
deaths from, 110, 840–843, 852
Industries—
bank advances to, 729
aids to development, 446–448
Development Commission, 446–447, 582
aids to development, 446–448
manufacturing, 441–478, 930, 988, 992
aids to development, 446–448
overseas investment in, 672–674
Industry—
environmental protection by, 275
persons engaged in, 450–451 455–462, 472, 473, 783–784, 794, 795–797, 930, 988–989
State aid to, 681, 685, 687, 760, 761, 764
wages and overtime (see also Salaries and wages), 806–809
Infant mortality, 105–107, 918
Injuries, industrial, 837, 847–851
Inland Revenue Department, 350, 684, 892, 896, 1004
Insects and fungi, control in forests, 406,
Insurance, 333, 522, 747, 748, 758, 772–781, 796, 808
accident, 333, 775–776
agricultural, 369
earthquake and war damage, 780–781
fire, 776–778
life, 255, 734, 779–780
sickness, 158, 694
State, 707, 779–781, 892, 898
Integration of private schools, 177, 178
Intellectually handicapped children, 157, 184
Inter-departmental Committee on Resettlement, 74
Inter-industry studies, 649, 676–677
Inter-island shipping service, 306, 315
Interest—
controls on rates, 735
bank overdrafts and loans, 728–729
finance company loans, 742
mortgages, 757–758, 762–763, 945, 1007
savings bank deposits, 735–736
on housing loans, 757–758, 762–763
bank overdrafts and loans, 728–729
finance company loans, 742
mortgages, 757–758, 762–763, 945, 1007
savings bank deposits, 735–736
on local government debt, 714
bank overdrafts and loans, 728–729
finance company loans, 742
mortgages, 757–758, 762–763, 945, 1007
savings bank deposits, 735–736
on public debt, 706
bank overdrafts and loans, 728–729
finance company loans, 742
mortgages, 757–758, 762–763, 945, 1007
savings bank deposits, 735–736
rates on—
bank overdrafts and loans, 728–729
finance company loans, 742
mortgages, 757–758, 762–763, 945, 1007
savings bank deposits, 735–736
savings banks, 736, 737, 739–740, 944
stock and station deposits, 741
Interim Conservation Committee, 222
Intermediate schools, 181, 185, 186
Internal Affairs, Department of, 217, 221, 287, 684, 685, 871, 892, 896, 906–907, 1004, 1005
Internal migration, 85–86
International—
air services, 336, 337, 338–339, 340–342
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 36, 213
Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), 36, 668, 686, 705, 752, 753, 942, 950
Cocoa Agreement, 622
Coffee Agreement, 622
departure tax, 690
Development Association, 752–753
education, 205–206
Energy Agency, 29, 504, 508
Finance Corporation, 36, 668, 752, 753, 950
indicators of standards of living, 870
investment income, 747, 748
Labour Organisation (ILO), 36
Monetary Fund, 36, 40, 41, 665, 667, 668, 669, 686, 744–745, 746, 748, 749, 750, 752, 939, 950, 1007, 1008
relations, New Zealand's, 26–41
Subscriber Dialling (ISD), 348
Sugar Agreement, 622
Wool Secretariat, 377, 528, 971
International comparisons—
birth and natural increase rates, 89, 90
dairy produce, 530, 531
deaths of pre-school children, 107
doctors and dentists to population ratio, 128–129
energy consumption, 509–510
expectation of life, 101
infant mortality rates, 106
libraries, 230–231
life assurance, 772
marriage rates, 111
motor accident death and injury rates, 332
newspapers, 356
persons per motor vehicle, 870
population, 56, 86–87
prices, 631–632
public expenditure on education, 179, 870
research expenditure, 218
sheep numbers, 528
standards of living, 870
telephones, 346, 870
women in the labour force, 800
wool production and consumption, 528, 870, 974
Invalids' benefits, 151, 152, 153, 155, 158
Investment—
in New Zealand (overseas), 445, 666, 668, 669, 670–675, 751
in New Zealand (internal), 726, 727–728
incomes, 770
Pool—National Provident Fund, 173–174
Reserve Bank, 726
societies, 765–768
unit, 447
Iron and steel—
exports of, 587–588, 589, 591
imports of, 311, 606, 609, 612, 613, 995, 996
industry, 425, 426, 432, 443, 453, 454, 459, 467
Iron ores and ironsands, 312, 425, 426, 432–433, 438, 587, 589, 590
Irrigation, 215, 276–277, 366, 381, 759, 761

J

Japan—
exports to, 408–409, 412, 443, 444, 525, 526, 527, 570, 571, 573, 577, 592, 593, 595–602, 972
imports from, 577, 607–611
trade, finance, etc., 30–31, 421, 525, 526, 570–572, 667, 670, 672, 903, 951
Job programmes, 784–788, 989
Joinery industry, 457, 464
Joint family homes, 494, 697
Judges—
District Court, 46, 111, 169, 170
High Court, 46, 169, 170, 891
Judiciary, 46, 232–233, 890–891
Juries, 234, 238, 249
Justice, 232–252, 920
Department of, 148, 162, 217, 290, 624, 684, 892, 896, 904, 1004
Juvenile delinquency, 159–162, 164, 233, 247–248

K

Kapuni gasfield, 425, 427, 431, 437, 500, 502, 503, 513, 519
Karitane hospitals, 134, 139
Kauri, 361, 402, 403–404
Kermadec Islands, 1, 2, 11, 285, 948
Kindergartens, 177, 180, 181, 182, 184, 185
Kiwifruit, 383, 384, 390, 391, 392, 587, 588
Knitting mills and hosiery industry, 456, 464, 475
Korea, relations with, 421–422, 443, 526, 573, 577
Kraft paper and cardboard, exports of, 587, 589, 600

L

Laboratory diagnostic services, 132, 135
Labour—
Department of, 118, 121, 126, 130, 148, 149, 175, 193, 205, 217, 350, 624, 685, 784–788, 791–793, 806, 820, 826, 830, 853, 892, 896, 906, 1005
distribution of, 783–784, 794–799
educational qualifications of, 801–802
projections, 784
force, 450–451, 455–462, 472, 473, 679, 782–784, 794–803, 827, 840–843, 924, 950, 988–989
distribution of, 783–784, 794–799
educational qualifications of, 801–802
projections, 784
laws and working conditions, 804–806, 818–819, 820, 822, 827–831
Lactose, 371, 372
Lakes, 5–6, 269, 271, 273, 274, 275–276, 278, 284, 511, 512, 513
Lamb—
consumption, 644
exported, 525, 526, 527, 570, 572–574, 586, 588, 596, 646, 934, 995
London prices for meat, 542–543
production, 360, 362, 363, 370, 374–375
retail price of, 630, 632
Lambs, 360, 361, 369, 370, 969
slaughtered, 375, 969
Land—
capital value of, 296–298
classification by farm types, 363, 364, 365, 366
conservation, 266–278
Crown, 279–281, 286, 291
development, 266–298, 663–664, 759, 761
drainage boards, 50, 791
freehold, 280, 293
holdings, 363, 364
leasehold, 280–281, 291, 293
marginal lending, 279
Maori, 288, 291, 404
occupied, 363
pollution, 278
public, 279–288
recreational, 271–272, 282–286
registration of ownership, 290–294
resource surveys, 277
Settlement Board, 280, 281, 905
settlement promotion, 281–282, 288, 706
surveys, 289–290
tax, 522, 523, 689, 696–697, 1001, 1006
tenure, 280–281, 290–292
transfers, 292–294, 945, 1006
use, 266–268, 360–363, 681, 685, 687, 1002
Use Advisory Council, 268
Valuation Court (see High Court)
valuation of, 295–298, 708
Lands and Survey, Department of, 211, 217, 279–282, 283, 287, 289, 290, 326, 350, 685, 761, 892, 897, 905, 1005
Landslips and landslip claims, 211, 781
Latin America, relations with, 35, 570, 571, 573, 578–579, 668, 671, 672
Law (see Legislation)—
and order, 232–254, 681, 684, 687, 920, 1001
and the family, 250–252
publications, 955–956
Reform Council, 232
Lawn mowers, 474, 630
Lead and zinc, 434
Leasehold land holdings, 280–281, 291, 293, 363
Leather and leather products, 209, 213, 278, 450, 452, 453, 456, 464, 589, 591, 606
Legal aid, 250
Legal profession, 234, 715
Legal tender, 743
Legislation—
civil aviation, 337
in force in January 1981, 885–890
labour and allied, 804–806, 818–819, 820, 822, 827–831
passed in 1980, 885
Legislative, 25–26, 42–46, 47–48, 684, 892, 893, 1004
Letters, etc., posted, 344–345, 925
Libraries, census of, 228–231
Library school, 228
Library services, 192, 226–231, 711, 876
Licences—
air service, 337
drivers', 326
food and entertainment, 873
import, 582
motor-vehicle, 326–327, 350, 991
petroleum prospecting, 431
publicans', 872–874
restaurants, hotels, taverns, clubs, etc., 873
television, 355, 630
transport, 326–327, 329
Licensing—
authorities (road services), 329
Control Commission (liquor), 872–874, 904, 950
Poll, National, 875
transport, 326–327, 329
trusts, 874
Licensing of—
goods and passenger services, 329
lotteries, 871
motor vehicles, 326–329
private hospitals, 136, 139
sale of alcoholic liquor, 872–874
Life, expectation of, 100–101
Life insurance, 255, 734, 772–775, 779–780
Life tables, 100–101
Lifts, inspection of, 854
Lighthouse service, 313
Lignite, 209, 428–429, 445
Lime—
for agriculture, 380, 381
industry, 459, 466
spread from air, 361, 380–381
Limestone, 425, 426, 437, 438, 440
Linseed, 389
Liquid Fuels Trust Board, 208, 209, 508, 509
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 426, 505–509, 648
Liqui-Gas, 505, 506
Liquor licensing, 872–874
Literary awards, 223–224
Livestock, 215, 375, 394–400, 947
Loans—
Account, 681, 685, 686, 688, 703, 706
allocation of, 705–706
by building societies, 766–768
by finance companies, 742
dates of maturity, 707
domicile of, 942
farm, 758–761
hospital boards, 138
housing, 484, 490, 491, 493, 507, 742, 757–758, 762–765
of local government, 712–714, 943
on assurance policies, 775
overseas, 703–704, 706, 707, 942
Redemption Account, 681, 686, 688, 706, 1006
redemption of, 683, 704–705
rural bank, 758–761
Local Authorities Loans Board, 492, 712–714
Local authorities (see under Local Government and individual names, e.g., Hospital Boards, Counties, etc.)
Local Government, 48–52, 708–714
advances to, 484, 492, 764
Commission 49, 50–51, 950
debt of, 712–714, 724, 740, 943
districts, 48–50, 60–61
employees of, 784–785, 791
expenditure of, 287, 325, 326, 709–711, 713, 943
finance of, 323, 324–326, 336, 652, 653, 654, 655, 658, 660, 662, 663, 664, 665, 708–714, 758–765, 772, 775, 778, 780, 943
franchise, 51
health and welfare responsibilities of, 118, 120
housing by, 484, 492
investment pool, 173–174
number of local authorities, 50
powers of, 48–52
rates, 708–710
revenue of, 323, 324–326, 336, 709–711
roading of, 321, 323, 324, 325–326, 688, 1006
schemes, 50–51
subsidies and grants to, 287, 323, 324–326, 336, 484, 492, 688, 709, 711–712, 1006
subsidised work with, 784–785, 989
superannuation, 173, 174
urban transport operated by, 336
voting, 52
Locomotives, 316–317
Logging, 213, 216, 278, 403, 407–408, 409, 411, 415, 905, 992
London prices for meat, 542–543
Lotteries, 871–872, 906
duty on, 690, 871
grants, 135, 218, 221, 222, 871–872, 877
Lubricants and fuels, imports of, 604, 605, 608, 612, 613, 995, 996
Lucerne, 390, 587, 588

M

Machinery—
accidents, 844–847, 852
electrical, 453, 454, 460, 468, 606, 610, 611, 614
exports, 589, 591
farm, 460, 468, 610, 612, 613, 614
imports of, 311, 610, 612, 613, 614, 995
industry, 453, 454, 460, 468
safety of, 854
Mail, 338–341, 344–345, 925
air, 338, 339, 340–341, 345
Maize, 385, 387, 390, 587, 588
Manganese ore, 434
Manufacturing Development Council, 447–448
Manufacturing industries, 441–478, 633–634, 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664, 729, 730, 771, 930
ancillary units, 449–451, 455–462, 472, 473
capital expenditure in, 449, 450, 453–454, 462–469, 474, 476–477, 992
Census of, 448–474
coal consumed in, 430
depreciation, 449, 462–469, 474
development, 441–448
economic indicators, 475–478, 992
employment districts, 473–474
establishments, 449–451, 455–462, 472, 473, 930
export earnings, 446, 747, 749, 1007
geographical distribution, 470–474
hours worked, 477, 478, 992
incomes in, 715, 716, 718
index of prices, 633–634
net profit, 771
overseas investment in, 674–675
persons engaged in, 449–451, 455–462, 472, 473, 783, 795–796, 930, 988
purchases and other expenses, 449, 450, 452–453, 462–469, 472–473, 474, 477–478, 930, 992
sales, 476, 477, 992
stocks, 476, 477, 992
turnover, 450, 452–453, 462–469, 472–473, 474
value added, 449, 450, 453–454, 462–469, 472–473, 474, 930
wages in, 449, 450, 452–453, 455–462, 472, 473, 477–478, 808, 930, 992
Maori (see also Maoris)—
Affairs, Department of, 148, 163, 287, 288, 326, 493, 685, 790, 878, 892, 897, 905, 1005
Appellate Court, 292
birth rate, 89, 90
community officers, 163
community services programme, 163
Council, 163, 287
death rates, 106–107
education, 185, 186, 187, 189, 193, 204
Education Foundation, 204, 904
electorates, 47, 884
housing, 493
Land Board, 288, 289
Land Court, 169, 170, 288, 291–292
land, 288, 291, 404, 513
language teaching, 189, 191
life expectancy, 101
Members of Parliament, 884, 948
population, 1, 55, 64, 67–68, 84, 269, 985
pre-employment classes, 789–790
pupils, 186, 187, 204
scholarships, 197, 204
Trustee, 288–289, 707
wardens, 163
welfare organisations, 163
Women's Welfare League, 163
youths, trade training for, 789–790
Maoris (see also Maori)—
births of, 89, 90
children attending schools, 186, 187
deaths of, 89, 97, 98, 99, 106–107
history of, 22–24
infant mortality of, 106–107
natural increase of, 89
publications on, 957
scholarships for, 204
settled on farms, 288
urbanisation of, 67
Maps and mapping, 290
factory production, 470, 471
mineral resources, 427, 433
rainfall, 15
Marginal land lending, 279
Marine officers certificates, 312
Marine pollution, 278, 314
Marital status, 78, 81–82, 112, 113
Maritime parks and reserves, 271, 272, 285
Maritime planning, 269, 270, 271, 285
Market gardens, 361, 364–367, 386, 388–389, 395, 816
Marketing, 525–569, 970–972
Marriage guidance, 117
Marriages, 111–115, 116, 117
ages of persons marrying, 112–114
celebrants of, 111, 114–115
dissolution of, 116
of minors, 112, 113, 114
rates, 111, 114
Married women in the labour force, 800
Maternal deaths, 102, 107
Maternal welfare, 122–123, 132, 134
Maternity—
benefits, 132, 134
hospitals, 122–123, 132
leave, 820
Maui gasfield development, 425, 427, 431–432, 437, 500, 505–506, 513, 950, 951, 952
Maui Development Ltd. (MDL), 505, 506
Meat—
consumption of, 644, 647
Export Development Company, 527
export of, 312, 342, 374–375, 525–527, 570–574, 585, 586, 588, 590, 595–597, 646, 747, 749, 934, 994, 995, 1007
export price index, 637
freezing and preserving industry, 441, 455, 462, 729, 771
Industry Reserve Account, 544, 707
Industry Research Institute, 209, 213, 216, 278, 904
inspection of, 379
levy on, 535–536
marketing of, 525–527
prices of, 542–543, 630, 632
production, 360, 365, 374–375, 379, 399, 929
retail prices and household expenditure on, 630, 632, 642
Meat Producers Board, New Zealand, 305, 375, 377, 527, 535–536, 542–543, 544, 905
Medical—
advertising, 121, 124, 125
benefits, 131–135, 150, 151
care societies, 158
Council, 128
practitioners, 118, 123, 128–129, 131, 132, 134, 138, 715
Research Council, 119, 124, 128
services, 118–136, 631
Medicine, physical, 127
Members of Parliament, 42–44, 874
salaries of, 43–44
superannuation of, 170
Mental—
diseases, 140–142, 143
health services, 138, 139, 140–142
Mercantile marine pensions, 166
Merchant banks, 742–743
Merchant navy qualifications, 312
Mercury, 434
Mergers, 568
Metal products industry, 453, 454, 459–460, 588, 589, 591, 729
production group, 633–634, 654, 655, 657, 661–663, 664
Meteorological service, 12
observations for year, 18–21
Meteorology (see also Climate), 12–21
Methane, 505
Methanol plant, 273, 445, 505, 952
Metrication, 860, 865
Middle East—
relations with, 29–30
trade with, 525–527, 570, 571, 574, 579, 608
Migration, external, 53, 54, 68–73, 89, 783, 858–860, 917, 947, 948, 951, 952, 990
ages of migrants, 70
internal, 85–86
occupations of migrants, 71–72, 990
Mileage of—
commercial air services, 338–339, 340–341
railways, 315, 926
roads, 321
Milk—
Board, 373, 535, 538, 541, 544, 905
consumption, 644, 647
dried and condensed, exports of, 586, 588, 598, 935
dried and condensed, production of, 372, 475, 630
levy on, 538
marketing of, 373, 525, 538
production and processing, 371–373, 455, 462, 475
retail price of, 630, 632
subsidy, 538, 541, 647
vendors, 552, 554
Milkfat, 371–373, 540, 541, 929
Milking machines, 383, 384
Mineral Resources Council, 425
Minerals and mineral products (non-metallic), 274, 425–440, 452, 454, 458–459, 466–467, 477–478
imports of, 605, 608, 611–612, 613
industry production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 657, 660–663, 664
Miners' benefits, 149, 151, 152, 153, 156
Minimum wage, 804, 806, 816
Mining and quarrying, 274, 425–433, 437–440, 729, 730, 808, 829
accidents, 110, 840, 844, 948, 949, 950
persons engaged in, 430, 438–440, 783, 795, 988
production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664, 716
State aid to, 428, 436, 686, 705
value of production, 426, 438–440
Ministers of each Church, and marriages by, 114–115
Ministers of the Crown, 42–46, 883
Ministries, successive, 881–882
Minors, marriages of, 112, 113, 114
Molybdenum, 434
Monarch, the, 45
Monetary policy, 732–735
Money orders, 346, 925
Money supply, 731–732
Mortgage guarantee schemes, 764
Mortgages, 491, 496, 740, 755–758, 759–764, 766–768, 772, 775, 778, 780, 945, 1007
building societies, 491, 767–768
Housing Corporation, 491, 757–758, 762–764
rates of interest on, 757–758, 762–763, 945
Rural Bank (RBFC), 758–761
sources of finance, 758
Mothers—
ages of, 92, 93, 94
in ex-nuptial cases, 94
issue of, 93
Motor cycles, 326, 327, 328, 383, 461, 469
Motor spirits—
imports of, 311, 604, 605, 608, 612, 613
price of, 631, 632
taxation on, 323, 328, 507, 508, 621, 682, 688, 690, 691, 708–709, 712, 943, 1001, 1003, 1006
usage, 328
Motor vehicles—
accidents, 102, 108, 109, 330–332, 843, 844–846
assembly of, 447, 461, 468, 475
Compensation Fund (ACC), 836–837
drivers' licences, 326
finance for, 742
imports of, 311, 606, 611, 612, 614, 996
inspection of, 333
numbers of, 327–329
prices of, 631
registration and licensing of, 326–327, 991
taxation, 323, 326, 688, 690
value of hire purchase sales, 567–568, 994
Motorways, 321, 322, 324, 325
Mount Cook Airlines, 337
Mountaineering, 863, 961
Mountains, 1, 2–3, 4, 7–9, 282–284, 404–405
Multiple births, 92
Murder, 108, 109, 145, 237, 238
Museums, 193, 221, 223, 791
Mussels, 416, 417, 418, 421, 423
Mutton—
consumption of, 644
exported, 525, 526, 570, 572–574, 586, 588, 596, 646, 934, 995
produced, 374
retail prices of, 630
Mutual Assistance Programme (defence), 263

N

Naphtha, 502, 519
Narcotics (see also Drugs), 120–121
Nassella tussock boards, 50, 382, 791, 905
National—
accounts, 649–665
Anthems, 878
Archives, 225
An Gallery and Museum, 221
Acoustics Centre, 120, 122
Cancer Registry, 103
Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, 126
Council of Adult Education, 176, 204, 904
disposable income, 649, 651, 690, 941
Development Act 1979, 271, 273
Drug Intelligence Bureau, 121, 254
Film Library, 192–193
flag, 879
Health Institute, 127
Health Statistics Centre, 102, 103, 109, 127
Housing Commission, 479, 480, 499
Library of New Zealand, 178, 192, 226–228, 876
Licensing Poll, 875
Marriage Guidance Council, 117
parks, 271, 272, 282–284, 286, 402, 512
Parks and Reserves Authority, 272, 282, 905
planning, 269, 270, 299–302
Provident Fund, 169, 172–174, 350, 707, 906, 948
Radiation Laboratory, 122
Research Advisory Council, 206–207, 216–218, 258, 414, 509, 907
Roads Board, 50, 322–326, 350, 711, 905
Roads Fund, 322–326, 680, 688, 690, 691, 1006
superannuation, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 169, 692, 941, 951, 1004
Trust, Queen Elizabeth the Second, 286–287
Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO), 274, 275–277
Youth Council, 878
Natural gas, 207, 425, 426, 431–432, 437–438, 445, 500–503, 505–506, 512–513, 517, 519–524, 687, 950, 951, 952
Natural Gas Corporation, 431, 505, 519, 705
Natural increase of population, 53, 89, 917
Natural resources, 266–267, 401–402, 415, 425–436, 444–445
Nature Conservation Council, 274
Nature reserves, 285, 286
Nautical schools, 313
Naval (see also Royal New Zealand Navy)—
bases, 260
vessels, 259
Navigational aids, air, 337–338
Navigational aids, sea, 313
Netherlands, immigration from, 73
New Zealand—
Aluminium Smelters Ltd., 443–444
Apple and Pear Marketing Board, 208, 209, 537
area of, 2, 267
Army, 257, 259, 260–261, 262, 263
Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 34, 570, 571, 574–575, 619–620, 950–951
Authors' Fund, 221
Ballet Company, 222
books, 953–966
boundaries of, 1–2
Broadcasting Corporation of, 222, 351–352, 354, 684, 687
Cadet Forces, 263
constitution, 23, 25–26, 41–46
Council for Educational Research, 203
Council for Recreation and Sport, 287, 872, 877, 907
Dairy Board, 373, 529, 530, 531, 535, 540–541, 544
Energy Research and Development Committee, 504, 505, 509
Export-Import Corporation, 448, 584, 686, 705
Film Commission, 222, 871, 906
Fire Service, 255–256
Forest Products Ltd., 409, 411, 415, 443, 445, 806
Forest Service, 211, 217, 272, 274, 282, 287, 403–407, 411, 414, 685, 711, 877, 892, 895, 905
Government Stock, 733, 738, 740, 741, 751, 772, 775, 778, 780
Historic Places Trust, 221, 225–226
in the Commonwealth, 27, 28–29, 30, 40
international relations, 26–41
Japan Exchange Programme, 206
Listener, 352, 354
Literary Fund, 221, 223–224, 872
Lottery Board, 871, 877
Meat Producers Board, 305, 375, 377, 527, 535–536, 542–543, 544, 905
Milk Board, 373, 535, 538, 541, 544, 905
Mountain Safety Council, 872, 878
Planning Council, 299–301, 447
Police, 160, 212, 252–255, 892, 897, 904
population, 53–88, 985, 988
Ports Authority, 305
Railways, 122, 314–320, 680, 681, 686, 705, 829, 892, 897–898, 900, 904, 926, 947, 948, 949, 950, 991
Red Cross Society, 135
register of shipping, 306–307
representation overseas, 910–913
Standard Industrial Classification, 448–449, 477–478, 481, 520, 653, 716
Steel Ltd., 430, 432, 443, 705, 952
System of National Accounts (NZSNA), 632, 649–665
Symphony Orchestra, 222, 352, 354
Water Safety Council, 110, 872, 878
Wheat Board, 386–387, 905
Wool Board, 305, 375, 376–378, 527, 529, 536, 539–540, 544, 905, 951
Newspapers, 355–356
Newsprint—
exports of, 312, 413, 587, 589, 591, 602, 938
imports of, 413
production, 409–410
Niue Island, 23, 28, 31, 32, 33, 39, 54, 73, 169, 192, 305, 340, 345, 346, 349, 447, 573, 576, 593, 603, 616, 617, 954
immigrants from, 73, 75
Noise control, 120, 273, 278
Non-ferrous metals industries, 453, 454, 459, 467
Note issue, 724, 725, 743, 750–751
Notes in circulation, 725–726, 743, 750–751
Noxious animals and weeds, 343, 405, 406, 414, 712
Nurseries, plant, etc., 364, 365, 367, 816
Nursing and nurses, 119, 123, 126, 129, 132, 138

O

Oats, 385, 386, 387, 632, 645
Occupational—
diseases, 122
health, 121–122, 854
safety, 853–854
status, 795
therapy and therapists, 126, 127, 129, 136, 138
Occupational classification of—
bankrupts, 869
deceased persons' estates, 701
migrants, 71–72
population, 794, 797–799
unemployed, 793–794
Occupied land, 2, 266–267
Official Development Assistance (ODA), 38–41
Offshore Mining Co., 505
Oil—
consumption, 500–503, 504, 506
drilling and prospecting, 207, 209, 210, 425, 431, 437–438, 505, 951
exports of, 502
imports of, 311, 500, 504, 604, 605, 608, 612, 613, 995, 996
production, 501, 502, 503
refinery, 310, 458, 466, 502, 506, 950, 952
usage, 500–502, 509, 512, 513, 517, 522
used oil subsidy, 446
Oils and fats, vegetable, 455, 462
Old peoples' homes, 135, 137
Ombudsmen (Parliamentary Commissioners), 46–47, 891
Onions, 384, 388, 630, 645
exports of, 587, 588, 647
Optometrists and opticians, 130, 631
Orchards, 361, 362–367, 390–393, 395, 816
Orchestras, 352, 354
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 29, 206, 216, 218, 273, 529, 577, 668, 671, 672, 951
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 30
Orphans benefits, 151, 152, 153, 155, 165
Orthopaedic implants (for medical disabilities), 133
Outpatients, hospital, 138
Outward Bound School, 872, 877
Overseas—
Access Service for Information Services (OASIS), 226, 348
Aid Programme, 38–41, 198, 206
companies, 672–675, 718–720, 769
debt (see Public debt) exchange transactions, 667, 724, 747–751, 1007
Investment Commission, 445
investments in New Zealand, 445, 666, 668, 669, 670–675, 683, 718–720, 751
investments by New Zealand, 666, 668, 669, 670–671, 675–676, 683, 1003
representatives in New Zealand and New Zealand representatives overseas, 583, 910–915
reserves (banks), 669, 745–746, 939, 1008
securities, 746, 750, 751, 939
students, 182, 196, 198
telecommunications, 348–349
trade, 525–544, 570–622, 906, 932–938, 971, 972, 994–996, 1007
travel allowances, 750
Overtime, 521, 807–809
Oysters, 416, 417, 418, 421, 422–423

P

Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme (PIIDS), 75, 447
Pacific Islands shipping service, 305, 306
Pacific orientation, 31–33, 39
Paint and varnish industry, 458, 465, 489
Paper and paper products industry, 443, 450, 452, 454, 457, 465, 475, 477–478, 729
production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664
Paper and pulp—
export of, 312, 412–413, 585, 587, 589, 590, 601, 602, 938
import of, 412–413, 605, 606
Parents—
ages of, 92–93
births to, by duration of marriages, 93–94
previous issue of, 93
solo, 153, 154, 155, 165
Parks, national, 271, 272, 282–284, 286
Parliament, 42–46, 232, 874–875, 881–883, 884, 885, 947, 948, 950
members of, 42–44, 874, 884
term of, 875
Parliamentary—
elections, 42, 47–48, 874–875
functions and controls, 25–26, 42–48
salaries, 43–44
superannuation, 170
Parole system and boards, 246
Particle board, 411, 443, 489
Passenger services—
railway, 316, 318, 319, 320, 926, 991
road, 327, 329
urban, local authority, 336, 712
Passengers—
commercial aircraft, 338, 339, 340–341
overseas, 68–70, 75–76, 858–860
railway, 316, 926, 991
Passports, 76–77
Patents, designs, trade marks, 866
Patients—
in psychiatric hospitals, 140–142
in public hospitals, 137–138, 142–146
Paua, 418, 423
PAYE taxation, 350, 692, 950
Payments, balance of (see balance of payments)
Pears, 384, 386, 390, 391, 393
consumption of, 645
export of, 647, 936
marketing of, 537
Peas, 385, 387, 388, 390, 630, 927
export of, 312, 587, 588
Peat wax, 435
Penal institutions and system, 235–236, 241, 243–246
Pensions—
Social welfare, 149–158
war, 158, 164–168
Perinatal mortality, 105–107
Periodic detention, 235, 236, 237, 239, 241
Perlite, 426, 435
Permanent heads of departments, 891–892
Permits, building, 485–488
Personal and household services, 545, 560–562, 989
Personal safety, 827, 828, 829, 832–854
Pest destruction boards, 50, 710, 713, 791
Pests and pesticides, 146, 208–209, 214, 278, 343, 369, 379, 382, 405, 458, 465
Petrochemical Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Petrochem), 505
Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Petrocorp), 207, 210, 505, 686, 705, 906
Petroleum (see also Motor spirit, Oil)—
exports of, 587, 589, 590
production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664
imports of, 604, 605, 608, 612, 613, 995, 996
production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664
industry, 426, 451, 452, 454, 458, 466, 502, 506
production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664
price of, 631
products, 502
Pharmaceutical benefits, 131, 134, 150, 151
Pharmaceutical chemists, 130, 134
Pharmaceuticals, manufacturing of, 458, 465
Phosphate rock, 435, 608, 611, 613
Physical medicine, 127
Physical welfare and recreation, 862–863
Physiotherapists, 127, 129, 132, 136, 138
Physiotherapy benefits, 132, 135
Pigmeats, 535, 536, 646
consumption of, 644
prices of, 630, 632
production of, 364, 365, 367, 373, 374, 816
Pigs, 369, 370, 375, 395, 396, 398, 928
Pipfruit, 384, 386, 390, 391, 645
Planing mills, 457, 464
Planning—
Council, New Zealand, 299–301, 447
district, 270
maritime, 269, 270, 271, 285
national, 269, 270, 299–302
regional, 49–51, 269–270
town and country, 49–52, 268–271, 276–278
Tribunal, 268, 271
Plantations, timber, 361, 363, 364, 365, 367, 401–408, 415, 816
Plastics industry, 447, 452, 454, 458, 466
Platinum, 434
Play centres, 177, 180, 181, 184, 185
Plumbers, gasfitters, and drainlayers, registration of, 130
Plunket Society, 123, 135
Plywood and veneer, 409, 411, 443, 457, 464, 489
Poetry publications, 961–962
Poisons and poisoning, 108, 109, 118, 122, 144, 146
Police, 160, 212, 252–255, 804, 829
Department, 684, 892, 897, 900, 904, 1004
superannuation, 169–171
youth aid section, 160, 161
Poliomyelitis, 118, 123, 136
Political parties, 42–43, 874–875
Polling at general elections, 874–875
Pollution—
air, 120, 278
land, 278
marine, 278, 314
water, 278
Polynesian Education Foundation, 204
Population (see also Census), 53–88, 917, 985–988
age distribution, 68, 78, 80, 83–84
birthplaces of, 84
density of, 65–66
distribution of, 57–68, 985–988
ethnic groups, 84
growth, 89
increases, 53, 55, 89, 917
industrial distribution of, 794, 795–797
intercensal estimates, 54–55, 57–63, 917, 985
international comparisons, 56, 86–87
Maori, 55, 64, 67–68, 84, 985
occupational classification of, 794, 797–799
Polynesian, 1, 54, 73, 74–75, 84
projections, 56
sex proportions of, 65
shipboard, 62
urbanisation of, 64–65, 66
vital statistics, 89–117
world, 86–87
Pork (see Pigmeats)
Pork Industry Council, 536, 905
Port Agriculture Service, 380
Portfolios of Ministers, 883
Ports—
Authority, 305
exports by, 312, 602
fishing, 419–420
imports by, 311, 616
of arrival and departure, 307–312
shipping and trade of, 307–312, 408, 409, 415
Post Office, 344–351, 681, 686, 687, 703, 705, 707, 762, 829, 892, 897, 900, 925
employees, 351, 900
superannuation of, 169–171
Savings Bank, 490, 723, 726, 732, 734, 735, 736–738, 743, 944
Postal notes, 346
Potato Board, 537, 905
Potatoes, 384, 389, 537, 630, 927
consumption of, 645
export of, 587, 588, 647
Pottery, china, and earthenware industry, 213, 216, 452, 454, 458, 466, 905
Poultry, 364–367, 370, 379, 398–399, 455, 462, 538, 630, 644, 647, 816, 905
Power stations (electricity), 425, 431, 502, 504, 511–514, 515–517, 519
Pregnancy, diseases of, etc., 107, 124, 144
Pre-school education, 177, 185
Preventive detention, 235, 237, 244, 246
Price control, 623–624
Price index, general, 632–634
Price Surveillance Regulations 1979, 623–624
Prices, 623–640, 921
basic, for dairy produces 540–541
index of, 625–629, 922, 923, 975–981, 996–997
comparisons with other countries, 631–632
index of, 625–629, 922, 923, 975–981, 996–997
consumer, 630–632
index of, 625–629, 922, 923, 975–981, 996–997
export, 539–541, 921
export, indexes of, 636–638, 639, 921
farming costs index, 634–636
import, indexes of, 636, 638–639, 921
producers, index of, 996–997
share, index of, 640, 922, 923
stabilisation of, 623–624
Primary products—
consumption of, 644, 647
by ports, 312
export of, 312, 342, 570–574, 585, 586–587, 588–589, 590, 646, 933–937
by ports, 312
marketing of, 525–544
research on, 208, 209
Primary schools, 175–176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 185–187, 919
Prime Minister's Department, 684, 892, 897, 1004
Prime Ministers, successive, 881–882
Principal events, 947–952
Printing and publishing industry, 450, 452, 454, 457, 465, 477–478, 771
Prison service superannuation, 169–171
Prisons and prisoners, 235–236, 241, 243–246, 920
Parole Board, 235, 246
Private—
forests, 401, 402, 404, 406–407, 409, 415
hospitals, 132, 134, 136, 139–140
savings banks, 490, 491, 723, 724, 726, 727, 732, 734, 735, 736–737, 739, 743
schools, 177, 178, 181, 182, 187, 190, 193, 919
superannuation funds, 734
Privy Council, 46, 233
Probation of offenders, 162, 234–235, 237, 239, 242, 246
Producers price index (see also General price index), 996–997
Production—
accounts, 653–660
building materials, 489, 929
clothing, 450, 452, 453, 456, 464, 475, 477–478
dairy, 360–367, 369, 371–373, 379, 455, 462, 475, 929
farm, 208–209, 368–371, 371–400, 927–929
fisheries, 417–419, 423
index numbers of, 369, 370, 678
manufacturing industries, 441–478, 930, 992
meat, 360, 365, 374–375, 379, 929
mineral, 425–440
pulp and paper, etc., 409–410, 443, 450, 452, 454, 457, 465, 475, 477–478
wool, 360, 369, 370–371, 376–378, 456, 463, 475, 929
Projections—
labour force, 784
population, 56
school population, 182
Propane, 519
Provident funds, 169–174
Psychiatric health and hospitals, 132, 140–142, 162, 184
Psychological services (to prisoners), 245
Public—
accounts, 680–707
external, 683, 703–704, 706, 707
interest on, 682, 706
internal, 683, 703, 704, 705, 706, 707
ownership of, 707
administration, publications, 954–955
external, 683, 703–704, 706, 707
interest on, 682, 706
internal, 683, 703, 704, 705, 706, 707
ownership of, 707
debt, 682, 683, 703–707, 724, 735, 942
external, 683, 703–704, 706, 707
interest on, 682, 706
internal, 683, 703, 704, 705, 706, 707
ownership of, 707
finance (see State finance)
health, 118–136
holidays, 873, 874, 876
hospitals, 136, 137–139
lands, 279–288
Public Service, 893, 900, 901, 902, 949
employees, 792, 902
superannuation, 169–171
Public Trust Office, 350, 707, 867–868, 892, 897
Public works, 24
occupational safety, 854
railway construction, 314–315
road construction, 321, 322–326, 685, 687, 688, 711
Publican's licences, 872–874
Pulp and paper—
export and import of, 312, 412–413, 585, 587, 589, 590, 601, 602, 938, 996
industry, 403, 409–410, 430, 443, 450, 452, 454, 457, 465, 475, 477–478, 729
Pumice, 426

Q

Quarries, 425–426, 437–439
mining and quarrying accidents, 110, 840, 844
persons engaged in, 438–439
safety in, 854
Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, 221, 222, 871, 906
Queen Elizabeth II National Trust, 286–287, 905

R

Race relations, 865
Racing taxation, 690, 702–703
Radiata pine, 401, 402–403, 407, 409, 411, 412, 413, 571, 587, 589
Radio—
advertising, 353
New Zealand, 192, 351, 352, 354
private, 352, 353
time signals, 875–876
Radio and television, 351–353, 355, 870
and radio-telephone services, 349
assembly and manufacture of sets, 460, 468, 474
retail prices of sets, 630
Radioactivity, protection against, 122
Radiology and radiographers, 122, 132, 135
Raffles, 871
Railway construction and engineering, 315
Railway equipment, imports of, 611, 612, 614
Railways, 122, 314–320, 680, 681, 686, 705, 829, 892, 897–898, 900, 904, 926, 947, 948, 949, 950, 991
accidents, 145, 320, 950
air freight service, 315
capital expenditure on, 319, 705
employees, 320, 900
goods traffic, 316, 318, 319, 926, 991
licensing protection, 329
motive power, 316–317
passenger services, 316, 318, 319, 320, 926, 991
private, 320
revenue and expenditure, 317, 318, 319, 926, 991
road-rail ferry service, 306, 315, 318, 319, 950
road services, 318, 320
rolling stock, 315, 316, 318, 319
subsidies, 648
superannuation, 169–171
Rainfall, 13–15, 17, 18, 19–21
Rangemaking industry, 460, 468, 474
Raoul island, 1, 11
Rates, local government, 630, 708–710, 943
valuation for, 295–296, 708
Rates of exchange, 744–745
Re-afforestation, 274, 404
Real gross domestic product, 677–679
Reciprocal tariff and trade, 619–620
Records (gramophone), 474, 631
Recreation, 405, 862–863, 877–878
Recreation and Sport, Ministry of, 205, 878
Recreation reserves, 286
Recreational accidents, 110, 838–839
Recreational land, 271–272, 282–286
Re-exports, 585, 603
Refinery, oil, 458, 466, 950, 952
Refrigerators, 474, 588, 589, 631
Refugees, 74
Regional—
Authority, 49, 710, 713, 791
Councils, 50, 269, 270
development, 446
government, 49–50
planning, 49–51, 269–270
schemes, 51
Registrars, marriages before, 111, 114
Registration of—
adopted children, 96
apprentices, 788–789
births, 89, 95, 350
building societies, 765–766
burials, 101
child care centres, 160
chiropodists, 130
companies, 946
cremations, 101
deaths, 101, 350
dental technicians, 129, 903, 906
dentists, 129
dietitians, 129, 903
electors, 47–48
employers' unions, 821
ex-nuptial births, 95
friendly societies, 158
land titles, 290–294
land transfers, 292–294
land valuers, 298
land values, 295–298
marriages, 111, 350
medical practitioners, 128
mortgages, 755–758, 945
motor vehicles, 326–327, 991
nurses, 129
occupational therapists, 129, 903
opticians, 130, 903
optometrists, 130
patents, designs and trademarks, 866
pharmaceutical chemists, 130, 903
physiotherapists, 129, 903
plumbers, 130
still births, 89, 96
trade unions, 819–821
trading vessels, 306–307
unemployed, 793–794
Rehabilitation, 126, 168, 764, 833, 903
League, 126
Religious professions, 82–83
Rental cars, 327
Rental units, Housing Corporation, 480, 484, 485–486, 493–494, 991
Rents, 369, 479, 496, 499, 522, 765
Representation Commission, 47
Representatives, House of, 42–46, 874–875, 884, 947, 948
Reproduction index, 91
Research—
agricultural, 208–209, 213, 214–215, 380
Antarctic, 219–221
coal, 428–429, 437
energy, 207, 209–210, 217, 445, 505, 508–509
environmental, 211–212, 217, 267, 274
expenditure, 217, 218, 1005
fertilisers, 208, 214, 215, 216
fishery, 420, 424
forestry, 414
geothermal, 210
grants, 213, 216, 217
grassland and grasses, 208, 214
industrial, 210–211, 217
manufacturing, 210–211, 217, 448
medical, 119, 127, 128
primary products, 208, 209
scientific and industrial, 206–221, 871, 1005
soil, 211, 214
wool, 209, 213, 216, 377
Reserve Account, 681, 685, 688, 1005
Reserve Bank, 350, 377, 666, 669, 707, 723–726, 727, 731, 732, 733, 735, 736, 743, 745–746, 751, 769, 949, 1007–1008
assets and liabilities, 725–726
lending rate, 735
Reserves—
farm industry, 543–544
historic, 285
nature, 285, 286
overseas (banks), 745–746, 939
public or scenic, 284–286
wildlife, 286
Resource conservation, 445–446
Restaurants and hotels, 545, 557–559, 860–861, 873–874
Restaurant, hotel, and club licences, 873
Retail prices, 630–632
index numbers, 625–629, 975–981
Retail and wholesale trade—
capital expenditure in, 545, 546, 548–552, 554–557
establishments, 545–548, 550–554, 556–559
persons engaged in, 545–548, 550–554, 556–559, 784, 988
purchases, etc., 545, 546, 548–552, 554–557
quarterly surveys, 563–565, 993–994
salaries and wages, 545–548, 550–554, 556–559
sales, 545, 546, 548–552, 554–557
value added, 545, 546, 548–552, 554–557
Retailers, bank advances to, 730
Retention Scheme, Individual Grower Income Levy (wool), 377
Revenue—
broadcasting and television, 354–355
Customs, 618, 621
electric power, 517, 519
Government (see Government finance)
local government, 323, 324–326, 336, 709–711, 948
River 402, 403, 408
River boards, 50, 791
Rivers, 4–5, 269, 270, 271, 273, 275–276, 278, 284, 287, 401, 404, 424, 511, 512, 513
control of, 275–276
hydro-electric development on, 5, 511–513
Road—
accidents, 108, 109, 110, 145, 330–332, 843, 844–846,
districts, 323
safety, 332–333
services, 318, 320, 329, 336
transport, 321, 322, 326–336
user charges, 323, 350, 688, 1006
Roads, 321–326
expenditure on, 322–326, 685, 687, 688, 711
subsidies on, 322, 324–326, 1006
taxation, 322, 323, 680, 682, 690, 691, 1006
Rock lobsters, 417, 418, 419, 422, 423
exports of, 423, 587, 588
Ross Dependency, 1, 2, 11, 219–221, 436, 905, 949
Royal New Zealand Air Force, 257, 259, 261–262, 263
Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve, 260
Royal New Zealand Navy, 257, 259–260, 263
Royal Society of New Zealand, 213, 282
Rubber and rubber products, 447, 452, 454, 458, 466, 475, 605, 606, 609, 611, 612
Rural—
Banking and Finance Corporation, 276, 421, 686, 706, 707, 738, 758–761, 892, 898, 1005
education, 189–190
Electrical Reticulation Council, 515
housing, 484, 492
mail deliveries, 344
population, 64
Ryegrass, 390

S

St. John's Ambulance Association, 135, 137
Safety of—
aircraft, 854
boilers, lifts, and cranes, 854
machinery, 854
ships, 313, 853–854
workers, 827–830, 833, 853, 854
Salaries and wages, 804–817, 930
and social welfare benefits, 152
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
by industry groups, 808–809
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
hourly average, 807–809
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
in building industry, 481–482, 483
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
in farming, 816
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
in gas industry, 520–523
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
in hotels and restaurants, 545, 557–559
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
in manufacturing industries, 449, 450, 452–453, 455–462, 472, 473, 477–478
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
in mining and quarrying, 438–439
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
in retail and wholesale trade, 545–548, 550–554, 556–559
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
in services industries, 545, 560–561
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
legislation, 804–806
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
lost through industrial stoppages, 824–825, 826
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
rates, 804–809
by industry groups, 808–809
effective, 810–814, 815, 999–1000
hourly, 807–809
minimum, 804, 806, 816
nominal, 809–812, 815, 999–1000
prevailing, 812–815, 999–1000
weekly, 807
Salaries of members of Executive Council, and House of Representatives, 43–44
Sales tax, 507, 508, 621, 682, 690, 949, 952, 1000, 1003
Salmon farming, 424
Salt, 426, 436, 630
Sanctuaries, bird and other wildlife, 285, 286, 405
Sand and gravel, 425, 426, 437, 438, 440
Sand dunes, stabilisation of, 404
Satellite communications, 349
Sausage casings, export of, 585, 587, 589, 600, 937
Sausage casings, production, 455, 462
Savings—
accounts and bonds (National), 692, 707, 735–740
deposits with, 736–740
interest accredited, 736–740
banks, 723, 724, 726, 732, 734, 735–739, 743, 944
deposits with, 736–740
interest accredited, 736–740
Sawmills, etc., 407, 409, 415, 457, 464
Sawn timber production, 407–408, 409, 411–412, 489
Scallops, 417, 418, 422
Scenic reserves, 284–285, 286
Sheelite, 426, 434
Scholarships—
for Maoris, 197, 204
university, 183, 193–195, 198
School—
buildings, 178, 180
ages of, 186
duration of attendance, 188
intended occupations of, 188
roll numbers of, 181, 182, 184, 185–188, 919
transport and boarding allowances, 189–190
camps, 877
ages of, 186
duration of attendance, 188
intended occupations of, 188
roll numbers of, 181, 182, 184, 185–188, 919
transport and boarding allowances, 189–190
Certificate, 176, 182–183, 187, 188, 189, 206, 904
ages of, 186
duration of attendance, 188
intended occupations of, 188
roll numbers of, 181, 182, 184, 185–188, 919
transport and boarding allowances, 189–190
children, 175, 181, 182, 184–190
ages of, 186
duration of attendance, 188
intended occupations of, 188
roll numbers of, 181, 182, 184, 185–188, 919
transport and boarding allowances, 189–190
committees, 176
dental service, 119, 126, 133
Library Service, 192, 227–228
publications, 193,
teachers (see Teachers)
Schools—
broadcasts to, 352
consolidation of, 189
correspondence, 176, 178, 181, 187, 190, 205
curricula, 182–183, 185, 187, 189, 877
denominational, 177, 187
district high, 181, 187
free textbooks for, 185, 192
integration of private, 177, 178
intermediate, 181, 185, 186
nautical, 313
primary, 175–176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 185–187, 919
private, 177, 178, 181, 182, 187, 190, 193, 919
secondary, 175–176, 177, 178, 180, 181, 182, 187–188, 919
sizes of classes, 186
special, 181, 184
State, 175–178, 180, 181, 182, 185–190, 193, 919
technical, 178, 181, 182, 188, 200–202,
Science and scientific services, 206–221
budget, 217–218
publications dealing with, 957–958
Scientific and Industrial Research Department of, 10–11, 121, 207–213, 216, 217, 258, 274, 278, 414, 432, 435, 436, 437, 685, 875, 892, 898, 904–905, 1005
Search and rescue operations, 254, 263
Secondary education (see Schools, secondary, above)
Secondary school boards and councils, 176
Securities Commission, 769
Securities, Government, 669, 725, 733, 734, 738, 740, 741, 751, 765, 772, 775, 778, 780, 939
Securities, overseas, 746, 750, 751, 939
Security Intelligence Service, 265, 684, 1004
Seed certification, 339–390
Seed sowing, aerial, 343
Seeds, grass and clover, 384
exported, 587, 589, 936
Seismic regions, 9–10
Seismology, 9–12
Self employed, incomes of, 715
Separation, marital, 78, 81–82, 115, 116, 250–252
Serpentine, 426, 435
Service-coach licences, 327, 328
Services, community and business, 715, 716, 718, 784, 796, 989
Services, personal and household, 545, 560–562, 715, 716, 718, 784, 796, 989
Sex proportions in population, 65
Sexual offences, 235, 237, 238, 243, 248, 254
Share prices, index numbers of, 640, 922, 923
Shearers' wage rates and amenities, 828, 969
Sheep, 215, 369, 370, 394, 395, 396–397, 928, 967–969
and lambs slaughtered, 375
farming, 360–367, 394, 395, 396–397, 715, 729, 816, 928, 967–969
skins and pelts exported (see also Hides), 587, 589, 590, 600
Sheepmeats, marketing of (see also Mutton, Lamb), 525–527, 534, 535–536, 570, 572–574, 586, 588, 596,
Sheetmetal-working industry, 459, 467
Shellfish, export of, 419, 423
Ship building and repairing, 461, 468
Shipping, 304–314, 420, 539, 970–971
Shipping and Seamen Act, 829, 853–854
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand, 305, 306, 686, 706, 904, 951
Ships and boats, imports of, 611, 612, 614
Shooting and hunting, 863
Shops, 551, 552–554, 556, 560–562
and Offices Act, 827–828
trading hours, 827–828
Sickness benefits, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156
Silica, 426, 434
Silver, 426, 432
Sixth Form Certificate, 183, 188, 191
Ski-ing, 863
Skim-milk powder, 371, 5i0, 531, 541, 572, 573, 586, 995
Skins (see Hides, pelts, and skins)
Small Business Agency, 446, 754
Smelter, aluminium, 443–444, 445, 512, 950, 951, 952
Smoking habits, 124–125
Snow, 4, 16, 18
Soap industry, 458, 466
Social Development Council, 301–302
Social sciences publications, 954–955
Social welfare, 148–164, 941
and services, expenditure on, 150, 151, 167–169, 682, 685, 687, 941, 1002
benefits, 131–135, 148–158, 692
Department of, 148–149, 150, 159, 160, 181, 184, 217, 250, 350, 764, 793, 892, 898, 903
reciprocity with other countries, 157–158
Soft drinks industry, 456, 463, 475
Soil conservation, 277–278
Soil erosion, 266, 277–278, 404–405, 414
Soils, 211, 214, 360–362, 380
Solo parents, 153, 154, 155, 165
South Pacific—
aid, 38–40
Bureau for Economic Co-operation, 32, 33, 40
Commission, 32, 33, 40
Forum, 32–33, 40, 571, 620, 621
Medical Research Committee, 128
Regional Trade and Economic Co-operation Agreement (SPARTECA), 33, 573, 620
relations with, 31–33, 39
students from, 182, 198
trade training for youths from, 789–790
trade with, 570, 571, 573, 578, 593, 594, 603, 616, 617,
South-east Asia, relations with, 30–31, 38–41, 573, 577–578, 583, 593, 595–602, 609, 620
South-east Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO), 37,
Southern Alps, 3, 4, 8, 13, 16, 284, 968
Sovereignty, 23, 25–26, 41–42, 45
Special Drawing Rights (IMF), 667, 669, 726, 746, 748, 749, 750, 752, 939, 1007, 1008
Special education, 178, 181, 184
Special Employment Scheme, 205
Special work, employees, 784–785, 989
Speed limits, 333, 334, 507, 508
Spirits—
consumption of, 646
duty on, 621
imports of, 611
production of, 456, 463
Sports, 862–863, 877, 961
accidents, 838–839
Stamp duty, 690, 697–698, 1001, 1006
Standard International Trade Classification (SITC), 576, 584, 636
Standard time, 875
Standards Association of New Zealand, 447
Standards Council, 867
Standards of living, international, 870
State—
aid to private schools, 177, 178, 190, 192, 193
accident and fire, 780, 948
earthquake and war damage, 780–781
life, 779–780
Commission, 217, 225, 684, 892, 893, 901–902, 907, 1004
coal mines, 425, 428, 430–431, 686, 705
accident and fire, 780, 948
earthquake and war damage, 780–781
life, 779–780
Commission, 217, 225, 684, 892, 893, 901–902, 907, 1004
departments (see Departments, Government)
accident and fire, 780, 948
earthquake and war damage, 780–781
life, 779–780
Commission, 217, 225, 684, 892, 893, 901–902, 907, 1004
finance, 150, 151, 652, 653, 654, 655, 658, 660, 661–662, 663, 664, 665, 758–765, 940–942, 1001–1006
accident and fire, 780, 948
earthquake and war damage, 780–781
life, 779–780
Commission, 217, 225, 684, 892, 893, 901–902, 907, 1004
forests, 272, 274, 401–406, 411, 415
accident and fire, 780, 948
earthquake and war damage, 780–781
life, 779–780
Commission, 217, 225, 684, 892, 893, 901–902, 907, 1004
highways, 321–326, 688
accident and fire, 780, 948
earthquake and war damage, 780–781
life, 779–780
Commission, 217, 225, 684, 892, 893, 901–902, 907, 1004
housing, 480, 484, 485–486, 493–494, 757–758, 762–765, 991
accident and fire, 780, 948
earthquake and war damage, 780–781
life, 779–780
Commission, 217, 225, 684, 892, 893, 901–902, 907, 1004
indebtedness, 681, 703–707, 942
accident and fire, 780, 948
earthquake and war damage, 780–781
life, 779–780
Commission, 217, 225, 684, 892, 893, 901–902, 907, 1004
insurance, 707, 779–781, 832, 835, 892, 898
accident and fire, 780, 948
earthquake and war damage, 780–781
life, 779–780
Commission, 217, 225, 684, 892, 893, 901–902, 907, 1004
schools, 175–178, 180, 181, 182, 185–190, 193, 919
Commission, 217, 225, 684, 892, 893, 901–902, 907, 1004
Services, 804, 829, 893, 900, 901, 902
Commission, 217, 225, 684, 892, 893, 901–902, 907, 1004
housing, 494
wards, 161–162
Statistical—
areas—
area and population of, 57–58
building industry by, 483
cereal crops by, 386–387
cinemas in, 358
industrial production by, 470–473
irrigation by, 381
land usage by, 363
livestock in, 396
mining and quarrying by, 439–440
restaurants and hotels in, 559
retail and wholesale trade in, 550–551, 556–557
services in, 561–562
building permits, value of, 488
dwelling completions, 488
populations of, 57–58
divisions—
building permits, value of, 488
dwelling completions, 488
populations of, 57–58
publications, 982–983
summary, 916–946
Statistics, Department of, 684, 892, 898–899, 1004
Statute of Westminster, 25, 42, 232, 949
Statutes (see Legislation)
Statutory boards and committees, 903–907
Steel imports and exports of, 587–588, 589, 591, 606, 609, 612, 613, 995
Steel industry, 425, 426, 432, 443, 453, 454, 459, 467
Stewart Island, 1, 2, 63, 423
Still births, 89, 92, 96–97, 106
Stock and station agents, 730, 732, 740–741, 743, 771
Stock change by production group, 664–665
Stock, New Zealand Government, 733, 738, 740, 741, 751, 772, 775, 778, 780
Stocks, retail and wholesale, 563, 566
Stone fruit, 386, 390, 391, 645
Stoppages, industrial, 818–819, 824–826, 831, 924
Stud farming, 364, 367
Students, 181, 182
Community Service Programme, 786
overseas, 182, 196, 198
projected, 182
teachers' college, 181, 190–192, 919
university, 181, 188, 195–199, 919
Studentships, 190–192
Subscriber toll dialling (STD), 346
Subsidies, 283, 287, 647–648, 650, 651, 652, 655–660
agricultural, 368, 381–383,
coal gas, 519, 522, 648
employment, 784–788
roading, 322, 324–326, 688, 1006
on electrical reticulation, 515
on LPG transport, 648
on milk, 538, 541, 647
Railways, 648
to local government, 322, 324–326, 336, 484, 492, 688, 709, 711–712, 1006
to National Provident Fund, 174
wage, 175
Subtropical fruit, 384, 390, 391, 392
Suffrage, 47–48, 51
Sugar—
consumption of, 645, 647, 870
imports of, 311, 605, 608, 611, 613
international agreements on, 622
prices of, 630, 632
production, 455, 463, 475
Suicide, 102, 108, 109, 145
Sulphur, 435
imports of, 612, 613
Sunshine, 17, 18, 20
Superannuation, 169–174
government, 169–171, 173, 683
national, 149, 151, 152, 153, 154, 169, 172, 1004
of Members of Parliament, 170
private schemes, 734
Superphosphate, 380
Surveys—
employment, 791
geological, 211–212, 428, 436–437
land, 289–290
of shipping, 313
transport, 325
System of National Accounts (NZSNA), 632, 649–665

T

Tallow, 312, 585, 587, 589, 599, 937
Tanning industry, 444, 456, 464
Tariff, Customs, 618–622
Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., 409, 415, 443, 686, 706
Taxation (see individual taxes), 680, 682, 683, 688, 689–703, 940, 1001, 1003
direct (see income tax, etc.), 689, 1001, 1003
exemption from, 692–694, 695, 697
incentives, 696
indirect, 650, 651, 652, 654, 655–660, 690, 1001, 1003
of companies, 696, 717, 719–720
rates of, 694–695, 697–698
rebates of, 694–695
Review Authority, 699
system, 691–699
Taxicabs, 327, 329, 331
Tea, consumption of, 646
retail price of, 630, 632
Teacher studentships, 190–192
Teachers, 177, 182, 185, 189, 190–192, 197, 797, 829, 904
colleges, 176, 178, 180, 182, 190–192, 203, 687, 801, 919
kindergarten, 182, 185
primary and secondary school, 182, 185, 190–192
superannuation, 169–171
training of, 178, 180, 181, 182, 190–192
Technical Correspondence Institute, 176, 181, 182, 201, 202, 407
Technical education, 176, 178, 180, 181, 182, 183, 188, 198, 199, 200–202, 788–790
Technology, Central Institute of, 180, 200, 202
Telecommunications, 347–349, 925
Telegraph services, 347, 348, 349, 925
Telephones and telephone services, 346–347, 348, 349, 496, 630, 870, 925
Television and radio, 351–352, 353–354, 444, 496
assembly, 460, 468, 474
international comparisons, 870
licences, 355, 630
prices of sets, 630
value of sets on hire purchase, 567–568
Telex (teleprinter) services, 347, 348, 349
Temperature, 16, 17, 18–21
Tenancy Act, 499
Tenure—
of Crown lands, 280–281, 291, 363
of dwellings, 496, 757
of occupied land, 280–281, 290–292, 363
Terms of trade, 639, 921
Territorial Air Force, 262
Territorial Forces (Army), 261
Tetanus immunisation, 123
Textbooks in schools, free, 185, 192
Textiles—
exports of, 589, 591
imports of, 606, 608, 609, 612, 613, 617, 995
industry production account (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664
production of, 447, 450, 452, 453, 456, 463–464, 475, 477–478, 905
Theft, 237, 240, 243, 248, 254
Therapeutic drugs, 120–121
Therapists, occupational, 126, 127, 129, 136, 138
Thermal activity, 1, 3, 284, 862
Thermal generation, 511, 512–513, 516, 517
Thunderstorms, 15, 20
Timber, 401–415, 457, 464, 465, 489, 630, 929
exports of, 312, 412–413, 587, 589, 590, 601, 938
imports of, 412–413
inspection of, 406
output, 489, 929
plantations, 361, 363, 364, 365, 367, 401–408, 415
preservation of, 411–412, 457, 464
resources, 401–415
Timber Preservation Authority, 411
Time service (radio), 875–876
Tin, 434
Tobacco—
consumption of, 646
duty on, 137, 621, 1006
household expenditure on, 641–643
imports of, 604, 605, 608, 611, 613
industry, 362, 365, 379, 393–394, 450, 447, 452, 453, 456, 463, 475, 816
production account (SNA), 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664
retail prices of, 631
Tokelau, 23, 28, 31, 32, 39, 54, 169, 192, 349, 603, 616, 617, 855–857, 949
Tomatoes, 388, 389
Tonnage of shipping and cargo, 307–312
Topdressing, 343, 361, 380–381, 383
Totalisator—
Agency Board, 702, 906
taxation, 702–703
turnover on, 702–703
Tourism, 68–69, 687, 858–864
Tourist—
accommodation, 860–861
and Publicity Department, 685, 859, 863, 892, 899, 906, 1005
attractions, 862–864
Hotel Corporation, 686, 706, 860
industry, 858–864
Town and country planning, 49–52, 268–271, 276–278
Town districts, 48, 50, 61, 297–298, 713, 714
Town milk supply, 373, 379, 541
Tractors—
imports of, 610, 612, 613
on farms, 366, 384
Trade and Industry, Department of, 217, 382, 386, 445, 446, 447, 582, 583, 623, 624, 685, 892, 899, 906, 1005
Trade courses and examinations, 183200–202, 787–790
Trade (domestic), 544–569, 808, 993–994
hire purchase, 567–568
practices, 568–569
retail, 551–557, 993
unions, 819–823
wholesale, 545–551, 566–567, 993
Trade (external), 525–544, 570–622, 906, 932–938, 971, 972, 994–996
agreements, 529–530, 531, 532–534, 570–575, 618–621, 622
balance of, 575
commissioner service, 583
direction of exports, 570–575, 577–580, 584, 592–602, 603
diversification of, 531–532, 572–575
origin of imports, 570, 571, 574, 577–580, 607–611, 616–617
per head, value of, 575
Promotion Council, 583–584
representation overseas, 583
statistics, compilation of, 576, 584, 604
terms of, 639
volume of, 581, 586–588, 594–602, 611–612
Trades Certification Board, 200, 201, 788
Trademarks, patents and designs, 866
Trading banks, 568, 666, 724, 725, 726–731, 733–734, 735, 743, 758
Traffic—
accidents, 102, 108, 109, 330–332
deaths from, 330–332
air, 336, 337, 338–342
offences, 238, 239–240, 241, 254, 332–335
Training Programme, Young Persons, 786, 787
Transport, 303–343, 539, 663–664, 682, 685, 687, 715, 716, 718, 862, 989, 991, 1002
and storage industry production groups (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 657, 661–663, 665, 716
board, 50, 792
census of industry, 992
equipment, imports, of, 604, 606, 611, 612, 614
equipment industry, 453, 454, 461, 468–469, 475, 729
household expenditure on, 641–643
licensing, 326–327, 329
Ministry of, 217, 304, 312, 322, 329, 330, 332, 334, 335, 337–338, 350, 508, 509, 829, 853–854, 892, 899, 904, 1005
of school children, 189–190
to work, 329–330
urban, 321–322, 336, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714
Travel—
and tourism, 858–864
publications, 963–964
Trawling, 416, 419, 421, 422
Treasury, 350, 634, 743, 892, 899–900, 906, 975, 1004
Treaty of Waitangi, 23, 26, 41, 53, 291, 947
Trees, forest, 401–403, 408
Tribunals, administrative, 890
industrial and staff, 804
Trout, 5, 424, 862
Trust Account, 681, 685, 688
Trust (Liquor) control, 874
Trustee, Public, 707, 867–868, 892, 897
Trustee savings banks, 490, 723, 732, 734, 736–737, 743, 758
Tuberculosis, 102, 142
Tungsten ore, 426, 434
Tunnels, railway, 315
Twins and triplets born, 92
Tyres and tubes, 447, 458, 466, 475, 612

U

Unemployment, 784–785, 792–794, 924, 951, 952, 989
benefits, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 158, 793
occupation classification of, 793–794
UNESCO, 36, 37, 904
Unexercised overdraft authorities, 731
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, trade with, 29, 421, 525, 526, 527, 570, 571, 573–574, 579, 592, 595, 596, 599, 620, 971, 972
Unions—
employers, 821, 823
workers, 819–821, 821–822
United Councils, 49, 269, 270
United Kingdom—
communications with, 345, 348
consumption of butter, margarine, and meat, 534, 535
dairy produce and meat imported into, 525, 526–527, 529, 531–534, 535
debt domiciled in, 942
exports to, 342, 525, 526–529, 531–535, 570, 571, 572, 577, 592, 595–601, 971, 972
imports from, 342, 577, 607–611
investment in New Zealand, 673–674
New Zealand representation in, 911
relations with, 23, 25–29, 525–535, 570–572, 618–619, 667, 670, 672, 675–676, 951
representation in New Zealand, 913
shipping to and from, 305, 306
social security reciprocity, 157–158
visitors and migrants from, 73, 85, 859, 860
United Nations, 35–37, 40, 263
Committee on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 620
Development Programme (UNDP), 33, 36, 40
United States of America—
debt domiciled in, 942
exports to, 342, 423, 525, 526, 529, 570, 571, 572, 577, 592, 595–602
imports from, 342, 577, 607–611
investment in New Zealand, 673–674
New Zealand representation in, 912
relations with, 34
representation in New Zealand, 915
shipping to and from, 305, 306
trade, finance, etc., 34, 525, 526, 527, 570–572, 619, 667, 670, 672, 675–676, 972
visitors and migrants from, 73, 859, 860
Universities, 131, 178, 180, 181, 182, 188, 193–199, 207, 209, 213, 216, 224, 228, 801–802, 919, 948
buildings, 178, 180, 493
bursaries, 183, 188, 194–195, 197
entrance examinations, 183, 187, 188, 191, 193, 195, 228
extension, 204
graduates, 190–191, 198–199
Grants Committee, 175, 176, 193, 216, 493, 787
scholarships, 183, 193–195, 198
staff, 199
students, 181, 188, 195–199, 919
Urban—
areas, 57–59, 66
building permit values, 488
cinemas in, 359
dwelling completions, 488
population, 57–59, 66
drainage boards, 50, 710, 713, 714, 791
house and section price index, 491
movement, 64–65, 66
population, growth of, 64–65, 66
Public Passenger Transport Council, 336, 904
renewal, 712, 763
transport, 321–322, 336, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714
transport board, 710, 713, 714, 792
Urbanisation—
effects of, 266–267
of population, 64–65, 66

V

Vacancies, employment, 793
Valuation Department, 295, 350, 490, 684, 708, 892, 900, 905, 1004
Valuation of land, 295–298, 708
Valuation roll, 295
Value added in domestic trade, 545, 546, 548–552, 554–563
Value added in manufacturing (net), 449, 450, 453–454, 462–469, 472–473, 474, 930
Valuers' Registration Board, 298
Veal—
consumption of, 644, 646
production of, 374
Vegetable growing, commercial, 361–364, 365, 367, 369–370, 379, 384–389, 390
Vegetables—
and fruit, canned, 455, 462, 475
and fruit, household expenditure on, 642
and fruit processing industry, 386, 388, 455, 462, 475
consumption of, 645, 647
exported, canned, frozen, or fresh, 585, 587, 588, 590, 647
imported, 605, 617
retail prices of, 630
Venereal diseases, 102, 125, 142
Vessels—
entered and cleared from ports, 307–309
fishing, 416, 420, 421
safety of, 829, 853–854
wrecked, 313, 947, 948, 949
Vice-regal representatives, 880–881
Vineyards and grapes, 384, 386, 389, 390, 393, 873
Violent crime, 237, 238, 243, 248, 249, 253, 254
Visitors to New Zealand, 68–69, 75–76, 858–860, 990
Visual and audio aids, in teaching, 192–193
Vital statistics, 89–117, 918
Vocational guidance, 193, 787–788
Vocational training, 168, 175, 245, 787–790
Vocational Training Council, 787, 904, 906
Volcanoes, 1, 2–3, 7–9, 10, 220, 948
Voluntary welfare organisations, 135
Voting—
at general elections, 48, 874–875
at licensing polls, 875
qualifications, 47–48, 51–52

W

Wages (see Salaries and wages), 804–817, 999–1000
Waitangi, Treaty of, 23, 53, 291, 947
Walkways, 287
War pensions and allowances, 158, 164–168, 692, 903, 941
Warships, 259
Washing machines, 474, 496, 630
Water—
accidents, 108, 110, 145
boards, regional, 50, 275, 278
pollution, 278
Resources Council, 275, 278
resources and management, 275–278, 381, 404–405
subsidies, 711
supply boards, 711, 792
Waterfront industry, 830
Commission, 122, 830
Tribunal, 830
Weather, 12–21, 862
Weedkiller, aerial spraying of, 343
Welfare (See also Social Welfare)
Maori, 163
maternal, 122–123, 132, 134
of workers, 820, 827–830
organisations, 123, 135, 163, 493
Pacific Islanders, 163
services, 135, 163
Western Europe, New Zealand's relations with, 29
Western Samoa, 11, 27, 28, 31–32, 39, 192, 340, 345, 349, 447, 573, 593, 855, 943, 944, 949
Westminster, Statute of, 25, 42, 232, 949
Wetlands, 273
Whales and whaling, 220, 416
Wheat, 385–387, 632, 645, 927
Board, New Zealand, 386–387, 905
Research Committee, 387, 905
Whey butter, 372
Whitebait, 424
Wholesale—
liquor licences, 873
prices, 632
trade (See Retail and wholesale trade), 545–551, 566–567, 988, 994
Widows and widowers—
benefits, 151–153, 154, 157, 158
numbers of, 78, 81–82
remarriages of, 112, 113
war pensions, 164–165
Wigs and hairpieces, 134, 135
Wildlife, 283, 284, 285, 286
management reserves, 286
refuges, 286
reserves, 286
sanctuaries, 286
Wills administered by Public Trustee, 867–868
Winds, 13, 18–21
Wine, consumption and price of, 611, 631, 646
Wine licences, 873
Winemaking industry, 456, 463
Women—
criminal charges and convictions against, 240–241
deaths of, in childbirth, 102, 107
employment in manufacturing, 450, 455–462, 472, 473
in labour force, 450, 455–462, 472, 473, 520–521, 545–548, 550–554, 556–562, 782–784, 795–799, 800–801, 802, 816
incomes of, 720, 721
police, 253
Wood and wood products industry, 450, 452, 454, 457, 464, 475, 477–478
exports of, 312
production group (SNA), 633–634, 654, 655, 656, 660–663, 664
Wood preservation, 411–412, 457, 464
Wood pulp—
exports and imports of, 412–413, 587, 589, 590, 601, 938
production of, 403, 409–410, 443
Wood-chip industry, 408–409, 589
Wool—
Board, New Zealand, 305, 375, 376–378, 527, 529, 536, 539–540, 544, 905, 951, 969–971
export price index, 540
exports, 312, 525, 527–529, 570–574, 585, 586, 587, 589, 594–595, 747, 749, 933, 971, 972
Income Stabilisation Account, 544
levy, 376, 539, 971
marketing of, 376–378, 525, 527–529, 536, 970–972, 99
prices for, 376–378, 539–540, 929
production, 360, 369, 370–371, 376–378, 456, 463, 475, 929, 993
Research Organisation, 209, 213, 216, 278, 377, 905, 971
scouring, 441, 456, 463, 969
Testing Authority, 377, 905
Woollen mills, 441, 456, 463, 475, 529, 771
Work accidents (see Industrial accidents)
Work permits, 75
Workers—
Educational Association, 203, 205
safety and welfare, 827–830, 833, 853–854
unions of, 819–821, 821–822
Working—
conditions, 827–830
days lost through stoppages, 824–825, 826
hours, 805–809
life expectancies, 802–803
Works and Development, Ministry of, 159, 211, 217, 271, 274, 276, 278, 287, 315, 322, 324, 350, 437, 684, 762, 854, 892, 900, 905, 1004, 1005
World Bank (see International Bank for Reconstruction and Development)
World Health Organisation (WHO), 36, 37, 102, 105, 107, 127, 198
World population, 86–87
Wrecks, 313, 947, 948, 949

X

X-ray services, 132

Y

Young people, working conditions of, 827–830
Young Persons Training Programme, 175, 786, 787
Youth Aid Section, New Zealand Police, 160, 161, 254
Youth hostels, 493, 785, 787
Youth Hostels Association, 877

Z

Zinc and lead, 434
Zones, Special Character, 270
Zoology publications, 958–959