THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1980

Front Cover—Mount Ngauruhoe is restless. A plume of smoke rising from one of the three volcanoes in the Tongariro National Park, viewed from the Desert Road.

Back Cover—Tekapo B Power Station, on the shores of Lake Pukaki, was completed in early 1977 and is the first station in the Upper Waitaki Scheme.

                                                                                                                                                           Photographs by Peter Taylor, Electricity Division, Ministry of Energy.

FURTHER INFORMATION

Further sources of information, now given at the end of each section or sub-section, refer generally to official sources, especially parliamentary papers, statistical reports, and other publications of Government departments. These can usually be consulted in the principal public libraries (Parliamentary papers, for example, are collected in annual volumes entitled Appendix to the Journals of the House of Representatives) or can be purchased from Government Bookshops. Where difficulty is experienced in obtaining publications the responsible Government department or other organisation should be consulted.

Other publications giving fuller information on many of the subjects mentioned in the Yearbook may be found listed in the select bibliography of New Zealand books near the back of the Yearbook.

NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEARBOOK

CAT. NO. 01001

ISSN 0078-0170


Table of Contents

List of Figures

PREFACE

As with previous editions, the aim of the 85th edition of the New Zealand Official Yearbook is to present a comprehensive statistical survey of the economy and population of New Zealand, with a background of text aimed primarily at the non-specialist. This year special emphasis has been placed on 2 subjects of wide public interest; environmental management and the impact of economic growth on the environment, and the conservation and development of energy resources. Section 10A, Physical Environment and Economic Growth has been substantially redrafted, and one of the special features in this Yearbook is an article supplied by the secretariat of the Environmental Council entitled The New Zealand Environment and Changes in Environmental Management since 1970. Section 20A, Energy Demand and Supply, has also been largely rewritten, and a survey of power projects entitled Power for New Zealand forms the subject of this year's colour supplement.

Every effort is made to ensure that the information in the Official Yearbook is as full, clear, and up to date as limits of space and time allow. Nevertheless, in the nature of things, a Yearbook which takes almost 12 months to produce cannot be completely up to date. A new feature in this Yearbook is a brief reference to further sources of information at the end of each section or sub-section. In the main, these are parliamentary papers, statistical reports, and other publications of Government departments. Among the principal sources of the latest statistics are the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and the many scores of Information Service releases put out annually by the Department of Statistics. With the Official Yearbook to give background and historical perspective, and the Monthly Abstract to supply the latest figures, the student of the New Zealand economy is well equipped.

The Yearbook owes much to the assistance and co-operation of other Government departments, producer boards, the Reserve Bank, and a considerable number of other official bodies, as well as to the compiling sections of this department. I would like to express my appreciation to all the people involved, and especially to the staff of the Government Printing Office, without whose work there would be no Yearbook. The volume was edited by N. G. Killick, B.A., who would also like to express his appreciation of the assistance and co-operation he has received.

                                                                                                                                                                J. H. DARWIN,
                                                                                                                                             GOVERNMENT STATISTICIAN.

Department of Statistics,
Wellington,
NEW ZEALAND.
September 1980.

SYMBOLS

The interpretation of the symbols used in the tables throughout this publication is as follows:

- nil or zeronot applicable
. . figures not available- - amount too small to be expressed
not yet available—space left blankx revised

METRIC SYSTEM

The conversion of the system of weights and measures used in New Zealand to metric units was substantially completed by the end of 1976.

As far as possible, statistics in this issue have been converted to the metric system, but for various reasons, this has to be a gradual process extending over a number of years.

CONVERSION OF BRITISH (IMPERIAL) AND SI (METRIC) UNITS

Some relationships between common British units and common SI units are shown in the following table.

Length— 
    1 in. = 25.4 mm  1 mm = 0.039 in.
           = 2.54 cm  1 cm = 0.394 in.
    1 ft = 30.48 cm  1 dm = 3.937 in.
           = 0.305 m  1 m = 39.37 in.
    1 yd = 0.914 m       = 1.094 yds
    1 mile = 1.609 km  1 km = 0.621 miles
Area 
    1 sq ft = 0.093 m2  1 m2= 10.764 sq ft
           = 929.03 cm2        = 1.196 sq yds
    1 sq yd = 0.836 m2  1 da = 0.247 acres
    1 acre = 0.405 hectare (ha)  1 ha = 2.471 acres
    1 sq mile = 2.590 km2  1 km2= 247.1 acres
           = 259 ha       = 0.386 sq miles
Volume 
    1 cu in. = 16.387 cm3  1 cm3= 0.061 cu in.
    1 cu ft = 0.028 m3  1 m3= 35.315 cu ft
    1 cu yd = 0.765 m3        = 1.308 cu yds
Capacity 
    1 pt = 0.568 litres (1)  1 litre = 1.760 pts
    1 qt = 1.1371        = 0.880 qts
    1 gal = 4.5461        = 0.220 gal
Weight 
    1 oz = 28.35 grams (g)  1 g = 0.035 oz
    1 lb = 0.454 kilograms (kg)  1 kg = 2.205 lb
    1 cwt = 50.802 kg  1 t = 2204.62 lb
    1 long ton = 1.016 kg       = 0.984 long tons
           = 1.016 tonnes (t)       = 1.102 short tons
Velocity 
    1 mile per hour (mph) 1.61 kilometres per hour (km/hr) 
    1 kilometre per hour (km/h) 0.621 miles per hour (mph) 
Pressure 
    1 pound per sq in. (psi) 6.89 kilopascals (kPa) 
    1 kilopascal (kPa) 0.415 pounds per sq in. (psi) 
    1 ton per sq in. (ton/in2) 15.4 megapascals (MPa) 
    1 megapascal (MPa) 0.0647 tons per sq in. (ton/in.2) 
Temperature 
    Degree Fahrenheit (°F)   9 x °C/5 + 32 
    Degree Celsius (°C)   5/9(°F − 32) 

Chapter 1. Section 1 Geography

Table of Contents

New Zealand is in the south-west section of the Pacific. To the west, beyond the Tasman Sea, is Australia, 1600 kilometres away. From its position on the rim of the Pacific basin, New Zealand is a little over 10000 kilometres from San Francisco and Panama and a similar distance from Tokyo and Singapore. In area 26.9 million hectares, it is similar in size to the British Isles and Japan.

One of the chief charms of the New Zealand landscape is its infinite variety. Such level lowlands as exist are small in area; contrasts between coastal plain and bordering hard-rock mountains are abrupt. High mountains make up most of the South Island area—often stark and bare or mantled in permanent snow. By contrast, most of the North Island is weak-rock hill country. From Cook Strait to the Bay of Plenty a hard-rock mountain core dominates the North Island scene, forming an effective barrier between east and west; the only low level gap across it is at the gorge cut by the Manawatu River near Palmerston North.

A peculiar and special feature of the North Island is the volcanic country of the interior. Here are the largest North Island lakes and in a line from Ruapehu to White Island, most of the still active volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers.

The most spectacular mountains are in the South Island; high mountains, deep and narrow valleys, swift rivers, and glacial lakes, large and small, give infinite variety to the scene. It is in this high country that ice has left its special mark in glacial troughs and fiords and, above all, the noble southern lakes. There is little weak-rock hill country in the South Island; the lowlands are mainly bordering plains, basin plains, and valley plains. Of these the most extensive are the plains of Canterbury and Southland.

New Zealand has large areas of luxuriant forests which axe the delight of trampers, campers, and hunters. Forests cover nearly a quarter of the total land area, of which national parks and scenic reserves set aside as permanent forest or recreation areas form 2.4 million hectares.

The indigenous forests may be grouped broadly into two main formations: mixed temperate evergreen forest and southern beech forest. The former is a mixed community of many species of broadleaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of southern beech. Generally, the mixed temperate evergreen forests are the forests of the north and of the warm, wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes. The beeches form the forests of the south, of the high mountains, and of the drier lowlands. But there are extensive areas where the types mingle in forests of extremely varied composition.

Mountains, forests, lakes, rivers, and beaches have influenced the characteristics of the people. New Zealand society has been shaped and subtly tempered by a number of factors—geographical, historical, social and psychological during more than a century of growth as a nation. New Zealand today represents both an extension and a modification of the European tradition. In addition to its Maori population, New Zealand has experienced in recent years a considerable inflow of Polynesians from its associated territories and elsewhere in the Pacific. Auckland has become the major city of Polynesia, and as such a focal point of the South Pacific. The Polynesian (including Maori) population is of greater significance than its relatively small numbers would suggest. Outside the Pacific area New Zealand may present a basically European face to the world, but the preservation of distinctive life-style by the Maori, together with a close compatibility (extending to frequent intermarriage) between the two races, has doubtless been a determining factor in the evolution of New Zealand society.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION—The islands of New Zealand have been shaped from the projecting crests of earth folds which rise as broad ridges from the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, 1600 kilometres east of the continent of Australia. There are three main islands—North, South, and Stewart separated only by relatively narrow straits—with adjacent islets and a small group called Chatham Islands, 850 kilometres to the east of Lyttelton. Dating from 1842 the administrative boundaries of New Zealand, including the minor islands, extend from 33 degrees to 53 degrees south latitude and from 162 degrees east longitude to 173 degrees west longitude. Inhabited outlying minor islands are Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group, 930 kilometres north-east of the Bay of Islands, and Campbell Island, 590 kilometres south of Stewart Island.

The Ross Dependency, some 2300 kilometres to the south, has been under New Zealand's jurisdiction since 1923 and comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160 degrees east and 150 degrees west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60 degrees south. The land area of the Ross Dependency is estimated at 414400 square kilometres.

The area of New Zealand can be classified as follows.

AREA OF NEW ZEALAND (1 April 1977)
 Area in Square Kilometres
North Island
    Districts11,960
    Counties99,429
    Cities and boroughs (less pt Porirua City in harbour, 2 km2)3092
    Town districts8
    Adjacent Islands not included in a territorial local authority—
        Three Kings7
        Little Barrier28
        Mayor14
        White4
        Other islands (Browns, Mokohinau, Motiti, Motuhora (Whale), etc.)16
        Reclamations1
        Other offshore islands—Kermadec33
            Total, North Island114,592
South Island
    Counties151,364
    Cities and boroughs602
    Town districts5
    Stewart Island1746
    Adjacent islands not included in a territorial local authority (Solander, etc.)4
    Other offshore islands—
        Inhabited—Campbell106
        Uninhabited—Auckland (612 km2), Snares (2 km2), Antipodes (22 km2), Bounty (2km2)638
                Total, South Island154,465
                Total, North and South Islands269,057
Ross Dependency (land area only)414,400
                                Total, including Ross Dependency683,457

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: Coastline—Since the combined length of the North and South Island extends over 1600 kilometres, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 450 kilometres at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coastline in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand land mass lies along a southwesterly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

In the North Island, Whangarei, Auckland, Tauranga, and Wellington are natural harbours which have been developed into ports for extensive use by overseas ships. At Napier and Gisborne artificial harbours have been made. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several other deep and sheltered harbours exist, but production from the hinterland is limited. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and Fiordland form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and the rugged nature of the terrain they have—with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound—little or no commercial utility. By dredging and by breakwater construction, ports capable of accommodating overseas vessels have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff Harbours and on the coast at Timaru. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, although an overseas port has been developed at New Plymouth, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents.

Mountains—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 200 m contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (2518 m), Ruapehu (2797 m), Ngauruhoe (2290 m), and Tongariro (1968 m), they do not exceed an altitude of 1800 m. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe have been particularly active from time to time. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Turakirae Head, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa Ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto Ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group. In the east the Moehau Range parallels the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only area above 1200 m on the west coast of this Island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (3764 m), while 19 named peaks exceed 3000 m. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell Ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa Range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Richmond Ranges, while to the north-east are the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

There are at least 223 named peaks of 2300 m or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 2740 m in the South Island.

Mountain or PeakHeight (metres)
NORTH. ISLAND
Ruapehu2797
Egmont2518
Ngauruhoe2290
Tongariro1968
SOUTH ISLAND
Kaikoura Ranges
    Tapuaenuku2884
    Alarm2865
Southern Alps
    Cook3764
    Tasman3500
    Dampier3440
    Silberhorn3279
    Lendenfeldt3201
    Mt. Hicks (St. David's Dome)3183
    Malte Brun3176
    Torres3163
    Teichelmann3160
    Sefton3157
    Haast3138
    Elie de Beaumont3109
    Douglas Peak3081
    La Perouse3079
    Haldinger3066
    Minarets3066
    Aspiring3036
    Hamilton3022
    Glacier Peak3007
    De la Beche2992
    Aiguilles Rouges2966
    Nazomi2961
    Darwin2961
    Chudliegh2952
    Annan2947
    Low2942
    Haeckel2941
    Goldsmith2905
    Conway Peak2901
    Bristol Top2898
    Walter2898
    Grey2893
    Green2836
    Hutton2834
    D'Archiac2828
    Ronald Adair2827
    Earnslaw2823
    Hochstetter Dome2822
    Nathan2804
    Barnicoat2799
    Sibbald2798
    Arrowsmith2795
    Spenser2794
    The Footstool2765
    Rudolf2755
    The Dwarf2751
Darran Range
    Tutoko2756

Glaciers—In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman Glacier has a length of 29 km and a width of 9 km. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (17 km), the Mueller (13 km), the Godley (13 km), and the Hooker (11 km), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 600 m. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 15 km and 13 km respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 200 m and 210 m.

The glaciers are fed by snow brought to the Southern Alps by the prevailing winds off the Tasman Sea. Total yearly snowfalls at the higher elevations (1800–2500 m) vary from 3 m to 6 m. The steeper West Coast glaciers have little moraine (rock debris) carried on their surfaces and have shown a marked terminal retreat in recent decades. The large glaciers on the eastern side of the Southern Alps are mantled with moraine and show some terminal retreat.

In the North Island there are 7 relatively small glaciers on the slopes of Mount Ruapehu compared with more than 360 in the Southern Alps. However, during the ski-ing season the Whakapapa Glaciers, near the Chateau Tongariro, are visited by several thousand people each week.

Rivers—New Zealand rivers, owing to the high relief of the country, are mostly swift-flowing and difficult to navigate. As sources of hydro-electric power the rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. The Waikato and the Rangitaiki in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, Clutha, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes.

Following is a list of the more important rivers. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system, whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

RiverLength (kilometres)
* Cook Strait is defined as follows: northern limit is a line between northern point of Stephens Island and Kapiti Island: southern limit is a line between Cape Palliser and Cape Campbell.
NORTH ISLAND
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean
    Piako90
    Waihou (or Thames)175
    Rangitaiki193
    Whakatane105
    Waipaoa (from source, Mata River)121
    Waiapu (from source, Waipapa Stream)113
    Wairoa (from source, Hangaroa River)137
    Mohaka (from source, Taharua River)172
    Ngaruroro154
    Tukituki113
Flowing into Cook Strait*
    Ruamahanga124
    Hutt56
Flowing into the Tasman Sea
    Otaki48
    Manawatu182
    Rangitikei241
    Turakina137
    Whangaehu161
    Wanganui290
    Waitotara108
    Patea143
    Waitara98
    Mokau158
    Waikato (from source, Upper Waikato River)425
    Wairoa (from source, Waiotu Stream)132
    Hokianga (from source, Waihou River)72
SOUTH ISLAND
Flowing into Cook Strait
    Pelorus64
    Wairau169
    Awatere126
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean
    Clarence209
    Conway48
    Waiau-uha (or Waiau)169
    Hurunui138
    Waipara64
    Ashley97
    Waimakariri161
    Selwyn95
    Rakaia145
    Ashburton90
    Rangitata (from source, Clyde River)121
    Opihi80
    Pareora56
    Waihao64
    Waitaki (from source, Hopkins River)209
    Kakanui64
    Shag72
    Taieri288
    Clutha (from source, Makarora River)322
Flowing into Foveaux Strait
    Mataura240
    Oreti203
    Aparima (Jacobs River)113
    Waiau (from source, Clinton River)217
Flowing into the Tasman Sea
    Hollyford76
    Cascade64
    Arawhata68
    Haast64
    Karangarua37
    Cook32
    Waiho (from source, Callery River)32
    Whataroa51
    Wanganui56
    Waitaha40
    Hokitika64
    Arahura56
    Taramakau80
    Grey121
    Buller (from source, Travers River)177
    Mokihinui56
    Karamea80
    Heaphy35
    Aorere (from source, Spee River)72
    Takaka (from source, Cobb River)72
    Motueka108
    Waimea (from source, Wai-iti River)48

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the early economic development of the country.

With the very successful acclimatisation of freshwater fish, notably trout, many rivers now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while some of the larger ones of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, have their own particular beauty. As reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the rivers and streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, Manapouri, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect. A series of narrow man-made lakes have been produced in connection with hydro-electric development along some of the rivers. In 1965 Lake Benmore, New Zealand's largest artificial lake, was created. It lies on the Waitaki River in North Otago and covers 79 sq km in area and consists of two arms, the main arm being 30 km in length and the Ahuriri Arm 18 km in length.

Some particulars of the more important lakes are given in the following table.

LakeLength in Kilometres*Greatest Breadth in Kilometres*Area in Square KilometresDrainage Area in Square KilometresApproximate Volume of Discharge in Cubic Metres per SecondMaximum Height Above Sea Level in Metres (Range in Brackets)Greatest Depth in Metres

*1 kilometre equals 0.621 miles.

1 square kilometre equals 0.386 square miles.

The range in lake levels is not available for all lakes.

    NORTH ISLAND
        Natural
Taupo40.227.46063289127357 (1.5)159
Rotorua12.09.780526..280 (0.6)26
Rotoiti16.14.83464224279 (0.6)70
Tarawera11.28.9361868299 (0.6)87
Rotoaira4.82.8131297564 (0.9)..
Waikaremoana19.39.75442718614 (13.7)256
Wairarapa19.36.4803201..820
Rotoehu4.83.2844..295 (1.2)..
Rotoma5.23.61231..316 (1.8)..
Okataina6.44.81065..310 (2.7)..
Okareka2.42.0321..354 (1.2)..
Rotomahana6.42.8970..340 (6.7)..
Rerewhakaitu4.02.88....439 (1.2)..
Tikitapu1.61.21....416..
Rotokakahi4.01.65281396..
Artificial
Ohakuri33.80.4144791157287..
Atiamuri6.40.415128165252..
Whakamaru21.70.885581174226..
Maraetai7.20.846190191188..
Waipapa9.70.416475198127..
Arapuni16.10.8136876207111 (0.6)..
Karapiro24.10.48745922154..
Whakamarino0.80.4......274..
    SOUTH ISLAND
        Natural
Rotoiti8.92.81018412616 (1.8)76
Rotoroa14.53.22337627446 (1.5)152
Brunner8.98.939414..85109
Kaniere9.72.01628..131197
Coleridge17.73.236559..510207
Sumner9.72.414337......
Tekapo17.75.696142487715 (7.6)189
Pukaki15.38.0831355128500 (9.1)..
Ohau17.74.860119165527 (1.7)..
Hawea30.68.0119146963345 (16.2)392
Wanaka45.14.81922543202279 (4.3)..
Wakatipu77.24.82932978174310 (2.1)378
Te Anau61.29.73443302276209 (4.6)276
Manapouri28.98.01424623386185 (6.4)443
Monowai19.31.62827214196 (4.0)..
Hauroko35.42.47158331156 (1.8)..
Poteriteri28.92.4474143029..
Waihola6.42.085698..(Tidal)16
Ellesrnere22.512.91811930..(Tidal)2
        Artificial
Cobb4.80.42736808 (15.2)..
Waitaki4.80.869712344230..
Roxburgh32.20.4615,571489131..
Mahinerangi14.51.6213117391..
Benmore—
    Ahuriri Arm18.54.479777034036096
    Main Arm29.8

GEOLOGY—The islands of New Zealand are part of the unstable circum-Pacific Mobile Belt. This is a region where volcanoes are active and where the Earth's crust has long been buckling and breaking at a geologically rapid rate. The interplay, in the past, of earth movements and erosion has made the sedimentary rocks that cover almost three-quarters of New Zealand. Land areas that the earth movements have raised have been attacked by erosion, and the sand, mud, shingle, and other debris thus formed has been carried away to the sea, where it has accumulated in great thicknesses to form rocks such as sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, and conglomerate; the shells and other skeletons of sea creatures have accumulated to form thick layers of limestone. Many of the sedimentary rocks are in distinct layers called strata. Earth movements have later raised them above the sea to form land, and the strata have in many places been tilted and folded by pressure. Seas have advanced and retreated over the New Zealand area many times and these sedimentary rocks represent almost every geological period since the Cambrian (see Time Scale). Their age is revealed by the Molluscan shells, foraminifera, and other fossils that they contain, as well as by various radioactive techniques.

As well as sedimentary rocks, and volcanic rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure schist, gneiss, marble and other metamorphic rocks, and granite, diorite, gabbro, serpentine, and other intrusive igneous rocks.. Most of these metamorphic and intrusive rocks are hundreds of millions of years old. They were formed at depth in the Earth's crust early in New Zealand's history, in the “roots” of ancient mountain ranges, long ago destroyed, and are visible at the land surface today only because erosion has removed thousands of metres thickness of other rocks that once covered them. The metamorphic rocks developed by the action of heat and pressure on the thick sediments (up to tens of thousands of metres) deposited in huge, elongated sea basins (geosynclines), which continued to sink as the deposits accumulated. When these geosynclines were slowly compressed during major mountain-building episodes the deeper sediments were subjected to great pressure and shearing stress, which caused new minerals and structures to develop, changing the sediments into metamorphic rocks. The granites and other intrusive rocks are coarsely crystalline, and are usually considered to have intruded into the outer crust in a molten state during mountain building; some, however, may be the products of an intense metamorphism of sediments.

GEOLOGICAL TIME-SCALE
ErasPeriodsApproximate Time Since Period Began (Years)
CenozoicHolocene (Recent)Quaternary10 thousand
Pleistocene2 million
PlioceneTertiary11 million
Miocene25 million
Oligocene38 million
Eocene60 million
Paleocene70 million
MesozoicCretaceous 135 million
Jurassic 180 million
Triassic 225 million
PaleozoicPermian 270 million
Carboniferous 350 million
Devonian 400 million
Silurian 440 million
Ordovician 500 million
Cambrian 600 million

Geological History—Evidence of the earliest-known events in New Zealand's history is given by ancient rocks in Nelson, Westland, and Fiordland that were formed in the early Paleozoic era, perhaps as long as 600 million years ago (some in Westland may be older). They include thick, geosynclinal sedimentary rocks. This suggests that a large land mass existed nearby at that time to yield the great volume of sediments, but little has been deduced about its shape or position.

The history of the later part of the Paleozoic era, and the Mesozoic era, is rather better understood. For a vast span of time from the Carboniferous period—probably until the early Cretaceous period—an extensive geosyncline occupied the New Zealand region. At first, during much of the late Paleozoic time, huge quantities of submarine lava and volcanic tuff were included in the materials that accumulated in the geosyncline, but in the later Permian and Mesozoic times the sediments were mainly sand and mud, derived probably from some land west of present New Zealand; they were compacted into hard greywacke (a type of sandstone) and argillite (hard, dark mudstone).

In the early Cretaceous period one of the main mountain-building episodes in New Zealand's history took place. Although geosynclinal sedimentation continued through the Cretaceous period in eastern New Zealand the geosyncline elsewhere was compressed, and the sediments were intensely crumpled and broken and raised above the sea, probably forming a large, mountainous land mass. Some of the geosynclinal deposits, now exposed over much of Otago, alpine Westland, and parts of Marlborough Sounds, were metamorphosed into schist and gneiss by high temperatures and the tremendous deforming pressures to which the geosyncline was subjected.

The time that has elapsed since the intense folding of the strata in the New Zealand geosyncline in the mid-Cretaceous period may be considered as the later geological history of this country, embracing roughly 100 million years.

During the early part of this late history, erosion slowly were down the mountains that had risen, producing a land of low relief. Over these worn-down stumps of the Mesozoic mountains the sea gradually advanced, beginning its transgression earlier in some areas than in others. In the early Cretaceous period it began to submerge land in the region of present North Auckland and the eastern margins of the North and South Islands, and thick deposits of mudstone and sandstone accumulated in some parts of these areas. At the close of the Mesozoic era, and in the very early Tertiary era, land became so reduced in size and relief that little sediment was formed, and only comparatively thin deposits of fine bentonitic and sulphurous muds, and fine white foraminiferal limestone accumulated. In some areas New Zealand's main coal deposits accumulated in swamps on the surface of the old land. These became buried by marine deposits as the sea continued its transgression in the Eocene period.

By the Oligocene period, most of the land was submerged, and in shallow waters free of land sediments, thick deposits of shell and foraminiferal limestone accumulated. (Scattered remnant patches of this Oligocene limestone furnish most of New Zealand's cement and agricultural lime.)

After the Oligocene submergence earth movements became more vigorous; many ridges rose from the sea as islands, and sank or were worn down again; sea basins formed and rapidly filled with sediments. New Zealand's late Tertiary environment has been described as follows: “The pattern of folds, welts, and troughs that developed was on a finer scale than in the Mesozoic . . . the land moved up and down as a series of narrow, short, interfingering or branching folds. . . . We can think of Tertiary New Zealand as an archipelago . . . A kind of writhing of part of the mobile Pacific margins seems to have gone on . . .”. The thick deposits of soft, grey mudstone and sandstone that now make up large areas of the North Island, and some parts of the South Island, are the deposits that accumulated rapidly in the many sea basins, large and small, that developed in the later Tertiary.

Very late in the Cenozoic era—in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods—one of the greatest episodes of mountain building in New Zealand's history took place. Earth movements became intense, and slowly pushed up the Southern Alps and other main mountain chains, and determined the general shape and size of the present islands of New Zealand. Much of the movement during this mountain-building period (the Kaikoura Orogeny) took the form of displacement of blocks of the Earth's crust along fractures called faults. The total movements of the Earth blocks adjacent to major faults amounted to thousands of metres. It must have been achieved very slowly, probably by innumerable small movements, each less than a few metres. The blocks adjacent to “transcurrent” faults moved not only vertically but also laterally along the faults. The New Zealand landscape today in some regions shows well preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault-scarps—steep faces hundreds or even thousands of metres high. Fault movements continue to the present day, and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century. Many minor but revealing landscape features such as scarplets, fault ponds, and shutter ridges show where movement has been occurring in recent centuries.

Erosion during this time has eaten into the major landscape forms that the earth movements built, carving detailed landscape patterns of peaks, ridges, valleys, and gorges, and the deposition of the debris has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans, and other construction forms. At the coast, waves have driven back the headlands and built beaches, spits, and bars. The Pleistocene period was the time of the Ice Age, and in the high mountains of the South Island glaciers carved deep valleys and carried huge loads of rock, dumping them in the lower parts of the valleys as moraines. The late Pleistocene glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the basins occupied by most South Island lakes; there were small glaciers also on Ruapehu, where remnants survive, and on Mount Egmont and the Tararua Range. Sea- level changes accompanied the formation and later melting of the land ice, affecting the erosion or deposition of the rivers and thus being responsible for the formation of the many prominent river terraces in this country.

Volcanic activity of the past few million years has played an important part in making the rocks and shaping the landscape of parts of the central and northern North Island. Banks Peninsula, a twin volcanic dome in Canterbury, also achieved much of its growth then. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times in New Zealand have been in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty Coast: andesite lava, scoria, and ash were erupted in the Pleistocene period and later to build the huge volcanoes, Ruapehu, Tongariro, and Ngauruhoe. More than 8000 cu km of molten rhyolitic magma was erupted in the form of ignimbrite, pumice, and rhyolite lava, building up the Volcanic Plateau. This is one of the largest and youngest accumulations of acid volcanic rocks in the world.

Mount Egmont is a huge, conical, andesite volcano, with the remnants of two other volcanic cones nearby; all are of Pleistocene age. In the Waikato there are eroded Pleistocene cones of approximately basic andesite composition. The largest is Pirongia, some 900 m high. Auckland city and the area immediately to the south has been the scene of many eruptions of basalt lava and scoria in late Pleistocene and Holocene times; and many small scoria cones can be seen in the locality. Late Tertiary and Quaternary basaltic eruptions in North Auckland have built lava plateaus and many young cones.

EARTHQUAKES: Geophysical Background—An earthquake occurs when energy is suddenly released from a volume of rock within the Earth's outer layers, and is radiated outwards in the form of elastic waves that can be felt at places near the origin, and detected by sensitive instruments at greater distances. Earthquakes are most common in certain geographically limited regions, one of which includes New Zealand. Within these disturbed zones, young fold mountains, oceanic trenches, volcanoes, anomalies in the Earth's gravitational field, and active geological faulting are also usual, and like the earthquakes have their ultimate cause in the internal processes incidental to the major structural development of the Earth, and as yet imperfectly understood.

The seismically active zones define the margins of a system of stable blocks or plates which are not completely inactive, but experience large earthquakes only infrequently, and are thought to be the primary units of the Earth's crust. Two of these units, the Pacific and Indian Plates, abut in the vicinity of New Zealand, forming a triple junction with a third, the Antarctic Plate, south of Macquarie Island. As a result of thermally generated convective movements in the deeper levels of the earth, relative displacement of the plates is occurring and this provides the continuing source of the energy that is intermittently released as earthquakes.

Instrumental records have shown that at the time of an earthquake large shearing movements take place at the source. It seems probable that all major earthquakes are the result of the breakage of rock under strain, but other factors such as the presence or absence of liquid in the pores and fractures of the rock are also of primary importance in determining the time and place at which a shock occurs.

In large shallow earthquakes a rupture may appear at the surface, forming or renewing movement on a geological fault. In regions where the majority of earthquakes are very shallow, such as California, there is a tendency for the earthquake origins to cluster near geological fault traces, but in regions where there is deeper activity, such as New Zealand, this is not so. For example, there is little activity near the Alpine Fault, which stretches for some 500 km from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti, and is considered one of the world's largest and most active faults. Conversely, instances of fault movement that have not been accompanied by earthquakes are known. Practical assessments of earthquake risk must therefore be based upon the statistics of known earthquake distribution and the broader geological setting of the origins.

New Zealand Seismicity—Compared with some other parts of the Pacific margin, such as Japan, Chile, and the Philippines, the level of seismic activity in New Zealand is moderate. It may be roughly compared with that prevailing in California. A shock of Richter magnitude 6 or above occurs on the average about once a year, one of magnitude 7 or above once in ten years, and one of about magnitude 8 perhaps once a century, but in historic times only one shock (the south-west Wairarapa earthquake in 1855) is known to have reached this magnitude.

Other natural disasters and accidents are together responsible for more casualties than earthquakes, the most serious seismic disasters in New Zealand having been the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 1931 in which 256 deaths occurred, and the Buller earthquake of 1929 in which there were 17. The total resulting from all other shocks since 1840 is less than 15 deaths. The last earthquake to cause deaths occurred at Inangahua in 1968, when 3 people died.

Regarded broadly, the zone of seismicity within which New Zealand lies extends continuously from the triple junction south of Macquarie Island to Samoa. When looked at more closely, breaks in continuity and changes in the character of the activity become apparent. There are changes in direction, in the positional relationship of the deeper and shallower activity, and in its association with the other geophysical and geological features of the region.

Within New Zealand itself, at least two separate systems of seismic activity can be distinguished. The Main Seismic Region, which is the larger, covers the whole of the North Island apart from the Northland peninsula, and the South Island north of a line passing roughly between Banks Peninsula and Cape Foulwind. The Southern, or Fiordland, Seismic Region includes Southern Westland, Western Southland, and Western Otago. Less clearly defined activity covers the remainder of the two main Islands, and extends eastwards from Banks Peninsula to include the Chatham Islands.

Shallow earthquakes, which are the most numerous, originate within the Earth's crust, which in New Zealand has an average thickness of some 35 km. These shocks are responsible for almost all damage to property, and now and in the past they have been widely scattered throughout the country. In historically recent times, the Main and Fiordland Seismic Regions have been significantly more active than the rest of New Zealand, but neither the Central Seismic Region that lies between them nor the Northland peninsula has been free from damaging shocks. The details of the present pattern are not necessarily unchanging, and could alter significantly after the occurrence of a major earthquake. Because of this, because of the broader geophysical setting, and because of the distance to which the effects of a large earthquake extends, it would be highly imprudent to treat any part of New Zealand as free from the risk of serious earthquake damage.

Many active regions of the Earth have only shallow earthquakes, but in others shocks have been known to occur at depths as great as 700 km below the surface. It is thought that these deep shocks originate within the edges of crustal plates that have been drawn down or thrust beneath their neighbours. Such deep events are common in both the Main and Fiordland Seismic Regions of New Zealand, but their relative positions with respect to the shallow activity and to other geophysical features are rough mirror images. This is believed to indicate that in the North Island, the edge of the Pacific Plate lies below that of the Indian Plate, while in the south of the South Island the Pacific Plate is uppermost and the Indian Plate has been thrust beneath it.

The most important system of deep shocks in New Zealand lies in a well-defined zone beneath the Main Seismic Region, stretching from the Bay of Plenty to Nelson and Marlborough. The maximum depth of occurrence is about 400 km at the northern end, and decreases smoothly to a depth of about 200 km before the southern boundary of the region is reached. Along the whole of the system, there is also a decrease in maximum depth from west to east. In northern Taranaki, near the western limit of this activity, a small isolated group of shocks at a depth of about 600 km has also been recorded. In the Central Seismic Region only shallow shocks are known.

The maximum depth of the earthquakes in the Fiordland Region appears to be only about 160 km, but it is only recently that instrumental coverage has been adequate for a proper study of this area. Here, the deep activity is more concentrated than in the north, lying close to Lakes Te Anau and Manapouri.

Both earthquakes and volcanoes are found in geophysically disturbed regions, but although small earthquakes usually accompany volcanic eruptions, large ones are rare. Regions of active volcanism are also subject to periodic outbreaks of small earthquakes, all of similar magnitude, and very numerous. These events are known as “earthquake swarms”. Although the number of shocks may cause alarm, it is unusual for even minor damage to result. There is not often a simultaneous volcanic outbreak, but swarms do not seem to occur in non-volcanic regions. In New Zealand they have occurred in the volcanic zone that includes Mt. Ruapehu and White Island, in the Coromandel Peninsula, in parts of Northland, and near Mt. Egmont.

Seismological Observatory—Each year the Seismological Observatory, Wellington, a section of the Geophysics Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, publishes the analyses of many hundred earthquakes originating in the New Zealand region, using data obtained from its own network of recording stations, and from stations in other countries. The instrumental data are supplemented by information about felt effects, supplied by a large number of voluntary observers, who complete a standard questionnaire.

The network of recording stations controlled by the Observatory is now one of the world's largest and most extended, covering the main islands of New Zealand, a large part of the south-west Pacific, and the Ross Dependency. The 34 permanent stations now operating are:

Afiamalu, Apia (Western Samoa); Nadi (Fiji); Niue; Rarotonga (Cook Islands); Raoul Island (Kermadecs); Cape Reinga, Onerahi, Great Barrier, Auckland, East Cape, Karapiro, Whakatane, Gisborne, Wairakei, Tuai, Tarata, Taradale, Mangahao, Castlepoint, Cobb River, Wellington, Kaikoura West, Kaimata, Cashmere, Chatham Islands, Mount John, Milford Sound, Oamaru, Roxburgh, Borland Lodge, Oban; Campbell Island; Scott Base (Antarctica).

At Afiamalu, Rarotonga, Wellington, and Scott Base the equipment Includes instruments of internationally standardised pattern designed to record both local and distant activity. The stations at Karapiro and Roxburgh are also equipped to record both local and distant shocks. At the other stations, many of which record more than one component of the ground motion, the instruments are primarily intended for the study of shocks within about 1000 km. Scott Base and several of the island stations provide preliminary readings by radio, but all final analyses are made at the Observatory in Wellington.

Two networks of more closely-spaced stations, connected to central recorders by radio links or land lines, provide for detailed studies of small earthquakes in particular regions. One, for general research purposes, is centred on Wellington, and the other, near Lake Pukaki in the South Island, is primarily intended to monitor any change in earthquake activity associated with the development of a hydroelectric power scheme. These networks also provide valuable readings of New Zealand and overseas earthquakes. Portable equipment is available for more intensive study of aftershock sequences, earthquake swarms, and micro-earthquakes, and for other research projects. In addition, the Department's Physics and Engineering Laboratory maintains a network of strong-motion recorders intended to provide data on large shocks for engineering purposes.

The information collected and published by the Observatory covers all significant earthquakes in the New Zealand region. It is made freely available to the public and the press, as well as to seismologists, engineers, and other specialists. In addition, a very large number of distant earthquakes are recorded, and readings of these, as well as of the local activity, are regularly sent to international agencies and to overseas seismologists who have a need for them. The Observatory itself carries out a vigorous programme of research into problems of seismicity and earthquake mechanism, and into the structure and constitution of the Earth's crust and its deep interior.

EARTHQUAKES DURING 1979—New Zealand had only moderate activity throughout 1979, with very little damage. Only one earthquake could be described as large, but even this one was not accompanied by very strong shaking. It occurred on the evening of 12 October, to the west of Stewart Island. Initial reports form the U.S. Geological Survey in Colorado put the magnitude at 7.7, which would have meant a very severe earthquake, but this estimate was made from the low frequency waves that travel to great distances around the surface of the Earth. The estimate of the magnitude from New Zealand seismograph stations was 6.5. This is similar to that of the Milford Sound event in 1976.

This earthquake has provided a further clue about the process of earthquake occurrence in the far south of New Zealand. It was known that earthquakes in Fiordland are not felt as strongly as shocks of the same magnitude elsewhere in the country, but the nature of earthquakes to the south of Fiordland was not known. With the response from the observatory's regular reporters and from the public at large it has now been ascertained that the unusually small ground motion experienced in Fiordland is also characteristic of earthquakes further south. An earthquake of the same magnitude elsewhere in the country could cause severe damage, but in this case the effects were very minimal, even allowing for the fact that the epicentre was at sea. Much more investigation will be necessary before the geophysical processes in the far south of the country are understood.

Wairoa, Wanganui, and Murchison experienced the strongest shaking during the year. At 7.45 a.m. on 22 April an earthquake of magnitude 5.1 shook northern Hawke's Bay, bringing goods off shelves in Wairoa and causing some alarm. At 2.15 a.m. on 17 June Wanganui was shaken by an earthquake which occurred 137 km below the earth's surface. Deep earthquakes usually cause little damage, because of their distance from the surface, but this was of sufficiently large magnitude (5.7) that the strong rolling motion woke people throughout the Wanganui area and brought goods off shelves in many shops. The shock was felt over a wide area extending to Gisborne and Akaroa. An earthquake of magnitude 5.6 on Sunday 25 March was felt strongly in the Buller area, particularly in Murchison and Ross, and less severely throughout a wide area.

Other earthquakes were less severe, caused little damage, and served only to remind people that the earthquake problem is a continual one. The Cook Strait area was jolted by a sharp shock on Saturday evening, 13 January, which was central about halfway between Wellington and Blenheim. Another occurred in a similar location on 10 April and another a little further west on 3 September. All were felt throughout the Wellington area and further afield. An earthquake of magnitude 5.5, centred some 104 km beneath Lake Te Anau, was felt throughout Otago, Southland, and Stewart Island on 15 May, but because of its depth there was no damage. In all some 200 or more events were felt during the year and the observatory recorded many hundreds more which were too small to be felt but are of scientific significance.

Volcanic activity has been limited to intermittent ash and steam eruptions from White Island throughout the year. The volcanoes of the central North Island have been quiet.

WEATHER INFORMATION—The New Zealand Meteorological Service maintains networks of meteorological stations within New Zealand, its island dependencies, at Scott Base and, by arrangement, in Tonga, Tuvalu, Kiribati, and the Cook Islands. The weather observations are transmitted regularly to Wellington for international exchange, for the preparation of weather forecasts and special warnings, for compiling climatological statistics, and for providing a general weather information service for Government departments, industry, and the general public. All weather observations are preserved in the Meteorological Archives, Wellington. The Meteorological Service also has a programme of atmospheric research.

Observations recorded at a few selected stations in 1979 are summarised in tables which follow but for further detailed climatological statistics reference should be made to the annual publications of the New Zealand Meteorological Service; Miscellaneous Publications No. 109 Meteorological Observations, and No. 110 Rainfall Observations. Current statistics appear monthly in the New Zealand Gazette. Special reports are published from time to time to supplement the regular data publications.

Most weather data are now held in computer accessible-data files, and several kinds of output are available to provide an alternative means of dissemination of information to the printed publications.

CLIMATE—Situated between 34°S and 47°S the main islands of New Zealand lie just south of the subtropical mean high pressure belt and penetrate into the hemispheric westerly airstream which is usually strongest in the New Zealand region between 50°S and 55°S. The daily weather patterns are dominated by eastward-moving anticyclones and troughs of low pressure whose frequencies and intensities vary substantially. The troughs normally have a north-west and south-west orientation and are associated with deep depressions centred far to the south. A typical weather sequence commences with a low-pressure trough approaching from the west. Freshening north-westerly winds prevail with increasing cloud, followed by rain for a period during which winds may reach gale force. The passage of the trough, with its associated cold front, is accompanied by a change to cold south-westerly or southerly winds and showery weather, occasionally with some hail and thunder. The barometer then rises with the approach of the next anticyclone from the west. Winds moderate and fair weather prevails for a few days as the anticyclone moves across the country.

While the sequence just described is very common the situation is frequently much more complex. The troughs are very unstable systems where depressions readily form. Some of these develop into vigorous storms that may pass over New Zealand at any time of the year. Occasionally in summer a cyclonic storm of tropical origin accompanied by gales and heavy rain passes over or near New Zealand, affecting mainly northern and eastern districts of the North Island. The anticyclones vary in size, intensity, and rate of movement. Their centres, on the average, follow a track across the North Island but individual centres may pass either north or south of the country, the more northerly tracks being favoured in spring and the southerly tracks in autumn and winter. At times when little development occurs within the troughs the anticyclones follow each other at intervals of about 6–7 days.

The other main factors which influence the climate of New Zealand are, first, its position in the midst of a vast ocean, and second, the shape and topography of the country itself.

Hot air masses from the interior of Australia in summer or freezing air masses from the Antarctic, which occasionally reach New Zealand, retain little of their original characters after their long ocean passages. Since abundant supplies of moisture are supplied by evaporation from the ocean, and depressions are frequent and vigorous, the average precipitation is high.

The chain of high mountains, which extends from south-west to north-east through the length of the country, rises as a formidable barrier in the path of the prevailing westerly winds. The effect is to produce much sharper climatic contrasts from west to east than in the north-south direction. In some inland areas of the South Island just east of the mountains the climate is distinctly continental in character, despite the fact that no part of New Zealand is more than 130 km from the sea.

Winds—Winds from a westerly quarter prevail in all seasons although in individual months easterlies may predominate. In the North Island winds generally decrease for a period in the summer or early autumn. However, in the South Island, July and August are the least windy months. Important modifications to the wind pattern are caused by mountain ranges and by the heating or cooling contrasts between land and sea. The north-westerly foehn wind in eastern areas of both islands gives rise to a characteristic weather type. The blocking effect of the mountain ranges decrease wind strength on the upwind side but increases it in the mountain passes and in Cook and Foveaux Straits and about the Manawatu Gorge. Sea breezes are frequent and in many parts of New Zealand are almost certainly coupled with the mountain winds. North of Taranaki the general air flow is from the south-west and there is a noticeable reduction of windiness in the summer.

An indication of the variation in the frequency of strong winds from summer to winter, and in different parts of the country, is given in the next table. These figures were all obtained by the use of anemographs at airports.

StationAverage Number of Days with Gusts ReachingYears of Data
63 km/h or more96 km/h or more
Nov-AprMay-OctYearNov-AprMay-OctYear
Kaitaia1632480.71.62.321
Whangarei1626420.81.42.28
Auckland2131520.90.81.79
Tauranga1523380.50.71.222
Rotorua1116270.30.20.59
Hamilton913220.60.68
Gisborne2127480.40.91.329
New Plymouth3348812.14.76.822
Napier1721380.60.51.123
Wanganui3742792.74.47.116
Palmerston North2622481.10.81.918
Wellington909818818.822.741.58
Nelson2014340.50.30.830
Blenheim2315380.70.51.230
Westport1420340.41.01.423
Hokitika1420340.31.31.68
Christchurch3123541.51.32.829
Timaru1512270.70.61.315
Dunedin2832602.62.85.411
Gore2920490.90.95
Invercargill5345985.85.010.827

Rainfall—The distribution of rainfall is mainly controlled by mountain features, and the highest rainfalls occur where the mountains are exposed to the direct sweep of the westerly and north-westerly winds. The mean annual rainfall (see map) ranges from as little as 300 mm in a small area of Central Otago to over 8000 mm in the Southern Alps. The average for the whole country is high, but for the greater part it lies between 600 and 1500 mm, a range regarded as favourable for plant growth in the temperate zone. The only areas with under 600 mm are found in the South Island to the east of the main ranges. These include most of central and north Otago, and South Canterbury. In the North Island, the driest areas are central and southern Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu where the average rainfall is 700–1000 mm a year. Of the remainder, much valuable farm land, chiefly in northern Taranaki and Northland, has upwards of 1500 mm. Over a considerable area of both Islands rainfall exceeds 2500 mm a year but, with the exception of Westland, this is mountainous and unoccupied, much of it being forest-covered.

For a large part of the country the rainfall is spread evenly through the year. The greatest contrast is found in the north, where winter has almost twice as much rain as summer. This predominance of winter rainfall diminishes southwards. It is still discernible over the northern part of the South Island but, over the southern half, winter is the season with least rainfall, and a definite summer maximum is found inland due to the effect of convectional showers. The rainfall is also influenced by seasonal variations in the strength of the westerly winds. Spring rainfall is increased in and west of the ranges as the westerlies rise to their maximum about October, while a complementary decrease occurs at the same time in the lee of the ranges.

Areas which are exposed to the west and south-west experience much showery weather, and rain falls on roughly half the days of the year. Over most of the North Island there are at least 130 rain days (days with at least 1.0 mm of rain) a year except to the east of the ranges where there are, in places fewer than 110 rain days. Those areas of the South Island with annual rainfall under 600 mm generally have about 80 rain days a year. In the far south the frequency of rain increases sharply; in Stewart Island and Fiordland rain days exceed 200 a year.

On the whole the seasonal rainfall does not vary greatly from year to year, the reliability in spring being particularly advantageous for agricultural purposes. It is least reliable in late summer and autumn, when very dry conditions may develop east of the ranges, particularly in Hawke's Bay.

The highest daily rainfall on record is 582 mm which occurred at Rapid Creek, Hokitika Catchment, where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 6000 mm. Other areas with considerably lower rainfall are also subject to very heavy daily falls; such areas are to be found in northern Hawke's Bay and in northeastern districts of the Auckland Province. By contrast, in the Manawatu district and in Otago and Southland daily falls reaching 80 mm are very rare.

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL (MILLIMETRES) (1941–70)
StationJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
Kaitaia Aerodrome799484119152157150165122112102941430
Kerikeri76124112142178178183196142114991041648
Dargaville6684791041321501321379710984791253
Auckland (Albert Park)6494861141271351371429410784841268
Tauranga Aerodrome8484114114137132137137107114841041348
Rotorua991141171171501501421371271221041321511
Taupo8194769110912211710984102841121199
Hamilton (Ruakura)718184991121321171179710791891197
Taumarunui8999841091321521351241171371241301432
New Plymouth Aerodrome1071021021171631681631471121351171321565
Masterton (Waingawa)645876711021071029174746976964
Gisborne Aerodrome74619191109112112117747158641034
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)1501401681802111881982261501501471522060
Napier515866618489798151534364780
Wanganui696461748691817658816989899
Palmerston North84697474869991846989791041002
Wellington (Kelburn)8184949713213514012410211284861271
Westport Aerodrome1551681571912011881831701701832011852152
Hokitika Aerodrome2312512392342722292412362392572772342940
Milford Sound5315696305264834193784245385466385546236
Nelson Aerodrome7474818911279919476817474999
Blenheim514351537658666153534851664
Hanmer Forest8681919911799104114899789991165
Lake Coleridge616158767971817974767671863
Christchurch514658588456585346464656658
Lake Tekapo514348535348534856515151606
Timaru585858484836413841485869601
Dunedin (Musselburgh)746176747166564648587171772
Queenstown746676717966646176767664849
Alexandra463838282820151520283330339
Gore766976797679564853698179841
Invercargill Aerodrome897994104911076966748694891042

Thunderstorms—Thunderstorms are not numerous. Their frequency is greatest in the north and west where thunder is heard on 15 to 20 days a year; east of the ranges (except in Gisborne) the figure is five or less.

Hail—Hail is most frequent in the south-west where it is reported on about 20 days a year, but for the greater part of the country it occurs on about 5 days a year or less. Most of the hailstones are small, but occasionally large stones cause local damage to glasshouses, and to orchards and market gardens, chiefly in Canterbury and Hawke's Bay.

Temperature—Mean temperatures at sea level decrease steadily southwards from 15°c in the far north to 12°c about Cook Strait, then to 9°c in the south. With increasing altitude, temperatures drop about 2°c per 300 m. January and February, with approximately the same mean temperature are the warmest months of the year; July is the coldest. Some temperature statistics for selected places are included in the table on climatological averages. Highest temperatures are recorded east of the main ranges, where they exceed 30°c on a few afternoons in most summers, usually in association with a north-westerly Föhn wind. The extremes for New Zealand (measured in a standard thermometer screen) are 42°c, which has been recorded in three places: Jordan (Marlborough), Christchurch, and Rangiora (Canterbury); and −19°c at Ophir (Central Otago).

As is to be expected, there is a small annual range of temperature (difference between mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months). In Northland and in western districts of both Islands the annual range is about 8°c. For the remainder of the North Island, and east coast districts of the South Island, it is 9°–10°C. Further inland it exceeds 11°c in places, reaching a maximum of 14°c in Central Otago where there is an approach to a continental type of climate.

Frost—It is well known that local variations in frostiness are considerable, even within quite small areas. On a calm, clear night the cold air in contact with a sloping surface gravitates slowly downhill to collect in valleys and depressions, and it is these “Katabatic” drifts which are mainly responsible for local temperature variations at night. Gently sloping ground with a northerly aspect tends to be least affected by frost. Favourable sites in coastal areas of Northland are free of frost, although further inland light frosts occur frequently in the winter months. At Albert Park, Auckland, the screen minimum thermometer (1.3 m above the ground) has registered below 0°c only once in 65 years, yet up the harbour at Whenuapai Aerodrome there are eight screen frosts per annum on the average. Excluding the uninhabited mountainous areas, the coldest winter conditions are experienced in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains of inland Canterbury, and on the central plateau of the North Island. Even in these areas night temperatures as low as −12°c are rarely recorded. Elsewhere over the North Island the winters are very mild and pastures maintain continuous growth. In both Islands sheep and cattle remain in the open all the year round.

Snow—The majority of New Zealanders rarely see snow except on the mountains. The North Island has a small permanent snow field above 2500 m on the central plateau, but the snow line rarely descends below 600 m even for brief periods in winter. In the South Island snow falls on a few days a year in eastern coastal districts, and in some years may lie for a day or two even at sea level. In Westland it does not lie at sea level. The snow line on the Southern Alps is around 2000 m in summer, being slightly lower on the western side where the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers descend through heavy bush to within 300 m of sea level. In inland Canterbury and Otago, where there are considerable areas of grazing lands above 300 m, snowfalls are heavier and more persistent and have caused serious losses of sheep during severe winters in the past. However, only rarely does the winter snow line there remain below 1000 m for extended periods.

Relative Humidity—Humidity is commonly between 70 and 80 percent in coastal areas and about 10 percent lower inland. It varies inversely to the temperature, falling to a minimum in the early afternoon when temperature is highest and frequently lying between 90 and 100 percent during clear nights. As the following table shows, the diurnal variation is greater than the difference between summer and winter.

StationMean Relative Humidity
JanuaryJuly
3 a.m.3 p.m.3 a.m.3 p.m.
 percent
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)85639074
Gisborne85578769
Ohakea Aerodrome87628972
Wellington89718777
Christchurch83578870
Hokitika94768770
Invercargill87689077

Very low humidity—from 30 percent down to about 5 percent—occurs at times in the lee of the Southern Alps where the Föhn effect is often very marked. In summer the hot, dry “Canterbury Nor'wester” is generally a most unpleasant wind. Cool south-westerlies are also at times very dry when they reach eastern districts. In Northland the humid mid-summer conditions are inclined to be rather oppressive though temperatures rarely reach 30°c. Dull, humid spells are generally not prolonged anywhere, but their frequency shows a marked increase in the south.

Sunshine—The sunniest places are near Blenheim, the Nelson-Motueka area, and Whakatane, where the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 2350 hours a year. The rest of the Bay of Plenty and Napier are only slightly less sunny. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2000 hours. Even Westland, despite its high rainfall, has 1800 hours. Southland and coastal Otago, where sunshine drops sharply to about 1700 hours a year, lie on the northern fringe of a broad zone of increasing cloudiness. Four hundred miles further to the south at Campbell Island the sunshine has the extremely low value of 650 hours a year. A pleasant feature of the New Zealand climate is the high proportion of sunshine during the winter months. To eliminate the effect of varying day-length the summer and winter sunshine at a few selected stations has been expressed as a percentage of the possible sunshine.

StationSummerWinter
 percent
Auckland5447
Hamilton5443
New Plymouth5446
Napier5650
Wellington5341
Nelson5957
Hokitika4645
Christchurch4746
Dunedin4042
Invercargill4135

As these figures indicate, there is a marked increase in cloudiness in the North Island in winter, but little seasonal change in the South Island, except in Southland.

Climatological Averages—The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

StationAltitude (metres)Annual AveragesAir Temperatures (Degrees Celsius)
Rain Days (1.0mm or More)Rain Days (5.0mm or More)Bright Sunshine (Hrs)Days of Screen Frost (min. air temp. less than 0°C)Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumMean Annual
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
Kaitaia Aerodrome80138722138015.52415158282
Kerikeri73135722014115.12515136290
Dargaville20147722011314.6231514729−2
Auckland (Albert Park)49140672140015.42314168273
Tauranga Aerodrome4118642285814.2241414529−2
Hamilton (Ruakura)401317220541713.2231312329−3
Rotorua3071236819332512.5231212329−3
Gisborne Aerodrome4113552224614.0241413432−2
Taupo3761236620683911.8231111229−4
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)643164100 611.120911328−1
Taumarunui1711408317243912.9241312231−5
New Plymouth (Aerodrome)27142832102013.12113135260
Napier292432262614.1241314432−2
Wangnnui22117592092413.5221214529−1
Palmerston North341276218261513.0221213428−3
Masterton (Waingawa)1141235720072912.2241211231−4
Wellington (Kelburn)126124682014012.52011136261
Nelson Aerodrome2965424034111.9221212128−3
Blenheim4843924703612.6231212232−4
Westport Aerodrome21691111937112.11912124250
Hanmer Forest3871156519238510.12299−232−9
Hokitika Aerodrome3916811818832511.3191111326−2
Lake Coleridge3649852 7010.121910−131−7
Christchurch7853719853711.7221112132−4
Timaru17813318103911.0211011032−4
Milford Sound3183145 2710.318910225−3
Queenstown329935019315310.122810−130−5
Alexandra141642020478110.623711−232−8
Dunedin (Musselburgh)2119481695810.9191011330−2
Gore721376016984010.12199031−5
Invercargill Aerodrome0157691627489.61899028−5

NOTES: (1) Averages of sunshine 1941–70; mean temperature, mean daily maximum and mean daily minimum 1941–70; other temperature data, rain days, and days of screen frost, various periods—all exceeding 10 years.

(2) For normal monthly and annual rainfall for these stations, see table under subsection on Rainfall.

(3) At Hanmer, Queenstown, and Alexandra the possible sunshine is considerably reduced by hills or mountains, by amounts varying from 3/4 hour per day at Alexandra to 1 1/2 hours per day at Hanmer and 3 1/4 hours per day at Queenstown. The reductions in actual sunshine are less than this—mainly between half and three-fifths of the above amounts.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for 1979—The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1979 were made at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time, i.e. 2100 hours Greenwich mean time.

StationRainfall (mm)Rain Days (1.0 mm or more)Bright Sunshine (hours)Screen Frost Days*Air Temperature (Degrees Celsius)
Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumExtremes
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
* Minimum air temperatures less than 0.0°C.
Dargaville150116417990315.224.214.814.66.728.2−3.2
Whangarei17791560215.625.315.115.46.730.0−0.5
Auckland164813619980016.124.514.516.78.427.53.2
Tauranga Airport173011720690114.725.314.214.55.930.7−0.1
Whakarewarewa165212820541313.024.411.812.74.229.2−2.7
Taupo137412318532212.425.211.311.43.230.3−2.1
Ruakura, Hamilton149513618661214.024.613.611.84.029.1−4.3
Taumarunui158814215352013.425.812.712.13.730.6−3.8
New Plymouth Airport144214820290114.022.013.612.95.726.6−0.2
Masterton124714017042112.824.712.512.13.332.7−3.0
Gisborne Airport111411221970314.527.513.914.04.438.1−1.6
Onepoto, Waikaremoana22071610324.09.93.331.4−0.5
Napier9399820751114.626.014.115.14.935.2−2.4
Palmerston North DSIR104213214850313.522.212.613.64.628.4−1.5
Kelburn Wellington164315018140012.821.011.813.46.428.80.8
Wanganui89513218000014.122.713.414.25.931.20.2
Westport Airport270518617300012.518.412.711.44.825.00.6
Hokitika Airport327618218111111.717.612.210.63.426.0−2.1
Milford Sound70751952510.317.49.59.02.624.5−2.1
Nelson Airport94710922182212.623.512.613.31.830.9−2.7
Blenheim8158422572313.225.313.213.12.236.0−2.1
Hanmer Forest13921267924.411.19.2−0.632.6−7.5
Lake Coleridge93011222.911.010.0−0.732.0−6.1
Christchurch8318120463012.223.811.912.22.034.1−4.5
Lake Tekapo662842106749.222.67.99.4−0.429.5−4.8
Timaru6528917452811.322.211.211.41.633.5−3.5
Musselburgh, Dunedin77113114950211.019.111.110.33.931.0−4.5
Queenstown99411217833110.521.98.510.01.229.6−3.6
Alexandra3947619208610.723.89.99.1−1.532.0−6.2
Gore, DSIR8621311589289.718.49.68.02.227.5−5.3
Invercargill Airport10571481569419.917.410.88.52.126.4−4.8

For 1979 the mean sea level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time were: Auckland, 1016.8; Kelburn, Wellington, 1014.8; Nelson Airport, 1015.1; Hokitika Airport, 1014.9; Christchurch, 1013.2; and Dunedin Airport, 1012.6.

Brief Review of 1979—From March to July inclusive, pressures were above normal over the whole of New Zealand, being exceptionally high in July. There was a marked absence of strong gusty winds throughout the year apart from September and December, when a record number of days with high gusts occurred in the Wellington region.

The only district in the North Island with annual rainfall below normal was Taranaki. In Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Wellington some areas were above normal by 30 percent.

In the South Island parts of coastal Canterbury had 20 percent more rainfall than normal, and most other districts were above by at least 10 percent. In Nelson the year's total rainfall was below normal by 5 percent.

With many areas recording 20 to 30 percent more rain than usual, this was the wettest year overall since 1968.

Reported temperatures were above normal throughout most of the North Island by at least 0.5°c, and in southern Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa by 1.0°c. In the South Island, parts of Nelson, Marlborough, Canterbury, and Otago were also above by 0.5°c. The only areas with temperatures slightly below normal were inland Otago and Southland.

The year 1979 was a cloudy one. The only area with a sunshine total significantly above normal was Canterbury with a departure of 60 hours. The cloudiest areas were parts of Taranaki, Wanganui, Manawatu, Wairarapa, Wellington, and Nelson, with between 250 and 300 hours less sunshine than usual.

Monthly Notes—During January pressures were exceptionally low to the south of New Zealand and there was a predominance of westerly winds over the country. The only areas with above normal rainfall were parts of Westland, Fiordland, Otago, and Southland. Parts of Southland were above by more than 150 percent. Many stations in the North Island and Canterbury recorded less than 25 percent of their normal month's total. Heavy rain on the 26th and 27th caused many rivers in Southland to rise rapidly. At Gore 84 mm of rain were recorded from 5 p.m. on the 26th to 9 a.m. on the 28th. Mean temperatures were above normal over most of the country by at least 1.0°c, but in Otago, Southland, and the West Coast they were below by 0.5°c to 1.0°c. Gisborne recorded a maximum of 38.1°c, and this was the highest January temperature since the station began in 1938. Sunshine totals were above normal over the whole country apart from the West Coast. Gisborne recorded its highest-ever January total of 316 hours. Grass growth was affected by dry weather but conditions were good for haymaking.

February was a wet, cloudy month throughout most of the North Island, but in the South Island it was drier and sunnier than normal. The only February with a higher frequency of strong winds over the South Island in recent years was in 1965. In Northland, Auckland, Bay of Plenty, and northern Hawke's Bay rainfall totals were above normal by at least 100 percent. Torrential rain caused major flooding in the Auckland area on the 17th and 18th. The heaviest falls were between noon and 8 p.m. on the 17th. At Albert Park (Auckland) 142 mm were recorded in the 24 hours up to 9 a.m. on the 18th. The previous highest recorded 1–day fall for February at this station were 162 mm in 1936 and 1869. The only areas with temperatures slightly above normal were parts of Poverty Bay, Taranaki, and Canterbury. In Bay of Plenty, Westland, and Fiordland they were below by nearly 1.0°c. The last 8 days of the month were unusually cold. Christchurch had 30 hours more sunshine than usual, but Te Kuiti and Taumarunui had 60 hours less. Grass growth improved in most areas except in the South Island, but stock was in good condition.

March was an unusually wet month, and in many parts of New Zealand March rainfall records were broken. At some stations in Bay of Plenty, central Hawke's Bay, western Wairarapa, and on the Kaikoura coast the month's totals were about 400 percent above the average. Only parts of Taranaki, Buller, Otago, Southland, and Fiordland had less rain than normal. On the 6th Franz Josef recorded 505 mm in 24 hours, making this the highest 1-day fall there in March since the station began. In the Bay of Plenty heavy rain on the 19th caused landslips and flooding. At Te Puke 293 mm were recorded in 24 hours and Tauranga Airport 178 mm in the same period—both record 1-day totals for March. Mean temperatures were below normal by 0.5°c in parts of Canterbury and Southland, but in Northland, Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Waikato, and Wairarapa they were above average by more than 2.0°c. Sunshine totals were below normal over the whole country, many areas having only 50 to 70 percent of the normal March total. At Highbank (Canterbury) only 43 percent of the usual March total was recorded, almost 100 hours less than average. Harvesting in many areas was delayed because of wet weather.

During April conditions were dry and sunny in many districts east of the main ranges in both the North and South Islands. In the wettest areas of Auckland, Taranaki, Manawatu, and the West Coast, and also in inland Otago and Southland, the rainfall total was 20 to 30 percent above normal. At Christchurch Airport only 11 mm were recorded for the month, and this is the lowest for April since the station began in 1944. On the 15th extensive damage was caused by flooding in a shopping complex at Mairangi Bay (Auckland). At Whenuapai more than 64 mm were recorded in 48 hours, and 45 mm in 24 hours at Albert Park (Auckland). Parts of Southland and Otago had mean temperatures above normal by 1.0°c and many areas of New Zealand by 0.5°C. Some east coast districts had above normal sunshine hours. At Christchurch Airport a total of 202 hours made this an April record for this station where sunshine measurements began in 1949. Harvesting, which was delayed by heavy rain in March, was completed and stock condition had improved considerably by the end of the month.

May was a comparatively wet month in many districts but Northland, Auckland and parts of Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay, Hawkes Bay, inland Wairarapa, and Nelson had less than 50 percent of the normal rainfall. More than double the normal monthly totals were recorded in parts of Canterbury, Otago and Southland. On the 14th cars and buses were stranded on the Te Anau—Milford road when the Southland region experienced heavy rain and snow. Between 30 and 45 cm of snow were reported to be lying on the road which was blocked by fallen trees. Flooding closed the Invercargill Airport when 48 mm of rain were recorded in 48 hours. Heavy hail in eastern areas of Bay of Plenty damaged crops and smashed windows in some buildings at Thornton on the 15th. Mean temperatures were below normal by 0.5°c in most districts apart from the north of the North Island. Taranaki, and some eastern areas. Sunshine hours were above normal in parts of Northland, Bay of Plenty, and the West Coast. At Wellington only 84 hours were recorded, the lowest May total since 1942. Grass growth was good at the beginning of the month but slowed later with cooler temperatures.

June was mainly dry and warm throughout most of New Zealand, but in Northland, Auckland, and parts of Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay, Nelson, and Marlborough rainfall totals were between 50 and 100 percent above normal. Some stations in Canterbury and Otago had only 10 to 25 percent of their normal June rainfall. At Methven only 2 mm were recorded for the month. On the 12th, 73 mm were recorded in 9 hours at Kaitaia, and roads were closed by landslips and flooding throughout Northland. Most districts were warmer than usual by at least 1.0°c, and in Northland, Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, and Otago by 1.5°c. In Auckland City only 72 hours sunshine were recorded for the month, the lowest total for June since records began in 1930. Very few areas had above average sunshine totals. Heavy rain and lack of sun and wind caused some pastures in the North Island to be too wet for stock but grass growth was reported to be good.

In July pressures were above normal for the fourth consecutive month over the whole of New Zealand. There was a marked absence of days with very strong winds. The month was mild and much wetter than usual in districts to the north of Bay of Plenty and in parts of Canterbury. In Manawatu only 50 percent of the average July rainfall was recorded, but in Auckland, Bay of Plenty, and Canterbury totals ranged from 40 to 75 percent above. Widespread flooding was reported in many parts of Northland and Auckland on the 1st. Roads were blocked by landslips and flooding and homes were evacuated in the Auckland district. More than 100 mm of rain were recorded at Albert Park (Auckland) between midnight and 9 a.m. on the 1st. Most areas had mean temperatures above normal by at least 0.5°c, and in South Canterbury, Otago, and Southland by more than 1.5°c. The minimum air temperature at Whanuapai on the 8th was −2.0°c and at Albert Park 3.0°c. Most farmers reported that stock were wintering well and in good condition.

During August most of New Zealand experienced cloudy, wet, cool conditions throughout the month. The only areas with rainfall below normal were parts of Northland, Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, Nelson, the West Coast, and Southland. In Wairarapa and Canterbury some places had departures of between 50 and 100 percent above average. From the 21st to 27th many parts of the North Island and parts of Canterbury experienced heavy rain. Some airports were closed by heavy rain and low cloud on numerous occasions over a period of 4 days. At Kelburn, Wellington, there were 23 days in the month with more than 0.1 mm of rain, the greatest number in any August at this station since 1941. Temperatures were below normal By 1.0°c in Otago, Southland, and on the West Coast, but in northern areas of the North Island they were slightly above average. At Palmerston North only 69 hours of sunshine were recorded, the lowest for any August since the station began in 1931. Heavy rain and cold temperatures resulted in many lamb losses in the Wairarapa at the end of the month.

September was a cloudy month in most regions, with above normal temperatures. The only areas with below normal rainfall were Nelson, Marlborough, and Canterbury, and parts of Northland, Waikato, Taranaki and Manawatu. In Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa some places had above average rainfall by more than 100 percent. In Marlborough and Canterbury some of the lowest September rainfalls for at least 10 years were recorded. At Blenheim only 20 mm were measured and at Timaru 14 mm, only 34 percent of the normal total. Most of New Zealand had temperatures at least 0.5°c above average, and in Taranaki, Nelson, Marlborough, and parts of Canterbury they were above by more than 1.0°c. At Waingawa (Masterton) only 65 percent of the average September sunshine was recorded, Although lambing progressed well, lack of sunshine was recorded. Although lambing progressed well, lack of sunshine and cooler wet conditions caused some lamb losses in Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa. Ground conditions were still wet and muddy until late in the month.

October was slightly warmer but generally wetter than usual over most of the country. Some districts in the North Island, the Kaikoura coast, and Southland had only 50 percent of their normal rainfall. At Invercargill the total was the lowest measured in October since 1966, but Taupo and Waingawa (Masterton) recorded their highest totals for the month since 1950 and 1926 respectively. Christchurch Airport had the wettest October since 1947. Homes were evacuated in the town of Ohura on the 14th when the river which runs through the town breached its banks. Heavy rain totalling 109 mm fell in the period from the 13th to 15th inclusive. Along the east coast of the South Island temperatures were below normal by 0.5°c, but throughout the rest of the country they were generally the same amount above. Many areas had 30 to 40 hours less sunshine than usual; at Dunedin less than 70 percent of the normal was recorded. Stock apart from lambs and calves was in good condition, with milk production down because of lack of feed. A combination of high tides and winds gusting to 93 km/h caused the closure of roads around the Auckland waterfront, and damaged yachts in the harbour on the 8th.

During November there was a lower frequency than usual of strong winds. Most areas were warmer and drier than normal, but some areas of Bay of Plenty were rather cloudy. Although some areas had high rainfall totals these could be attributed to isolated storms. At Invercargill the lowest rainfall for November (22 mm) since the station began in 1940 was recorded. Some parts of Hawke's Bay and Southland had less than 25 percent of their normal total. In the 24 hours to 9 a.m. on the 11th nearly 83 mm of rain were recorded in a heavy downpour at Whangarei, making this the highest 1-day fall in November since the station began in 1967. On the 20th a severe thunderstorm passed over the Christchurch area during the afternoon and evening. Between 2 p.m. and 7 p.m. 45 mm of rain fell, and at 4 p.m. when the storm was at its peak more than 22 mm were measured in 1 hour. Temperatures were above normal by 0.5°c to 1.0°c throughout most of New Zealand. On the 27th Hawke's Bay had 7.0°c to 9.0°c above the usual maximum temperature. Some farmers had started haymaking, although excessive growth had made this difficult in some districts.

December was notable for the increase in the number of days with strong gusty winds and the wetter than usual conditions. The only areas with below normal rainfall were parts of Bay of Plenty, northern Hawke's Bay, and coastal Canterbury. Some of these districts had less than 50 percent of the average. The wettest areas were Poverty Bay, inland Canterbury, Otago, and parts of Southland where more than 100 percent above normal was recorded. On the 2nd heavy rain fell in many western and southern districts of the South Island. At Otira 215 mm were recorded in 12 hours, and at the Hermitage, (Mount Cook) 537 mm fell in 24 hours, this being the highest 1-day total recorded in any month at this station since October 1942 (559 mm). The Waimakariri and Rakaia rivers reached their highest peak flows since 1957 after this period of heavy rain. The only areas with mean temperatures 0.5°c to 1.5°c below normal were parts of Canterbury, inland Otago, and Fiordland. Throughout the rest of New Zealand they were above by almost 0.5°c. At Christchurch Airport 263 hours of sunshine were recorded, the highest at this station for December since 1962. Wellington and Nelson were the only districts with below normal sunshine. Haymaking and shearing were behind schedule owing to wet weather in many areas. Stock was reported to be in good condition in most districts of New Zealand.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on the geography and climate of New Zealand will be found in the following publications.

New Zealand Atlas—Government Printer.

Encyclopaedia of New Zealand—Government Printer.

New Zealand Gazette—Government Printer.

New Zealand Seismological Report—Geophysics Division, DSIR.

Rainfall Observations—New Zealand Meteorological Service.

Meteorological Observations—New Zealand Meteorological Service.

Chapter 2. Section 2 HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL RELATION

Table of Contents

The early history of the people of New Zealand and the coming of the Maoris is shrouded in myth and based on orally-transmitted traditions and the knowledge won from midden heaps, burial grounds, and the sites of early settlements by the spade of the archaeologist. It seems probable that the country was sparsely settled by a Polynesian people, ancestors of the present-day Maoris, by about the tenth century A.D. Certainly, by the thirteenth or fourteenth century there were well-established settlements and the early stages of exploration were over.

It is generally accepted that the ancestors of the Maoris came originally from South-east Asia, whence, as proto-Polynesians, they moved eastwards from island to island until they reached the eastern Pacific, where they settled the islands now known collectively as Polynesia. From Polynesia they sailed south-west in ocean-going canoes to reach New Zealand. These voyages were probably spread over several generations, perhaps several centuries. Oral Maori history and genealogy support the view that there was a final wave of migration of considerable magnitude about A.D. 1350. Adapting themselves to a new physical environment, in isolation from the outside world, the Maoris produced forms of social and economic organisation and material culture which were significantly different from their Polynesian prototypes.

Coming from tropical latitudes, the Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island, and when discovered by Europeans were in a high state of neolithic civilisation, with marked superiority in the arts of wood carving and military engineering. Their principal social unit was the family group, and from combinations of the numerous groups were formed the subtribes and tribes. They had highly developed social and ritualistic customs, and their system of land tenure and methods of cultivation were communal within the subtribes. Inter-tribal and intra-tribal warfare was common, and as individuals Maoris displayed exceptional courage and intelligence.

The introduction of European diseases and firearms, and the impact of European civilisation on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have been reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However, the virility of the race gradually asserted itself, and from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing.

Discovery by Europeans—On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Staten Land, and which later became known as “Nieuw Zeeland”. Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north, he had the misfortune to come into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that, though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain (then Lieutenant) James Cook sighted land on 7 October 1769 near Gisborne. Cook and a party of men from the Endeavour landed at Gisborne on 9 October 1769. On his first voyage Cook spent 6 months exploring the New Zealand coastline, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can best be described by saying “he found New Zealand a line on a map, and left it an archipelago”. Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, 1774, and in 1777. His careful observations made New Zealand known to the western world; the accounts of his voyages were translated into a dozen languages.

The 15 islands forming the Cook Islands group were discovered piecemeal over a period of 240 years, the first by the Spanish explorer, Mendana, in 1595, several by Captain Cook during the period 1773 to 1777, and the last, Nassau, in 1835.

The European discovery of Niue was made by Captain Cook in 1774. It was formerly believed that the first recorded discovery of the Tokelau group was made by the Spanish explorer Pedro Fernandez de Quiros in 1606. However, it is now thought that it was one of the northern Cook Islands that he sighted, and that the first European to visit Tokelau was Commodore Byron. R. N., who sighted Atafu in 1765.

First European Settlements—Whaling stations sprang up along the New Zealand coast from 1792 onwards and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the Governor of New South Wales, was responsible for the establishment of the first mission station in the Bay of Islands.

The growing white population in the Bay of Islands, and the lawlessness of crews of visiting ships led to the appointment by the British Government of James Busby as British Resident at Waitangi in 1833. The Governor of New South Wales in 1837 sent Captain William Hobson, in command of HMS Rattlesnake, from Sydney to the Bay of Islands to report on New Zealand. Among other things, Hobson suggested a treaty with the Maori chiefs and the placing of British subjects under British law. On 29 January 1840 Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands as Governor to proclaim British sovereignty.

By 1840 numerous mission stations had spread through the northern half of the North Island. Conversion of Maori tribes to Christianity was accompanied by the introduction of new crops and methods of cultivation and pacification of the warring tribes.

Early Constitutional Developments—On 29 January 1840 Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived in the Bay of Islands. His instructions from the British Government required him to take possession of the country with the consent of the Maori chiefs, this policy being designed by the Colonial Office, strongly influenced by missionary opinion, to safeguard the well-being of the native people. Hobson read his commission at Kororareka on 30 January and on 6 February 46 chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, a compact whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights were secured to the chiefs and their tribes (with the Crown having the sole right of purchase) and in return the Queen extended her protection and all the rights and privileges of British subjects. Other chiefs throughout both Islands later adhered to this Treaty.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty over the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and over the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it, provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division of the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and Superintendent. (The provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950.) In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

One aspect, that of Native Affairs, was withheld from the responsible Ministers, and the Governor, as representative of the Crown, continued to act independently of his elected advisors in this sphere. In 1861 Grey attempted unsuccessfully to hand over this responsibility but the Ministers were unwilling to assume responsibility for the cost of the growing hostilities between Pakeha and Maori. Finally in 1864 Sir Frederick Weld instituted the “self-reliant policy” whereby the colony accepted responsibility for the settlement of difficulties with the Maoris and consented to the withdrawal of troops by the Imperial Government.

Colonisation—The first body of immigrants to reach New Zealand under a definite scheme of colonisation arrived at Port Nicholson, Wellington, on 22 January 1840 to found the initial settlement of the New Zealand Company. The colonists were in the main sturdy resourceful people seeking a better future than was offering in nineteenth century industrial England.

The guiding genius of the company, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, aware of the intention of the British Government to annex New Zealand, had earlier (in 1839), dispatched his agents in order to purchase large areas of land from the Maoris before the Crown could assume a monopoly of land purchase.

Wakefield's scheme of colonisation was based on the sale of land to investors or men of wealth for development by labouring class immigrants. With the profit from land sales the company could bring out more immigrants. Wakefield aimed at a balance between landowners and labourers; in effect he aimed to transplant a cross-section of English society. But, ignorant of the system of tribal ownership of Maori land, the company had bought land from individual Maoris; then Hobson provided that all European land titles should derive from the Crown which would be the only purchaser of land from the Maoris. Title to land remained a difficulty for some years and was a cause of distress to the colonists and, combined with a considerable degree of absentee ownership and land speculation, made most precarious the existence of the early company settlements of Wellington, Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson. The company had brought nearly 10000 persons to New Zealand by 1848. The later settlements of Otago, in 1848, and Canterbury, in 1850, organised under the aegis of the New Zealand Company in co-operation with the Free Church of Scotland and the Church of England respectively, achieved a much greater measure of success owing to the absence of any large Maori population and to satisfactory land purchase arrangements.

The non-Maori population in the main settlements in 1842 totalled 3801 in Wellington, 2895 in Auckland, 2500 in Nelson, 895 in New Plymouth, 380 in Russell, 263 in Hokianga, and 198 in Akaroa. By 1862 the non-Maori population had reached 125000 (as against 55000 Maoris) and by 1866 it had jumped to 200000 with men from Australia joining in the gold rush to Otago. Migration then dropped away until 1874 when there was a high inflow for several years from Britain under the Vogel policy of assisted immigration and public works development.

War Over Land—After the death of Hobson in 1842, subsequent governors, through lack of funds and weak administration, found themselves unable to protect the small and helpless settlements from threatening Maori aggression engendered by strong feelings on land ownership. The response of the Colonial Office was to appoint Captain George Grey as Governor and to provide him with adequate funds and troops so that he soon restored order and won not only the confidence of the Maoris but also for a time that of the settlers. Grey, through his chief land purchase officer, Donald McLean, endeavoured to buy up land in advance of the settlers' needs in order to prevent conflict between settlers and Maoris. By 1858 the census revealed that the settlers outnumbered the Maoris who, fearful that they were being swamped by the settlers, became increasingly reluctant to sell their land. At the same time the intensified settler pressure for more land led McLean to negotiate only with those Maoris still favourably disposed to land sales. This practice alarmed the other Maoris and finally the war broke out in 1860 over a land dispute at Waitara in Taranaki where settler demand for land was strongest. The return of Grey as Governor did not solve the problem for, as an autocrat, he could not work with elected ministers nor could he regain the confidence of the Maoris and finally he quarrelled with the commander of the Imperial troops. Widespread confiscation of Maori land by the settlers' government in order to pay the cost of the war included land belonging to friendly as well as hostile Maoris and aroused further resentment. The war had died down by 1870 and during the term of Donald McLean as Native Minister some measure of reconciliation began. However, although a substantial portion of the confiscated land was subsequently purchased or returned, land transactions remained a source of bitterness and potential hostility between Maori and settler.

Public Works and Farm Development—The absence of hostilities and the discovery of gold had allowed the South Island to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover, with the subsequent agrarian expansion especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self-sufficient agriculturally but began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool.

By 1870 the gold boom had ended in the South Island. To remedy the situation of economic stagnation, Sir Julius Vogel began a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction and for immigrant labour. The results of this policy were to double the population to 500000 by 1880, to immensely improve transport and communications, and to encourage industry in the towns where most of the immigrants had congregated.

With the introduction of refrigeration in 1882 and steam navigation in the late 19th century, the development of exports of frozen meat and dairy products assured the dominance of the United Kingdom in New Zealand's external trade. These developments, with a continued substantial investment of British capital, particularly in farming and food processing industries, established that degree of specialisation to meet the needs of the British market, which shaped the entire New Zealand economy during its first hundred years.

The depression of the 1880s, a consequence of a fall in world price levels, resulted in unemployment and large emigration but export prices recovered in the nineties. From 1880 onwards the natural increase of births over deaths exceeded the net inflow from migration.

In 1891 John Ballance, as leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier to be followed on his death in 1893 by Richard John Seddon, who remained Premier until his death in June 1906. The Government pursued a vigorous legislative programme in which the main emphasis was on social justice.

The expansion of the exports in dairy produce and frozen meat during the 1890s produced more intensive settlement and the rise of a new farming class in which the “cow-cockie” was the dominant figure. These farmers, having benefited by the spread of prosperity, were in 1911 mainly responsible together with the city businessmen for the overthrow of the Liberal regime. The new Reform Government under William Massey introduced measures to strengthen the primary producer, of which the extension of rural credit was typical.

Three years after the advent of the Reform Party, the First World War, 1914–1918, broke out, leading to a coalition Government and an Imperial commandeer of exports which created the precedent for the establishment after the war of central boards to regulate the exports of pastoral products. War activities were marked by heavy casualties in proportion to the population while the landing at Gallipoli signified the growing awareness of a sense of nationhood.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921–24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reduction, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilise economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and on the administrative side, the period was characterised by extensive public works expenditure, with particular attention to hydroelectric schemes and highways.

Land values rose steeply, accelerated by Government efforts to settle returned servicemen on the land, and between 1915 and 1925 forty percent of the occupied land had changed hands. New Zealand was extremely vulnerable to the overseas price fluctuations of pastoral products. With the advent of the depression by 1930, farmers, despite greatly increased production, were faced with a serious decline in income (over forty percent) together with heavy mortgage commitments on land bought at high prices so that many were faced with foreclosure. In the towns, tradesmen and shopkeepers faced bankruptcy, and wage earners unemployment or reduction in wages. A Coalition Government was formed in 1931 to meet the crisis. Partly as a result of measures taken by this government and partly as a result of a rise in overseas price levels a general economic revival was taking place by 1935. The election of a Labour Government, under the leadership of Michael Savage, in 1935 led to changes in administrative policy and a renewed emphasis on social problems.

War and Post-war—The financial needs of the Second World War from 1939 onwards were met with virtually no overseas borrowing. Financing the war by taxation and internal borrowing also assisted in the achievement of a successful stabilisation policy. Full employment in war was followed by full employment in peace. Expansion and diversification of manufacturing and servicing industries provided avenues of employment for the growing labour force.

At the 1949 election the Labour Government was defeated after holding office since 1936. It was succeeded by a National Government, under the leadership of Sidney Holland.

In 1957, the Labour Party gained a narrow victory at the polls under the leadership of Walter Nash. Budgetary policy to meet a recurrence of the balance of payments crisis proved unpopular and at the 1960 election, the National Party under the leadership of Keith Holyoake was returned to power, as it was in subsequent elections in 1963, 1966, and 1969. At the 1972 election the Labour Party swept back into power under Norman Kirk. Following Kirk's untimely death in 1974 W. E. Rowling became Prime Minister. At the 1975 election there was a dramatic reversal of the position 3 years earlier, and the National Party under Robert Muldoon was returned to power with a substantial majority. The new Government faced growing economic difficulties and rising unemployment as a result of economic recession overseas, steep rises in oil prices, and the loss or shrinkage of traditional markets for agricultural products. At the 1978 election the National Party narrowly retained power with a greatly reduced majority.

Later Constitutional Developments—In 1907, in recognition of an emerging sense of nationality and an increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters, New Zealand had been given the title of Dominion in lieu of Colony.

A further step in the evolution of New Zealand into full nationhood came in 1947, when New Zealand belatedly adopted the Statute of Westminster, which had been passed by the United Kingdom Parliament in 1931. The draft of this statute had been submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing member countries, but it did not automatically apply to Australia or New Zealand. Its operation in the latter self-governing members of the Commonwealth was declared to require specific adoption by the legislatures of those countries.

Some surviving doubts concerning the authority of the New Zealand Parliament over the Constitution were resolved when, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, the United Kingdom Parliament passed a Constitution Amendment Act authorising the New Zealand Parliament to amend any of the provisions of the Constitution Act of 1852.

In 1950 the Prime Minister, Sidney Holland, initiated a constitutional change when the Legislative Council, the “second house” of the General Assembly, was abolished on the grounds that it no longer possessed any effective function.

The present Constitution and recent developments are dealt with later in this section under the heading, “The Constitution of New Zealand”.

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ZEALAND'S INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: The Beginnings—The emergence of a distinctive and independent New Zealand foreign policy is usually regarded as dating from 1935, following the election of a Labour Government under Michael Savage. While this did indeed mark a turning point in the development of a more vigorous and assertive New Zealand foreign policy the origins of the foreign service itself can be traced much earlier. Soon after New Zealand became a British colony, following the enactment of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, the New Zealand colonists, finding themselves excluded from a system of government in which official business with Great Britain was transacted by correspondence between the Secretary of State for the Colonies and a Governor empowered to act as sole representative of colonial views to the Imperial Government, began to appoint their own colonial agents to make representations on their behalf in London.

Charles Clifford, a Wairarapa farmer, was the first such agent. Deputed by the Wellington Settlers' Constitutional Association, he travelled to England in 1848 to press the case for self-government for the new colony. In 1851 he was followed by William Fox, bearing the title “Honorary Political Agent”.

In 1852 the British Parliament enacted legislation providing for a limited form of self-government for the new colony. The provincial councils that were established in New Zealand as a result of this legislation soon found it necessary to appoint their own business agents in Britain for the explicit purpose of “promoting immigration (and) for protecting and advancing in Great Britain the political or other interests of the said Province” (Otago ordinance). These agents, appointed during the 1850s, though few in number and of doubtful political status in the eyes of the British Colonial Office, can be seen in every respect to be the earliest forerunners of today's unified overseas service which, some hundred and thirty years later, actively promotes New Zealand's political, economic, trading, and security interests around the world.

The provincial agents represented the interests of the individual provinces which, being relatively isolated at the time, were still developing along independent lines. The day-to-day interests of the Central Government, sited first in Russell, then Auckland, and later Wellington, were represented by the British Colonial Office itself. From time to time the Central Government felt the need for more direct representation and on these occasions ministerial missions were dispatched to London. The most significant of these early missions was in 1870, undertaken against the background of a popular uprising of anti-British feeling and talk of secession. The Imperial Government had moved to withdraw the last British troops at a time when Te Kooti was still active. Two prominent New Zealand politicians, Francis Dillon Bell and Dr Isaac Earl Featherston, were given full representative powers under a Colonial Act passed for the express purpose of securing the status of their mission (the New Zealand Commissioners Act of 1870, in some ways the forerunner of the External Affairs Act of 1943) and were sent to London to persuade the Imperial Government to stay its hand. They failed.

The following year the Vogel Ministry moved to consolidate its representation arrangements in London. In 1871 Featherston was sent back to London as a resident Agent-General, a new post designed principally to under-pin the ambitious programme of immigration and public works initiated by Julius Vogel the year before. From 1871 to 1904 a succession of able New Zealanders, amongst them Featherston, Vogel, Francis Dillon Bell, Perceval, and William Pember Reeves, acted as Agents-General, performing all the functions (despite the ambiguity of the title and the nature of the colonial relationship) of diplomatic representatives of a sovereign power.

In 1904 the post of Agent-General was elevated to High Commissioner. In Seddon's eyes, the change was a necessary reflection of the need to ensure the respect and influence due to the New Zealand representative “in the heart of the Empire”. Seddon's definition of the High Commissioner's role, “a diplomat to be in close touch with the Colonial Office, British statesmen, and people, and at the same time financial and commercial representative, ambassador, and courier . . . the eyes, ears, and voice of the New Zealand Government in Great Britain . . . (able to) simply voice the desire of the people of the colony”, is sufficiently close to the letters of instruction provided to our present-day representatives that in these early beginnings one can clearly see the origins of the New Zealand Foreign Service as it is today.

What of our broader interests? Strictly speaking, a dependent colony can, by definition, have no foreign policy and no international relations. But the colony, even before it was raised to Dominion status in 1907, exercised a vigorous interest in the affairs of the Empire and, on occasions, did not hesitate to prosecute an independent line. For example, from 1870 to the close of the century, New Zealand politicians, (notably Vogel, Stout, and Seddon), as Governor Grey had before them, bombarded London with arguments in favour of annexing territories in the Pacific for the creation of a Pan-Pacific Empire based on New Zealand. In 1883 the New Zealand Parliament, at Grey's initiative, enacted a Bill to enable the colony to establish relations with such Pacific peoples as might desire them. The Bill provided for a Pacific Federation and claimed for the colony the power to annex any unappropriated islands. On the advice of the British Colonial Office, Royal assent was not forthcoming and the Bill therefore failed to become law.

The final collapse of these plans in 1899 (when the British Government renounced its rights in Samoa in favour of Germany and America) and 1900, when Seddon's repeated proposals that the administration of Fiji be entrusted to New Zealand were finally rejected, marked the end of a consistent thread in New Zealand foreign policy that had been elaborated since the 1840s. Though the policy that New Zealand's nineteenth century statesmen had vigorously advocated was perhaps over-ambitious, given the colony's limited resources of manpower and wealth, it did at least have the advantage of resting on a sound appreciation of New Zealand's geographic position.

Following Seddon's death in 1906, and with the collapse of its Pacific vision, interests, and ambitions, New Zealand entered a period in which for a generation it was generally content to have its foreign policy laid down by the Imperial Government: “having lost contact with their own area, New Zealanders no longer had anything unique to contribute to Imperial policy. It is not without significance that the first flowering of New Zealand nationalism had been expressed in terms of New Zealand's place in the South Pacific”. Paradoxically, the opening of this quieter period in the development of New Zealand's international relations coincided with the elevation to Dominion status in 1907.

The passing of Seddon in 1906 marked the end of an era of vigorous self-assertion and the beginning of a relatively quiescent period in the development of an independent New Zealand foreign policy, a period that was destined to continue until the Savage Government came to power in 1935. But in the intervening years, and notwithstanding the prevailing sentiment that where Britain led in the development of foreign policy we would willingly follow, there were some developments of considerable significance to the later history.

Following the end of the First World War, New Zealand participated in the Versailles Conference and was a signatory in its own right to the Treaty of Versailles which came into force in January 1920. A mandate was acquired over Western Samoa. In 1926 a small Imperial Affairs Section, forerunner to the External Affairs Department, was established in the Prime Minister's Department to deal with treaty matters, the League of Nations, and international questions generally. This followed the Imperial Conference of 1926 at which the equal status of members of the British Commonwealth was recognised (the Balfour Declaration). The Imperial Affairs Section remained, however, for some time to come the only practical manifestation of New Zealand's newly acquired freedom to deal directly with other countries: the Dominion took no immediate steps to establish direct relations with foreign governments or—apart from Britain—with other members of the Commonwealth. In 1928 New Zealand entered into its first direct trade agreement with a foreign power, Japan, for all practical purposes the first such occasion in which the negotiations had been conducted directly rather than through the medium of the British Foreign Office.

The contrast between the policies followed in the 1920s and those adopted under the Savage Government from the close of 1935 is most clearly illustrated by the New Zealand attitude to the League of Nations. From the foundation of the League following the Peace Conference at Versailles, Massey and those who followed took the view that the League was no place for a loyal Dominion to voice views that contradicted Imperial policy. With the coming to power of the Savage Labour Government there re-emerged a willingness to take an independent line that had lain largely dormant since the death of Seddon. New Zealand spoke strongly for the principle of collective security and collective police action on a succession of issues (Abyssinia, Spain, China) at a time when the United Kingdom and other powers were following a policy which would later be described as appeasement.

Despite these differences there was, however, no suggestion that New Zealand was departing from its historically close association with Britain. The course it would follow in the event of war was never in doubt. When war broke out the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, expressed New Zealand's position in terms which reflected New Zealand's sovereignty as well as its ties with Britain.

“Behind the sure shield of Britain we have enjoyed and cherished freedom and self-government. Both with gratitude for the past, and with confidence in the future, we range ourselves without fear beside Britain. Where she goes, we go. Where she stands, we stand. We are only a small and young nation, but we are one and all a band of brothers, and we march forward with a union of hearts and wills to a common destiny.”

The Second World War changed the pattern of power in the world. The New Zealand Government established (in effect from 1943) a career foreign affairs service, and made a beginning in stationing its own diplomatic representatives in countries where New Zealand's interests made their presence necessary. In particular, New Zealand sought to foster good relationships with its neighbours in the Pacific and Asia and to increase the measure of security and welfare in these areas.

Woven into post-war policy was the traditional New Zealand belief in the principles of collective security and international justice, which the United Nations was pledged to support. There was also the belief that the international community should give high priority to the welfare and political advancement of dependent peoples and to the elimination of poverty disease, and other economic and social causes of international tension.

There have been several periods of expansion in the establishment of New Zealand posts overseas. Aside from the three posts set up during the Second World War (Washington, Ottawa, Canberra) to maintain consultations with our closest allies, the first main period of expansion came in the 1950s as a consequence of the recognition that our security was closely bound up with that of South-east Asia. Following the signature of the ANZUS Treaty, which came into force in 1952, and the Manila Treaty in 1954, diplomatic relations were established with a growing number of Asian countries. By the end of the 1950s five New Zealand posts had been set up in Asia and the substance of our bilateral relations had broadened considerably.

A second period of expansion in the 1960s led to the setting up of a number of diplomatic posts in Western Europe in response to the need to defend New Zealand's essential economic and political interests as Britain negotiated its terms of entry into the European Economic Community. At the same time a more gradual expansion was underway in the Pacific. As island states became independent and as the extent of New Zealand's economic and political relations in the South Pacific increased, a number of South Pacific posts were opened. Finally, as the 1970s draw to a close, a fourth phase is now underway—one which is closely related to New Zealand's search for new trading opportunities as the degree of dependence on traditional markets in Western Europe is gradually reduced. The diversification both in the range of goods exported and in markets has led to the strengthening of posts in certain areas—particularly in Asia and the Pacific—and the opening of new posts in the Middle East, Latin America, and Eastern Europe. Posts have also been opened in China and reopened in the Soviet Union and an extensive network of multiple accreditations arranged to allow New Zealand's overseas representatives to cover several countries from the one base.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN RECENT YEARS—The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has the primary responsibility of advising and assisting the Government in formulating and executing decisions in the field of New Zealand's external relations. It is the agency through which other governments and their representatives in New Zealand communicate with the New Zealand Government. It operates New Zealand's aid programmes and maintains New Zealand's diplomatic and consular representation abroad. The ministry's overseas functions are discharged through a network of diplomatic and consular posts consisting of embassies, high commissions, consulates-general, and other permanent missions. At home, the preparation and co-ordination of foreign policy recommendations is carried out in close association with a number of other Government departments.

The ministry has a substantive role in the formulation and execution of New Zealand's economic policies. In Wellington the ministry works closely on these questions with other departments such as the Treasury, Department of Trade and Industry, Customs Department, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Economic activity is as much part of an overseas mission's everyday work as its political, consular, and trade functions. Officers of the ministry have a major responsibility to inform foreign governments of New Zealand's policies, negotiate agreements, and keep the New Zealand Government informed of economic developments in the country to which they are accredited.

The ministry has a special role also as a clearing house for material provided by New Zealand posts overseas for other departments, and through its posts it performs numerous services on behalf of departments without representatives abroad. It must also ensure that overseas posts are kept supplied with up-to-date information about New Zealand.

The ministry is responsible for all official New Zealand information and publicity activities overseas other than those directed at trade promotion or tourism.

In the Official Section at the end of this Yearbook the diplomatic and other New Zealand representation overseas is listed.

New Zealand in the Commonwealth—As a member of the Commonwealth, New Zealand is able to consult and co-operate with 41 other countries in a wide variety of activities, both governmental and non-governmental. The value to New Zealand of its Commonwealth links is derived not only from the practical benefits of what the Commonwealth does, but also from the heterogeneous composition of the association. Its 42 members take in the 6 continents and the 5 oceans of the world. The Pacific region is now well represented in the Commonwealth. Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, and Kiribati are now full members along with Australia and New Zealand, and Nauru and Tuvalu have special membership status. The Cook Islands and Niue are not eligible for full membership because of their continuing constitutional association with New Zealand. They cannot therefore attend Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings. They are entitled, however, to participate in Commonwealth meetings dealing with those subjects for which their governments are responsible.

As the Commonwealth has grown and changed, its relationships have taken on a new scope and emphasis. As Commonwealth heads of government affirmed in the Commonwealth Declaration adopted at their meeting in 1971, the association “provides many channels for continuing exchanges of knowledge and views on professional, cultural, economic, legal and political issues among member states. These relationships we foster and extend for we believe that our multinational association can expand human understanding and understanding among nations, assist in the elimination of discrimination based on differences of race, colour, and creed, maintain and strengthen personal liberty, contribute to the enrichment of life for all, and provide a powerful influence for peace among nations.” New Zealand, itself a country where different races live in harmony, sees in the Commonwealth a special opportunity for multi-racial co-operation and understanding.

The value of the association in providing a forum for the exchange of views between a large number of diverse nations, as set out in the Declaration, is illustrated at the Heads of Government Meetings, most recently in 1977 in London and in 1979 in Lusaka, Zambia. Discussions are frank, informal, and private, ranging over topics which include changing power relationships, trade, monetary and other economic issues, security, nuclear testing, development assistance, foreign investment, international transport, and South African questions. The last two meetings have paid special attention to the world economic situation, especially the problems of developing nations. Periodic meetings of Commonwealth Ministers of Finance, Trade, Health, Law, and Education promote the exchange of views and functional cooperation in diverse fields of national activity. Ministerial meetings are supported by conferences and seminars of officials and professional and technical specialists.

The belief of member countries in the potential of the Commonwealth led to the establishment of a permanent Commonwealth Secretariat in London in 1965 to be the main agency for multilateral communication among Commonwealth governments. The Secretariat promotes consultation and disseminates information on matters of common concern, organises meetings and conferences, and coordinates many Commonwealth activities. Prominent among these is the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation. The fund is financed by voluntary contributions from most Commonwealth countries. Its primary purpose is to promote economic development through self-help and mutual assistance.

Besides contributing to the budget of the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, New Zealand provides financial support to a number of other inter-governmental Commonwealth organisations which promote co-operation in specific areas. New Zealand also contributes to the Commonwealth Foundation, which was established at the same time as the Secretariat to promote close links in the professions throughout the Commonwealth. It has sponsored official and non-official Commonwealth professional organisations and strengthened the links between administrators, engineers, lawyers, accountants, scientists, and private individuals in the different Commonwealth organisations. Like the Secretariat it has provided a focus for Commonwealth activities and a basis for extending international co-operation.

New Zealand's Relations with Western Europe—New Zealand's relationship with the countries of western Europe has had a strong economic bias because of the crucial importance of continuing access to the European Economic Community for New Zealand's agricultural exports.

However, the wider political and economic aspects of New Zealand's relations with the states of western Europe, with which New Zealand shares many common interests, have come to assume greater significance, as the benefit of exchanges and co-operation on international issues of mutual concern have become apparent. The European Economic Community is playing an increasing role in international affairs, while the economic and strategic importance of New Zealand's region of the world, including as it does South-east Asia, the South Pacific, and Antarctica, is more widely recognised.

New Zealand has a great deal in common with the countries of Western Europe in terms of historical experience, democratic political systems, shared values and related lifestyles. New Zealand's membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the International Energy Authority (IEA) underlines the community of broad economic interests. The range of bilateral contacts between New Zealand and individual countries of Western Europe, in all fields, steadily expands, their continued development being one of the main aims of New Zealand's foreign policy.

New Zealand's Relations with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe—New Zealand's relations with the countries of Eastern Europe have developed considerably in recent years, especially in the field of trade. This growth has been reflected in the expansion of New Zealand's diplomatic representation in the area. New Zealand's Ambassador in Vienna is accredited to five East European countries, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and the German Democratic Republic. New Zealand's Ambassador in Rome is accredited to Yugoslavia. Trade is also a major element in New Zealand's relations with the Soviet Union, which remains an important market for New Zealand's exports.

New Zeland and the Middle East—New Zealand has had a long association with the Middle East. The importance of the region in world political and economic affairs is well recognised and New Zealand has followed with close attention recent international attempts to resolve the longstanding conflict between Israel and its neighbours.

Since 1973, when Middle East members of the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) emerged as a major political and economic force, the area has assumed more immediate significance for New Zealand's economic wellbeing. New Zealand's oil imports come overwhelmingly from the countries around the Gulf. Moreover, the growing wealth of the region, resulting from the recent substantial increases in the price of oil, has created a valuable market for New Zealand's exports, especially agricultural exports, considerably aiding the diversification efforts being made in the key commodities of sheepmeats and dairy products.

As a result of the growing importance of the Middle East, New Zealand has moved to increase the range of its contacts with Middle Eastern countries. At the same time countries in the Middle East, in assuming wider international interests, have themselves taken a closer interest in the South Pacific and expanded their diplomatic representation in this area. Thus New Zealand established resident missions in Iran and Iraq in 1975, and in Bahrain in 1977. In Bahrain the New Zealand Export-Import Corporation is also a participant with Bahraini interests in a major storage project. The New Zealand Ambassador in Rome is accredited additionally to Egypt and Saudi Arabia and he and his staff visit those countries regularly. Both Egypt and Israel have set up embassies in Wellington, and Iran and Iraq have accredited to New Zealand their Ambassadors in Canberra and Jakarta respectively. Developing relations between New Zealand and the countries of the Middle East have also been marked by a growing number of visits each way, by Ministers, officials, and businessmen, and increasingly, by tourists.

New Zealand and Africa—Africa has emerged as a major world force since the 1960s. Developments within the continent are closely followed by New Zealand and our economic, cultural, and political relations with Africa have developed considerably during the 1970s.

Although New Zealand has no diplomatic representation in Africa, contacts are regularly maintained in the United Nations and Commonwealth contexts. Emerging from the 1979 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Lusaka, Zambia, was an agreement between all Commonwealth countries on the issue of independence for Zimbabwe-Rhodesia. New Zealand responded to the success of British negotiations for an independent Zimbabwe by contributing to a ceasefire monitoring force and also sent observers to assist in monitoring the independence elections in February 1980.

While trade between New Zealand and Africa remains at a modest level, a number of trade surveys visited Africa during the 1970s to explore the possibilities of extending New Zealand's agricultural markets in the continent. New Zealand also provides assistance in east and central Africa, in particular Tanzania, with development aid programmes emphasising the export of New Zealand's agricultural expertise.

New Zealand and the Asian Area—Since the Second World War, and particularly since 1955, there has been a noteworthy growth in New Zealand's relations with the countries of the Asian/Pacific area. New Zealand has a direct interest in the maintenance of peace and the growth of prosperity in the area. It enjoys a close relationship with Japan, the Republic of Korea, and with the countries which make up the Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN): Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and the Philippines. Since the normalisation of relations with the People's Republic of China in 1972, New Zealand's contacts with China have been increasing. New Zealand also enjoys long-established ties with the countries of South Asia (particularly through the Commonwealth connection) and Burma.

Trade with Asia is becoming more and more important to New Zealand. Private initiative, with Government assistance, has been able to develop new markets, new products, new selling processes, and new economic and commercial relationships. A pattern of regular economic consultations with our main trading partners has been developed; bilateral economic agreements have been concluded.

New Zealand's growing interests and involvement in Asia are reflected in the changing pattern of its diplomatic representation. Prior to 1955, when New Zealand opened a post in Singapore, it had only one diplomatic mission in the region, in Tokyo. Representation has now been established in all of the ASEAN countries, in New Delhi, Peking, Hong Kong, and Seoul. Many of these missions are accredited to other Asian capitals. The network thus created enables New Zealand to assess external events in the light of this country's own interests and needs, and to work directly with other countries in areas of common concern. New Zealand has also developed its political contacts with countries of the area in other important ways. Exchanges of visits by Heads of State and Government Ministers and parliamentarians have increased, and the development of regular bilateral consultations has also been encouraged.

New Zealand has placed particular emphasis on supporting regional organisations for co-operation and consultation in both the political and development fields. It is one of a group of nations closely associated with ASEAN, which it sees as a force for stability and economic development in South-East Asia. It has initiated a number of joint projects with ASEAN for development and trade co-operation. Recent developments in Indochina have had major implications for the stability of the region and have been of particular concern to New Zealand. The massive outflow of refugees from Vietnam and Kampuchea, and the political uncertainties that have followed the invasion of Kampuchea by Vietnam and Sino-Vietnamese hostilities, have together posed difficult problems for the countries of the region. New Zealand has consulted closely with the ASEAN countries over these developments.

The degree of cultural interchange between New Zealand and the countries of Asia has expanded steadily. Where once New Zealanders looked largely to Britain for cultural inspiration and experience, now their horizons have broadened. Increased contacts with Asia have brought with them an awareness of what the cultural background of the countries there can offer New Zealand. Professional bodies, sporting associations, cultural groups, and universities today have links with similar organisations in Asia, as well as with more traditional partners such as Britain and Australia. The development of civil air links, and the concurrent growth of tourism, have also helped to bring a wider range of contacts.

Nowhere within the Pacific Basin has New Zealand's adaptation to changed circumstances been more complete than in its relationship with Japan. Today that association is one of the most important that New Zealand has and it is friendly and rewarding for both sides. Its elements are varied—trade, fishing, and a growing range of cultural, educational, sporting, and personal ties. In many ways, the conditions for a developing trading relationship are ideal, for the two countries are located in different hemispheres, their economies are complementary, and each has in abundance some things that the other needs. Despite these advantages, commercial exchanges have not been completely straightforward, and New Zealand continues to seek improved conditions of access for certain important commodities, including dairy products. On both sides there are expectations of continued and expanding trade and of closer involvement together in other settings. Meanwhile, the steady growth in the extent and cordiality of New Zealand's relations with the People's Republic of China further illustrates New Zealanders' changing perceptions of Asia. China is now our third largest market in Asia and is increasingly important to New Zealand as a major power with a leading role in Asia and in the “Third World”.

New Zealand and the South Pacific—New Zealand has a long history of interest and involvement in the South Pacific. In the latter part of the 19th century Prime Minister Richard Seddon harboured ambitions of a South Pacific empire controlled by New Zealand, and as a result of pressure from Seddon the administration of the Cook Islands and Niue, which were British colonial possessions, was handed over to New Zealand in 1901. The number of New Zealand Pacific dependencies increased when, following the establishment of the League of Nations, Western Samoa, which had been occupied by New Zealand troops at the outbreak of the First World War, became a mandated territory under the administration of New Zealand. In 1925 the Tokelau Islands (now known as Tokelau) then part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, were ceded by the United Kingdom to New Zealand.

Despite its geographical situation, the acquisition of overseas dependencies in the South Pacific, and the ethnic kinship of the Maori and the Polynesian peoples, New Zealand's present identity as a South Pacific country was slow in developing for a number of reasons. Culturally, New Zealand has been closer to Western Europe than to the Pacific. For many years almost all of New Zealand's exports went to the United Kingdom. Politically, New Zealand's outlook was oriented towards Europe and, more recently, South-east Asia. Also the Pacific Islands were, and in some cases still are, administered by other countries.

But during the 1960s there was a dramatic emergence of new nations in the South Pacific. New Zealand encouraged this development in its own territories.

In Western Samoa, which had become a United Nations Trust Territory administered by New Zealand, political and constitutional development was carried forward in accordance with the wishes of the Samoan people. This culminated in the establishment of the independent State of Western Samoa on 1 January 1962. On 4 August 1965 the Cook Islands became a self-governing nation in free association with New Zealand. In an exchange of letters between the New Zealand Prime Minister, the Right Honourable Norman Kirk, and the Premier of the Cook Islands, Sir Albert Henry, in April 1973 clarifying the special relationship between the Cook Islands and New Zealand, it was agreed that there were to be no legal fetters of any kind upon the freedom of the Cook Islands to make their own laws and control their own Constitution. Although New Zealand has a statutory responsibility for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands, it is intended that the Cook Islands be free to pursue their own policies and interests in these as well as other areas. Cook Islanders remain New Zealand citizens under the Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964.

Niue became self-governing in free association with New Zealand on Constitution Day, 19 October 1974. It is written into the Niue Constitution Act 1974 that New Zealand will continue to be responsible for the external affairs and defence of Niue, that Niueans will remain New Zealand citizens, and that New Zealand will provide necessary economic and administrative assistance.

Tokelau is still included within the boundaries of New Zealand and is administered under the authority of the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 and its amendments. Tokelauans are New Zealand citizens. By agreement with the Government of Western Samoa the Office for Tokelau Affairs is based in Apia and handles Tokelauan transactions with the outside world, especially with New Zealand. Decisions about day-to-day living in Tokelau are made by the village councils.

The developments in New Zealand's territories are part of a wider pattern of political evolution in the region. In 1968 Nauru became an independent republic; in 1970 Fiji became independent; and in the same year Tonga rejoined the Commonwealth. In 1975 Papua New Guinea became fully independent after being self-governing since December 1973. In 1978 Solomon Islands and Tuvalu (formerly the Ellice Islands) became independent. Kiribati (formerly the Gilbert Islands) attained independence in 1979, and the New Hebrides in 1980.

It is natural that New Zealand and its South Pacific neighbours should have become very closely associated. One important reason has been the movement of Pacific peoples into New Zealand. Cook Islanders, Niueans, and Tokelauans are New Zealand citizens and move freely back and forth. New Zealand's historical association with Western Samoa, which is reflected in the Treaty of Friendship signed in August 1962, and its close association with the Kingdom of Tonga, has resulted in a flow of immigrants and visitors from both countries.

New Zealand has also played an active role in building up regional co-operation in the South Pacific. A major step in this direction was the creation of the South Pacific Forum, which now comprises the independent and self-governing countries of the South Pacific, Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, and Kiribati together with Australia and New Zealand which, at the invitation of New Zealand, met for the first time in Wellington in August 1971. Since then meetings have been held in Canberra, Suva, Apia, Rarotonga, Nukualofa, Nauru, Port Moresby, Niue, and Honiara, the capital of Solomon Islands.

The South Pacific Forum provides the opportunity for the leaders of the South Pacific states to discuss common problems, exchange information, consider priorities, and plan programmes for mutual and regional benefit. The topics considered include such matters as regional trade, shipping, civil aviation, telecommunications, education, the law of the sea, fishing, disaster relief, and nuclear testing.

At the Canberra session of the South Pacific Forum in 1972 members agreed to establish the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation (SPEC) to deal with trade and related matters. The main purpose of the SPEC is to advise Forum members on ways of promoting regional trade and free trade among Island members and to encourage collaboration in areas such as regional transport which will assist the economic development of the Island members. The headquarters of the SPEC are in Suva, Fiji.

At the Niue session of the South Pacific Forum in 1978 members agreed to set up the South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agency, which is an organisation designed to facilitate the rational utilisation and conservation of the region's marine resources. The headquarters of the Agency are in Honiara, Solomon Islands.

The South Pacific Commission, created in 1947 by the Canberra Agreement of which New Zealand is a signatory, is the other major regional body. Representatives from 23 governments and territorial administrations from within the South Pacific Commission comprise the South Pacific Conference. The Conference which meets annually decides the work programme of the Commission. Since its establishment the Commission has helped to build up a sense of regional identity and it has accomplished much in promoting the economic and social welfare of the South Pacific peoples. It is primarily a technical assistance organisation. Its budget in 1978 totalled $4.4 million. The main regular contributors to the budget are the participating governments in the area—Australia, Fiji, France, Nauru, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and Western Samoa. Each participating government's contribution is levied as a percentage of the annual budget. Other member governments also make contributions on a voluntary basis.

The United Nations and its specialised agencies are also an important source of technical assistance in the South Pacific. The independent countries of the region are members of various UN bodies, and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has a regional office in Fiji.

New Zealand and Australia—New Zealand's most comprehensive bilateral relationship is with Australia. Geographical proximity reinforces the important historical, cultural, and Commonwealth ties between New Zealand and Australia that have given rise to this unusually close and mutually beneficial relationship. New Zealand established a diplomatic office in Australia in 1943, very early in its diplomatic history, and in 1944 the Canberra Pact was signed. This paved the way for a tradition of joint consultation and co-operation that reflects the interdependence of the two countries' interests and the goodwill and friendship of their peoples. In matters of foreign policy, in defence and in the economic field, the degree of co-operation also reflects the importance of each country to the other and a need for continuing close working contacts. Regular and increasingly frequent ministerial and official meetings have taken place, with a minimum of formality, to cover almost the entire range of government activity. Moreover, the two countries are bound together by innumerable personal contacts, facilitated by freedom of travel across the Tasman, and by institutionalised links in business, finance, education, the professions, and in nearly all fields of national activity.

New Zealand and Australia share a common foreign policy objective in acting to promote stability and development in the South Pacific and South-east Asian regions of their immediate vicinity, as well as a more general interest in co-ordinating their positions on major international political and economic questions of current concern, in the United Nations, the Commonwealth, GATT, and elsewhere. In the economic context, Australia is a major trading partner for New Zealand, Australia's largest single market for manufactured exports. Trade has significantly expanded and the two economies have become increasingly related under the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), dating from 1965–66. In the defence field, the former ANZAC partners continue to co-operate closely, both in relation to training programmes and exercises and the provision of equipment and other supplies, and in terms of the broader issues of defence policy, especially in their common membership of ANZUS.

In 1978 the Deputy Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. B. E. Talboys, paid an extensive visit to Australia. During the visit, Mr Talboys and the Prime Minister of Australia made a joint press statement (the Nareen Declaration) which underlined the determination of both Governments to co-operate and consult closely in many fields. The Nareen Declaration also provided for the establishment of an Australia - New Zealand Foundation in both countries to promote the bilateral relationship publicly.

The foundation was set up in 1978 with an annual budget of $50,000 and has sponsored, as part of its work, 2 studies on closer economic relations between Australia and New Zealand, and a workshop on trans-Tasman migration. It has also provided financial support for cultural exchanges between Australia and New Zealand: in 1979 it assisted the Limbs Dance Company with a tour of Australia.

On 6 August 1979 at Lusaka, during the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, the Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, met the Australian Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. Malcolm Fraser, and agreed that further investigation would be made into broad areas of economic co-operation as well as specific fields where the 2 countries could work more closely together. A second meeting of the 2 Prime Ministers took place in March 1980 when agreement was reached on a set of principles outlining the direction of future economic co-operation between the 2 countries.

New Zealand and the Americas—Continuing and close contact with the United States is an essential part of New Zealand's foreign policy. The United States remains New Zealand's principal security guarantor, is a major trading partner, and has an important influence on the New Zealand way of life. The two countries share a common English-speaking heritage and a friendship of long standing, both in peace and war.

Since the opening in Washington in 1941 of New Zealand's second diplomatic mission, close consultations have been held with the United Stares on many bilateral questions and international issues of common interest. Basic similarities in political philosophy and social and economic processes have encouraged the development of close governmental relations, which have been supported by increasing contacts, both official and non-official, across a broad range of activities.

This comprehensive bilateral relationship finds expression in political, strategic, economic, and cultural fields. Under the ANZUS arrangements initiated in 1951, New Zealand looks to the United States for fundamental assistance in the maintenance of its national and regional security. In turn, where national interests coincide, New Zealand is able to offer the United States active support for its constructive international role and to provide a friendly and stable influence in the South Pacific. On the economic side, bilateral trade has expanded to the extent that the United States is now the second largest market for New Zealand's exports and the third largest source of imports. Regular intergovernmental consultations are held to review the trading relationship, which recently has been weighted in favour of the United States. Programmes for scientific and technical co-operation, and academic and cultural exchanges, serve to maintain an awareness of New Zealand in the United States and to promote a vigorous and beneficial interchange of ideas and experience.

New Zealand and Canada, through a common British heritage and long association in the Commonwealth, have traditionally enjoyed a close and special informal relationship, with long established bonds of friendship between the New Zealand and Canadian people. Since New Zealand established diplomatic representation in Canada in 1942, there have been many ministerial and official exchanges in a broad range of fields in which the two countries' basic compatibility and similarity of attitude have provided invaluable opportunities for bilateral consultation and co-operation. New Zealand and Canada have also built up a record of co-operation on many international issues, particularly in Commonwealth and United. Nations contexts. New Zealand's particular interest and involvement in the South Pacific, and Canada's in the Caribbean, have provided a useful basis for the exchange of experience, and both countries share a presence and a direct interest in the affairs of the Pacific Basin.

Canada is one of New Zealand's major trading partners, being at present the second largest market for New Zealand beef and a growing market for lamb. Regular intergovernmental consultations help to keep the trading relationship under review and provide a basis for negotiation on specific difficulties. They also facilitate co-operation on economic and financial policy matters of wider international importance.

New Zealand's relations with the Caribbean have been concerned largely with mutual Commonwealth interests and with a substantial export trade, mainly in dairy products. Since September 1974, the New Zealand High Commissioner in Ottawa has been cross-accredited to Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, Guyana, and Barbados. The sole resident representation is in Port of Spain (Trinidad and Tobago). New Zealand's assistance is being extended to these four Commonwealth countries and to the multilateral Caribbean Development Bank under a modest aid programme.

New Zealand's contacts with the countries of Latin America, limited in the past because of geographical orientation and widely different historical and cultural backgrounds, have developed considerably in the 1970s. A substantial growth in trade preceded the establishment of New Zealand representation in Chile and Peru in 1972, and in 1974 diplomatic relations were entered into with Mexico. In 1978 the resident Ambassadors in Lima and Santiago were accredited to Ecuador and Brazil respectively, and in 1979 the resident Ambassador in Lima was accredited to Colombia. Peru has in recent years been New Zealand's largest export market in Latin America, and a major market for New Zealand dairy produce. Other significant Latin American markets for New Zealand dairy produce are Mexico, Ecuador (from which New Zealand imports bananas), Venezuela, and some of the Central American republics (notably E1 Salvador and Costa Rica). As part of the continuing process of diversifying its economic relations, New Zealand has recently devoted increased attention to exploring the possibilities for expanding trade with the countries of Latin America. In recognition of the growing political importance of the region as a whole and particularly of the largest countries, Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina, opportunities are also being taken to enhance bilateral relations. Several official visits have taken place in recent years. At the private level, New Zealanders have long been interested in, and frequent travellers through, the countries of South America.

In the field of overseas assistance, New Zealand maintains a modest but important technical cooperation programme in Peru, under which New Zealand experts are helping in the development of key areas of Peruvian agriculture.

New Zealand in the United Nations—Successive New Zealand Governments have strongly supported the development of the United Nations as a major instrument for maintaining peace and security, for developing friendly relations among countries, for promoting international co-operation aimed at solving economic and social problems, and for ensuring respect for human rights.

New Zealand has consequently played an active and prominent role in the various areas of United Nations activity.

International Security—At San Francisco in 1945 the New Zealand Prime Minister, Peter Fraser, argued forcefully but unsuccessfully for the elimination of the Security Council veto and for a strengthening of the collective security provision of the Charter. Since then New Zealand has actively supported the development of the United Nations' capacity for peacekeeping activities and worked consistently for international arms control and disarmament measures. New Zealand contributed forces to the United Nations Command in Korea, military observers to the United Nations Observer Groups in Palestine, Kashmir, and the Lebanon, and a civilian police unit to the United Nations peace keeping force in Cyprus. In recent years New Zealand has Been closely involved in moves to promote the cessation of all forms of nuclear testing, as a key step towards halting the nuclear arms race. It played an active part in international discussions on disarmament at the Tenth Special Session of the General Assembly in May and June 1978.

New Zealand served a 2-year term on the Security Council in 1954–55 and a 1-year term in 1966.

Economic and Social Activities—There has been increasing emphasis in recent years on making use of the United Nations as a forum to help resolve the formidable economic and social problems that face the world. This has been done both in the regular organs of the United Nations, such as the General Assembly, and the Economic and Social Council and its functional and regional commissions, and at special conferences, such as those on the environment (at Stockholm in 1972), population (at Bucharest in 1974), food (at Rome in 1974), the role of women (at Mexico in 1975), water (at Mar del Plata in 1977), racism (at Geneva in August 1978) and refugees (at Geneva in July 1979). During 1974 and 1975 Special Sessions of the General Assembly were held specifically to discuss development issues. The former enunciated the Declaration and Programme of Action on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order.

During 1977 New Zealand served on the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Economic and Social Council, and the Commission on the Status of Women. New Zealand also participated actively in the eighth session of the Conference on the Law of the Sea held in March and April 1979 in Geneva, and in July and August in New York.

In December 1979 New Zealand was again elected to the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme.

Specialised Agencies—New Zealand is a member of all the specialised agencies, and is also a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which, though not strictly a specialised agency, exists under the aegis of the United Nations. New Zealand's contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, which are based for the most part on a scale of assessment similar to that used in the United Nations itself, in total considerably exceed our contribution to the United Nations' regular budget. In 1979, for example, our contributions to the budgets of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the World Health Organisation (WHO), and the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) alone totalled US$1,423,000.

Convinced of the value of the form of international co-operation that the agencies represent, New Zealand participates actively in their work. In the case of the technical agencies, there are direct benefits to New Zealand in membership. Membership of the Universal Postal Union, for example, is essential to facilitate the efficient international movement of mails to and from this country; and the International Telecommunication Union works to promote the most rational and efficient operation of world-wide telecommunications services. The World Meteorological Organisation is the medium for establishing a world-wide network for the rapid exchange of meteorological information, which is of particular value to remote island countries like New Zealand. The ILO is concerned with protecting the basic dignities and freedoms of the wage earner and brings together representatives of governments, employers, and workers to frame international conventions on working and living conditions.

In addition to its contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, New Zealand gives voluntary assistance in the form of further monetary grants, the services of experts to developing countries (for example in agriculture, physiotherapy, police work, forestry, and education) and donations of equipment or commodities. In 1978 New Zealand served on the Council of FAO and was elected to the Executive Board of UNESCO. It also participated in all the major meetings of the agencies.

New Zealand's membership of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Finance Corporation allows this country to participate in international efforts to increase the stability of international trade and promote the economic development of the underdeveloped areas of the world. It also serves to strengthen New Zealand's own economic position by providing access to more varied sources of capital for capital projects or for balance of payments purposes. The Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, served as chairman of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank during 1979.

New Zealand is also a foundation member of the Asian Development Bank, established in 1967 under the auspices of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) to foster economic growth and co-operation in the Asian/Pacific region.

New Zealand has supported United Nations agency activity which will help the social and economic development of the Pacific Islands. Examples of such projects are the work of WHO in eradicating yaws and tuberculosis; FAO's efforts to control the rhinoceros beetle which ravages much of the islands' coconut crops, and its support for a regional fisheries development agency; the establishment by UNESCO of a curriculum development unit at the University of the South Pacific; the placement in Suva of a development advisory team backed by ESCAP and the specialised agencies; the operation of a telecommunications training school set up under UN Development Programme (UNDP) auspices in Suva; and the joint venture under the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) in conjunction with regional organisations to establish a comprehensive environmental management programme in the region.

New Zealand has in the past served on the governing bodies of UNESCO and the Universal Postal Union (UPU), as well as FAO, and was a member of the Executive Board of WHO from 1972 to 1974.

New Zealand's Defence Policies—After the Second World War the international scene was clouded for many years by the Cold War. New Zealand was affected by the tensions of the period and took steps to provide for its defence in concert with its allies. As a country with limited resources, New Zealand alone could not expect to defend its extensive but isolated territory against aggression by any militarily significant power. It therefore supported efforts to give effect to the provisions of the United Nations Charter which looked to the creation of a universal system of collective security. In the meantime it accepted that it should act in concert with like-minded countries in order to strengthen its security in its own region.

Developments in the South-east Asian region, especially the conflict in Indochina, have led to some increase in tensions in the area. The interests of all countries involved, however, would seem to rule out the possibility of a wider conflict, at least in the immediate future. United States policy continues to emphasise that primary responsibility for long-term stability in South-east Asia rests with the countries of the area. These countries have taken this responsibility seriously. Although no new defence alliances have been established, political and economic co-operation and collaboration on a regional basis, particularly among the members of ASEAN, have grown. While security considerations are important, New Zealand's relations with the countries of the region now encompass a full range of economic and political activities.

By means of training programmes, exercises, staff exchanges, and the provision of training facilities under its Defence Mutual Assistance Programme, New Zealand co-operates with several countries in the South Pacific and South-east Asia in building up one another's defence capabilities, thereby contributing to regional security. The central objective for New Zealand is the maintenance of stability and peaceful development in the South Pacific, New Zealand's immediate strategic neighbourhood.

ANZUS—There is no overt military threat to New Zealand's security. Should a threat develop, New Zealand would be able to turn for assistance to its partners in the ANZUS Pact. The tri-partite security treaty between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States came into force on 29 April 1952.

ANZUS should be seen as a durable expression of a strongly-based community of interest and attitude among the three democracies that are parties to it. The close relationship among the three countries is reflected in the informality and ease of their consultation under the ANZUS Treaty. Meetings of the Council of Ministers are generally held once a year.

The Five Power Defence Arrangements—The basis of the Five Power Defence Arrangements is not a formal treaty but a statement incorporated in the communique of the meeting of Ministers of the five powers (Britain, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand) held in London in April 1971. At that meeting the Ministers declared, in relation to the external defence of Malaysia and Singapore, “that in the event of any form of armed attack externally organised or supported or the threat of such attack against Malaysia or Singapore, their governments would immediately consult together for the purpose of deciding what measures should be taken jointly or separately in relation to such attack or threat”.

Under these arrangements the Australian Government maintains an RAAF presence in Malaysia, while the New Zealand Government maintains a contingent in Singapore (known as New Zealand Force South-east Asia).

The New Zealand Government has decided that, although the Singapore Government has indicated that the Force is welcome to remain, as a matter of principle the Force should return home to New Zealand as soon as practicable. No date has been set however.

SEATO—Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States signed the South-east Asia Collective Defence Treaty, or the Manila Treaty, on 8 September 1954. The South-east Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) established under the treaty, in addition to military planning, undertook activities intended to foster the security and stability of the regional member countries.

The ending of the Vietnam war in 1975 and other developments in the region naturally led Governments in South-east Asia to reassess many of their attitudes and policies. The SEATO Council of Ministers decided at its annual meeting in New York on 24 September 1975 that, while the Organisation had over the years made a useful contribution to stability and development in the region, it should be phased out. This process was completed on 30 June 1977. No move was made, however, to abrogate the Treaty.

Defence Policy Review—In 1978 the New Zealand Government completed a comprehensive review of defence policy objectives. These as summarised in the Defence Review White Paper are:

  • To develop our defence activities with emphasis on the preparedness to respond to low-key emergencies in our own region;

  • To provide practical assistance to the governments of the South Pacific if required;

  • To further strengthen relationships within ANZUS;

  • To work towards an enhanced combined defence capability with Australia, including defence supply;

  • To develop as far as limited resources permit, mutually beneficial military training and exchange programmes with countries of the Pacific and (to a degree) South-east Asia;• To supply defence capabilities in support of the needs of New Zealand society.

NEW ZEALAND'S AID AND OTHER RESOURCES FLOWS TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES—During 1978–79 Official Development Assistance (ODA) amounted to $55.6 million (0.35 percent of GNP), an increase of about 8 percent on the previous year's figure of $51.1 million. Bilateral and regional assistance totalled $44.1 million, with $8.5 million going to multilateral institutions. The following is a summary of 1978–79 ODA expenditure:

1978–79 ODA expenditure
Vote: Foreign Affairs$(m)$(m)
Bilateral—
    Country40.273 
    Other3.85444.127
Multilateral 8.511
Reserve Funds 1.023
  53.661
Vote: Transport
    Pacific Civil Aviation 0.989
Vote: Permanent Legislative Authority
    Asian Development Bank, second capital increase 0.907
    World Bank capital contribution 0.053
            Total 55.610

The geographic distribution of the assistance, virtually all administered by the External Aid Division of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, followed a similar pattern to the previous year, with more than 60 percent of bilateral aid disbursed in the South Pacific region. A quarter of the bilateral and regional assistance went to South and South-east Asia. The total programme involves the skills and experience of hundreds of New Zealanders, together with New Zealand technical and capital back-up, all carefully geared to respond to the aid partners' own developmental priorities.

The total transfer of resources from New Zealand to developing countries in 1979 was estimated, with some margin of allowance for unconfirmed data, at $84 million—a figure which includes Government-backed export credits, direct investment by New Zealand interests and transfers by New Zealand voluntary agencies.

Government assistance to voluntary agencies in 1978–79 amounted to 5359,677, an increase of almost 50 percent on the previous year's figure. This increase was largely due to a bigger disbursement of funds under the voluntary agency support scheme. Under this scheme the Government provides a subsidy for approved projects undertaken by New Zealand private agencies in developing countries.

Bilateral ODA 1978–79—Under its bilateral (government-to-government) aid programmes, New Zealand responds where possible to the developmental needs of selected countries, mainly in the South Pacific and South and South-east Asia, with small programmes also in Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Hundreds of projects are undertaken with inputs of New Zealand expertise and/or material and capital resources. The projects can vary considerably in expenditure and duration, with emphasis on productive sector development such as livestock and pasture improvement programmes and assistance with crops and the development of forestry and fisheries resources. Advisers may be assigned to projects for varying times, from a few weeks to several years. During 1978–79 the bilateral aid programme used 869 advisers on assignments averaging 4 1/2 months. Training within New Zealand or at “third country” institutions is provided for under bilateral agreements to supplement the transfer of New Zealand expertise to the developing countries. There were about 800 holders of training or study awards in New Zealand in 1978–79. This training is linked with specific requirements in the recipient countries and, increasingly, is related to the maintenance of development projects involving a New Zealand input. Bilateral programmes in the Pacific and South-east Asia are supplemented by programmes promoting regional development co-operation, particularly in the fields of education, transport, and communications. Bilateral assistance also includes commodity and distress relief.

A country breakdown of bilateral ODA in 1978–79 shows the direction and scope of New Zealand assistance:

BILATERAL ODA 1978–79
South PacificNZ$
    Cook Islands5,913,202
    Fiji3,458,710
    Kiribati160,151
    New Hebrides62,986
    Niue4,163,402
    Papua New Guinea2,532,085
    Solomon Islands488,440
    Tokelau1,300,000
    Tonga2,438,520
    Tuvalu42,919
    Western Samoa3,394,858
    Regional4,171,385
    Head of Mission Fund119,051
    Administration74,572
              Total Pacific28,320,281
South and South-east Asia
    ASEAN
        Indonesia2,811,791
        Malaysia1,035,984
        Philippines3,098,773
        Singapore18,575
        Thailand1,378,910
        Regional155,981
        Head of Mission Fund30,261
              Sub-total8,530,275
    OtherNZ$
        Bangladesh122,879
        Burma23,039
        India347,638
        Korea (South)337,721
        Laos17,027
        Maldive Islands1,446
        Nepal315,263
        Sri Lanka122,308
        Vietnam64,357
        Regional (non-ASEAN)748,290
        Head of Mission Fund40,074
              Sub-total2,140,042
              Administration58,756
              Total Asia10,729,073
Africa
    Egypt19,819
    Malta347
    Malawi28,829
    Tanzania459,918
    Regional39,033
    Administration70,647
              Total Africa618,593
Latin AmericaNZ$
    Chile16,200
    Peru355,563
    Head of Mission Fund4,685
    Administration8,763
              Total Latin America385,211
Caribbean
    Barbados3,673
    Jamaica29,750
    Guyana179,548
    Administration2,147
              Total Caribbean215,118
              Unallocated (Admin)4,545
              Total country aid40,272,821
Other Bilateral ProgrammesNZ$
    Students and trainees2,979,127
    Halls of residence321,103
    Emergency and distress relief144,891
    Voluntary agencies359,677
    Publicity49,218
                Total other3,854,016
                Total Bilateral44,126,837

Multilateral ODA 1978–79—The multilateral programme enables New Zealand to make a contribution to development work which would usually be beyond the scope of the bilateral aid programme, either in terms of the scale of the projects or in their ability to help countries beyond the regions of concentration of the bilateral aid effort.

Multilateral assistance amounted to $8.5 million in 1978–79. Major recipients included the United Nations Development Programme ($1.5 million), the Asian Development Bank ($1 million), the World Food Programme ($724,000), United Nations Children's Emergency Fund ($850,000), and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation ($600,000).

MULTILATERAL ODA 1978–79
United Nations InstitutionsNZ$
    United Nations Development Programme1,500,000
    United Nations Disaster Relief Office10,000
    World Food Programme723,958
    United Nations Children's Emergency Fund850,000
    United Nations Fund for Population Activities350,000
    United Nations Relief and Works Agency121,114
    United Nations High Commission for Refugees275,000
    United Nations Education Training Programme for Southern     Africa16,000
    United Nations Trust Fund for Southern Africa8,000
    United Nations Trust Fund for Namibia5,000
              Total United Nations3,859,072
Commonwealth programmes
    Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation599,993
    Commonwealth Youth Programme70,000
    Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau30,104
            Total Commonwealth700,097
South Pacific InstitutionsNZ$
    South Pacific Commission610,734
    South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation173,735
                  Total South Pacific784,469
Development Finance Institutions
    IDA—4th Replenishment733,000
    ADB—Asian-Development Fund1,000,000
    ADB—T.A.S.F75,590
    Caribbean Development Bank250,000
    I.M.F.—Oil subsidy account380,000
    International Fund for Agricultural Development300,000
                Total development finance2,738,590
Other contributions
    Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research25,000
    International Planned Parenthood Fund249,997
    International Committee of the Red Cross50,000
    Miscellaneous multilateral/regional institutions104,123
              Total other429,120
              Total multilateral aid8,511,344

THE CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: Introduction—The history of the present constitution dates back to the declaration of British sovereignty in 1840. By the Treaty of Waitangi, certain Maori chiefs ceded their sovereignty to that of the British Crown in exchange for guarantees contained in the Treaty. Territory not included in the Treaty was claimed on the ground of discovery. Somewhat surprisingly, the constitution was, and is, wholly Anglo-Saxon in its origin and took no account of Maori custom and usage.

From 1840 until the grant of responsible government in 1856 the colony was subject to gubernatorial rule. Attempts to persuade the Imperial government to establish representative institutions bore fruit in 1846 with the enactment of a Constitution Act (never fully implemented) superseded by a further Constitution Act in 1852 which created a bicameral General Assembly with limited powers and 6 provinces each with its own executive and unicameral legislature or provincial council. The system of government was unitary however—the General Assembly could legislate in areas in which the provinces had jurisdiction and could amend or annul provincial ordinances.

The 1852 Act constituted the governor as part of the General Assembly with the power to summon, prorogue, and dissolve it and to assent or refuse the assent to legislation passed by it, but the actual form of the executive government was omitted from the Act and left to the will of the governors and the Colonial Office. Moreover, the Act was silent about the appointment and tenure of the judges, and matters normally contained in a constitutional document were left to be decided by ordinary legislation.

Amendments to the 1852 Act stemming from political development reflect New Zealand's transition from colonial to fully-independent status within the period 1840–1947. Contemporary concern about the constitution centres on the operation of, and the balance between, the legislature and the executive rather than in the broader context of the merits of monarchy or republic. The result of the 1978 General Election has given impetus to the argument for a system of proportional representation in elections for members of Parliament and it seems likely that New Zealanders will concern themselves for some time with the fine tuning of existing political institutions rather than with the system itself.

The Constitution—The constitution is not a single written instrument granted to, or by, the people but a miscellany of statutory and customary law welded together and given coherence by the operation and observance of formal unwritten rules known as the conventions. The constitutional framework is erected on, and maintained by, the ordinary law as opposed to a supreme or basic law such as that found-in most jurisdictions.

Certain statutes and statute-derived law have important constitutional significance. Among the more important are:

Constitution Act 1852—creation of Parliament;

Bill of Rights 1688;

Habeas Corpus Act 1679;

Electoral Act 1956—election of members of Parliament;

Legislature Act 1908—declaration of powers, privileges of Parliament;

Economic Stabilisation Act 1948—wide-ranging powers of the Government to affect socioeconomic activity;

Public Safety Conservation Act 1932—states of emergency, powers of executive;

Letters Patent and Instructions 1917–1919—exercise of prerogative powers by Governor-General.

Such laws exist by force of the ordinary legislative process because of the basic canon of the legislative primacy of Parliament—the legal capacity of the legislature to make and unmake laws and the self-imposed collateral incapacity of any court or forum to impeach the validity of the legislature's exercise of that power when expressed as an Act of Parliament.

Although not as important in New Zealand as they are in the United Kingdom, the personal, i.e., prerogative powers of the Crown, almost all of which are exercisable by the Governor-General, remain part of constitutional law. A prerogative power may be abrogated only by statute.

On the foregoing basis, it is open to Parliament to change or abolish the constitutional framework on which it rests its primacy, and for a later Parliament to reverse that change, one aspect of the rule being that one Parliament cannot bind its successors. Consequently, the five provisions of the Electoral Act are entrenched by Section 189 in a political, rather than a strict legal, sense. The section could not act as a bar to the repeal of itself by simple majority, and thereafter the repeal or amendment of one or more of the five sections, also by simple majority.

On paper, major changes to the constitutional framework could be effected with comparative ease and speed, but constitutional history shows that those changes which have been made reflected shifts in social or political attitudes already evident.

PARLIAMENT AND THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES—The Constitution Act created a bicameral General Assembly empowered to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of New Zealand. Legislative competence was restricted, e.g., laws enacted were not to be repugnant to those of England; laws did not have extra-territorial effect; certain laws needed the Sovereign's assent; and all were subject to Royal disallowance. It was only with the passage of the Constitution Amendment Act 1947 (U.K.) and the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947 (N.Z.) that the New Zealand Parliament obtained plenary legislative power, any residual doubts on the matter having been removed by a further amendment to the 1852 Act in 1973.

Until 1950, Parliament consisted of the Governor-General, the Legislative Council, and the House of Representatives. Despite repeated proposals for reform the council remained an appointive chamber, and the decline in its capacity as a curb on the lower House and the Government was accelerated by the partisan nature of the appointments made. Each ministry sought to ensure that its supporters were in a majority. The council's demise was assured when the National Party, which had campaigned for abolition, was returned as the Government in the 1949 General Election. The necessary legislation was passed by both Houses and the council ceased to exist on 1 January 1951. Although it was intended that the council should be replaced by an elected second chamber nothing came of the idea and it is highly unlikely that New Zealand will revert to bicameralism.

Parliament now consists of the Governor-General (the Queen when resident in New Zealand), and the 92-member House of Representatives. The role of the Governor-General, as part of the General Assembly, is purely formal and for all practical purposes “Parliament” is synonymous with “House of Representatives”.

The principal functions of Parliament are to enact laws, supervise the Government's administration, vote supply, provide a government, and redress grievances by way of petition.

The Constitution Act forbids the House to allocate public funds for any purpose unless first recommended by the Governor-General. Although the reasons for this provision are historic, it is also used by governments to defeat legislation brought forward by individual members which ministers are unwilling to support or adopt. On the other hand, the law forbids the Crown to tax citizens without express parliamentary approval.

Constitutional law includes the law and custom of Parliament, itself derived from a variety of sources. The Bill of Rights saves any proceeding in Parliament from being questioned in any forum, other than the House itself, and the Legislature Act 1908 provides that the powers, privileges, rights, and immunities of the House (and its committees and members) are those possessed by the British House of Commons on 1 January 1865. One aspect of the powers of the House is the ability to make rules for the conduct of its business. Most of these are contained in the Standing Orders although some are made on a sessional, and others on an ad hoc, basis. The traditional three readings given to a bill are part of Standing Orders, but it is open to the House to alter or suspend its rules at any time. The House has retained the right to punish breaches of its privileges, whether by members or citizens, from which there is no appeal (although the courts could be asked to decide whether the privilege claimed is one recognised by law).

Perhaps the most important privilege of the House is that of freedom of speech, guaranteed by the Bill of Rights, and claimed by the Speaker upon confirmation in his office by the Governor-General.

The House meets, as Parliament, in answer to a summons from the Governor-General. Sessions of Parliament are marked by a formal opening (the Government's legislative programme is described in the Speech from the Throne read by the Governor-General) and a closing prorogation by proclamation. Unless the House, by resolution made under the authority of the Legislature Act (1977 Amendment), carries forward business to the next session, all business before the House on prorogation lapses. Parliament is dissolved by the Governor-General rather than have it expire by efflux of time.

Because control of the House's business lies with the Government, many of the rules and customs of the House are designed to ensure that members of the House are given a full opportunity to debate any aspect of a government's proposals. Control of the debates and the conduct of members is vested in the Speaker, whose rulings are binding unless overturned by the House.

Detailed scrutiny of legislation and facets of executive activity, e.g., expenditure of public money, is carried out by select committees consisting of a small number of members, usually 7, which report their findings and recommendations to the House. Commencing with the 1980 session, all Bills will stand referred to a select committee unless certified by the Speaker as “money Bills”. The change was recommended by the Standing Orders Committee (see Parliamentary paper I. 14, 1979). This is intended to enable the public and interested bodies to make submissions, in the expectation that better laws will result.

In the context of the party system, it is very unlikely that the Opposition would be in a position to bring down a government by means of a no-confidence vote—there is one recorded instance of a successful no-confidence vote in the history of the New Zealand Parliament, and that was before the development of the party system as it is now. The strength of the parties, especially that of the National and Labour Parties, is so great that many of the rules and customs of the House are based on there being 2 parties only in the House. The presence of a third party member, as at present, has raised a number of problems in relation to speaking times, membership of select committees, and so forth.

Because of the growth of a largely two-party system and the importance that the parties have assumed within the political framework, the party caucus (a meeting of each party's members of Parliament in closed session at regular intervals, once a week when Parliament is in session) is a primary means of developing policies and tactics. Caucus committees of both the National and Labour Parties travel around the country frequently, investigating issues of interest or concern to them. Although the existence of the caucuses and their committees is not recognised by the law, indirect recognition has been given, e.g., travelling allowances are payable to members when travelling as member of a caucus committee.

In the exercise of their functions and powers, the Speaker and the Chairman of Committees axe assisted by permanent officials, headed by the Clerk of the House, charged with the administration of the House and the provision of advice on parliamentary law and custom.

The procedure for fixing the salaries and allowances of members and ministers was changed in 1977. Responsibility now rests with the Higher Salaries Commission established by Act of the same name. The following table lists the salaries payable from 10 November 1979:

OfficeYearly Rate of Salary Payable On and After 10 November 1979
Members of the Executive
 $    
Prime Minister57,780
Deputy Prime Minister45,043
Each Minister of the Crown holding a portfolio or portfolios (other than the Prime Minister or the Deputy Prime Minister)39,948
Each Minister of the Crown without portfolio32,306
Each Parliamentary Under-Secretary31,032
Officers of the House of Representatives
Speaker of the House of Representatives37,082
Chairman of Committees of the House of Representatives31,988
Leader and Deputy Leader of the Official Opposition
Leader of the Official Opposition39,948
Deputy Leader of the Official Opposition31,032
Whips
Chief Government Whip28,485
Chief Opposition Whip28,485
Junior Government Whip26,575
Junior Opposition Whip26,575
Members of the House of Representatives
Each member of the House of Representatives to whom the foregoing provisions of this Schedule do not apply23,390

The following allowances are also paid:

OfficeYearly Rate of Expenses Allowance
 $
Prime Minister10,725
Deputy Prime Minister4,675
Each Minister of the Crown holding a portfolio or portfolios (other than the Prime Minister or the Deputy Prime Minister)4,400
Each Minister of the Crown without portfolio3,465
Each Parliamentary Under-Secretary3,465
Minister of Foreign Affairs (Additional)3,850
Speaker3,850
    (Additional allowance as Speaker; plus electorate allowance at appropriate rate)3,520
Chairman of Committees3,850
    (Additional allowance as Chairman plus electorate and day allowances at appropriate rates)2,090
Leader of the Opposition4,400
(Plus house and travelling allowances) 
Deputy Leader of the Opposition5,060
    (Plus additional allowance as Deputy and electorate, night, and day allowances at appropriate rates)1,760
Members5,060
    (Plus electorate, day, and night allowances at appropriate rates) 

The rate at which an electorate allowance is paid depends on the nature of each member's electorate, e.g., urban, rural, or semi-rural.

In addition to the foregoing allowances, a once-only setting up allowance is paid to members elected for the first time. The current rate is $250.

The Crown and The Governor-General—Constitutional law vests the executive power in the Crown, i.e., the Monarch acting through, or with the advice of, responsible ministers. Primarily because of political developments within the British Empire and, later, the Commonwealth, changes in the substantive law have left the constitutional position, but not the role, of the Monarch in some doubt. By virtue of the Royal Titles Act 1974, the present Monarch is styled “. . . Elizabeth the Second . . . Queen of New Zealand . . .” which, taken together with changes made to the Constitution Act in 1973, tend to suggest that the Queen of New Zealand is a separate legal entity from that of the United Kingdom, a suggestion which has found support in a 1976 Supreme Court decision. If such is the case, English or Imperial law which was thought to be part of New Zealand's law, e.g., the Regency Act 1937–53, may have ceased to be so.

Although not a viceroy, the Governor-General (appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the New Zealand Prime Minister for a term, normally 5 years) may lawfully exercise most of the Royal powers and functions, whether derived from the general law or statute. The 1917 Instructions, reinforced by a strong convention, require him to accept and act on the advice of his New Zealand ministers, although a reserve power retained by the instructions would enable him to reject advice if he believed that a government was intending to act improperly or unconstitutionally. Recent events in Australia have demonstrated how controversial the use of the reserve powers can be, and it is likely that a Governor-General would seek a political, rather than a legal, solution.

As part of the General Assembly, the Governor-General summons, prorogues, and dissolves Parliament, and his assent to Bills passed by the House is necessary to transform them into Acts. As the Monarch's representative, he is the head of the Executive and his participation, albeit formal in nature, is required to give legal effect to decisions made by the Government or individual ministers.

The Executive Government—The governance of New Zealand is executed by Ministers of the Crown in the name of, and on behalf of, the Monarch. The dual conventions that ministers are responsible to Parliament for their official acts and those of their officials and that the Government is responsible for its acts have been translated, indirectly, into statute. The Civil List Act 1979 provides that no person may be appointed or remain a minister or member of the Executive Council unless he is, concurrently, a member of Parliament.

Following a General Election, the leader of the party which has, or is most likely to secure, a majority of seats in the House is invited by the Governor-General to accept the office of Prime Minister and form a ministry. Although the selection process has varied between the two major parties, the respective leaders have final responsibility for the allocation of portfolios. Acting on the new Prime Minister's advice, the Governor-General appoints a number of members of Parliament as ministers with responsibility for one or more areas of government administration (portfolios), although in rare cases ministers are appointed without portfolio. In addition, a few members are appointed as parliamentary under-secretaries to assist ministers in specific areas. Under-secretaries are neither ministers nor members of the Executive Council.

The Executive Council, constituted under the 1917 Instructions, consists of the ministers, any two of whom together with the person presiding (normally the Governor-General) form a quorum. The council is the legal vehicle for the promulgation of a government's decisions which are intended to form part of the law. It is also one of the primary means whereby the Government tenders formal advice to the Governor-General.

The present membership of the council is 19.

Unlike the council, the Cabinet owes its existence solely to convention. Although both institutions have the same membership (the Governor-General is a member of neither), their respective functions differ markedly. It is the Cabinet which determines or approves a government's legislative and administrative proposals and policies and co-ordinates the work of ministers.

To facilitate this process, a number of Cabinet committees have been set up, consisting of ministers whose responsibilities are related to the subject matter covered by the committees. Present committees include those dealing with economic affairs, expenditure, communications, Government works, legislation and parliamentary questions, social affairs, state services, and transport. Each committee has power, within its terms of reference, to make decisions and some are supported by inter-departmental groups of officials.

One important feature of the Cabinet is the informality of its proceedings and their confidentiality, thus allowing for a consensus of views to emerge without the need, in most cases, to take a vote. Cabinet discussion and agreement ensures the Government's support in the House for a minister's legislative or other proposals and supports the convention of collective responsibility.

The Cabinet Office is responsible for the servicing and co-ordination of the Cabinet and its committees to ensure their smooth functioning, as well as providing liaison and advice within the interdepartmental framework. The Secretary of the Cabinet is also Clerk of the Executive Council.

The Judiciary—New Zealand has inherited the strong British tradition of an independent judiciary seen as a bulwark against unnecessary intrusion by the State in the lives of citizens. One means of maintaining that tradition is to provide superior court judges with security of tenure. Accordingly, the law provides that High Court judges are appointed “. . . during good behaviour . . .” and are removable by the Governor-General in answer to an address from the House. Moreover, the salaries of High Court judges cannot be reduced while they remain in office. High Court judges must retire at the age of 72 but may be reappointed for a further 3 years.

As from 1 April 1980 the name of the superior court of New Zealand, hitherto known as the Supreme Court, was changed to the High Court. At the same time, magistrates were renamed District Court Judges and their courts, District Courts. Appeals from the Court of Appeal to the Privy Council were not affected by the changes made.

District Court Judges are appointed, as with High Court judges, by the Governor-General on ministerial advice and are removable by him, without the need for an address from the House, for misbehaviour or inability. Although a District Court judge's security of tenure is not as entrenched as that of a High Court judge, nevertheless, the convention against arbitrary removal ensures his independence of action in the exercise of his judicial functions.

Judicial officers of specialist courts enjoy the tenure provisions of High Court judges or District Court judges depending on the ranking of their court within the judicial structure.

New Zealand courts apply the primacy of Parliament doctrine which, in the judicial context, means that a court will not question the validity of what purports to be an Act of Parliament. However, the doctrine has never prevented them from declaring legislation made by the Executive Council, under delegated authority from Parliament, outside the powers of the council or Governor-General, as the case may be, on the grounds that, in fact, no power to make that particular piece of subordinate legislation exists.

In the constitutional context, the growth and proliferation of tribunals and other administrative bodies as an answer to the complexities of modem administration, and the increasing regulation by successive governments of socio-economic affairs, has challenged the traditional, original, and supervisory jurisdictions of the High Court. In answer to parliamentary attempts to oust or restrict the Court's jurisdiction, the superior courts of many common law countries have dusted off hitherto unused writs and remedies and adapted them to meet modern demands.

The balance between the courts and the administrative agencies has been restored, partially, by the creation in 1968 of an Administrative Division of the Supreme Court (now the High Court) to hear appeals or review the law applied by these agencies, and the institution in 1972 of a simplified procedure to obtain judicial review. Conversely, New Zealand still lacks a coherent policy towards the role and ambit of the High Court's jurisdiction in the field of administrative law.

Because the High Court lacks the capacity to declare an Act unconstitutional or beyond the scope of Parliament's powers, the High Court judges have seen their supervisory jurisdiction over administrative acts as an important means of maintaining the balance of competing interests between the citizen and the State, and have taken steps to stem any erosion of that jurisdiction.

OMBUDSMEN—In 1962 the office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for Investigations (Ombudsman) was created by an Act of Parliament. The functions of the Ombudsman were and remain to investigate, either on receipt of a complaint or on the Ombudsman's own motion, decisions, recommendations, acts and omissions of those departments and organisations named or specified in the Act which relate to matters of administration. Legislation which was enacted in 1975 and which repealed and replaced the 1962 Act provides for the appointment of a Chief Ombudsman and an unspecified number of Ombudsmen, all of whom have equal and co-extensive jurisdiction.

These appointments, as in the case of the appointment made under the 1962 Act, are made by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the House of Representatives, and the Ombudsmen continue to fulfil their traditional role of Parliamentary officers. The present legislation extends the jurisdiction of the Ombudsmen to include not only the departments of Government and Government organisations which were originally within jurisdiction, but also local authorities.

The Ombudsmen have no power to make binding decisions, but are empowered to form an opinion on the merits of a complaint, and if appropriate to make a recommendation to the department or organisation for its resolution. If effect is not given to a recommendation, the Ombudsman may in the case of a department of Government or a Government organisation report the matter to the Prime Minister and thereafter to Parliament. In the case of a local organisation which declines to give effect to a recommendation, the Ombudsman may prepare a summary of his report and require the local organisation concerned to make that summary available to members of the public and to publicise locally the availability of that summary.

The Ombudsmen have been given wide powers to require the production of documents and the appearance of persons before them in connection with the investigation of complaints.

An analysis of complaints made to the ombudsmen and the resultant action is given in the Official section of this Yearbook.

PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS—The law on elections is contained in the Electoral Act 1956 and its amendments. At every census the Chief Electoral Officer is to arrange with the Government Statistician to deliver to every occupier or person in charge of a dwelling forms of application for registration as an elector. This form is to be completed by every adult who is residing in the dwelling on the day of the census. Following the population census (every 5 years) the boundaries of General (formerly known as European) electorates are revised, and the new boundaries come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

The Government Statistician is required to supply population figures to the Surveyor-General as soon as possible after the census.

The term “General population” means total population with the following exceptions:

  1. Maoris—defined in the 1975 Amendment as “a person of the Maori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person who elects to be considered as a Maori for the purposes of this Act”;

  2. Persons residing on board ship, whether as passengers or members of the crew or otherwise;

  3. Persons residing temporarily as guests in any licensed hotel;

  4. Persons residing temporarily in any naval, military, or air force camp, station or establishment;

  5. Persons residing as patients and inmates in any hospital.

  6. Persons in respect of whom reception orders under the Mental Health Act 1969 are in force.

  7. Persons detained pursuant to conviction in any penal institution.

After the population figures are supplied by the Government Statistician it is then the responsibility of the Representation Commission to define new General electoral districts. The commission comprises eight members. Five of these are official members; the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer, the Director-General of the Post Office, and the Chairman of the Local Government Commission (who is without voting rights). Two are unofficial members, being persons nominated by the House of Representatives, one nominated to represent the Government and one to represent the Opposition. The eighth member is appointed, on the nomination of the official and unofficial members of the commission or a majority of them, to be the chairman of the commission. The chairman and unofficial members cease to be members on the date on which the first periodical census is taken after the date of their appointment.

The number of General electorates is based on total population under a formula that allocates 25 seats to the South Island. The total South Island population (excluding those on the Maori roll) is divided by 25, and the quota thus obtained for each South Island electorate is then divided into the North Island population (again excluding those on the Maori roll) to give the number of electorates in the North Island.

The number of Maori seats is fixed at four. The total Maori population is the number of Maoris, or persons of Maori descent who have elected to be considered as Maoris, who have chosen to be registered as electors of Maori electoral districts and their children aged 18 years and under.

When the boundaries have been provisionally determined, maps are prepared illustrating the proposed electoral districts, and descriptions of each electoral district are published in the New Zealand Gazette. A time limit of 1 month is given during which objections to the proposed boundaries may be lodged. These objections are then considered by the Representation Commission and a final decision reached on boundaries which then define the new electoral districts.

All general elections and by-elections are held on a Saturday. Polling hours in all electorates are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.

Any member of the Armed Services aged 18 years or over serving overseas is qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which he or she last resided before leaving New Zealand.

Franchise—Since September 1974, persons 18 years of age and over have had the right to vote in the election of members of the House of Representatives. (From 1893 onwards all persons aged 21 years had voting rights and the qualifying age had been lowered to 20 years in 1969.)

Registration of Electors—Registration as an elector is compulsory, although it is not compulsory to vote. To be qualified for registration as a parliamentary elector in New Zealand a person must have attained the age of 18 years and must (a) be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, (b) at some period have resided continuously in New Zealand for at least a year, and (c) except in special cases have resided continuously for 3 months or more in the electoral district in respect of which application for registration is made, and not have subsequently resided for 3 months or more in any other electoral district. Broadly speaking the qualifications restrict the right to vote to permanent residents. Maoris and persons of part-Maori descent may elect to be included on either the General or the Maori electoral roll.

Voting at parliamentary elections is by secret ballot. In general, only those persons whose names are lawfully on the main and supplementary rolls of electors compiled prior to an election may vote at that election.

A vote is normally cast by the elector at a polling booth within his district. An elector may, however, vote as a “special voter”, either at a polling booth outside his district or by post for reasons of distant travel on polling day, sickness, etc.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT: General—The present system of local government in New Zealand has evolved since the abolition of the provinces in 1876. Until fairly recently it has consisted of a structure of territorial local authorities—counties, boroughs, and town districts—and a further structure of ad hoc authorities, such as harbour boards, pest destruction boards, and electric power boards. Major changes were made by the Local Government Act 1974, which provided for the introduction of regional government, and for the establishment of district councils (as a new form of territorial authority) and “communities” (below territorial authority level). The Local Government Act also extended the role of the Local Government Commission in the reorganisation of local government. The Local Government Act as originally enacted has, however, undergone modifications, especially as a result of amending legislation in 1976 and 1977. The present situation is outlined below.

The process of consolidation and amalgamation of the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, the Counties Act 1956, and the Local Government Act 1974, which was begun in 1977, has now been completed. As from 1 April 1980 the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 and the Counties Act 1956 were repealed. The Local Government Act contains all the provisions relating to the constitution of regional government (regional councils and united councils), territorial authorities (boroughs, counties, town districts, and districts) and communities. The Act also outlines all the provisions relating to the Local Government Commission.

Territorial Authorities—There are four kinds of territorial authorities in existence:

Boroughs—The Municipal Corporations Act 1876 provided for the incorporation of the 36 boroughs then in existence and for the creation of new boroughs. Boroughs provide for the needs of concentrated populations and until 1978 there had to be a population of at least 1500, with an average density of population of at least one person per 4000m2, before they could be constituted. A borough containing a population of 20000 or more may be proclaimed a city, but the corporation remains unaltered.

Counties—Counties were originally constituted by the Counties Act 1876. Generally counties are concerned with the needs of rural areas. Initially, there were 63 counties but with increasing settlement this number increased to 129 in 1920. Since then the number of counties has been reduced by mergers and at 1 April 1979 there were 91 counties, of which 90 were actively functioning, Fiord being a sparsely-populated county in which the Local Government Act 1974 is not wholly operative.

Fiord County is soon to be abolished and the area will be included in the adjoining district of Wallace County.

Town Districts—The town district represents a form of territorial local government intermediate between the county and the borough. It implies a certain concentration of population. There were two types of town district—dependent and independent. On the enactment of the Local Government Act 1974, the four existing dependent town districts became community councils. Town districts do not form part of the county within which they are situated, nor are they subject to any county council control. After 1 April 1978 no new town districts are to be constituted.

District Councils—This form of territorial local authority was introduced by the Local Government Act 1974 in recognition of the fact that nowadays many territorial authorities are neither “boroughs” nor “counties” in the sense that they are neither wholly urban nor wholly rural. District Councils may now be constituted either by Local Government Commission scheme or by a borough council or county council passing a special order to that effect. The Governor-General may proclaim a district under a district council to be a city if in his opinion it is predominantly urban and it has a population of not less than 20000. As at 1 April 1979 there were 9 District Councils: Waitomo; Thames-Coromandel; Whakatane; Waipukurau; Waipawa; Hawera; Rangiora; Otorohanga; and Rotorua. Except for Rangiora, all these districts comprise areas which at one time contained a separate county and borough.

Communities—The Local Government Act provides for the establishment of “communities” within the districts of territorial local authorities. Since 1976 a community may be constituted, by Local Government Commission scheme or by special order of the territorial local authority, only in an urban area within the rural part of a territorial authority district that is predominantly urban in character, or in an urban area within a territorial authority district that is predominantly rural in character, or in the whole of the area of one or more off-shore islands forming part of a territorial authority district. This has brought the position nearer to that existing prior to the enactment of the Local Government Act, which superseded Parts III and IV of the Counties Amendment Act 1968 under which county towns and county boroughs were able to be constituted within counties.

Although not local authorities in the true sense, each community has either a “district community council” or a “community council” of not less than 5 nor more than 12 members, elected by residents and ratepayers for a 3-year term.

District Community Councils—By statute, except for certain reserved powers dealing with finance, staff, and planning, a district community council may exercise all the powers and functions of its parent territorial authority. A district community council may be established only in respect of a community having a population of not less than 1500.

Community Councils—These derive most of their powers by delegation from their territorial authority, at its discretion. Once again, powers dealing with finance, staff, and planning cannot be delegated. In addition to exercising such powers as may be delegated to it by the territorial authority, the general purpose of a community council is to co-ordinate and express to the parent territorial authority the views of the community on any matter of concern to it, after consulting and obtaining the consent of the territorial authority to take appropriate action in the interests of the community, and to undertake, encourage, and co-ordinate activities for the general well-being of the residents of the community.

Regional Government—Apart from the Auckland Regional Authority, which was constituted by a local empowering Act in 1963, the regional bodies being established under the Local Government Act will be new to local government in this country. Regions and united or regional councils are being determined by the Local Government Commission and established by Order in Council giving effect to a final regional scheme of the commission.

Towards the end of 1979, there were 12 regions with a regional government structure. Eleven of these regions have been constituted under united councils: Nelson Bays; West Coast; Wairarapa; Marlborough; Taranaki; Wanganui; Southland; Bay of Plenty; East Cape; Canterbury; and Northland. In the twelfth region the Auckland Regional Authority is deemed to be a regional council.

Regional bodies possess their functions through several means. First, every united or regional council has two mandatory functions—regional planning (under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977) and civil defence. Besides these two mandatory functions, the Local Government Act provides, with qualifications in some cases, that a united or regional council may undertake functions relating to regional reserves, forestry, regional roading, and community services. The commission's regional scheme: constituting a united or regional council may provide for the regional body to undertake the functions of any territorial authority or (where a special-purpose authority or the appropriate Minister concurs.) a special-purpose authority. A united or regional council is empowered to undertake exclusively any new regional function which is not undertaken by any other local authority in the region; the commission, by scheme, can provide that that function may be one that other local authorities are not empowered to undertake under any other statute. A united or regional council may also enter into an agreement with a constituent authority to undertake any function of that authority where, in the opinion of either party, that function would be more effectively and economically undertaken by the regional body. Finally, united and regional councils may enter into agreements with the Crown whereby they may exercise any function or provide any service for or on behalf of the Crown.

Criteria were provided in 1976 as to which type of regional body a region is to have. A region which has a population of not less than 325000 and which includes 1 or more cities will normally have a regional council; in other regions—more rural in nature—a united council will be the rule. In either case, however, the converse type of regional body may be established by the commission if two or more territorial authorities in the proposed region (having sufficient weighting in capital value, population and area) so prefer. The membership of both united and regional councils will not be less than 12.

The main differences between the two types of regional body are as follows:

United Councils—These are to be appointed by the constituent (territorial) authorities. To obtain finance they will make levies on their constituent authorities. One of the constituent authorities is to be appointed as the administering authority of the united council, that is, to staff and service the united council. The united council concept is designed to meet requirements of those regions where the range of functions, or the nature of the responsibilities involved, do not justify the setting up of an organisation of the scale implicit in a directly elected regional council.

In addition, a united council must have the prior consent of the majority of territorial authorities in its region (having sufficient weighting in capital value, population, and area) before it can take on any new function.

Regional Councils—These are to be directly elected. They will have direct rating powers. The establishment of a separate organisation is envisaged.

Special-purpose Authorities—Special-purpose authorities differ from territorial authorities in that each is charged with only one major function. The need for the most efficient and economic discharge of the major function being the prime consideration, their boundaries may either extend beyond or fall within those territorial authorities in the same geographical area. Only rarely do the boundaries coincide. Sometimes, as is the case with a number of pest destruction boards and hydatids control authorities, territorial authorities themselves are also constituted as, and perform the functions of, special-purpose authorities. The more important special-purpose authorities are those administering harbours, hospitals, and the retail distribution of electricity. Others are engaged in water supply, urban drainage and transport, soil conservation and rivers control, pest destruction, nassella tussock control, hydatids control, and land drainage.

Fire boards and urban fire authorities went out of existence when on 1 April 1976 their functions and assets were taken over by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission (see section 8B).

Number of Local Authorities—Local authorities actively functioning at 1 April 1979 were as follows:

Territorial Authorities—County councils, 91; borough (including city) councils, 129; town councils, 3; district councils, 9.

Communities—Also within the framework of territorial local government, although not local authorities as such, were: district community councils, 13; community councils, 108.

Regional Authorities—United councils, 5; regional councils, 1.

Special-purpose Authorities—River boards (2 boards also have the powers of land-drainage boards), 6; land drainage boards (including 1 territorial authority), 25; urban drainage boards, 4; catchment boards, 13; catchment commissions, 4; regional water boards, 1; water supply board, 1; valley authority, 1; electric power boards (including 1 electric power and gas board), 38; transport board, 1; harbour bridge authority, 1; independent harbour boards, 15; pest destruction boards (separately elected), 63; wallaby board, 1; nassella tussock boards, 2; plantation board, 1; forestry corporation, 1; crematorium board, 1; hospital boards, 29; town hall board of management, 1; museum trust boards, 3. Borough and county councils also functioned as harbour boards in 8 cases, as county pest destruction boards in 37 cases, and as hydatids control authorities in 84 cases. In addition, there were 22 district roads councils of the National Roads Board constituted under the National Roads Act 1953. Although these district roads councils are not local authorities in the strict sense of the term they are intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, providing an advisory service to the National Roads Board concerning the roading needs and the allocation of national roading funds within their respective districts.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT COMMISSION—To promote reform of the structure of local government a Local Government Commission was first established, as a quasi-judicial body, in 1946. The present Local Government Commission, constituted by the Local Government Amendment Act 1974, comprises a chairman appointed by the Minister of Local Government and two other members, one appointed by the Minister on the nomination of the New Zealand Counties Association and the other on the nomination of the Municipal Association of New Zealand. Where the commission is to consider a proposal affecting a local authority other than a territorial authority, it may request the Minister of Local Government to appoint a person having special knowledge of the functions undertaken by that local authority, to be a temporary member of the commission.

The commission undertakes investigations, prepares schemes, and makes recommendations and reports for the purpose of ensuring that the system of local government in any local authority will best provide for the needs and well-being of its residents and the continued development of the district; that local authorities have such district boundaries and such functions and powers as will enable them to provide most effectively and economically essential or desirable local government services and facilities; that local authorities shall have such resources as will enable them to engage adequate services and to obtain and operate adequate technical facilities, plant, and equipment; and that districts shall be of such a size and nature as will promote efficient local government and avoid the necessity of uneconomic expenditure.

The legislation sets out procedures to guide the commission, with emphasis being placed on consultation on proposals at an early stage, prior to formulating a provisional scheme. After the hearing of objections to a provisional scheme, the commission may draw up a final scheme. There are two distinct kinds of schemes which the commission may prepare and issue.

Regional Schemes—A principal task of the commission continues to be the preparation of regional schemes for the constitution of regions and regional bodies (united councils or regional councils) throughout New Zealand. The Minister of Local Government may refer a final regional scheme back to the commission for reconsideration of any of its provisions.

Reorganisation Scheme—Consideration of a proposal for a scheme for the union of local authority districts, the constitution or abolition of any district, the adjustment of boundaries, or a transfer of functions from one local authority to another, may be initiated by the commission itself or at the request of the Minister of Local Government or of any local authority. A new feature is provision for the appointment of conciliators by the commission to inquire into and negotiate on a proposal for a reorganisation scheme.

The Local Government Act as originally enacted brought most special-purpose authorities (other than hospital boards and education boards) within the jurisdiction of the commission. An amendment in 1976, however, removed the automatic jurisdiction of the commission in relation to special-purpose authorities so that it may now act only in those cases where the appropriate Minister or the special-purpose authorities concerned agree to their inclusion in a scheme.

GENERAL POWERS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Act under which they are constituted. As mentioned above, the Local Government Act is the main governing Act for territorial authorities, as it is for united, regional, district community, and community councils.

There are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976 and the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. Other legislation applicable to territorial, regional, and various other types of local authority includes the Rating Act 1967, the Public Bodies Meetings Act 1962, the Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968, the Public Bodies Leases Act 1969, the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, the Public Works Act 1928, the Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963, and the Joint Council for Local Authorities Services Act 1977.

For most harbour boards there is, in addition to the general Harbours Act, a special Act for each board which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—urban drainage boards, transport boards, the Christchurch Transport Board, the Auckland Regional Authority, the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority, and the Waikato Valley Authority—derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

A local authority has no legislative powers beyond the authority to make bylaws within limits defined in its constituting Act, but it can promote legislation on matters which affect the government of the area under its jurisdiction and which it is not already empowered to deal with. If the subject is transient and not contentious and is approved by Government, it is usually dealt with by the inclusion of an appropriate section in the annual Local Legislation Act passed by Parliament for this purpose. If, on the other hand, the local authority seeks powers of a permanent or major nature additional to those conferred on it by general Acts it must submit to Parliament a special Local Bill. The extent to which the foregoing privileges are used may be gauged from the fact that the annual Local Legislation Act usually contains 20 to 25 sections, while about 15 Local Acts are passed each year.

Franchise—Under the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, local elections are held on the second Saturday in October every third year. They were last held on 8 October 1977. Enrolment of residential electors is compulsory. In a poll on any proposal relating to loans or rates, a ratepaying qualification is necessary.

Apart from a few special-purpose authorities, some of whose members are appointed by other local authorities or by Government, members of local authorities are elected triennially, any qualified elector being eligible to seek election. In general the franchise extends to all persons aged 18 years or over who either possess a rating qualification or who possess a residential qualification in the district of the local authority concerned. The right to vote for members of land drainage and river boards is, however, restricted to those who possess rating qualifications. In the case of regional councils the right to vote is limited to those who reside in the region.

A person who is an alien (other than an enemy alien) may vote in local authority elections but is not capable of election or appointment as a member of any local authority.

Voting Procedures—Under the provisions of the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, any local authority may determine whether an election or poll is to be conducted by personal attendance at a polling booth or by way of postal vote. Where the franchise is to be exercised by personal attendance at a polling booth, the local authority may decide to conduct the election or poll over a period of not more than 11 consecutive days instead of confining voting to a single day.

Remuneration of Members—The remuneration of members of local authorities is governed by the statutes constituting the various types of local authorities. Most special-purpose authorities pay their chairmen an annual allowance with a maximum fixed for each type of authority. The maximum payable to mayors of boroughs and cities and county council chairmen varies according to the population of the local authority. The chairman and members of a united or regional council may also be paid such annual allowances as may from time to time be approved by the Minister of Local Government with the concurrence of the Minister of Finance.

TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING—The Town and Country Planning Act 1977 provides for the making and enforcement of regional, district and maritime planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1978. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works and Development.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Books dealing with various aspects of the wide range of historical, constitutional, political, economic, and governmental matters touched on in this section will be found listed in the select bibliography of New Zealand books near the back of this Yearbook.

Parliamentary papers which may be found useful include the following:

Report of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Parl. paper A. 1).

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Report of the Local Government Commission (Parl. paper G. 9).

Report of the Ombudsmen (Parl. paper A. 3).

Report of the Royal Commission on the Courts (Parl. paper H. 2).

Chapter 3. Section 3 POPULATION

Table of Contents

By world standards, New Zealand's population is small—less than 3.2 million at the end of 1979.

New Zealand's first million of population was recorded in 1908, 68 years after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. In 1952, 44 years later, the second million was reached, and the third million late in 1973.

Recent predictions are that the fourth million will not be reached until well into the twenty-first century.

Population has 2 sources of gain—natural increase (excess of births over deaths) and net migration (excess of arrivals over departures). In the early years in New Zealand the bulk of the increase was through migration. From the late 1870s natural increase permanently displaced immigration as the chief contributor to population growth. At the Census of 1881 the percentages of the total population born in New Zealand and born overseas were approximately equal (50.2 percent New Zealand-born to 49.8 percent overseas-born), and each succeeding census until 1951 recorded an increased proportion of New Zealand-born. Since 1951 (when the New Zealand-born made up 86 percent of the population) the proportion has fallen slightly, mainly because increased international travel and tourism have meant that at each census increased numbers of overseas-born tourists and travellers have been included in the population as enumerated on census date. At the 1976 Census 83.3 percent of the population was recorded as having been born in New Zealand.

During the present century, natural increase has accounted for over three-quarters of the growth of population. New Zealand's rate of natural increase has, until recently, been relatively high compared with other countries whose population is predominantly of European origin.

The natural increase rate has, in the main, closely reflected the changes in the birth rate with a low point of 8.63 per 1000 in 1935 and high points of 18 per 1000 in 1947 and 1961. In the 1960s the average rate was less than 14 per 1000, and the rate has continued to fall throughout the 1970s, reflecting the continued fall in the birthrate, until it has now fallen below the previous low point recorded in 1935 (In 1979 the provisional natural increase rate was 8.60). The fall in the birth rate in the sixties and seventies is a feature that New Zealand shares with a number of other developed countries, and notably with Australia, Canada, and the United States.

The natural increase in recent years is shown in the following table. A 50-year series of vital statistics is included in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

PeriodMarch YearsCalendar Years
Births*DeathsNatural IncreaseBirths*DeathsNatural Increase
* Excluding Section 14 birth registrations which are “late” registrations. See Yearbook Section 4B Births.
(Thousand)
1946–1950239.588.0151.5244.588.1156.3
1951–1955258.193.1165.1263.294.2169.0
1956–1960294.6101.5193.1300.1102.9197.2
1961–1965319.4110.5208.9317.3112.1205.2
1966–1970306.0118.6187.4307.5120.2187.3
1971–1975308.6124.8183.9304.4124.8179.6
1976–1979216.2101.9114.3212.6101.5111.1
    Total, 1946–19791942.4738.31204.21949.6743.81205.7

Migration has continued to add to the population quite substantially except during depression and war periods, the recession conditions of 1968–69, and during the latest 4 years. Gains from external migration since the Second World War are shown in the following table. Movements of the armed forces are not included.

PeriodMarch Years*Migration GainCalendar Years Migration Gain

* March years ended in year; listed.

Excess of departures.

 (000)(000)
1946–195027.432.5
1951–195566.669.0
1956–196049.243.9
1961–196563.970.2
1966–19706.06.5
1971–1975107.8116.9
1976–1979−56.4−108.4
Total, 1946–1979264.5230.6

In the past, most of the inward migration has been from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the Netherlands. In more recent years increasing numbers have come from the Pacific Islands, notably Western Samoa. A changed economic climate in the country brought a net migration loss to population for the years ended March 1968, 1969, and 1970, but these losses were more than compensated for by relatively heavy gains to the population from net migration during the years ended March 1973, 1974, and 1975. The net gain from migration fell sharply during the year ended March 1976. More recent years have witnessed substantial net outflows. Net losses from migration totalled 13727 during the year ended March 1977, 22307 during the year ended March 1978, 26906 during the year ended March 1979, and 22299 during the latest March year.

POPULATION STATISTICS—Population statistics are based primarily on the five-yearly population census. Intercensal population estimates are based on the most recent census data available, adjusted in accordance with later figures of births, deaths, and migration. Estimates of the populations of particular localities, e.g., cities and boroughs, also take into account local economic developments, housing schemes, the numbers on school rolls, changes in boundaries, and any other factors leading to, or indicating, changes in population.

The basis adopted for the population census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of population physically present in the place of enumeration at the time of enumeration. All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand. Though Tokelau is constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons it is administered separately. The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing but the islanders are New Zealand citizens.

The most recent Census of Population and Dwellings in New Zealand was taken on 23 March 1976. The next will be taken on 24 March 1981.

The figures in the table following are intercensal estimates revised (where necessary) in line with 1976 Census results and exclude members of New Zealand armed forces who were overseas, and also members of the armed forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

YearTotal Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
* Provisional.
Years Ended 31 March
19761,560,2001,564,3003,124,50035,5001.23,097,500
19771,568,4001,572,0003,140,40015,8000.53,120,700
19781,571,9001,574,0003,145,90055000.23,128,900
19791,569,2001,575,5003144700x−1200x- -3129200x
1980*  3,148,40037000.13,124,700
Years Ended 31 December
19751,561,4001,566,5003,127,90048,9001.63,087,000
19761,572,4001,575,9003,148,30020,4000.73,116,200
19771,574,0001,577,9003,151,90036000.13,127,700
19781,572,8001,578,6003,151,400−500- -3,129,400
19791,572,1001,578,8003,150,900−500- -3,124,400
YearNew Zealand Maori Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
Years Ended 31 March
1976135,800134,300270,10072002.7266,500
1977138,200136,600274,80047001.8272,400
1978140,700138,800279,50047001.7276,800
1979143,500141,700285,20057002.0282,000
Years Ended 31 December
1975135,000133,400268,40082003.1264,500
1976137,800136,000273,80054002.0271,200
1977139,800137,900277,70039001.4275,700
1978142,900140,900283,80061002.2280,500
1979144,700142,600287,30035001.2285,600

INCREASE OF POPULATION—The growth of population has been substantial in each intercensal period. The lowest rates were those of 1926–36, which included some years of economic depression, of 1936–45, which included World War II, and of 1966–71, mainly attributable to a marked change in migration patterns. Totals from the latest 4 population censuses are shown below.

Census DatePopulation*Increase or Decrease
IntercensalIntercensalAnnual Average
* Numbers of persons in New Zealand armed forces overseas are excluded.
 NumberPercent
18 April 19612,414,984240,92211.082.12
22 March 19662,676,919261,93510.852.11
23 March 19712,862,631185,7126.941.35
23 March 19763,129,383266,7529.321.80

POPULATION POLICY GUIDELINES—Early in 1973 an Inter-Departmental Committee on Population Questions was established in recognition of the growing world-wide importance attaching to issues associated with population. Late in 1974 the Government directed the committee to prepare a paper discussing the main issues to be taken into account in formulating a specific population policy for Mew Zealand. The committee's report, published in September 1975, discussed the world population situation; New Zealand's population situation in relation to fertility and mortality trends and patterns, and both external and internal migration; and the implications of current and projected population trends in New Zealand, taking into account the relationship of population to physical resources, the economy, and society as a whole. It concluded by laying down broad guidelines for a population policy. Because of the need for the co-ordination of population activities within the orbit of the New Zealand Planning Council established in March 1977, a Working Group on Population was formed in June of that year. Since that time the New Zealand Planning Council has had the responsibility for establishing guidelines for a specific population policy in greater detail.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—The annual average percentage increases of population for the period 1975–78, are given in the following table for certain selected countries. (Source: United Nations: Demographic Yearbook, 1978 and Population and Vital Statistics Report, 1979).

CountryAverage Annual Percentage Increase
Australia1.8
Canada1.0
Denmark0.3
France0.3
Germany, West−0.3
India2.2
Japan1.3
Netherlands0.8
New Zealand0.4
Sweden0.3
Switzerland−0.3
United Kingdom−0.1
United States0.7
U.S.S.R0.9

POPULATION PROJECTIONS—An indication of possible future growth of the total New Zealand population (including Maoris) up to 2011 is given by the detailed alternative projections which follow.

Projections of future population involve an element of uncertainty owing to an incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality, and migration levels. Also, difficulties in forecasting the future behaviour of these components of population change result from rapidly changing trends brought about by varying social, and especially economic, conditions.

It should be understood that, as with all demographic projections prepared by the Department of Statistics, these projections are not strict forecasts or targets, but conditional forecasts based on the stated assumptions. Presentation and use of the projections, therefore, cannot be divorced from consideration of the assumptions adopted.

These national population projections incorporate alternative short-term assumptions involving changing annual levels of net immigration as described in the footnotes to the table.

Age-specific projections, equivalent to those in the table below, are available on application to the Demographic Specialist Studies Section, Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Christchurch.

At 31 MarchProjected Total New Zealand Population*According to the Net Immigration Variant Designated
LowMediumHigh
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

* These projections have as base the estimated population at 31 March 1978. They are based on the following assumptions: (a) That future fertility experience will be in accordance with the “medium” variant (see ‡ below); (b) That 1970–72 Life Table mortality rates (total population) apply throughout the projection period.

(a) The “low” net immigration variant assumes net annual immigration during years ending 31 March as follows:—34000 (1979), −28000 (1980), −19000 (1981), −10000 (1982), −5000 (1983), zero (1984), and 5000 (1985 onwards); (b) The “medium” net immigration variant assumes net annual immigration during years ending 31 March as follows: −28000 (1979), −22000 (1980), − 14500 (1981), −7000 (1982), zero (1983), and 5000 (1984 onwards); (c) The “high” net immigration variant assumes net annual immigration during years ending 31 March as follows: −22000 (1979), −16000 (1980), −10000 (1981), zero (1982), and 5000 (1983 onwards).

The 3 alternative fertility assumptions—designated “high”, “medium” and “low”—have been derived by analysis of trends in birth rates within maternal age groups. Extrapolations of “least squares” linear trends, derived from data for the periods 1962–75 and 1971–75, provide the basis for the fertility projections. Various constraints have been imposed on birth rates for some maternal age groups to ensure that total fertility levels remain within demographically acceptable limits. For all fertility variants, projected birth rates are assumed to remain constant from 1982 onwards at the levels projected for the year ended 31 March 1981.

(Thousand)
1978 (Base)157215743146157215743146157215743146
1981156615683134157415783152158215883170
1982157115743145158015863166159216003192
1983157715843161159015983188160616143220
1984158715953182160416123216162016293249
1985160016093209161816273245163516443279
1986161416233237163216413273165016593309
1991168716983385170717183425172717383465
1996176017713531178117923573180118133614
2001182218333655184418563700186518773742
2006187218843756189519073802191719303847
2011191619313847194119563897196519813946

The following diagram presented on a ratio scale shows the growth of actual population from 1882 to 1979 and projections through to 2011.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION—Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census and are published in two parts as Volume 1, Location and Increase of Population, Part A. Population Size and Distribution and Part B. Population Density of the Census of Population and Dwellings.

North and South Islands—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration, and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of NZ Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population of the North and South Islands since 1901.

Census YearTotal PopulationPercentages
North IslandSouth IslandTotalNorth IslandSouth Island
1901431,471384,391815,86252.947.1
1911610,599447,7131,058,31257.742.3
1921791,918479,7501,271,66862.337.7
19361,018,038555,7741,573,81264.735.3
19451,146,315556,0151,702,33067.332.7
19561,497,364676,6982,174,06268.931.1
19661,893,326783,5932,676,91970.729.3
19762,268,393860,9903,129,38372.527.5

The 1976 Census revealed that the population of the North Island continues to increase at a greater proportionate rate than that of the South Island. At the 1976 Census the North Island population was 2268393, a 10.6 percent increase on the 1971 total of 2051363. At the same census the South Island total was 860990, an increase of only 6.1 percent on the 1971 total of 811268. However, between the 1971 and 1976 Censuses, births in the South Island totalled almost 78000 and deaths over 38000, giving a net natural increase of approximately 40000. The fact that the total population increase was nearly 50000 indicates a net migration inflow to the South Island during the intercensal period. This is in contrast to the previous intercensal period (1966–71) when a net migration outflow of approximately 16000 was indicated.

Statistical Areas—In the following table are shown the areas and enumerated populations of the statistical areas at the 1976 Census and the estimated population at 31 March 1979.

Statistical AreaArea (Square Kilometres)Population Census 23 March 1976Estimated Population 31 March 1979
Northland12,649107,013107,500
Central Auckland5600797,406805,900
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty36,775472,083477,100
East Coast10,88548,14747,500
Hawke's Bay11,303145,061146,200
Taranaki9720107,071106,600
Wellington27,715591,612592,900
  Total, North Island114,6472,268,3932,783,700
Marlborough10,85935,03035,400
Nelson18,04675,56275,700
Westland15,41524,04923,900
Canterbury43,371428,586429,800
Otago37,100188,903188,300
Southland29,624108,860107,900
  Total, South Island154,415860,990861,000
  Total, New Zealand269,0623,129,3833,144,700

Statistical Divisions and Main Urban Areas—Statistical Divisions and Main Urban Areas are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. Statistical divisions are a new concept. The basic criterion for a Statistical Division is a population of 75000 or more within the area of economic and social interests of a heavily populated centre. Seven Statistical Divisions have been established, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, Napier-Hastings, Palmerston North, Wellington (including Hutt), Christchurch, and Dunedin. The Division, like the Urban Area, does not have any administrative functions, but embraces areas of unified community, economic, and social interests. In addition to the central city or borough, Urban Areas include neighbouring boroughs and town districts and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population. Minor adjustments of Urban Area boundaries have been made because of the peripheral growth of population in some of the urban areas between 1971 and 1976.

The populations of the 7 Statistical Divisions and the 24 defined Urban Areas are as follows:

Statistical Division (S. Div.) and Main Urban Area (U.A.)1971 Population Census1976 Population CensusPercentage Increase 1971–1976Estimated Population 31 March 1979
Auckland S. Div.—
    Northern Auckland U.A.107,977137,42127.3141,400
    Western Auckland U.A.89,948108,13920.2110,600
    Central Auckland U.A.286,785289,1250.8285,100
    Southern Auckland U.A.165,048208,10126.1213,500
    Sub-total, Combined Auckland U. A.s649,758742,78614.3750,600
    Remainder S. Div.48,62454,62012.355,300
            Total698,382797,40614.2805,900
Hamilton S. Div.—
    Hamilton U.A.80,81294,77717.397,400
    Remainders. Div.55,19459,8298.460,400
            Total136,006154,60613.7157,800
Napier-Hastings S. Div.—
    Napier U.A.43,60150,16415.151,000
    Hastings U.A.45,51250,81411.651,600
    Remainder S. Div.782080322.78020
        Total96,933109,01012.5110,600
Palmerston North S. Div.—
    Palmerston North U.A.57,06563,87311.964,900
    Remainder S. Div.23,66724,8515.025,000
            Total80,73288,7249.989,900
Wellington S. Div.—
    Upper Hutt Valley U.A.30,98635,58414.836,300
    Lower Hutt Valley U.A.92,01497,1945.697,800
    Porirua Basin U.A.47,85855,69816.456,000
    Wellington U.A.136,782138,9381.6137,000
    Sub-total, Combined Wellington U. A.s307,640327,4146.4327,100
    Remainder S. Div.16,39222,21435.522,800
            Total324,032349,6287.9349,900
Christchurch S. Div.—
    Christchurch U.A.275,968295,2967.0296,500
    Remainder S. Div.26,64230,41414.230,800
            Total302,610325,7107.6327,300
Dunedin S. Div.—
    Dunedin U.A.111,059113,2221.9112,300
    Remainder S. Div.668172047.87110
            Total117,740120,4262.3119,400
Main Urban Areas Not in Any Statistical Division
Main Urban Area1971 Population Census1976 Population CensusPercentage Increase 1971–1976Estimated Population 31 March 1979
Whangarei34,02939,06914.839,600
Tauranga40,34948,15319.349,000
Rotorua39,75246,65017.447,400
Gisborne30,16131,7905.432,000
New Plymouth38,78043,91413.244,700
Wanganui37,98239,6794.539,800
Masterton20,14721,0014.221,200
Nelson37,99442,43311.742,800
Timaru28,95929,9583.430,100
Invercargill50,68153,7626.153,800
    Total, 24 Main Urban Areas1,930,2492,134,75510.62,151,800
    Total, 7 Statistical Divisions1,756,4351,945,51010.81,960,800

Cities and Boroughs—The population of cities and boroughs is now given.

City or BoroughEstimated Population at 31 March 1979Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—
    Kaitaia4620695
    Kaikohe3630544
    Whangarei (city)35,9004911
    Dargaville46701133
    Helensville1240532
    East Coast Bays (city)24,5001558
    Takapuna (city)63,7008671
    Devonport10,900445
    Northcote9960540
    Birkenhead (city)20,6001266
    Waitemata (city)81,90037,550
    Henderson7190517
    Glen Eden8690503
    New Lynn10,550564
    Auckland (city)147,6007472
    Newmarket133074
    Mt. Albert (City)28,300983
    Mt. Eden19,500598
    Mt. Roskill34,8001862
    Onehunga16,650769
    One Tree Hill10,850983
    Ellerslie5600301
    Mt. Wellington20,5001650
    Howick14,050621
    Otahuhu10,600560
    Papatoetoe (city)23,100907
    Manukau (city)143,50056,560
    Papakura (city)22,2001384
    Pukekohe89301405
    Waiuku3610593
    Tuakau2020442
    Huntly5950930
    Cambridge80701071
    Ngaruawahia4400450
    Hamilton (city)90,9005555
    Te Awamutu7700713
    Taumarunui63101815
    Paeroa3850574
    Waihi3440539
    Te Aroha31801126
    Morrinsville4880476
    Matamata5160533
    Putaruru4330395
    Tokoroa19,1501359
    Mt. Maunganui10,3001411
    Tauranga (city)34,3003828
    Te Puke3940532
    Taupo13,1001446
    Kawerau79202174
    Murupara2980287
    Gisborne (city)30,0002628
    Wairoa5550649
    Napier (city)47,9003021
    Hastings (city)35,5001949
    Havelock North8570563
    Dannevirke5640526
    Woodville1560427
    Waitara6180575
    New Plymouth (city)38,3002380
    Inglewood2670284
    Stratford5410816
    Eltham2340647
    Patea2000575
    Ohakune1440841
    Raetihi1200388
    Wanganui (city)37,5003392
    Taihape2790778
    Marton5000573
    Feilding11,150855
    Foxton2790306
    Palmerston N. (city)58,8004302
        Levin15,0501298
    Otaki4310666
    Kapiti15,30017,428
    Upper Hutt (city)31,30048,428
    Lower Hutt (city)65,1008968
    Petone84601043
    Eastbourne47801273
        Porirua (city)42,5008383
    Tawa12,950696
    Wellington (city)137,60026,322
    Pahiatua2600291
    Masterton19,6501799
    Carterton4030512
    Greytown1920442
    Featherston2580307
    Martinborough1370442
        Total, North Island cities and boroughs1,721,900306,580
South Island—
    Picton3310426
    Blenheim17,4501770
    Nelson (city)33,1004762
    Richmond66901052
    Motueka44601021
    Westport4960308
    Runanga1440487
    Greymouth83001068
    Hokitika3540273
    Rangiora6150357
    Kaiapoi4880318
    Riccarton7240339
    Christchurch (city)171,30010,635
    Lyttelton33001036
    Ashburton14,3501227
    Geraldine2060301
    Temuka3780395
    Timaru (city)29,5002342
    Waimate3380312
    Oamaru13,5501161
    Port Chalmers3110410
    Dunedin (city)81,60015,685
    St. Kilda6380249
    Green Island7070781
    Mosgiel9400787
    Milton2210204
    Kaitangata1100518
    Balclutha4740509
    Tapanui950121
    Lawrence570249
    Roxburgh760208
    Naseby12076
    Alexandra4250987
    Cromwell1910740
    Arrowtown440134
    Queenstown3280416
    Gore9260946
    Mataura2320515
    Winton1950231
    Invercargill (city)49,9005616
    Bluff2840866
    Riverton1590403
        Total, South Island cities and boroughs538,20060,241x
    Grand total, all cities and boroughs2,260,100366,821x
Note: Because of rounding, individual figures in this table do not always add to give the stated total.

Districts—A new concept in local government—the district—appears in the 1976 Census statistics in the form of the Thames-Coromandel District, constituted on 1 October 1975 and amalgamating the former Thames and Coromandel Counties and Thames Borough. Similar amalgamations occurred between 23 March 1976 and 1 April 1979, resulting in the constitution of 8 further districts, the largest of which is Rotorua, formed from Rotorua City and Rotorua County.

DistrictEstimated Population at 31 March 1979Approximate Area in Square Kilometres
Thames-Coromandel17,2002212
Otorohanga94801976
Waitomo11,2003407
Rotorua57,1002708
Whakatane27,4004310
Waipawa52301354
Waipukurau78702031
Hawera13,000500
    Total, North Island148,40018,498
Rangiora4920263
    Total, South Island4920263
    Total, New Zealand153,30018,761

Town Districts—The population of town districts—i.e., those contained in the following table—is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located.

Town DistrictEstimated Population at 31 March 1979Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—
    Hikurangi1170389
    Manaia970206
    Waverley1170202
        Total, town districts3300797

Communities—The following table lists communities with estimated populations of 1000 or more at 31 March 1979. The parent local authority is shown in parentheses. The population of communities are included in the administrative county populations given in a later table.

CommunityEstimated Population at 31 March 1979Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island
    Kerikeri (Bay of Islands)1070347
    Moerewa (Bay of Islands)137075
    Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)1660229
    Paihia (Bay of Islands)1540232
    Raglan (Raglan)1340372
    Kihikihi (Waipa)1270212
    Whitianga (Coromandel Div.)1540293
    Whangamata (Thames Div.)1280485
    Thames (Thames Div.)68601653
    Waihi Beach (Ohinemuri)1280209
    Katikati (Tauranga)1410960
    Papamoa Beach (Tauranga)1260313
    Mangakino (Taupo)1490261
    Edgecumbe (Whakatane Dist.)1720172
    Ohope (Whakatane Dist.)1660544
    Foxton Beach (Manawatu)1040397
    Tairangi (Porirua City)7540225
    Cannon's Creek (Porirua City)11,200292
South Island
    Kaikoura (Kaikoura)2150283
    Darfield (Malvern)1050233
    Halswell (Paparua)4900204
    Pleasant Point (Strathallan)1020378
    Brighton (Silverpeaks)1120138
    Fairfield (Silverpeaks)1740143
    Wanaka (Lake)1220313
    Te Anau (Wallace)2490395

District Communities—The following table lists the estimated populations of district communities as at 31 March 1979. The parent local authority is shown in parentheses. The populations of district communities are included in the administrative county populations given in the following table.

District CommunityEstimated Population at 31 March 1979Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island
    Warkworth (Rodney)1620577
    Wellsford (Rodney)1700554
    Hibiscus Coast (Rodney)10,7506210
    Otorohanga (Otorohanga)2660227
    Ngongotaha (Rotorua District)2320513
    Turangi (Taupo)5560579
    Waipawa (Waipawa District)18201076
    Bulls (Rangitikei)1980405
    Ashhurst (Oroua)1690173
    Waikanae (Horowhenua)44801076
    Shannon (Horowhenua)1640342
    Heretaunga-Pinehaven (Hutt)59504700
    Wainuiomata (Hutt)19,85026,614
    Total62,02041,970
South Island
    Hornby (Paparua)8760491
    Sockburn (Paparua)63401066
    Total15,1001557
    Total, District Communities71,12043,527

Extra-county Islands and Shipboard Population—In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, districts, cities and boroughs, and town districts, the New Zealand totals include shipboard population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised an estimated total of 3920 persons at 31 March 1979.

Counties—The following table gives the estimated population of individual counties at 31 March 1979 together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that “administrative counties” do not include boroughs or town districts, which are independent of county control, but include district communities and communities, which form parts of counties.

Administrative CountyEstimated Population at 31 March 1979Approximate Area, in Square Kilometres
North Island—
    Mangonui75302479
    Whangaroa2110622
    Hokianga42301588
    Bay of Islands16,8002131
    Whangarei15,4002669
    Hobson51501929
    Otamatea60801108
    Rodney31,2002334
    Waiheke Is3160155
    Great Barrier Is.370285
    Franklin18,4501477
    Raglan95702411
    Waikato16,9001655
    Waipa15,5001129
    Taumarunui52004808
    Hauraki Plains5120603
    Ohinemuri4580624
    Piako10,7501168
    Matamata12,7002602
    Tauranga19,2501829
    Taupo13,7007244
    Opotiki69803124
    Waiapu42602818
    Waikohu31002650
    Cook79202841
    Wairoa53304128
    Hawke's Bay20,1004838
    Dannevirke43802211
    Woodville1450404
    Clifton20401176
    Taranaki10,800588
    Inglewood2830521
    Stratford48502157
    Egmont5410622
    Eltham2710509
    Waimate West1850215
    Patea27601527
    Waimarino13402147
    Waitotara28501226
    Wanganui27901189
    Rangitikei14,7004486
    Kiwitea1820930
    Pohangina1000671
    Oroua5310492
    Manawatu6510692
    Kairanga6350461
    Horowhenua14,6001420
    Hutt26,500429
    Pahiatua2120741
    Eketahuna1800862
    Masterton41102386
    Wairarapa South25401140
    Featherston29902471
    Total, North Island counties407,30092922x
South Island—
    Marlborough11,20010,478
    Kaikoura35902344
    Golden Bay40402618
    Waimea16,6507511
    Buller34605035
    Inangahua21002440
    Grey46703957
    Westland599011,440
    Amuri27304273
    Cheviot1300875
    Hurunui62003717
    Eyre3200459
    Oxford1710814
    Malvern67305046
    Paparua31,800445
    Waimairi69,700115
    Heathcote884034
    Mt. Herbert880171
    Akaroa1540437
    Chatham Islands580963
    Wairewa680438
    Ellesmere83701200
    Ashburton10,9006174
    Strathallan93602676
    Mackenzie83007456
    Waimate54503558
    Waitaki87206315
    Waihemo1750880
    Silverpeaks12,5003205
    Bruce33701350
    Clutha54402695
    Tuapeka40003560
    Maniototo22303477
    Vincent43207620
    Lake458010,235
    Southland26,1009580
    Wallace13,2509655
    Fiord707861
    Stewart Island5101746
    Total, South Island counties316,700152853x
    Grand total, all counties724,000245775x

Non-administrative Population Centres—For the first time in 1979 population estimates were prepared for other non-administrative centres with total populations of 1000 or more. Populations of these centres are included in the estimated figures for the parent local authority areas given previously. In the table which follows the estimated populations at 31 March 1979 are compared with the 1976 Census population counts.

Non-administrative Centre1976 Population CensusEstimated Population at 31 March 1979
North Island—
    Te Kuiti (Waitomo Dist.)48404790
    Whakatane (Whakatane Dist.)11,54211,750
    Opotiki (Opotiki Co.)26232600
    Waipukurau (Waipukurau Dist.)36323650
    Opunake (Egmont Co.)14631480
    Hawera (Hawera Dist.)85068580
    Waiouru (Rangitikei Co.)32303350
    Total, North Island Centres35,83636,200
South Island—
    Reefton (Inangahua Co.)12871250
    Lincoln (Ellesmere Co.)15951640
    Twizel (Mackenzie Co.)51855000
    Total, South Island Centres80677880
    Total, Non-Administrative Centres43,90344,100

Urban Concentration of Population—The bulk of New Zealand's population is located in urban areas, where the most rapid growth rates are occurring. This is due largely to the development of both manufacturing and tertiary industries in urban areas, which provide employment for a growing labour force. Other factors, including better social, cultural, educational, and economic opportunities, serve to attract persons to these areas, while the majority of immigrants tend to settle in the larger urban centres. These factors, combined with amalgamation of farms, centralisation of dairy factories, and increasing agricultural mechanisation (resulting in less labour required), combine to produce a noticeable rural-urban drift. Urban concentration features are common to “developed” countries at advanced stages of economic development.

The 1976 Census figures showed that many rural areas and a number of small and intermediate sized towns located outside Main Urban Areas are continuing to decline in population, although there are indications that the rate of urbanisation is stabilising. Forty counties recorded smaller populations than at the previous census in 1971, compared with 72 between 1966 and 1971. Of 54 small towns (1000 to 4999 population) 12 had declined in population between 1971 and 1976 compared with 22 during the previous inter-censal period. Two intermediate towns (5000 to 9999 population) showed decreases in population compared with six at the previous census.

Of the 16000 rural gain recorded on 1976 boundaries between 1971 and 1976, approximately 10000 of the gain was within rural areas lying outside the main urban areas but within the 7 major population centres forming the Statistical Divisions, suggesting some form of urban expansion.

The following table shows the urban-rural distribution of the population. Urban population has been defined as that of the 24 defined Main Urban Areas plus that of all boroughs, town districts, communities, district communities, and townships with populations of 1000 or over.

CensusUrbanRural*
NumberPercentNumberPercent
* Excludes shipping.
Total Population
1926941,10267.1460,57232.9
19361,054,77567.2514,33832.8
19451,217,14271.6482,00328.4
19561,610,15274.2559,46225.8
19511,414,70073.2518,89426.8
19611,847,87976.7516,54023.3
19662,126,76479.6545,34420.4
19712,341,51081.9515,97518.1
19762,592,68083.0532,44317.0
New Zealand Maori Population
1926990515.653,71484.4
193614,21217.368,08782.7
194525,41425.773,31074.3
195647,92635.089,15665.0
1966123,77461.677,32138.4
1971160,62470.766,67429.3
1976205,68876.264,26323.8

In the process of urbanisation some centres have grown more quickly than others. There is a tendency towards concentration of population in the largest centres and also a drift of population from the south to the north. Where the two tendencies reinforce each other, as they do in the case of the combined Auckland Urban Areas, the rate of growth has been very rapid. Likewise the Urban Areas of Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, and Rotorua, which had a combined population in 1926 of 40164, in 1976 comprised 228649 inhabitants.

The initial reason for the drift to the north lay in the change in emphasis of farming activities in which the development of dairying played an important part. The expansion of dairying in itself called for the development of factory processing facilities and service industries. These farming trends have been reinforced by the growth of forest processing industries in the North Island and compounded further by the general tendency for the large-scale manufacturing units to be located close to the biggest local markets.

In the larger cities a notable feature of recent decades has been a movement of population from the central or “inner” areas to the perimeter or “outer” areas; residential units in the city centres have been replaced by shops, offices, places of entertainment, and other commercial or industrial buildings. More recently, there has been an offsetting movement with the building of multi-storey flats in the inner areas.

The distribution of population by size of centres is shown in the following table.

Population of Centre (City, Borough, Town District, or Community)CensusCensus
19261961197119761926196119711976
 Number of CentresPercentage of Population in These Centres
1000–2499634543487.53.02.42.4
2500–4999234740396.27.25.04.7
5000–9999113435325.99.68.87.4
10000–249991221232513.315.012.812.5
25000 and over412222524.132.544.650.4
        Total11315916316957.067.373.677.4

In the South Island a higher proportion of the population is rural, that is, outside urban communities, than in the North Island, the proportion being 21.6 in the South Island against 15.2 percent in the North Island, at the 1976 Census of Population.

Males and Females—Statistics from the census of 23 March 1976 showed that females outnumbered males by 5299 in the total population (excluding Armed Forces overseas), there being 1562042 males and 1567341 females. The changing sex distribution of the population, recorded at successive censuses, is given below.

CensusMalesFemalesFemales Per 1000 Males
1881293,973240,057817
1901429,108386,754901
1926719,642688,497957
1936799,091774,721970
1945832,909869,4211044
19561,093,2111,080,851989
19661,343,7431,333,176992
19711,430,8561,431,7751001
19761,562,0421,567,3411003

The table excludes members of the N.Z. Armed Forces overseas at census date.

There are marked differences in the sex composition of the population of different parts of New Zealand. Females tend to outnumber males in urban areas and to be outnumbered in rural areas. One important reason is doubtless the generally better employment and educational opportunities for women and girls in the larger industrial and commercial centres.

DENSITY OF POPULATION—Density of population refers to the relationship between population numbers and land area, and is expressed in terms of numbers of persons per unit of area. It presents a useful tool for the analysis of population distribution providing it is borne in mind that the land area used is the gross area, and includes mountain ranges, rivers, lakes, forests, and barren country. In the case of cities and towns it includes parks, reserves, roads and streets, and the commercial and industrial districts.

The total area of New Zealand, including inland waters, is 269057 square kilometres, giving an average population density at the 1976 Census of Population of 11.6 persons per square kilometre. This is low by international standards (for example, the United Kingdom has 229 persons per square kilometre, and the Netherlands, 332) but it must be remembered that in New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, and also large areas of rough hilly country which cannot be closely settled.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The following table provides comparative density figures on a Statistical-Area basis over a 50-year period from 1926 to 1976 population censuses.

Statistical AreaArea in Square KilometresPersons Per Square Kilometre
192619451951196119711976
Northland12,6494.35.36.06.87.68.5
Central Auckland560042.259.368.392.0124.8142.5
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty36,7753.95.66.79.511.512.8
East Coast10,8853.13.53.84.34.44.4
Hawke's Bay11,3036.27.08.110.111.812.8
Taranaki97207.47.98.910.310.411.0
Wellington27,71510.112.614.117.120.021.4
        Total, North Island114,6477.810.011.514.717.919.8
Marlborough10,8591.71.92.12.62.93.2
Nelson18,0462.32.63.13.53.84.2
Westland15,4151.41.61.61.61.51.6
Canterbury43,3715.05.86.57.99.29.9
Otago37,1004.03.94.34.84.95.1
Southland29,6242.22.42.63.23.63.7
        Total, South Island154,4153.33.64.14.75.35.6
        Total, New Zealand269,0065.26.37.29.010.611.6

NEW ZEALAND MAORI POPULATION—For statistical purposes, all persons of half or more Maori ancestry have, in the past, been defined as Maoris. This differs from the wider definition introduced in the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1974. That Act states that “Maori” means a person of the Maori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person.

Because of these changes, a two-part question on ethnic origin was introduced at the 1976 Census of Population.

A total of 270035 persons either specified themselves as being of half or more Maori descent in the first part of the question or (without answering the first part) indicated in the second part of the question that they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand or descendants of such.

It is probable that some of the persons answering the second part of the question only were, in fact, of less than half Maori origin. The inclusion of this unknown number in the total of 270035 means that this total is not directly comparable with the 1971 Census total of 227414 persons of half or more Maori origin. It also means that the intercensal percentage increase figures are overstated as a result of the wider definition. It is considered, however, that the inclusion of these 65582 persons here and in later Maori figures from the 1976 Census with the 204453 persons who did specify half or more Maori origin will better preserve general comparability with Maori statistics from earlier censuses based on the former definition than would the omission of those who did not specify their degree of Maori origin.

On the wider definitional basis, including all persons of less than half-Maori descent as well as the 65582 persons who indicated Maori origin but did not specify the degree, the 1976 Census count was 356847. The 1971 Census count of those who specified some degree of Maori origin was 290501. Thus, on the broader definition, the increase in the Maori population during the 5 years 1971 to 1976 was 66346 or 22.8 percent.

The decline in the number of Maoris during the early years of European settlement and throughout most of the nineteenth century is a matter of history. The present century has witnessed a resurgence of vitality among the Maori people which has been reflected in a strikingly high birth rate.

The following table shows the N.Z. Maori population during the present century on the basis of persons of half or more Maori origin. Members of the Armed Forces overseas are excluded.

Census YearNew Zealand Maori Population*Intercensal IncreaseIntercensal IncreaseAverage Annual Increase
* Prior to 1976 comprises persons who specified themselves as half or more New Zealand Maori and in 1976 this group plus those who indicated they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand but did not specify the degree of Maori origin.
 numberpercent
190145,54934368.161.59
190650,309476010.451.98
191152,72324144.800.96
191652,9972740.520.09
192156,98739907.531.62
192663,670668311.732.24
193682,32618,65629.302.62
194598,74416,41819.941.93
1951115,67616,93217.152.89
1956137,15121,47518.563.46
1961167,08629,93521.834.02
1966201,15934,07320.393.84
1971227,41426,25513.052.48
1976270,03542,62118.743.49

The increasing urbanisation of the Maori population as younger Maoris seek better job opportunities in the cities and boroughs is a population trend of considerable sociological significance. At the 1926 Census the urban N.Z. Maori population totalled 9905 (15.6 percent). By the 1976 Census the comparable figure was 205688 (76.2 percent), the largest concentration being in the Southern Auckland Urban Area where 29222 were enumerated in 1976.

Urban population is defined as that of the 24 defined Main Urban areas plus that of all boroughs, town districts', communities and townships of 1000 or more.

Of the 270035 Maoris at the 1976 Census, 250677 were in the North Island.

The Maori population, which until recently was not greatly affected by external migration, is a much younger population than the non-Maori.

The following table for 1976 shows the high proportion (45.3 percent) of Maori children under 15 years compared with the total population (29.7 percent), and the low proportion of people in the older age groups.

Age Group (Years)Percentage in Age Group (1976 Census)
New Zealand Maori*Total Population
* Comprises persons who described themselves as being half or more Maori, plus those who indicated that they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand, but who did not specify the degree of Maori descent.
Under 1545.329.7
15–1912.39.6
20–4430.933.2
45–597.914.6
60 and over3.613.0
          Total100.0100.0

EXTERNAL MIGRATION—In recent years there has been a large increase in New Zealanders going overseas, seeking better employment opportunities, on business or pleasure trips, and on working holidays, resulting in much higher levels of migration. The arrivals include many New Zealanders returning from travel overseas, as well as growing numbers of tourists from overseas countries.

Total migration figures (excluding only movements of armed forces) are shown in the following table for the most recent available 5 years. (A later year is included in the Latest Statistical Information Section at the back of this Yearbook). “Long-term”, as used here, indicates arrivals or departures for an intended stay of 12 months or more. Conversely, “short-term” refers to less than 12 months.

Through passengers, not included in the “All Passengers” totals, are persons who arrive in New Zealand but do not pass through immigration controls and do not complete arrival declarations. Also described as transit passengers, they normally depart on the same flight or vessel within a few hours of arriving in New Zealand.

ARRIVALS IN NEW ZEALAND
Year Ended 31 MarchLong-term (Including Permanent) ArrivalsShort-term Movements
N.Z. Residents ReturningTemporary Visitors ArrivingAll Passenger ArrivalsThrough PassengersCrewsTotal Arrivals
197565,900251,561361,194678,655117,441180,474976,570
197648,460245,618384,586678,664136,927176,379991,970
197737,020249,982380,222667,224140,920183,786991,930
197836,972287,868390,940715,780162,733182,1761,060,689
197940,808346,324418,744805,876176,586172,8251,155,287
DEPARTURES FROM NEW ZEALAND
Year Ended 31 MarchLong-term (Including Permanent) DeparturesShort-term Movements
N.Z. Residents DepartingTemporary Visitors DepartingAll Passenger DeparturesThrough PassengersCrewsTotal Departures
197543,461249,884356,169649,514117,441179,972946,927
197643,160240,658389,654673,472136,927175,004985,403
197756,092244,998382,404683,494140,920181,2431,005,657
197863,680284,284389,972737,936162,733182,3271,082,996
197981,008343,764407,648832,420176,586173,1871,182,193

A summary of arrivals and departures during the latest 5 years by sex is given in the following table. Crews of vessels, through passengers, and members of the armed forces, have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31 MarchArrivalsDeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Excess of departures over arrivals.
1975359,067319,588678,655343,489306,025649,51429,141
1976352,980325,684678,664351,950321,522673,4725192
1977349,324317,900667,224357,650325,844683,49416270*
1978378,344337,436715,780388,076349,860737,936−22156*
1979424,848381,028805,876438,504393,916832,420−26544*

From 1968 to 1970 there was an alteration in the net migration flow. This is illustrated in the following diagram which covers all passenger migration, excluding through passengers and crews. The excess of departures over arrivals recorded during the March years 1967–68 to 1969–70 was a migration feature unknown since the depression of the 1930s. It was followed by 6 years of migration gains, but the 4 latest years, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1978–79 and 1979–80 (not shown here), have each witnessed substantial losses.

Long-term Migration—The following table gives an analysis of long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for March years. (Short-term migration is analysed in Section 37: Travel and Tourism.) In the year ended March 1979 there was a net loss of 40200 from permanent and long-term migration compared with a loss of 26708 in 1977–78 and 19072 in 1976–77.

Year Ended 31 MarLong-term (Including Permanent) ArrivalsLong-term (including Permanent) Departures
New Permanent ArrivalsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Arrivals (Immigrants)Permanent Departures of New Zealand ResidentsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Departures (Emigrants)
AssistedSubsidisedTotal (Includes Others)N.Z. Residents returning*Long-term Visitors*N. Z Residents Depart'g*Long-term Visitors Depart'g*
* Arrivals: after absence of, or intending to stay, 12 months or more respectively. Departures: persons intending to stay away for, or after stay in New Zealand of, 12 months or more respectively.
1975437767034,14217,56614,19265,900905027,639677243,461
1976109339920,04616,83011,58448,460730827,384846843,160
1977-43713,40015,522809837,02013,04836,164688056,092
1978--14,18815,644714036,97218,33639,424592063,680
1979--996022,328852040,80819,68052,952837681,008

The countries of origin and destination of these long-term (including permanent) migrants are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarAustraliaCanadaIndiaUnited KingdomCook Islands and NiueFijiWestern SamoaNetherlandsSouth AfricaUnited StatesAll Other Countries*Total
* Includes unspecified.
Immigrants by Country of Last Residence
197521,486151721827,486228613247768607312040717665,900
197618,23496025014,5541332123612627406202012726048,460
197713,44095626091561016116811065325761580723037,020
197812,352832144979210128609488127921432799636,972
197913,936908180892810487161048744444186010,99640,808
Emigrants by Country of Next Residence
197519,344134416011,8545507288094605241739594943,461
197618,090126011612,13679686212324748122070531243,160
197728,250125810813,39071488011106282882166730056,092
197834,428122817214,06475281212168521842532744063,680
197941,760137618815,9928567921180716240308414,82481,008

Ages—The following table gives the age distribution of long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for the year ended 31 March 1979.

Age, in YearsLong-term ArrivalsLong-term DeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Under 153924379277167768729615,064−7348
15–19146416643128318846567844−4716
20–2445684964953211,58010,63622,216−12684
25–449224734016,56416,86012,37229,232−12668
45 and over183220363868339632566652−2784
    Total21,01219,79640,80842,79238,21681,008−40200

Occupations—The following table shows permanent and long-term arrivals and departures during the year ended 31 March 1979 by occupation major groups and by those occupations or groups of occupations which were the main contributors to the movement within each major group.

Occupation GroupsPermanent and Long-term
ArrivalsDepartures

* Protective service workers include fire fighters, policemen, detectives, security officers, night watchmen, etc.

NOTE: n.e.c. denotes not elsewhere classified.

 Males
Professional, technical, and related workers—
    Architects, engineers, and related technicians9281728
    Medical, dental, veterinary, and related workers760832
    Accountants228580
    Teachers6481040
    Workers in religion236280
    Professional, technical, and related workers n.e.c.200480
    Other professional, technical, and related workers10402028
                    Total40406968
Administrative and managerial workers—
    Managers6481588
    Other administrative and managerial workers6864
                    Total7161652
Clerical and related workers7881840
Sales workers—
    Salesmen, shop assistants, and related workers280808
    Other sales workers396956
                    Total6761764
Service workers—
    Cooks, waiters, bartenders, and related workers340692
    Protective service workers*344456
    Other service workers248560
                    Total9321708
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forest workers, fishermen and hunters—
    Farmers412608
    Agricultural and animal husbandry workers264652
    Other agricultural, animal husbandry and forest workers, fishermen and hunters204388
                    Total8801648
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators and labourers—
    Food and beverage processers208892
    Machinery fitters, machine assemblers, and precision-instrument makers (except electrical)10762436
    Electrical fitters and related electrical and electronics workers340944
    Plumbers, welders, sheet-metal and structural metal preparers, and erectors4481120
    Painters232548
    Bricklayers, carpenters, and other construction workers8722468
    Material handling and related equipment operators, dockers, and freight handlers244780
    Transport equipment operators4521320
    Labourers n.e.c.8041872
    Other production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers9722340
                  Total564814,720
Occupation not classifiable or unspecified12601808
                  Total actively engaged males14,94032,108
Not actively engaged607210,684
Total males21,01242,792
Females
Professional, technical, and related workers—
    Medical, dental, veterinary, and related workers16763072
    Teachers11241720
    Professional, technical, and related workers n.e.c.168356
    Other professional, technical, and related workers6721380
                  Total36406528
Administrative and managerial workers108264
Clerical and related workers—
    Stenographers, typists, and card and tape punching machine operators14162992
    Bookkeepers, cashiers, and related workers336944
    Computing machine operators188336
    Clerical and related workers n.e.c.10683304
    Other clerical and related workers192368
                    Total32007944
Sales workers—
    Salesmen, shop assistants, and related workers256808
    Other sales workers116256
                  Total3721064
Service workers—
    Cooks, waiters, bartenders, and related workers396760
    Maids and related housekeeping service workers n.e.c.152148
    Hairdressers, barbers, beauticians, and related workers164412
    Service workers n.e.c.172396
    Other service workers120248
                  Total10041964
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forest workers, fishermen and hunters52264
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators and labourers4321540
Occupation not classifiable or unspecified11601564
                  Total actively engaged females996821,132
Not actively engaged982817,084
                  Total females19,79638,216
                  Total males and females40,80881,008

Origin—The following table shows for the latest 3 years the birthplaces of long-term (including permanent) migrants.

Country of BirthImmigrants*Emigrants
1976–771977–781978–791976–771977–781978–79

* Persons arriving in New Zealand for a period of 12 months or more (including permanent arrivals). Plus New Zealand residents returning after an absence of 12 months or more.

New Zealand residents departing for a period of 12 months or more (including permanent departures). Plus overseas visitors departing from New Zealand after a stay of 12 months or more.

North America145815801664150215721788
    Canada438496512516528580
    United States930100810969309441132
South America190148112365280
Europe916095968464112301139212880
    Netherlands620816716530672732
    United Kingdom7410761666289442961210,724
Asia189022721948119213882268
    Malaysia488640556410440856
Africa514788548268348432
Oceania237722254028008418304889263328
    Australia657856444832453445404620
    Cook Islands and Niue886808932428460596
    Fiji746548624396540612
    New Zealand14,13814,25219,81235,03641,72055,524
Other Countries3648643436232
            Total37,02036,97240,80856,09263,68081,008

IMMIGRATION POLICY: Permanent Entry—New Zealand's immigration policy is designed to encourage the entry of skilled labour into New Zealand, and to protect domestic employment opportunities for New Zealand citizens and residents who have the right to reside here permanently. At the same time, considerable emphasis is placed on humanitarian considerations such as the reunification of families, and the provision of settlement opportunities for refugees.

Occupational Grounds—The New Zealand Government periodically determines the occupational skills in demand in New Zealand which warrant recruitment from overseas. Business men or women and entrepreneurs who are able to bring into the country both skills and capital may also be considered.

In general, applicants for permanent entry on occupational grounds must be between the ages of 18 and 45 years, of sound mental and physical health, and, if married, have no more than 4 dependent children.

Humanitarian Grounds—Favourable consideration is also given to people applying to enter on humanitarian grounds. The policy on family reunification provides for the entry of various categories of people who have immediate family already living in New Zealand. This is the main criterion for the entry of people from the South Pacific region into New Zealand, along with a special arrangement under which a quota of residents of Western Samoa may enter New Zealand for settlement each year. People may also be considered for permanent entry on the basis of their association with a New Zealand citizen or resident.

Refugees—The admission and resettlement of refugees who come within the mandate of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has been an important priority of the New Zealand Government. Refugees have been accepted in New Zealand since 1944 from Europe, Asia, South America, and Uganda. Refugee schemes are considered by the Government in response to requests from the UNHCR and following consultations with voluntary agencies in New Zealand—usually the Inter-Church Commission on Immigration and Refugee Resettlement (ICCI) which was set up on the initiative of the National Council of Churches, and which, as part of its function, helps to find sponsors for refugees. (Financial support is provided to the ICCI by the Government in the performance of this function). When selecting refugees emphasis is placed on the humanitarian circumstances of each case. The selection criteria may vary for different refugee situations but it is considered in the best interests of the refugees themselves that those selected can be expected to adapt quickly to New Zealand conditions. Account is also taken of any previous association with New Zealand, and of links with friends or relatives living in New Zealand.

The number of refugees who can be accepted at any one time is dependent on the availability of satisfactory long-term resettlement resources in New Zealand, e.g., reasonably-priced suitable long-term accommodation, suitable employment for the breadwinners (which must of necessity in many cases be unskilled easily-learned tasks not requiring fluency in English), educational opportunities for the teaching of English, retraining, etc. Before refugees can be accepted, sponsors must be found for each family group, to assist the family in their resettlement.

Where refugees arrive in large groups the Government provides special assistance in the form of group orientation programmes for up to 1 month after arrival. During that period the refugees are accommodated in the Mangere Reception Centre and costs are met by various Government departments including the Department of Social Welfare, which pays a special emergency benefit to meet living expenses until the breadwinner begins working. Medical and dental checks are provided by the Department of Health, and the Department of Education organises general orientation and familiarisation courses (covering aspects of daily living in New Zealand) and instruction in the English language. After completing the orientation programme the refugees are moved to their final destinations where they are helped by their sponsors and, where possible, by other persons from their country of origin, to overcome their early resettlement problems.

Twenty-two resettlement committees have been set up throughout New Zealand at each of the district offices of the Department of Labour. Each committee consists of departmental representatives, and representatives from voluntary organisations and employer and employee groups. The committees assist sponsors at the local level with employment and any other problems that the refugees may face.

Current policy establishes quotas of refugees who may be accepted for entry, and the quotas are kept under review. New quotas approved in September 1979 in the continuing programme of acceptance of East European, Russian, Jewish, and handicapped refugees provide for the entry of 90 families. Some 1800 Indo-Chinese refugees are expected to arrive for resettlement during 1980. Refugee families, once resettled, may sponsor the entry of relatives to New Zealand for family reunification under normal policy.

Inter-Departmental Committee on Resettlement—The Inter-Departmental Committee on Resettlement (ICR) reviews the facilities available to assist new migrants and considers how best to ensure that existing agencies and services are related in a more direct way to the resettlement objectives of New Zealand's immigration policy, as set out in the committee's 1975 Report to the Minister of Immigration. The ICR, in consultation with other Government agencies and non-Government bodies, works to identify areas in which steps are not being taken to meet the reasonable requirements of new migrants, and as appropriate to develop proposals to satisfy these requirements.

A film entitled Living in New Zealand has been completed for the ICR, for use in its programme to develop more up-to-date information for migrants about life in New Zealand. It was produced by the Asia Pacific Research Unit Ltd. of Wellington, with considerable assistance from members of Pacific Island communities resident in New Zealand. Living in New Zealand aims to provide prospective migrants and work permit holders from the countries of the South Pacific with insights into the problems, challenges, and opportunities that they may expect to encounter here. A second and complementary information film, designed to show to all prospective migrants various aspects of daily life in New Zealand, has been commissioned by the ICR.

Temporary Entry—Entry permits for people wishing to visit New Zealand on a temporary basis are generally issued for varying periods of up to 6 months, though further extensions may be granted to bona fide tourists and other visitors to allow a total stay of up to 12 months. Visitors who wish to work while in New Zealand, whether for a New Zealand employer or on behalf of an overseas company, must apply for a temporary work permit; otherwise visitors are prohibited from working here. This requirement does not, however, affect Australian citizens who wish to work while in New Zealand, nor does it affect persons born in the Cook Islands, Niue, or Tokelau, who are New Zealand citizens and therefore have unrestricted right of entry into this country.

South Pacific Work Permit Schemes—New Zealand has special work permit schemes in operation for citizens of Tonga, Fiji, and Western Samoa. Under these schemes, agreed upon after negotiations with the respective governments, workers may undertake employment in response to specific job offers from New Zealand employers. Employers are required to make financial and other commitments to ensure the welfare of Island workers while they are in New Zealand, and the Department of Labour checks that the conditions of employment offered are acceptable and that the accommodation provided is of a suitable standard. The maximum period of employment is 11 months. The long-term intention is to supplement these schemes with training and employment programmes aimed at improving the reserve of skills in the South Pacific countries concerned, along with programmes of economic development (for example, the Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme), to enable those countries to provide more local employment opportunities. Employees of Pacific companies involved in the Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme (PIIDS) may be sponsored to New Zealand by participating firms to undertake suitable training schemes.

From time to time New Zealand makes special arrangements on an ad hoc basis with other Pacific countries to provide employment opportunities as local conditions permit.

Student Entry—Entry may also be granted to overseas students provided they meet a number of requirements before arrival. The primary intention is to provide opportunities for students from less-developed countries to train in New Zealand.

Formalities—Except for New Zealand citizens, all persons entering New Zealand are required to obtain entry permits under the Immigration Act 1964. This legislation is administered by the Department of Labour. The actual permit to enter is issued at the New Zealand port of entry, usually in the form of an endorsement in a passenger's passport (or any other travel document). All persons intending permanent residence in New Zealand require prior approval before setting out on their journey.

To obtain permission to settle in New Zealand, intending immigrants, other than Australian citizens, should first write to the nearest overseas representative of the New Zealand Government or write direct to the Secretary of Labour, Private Bag, Wellington, New Zealand for the necessary application forms. Each application is considered on its merits.

The requirements for visitors vary according to the nationality of the traveller and the purpose of the visit. The following categories of travellers, however, are exempt from prior authority and entry permit requirements (whether entering permanently or temporarily) under a special exemption:

  1. Australian citizens;

  2. Citizens of other Commonwealth countries and the Republic of Ireland who have been granted the right to reside indefinitely without restriction in Australia, provided they are travelling direct to New Zealand from Australia. (Norfolk Island is treated as part of Australia for this purpose.) Visitors from a number of other countries do not require visas or prior entry authorities, provided the purpose of entry is for tourism or to visit family and friends. Further details are available from the nearest New Zealand overseas representative.

These arrangements do not, however, exempt such persons from the provisions of the Immigration Act 1964 relating to prohibited immigrants. The following categories of persons are prohibited from entry to New Zealand whether for permanent or temporary entry:

  1. Mentally disordered persons, or people suffering from tuberculosis, leprosy, or syphilis;

  2. Persons who have been convicted of an offence and sentenced to a term of imprisonment or other form of detention for 1 year or more or to any form of indeterminate detention for which they may be detained for a period of 1 year or more;

  3. Persons who have been deported from New Zealand (except for a certain class of ship deserter), or deported from any other country.

Those within any of the above categories who enter New Zealand without first obtaining special permission to do so commit an offence which requires the Court to order deportation if conviction is entered.

Deportation—The Immigration Act 1964 makes provision for the deportation of the following persons: those convicted of offences against the Immigration Act; permanent residents who are convicted of an offence within specified periods of their arrival in New Zealand for which the Court has the power to impose imprisonment; those who have engaged in, or who belong to organisations which have engaged in, acts of terrorism; and any person who constitutes a threat to national security.

Appeals Against Deportation—Persons who have been convicted of offences against the Immigration Act may appeal in writing to the Minister of Immigration against the deportation order on the grounds that it would be unduly harsh or unjust to deport them. A Deportation Review Tribunal (administered by the Department of Justice) is empowered to hear appeals on humanitarian grounds from permanent residents against deportation orders following convictions for criminal offences.

PASSPORTS—Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1946 and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued and renewed within New Zealand by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington, Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, at Rarotonga and Niue by the New Zealand Representatives, and overseas by the representatives of New Zealand at Apia, Athens, Baghdad, Bahrain, Bangkok, Bonn, Brussels, Canberra, Geneva, The Hague, Hong Kong, Honiara, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Moscow, New Delhi, New York, Noumea, Nuku'alofa, Ottawa, Paris, Peking, Port Moresby, Port of Spain, Rome, San Francisco, Santiago (Chile), Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, Tokyo, Toronto, Vancouver, Vienna, and Washington. United Kingdom, Canadian, Australian, Malaysian, Singapore, and Indian passports are issued and renewed in New Zealand by the respective High Commissioners for those countries.

During the year ended 31 March 1979 there were 93740 New Zealand passports issued, compared with 75996 during the previous year.

Entry into New Zealand—Apart from British subjects and the wives of British subjects arriving from Australia, no person 16 years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless he is in possession of a valid passport or other recognised travel document. Exemption from the passport requirements (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Act and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act) may be granted in exceptional circumstances by the Minister of Internal Affairs. The master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives does not need to produce a passport.

With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, every alien landing in New Zealand requires a visa.

Departure from New Zealand—Every person leaving New Zealand, with the exception of a British subject travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

CITIZENSHIP—The current basic law on New Zealand citizenship is the Citizenship Act 1977, which came into force on 1 January 1978. Previously, the relevant law was the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948.

Under the Citizenship Act 1977, New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways: (a) by birth in New Zealand; (b) by descent (i.e. birth outside New Zealand); (c) by grant of citizenship. Those persons who were citizens under the previous Act (whether by birth, descent, naturalisation or registration) at 31 December 1977, retain their status under the current legislation. The current legislation also allows for citizenship by descent through the female line. To be eligible for a grant of New Zealand citizenship a person (other than the spouse of a New Zealand citizen; or a person under 18 years of age) must—(a) have resided in New Zealand for the 3 years immediately preceding the date of application; (b) be entitled in terms of the Immigration Act 1964 to reside in New Zealand permanently; (c) be of full capacity; (d) be of good character; (e) have sufficient knowledge of the English language and of the responsibilities and privileges attaching to New Zealand citizenship; (f) intend to continue to reside in New Zealand or to enter or continue Crown service under the New Zealand Government, or service in the employment of a person, company, society, or other body of persons resident or established in New Zealand.

Under current legislation everyone who acquires New Zealand citizenship by grant must swear allegiance to the Queen of New Zealand. British subjects or Commonwealth citizens whose country recognises Queen Elizabeth II as Head of State are required to take the oath on the application form. Other persons whose country of birth does not give this recognition are required to swear allegiance at a public ceremony. The ceremonies, at which applicants are presented with their certificates granting them New Zealand citizenship, are held in an atmosphere of dignity and solemnity. During 1978–79 there were 372 ceremonies at which 3485 candidates took the oath.

New Zealand citizens may be deprived of New Zealand citizenship if they voluntarily acquire a foreign nationality by any formal act other than by marriage and have acted in a manner that is contrary to the interests of New Zealand or voluntarily exercised any of the privileges or performed any of the duties of another nationality or citizenship in a manner that is contrary to the interests of New Zealand. Citizenship obtained by fraud, false representation, mistake, or wilful concealment of relevant information may be withdrawn. Under certain conditions New Zealand citizenship may also be validly renounced.

Upon the introduction of the Citizenship Act 1977 the requirement that aliens be registered was abolished.

CENSUS OF POPULATION AND DWELLINGS 1976—The series of tables on the following pages contain statistics from the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings.

MARITAL STATUS—The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the Census of 1976 is summarised in the following tables.

Age Group (Years)Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedWidowedDivorcedTotal*
* Including persons not specifying status.
Males
16–19118,08223202146120,649
20–2483,53346,135122744202131,644
25–3440,099177,27452962542610226,515
35–4413,196146,02939377222963167,616
45–5412,541139,488340823473825162,327
55–648974107,512197252243324127,471
65–74560066,2949698706178983,631
75 and over240521,65427710,36846635,361
    Total, 1976284,430706,70617,10727,66915,1851,055,214
    Total, 1971250,372632,10811,59826,79811,442937,954
Females
16–19103,77111,703226139115,829
20–2447,89576,1892965172534127,931
25–3420,651189,033730410763872222,123
35–447379142,378493029304310162,112
45–547789130,455351796234636156,252
55–64886997,188195024,6383972136,943
65–74901249,26282036,978232398,672
75 and over681613,16122640,61670361,843
    Total, 1976212,182709,36921,938116,04620,3591,081,705
    Total, 1971186,619637,92214,139104,53314,711959,378
Total
16–19221,85314,0232471715236,478
20–24131,428122,3244192216736259,575
25–3460,750366,30712,60013306482448,638
35–4420,575288,407886736527273329,728
45–5420,330269,943692511,9708461318,579
55–6417,843204,700392229,8627296264,414
65–7414,612115,556178945,6844112182,303
75 and over922134,81550350,984116997,204
    Total, 1976496,6121,416,07539,045143,71535,5442,136,919
    Total, 1971436,9911,270,03025,737131,33126,1531,897,332

The percentage distribution aged 16 years or over according to marital status is given in the following summary.

Marital Status196619711976
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Never married28.120.826.919.527.119.6
Married66.866.167.866.667.265.7
Legally separated0.81.01.21.51.62.0
Widowed3.110.92.910.92.610.7
Divorced1.11.21.21.51.41.9
        Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

HOUSEHOLDS—There was a total of 923257 private households living in permanent dwellings at the Census in 1976. The following table analyses the type of household by the number of occupants. A complete one-family-only household consists of a husband and wife with or without unmarried children of any age who are living at home.

Type of HouseholdTotal Private Households*Number of Private Households' with Number of Members
1234567 or More
* Resident in permanent dwellings.
One-family-only—
    Complete547,471...187,63893,395131,47880,56135,04619,353
    Incomplete with children absent30,642...690182577249429019651980
    Incomplete with one parent absent52,471...24,42814,937767633241263843
    Incomplete with one parent and child(ren) absent4768...19931431706355147136
              Total635,352...220,960118,020147,10988,53038,42122,312
Other family—
    One family plus other persons (non-family)74,731......20,65516,62615,82810,68410,938
    Multi-family with or without other persons15,578.........2797310033306351
              Total90,309......20,65519,42318,92814,01417,289
Non-family—
    Multi-person53,700...36,818978845611706564263
    One person143,896143,896..................
              Total197,596143,89636,818978845611706564263
              Grand Total923,257143,896257,778148,463171,093109,16452,99939,864

In the following table complete one-family-only households at the 1976 Census are analysed by membership and the employment status of the head of the household.

Employment Status of HeadTotal HouseholdsHusband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
* Includes heads working part-time (1 to 19 hours weekly).
Number of Households
Actively engaged full-time in the labour force—
    Employer46,5469228768313,186992844342087
    Own account worker50,30011,499831214,085981445352055
    Salary or wage earner366,53699,24067,812100,52559,25625,23614,467
    Unemployed2489747485549305216187
    Relative assisting15888322396-
    Not specified620195105125864960
            Total466,649120,99784,429128,49379,39834,47618,856
Not actively engaged full-time in the labour force*
    Retired74,36163,60277972004564228166
    Student118579619311458213
    Household duties26521262421458256138117
    Other2624981555409285183211
              Total80,82266,641896629851163570497
              Grand total547,471187,63893,395131,47880,56135,04619,353

The following table shows the composition of one-complete-family-only households in 1976 analysed by the age group of the head of the household.

Age Croup of Head (Years)Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More ChildrenTotal Households
Number of Households
Under 20665753948-21522
20–2418,7409961600310631484335,958
25–4434,55336,57790,67659,91525,55212,980260,253
45–6473,15639,24433,10819,15891826203180,051
65 and over60,5246860159741716412569,687
            Total187,63893,395131,47880,56135,04619,353547,471
Percentage of Age Group
Under 2043.749.56.20.5-0.1100.0
20–2452.127.716.73.00.40.1100.0
25–4413.314.134.823.09.85.0100.0
45–6440.621.818.410.65.13.4100.0
65 and over86.99.82.30.60.20.2100.0
All ages34.317.124.014.76.43.5100.0

The following 2 tables show, for one-complete-family-only households, the income group analysed by the membership of the household. The income given in the first table is the income of the head of the household, while in the second table the total household income is shown. In a considerable proportion of households, the total household income was substantially above the income of the head of the household, indicating at least 1 other income recipient in the family.

Income of Head*Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More ChildrenTotal
            $Number of Households
Nil24,9603914156670538839331,926
        1–1,99926,01438372043101354439133,842
  2,000–3,99923,2209521951758542992224753,351
  4,000–5,99950,03930,79138,80022,94310,4856565159,623
  6,000–7,99933,44323,12238,32422,30791074571130,874
  8,000–9,99914,37610,97020,72912,9275386239666,784
10,000–14,99910,085765414,49099103890169947,728
15,000–19,99921811458272921589433409809
20,000 and over20101357239720979513929204
Not specified13107718836473603594330
            Total187,63893,395131,47880,56135,04619,353547,471
Income of Household*Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More ChildrenTotal
* Estimated income before tax, other than social welfare benefits, for the year ended 31 March 1976.
            $Number of Households
            Nil21,962102242022514813723,914
        1–1,99922,256148889943825620725,544
  2,000–3,99916,9855929549334071562120334,579
  4,000–5,99925,66118,75923,91913,2845831349590,949
  6,000–7,99922,04818,52029,97916,8536877335997,636
  8,000–9,99922,70514,74323,46914,1755739281983,650
10,000–14,99942,18321,97230,19619,33681794185126,051
15,000–19,99982036182965567263268175035,784
20,000 and over36013196542045572268130420,346
Not specified20341584202815609188949018
            Total187,63893,395131,47880,56135,04619,353547,471

The following tables show persons living alone in 1976 by age, sex, and marital status.

Age Group (in Years)Marital Status
Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedDivorcedWidowedTotal*
* Including those of unspecified marital status.
Males Living Alone
Under 2098222---1008
20–2435815121502154287
25–44836123632136125612314,325
45–647531271919272808290717,976
65 and over316319705081022919615,944
            Total23,61875864721510712,23153,540
Females Living Alone
Under 20768479-1828
20–24195738216136122560
25–4443498838047842837139
45–64622223771470328114,29827,708
65 and over68052159555173840,76952,121
            Total20,10158482999583955,36390,356

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS—The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the 1966, 1971, and 1976 Censuses.

Religious ProfessionNumber of AdherentsPercentage
196619711976196619711976
* Associated Pentecostal Churches of New Zealand.
Anglican (Church of England)901,701895,839915,20233.731.329.2
Presbyterian582,976583,701566,56921.820.418.1
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)425,280449,974478,53015.915.715.3
Methodist186,260182,727173,5267.06.45.5
Christian n.o.d.21,54833,18752,4780.81.21.7
Baptist46,74847,35049,4421.71.71.6
Latter Day Saints (Mormon)25,56429,78536,1301.01.01.2
Ratana27,57030,15635,0821.01.11.1
Protestant n.o.d.46,09037,47533,3091.71.31.1
Brethren23,13925,76824,4140.90.90.8
Salvation Army17,73719,37122,0190.70.70.7
Atheist5474929114,2830.20.30.5
Agnostic4960948114,1360.20.30.5
Jehovah's Witness745510,31813,3920.30.40.4
Seventh Day Adventist955110,47711,9580.40.40.4
Church of Christ10,301893080870.40.30.3
Congregational12,101770466000.40.30.2
Lutheran5730593062970.20.20.2
Ringatu5605563562300.20.20.2
Assemblies of God*2028359955810.10.10.2
Hindu3599384552030.10.10.2
Pentecostal*111018594846- -0.10.2
Undenominational3069370942220.10.10.1
Eastern Orthodox3605431941530.10.20.1
Hebrew4104380339210.20.10.1
Union Church27911543045- -- -0.1
Apostolic*1841236126930.10.10.1
Undenominational Christian1968190325540.10.10.1
Buddhist65213702382- -- -0.1
Spiritualist84310151731- -- -0.1
Christadelphian1628166716860.10.10.1
Mohammedan5517791415- -- -- -
Reformed Church of N.Z.124216281358- -0.1- -
Society of Friends8879661074- -- -- -
Humanitarian2415101060- -- -- -
Orthodox11005801047- -- -- -
All other religious professions19,45116,42834,6260.70.61.1
No religion (so returned)32,78057,485101,2111.22.03.2
Object to state210,851247,019438,5117.98.614.0
Not specified19,300103,53339,3800.73.61.3
              Total2,676,9192,862,6313,129,383100.0100.0100.0

The category “All other religious professions” includes also cases of facetious answers and those which were not specified in sufficient detail to allow precise classification. Figures under “Object to state” represent those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject.

AGE DISTRIBUTION—Census age-group figures are shown in the following table. Estimates of age distribution for inter-censal years are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Age (Years)1971 Census1976 CensusPercentage of Total Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal19711976
* Under 20 years.
  0–4151,916145,946297,862151,086145,019296,10510.49.5
  5–9158,310151,494309,804159,187152,586311,77310.810.0
10–14154,286147,671301,957163,869156,458320,32710.510.2
1528,39027,28655,67632,68631,57364,2591.92.0
16–19104,726100,387205,113120,649115,829236,4787.27.6
20–24119,447115,512234,959131,644127,931259,5758.28.3
25–2994,62292,690187,312125,668123,472249,1406.58.0
30–3484,18182,509166,690100,84798,651199,4985.86.4
35–3976,99774,192151,18989,71787,380177,0975.35.7
40–4483,25178,445161,69677,89974,732152,6315.64.9
45–4980,87978,488159,36784,16178,717162,8785.65.2
50–5469,14171,658140,79978,16677,535155,7014.95.1
55–5965,26466,919132,18366,54770,639137,1864.64.4
60–6455,59758,260113,85760,92466,304127,2284.04.1
65–6942,70047,91490,61449,80556,643106,4483.23.4
70–7428,46237,22165,68333,82642,02975,8552.32.4
75–7916,75426,61243,36619,94230,13650,0781.51.5
80–84992317,30127,224951118,42527,9361.00.9
85–894542820412,7464347949113,8380.40.4
90 and over1468306645341561379153520.20.2
            Total1,430,8561,431,7752,862,6311,562,0421,567,3413,129,383100.0100.0
Under 15 years464,512445,111909,623474,142454,063928,20531.829.7
15–64 years862,495846,3461,708,841968,908952,7631,921,67159.761.4
65 years and over103,849140,318244,167118,992160,515279,5078.58.9
Minors*597,628572,7841,170,412627,477601,4651,228,94240.939.3
Adults833,228858,9911,692,219934,565965,8761,900,44159.160.7

ETHNIC GROUPS—The following table displays the broad ethnic origins of the New Zealand population.

Ethnic CroupCensus
196619711976

* Covers persons who specified themselves as half or more New Zealand Maori, plus those who indicated they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand, but did not specify the degree of Maori origin.

Half or more of given descent group, except for 1966, where figures cover persons of full descent and those of mixed, both European (all degrees) and Maori (where less than half Maori descent).

European2,426,3522,563,5322,693,186
Maori*201,159227,414270,035
Other origins
    Pacific Island Polynesian—
    Samoan11,84219,54027,876
    Cook Island Maori866312,91318,610
    Niuean284641265688
    Tongan138914723980
    Tokelauan 11831737
    Other153116843463
        Sub-total, Pacific Island Polynesian26,27140,91861,354
Chinese10,28312,47014,860
Indian684371409247
Fijian132311511548
Syrian, Lebanese, and Arab1099890754
Other ethnic groups358941166424
        Sub-total, others23,13725,76732,833
Not specified--71,975
              Total2,676,9192,862,6313,129,383

COUNTRY OF BIRTH—From 1945 to 1961 the New Zealand-born population remained at about 86 percent of the total population: since 1966 the proportion has dropped slightly, mainly because increased numbers of New Zealanders have been overseas at census date and increased numbers of overseas tourists have been in New Zealand. At the 1976 Census, 83.4 percent of those enumerated gave New Zealand as their birthplace, 9.3 percent gave the United Kingdom, 2.0 percent Australia, 1.0 percent the Cook Islands and Western Samoa, and 0.7 percent the Netherlands.

The next table shows the duration of residence in New Zealand of persons born overseas.

Years of Residence1966 Census1971 Census1976 Census
Number Born OverseasPercentage of Specified CasesNumber Born OverseasPercentage of Specified CasesNumber Born OverseasPercentage of Specified Cases
* Includes overseas-born short-stay visitors.
  0–4*103,03026.590,13322.2156,08331.3
  5–956,86114.667,29316.659,05211.6
10–1461,33615.852,96813.164,46712.9
15–1938,93810.055,37813.748,6919.8
20 and over129,21133.2139,43234.4169,79234.1
Not specified5567...6752...10,040...
              Total394,943100.0411,956100.0508,125100.0

INTERNAL MIGRATION—At the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings the questions on internal migration related to place of usual residence 5 years prior to the census, and number of years resided at usual residential address.

The following table (in percentages) gives a summary by statistical areas of the usually resident New Zealand population by their residence 5 years ago (i.e., at 1971 Census). In New Zealand, as a whole, 51.5 percent of the population were living at the same address as 5 years previous. The areas of greatest stability were the East Coast statistical area with 58.4 percent unchanged, Westland with 57.8 percent unchanged, and Southland with 55 percent unchanged.

Movement within statistical areas was greatest in South Auckland – Bay of Plenty, where 31.8 percent of the population had moved from their address of 5 years ago but had remained within the statistical area. Other statistical areas whose percentage was higher than the overall New Zealand figure of 29.6 percent were Wellington, which recorded 30.9 percent; Southland, 30.8 percent; Canterbury, 30.4 percent; and Central Auckland, 29.9 percent.

Persons who had shifted to a different statistical area between the 1971 and 1976 Censuses comprised 10.9 percent of the usually resident New Zealand population. Marlborough statistical area contained the highest proportion of persons who had shifted to the area from elsewhere in New Zealand (21.1 percent), followed by Westland (17 percent), Northland (16.8 percent), and Nelson (16 percent).

Persons whose address 5 years prior to the 1976 Census had been overseas, comprised 5.7 percent of the usually resident New Zealand population.

The highest proportion of these overseas migrants were located in the Central Auckland and Wellington statistical areas where 9.1 percent and 6.1 percent respectively of the usually resident population belonged to this category.

In arriving at the percentages in the following table, children under 5 years of age were, of course, excluded.

Usual Residence on Census Night 1976*Usual Residence 5 Years Prior to Census (1976)
UnchangedChanged But Within Statistical AreaElsewhere in Sew ZealandNew Zealand Residents No Settled Abode or Not SpecifiedPacific IslandsUnited Kingdom and IrelandAustraliaOther Countries Including Not Specified OverseasTotal
* Excludes no settled abode or not specified.
Percentage
Northland52.923.916.82.10.41.81.20.8100.0
Central Auckland49.929.98.62.51.74.01.91.5100.0
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty48.831.812.72.30.31.91.20.9100.0
East Coast58.423.213.32.50.21.10.80.5100.0
Hawke's Bay54.626.113.62.20.31.70.90.6100.0
Taranaki54.028.812.01.30.11.81.10.8100.0
Wellington50.830.99.82.40.62.81.21.5100.0
        Total North Island50.729.810.72.30.92.91.41.2100.0
Marlborough51.622.621.11.60.11.50.90.6100.0
Nelson52.724.216.02.50.22.11.50.8100.0
Westland57.818.917.04.00.10.70.80.6100.0
Canterbury53.430.49.71.90.22.11.31.1100.0
Otago54.428.811.02.20.21.51.00.8100.0
Southland55.030.810.01.80.21.00.80.4100.0
        Total South Island53.828.911.22.10.21.81.10.9100.0
        Total New Zealand51.529.610.92.30.72.61.31.1100.0

Statistics on years resided at usual address, together with more detailed statistics on residence 5 years ago, will be found in the 1976 Census Bulletin Series, Number 22 (Internal Migration).

STATISTICS OF WORLD POPULATION—The area and estimated population of the major areas and selected countries at mid-year 1978 are shown in the following table. (Source: U.N. Population and Vital Statistics Report). The UN report should be consulted for further information and greater detail.

Major Areas and CountriesAreaPopulation

* World and major area figures are provisional totals for mid-1979.

Includes Central America, the Caribbean, and Hawaii.

Major Areaskm2 (000)Million
    Africa30,319456
    America—North24,249364
    America—South17,832239
    Asia27,5802509
    Europe4937482
    Oceania851022
    U.S.S.R22,402264
World total135,8304336*
Selected Countries
Africa
    Algeria238218.5
    Angola12476.7
    Egypt100139.6
    Ethiopia122229.7
    Ghana23911.0
    Kenya58314.9
    Morocco44718.9
    Mozambique7839.9
    Nigeria92472.2
    South Africa122127.7
    Sudan250617.4
    Uganda23612.8
    Zaire234527.7
America—North
    Canada997623.5
    United States9363218.1
America—South
    Argentine276726.4
    Brazil8512115.4
    Chile75710.9
    Colombia113925.6
    Peru128516.8
    Venezuela91213.1
Asia
    Afghanistan64715.1
    China9597933.0
    Hong Kong14.6
    India3288638.4
    Indonesia1904145.1
    Iran164835.2
    Iraq43512.3
    Israel213.7
    Japan372114.9
    Jordan983.0
    Korea—North12117.1
    Korea—South9837.0
    Lebanon103.0
    Malaysia33013.0
    Nepal14113.4
    Pakistan80476.8
    Philippines30046.4
    Saudi Arabia21507.9
    Singapore0.62.3
    Sri Lanka6614.3
    Syrian Arab Republic1858.1
    Thailand51445.1
    Turkey78143.2
Europe
    Austria847.5
    Belgium319.8
    Bulgaria1118.8
    Czechoslovakia12815.1
    Denmark435.1
    France54753.3
    Germany—East10816.8
    Germany—West24961.3
    Greece1329.4
    Hungary9310.7
    Ireland, Republic of703.2
    Italy30156.7
    Luxembourg30.4
    Netherlands4114.0
    Norway3244.1
    Poland31335.0
    Portugal929.8
    Romania23821.9
    Spain50537.1
    Sweden4508.3
    Switzerland416.3
    United Kingdom24455.8
    Yugoslavia, Republic of25621.9
Oceania
    Australia768714.2
    Fiji180.6
    New Caledonia190.1
    New Zealand2693.1
    Papua New Guinea4623.0

FURTHER INFORMATION—Other publications containing data on population include the following. Department of Statistics bulletins may be obtained from the Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington. Most other official publications may be obtained from Government Bookshops in the main centres.

Population and Migration—Department of Statistics (Annual)

Pt A—Population

Pt B—Migration

Census of Population and Dwellings 1976—Department of Statistics.

Vol. 1—Location and Increase of Population.

Pt. A—Population Size and Distribution.

Pt. B—Population Density.

Pt. C—Usually Resident Population.

Vol. 2—Ages and Marital Status.

Vol. 3—Religious Professions.

Vol. 4—Labour Force.

Vol. 5—Incomes and Social Security Benefits.

Vol. 6—Education and Training.

Vol. 7—Birthplaces and Ethnic Origin.

Vol. 8—Maori Population and Dwellings.

Vol. 9—Dwellings.

Vol. 10—Households, Families, and Fertility.

Vol. 11—Internal Migration.

Census bulletins: A series of nearly 30 Census of Population 1976 bulletins deal with population distribution and characteristics by statistical areas and with individual subjects such as ages and marital status, dwellings, incomes, education and training, Maori population and dwellings, religious professions, internal migration, and the composition of the labour force.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Quarterly Population Bulletin—Department of Statistics.

New Zealand Sub-national Population Projections 1976–1991 (Series of 20 bulletins)—Department of Statistics.

Miscellaneous Bulletin Series—Department of Statistics.

No. 1—New Zealand Males and Females—A Statistical Comparison.

No. 7—New Zealand Maori and Non-Maori Populations.

No. 10—Family Statistics in New Zealand.

No. 12—New Zealand Children 1979.

Social Trends in New Zealand—Department of Statistics (1977).

The New Zealand People 1971 (Summary of data from 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings)—Department of Statistics.

Maps of Statistical Boundaries—Department of Statistics.

Chapter 4. Section 4 VITAL STATISTICS

4 A—NATURAL INCREASE

The major components of population growth are natural increase and any gain from migration. The slowing-down of New Zealand's population growth in recent years has been a result of a fall in increments from both components. The balance of migration has, in fact, shown an annual loss of population, and the continued fall in the birth rate has reduced the excess of births over deaths.

The following table shows the numbers and rates of natural increase for the last 5 years, and emphasises the relatively high rate for the Maori component of the population.

YearTotal PopulationMaorisNatural Increase Rates per 1000 Mean Population
BirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseBirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseTotalMaori
197556,63925,11431,52567781333544510.2121.55
197655,10525,45729,6486626132053069.5119.56
197754,17925,96128,2186785141653699.0219.47
197851,02924,66926,3606580121553658.4219.13
197952,27925,41026,8696654123954158.6018.96

* Provisional.

In the 5 years to 31 December 1979 New Zealand gained by natural increase of population a total of nearly 143000.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—An international comparison of birth and natural increase rates for certain countries is made in the following table. The rates, taken from the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, are for 1977 or 1978.

CountryRate per 1000 of Population
BirthsDeathsNatural Increase
New Zealand16.37.88.5
Japan15.56.09.5
Australia15.77.68.1
France14.010.13.9
Italy13.29.63.6
Canada15.57.28.3
Norway12.79.92.8
United States15.38.86.5
Netherlands12.68.24.4
United Kingdom11.811.70.1
Switzerland11.29.02.2
West Germany9.411.8-2.4

4 B—BIRTHS

REGISTRATION—The law as to registration of births is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. A birth is normally registered at the office of the Registrar nearest the place of birth.

Birth statistics are compiled by the Department of Statistics from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year. The figures do not include still births, except where multiple births are discussed. A special classification of still births is given later in this subsection.

Under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, provision is made for births not registered in the ordinary way to be recorded at a later date in a special register kept by the Registrar-General. Such cases include elderly people requiring evidence of age for social welfare purposes. Until 1971 these late registrations were included in published live-birth statistics but they are now excluded. The numbers are normally relatively small; in 1978 they totalled 208.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The following table shows the numbers of births and the rates for the latest 5 years. Late registrations (see above) have been excluded from all these figures. The birth rate, which fell in the early 1960s and then appeared to stabilise at 22 to 23 births per 1000 of mean population in the later 1960s, resumed the decline in the 1970s and, as the decade ends, may be reaching a new stability at a lower level.

YearNumbersRates per 1000 of Mean Population
TotalMaoriTotalMaori
197556,639677818.3525.62
197655,105662617.6824.43
197754,179678517.3224.61
197851,029658016.3123.46
197952,279665416.7323.30

REFINED BIRTH RATE—“Crude” rates of the number of births per 1000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age, do not take account of variations in the proportion of women of the childbearing ages. Refined rates are provided by computations of the nuptial birth rate per 1000 married women of 16–44 years of age, or the total birth rate per 1000 of women aged 15–44 years. The following table gives both rates for census years (on the basis of the births registered in that year and the population as at the census) together with the “crude” rate for the year.

Census YearBirth Rate per 1000 WomenCrudeBirth Rate per 1000 Mean Population
Married Women 16–44 YearsTotal Women 15–44 Years
1956191.7128.125.93
1961199.3140.626.99
1966155.5114.422.37
1971149.2112.922.51
1976108.583.517.68

The percentage of married women among women in the child-bearing age groups was 66.8 in 1976 compared with 51.6 in 1926. A study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age composition of married women within the child-bearing ages; as the birth rate varies with age, the change in age composition over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

The period since the Second World War was marked by a high birth rate until 1962, when the level dropped; this experience was also shared by Australia, Canada, and the United States. During the years 1962 to 1966 the crude birth rate fell from 26.16 to 22.37 per 1000 of mean population. From 1966 until 1971 the crude birth rate remained relatively constant, but from 1972 the downward trend was resumed. In the following table the New Zealand crude birth rate is compared with that of Australia, Canada, and the United States.

CountryBirth Rate per 1000 Mean Population
19711972197319741975197619771978
New Zealand22.521.720.419.618.317.717.316.3
Australia21.720.518.918.418.416.716.115.7
Canada16.815.915.515.415.415.815.5..
United States17.215.715.015.014.814.715.3..

(Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics and Statistical Yearbook.)

The following diagram shows numbers of births and deaths and indicates the relatively high rate of natural increase in New Zealand.

REPRODUCTION INDEX—The reproduction index is based on the fact that the future size of a population is related to the number of women in the reproductive age groups at any given time. The gross rate is based on the number of female children born, and the average number of girls that will be born to a woman during her reproductive period, while the net rate takes into account fertility rates at different ages and the percentages of female survivors at those ages, obtained from life tables. A net rate of 1.0 indicates zero population growth if the population is closed to migration, and a higher rate a rising population.

Reproduction rates during 6 recent years were as follows:

YearCross RateNet Rate
19731.3521.313
19741.2671.231
19751.1791.146
19761.0961.065
19771.0841.053
19781.0210.995

SEX OF CHILDREN BORN—The numbers of boys and girls born during the latest 5 years are given in the following table.

In each year more boys than girls are born, a necessary disparity on account of the higher death rates of males at every age level. The death rate per 1000 live births for babies under 12 months of age in 1978 was 16.19 for boys and 11.25 for girls; for children of from 1 to 4 years of age it was 0.81 for boys and 0.61 for girls; for children aged 5 to 14 years it was 0.39 for boys and 0.25 for girls; and the pattern repeated itself for each age group through adolescence and adult life.

The following table illustrates the disparity in the numbers born.

YearNumber of Births ofMale Births per 1000 Female Births
MalesFemales
197528,87427,7651040
197628,54426,5611075
197727,78826,3911053
197826,06224,9671044
197926,67025,6091041

MULTIPLE BIRTHS—In 1978 there were 50496 confinements which resulted in live births; of these 522 cases resulted in all live multiple births, 12 cases where one of twins was still-born, and 3 cases where both twins were still-born.

The likelihood of still births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases.

YearSingle BirthsTwin BirthsTripletsTotal CasesStill Birth Rate per 1000
LiveStillBoth LiveBoth StillOne Live One StillAll LiveTwo Live One StillSingleMultipleSingle CasesMulti-Cases
197458,2224705398233258,6925758.057.4
197555,464438568524555,9026027.848.2
197654,045403515118454,4485387.435.3
197753,1053805186195253,4855507.149.1
197849,9623465113121150,3085376.928.0

AGES OF PARENTS—Information as to the relative ages of parents of nuptial living children whose births were registered in 1978 is shown in the following table for the total population.

Registrations of births under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 are excluded.

Age of Mother, in YearsAge of Father in Years
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445–4950–5455–6465 and OverTotal Cases
* Including 11 cases of triplets, all live-born, 3 cases of twins, both still-born, and 12 cases of twins where one was still-born.
Single Births
Under 20381153929635153122272
20–24109553864261137220541252113,504
25–29467583335350837207452711215,491
30–345878435011748348112421026605
35–391476272743377138471541677
40–445101148142812872334
45 and over1113106123
        Total495781915,92610,30736121134399157461139,906
Multiple Births
Under 20373114
20–242435818121
25–2915102521521178
30–3431241188121187
35–39371061128
40–44111115
45 and over
        Total65817911944174411433*
        Grand total501787716,10510,42636561151403161471240,339

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS—The following table gives for 1978 the number of previous issue, i.e., children born alive, in conjunction with the age of mother.

Age of Mother in YearsNumber of Previous IssueTotal Nuptial Cases
0123456–910–1415 and over
* This number represents 39906 single cases and 433 multiple cases.
Number of Mothers
Under 2016615764632286
20–24653450121708317485113,625
25–294935586035121012250712915,669
30–3413332020186795527613410346692
35–392823423522731871131391611705
40–444335395251396515339
45 and over42212172223
            Total14,79213,8477526261381436334437340339*

In the following table the total issue and average issue are shown for mothers by age groups where a birth occurred in 1978.

Age of Mother in YearsTotal MothersTotal IssueAverage Issue
Under 20228629761.30
20–2413,62523,3491.71
25–2915,66933,3072.12
30–34669217,9012.67
35–39170560593.55
40–4433916314.81
45 and over231466.34
            Total40,33985,3692.11

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz, the average number of children (including those registered in 1978) born up to the present time to those mothers of nuptial children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years have been as follows: 1974, 2.23; 1975, 2.19; 1976, 2.17; 1977, 2.13, and 1978, 2.11.

FIRST BIRTH—Statistics of nuptial first confinements show that in recent years there have been reduced proportions occurring within 1 year after marriage and within 2 years after marriage.

YearTotal Nuptial CasesTotal Nuptial First CasesProportion of First Cases to Total CasesFirst cases within 1 Year After MarriageFirst cases within 2 Years After Marriage
NumberProportion to Total First CasesNumberProportion to Total First Cases
197449,49117,84536.06577832.38991955.58
197546,73916,70935.75515330.84892153.39
197645,07515,83135.12447228.25802850.71
197743,45415,75136.24421326.74748447.51
197840,33914,79236.66381225.77680445.99

The following table gives the duration-of-marriage factor in first confinements over a longer time-series. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern births of non-Maoris only.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197419771978
Under 146.2538.4742.6449.8532.3826.7425.77
126.7926.3030.5626.4223.2120.7620.22
210.2411.2811.5611.4218.4816.9816.27
36.167.885.955.0711.9213.3513.49
43.967.183.302.826.949.009.49
5–95.497.365.053.566.5212.3913.94
10 and over1.111.530.940.860.550.730.79
                  Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

In the following table first confinements occurring to mothers in different age groups are expressed as a percentage of the total first confinements. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern confinements of non-Maoris only.

Age of Mother, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197419771978
Under 208.907.339.0819.6417.9612.1111.22
20–2440.3941.7947.7152.6748.1444.9244.17
25–2932.7929.5427.7918.2826.7432.5433.36
30–3413.1014.6110.396.005.518.219.01
35–393.795.363.922.571.341.801.90
40–440.991.341.020.810.300.360.29
45 and over0.040.030.090.030.010.010.02
            Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child were as follows: 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; 1954, 25.32; 1964, 23.65; 1974, 23.29; 1977, 24.22; and 1978, 24.38 years.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS—The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the latest 6 years, with the percentage they bear to total births registered, are given in the following table. Comparisons of the ratio of ex-nuptial births to all live births (either on a year-to-year basis or on an international basis) should be made with caution. Some of the difficulties were discussed in supplements to the January 1967 and November 1975 Monthly Abstracts of Statistics. For example, the ex-nuptial ratio as a true indicator of ex-nuptial fertility is of limited value because it is influenced by extraneous factors. Ex-nuptial ratios may change not so much because of changing numbers of ex-nuptial births but because of a change in nuptial fertility experience as measured by nuptial birth numbers. This situation is well illustrated by experience during the 1962–78 period when ex-nuptial births increased from 5227 to 10254 while nuptial births showed an overall fall from 59787 to 40775, resulting in the ex-nuptial ratio exaggerating the “real” rise in the ex-nuptial fertility level. Again, a social factor to be borne in mind is that unmarried mothers are not infrequently de facto wives with comparatively stable relationships.

YearNumberRatio*
* Ex-nuptial births as a proportion of total births.
1974937015.79
1975940716.61
1976959717.42
197710,26518.95
197810,25420.09
197910,94220.93

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movements in the proportion of ex-nuptial births per 1000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. Up to 1961 the statistics relate to non-Maoris only; from 1966 Maoris are included. The figures for census years are as follows:

Census YearUnmarried Women 15–44 Years of AgeEx-nuptial BirthsEx-nuptial Birth Rate per 1000 Unmarried Women
1945156,326182511,67
1951130,343193514.85
1956129,877231017.79
1961138,018333224.14
1966183,996694037.72
1971199,147898145.10
1976224,185959742.81

In 1978 the total number of ex-nuptial confinements resulting in live births was 10157. Of these, 10056 cases were single births and 97 cases were twins. There were 4 cases of twins where 1 child was still-born. The total number of ex-nuptial live births was 10254. From the following table, it can be seen that of the 10157 mothers, 4423 or 43.55 percent, were under 20 years of age.

AgeNumber of Mothers
    111
    124
    133
    1454
    15268
    16727
    171087
    181140
    191139
    20958
    21758
    22640
    23520
    24–291954
    30–34612
    35–39234
    40–4454
45 and over4
        Total10,157

Reregistration—An ex-nuptial child whose parents have later married may be reregistered from birth by reason of such marriage. Applications for registration must be made within 3 months after the date of the marriage.

The number of reregistrations in each of the latest 6 years were as follows: 1973, 1482; 1974, 1517; 1975, 1433; 1976, 1478; 1977, 1284; and 1978, 1288.

The Children and Young Persons Act 1974 requires that all ex-nuptial births be notified to a social worker so that inquiries may be made concerning the circumstances of each mother and child for the purpose of offering advice and assistance.

The following table shows the outcome of the inquiries made in recent years. Inquiries relate to some births from the preceding year and do not cover all births in the year stated.

Location of Infants19771978
No.%No.%
Reregistered after marriage of parents31132503
Remaining with mother (parents cohabiting)359036387040
Remaining with mother (parents not cohabiting)347135373439
Placed with relatives35242492
Placed with strangers with view to adoption997109089
Placed with strangers, no expressed wish to adoption21- -16- -
In children's home or other institution on a long-term basis34- -29- -
Committed to care of Social Welfare361291
Not traced966105135
Died1151931
                    Total98931009691100

ADOPTIONS—The following table shows the number of adoptions which have been registered during 5 recent years.

YearMalesFemalesTotal
1974173716293366
1975167516473322
1976145714852942
1977128512382523
1978116712132380

In 1972, for the first time for many years, there was a substantial drop in the number of adoption orders made by the Court and this trend has continued. Of the 2380 adoptions finalised in 1978, social workers of the Department of Social Welfare were concerned with 2130 or 90 percent. Maori welfare officers handled most of the others.

The following table, which relates only to canes handled by the department, shows the number and status of children adopted over the last 4 years.

Status of Children Adopted1975197619771978
* These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Ex-nuptial2106190215361526
Nuptial571593537523
Not known*74594381
                  Total2751255421162130

In 1978, 72 percent of the children adopted were born out of wedlock. Of these children born out of wedlock, 85 percent were aged less than 1 year at the time of placement for adoption. Fifty percent were placed with strangers.

The next table shows the age at placement according to the status of the children adopted in 1978.

AgeNuptialEx-NuptialNot KnownTotal
* These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Under 1 year266129091565
1–5 years3652189
6 years and over217230
Not known*20017769446
            Total5231526812130

The following table shows the original relationship between adopted children and their new parents.

Relationship1975197619771978
Strangers1581134710521067
One parent and spouse877913792782
Relative or close friend293294272281
            Total2751255421162130

STILL BIRTHS—Although it is compulsory to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. Particulars of causes of still births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue”. Still births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths. The rate was 7.57 per 1000 births in 1977, when still births totalled 413; 7.08 in 1978, when still births totalled 364; and 6.61 in 1979, when still births totalled 348.

4 C—DEATHS

NUMBERS AND RATES—The death rate (by which is usually meant the crude death rate, the number of deaths per 1000 of total mean population) is less subject to fluctuation than the birth rate. In the absence of wars, epidemics, and other large-scale disasters, it changes slowly. The New Zealand crude death rate was 8.53 in 1924 and 55 years later, in 1979, it was 8.13. In between, it had reached a peak of 11.05 in 1942, during the Second World War, and a low point of 7.88 in 1978. In contrast, the birth rate (21.63 in 1924 and 16.73 in 1979) had been as high as 27.64 in 1947 and is now falling below even the level of the 1930s Depression years. Depressions, wars, peace, prosperity, and the popularisation of improved methods of birth control have all left their mark on the birth rate.

Under normal conditions the most important factor affecting the crude death rate is the age structure of the population, which (like the death rate itself) changes slowly. An ageing population will tend to have a high death rate, while a young one (provided that infant mortality is not abnormally high) will have a low one.

The following table sets out the numbers of deaths and the crude death rates per 1000 of mean population. (Maoris are defined as persons with half or more Maori ancestry and the term non-Maori covers all other persons.)

YearNumbersCrude Rate per 1000 of Mean Population
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
197523,781133325,1148.345.048.14
197624,137132025,4578.484.878.17
197724,545141625,9618.615.148.30
197823,454121524,6698.234.337.88
197924,171123925,4108.494.348.13

The chief merit of the crude death rate is that it is easily calculated, requiring only the number of deaths and the size of the population “at risk”. However, it is very misleading when comparisons are being made between 2 or more populations with different age-structures, such as the Maori and non-Maori populations of New Zealand. The Maori population is a “young” one, with a high proportion of children and young people in those age groups in which the death rate is normally very low, and relatively few elderly people in those age groups in which the death rate is normally high. The non-Maori population is older, with a considerably smaller proportion of children and young people and a larger proportion of elderly people. The result is that a comparison of crude death rates gives a false picture of Maori mortality as compared with non-Maori.

In the following table, based on 1973 figures, adjustments made to effect a truer comparison show that mortality for Maoris is relatively higher than for non-Maoris; in addition, a comparison is supplied in age-specific rates for the 2 races in each sex (age-specific rates are the number of deaths per 1000 (or per 10000, etc.) of the population in the specified age groups).

Ethnic GroupAll Ages Rates per 10000 Mean PopulationAge-specific Rates per 10000 of Population at Ages
Crude RateMaori Rate Adjusted to Non-Maori PopulationUnder 5 Years5–14 Years15–24 Years25–44 Years45–64 Years65 Years and Over
Males
Maori68.3152.460.16.529.547.3239.0943.1
Non-Maori95.6 44.14.816.917.3127.9741.9
Females
Maori47.0142.637.34.510.333.1178.3738.2
Non-Maori79.0 32.72.45.610.768.0552.5
Both Sexes
Maori57.0149.648.95.520.040.2209.1843.4
Non-Maori87.4 38.53.611.414.197.8632.9

For both Maoris and non-Maoris the death rate in males exceeds the death rate in females by a considerable margin. The following table sets out the number of deaths and the respective crude death rates for each sex separately for the latest 5 years.

 Deaths of MalesDeaths of FemalesTotal DeathsMale Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths
NumberRate*NumberRate*NumberRate*
* Deaths per 1000 of mean population.
197513,8038.9311,3117.3425,1148.14122
197613,9848.9811,4737.3625,4578.17122
197714,3179.1611,6447.4325,9618.30123
197813,6008.7011,0697.0724,6697.88123
197913,9788.9611,4327.3025,4108.13122

Deaths of Maoris, included in these figures, in 1979 totalled 1239, of whom 727 were males and 512 females.

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR—In 1978 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were June, July, and August with totals of 2300,2448, and 2274 respectively. December had the least number of deaths, 1228, followed by February with 1649.

AGES AT DEATH—Deaths registered during the year 1978 are shown according to age in the following table.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
* Excludes adjustments by the National Health Statistics Centre as a result of analysis and collation of registration forms and death certificates.
Under 1*422281703
  1– 49165156
  5– 9564096
10–146836104
15–1923498332
20–2424666312
25–2917470244
30–3413794231
35–39190109299
40–44241183424
45–49444289733
50–546834061089
55–599825481530
60–6414197712190
65–69181610802896
70–74214013773517
75–79181916223441
80–84119316022795
85–8981213582170
90–943507521102
95–9972197269
100 and over112536
        Total13,60011,06924,669

The Maori population is a very young one compared with the non-Maori and as a result there is a considerable variation in the proportions of deaths of Maoris and non-Maoris which take place at various ages. The following table illustrates the position for the year 1978.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total DeathsPercentage of Maori Deaths in Total Deaths per Age Croup
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
Under 57201393.0611.4416.18
  5–14179210.761.7210.50
15–24581632.475.189.78
25–4410221764.3514.4814.69
45–64509844421.7336.548.01
65 and over15,85437267.5930.612.29
                  All ages23,4541215100.00100.004.92

In the following table is given a time series for rates of death per 1000 of mean population by age groups. Health measures have achieved an immense saving of young life and a prolongation of life, especially among elderly women.

YearUnder 1*1451415242534354445545564657475 and Over

* Per 1000 live births in this case.

Non-Maori figures only as Maori at ages not available for these years.

(Rates per 1000 of mean population in each age group)
Males
190178.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59141.67
192153.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17128.60
194143.654.391.362.532.933.959.2021.1347.44140.27
196125.861.340.491.281.472.687.3919.6547.33126.31
197716.910.940.431.971.622.617.3019.0346.80128.75
197816.190.810.391.631.342.497.0818.7345.33114.89
Females
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32127.98
192142.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.81120.23
194137.753.841.201.942.443.506.9015.0438.60118.92
196119.501.160.350.530.871.954.5911.2229.89104.74
197711.370.650.350.710.821.864.7010.2825.7191.91
197811.250.610.250.580.711.734.579.7123.9986.66
Both Sexes
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87135.71
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.90124.84
194139.814.121.282.222.673.728.0218.1643.04129.15
196122.761.250.420.911.182.316.0015.4137.67114.01
197714.210.800.391.351.222.246.0314.5135.38105.34
197813.770.710.321.121.032.115.8514.0933.8197.00

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of the total population by sex is shown in the following table. Prior to 1974 the data relates to the non-Maori population only.

YearMalesFemales
 age (years)
190141.6437.68
192148.4546.97
194158.6559.60
196163.8067.32
197164.7570.04
197462.9068.88
197562.8769.00
197663.7869.54
197763.0669.27
197863.4269.69

The average age of death of Maoris in 1978 was 48.87 and 50.22 years for males and females respectively. The younger age composition of the Maori population is an important factor to be borne in mind.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE—Life tables, depicting the pattern of mortality over the age span of life for particular calendar periods for the non-Maori component of New Zealand's population, have been constructed at regular intervals since 1880. The most recent tables prepared by the Department of Statistics are based on the 1976 population census, together with mortality statistics for 1975–77.*

Life tables contain a measure of the degree of longevity of the population called the “expectation of life”. The expectation of life at any age is the average remaining lifetime for persons of this age, assuming that mortality rates at each age continue at the level shown by the life table. The life expectancy at selected ages at the present time, for the non-Maori population in New Zealand, is shown in the table below. The overall longer span of life enjoyed by females, compared with males, is evident.

* See Life Tables: A Measure of Life Expectancy at the back of this Yearbook. Tables in this section are based on the 1971 population census.

Further details concerning life table methodology and construction and trends in New Zealand life expectancies can be obtained from New Zealand Life Tables 1970–72, obtainable from Government bookshops.

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
  069.0975.16
  169.2775.15
  268.3874.26
  367.4573.31
  466.4972.35
  565.5371.38
1060.6666.49
1555.7861.59
2051.1656.74
2546.5351.89
3041.8047.03
4032.4037.46
5023.5228.37
6015.8219.91
709.8212.48
805.536.76
902.943.29
1001.231.31

The long-term trend since 1880 for non-Maoris has been a steady improvement in life expectancy for both sexes. The improvement has been striking for the younger ages but relatively small for the advanced ages. Progress in medical science, coupled with improved social conditions, has resulted in substantial reductions in mortality for all ages up to middle age. This trend has continued up to 1970–72 for females, but the decline in male mortality between 1965–67 and 1970–72 was not sufficient to offset the increase between 1960–62 and 1965–67, and male life expectancy has not returned to the 1960–62 level. The following table displays the life expectancy for non-Maoris revealed by each life table compiled during the past 60 years for the 3 exact ages of 0, 20, and 60 years.

Life TableLife Expectancy (Years)
Males Aged ExactlyFemales Aged Exactly
0206002060
1911–1560.9647.6115.5463.4849.1416.72
1921–2262.7648.6616.0365.4350.3617.29
1925–2763.9948.9315.7966.5750.9617.23
193165.0449.6116.2267.8851.2817.30
1934–3865.4649.8916.0668.4552.0217.49
1950–5268.2951.1516.1972.4354.6418.53
1955–5768.8851.4416.1973.8855.8719.16
1960–3269.1751.5316.0974.5156.3319.39
1965–6768.6750.8915.8274.8456.4619.68
1970–7269.0951.1615.8275.1656.7419.91

The expectation of life at various ages for the Maori population is shown in the following table. These expectations are taken from New Zealand Life Tables 1970–72.

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
  060.9664.96
  161.5265.58
  260.7964.80
  359.8963.88
  458.9662.94
  558.0261.98
1053.2657.12
2043.9747.54
3035.1538.14
4026.5629.22
5018.9021.14
6012.9614.60
708.729.90
805.045.94

Life expectancy at birth for Maori males decreased by 0.48 years between 1965–67 and 1970–72 while that for Maori females increased by 0.18 years. This is the first time that a decline in Maori male life expectancy has been experienced in the history of Maori life tables—first produced in 1950–52. It can be attributed to increased mortality in most ages resulting from a greater number of fatal accidents and a higher incidence of cancer. A similar decline in life expectancy was experienced by non-Maori males between 1960–62 and 1965–67, while similar trends were evident in some other western countries about this time.

The expectation of life of Maoris is shorter than that of non-Maoris at all except the highest ages. A comparison at age 0 shows that life expectancy is 8.13 years greater for non-Maori males and 10.20 years greater for non-Maori females. For the period 1965–67, the differences were 7.23 years and 10.06 years respectively.

The table below compares the life expectancy at birth for the total population of New Zealand with that for selected overseas countries. Sources: United Nations Demographic Yearbook and Population and Australia.

CountryPeriodLife Expectancy at Birth (Years)
MalesFemales
Australia197268.1974.99
Canada1970–7269.3476.36
Denmark1972–7370.876.3
England and Wales1970–7268.975.1
France197268.674.4
Netherlands197371.277.2
New Zealand1970–7268.5574.60
United States197468.275.9

REGISTRATION OF DEATH, BURIAL, AND CREMATION—Deaths are required to be registered by the funeral director within 3 days after the day of burial. The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Burial and Cremation Act 1974. The registration by local authorities of funeral directors and mortuaries operated by them is provided for in the Health (Burial) Regulations 1946. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision exists for the disposal of the dead. Cremation may be carried out if the deceased is not known to have left any written direction to the contrary.

The rate of cremation for every 100 deaths registered doubled between 1950 and 1970, and has continued to increase. The following table relates cremations to the number of deaths since 1950. Prior to 1970 the statistics concern deaths of non-Maoris only.

YearDeaths RegisteredCremationsRate per 100 Deaths Registered
MalesFemalesTotal
195016,71517991454325319.46
196019,52429582582554028.38
197024,84054184474989239.82
197625,457....11,68745.91
197725,9616712550012,21247.03
197824,6696645546212,10749.07

DEATHS BY CAUSES—The selection of cause of death recommended by the World Health Organisation's International Classification of Diseases is based on the concept of selecting the underlying cause of death.

The certifier's statement largely determines the cause but to obtain more accurate data the nosologists also refer to all autopsy reports received, cancer case registrations, coroners' reports, and hospital case summaries.

Detailed information about causes of death is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre in New Zealand Health Statistics ReportMortality and Demographic Data.

The following table is a summary of causes of death, numbers and rates per million of mean population for the years 1975 to 1977.

Cause of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
797519761977197519761977
Enteritis and other diarrhoeal diseases533135171011
Tuberculosis of respiratory system3225271089
Other tuberculosis including late effects423744141214
Infectious hepatitis171116645
Syphilis and its sequelae352121
All other infective and parasitic diseases937566302421
Malignant neoplasm500751455250162216511679
Benign neoplasm and neoplasm of unspecified nature374340121413
Diseases of thyroid gland252825898
Diabetes mellitus472466426153150136
Avitaminoses and other nutritional deficiency8118343
Anaemia584844191514
Alcoholic psychosis and alcoholism817160262319
Meningitis272917995
Multiple sclerosis1820316610
Paralysis agitans928573302723
Epilepsy29413791312
Chronic rheumatic heart disease240271224788772
Hypertensive disease379344359123110115
Ischaemic heart disease696572407472225623232389
Other forms of heart disease656789818213253262
Cerebrovascular disease32353074316210489861011
Diseases of arteries, arterioles, and capillaries823732673267235215
Acute respiratory infections including influenza152255106498234
Pneumonia888996924288320295
Bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma107211381273347365407
Other diseases of respiratory system239244182777858
Peptic ulcer149154140484945
Appendicitis13106432
Intestinal obstruction and hernia106114105343734
Cirrhosis of liver191150179624857
Diseases of gallbladder655653211817
Nephritis and nephrosis117120112383936
Infections of kidney615582201826
Hyperplasia of prostate355444111714
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and puerperium13610423
Rheumatoid arthritis606263192020
Congenital anomalies3422962911119593
Birth injury, difficult labour, and other anoxic and hypoxic conditions1499798483131
Other causes of perinatal mortality227182175745856
All other diseases812853990263274317
Motor vehicle accidents689663889223213284
All other accidents989948874320304279
Suicide and self-inflicted injury2932913659593117
All other external causes618596202731
                  Total25,11525,45025,966813681678302

PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATH—Heart disease, malignant neoplasms (cancer), and cerebrovascular disease were again the leading causes of death in 1977 (the latest year for which data are available). These 3 causes accounted for approximately 61 percent of all deaths in 1977—ischaemic heart disease accounted for approximately 29 percent of deaths, malignant neoplasms (cancer) for 20 percent, and cerebrovascular disease for 12 percent.

Death rates per million of mean population from leading causes of death are shown in the following table and graph.

Cause of Death1974197519761977
Deaths per million
All heart disease2701264327492815
Malignant neoplasms (cancer)1631162216511679
Cerebrovascular disease113610489861011
Accidental causes553533508548
Pneumonia272288320295

Heart Disease—Heart disease as a group of diseases is still the leading cause of death in New Zealand but death rates from this cause have fallen in recent years. The standardised mortality ratios for all forms of heart disease show that for both sexes the rates have fallen by 7 percent between 1970 and 1977.

The numbers of deaths and standardised mortality ratios for heart disease, excluding acute rheumatic forms and congenital malformations, during recent years are shown below.

YearAll Forms of Heart Disease
MalesFemales
NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*
* Base years 1950–52 = 100.
19654710100339479
1970488699340572
1972478493351570
1973492295336166
1974479591342766
1975484592x331564x
1976501291355464
1977514792365665

The standardised mortality ratio shows the number of deaths registered in the year of experience expressed as a percentage of those which would have been expected in that year had there operated the sex-age mortality of a standard period (the 3 years 1950–52 were chosen). The standardised mortality ratio has been adopted to eliminate the distorting effect of the changes which take place over a period in the age-structure of the population.

Cancer—In New Zealand 1 death in 5 in 1977 was caused by cancer. The cancer crude death rate has increased in each of the latest 5 years for which figures are available from 158.1 per 100000 population in 1973 to 167.9 in 1977.

A detailed report on cancer mortality and morbidity in New Zealand is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. These reports cover mortality from cancer and also survey all cases reported to the National Cancer Registry by hospitals, and by the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the Cancer Society of New Zealand.

A summary of numbers of deaths from cancer, crude death rates, and standardised mortality ratios is provided in the following table.

YearNumber of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100000Standardised Mortality Ratios*Number of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100000Standardised Mortality Ratios*
* Base years 1950–52 = 100.
  Males  Females 
19601724144.31011566132.592
19702436173.01262024143.599
19732567172.31262141143.899
19742682176.11292284150.3103
19752726176.91292281147.6101
19762815180.81302330149.4101
19772848182.31302402153.4102

A classification of cancer deaths during 1977 according to age and sex is shown below. Ninety-two percent of deaths from cancer during 1977 were at 45 years of age or above, and 58 percent were at 65 years of age or above.

Age Group in YearsDeaths of MalesDeaths of Females
NumbersRate per 100000 of Population at Ages GivenPercentage of Total Deaths at Ages GivenNumbersRate per 100000 of Population at Ages GivenPercentage of Total Deaths at Ages Given
* All ages crude rate.
Under 596.31.664.41.6
  5–14216.615.0216.919.4
15–244013.87.0227.911.0
25–4412631.515.414336.528.9
45–64930324.025.9847293.039.9
65 and over17221422.420.01363835.516.3
All ages2848182.3*19.92402153.4*20.6

Cancer of the lung continues to be the major site in male deaths from cancer. Almost 6 percent of all male deaths in 1977 were caused by lung cancer. Breast is the major cancer site in females with more than twice as many females dying from breast cancer as from lung cancer.

The following table shows deaths from cancer (malignant neoplasms) by sex and selected sites, registered in New Zealand during 1976 and 1977.

SiteSexNumbersRates per Million Mean Population
1976197719761977
Buccal cavity and pharynxM50643241
 F27291719
OesophagusM82835353
 F53503432
StomachM244213157136
 F1351268780
Large intestineM238270153173
 F336343215219
RectumM1441479394
 F1291158373
Bronchus, trachea, and lungM844827542529
 F196220126141
BreastM2413
 F447469287300
Cervix uteriF91935859
Corpus uteriF56603638
Ovary, fallopian tube, and broad ligamentF1331518596
ProstateM251270161173
Bladder and other urinary organsM157x149101x95
 F65x7842x50
Skin, all formsM83895357
 F57623740
BrainM84815452
 F44612839
Lymphosarcoma and reticulum-cellsarcomaM43542835
 F43382824
LeukaemiaM1051156774
 F81745247
All other and unspecified sitesM488x482314x309
 F437x433280x277
Total cancer deathsM2815284818081823
 F2330240214941534

Cerebrovascular Disease—Cerebrovascular disease, the third of the principal causes of death in New Zealand, affects mainly the late-middle-aged and the elderly. In 1977, 3162 persons died of the disease. Of these, only 123 were below 50 years of age, and 3039 were 50 years of age or above.

The World Health Organisation defines cerebrovascular disease as follows:

“Cerebrovascular diseases are diseases of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) of vascular origin. The term covers a wide range of clinical manifestations, varying from subarachnoid haemorrhage resulting from a rupture of Berry aneurysm on the one hand to arteriosclerotic Parkinsonism and dementia on the other.”

The incidence of deaths from cerebrovascular disease over a series of years is shown in the following table. After reaching a peak in 1972 the rate declined each year until 1976. The 1977 rate of 1011 per million of mean population is 2 percent higher than the 1976 rate but is probably only a random variation.

YearDeathsRate*
* Rate per million of mean population.
196227291097
196327761092
196427571061
196528751086
196630671143
196728251035
196831101128
196930701104
197032131140
197133101156
197234471182
197335131179
197434581136
197532351048
19763074986
197731621011

INFANT AND PERINATAL MORTALITY—The following table shows New Zealand perinatal mortality numbers and rates for 1976–77. An infant death is defined as a liveborn infant dying before the first year of life is completed. A neonatal death is defined as the death of a liveborn infant before the 28th day of life; a post neonatal death as the death of a liveborn infant between the 28th day and the first year of life.

Perinatal Mortality—Perinatal deaths comprise stillbirths and deaths in the first week of life. The late fetal death (stillbirths) and the perinatal mortality rate are calculated per 1000 total births (still births plus livebirths), while the death rate for neonatal and infant death is calculated per 1000 livebirths.

DeathYearMaoriNon-MaoriTotal Population
No.RateNo.RateNo.Rate
Late fetal1976466.93817.84277.7
 1977476.93697.74167.6
Early neonatal1976639.53116.43746.8
 1977649.43056.43696.8
Perinatal197610916.369214.280114.4
 197711116.267414.178514.4
Neonatal19767110.73657.54367.9
 19777511.13587.64338.0
Post neonatal19767511.32635.43386.1
 19777711.32605.53376.2
Infant197614622.062813.077414.0
 197715222.461813.077014.2

In a review of neonatal and postnatal deaths, issued by Department of Health in November 1976, it was shown that 8 countries, selected on the basis of their having one million or more population and on their reporting of data regarded by World Heath Organisation as complete, had a lower mortality rate than New Zealand. These 8 were Sweden, Finland, Japan, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, France, and Switzerland. The following table shows infant mortality rates for selected countries (including some of the 8) during 1973. The figures represent deaths per 100000 live births.

CountryAge of Child
Under 1 YearUnder 1 Day1 and Under 7 Days7 and Under 28 Days1 Month and Under 1 Year
  Deaths per 100000 Live Births 
Sweden98533734896203
Japan1132214367159392
Netherlands1153277451118306
France125899460221478
New Zealand1620538319120642
Australia1649694364124468
England and Wales1688552400161574
United States1772722421153476

Source: World Health Statistics Annual.

The following diagram illustrates infant mortality rates in New Zealand.

Causes of Infant Mortality—Deaths from the principal causes of infant mortality, and the rate per 1000 live births, are shown for the latest available 3 years in the following table.

Cause of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per 1000 Live Births
197519761977197519761977
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis111103982.01.91.8
Gastro-enteritis, diarrhoea, also dysentery151390.30.20.2
Congenital anomalies2141861853.83.43.4
Neonatal disorders arising from certain diseases of the mother5732341.00.60.6
Birth injury, difficult labour, and other anoxic and hypoxic conditions4434300.80.60.6
Asphyxia of newborn unspecified3920210.70.40.4
Haemolytic disease of newborn8740.10.10.1
Hyaline membrane disease3723190.70.40.4
Immaturity and multiple pregnancy5856601.01.01.1
All other causes3243003105.75.45.7
Total infant deaths90777477016.014.014.2

MATERNAL DEATHS—The Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968 defines a maternal death as “a death that occurs during pregnancy or within a period of 3 months after the date of termination of a pregnancy”. Deaths from complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium numbered 10 in 1977 with a rate of 1.8 per 10000 live births. Deaths occurring during pregnancy or within 3 months of delivery but not due to complications of pregnancy or childbirth or the puerperium numbered 12 in 1977 with a rate of 2.2 per 10000 live births.

DEATHS OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN—Recent Yearbooks have included a review of mortality rates among children aged 1 to 4 years in New Zealand and in selected overseas countries. New Zealand's ranking has been disappointingly low. A review based on 1974 data gave New Zealand's age-specific mortality rate for children aged 1–4 as 83 per 100000 compared with (for example) 44 per 100000 in Sweden, 65 per 100000 in England and Wales, and 74 per 100000 in the United States.

The main cause for New Zealand's poor showing is the relatively high rate of mortality among pre-schoolers from accidents and violence, especially motor-vehicle accidents and drowning. In 1974 New Zealand's mortality rate from accidents and violence among 1–4 year-old children approached 3 times the Swedish rate and was more than twice the rate in England and Wales. Various explanations have been attempted, but the fact remains that New Zealand pre-schoolers are at higher risk of accidental death than pre-schoolers in many other countries with similar standards of living.

The following table shows the number of deaths of pre-school children from accidents and violence in New Zealand during 1977. The leading causes, accounting for 48 of the 84 deaths, were accidents involving motor vehicles and drowning.

Causes of DeathSexAges (In Years)Total
1234
Motor vehiclesM217515
 F234514
DrowningM351413
 F3126
HomicideM11125
 F213
FireM213
 F213
FallM1113
Mechanical suffocationM112
 F11
PoisoningM112
Struck by falling objectM112
MachineryM112
Water transportM11
Hit by trainF11
Kicked by horseF11
LandslideM11
Inhalation of stomach contentsM11
Caught between objectsF11
Piercing objectF11
ScaldsF11
Electric currentF11
Late effect of fallF11
                  TotalM912131650
 F1179734
 Total2019222384

DEATHS AMONG TOTAL POPULATION FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES—Accidents, poisonings, and violence caused approximately 8 percent of the total deaths in each of the years 1975 to 1977.

The following table shows deaths from external causes for the latest 3 years. In this table, falls on board ship and from horseback are classified as transport accidents.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
197519761977197519761977

* Includes drowning from water transport.

Figures not comparable with 1970–1975 because of amendments to classification procedure.

Motor-vehicle accidents689663889223213284
Other transport accidents416047131915
Accidental poisoning44312514108
Accidental falls496437402161140129
Accidents caused by machinery36293512911
Accidents caused by fire and explosion of combustible material484344161414
Accidents caused by firearms10711324
Accidental drowning and submersion*121161135395243
Suicide and self-inflicted injury2932913659593117
Homicide313355101118
All other external causes223232216727469
Total deaths from accidents, poisoning, or violence203219872224658638711

Procedural Change in 1977—The number of deaths as a result of accidents involving motor vehicles increased sharply from 663 in 1976 to 889 in 1977, an increase of 34 percent. This increase in registrations can be attributed to changes in registration procedures introduced by the Registrar-General's office in 1977. Prior to 1977, the registration of deaths referred to coroners for investigation was delayed until all investigations were completed. In 1977 this practice was amended to permit interim registration pending the outcome of coroners' investigations. The numbers of deaths registered as being due to other accidental or violent causes are also increased as a result of this procedural change. It is expected that 1978 mortality data will show a pattern more comparable with 1976.

An analysis of deaths registered during 1977 by the principal external causes and by sex and age group is given in the following table and in the notes following it.

Age Group (In Years)Motor Vehicle AccidentsAccidental DrowningsAccidental PoisoningsAccidental Falls
MFMFMFMF
Under 1543393112291
15–243017721431135
25–349527161319
35–4442191413552
45–5451189182
55–64322510111210
65–743333931720
75 and over3321312280209
Total630259113221411153249
Age GroupSuicide and Self-inflicted InjuryHomicideAll Accidents, Poisonings, and Violence*
MFMFMF
* Includes causes other than those shown in table.
Under 151191113484
15–24591195451112
25–3452224221960
35–4438215214155
45–5445142113738
55–6426222112170
65–7418132-9598
75 and over175--148261
                Total25610933221446778

Accidental Drowning—During 1976 a review of classification procedures in use at the National Health Statistics Centre was held. This resulted in slight modifications to the coding guidelines for causes such as accidental deaths from falls and drowning. It was decided to give greater weight to drowning. The 1976 and subsequent figures reflect this decision. It is likely that figures of drownings were a little understated for 1970–1975.

Accidental Falls—There were 402 deaths from accidental falls in 1977. This is one accident area in which the total female mortality exceeds the male. However, as shown in the preceding table, there is an excess of male deaths over female deaths in each age group under 65 years. At 65 years of age and above the higher life expectancy of females ensures that more elderly women than elderly men are exposed to the risk of fatal falls.

In 1977 the home was the place of occurrence of 42 percent of fatal accidental falls and, in fact, falls are the chief cause of death in home accidents.

Site of Non-transport Accidents—The place of occurrence of fatal non-transport accidents (excluding surgical and medical misadventure and late effects of accidental injury) is shown in the following table. As mentioned previously, falls are the chief cause of accidental fatalities in the home, exacting a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. Accidents occurring at home and in residential institutions (rest homes, hospitals, etc.) accounted for 59 percent of all fatal non-transport accidents in the 3-year period 1975 to 1977.

Place of OccurrenceNumberRate per Million of Mean Population
197519761977197519761977
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)39535629412811494
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises493036161012
Mine and quarry285132
Industrial place and premises403536131112
Place for recreation and sport11107432
Street and highway192916695
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)151616555
Residential institution (homes, hospitals, etc.)150141144494546
Other specified places149138142484445
Place not specified777472252423
Total907837768294269246

Approximately 38 percent of fatal non-transport accidents occurred in or about the home.

Water Accidents by Location—The following table, prepared by the New Zealand Water Safety Council, shows drownings by location and age group during the year ended March 1979.

LocationAge in Years
Under 55–1011–1516–2021–3031–4041–5051–60Over 60Total
* Includes 1 of unspecified age.
Rivers, streams, and other running water74468322339
Seas and beaches1324613-122*
Harbours----211-26
Lakes11-2-----4
Swimming pools—
    Private8--------8
    Hotel/motel-1-------1
    Hospital------1--1
Farm dam and pond2--------2
Household drain and rubbish hole2--------2
Pools and ponds1--------1
Fish pond1--------1
Home bath1--------1
Bucket1--------1
Quarry pool-1-------1
Boating accidents—
    Rivers-1--23-1-7
    Seas1-112425-16
    Harbours---1-2-1-4
    Farm lagoon-----1---1
                Total26117142015996118*

4 D—MARRIAGES

GENERAL—Marriage may be solemnised in New Zealand either by a celebrant included in the list of marriage celebrants under the Marriage Act 1955, or before a duly appointed registrar or deputy registrar of marriages. A licence must be obtained from a registrar of marriages before a marriage by a marriage celebrant can be solemnised. Marriage by a marriage celebrant may be solemnised at any time between 6 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a registrar can be solemnised at any time during the hours the office of the registrar is open for the transactions of public business; notice of intended marriage must be given to a registrar of marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage.

The Marriage Amendment Act 1976 extended the right of solemnising marriages to nominated members of approved organisations of a non-religious character. Justices of the Peace may also be nominated to act as marriage celebrants.

In the case of a person under 20 years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parents or guardian is necessary. Consent of a District Court judge may be sought in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

Since 1933 the minimum age for marriage has been 16 years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to be void, however, by reason only of an infringement of the minimum age.

Since 1 April 1952 it has been required under the Maori Purposes Act 1951 that every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be solemnised in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a non-Maori.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The numbers of marriages and rates during recent years are shown below. The marriage rate, like the birth rate, has been declining in recent years.

YearNumberRate per 1000 of Population
197425,4128.38
197524,5357.95
197624,1547.75
197722,5897.22
197822,4267.17
197922,3327.14

Comparison with Other Countries—Marriage rates for certain countries for 1978 are given below (Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.)

CountryRate per 1000 of Mean Population
* 1977.
Australia7.2
Belgium6.8
Canada7.9
France6.6
West Germany5.4
Italy6.1
Japan7.3*
Netherlands6.4
New Zealand7.2
Sweden4.6
United Kingdom7.3*
United States10.3

MARITAL STATUS PRIOR TO MARRIAGE—The following table gives marital status prior to marriage for the latest available 5 years.

YearSingleWidowedDivorcedTotal Persons Married
BridegroomBrideBridegroomBrideBridegroomBride
197421,70521,96297210352735241550,824
197520,86320,9658909582782261249,070
197620,06120,23794110213152289648,308
197718,32918,66198310363277289245,178
197818,20618,3838429193378312444,852

The nature of the marriage according to the marital status of persons prior to marriage is given next.

YearMarriages Between Bachelors andMarriages Between Widowers andMarriages Between Divorced Men and
SpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced Women
197420,346250110922349525413932901052
197519,338250127517843627614492721061
197618,470256133518845429915793111262
197716,875195125918850229315983391340
197816,607215138415340828116232961459

In the period 1974–78 more male divorcees than female divorcees remarried.

Forty years ago during the 1938–40 period, remarriages of widows totalled only 67 to every 100 remarriages of widowers. In the changed social climate of 1974–78, 107 widows remarried to every 100 widowers who did so.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED—Until recently, the proportion of minors among persons marrying had been increasing over a fairly long period of years but it is now declining slightly. On 1 January 1971 the age of majority was lowered from 21 to 20 years of age. In 1978, 1 bride in every 4 was under 20 years of age, the proportion of grooms being 1 in 19.

Of the persons married in 1978, 6346 or 14.15 percent were under 20 years of age; 20831 or 46.44 percent were returned as 20–24 years; 8282 or 18.46 percent as 25–29 years; 5180 or 11.54 percent as 30–39 years; and 4213 or 9.39 percent as 40 years of age and over.

The following table relates to the 1978 calendar year.

Age of Bridegroom, in YearsAge of Bride, in YearsTotal Bridegrooms
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and Over
Under 20902262122---1178
20–243553625056378174210,467
25–2957529171331318641665227
30–3410768169339612934142054
35–392215927929717460381029
40–446539513615310660609
45 and over3428213320022711751862
Total brides516810,36430551360737447129522,426

The following table shows the percentage distribution by age group of every 100 males and females marrying. It refers to the 5-year period 1965–69 and to recent individual years.

PeriodUnder 20*20–24*25–2930–3435–3940–4445 and OverTotal
* Under 21 and 21–24 respectively before 1971.
Males
1965–6915.2344.7921.246.313.462.346.63100.0
19757.6648.9922.427.243.642.347.71100.0
19766.1648.2223.427.803.902.408.10100.0
19775.4747.1722.938.874.152.708.68100.0
19785.2546.6823.319.164.592.728.30100.0
Females
1965–6945.3333.629.083.052.101.815.01100.0
197529.2643.9312.524.732.401.845.32100.0
197626.9344.3813.414.922.791.925.66100.0
197724.6944.8613.535.713.081.986.12100.0
197823.0546.2113.626.063.291.995.78100.0

The average ages (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females are shown in the following table.

YearAverage Age at Marriage
BridegroomsBrides
197326.5423.68
197426.7823.94
197527.0524.16
197627.4524.52
197727.9024.93
197827.8724.95

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the latest 5 years according to marital status were as shown in the next table.

YearBridegroomsBrides
BachelorsDivorcedWidowersSpinstersDivorcedWidows
Age in Years
197423.8439.1557.4521.4435.0651.04
197524.2138.7856.7321.5935.0950.54
197624.2938.5957.4321.7034.9050.93
197724.3438.8557.7021.9134.8151.78
197824.5138.5857.7421.9434.9451.17

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or most popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides in 1978 was 20 years. In the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied and for recent years it has been 21 to 24; in 1978 it was 22 years.

Marriages of Minors—Of every 1000 men who married in 1978, 53 were under 20 years of age, while 230 in every 1000 brides were under 20. Since 1 January 1971 the age of majority has been 20 years. In 902 marriages in 1978 both parties were given as under 20 years of age, in 4266 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 276 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

As already stated, the proportion of minors among persons marrying now appears to be levelling off or even falling. The main reason for this is the changing age structure of the population, with a slowly diminishing proportion consisting of minors of marriageable age.

In the table below figures are given for the last 5 years.

YearAge in YearsTotal Minors and 20-Year-olds
161718192016–20 Years16–19 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16–20 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16–19 Years
Bridegrooms
197431191627126424254538211317.868.31
197537164542113722074087188016.667,66
19761211339097219923479148714.406.16
1977179033679317272963123613.115.47
1978157430878116062784117812.415.25
Brides
1974611128125833577366711,719805246.1231.69
1975495115222523279347010,648717843.4029.26
19763879492032313633819885650440.9226.93
19772787181831275230838662557938.3424.69
19782446861661257730378205516836.5823.04

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES—Of the 22426 marriages performed in 1978, Anglican clergymen officiated at 4637, Presbyterian at 4419, Roman Catholic at 2807, Methodist at 1363, and clergymen of other churches at 4304, while 4896 marriages were solemnised by registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of manages by ministers of the largest churches and before registrars in each of the 6 latest years.

ChurchPercentage of Marriages
197319741975197619771978
* Including marriage celebrants other than ministers of religion.
Anglican24.4523.7722.6222.5222.3220.68
Presbyterian21.7321.4521.4921.7620.9419.71
Roman Catholic14.7814.3513.6813.4813.0612.52
Methodist7.226.896.716.526,846.08
Others*7.788.359.229.4712.5919.18
Before registrars24.0425.1926.2826.2524.2521.83
                Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population at the 1976 Census of Population, 29.2 percent were recorded as adherents of the Anglican Church, 18.1 percent Presbyterian, 15.3 percent Roman Catholic, 5.5 percent Methodist, 18.5 percent were of no religion, or objected to stating their religious profession, or did not specify any religious profession.

NUMBER OF MARRIAGE CELEBRANTS—The number of names on the list of marriage celebrants under the Marriage Act was 5082 at 1 April 1979. The principal churches to which they belonged are shown hereunder.

ChurchNumber
* Includes Justices of the Peace and members of approved organisations nominated to act as marriage celebrants.
Roman Catholic Church881
Anglican (Church of England)803
Presbyterian Church of N.Z.699
Methodist Church of N.Z.351
Salvation Army272
Baptist271
Latter Day Saints182
Brethren164
Ratana Church of N.Z.151
Jehovah's Witness131
Assemblies of God98
Ringatu Church82
Associated Churches of Christ53
Seventh Day Adventist49
Apostolic Church44
Congregational Church of Samoa23
Liberal Catholic Church20
United Pentecostal Church18
Other religious bodies456
Other334*
                Total5082

DIVORCE—A petition for divorce may be presented to the High Court on one or more of several grounds, which include adultery, desertion, separation by agreement for not less than 2 years, separation by decree of separation or separation order for not less than 2 years, and the parties living apart for 4 years and not likely to be reconciled. Where the parties are separated or living apart one of the parties must have been resident in New Zealand for at least 2 years immediately preceding the filing of the petition. The Court is required to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation of the parties to the marriage.

Petitions filed for dissolution or nullity of marriage and decrees granted by the High Court in recent years are shown in the following table.

YearPetitions FiledDecree NisiDecrees Absolute
Number GrantedRate per 100 Marriages During YearRate per 10000 of Mean Population
* Provisional.
197562305398476119.4115.42
197661535615540122.3617.33
197762655488538123.8217.20
197866586014577225.4918.45
197968606270610127.32*19.53*

The next table gives the grounds of petitions and decrees during the 2 years, 1978 and 1979.

GroundPetitions FiledDecrees Absolute Granted
Husbands' PetitionsWives' PetitionsHusbands' PetitionsWives' Petitions
19781979197819791978197919781979
Adultery596540550473570509475443
Desertion8873957096718782
Separation by agreement16951819169418861512164014451641
Separation by Court Order524540709763366432580641
Having lived apart for 4 years or more316342346327311302301308
Non-consummation1081661110712
Other331610-2118
                Total32323325342635352866296629063135

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year. A decree nisi normally applies for at least 3 months before a decree absolute is granted.

For all years up to and including 1976, living issue of marriage of divorcing couples were tabulated. New procedures effective from 1 January 1977 defined “children” as all children of the family who are under the age of 18 at the date of decree absolute, whether or not they are children of the husband or wife. Thus all legitimised and adopted children are included, and the statistics show only those children of an age to be dependent upon parents.

The following table shows the duration of marriage by ages of husbands and wives at the time of marriage, for cases in which decrees absolute were granted in 1979.

Duration of Marriage (in Years)Age (in Years) at Marriage
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and Over (including Not Stated)Total
  Husbands (All Petitions)    
Under 5442058218201136416
  5–9283106829010338381101930
10–14174794216653916711375
15–198950618264341221908
20 and over658243951212711291472
                Total65533971165371158882676101
Duration of Marriage (in Years)Age (in Years) at Marriage
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and Over (including Not Stated)Total
  Wives (All Petitions)    
Under 51661355314121026416
  5–9852738136633926761930
10–1463653675271916461375
15–19350426672915516908
20 and over48174815348149191472
                Total2485258350418199661836101

Dissolution of a Voidable Marriage—A decree of dissolution of a voidable marriage puts an end to the marriage from the date of the decree. On average there are only about 20 such decrees in New Zealand each year. The principal ground is non-consummation.

MARRIAGE GUIDANCE—A National Marriage Guidance Council was established in 1950 as a voluntary agency to assist with social problems arising from unhappy or maladjusted marriages. From 1959 until 1968 an adviser in marriage guidance was attached to the staff of the Department of Justice. An advisory committee was also set up to keep the Government informed and to organise, with the assistance of appropriate professional groups, a programme for the selection, training, and accrediting of voluntary marriage counsellors. Although the training system is kept under constant review, the procedures followed have become well established and administration has now been taken over largely by the national council with the support and advice of the department. The National Marriage Guidance Council's work over the past 5 years has included the provision of educational services in the field of marriage and family life. Over 154 tutors have been trained to lead courses in the community on such topics as marriage enrichment, parent education, human relations and communication.

The 24 councils affiliated to the National Marriage Guidance Council provide counselling centres staffed by 231 accredited counsellors. During the past year these people provided skilled professional assistance to 4893 couples who approached the service on their own initiative and in addition assisted the Courts by serving as conciliators under the Domestic Proceedings Act. They dealt with 2089 cases in this way. All in all, 22674 counselling interviews were provided during the year.

The National Marriage Guidance Council employs a full-time director to organise and co-ordinate the work of affiliated councils. At the local level the work of 559 trained volunteers in the fields of counselling and marriage education is supported and co-ordinated by 8 full-time and 5 part-time directors, 4 visiting supervisors, and 38 receptionists or secretaries. The 4 visiting supervisors mentioned above represent an important extension of marriage counselling services into provincial towns. Supervisors from neighbouring councils are funded 1 day a fortnight to travel to smaller centres in order to stimulate and supervise the development of local volunteers. This has the effect of placing professional services in marriage education, counselling, and conciliation services closer to the people in rural communities.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on vital statistics will be found in the following publications.

Department of Statistics publications—
    Vital Statistics (Annual).
    Monthly Abstract of Statistics.
    Family Statistics of New Zealand 1978 (Bulletin, 1978).
    New Zealand Children 1979 (Bulletin, 1979).
    Justice Statistics 1978: Divorce and Domestic Proceedings (Bulletin, 1979).
    Life Tables 1975–77 (1979).
    Demographic Bulletin.
    Social Trends in New Zealand (1977).
    New Zealand Males and Females: A Statistical Comparison (Bulletin, 1980).
Department of Health publications—
    Trends in Health and Health Services (3-yearly).
    Mortality and Demographic Data (Annual).
    Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data (Annual).
    Cancer Data (Annual).
Department of Health Special Report Series—
    Infant and Foetal Loss in New Zealand (1964).
    Occupational Mortality Among Male Population Other than Maori, 20 to 64 Years of Age (1967).
    Maori-European Comparisons in Mortality (1972).
    Cancer of the Lung in New Zealand (1973).
    Bibliography of the Epidemiology of New Zealand and its Island Territories (1969).
    Diseases of the Ear, Nose, and Throat in Maori Children (1965).
    Trends in Notifiable Disease (1964).
    Domestic Accidents (1970).
    Lung Function and Chronic Bronchitis in New Zealand (1978).
    Perinatal Mortality in New Zealand, 1972–73 (1977).
Parliamentary papers—
    The Public Health (Annual report of the Department of Health, Parl. paper E. 10).
    Report of the Department of Social Welfare (Parl. paper E. 12).

Chapter 5. section 5 HEALTH AND HOSPITALS

5 A—HEALTH AND MEDICAL SERVICES

The nation's health services are the responsibility of a partnership of Central and local government, private medical practitioners, para-medical workers, charitable and religious organisations and private citizens, with the Central Government providing encouragement, financial assistance and incentives, and assuming final responsibility. This has been a deliberate policy of successive Governments, although emphases have varied from time to time according to political and economic conditions and demands for specific services. Growing urbanisation and industrialisation, with consequent intensification of the problems of pollution of water, air, and land, have in recent years resulted in an increased emphasis on the importance of environmental health.

Public health services have to do with environmental health, communicable diseases and quarantine, occupational health and toxicology, radiation protection, food and nutrition, health education, family health, dental services and certain aspects of nursing. In the case of environmental health the concern of the Department of Health and local authorities is with matters such as the provision and protection of public water supplies, sewage treatment and disposal, food hygiene, and housing standards. Its objectives are the maintenance of a healthy environment by the application of the principles of preventive medicine.

ADMINISTRATION—The functions of local authorities are defined by statute and regulation. Elected local authorities must appoint a sufficient number of health inspectors qualified under the Health Inspectors Qualifications Regulations 1975. Where a local authority is too small to need a separate, full-time inspector, the Act permits two or more to combine to share the cost. In some smaller sparsely-populated districts where a local authority does not employ its own inspector, the departmental inspectors of health do the work and the authority pays for it. Only 25 percent of inspectors are employed by the department.

In each of the 18 health districts, the medical officer of health, who is a medical practitioner with special qualifications in public health, is the adviser to all local authorities in his district; in some cases his approval is required before action can be taken by a local authority, and in others he is the first line of appeal against its decisions. He is required to keep the Director-General of Health and the Board of Health informed of local authority deficiencies in their responsibilities under the Health Act.

Diseases which are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 must be notified by doctors and hospitals to the medical officer of health who is responsible for control measures; within this area the local authority health inspector is subject to his direct supervision and control. New programmes of immunisation are undertaken by the department and, when established, vaccines are provided free to general practitioners who are encouraged in this work. Quarantine arrangements for both aircraft and ships comply with obligations under the International Health Regulations. Medical officers of health administer this service. The broad objective is the control of communicable and chronic diseases in man and the keeping of New Zealand free of quarantinable diseases.

Accident prevention and the health of industrial and agricultural workers is the care of the Department of Health in conjunction with the Department of Labour. The aim is to prevent occupational disease, control toxic hazards, raise standards of first-aid services, and ensure the safe use of agricultural chemicals. Food and nutrition standards aimed at protecting the consumer are laid down. An extensive programme, backed by legislation, governs the packaging, labelling, storage, and sale of poisons. Special environmental problems, such as radiation protection, occupational health, and atmosphere pollution, are also the responsibility of the Department of Health.

The objectives of health education programmes are to increase understanding of the value of health, to inform people of health services available, and to equip them with knowledge and skills they can use to solve health problems.

Family health responsibilities include medical and nursing supervision of infant, pre-school, and school children; the inspection of schools and child care centres; and the immunisation of infants against poliomyelitis, etc.

A dental service, directed by dental officers and staffed by dental nurses, provides regular dental treatment for all pre-school, primary and intermediate school children. Arrangements with private dental practitioners ensure similar treatment for adolescents up to the age of 16 years and for dependants up to the age of 18 years. Dental health education is also undertaken.

The Department of Health is responsible for the organisation and control of nursing services to the public in general; in hospitals (public or private); in homes for the aged, incapacitated, or infirm; and in any other places where the Department of Health has responsibility. Considerable delegation has taken place, mainly to hospital boards whose chief nursing officer is responsible to the chief medical officer for the administration of the services provided. The department keeps its nursing services and those provided by hospital boards under continuous review. Basic nursing education is provided in 26 hospital schools of nursing and 8 technical institutes. Formal post-basic nursing education at diploma/degree level is available from Victoria and Massey Universities, and 4 technical institutes have post-basic diploma courses. Short post-basic courses in learning and teaching are available from 2 teachers' colleges, and similar short courses in community health nursing are available from 4 technical institutes. “Bridging” courses to enable registered nurses to gain comprehensive registration are available from 2 technical institutes.

Within its public health nursing service, the department employs nearly 500 qualified nurses. Their work includes supervising the health of babies and small children, taking part in child health (including health education) programmes, providing a service to small industries and people in “at risk” occupations, taking part in disease control programmes, and assisting elderly people and people with mental health problems.

The Department of Health works closely with and seeks the advice and help of boards, committees, and councils such as the Board of Health, the Medical Research, Dental, Hospitals Advisory, Pharmacy, Nursing, and Radiation Protection Advisory Councils, the Hospital Works, and Medical Services Advisory Committees, and the Dietitians, Physiotherapy, Occupational Therapy, Opticians, and Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Boards. In all, officers of the department serve on over 100 boards, committees, and other organisations concerned with health.

In addition, there are very close working relationships with professional and other associations, voluntary health and welfare agencies, the universities, and other Government departments.

The department is responsible for the administration of a number of Acts dealing with health and social welfare. These will be found listed under Public General Acts in the Official section of this Yearbook.

Expenditure of the Department of Health in the 3 latest years is given in the following table.

Activity Programme1976–771977–781978–79

* Mostly grants to hospital boards.

From 1 April 1978 all expenditure is funded from Consolidated Account.

From 1 April 1978 combined with public health and environmental protection and medical and pharmaceutical services.

  $(000) 
Administrative services4,6805,5106,865
Dental services18,22119,76421,609
Hospital services*481,301572,701703,135
Family health services8,9089,667-
Medical research3,2834,0204,342
Medical and pharmaceutical services136,357153,580190,326
Public health and environmental protection21,78927,49232,643
Welfare services6,5606,4558,383
Data processing services4,6867,1237,447
Funded from Consolidated Revenue Account.685,785806,312974,750
Psychiatric hospital buildings4,3303,1685,090
Public buildings construction3452521,210
Funded from Works and Trading Account4,6753,4206,300
                Total690,460809,732981,050
                Less departmental receipts1,3541,2791,086
                Net expenditure689,106808,453979,964

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH: Local Authority Control—The provision and proper maintenance of public water supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, and the hygiene of premises including eating houses in which food is manufactured and sold, are primarily the responsibility of local authorities, but the Department of Health exercises general supervision. In the case of some of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental inspectors on behalf of, and by arrangement with, the local authority. The department undertakes the basic training of health inspectors employed by local authorities and conducts specialist and refresher courses for them.

Department of Health Control—The objectives of the Department of Health in environmental health control are: (a) to create and maintain a healthy environment for the general public by the application of the principles of preventive medicine and the administration of legislation directly and indirectly related to this end: (b) to control air pollution; (c) to provide scientific services and undertake research on all aspects of the use of ionising radiation with special emphasis on the medical applications and public health aspects. To monitor public exposure to radiation from all sources and to take action to reduce this where necessary. To promote general understanding of the nature of the hazards involved in radiation exposure in their current perspective; and (d) to conserve hearing and detect its early deterioration.

Environmental Noise Control—The Department of Health's long-standing responsibilities in the field of occupational noise control have in recent years been extended to environmental noise control. District offices, together with the National Acoustics Centre, have undertaken a number of noise surveys for local authorities, and have also advised some of the larger local bodies on conducting their own noise surveys. Training courses dealing with the fundamentals of noise measurement and control have been conducted, and a programme of monitoring has been started where the noise climate in selected cities and towns is being surveyed.

The National Acoustics Centre offers a complete noise data analysis system whereby any local authority, district office, or consultant can have noise tapes promptly analysed.

Air Pollution Control—Air pollution, once accepted as the natural accompaniment of city dwelling and industrial production, is now recognised as a health problem. The Clean Air Act 1972 provides for the control of existing and potential sources of air pollution. It places considerable emphasis on cooperation between Central Government, local authorities, industry, and the public, and in effect places on the occupier of any premises an obligation to keep air pollution to a minimum. Under the Act, the Clean Air Council was set up to give advice, co-ordinate activities, promote research and evaluate control equipment, and publish reports, advice and information on the prevention and control of air pollution.

A wide range of industrial processes are required to be licensed and are subject to supervision.

The first clean air zone under the Act has been established in Christchurch. A 3-year study of air pollution in Christchurch showed that the main source of smoke pollution is still the domestic fire, although motor vehicle emissions are an increasingly significant pollutant. This is particularly so where photochemical smog (which has been detected in Auckland and Christchurch) is concerned.

CONTROL OF DRUGS—The definitions of “drug” in the Food and Drug Act 1969 established groups to which differing provisions apply. Therapeutic drugs, that is, those substances or mixtures whether used internally or externally for the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of any illness or injury of the human body or for modifying any physiological process or desires or emotions, and chemical contraceptives are required, before being introduced commercially, to be “acceptable”, according to a procedure under the Food and Drug Act 1969. No new therapeutic drug may be distributed in New Zealand without the consent of the Minister of Health, under sections 12 and 13 of the Act.

This Act also requires that any drug which has been changed in any way, in use, strength, or labelling must not be distributed until 90 days after notice of the change has been given to the Director-General of Health, who may consent to earlier distribution of a changed drug if he is satisfied of the drug's safety. If the Director-General considers the change to be of such character or degree that the drug ought not to be distributed without the consent of the Minister, the drug is referred to the Minister and may not be distributed until the Minister's specific consent has been obtained. A therapeutic drug is also restricted to sale from pharmacies only, unless special authority is given for general distribution in a schedule to the Therapeutic Drugs (Permitted Sales) Regulations 1978.

A cosmetic, dentifrice, detergent, disinfectant, or antiseptic does not have to be “cleared” for marketing unless claims in labelling or advertising bring it within the definition of a “therapeutic drug”.

The Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any drug intended for sale. Measures provide for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where drugs are manufactured or packed. Control over medical advertisements is also incorporated in this legislation.

Under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964, certain drugs may not be sold to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. This legislation also requires specific warning statements to be included in the labelling of certain drugs such as the antihistamines, aspirin, phenacetin, paracetamol, and hexachlorophane.

Controlled Drugs—Under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 the import, export, cultivation, production, possession, distribution, supply, and administration of a wide range of narcotic and other drugs is strictly controlled. Except for medical practitioners, dentists, pharmacists, veterinary surgeons, those having the care of patients being lawfully supplied with drugs, the patients themselves, and other specified persons, or those who have been issued with a licence under the Act, the procuration, manufacture, possession, consumption, supply, or offer to supply controlled drugs is a serious offence.

Controlled drugs are divided into three classes. The heaviest penalties are for offences involving drugs in Class A, which include heroin, lysergide, desomorphine, and cantharidin. Offences involving the possession or use of drugs in Class C, which include cannabis plants, fruit, and seeds, are to be punished with fines but not by imprisonment unless by reason of previous convictions or exceptional circumstances.

Illegal dealing in controlled drugs is subject to heavy penalties.

To curb drug abuse, the Departments of Health, Customs, and Police jointly set up a National Drug Intelligence Bureau in 1972.

FOOD AND NUTRITION—The Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any articles of food or drink which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food intended for sale. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where food is manufactured or packed. Regulations lay down minimum standards for many classes of food, control additives of all kinds, and deal with labelling of food packages. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with food. Regular sampling of foods is undertaken by departmental inspectors and the samples are analysed in the Chemistry Division (DSIR) or its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity whereby a purchaser of any food would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of that food, whether or not it is standardised by regulations.

A Food Standards Committee, composed of highly qualified persons, meets regularly to discuss the latest technical advances in food production and to make appropriate recommendations for amendments to the legislation.

The nutrition section of the Department of Health provides advice on nutrition and dietetics to dietary departments of hospitals, and food service departments of welfare and other institutions. It is responsible for nutrition education programmes and provides a nutrition information service for Government departments, organisations concerned with production and marketing of food, and the public. The section also carries out dietary research projects, generally in liaison with medical research teams concerned with nutrition research.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY—Since 1957 medical officers of health have had responsibility for occupational health. The objective of the occupational health programmes is to work with labour, management, the medical profession, and other groups to assist in improving the health of workers.

The Department of Labour, which is responsible for accident prevention, hours of work, employment of women, and children etc., calls to the attention of the Department of Health any health problems which factory inspectors may encounter. The Factories Act 1946 gives to medical officers of health or other authorised officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authority as inspectors of factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Act. The suspension of workers on health grounds, approval of respirators and similar protective equipment and the arrangements for medical examinations are undertaken by the Department of Health. A series of regulations deal with hazards, many of them being administered by the two departments, each in its own sphere.

A similar understanding has been established with the Waterfront Industry Commission and New Zealand Railways, and illustrates the general pattern of arrangements between the Department of Health and other Government departments. An occupational health laboratory was established at Wellington in 1964. Teams of specialist doctors, nurses, and scientists reinforce the usual staff available to medical officers of health to investigate particular occupational health problems occurring in districts. These teams also study problems arising in industries, such as forestry, which are to be found throughout the country.

Occupational Diseases—The notifiable occupational diseases are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 and details of diseases notified are published annually in the report of the Director-General of Health.

Commercial, Household, and Agricultural Poisons—The advertising, distribution, use, labelling, and packing of all poisons and toxic substances are controlled under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964. A manufacturer or importer must notify the Registrar of Poisons before importing or putting on the market any new substance which might be toxic, be it a chemical, household preparation, cosmetic, or drug. Special safeguards are provided for certain hazardous chemicals, used in agriculture or horticulture. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. Labels for “Restricted Poisons” must bear statements of the precautions to be taken in use, the symptoms of poisoning and the remedial treatment, and must be approved by the Registrar of Poisons.

In 1979 the Toxic Substances Act was passed. This will replace the Poisons Act and will come into force after the Toxic Substances Regulations have been promulgated.

Control of Health Hazards—An increasing number of specific health hazards are formally controlled, namely: lead processes, electroplating; spray painting, sand blasting (siliceous blasting agents in factories are prohibited), fumigation, aerial application of poisons (where, in conjunction with the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport, a special rating is required by pilots), and agricultural chemicals. A number of other specific hazards are currently receiving consideration.

Medical, Nursing, and First-aid Services—Minimal first-aid requirements have been laid down by the Department of Health, which generally endeavours to encourage both the development of medical and nursing services and the raising of first-aid standards throughout industry generally. While there are no statutory obligations on industry to provide medical and nursing services, an increasing number of factories do provide such services. To meet the needs of small plants the department has developed occupational health centres with financial support from the Waterfront Industry Commission in the case of harbour areas, and the Accident Compensation Commission in the case of general industry.

Pre-employment Examinations—Pre-employment medical examinations are required for young workers before entering factory employment.

National Acoustics Centre—The National Acoustics Centre assists with the early detection of deafness and conservation of hearing. The centre conducts and promotes research into noisy industries, occupational deafness, and other forms of deafness. An advisory service is provided for those working with deaf people and training is given to those responsible for testing groups for hearing loss. Investigations into environmental noise are also undertaken—often to assist local authorities to combat unacceptable noise originating from various sources.

Radiation Protection—The National Radiation Laboratory provides the administrative and technical services required by the Radiation Protection Act 1965 and Regulations 1973 and the Transport of Radioactive Materials Regulations 1973. Prior approval must be obtained for the import or export of any radioactive material. Each owner of irradiating apparatus (source of X-rays) or radioactive material must ensure that they are used only under the control of a person specifically licensed for the purpose.

The laboratory provides the licensees with free monitoring, advisory, calibration, or other services which will assist in achieving radiation safety. Trained officers regularly visit all places where sources of ionising radiation are used. A service is available for measuring the exposures received by radiation workers.

The laboratory advises the requirements for the transport and disposal of radioactive materials and is responsible for monitoring a wide range of environmental samples for natural or man-made radioactivity.

FAMILY HEALTH—Medical practitioners give ante-natal, neo-natal, and post-natal attention under the Social Security Act. Free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with all public maternity hospitals and maternity wards. Ante-natal classes to prepare mothers for the baby's arrival are also being developed, and doctors can refer patients to these to supplement their own ante-natal instructions. In the case of women living far away from the main centres of population, ante-natal work is supplemented by the public health nurses employed by the Department of Health, or by district nurses employed by hospital boards.

Approximately 99 percent of confinements take place in maternity hospitals or in maternity units of public hospitals. The medical care of the mother and child is based on co-operation between the Department of Health, hospital boards, and the medical and nursing professions. All private maternity hospitals are licensed under the Hospitals Act 1957 and the Department of Health has responsibility for ensuring that regulations regarding buildings, equipment, and staff are observed. Medical officers of health, through their senior nursing staff, exercise general supervision over the work of private hospitals in the local areas.

Family Planning—Family planning advice can be obtained from general practitioners, private specialists, and from any one of the 40 clinics operated by the N.Z. Family Planning Association (Inc.) in various centres throughout the country. The Government provides a grant to meet the cost of salaries of doctors, nurses, and health assistants (clinical) employed by the association in approved clinics.

In addition, the Government also provides a grant to the N.Z. Association of Natural Family Planning (Inc.) to meet the payment of the salary of the national co-ordinator, an initial 1-week residential training course for up to 70 teachers each year, and an annual 3-day training course for up to 100 teachers.

A number of hospital boards have established family clinics within their obstetrics and gynaecology departments to provide additional facilities for the public and training for doctors, medical students, and nurses, and other boards are being encouraged to provide these facilities.

Child Health—The Department of Health offers a preventive child health service. Babies are normally examined at about 6 weeks of age and again at 9 months. Additional examinations are given whenever there is anxiety over physical, mental, or emotional development. Public health nurses undertake supervision of infants and pre-school children although the major proportion of this service is provided by the nurses of the Plunket Society. Where necessary the children are referred to family doctors or medical officers of the Department of Health.

A consultative service is provided for schools, with special emphasis on the health supervision of handicapped children, both in the normal schools and in special education classes. Nursing staff make regular visits to all schools and from pre-school record cards and by consultation with teachers and parents refer children for examination by medical officers. Correspondence School children are kept under health supervision as necessary and any school child requiring treatment is referred to the appropriate family doctor. Vision and hearing testing is carried out by trained staff for pre-school children, and again in Junior I and Form I. Tests are also offered to pupils in secondary schools where it is known that parents of pupils with difficulties are not taking any action.

The Government supports the Children's Health Camps Board which maintains six permanent camps for the short-stay placement of children convalescent after illness, for those whose physical health is unsatisfactory, and for those suffering from minor emotional disorders. Medical officers select children for admission and undertake general health supervision of the camps. Children derive benefit from the ordered routine of camp life which provides a diet designed to improve nutrition and a balance of free activity, rest, and sleep. The Department of Education maintains school classes with emphasis on remedial teaching.

Immunisation Programme—Protection by oral vaccine for poliomyelitis is available to all infants. Protection against diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus is a routine procedure and a triple vaccine is used. Immunisation, which is free, is usually done by the family doctor, and the course of injections should be commenced as soon as possible after babies are 3 months old. Arrangements can be made for mothers who do not have family doctors to attend with their children at departmental clinics. If necessary, in country areas the public health nurse will visit the home to immunise the child. Booster doses (against diphtheria, tetanus, and polio) are given at 18 months and after the child's fourth birthday or as soon as possible after the child commences school. Further booster doses (against tetanus only) are recommended at 20-yearly intervals and on injury. Measles vaccination is available from family doctors for infants from 12 months of age onwards. Rubella vaccination is available from family doctors for preschool children and women and girls in the child-bearing age groups. Rubella immunisation is also offered to 11-year-old girls at school.

HEALTH HAZARDS AND HEALTH EDUCATION: Alcoholism—In New Zealand alcoholism rates as a major public health problem. There is no accurate measure of the number of alcoholics but experts in the field suggest that there are at least 53000 chronic alcoholics, and that an average of 10 people (family, friends, and working colleagues) are affected in each case. The figure for chronic alcoholics does not include excessive drinkers, estimated to number from 50000 to 200000.

In 1976 some 2847 people were treated for alcoholism or alcoholic psychosis in psychiatric and general hospitals, and records of psychiatric hospital patients in particular show a sharply rising rate of admissions. Much valuable work in the provision of treatment, rehabilitation, and support facilities for those with major alcoholic problems is done by church and social welfare agencies, especially the Salvation Army, Alcoholics Anonymous, and the National Society on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that large numbers of problem drinkers remain unrecognised as such, and consequently untreated.

The Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council Act 1976 provided for the establishment of the Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council. The Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council was created in 1977. Its primary objectives are to encourage and promote moderation in the use of liquor, to discourage its misuse, and to reduce the personal, social, and economic evils resulting from the misuse of liquor. The Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council has carried out surveys of the drinking habits and attitudes to alcohol of adult New Zealanders and also of the extent of alcohol use and attitudes towards drinking among senior school pupils. Discussions and research have also been carried out on the problems of alcoholism in industry. In the fields of prevention and education the council has published a number of TV, radio, and magazine advertisements and a series of pamphlets.

Smoking—Smoking, especially cigarette smoking, is an acknowledged public health hazard. It is implicated as an important causative factor in lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema, and it greatly increases the risk of heart disease and certain pregnancy-related and neo-natal disorders.

The following table showing the smoking habits of New Zealanders by sex and age group is derived from the 1976 Census of Population. It is based on the results of a survey that covered more than 2 million men and women of 15 years of age and above. Over 51 percent of male smokers and over 34 percent of female exceeded 20 cigarettes a day.

Smoking PracticeAge Groups (Years)Total
15–1920–2930–3940–5960 and over

* Never smoked cigarettes regularly or never smoked them at all.

Do not smoke now, but used to smoke regularly (one or more cigarettes a day).

Smoke regularly (one or more cigarettes a day).

Percentage
Males
Never smoked*61.744.236.427.026.337.5
Not smoking5.312.318.528.037.721.0
Smoking28.441.142.642.231.838.3
Not specified4.62.52.52.84.23.2
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Females
Never smoked*61.449.249.951.265.654.8
Not smoking5.611.212.112.812.111.2
Smoking29.237.635.633.016.730.7
Not specified3.82.02.52.95.73.3
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Total Population
Never smoked*61.546.743.139.048.246.2
Not smoking5.511.715.320.523.416.1
Smoking28.839.439.137.723.434.5
Not specified4.22.22.52.95.03.2
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The census results established that over one-third (35.6 percent) of the population 15 years of age and over were regular smokers and that comparatively more males than females smoked. Against this, almost twice as many males as females were recorded as having stopped smoking. Statistics also indicated a substantially higher level of smoking in the Maori population—particularly amongst Maori women—than is found in the population overall.

The smoking habits of regular smokers, as measured by the number of cigarettes smoked by respondents on a designated day, i.e., 22 March 1976, the day before census day, are the subject of the next table. The figures exclude 2635 regular smokers (1310 males and 1325 females) who smoked no cigarettes on the day specified.

Age Groups (Years)Number of Cigarettes Smoked DailyTotal (Incl. not Specified)
1–910–1920–2930–3940–4950 or More
Males
15–1912,08414,91699601279105349743,256
20–24865017,91417,7282751198799953,363
25–3412,12728,31036,21766124426180695,215
35–44778618,48527,26658994538177970,790
45–54724018,14926,17258654896189270,093
55–64648914,90416,0603103249196548,655
65 and over828712,4207917113182629534,486
          Total62,663125,098141,32026,64020,2178233415,858
Females
15–1914,93014,9408276101769122242,834
20–2411,40218,65613,3481616101028248,710
25–3417,25630,56724,3263186182944181,765
35–4410,74819,95617,0102255155534955,329
45–5410,35719,93915,0441828135929552,905
55–64918515,012838484254713837,371
65 and over7639758530812872326821,143
          Total81,517126,65589,46911,03172231795340,057

Whilst the number of cigarettes smoked varied according to both age and sex of smoker, at least a quarter of both sexes in each age group smoked 20 or more cigarettes per day—the single exception being women 65 years and over (19.4 percent).

Cigarette smoking in New Zealand is probably less prevalent than in the past and the figures compare favourably with those of other countries. However, the high levels of smoking among young people, particularly women, is a major health problem.

Cigarette manufacturers have an agreement with the Government to restrict the size of newspaper advertisements, ban cinema advertising, and print a health warning on cigarette packets and in advertisements. Manufacturers are also required to indicate tar levels in newspaper and magazine advertisements. The results of a tar and nicotine survey of all New Zealand brands of cigarettes undertaken by the Government have been widely published. The Government has established an Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health to discuss and make recommendations on educational programmes, safety factors, appropriate legislation, research, and evaluation.

In 1977 and again in 1979 the Government, concerned at the high level of public expenditure caused directly and indirectly by the consumption of tobacco and alcohol, increased the duty on tobacco products and alcoholic beverages other than wine to help sustain the rate of expenditure on health and community health services.

Health Education—It is being increasingly recognised that the individual must be encouraged to take a more active interest in, and responsibility for, his or her own health. This is particularly relevant where alcoholism and diseases arising from smoking are concerned, but it is also relevant in other areas. For example, immunisation, ante-natal care, and venereal disease. All these topics have been covered by the health education programme of the Department of Health.

Medical and dental officers, public health nurses, dental nurses, and inspectors of health all devote some of their time to health education. The health education officer acts as a co-ordinator and stimulates and extends health teaching and health programmes in the district. Advertisements on health subjects are screened on television and published in national periodicals. Leaflets, pamphlets, and posters are available on many health topics from district health offices.

The Department of Health's official bulletin Health has a circulation of over 81000 and is issued free to the public four times a year. It gives health information and publicises various aspects of the department's work.

Officers are available for lectures and discussions on health with schools and community groups.

DENTAL HEALTH—New Zealand's dental health service combines a school dental service for children, dental benefits for adolescents, and private practice for adults. There are 15 dental districts, three schools for dental nurses in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and the dental school at the University of Otago.

School Dental Service—The objective of the service is to improve the dental health of the pre-school and school children by regular and systematic treatment at 6-monthly intervals, commencing at the age of 2 1/2 and continuing through the highest class at primary or intermediate school.

The school dental nurse, after completing the two-year training course, is posted to a school dental clinic where she provides routine dental care for children. A school dental nurse has a patient group of about 450 in a non-fluoridated area and up to 650 where the water is fluoridated. Regular visits are made to the clinic by the Principal Dental Officer and the Supervising Dental Nurse, who assist the dental nurse to maintain a high standard of performance in all aspects of the work. The School Dental Service Gazette is published bi-monthly as a medium for continuing education.

The dental care comprises examination, cleaning, application of sodium fluoride, fillings in temporary and permanent teeth, extraction of deciduous teeth, and dental health education. Some children are referred to dentists for additional care.

In 1979, 1227 school dental nurses provided dental care for 606663 children. The treatment included 1193575 fillings and 39933 extractions. Indicators of the success of the service are the acceptance (67 percent of pre-school children aged 2 1/2 to 5 and 95 percent of the primary school children are enrolled) and the small number of extractions.

Adolescent Dental Service—Dental care for adolescents up to 16 years of age and, if dependent, up to 18 years of age is provided by private dentists as a dental benefit under the Social Security Act, the dentist being reimbursed on a fee-service basis. Children who remain at school after their sixteenth birthday and qualify for the extended family benefit, or who are otherwise dependent upon parents for support, continue to receive the dental benefit to their eighteenth birthday.

Eligibility for dental treatment as an adolescent is contingent upon a person's having undergone regular dental care, either at a school dental clinic or from a private dental practitioner.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at 6-monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

At 31 March 1979, a total of 262677 children were enrolled for general dental benefits. Private practitioners completed 387223 treatments under the scheme during the year ended 31 March 1979.

Dental Health Education—Dental health education is an integral part of the school dental service and includes activities in the clinics and the classroom. Educational materials are produced by the Department of Health for the school dental service and for general use in the community. Materials specifically for dentists are produced by the Dental Health Committee of the New Zealand Dental Association.

Dental Research—The Dental Unit of the Medical Research Council carries out research in a wide range of dental problems. Further research is undertaken by the Dental School of the University of Otago and there is also a small research unit within the Division of Dental Health of the Department of Health.

Fluoridation—Approximately 64 percent of all persons living in water-reticulated areas are drinking fluoridated water, which reduces the need for dental treatment. This represents approximately 54 percent of the population of New Zealand.

REHABILITATION OF DISABLED CIVILIANS—The rehabilitation of disabled and handicapped persons has received increasing emphasis over recent years in New Zealand. Public hospitals provide a medical rehabilitation service, with co-operation from the Government and voluntary agencies.

Rehabilitation centres for the treatment of the severely disabled are established at Otara in Auckland, Palmerston North, and at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Rotorua. For the rehabilitation of persons suffering from spinal injuries and paraplegia, specialist spinal injury centres are provided at Auckland and Christchurch. Rehabilitation activities are also carried out in the physical medicine departments of general hospitals, and in psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

The Rehabilitation League is the principal agent of Government in vocational rehabilitation. The main function of the League is to provide facilities for work assessment and work experience for the disabled. Policy is decided by a central board of management and district committees administer the centres which are established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Napier.

A National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, comprising representatives from the Departments of Labour, Social Welfare, Health, and Education, and the Accident Compensation Commission, advises the Government on steps to co-ordinate and promote rehabilitation in New Zealand.

PHYSICAL MEDICINE—Physical medicine is concerned with potentially disabling conditions such as rheumatic diseases, cerebral palsy, and other disorders of the locomotor system.

The national centre for the treatment of rheumatism is established at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, which has approximately 100 beds set aside for diagnosis, research, and treatment of these diseases. Full physiotherapy and occupational therapy facilities are provided and active steps towards rehabilitation of patients are carried out. A large number of outpatients are referred from all parts of New Zealand and a few from overseas are seen every year.

Physiotherapists and occupational therapists work together in preventing and controlling deformity, and teaching people how to overcome their disabilities. Social workers assist in bridging the gap between rehabilitation and vocational and social resettlement.

A child potential unit is situated at Queen Elizabeth Hospital, providing residential accommodation for 20 children. At this unit the activities of a team of nurses, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists are co-ordinated by the supervisor of the unit working under a physician. Patients can be referred by their doctors to the physician in charge of the unit for assessment only, or for admission and treatment. Cerebral palsy visiting therapist services are operating under hospital boards. Post-graduate courses are given to physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists.

Cerebral palsy day schools have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Parents of cerebral palsy cases who seek their children's admission first apply to the appropriate medical officer of health or education board. The schools are administered by the education boards, but close liaison exists between the schools, the Rotorua unit, and the visiting cerebral palsy therapists.

HEALTH STATISTICS—The National Health Statistics Centre is responsible for the annual publication of Health Statistics Reports on mortality, morbidity, mental health, cancer, and hospital management as well as the publication of Trends in Health and Health Services every 2 years.

The Centre also prepares special statistics for the various divisions of the Department and for research workers in different fields both in New Zealand and overseas. A constant liaison is maintained with the World Health Organisation (WHO), which is supplied with statistical material giving a picture of health trends in New Zealand. In addition, from time to time, special statistical investigations are made into important aspects of public health and diseases that warrant specific study.

Since July 1975 the Centre has been monitoring the incidence of selected congenital malformations reported by medical practitioners to the Department of Health.

NATIONAL HEALTH INSTITUTE—The Institute is the Department of Health's centre for the scientific study of public health problems. It contains an epidemiology section and public health laboratories (microbiology, virology and environmental health).

The epidemiology section conducts field research into matters of public health interest.

The public health laboratories provide diagnostic and reference services in bacteriology and virology for medical officers of health, hospital and private laboratories, and general practitioners, as well as for the other sections of the institute. The Institute is the national centre for those reference services which are organised on an international basis, such as salmonellosis, leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis, influenza, and staphylococcal phage typing.

Public health laboratories have been established at 5 public hospitals in the main centres to assist the department with the examination of food, milk, and water and of public health specimens.

MANAGEMENT SERVICES AND RESEARCH UNIT—This unit provides health services administrators and managers with a quantitative basis for making decisions on the utilisation of health resources.

Survey research undertaken provides the means by which needs and demands can be identified, as well as a basis for the promulgation of alternative proposals to meet those needs and demands. The unit is actively involved in health planning at national, local, and community levels, encouraging both providers and consumers of health care to participate in the development of their own services.

In the health services, manpower is the major resource. Projections based on special surveys and regular statistical collections are being developed for many categories of health workers. The implications of these are evaluated at workshops and through other channels so that action can be taken to meet identified needs. Additionally the unit has been involved in a variety of projects throughout the health service aimed at improving existing and developing new structures.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL—The Medical Research Council of New Zealand has the following functions:

  1. To initiate, foster, and support medical research;

  2. To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons and organisations concerned with medical research;

  3. To collect and disseminate scientific information, including the publication of reports.

At the end of 1979 research was in progress in most fields of medicine including the pre-clinical, clinical and para-clinical sciences. Increased emphasis was also being placed on the fields of social medicine and community health, and on research into health services, and the earlier work of the council on medical research in the South Pacific through its South Pacific Medical Research Committee was being continued.

The council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by private medical research foundations and societies such as the Cancer Society of New Zealand, and regional medical research foundations established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Palmerston North, Hawke's Bay, Otago, and Southland.

The council administers the Medical Research Endowment Fund, from which an annual expenditure of $4.3 million is incurred in supporting research projects at the medical and clinical schools, and other university departments, and at the institutions of the Auckland, Wellington, North Canterbury, and Otago Hospital Boards.

The council employs a staff of about 50 full-time workers. A further 260 workers are employed by other institutions under project grants from the council.

The council awards scholarships and fellowships to selected graduates and undergraduates who wish to engage in medical research.

The council is empowered to receive bequests and donations to the fund for furthering the objects of the council as set out in the Medical Research Council Act 1950.

MEDICAL COUNCIL—The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, consists of the Director-General of Health, the deans of the faculties of medicine in the Universities of Otago and Auckland, and eight registered medical practitioners appointed on a representative basis.

The council deals with all applications for registration under the Act. Until an applicant is able to satisfy the council that he has obtained house officer experience, in a resident medical capacity, of not less than 12 months or has otherwise obtained comparable experience, registration is on a conditional basis. Persons registered conditionally may practise only in an approved hospital. A medical education committee responsible to the council exercises general supervision over the training of persons conditionally registered. The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30 June 1979 was 7745, but not all are in active practice in New Zealand.

The Medical Council is vested with certain disciplinary powers. Right of appeal to the High Court is provided.

DOCTORS AND DENTISTS—The following table, based on figures in the World Health Statistics Annual 1978, shows for selected countries the number of inhabitants per doctor and per dentist. The years are the latest available and range from 1974 to 1978.

CountryInhabitants
Per DoctorPer Dentist
New Zealand7302920
Australia7202460
England and Wales7603460
Denmark5101150
Sweden5801160
France6502010
Netherlands6002990
West Germany5001930
Canada5802440
United States6001910
Japan8502600
U.S.S.R3002510
Iran257016,410
India396064,900
Kenya11,420134,260
Brazil16503120

The definition of doctor (physician) used in compiling this table included all graduates of a medical school or faculty actually working in a country in any medical field (practice, teaching, administration, research, laboratory work, etc.). A similar definition referring to graduates or qualified personnel of a dental faculty or school applied to dentists.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDS: Dentists—Under the Dental Act 1963 there was constituted a Dental Council, the functions of which are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists.

The number of practising dentists holding annual practising certificates at 31 May 1979 was 1142. Under provisions of the Dental Technicians Regulations 1968, a Registration Board for Dental Technicians was constituted. In 1979 there were 410 registered dental technicians.

Nurses—The Nursing Council of New Zealand was constituted under the Nurses Act 1971. Its functions include making recommendations on nursing programmes to be undertaken by candidates for examinations in relation to minimum standards required for registration; the conduct of examinations; the granting of approval of Schools of Nursing, subject to Ministerial concurrence; the enrolment and registration of overseas nurses; and the exercise of disciplinary powers.

The Nurses Act 1977, effective from 1 January 1978, repealed the 1971 Act and 1975 Amendment Act and removed the minimum age for the sitting of State Examinations for all classes of students except those for enrolment. It also required male students to undertake the obstetric part of the general and obstetric programme and enabled male persons to undertake midwifery training.

Programmes currently provided for registration or enrolment are as follows: 3-year student-based courses at 8 technical institutes leading to comprehensive nurse registration; 3-year hospital-based courses leading to either general and obstetric, psychiatric, or psychopaedic nurse registration; 1-year hospital-based courses leading to enrolment as nurses; 6-month hospital-based obstetric courses for general nurses leading to general and obstetric nurse registration; 1-year student-based midwifery courses for general and obstetric nurses or for comprehensive nurses; and 2-year hospital-based programmes for nurses holding a basic qualification. A number of student-based “bridging” programmes have been introduced.

These programmes offer the general and obstetric nurse, psychiatric or psychopaedic nurse curriculum. This further qualification entitles a nurse to comprehensive registration.

The Nurses' Regulations following the introduction of the 1977 Act became effective in 1980.

During the year 1978–79 there were 27875 registered and enrolled nurses holding a valid annual practising certificate; the council's total register/roll exceeds 90000; of these, 778 are registered comprehensive nurses.

Physiotherapists—The New Zealand Physiotherapy Board is constituted under the Physiotherapy Act 1949. The board's functions are the examination and registration of candidates for physiotherapy practice, the issuing of special licences, and the conduct of those registered under the Act.

The training period for physiotherapists is 3 years. Full-time training is conducted at the Physiotherapy Department, Auckland Technical Institute, and at the School of Physiotherapy, Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin. From 1 February 1976 the control of this school was transferred from Otago Hospital Board to Otago Polytechnic Council. All students are required to pass the State Examination in Physiotherapy to qualify for registration.

During 1979, 151 physiotherapists were registered, bringing the total on the register (which includes some no longer practising) to 3219.

Occupational Therapists—The Occupational Therapy Board is constituted under the Occupational Therapy Act 1949. The board is concerned with the registration and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy.

The Central Institute of Technology, Wellington, conducts the 3-year course of training and clinical experience is gained at hospitals. Students who successfully complete the course are awarded a diploma in occupational therapy and then registered. There are some 400 occupational therapists in active practice.

Dietitians—The Dietitians Board, constituted under the Dietitians Act 1950, is concerned with the training, examination, and registration of persons engaged in the practice of dietetics.

The training period for a dietitian is, in the case of the holder of a degree of bachelor of home science conferred by the University of Otago or of the holder of a diploma in home science of the University of Otago, 12 months in a hospital training school. In 1979 there were 584 registered dietitians.

Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians—The Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Act 1976 provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of four registered optometrists to be appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Optometrical Association Incorporated, one registered optometrist who is actively engaged in teaching optometry to be appointed on the nomination of the Council of the University of Auckland, two registered dispensing opticians to be appointed on the nominations of the Association of Dispensing Opticians and Optical Dispensers of New Zealand Incorporated, two ophthalmological specialists who are registered in respect of that speciality under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, to be appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Medical Association, and one other person being an officer of the Public Service employed in the Department of Health.

Three hundred and nineteen Annual Practising Certificates were issued for the year ended 31 March 1980. This included optometrists and dispensing opticians.

Chiropodists—The Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966 provided for the constitution of a Chiropodists Board. The Chiropodists Regulations 1967 specify that the board shall consist of one officer of the Department of Health, and three persons entitled to registration as chiropodists who have been nominated by the New Zealand Society of Chiropodists, and a medical practitioner who has been nominated jointly by the Medical Association of New Zealand and the Executive Committee of the New Zealand Orthopaedic Association. The board's functions include the promotion of high standards of education and conduct among persons engaged or intending to become engaged in chiropody, the exercising of disciplinary powers in accordance with the Act in respect of registered chiropodists and the conducting of special examinations. The board also deals with all applications for registration under the Act.

There are approximately 248 registered chiropodists, but not all are engaged in active practice. A significant number of those in active practice work only part time. In pursuance of the Government's policy, a number of hospital boards are establishing community-oriented chiropody services, principally intended for the elderly.

Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers—The Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Board consists of 13 member/representatives from the Municipal and Counties Association, the Gas Association, the New Zealand Drainlayers Association, an engineer employed by a local authority or drainage board, the Master Plumbers Society (2), the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Related Trades Industrial Union of Workers (2); Department of Labour, Department of Education, Department of Health, and one other person, to be appointed by the Minister.

The board is concerned with the registration of plumbers, gasfitters, and drainlayers. It issues annual licences to craftsmen and registered plumbers and gasfitters, and limited certificates. It has also authority and responsibility for disciplinary action against craftsmen plumbers and gasfitters if it is established they have done unsatisfactory work.

Drainlaying may be carried out only by registered drainlayers, and gasfitting may be carried out only by craftsmen gasfitters or by registered gasfitters and holders of limited certificates working in the employment, or under the supervision, of craftsmen gasfitters.

Except in specially exempted areas, all sanitary plumbing defined in the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Act 1976 can only be performed by craftsmen and registered plumbers and holders of limited certificates working in the employment or under the supervision of craftsmen plumbers.

Specifications and standards of workmanship and materials in plumbing work are prescribed in the provisions of the Drainage and Plumbing Regulations enacted under the Health Act.

Pharmacists—In 1979 there were 2843 names on the Pharmaceutical Register in New Zealand. All registered pharmacists, except those who notify the registrar that they have conscientious objection to membership, automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the society's affairs being managed by a council constituted by the Pharmacy Act 1970.

The council consists of 12 members, 11 being pharmacists, and 1 a barrister appointed by the Minister of Health. Seven members are elected on a district basis by registered pharmacists who are proprietors of pharmacies and four by members of the Pharmaceutical Society who are not in the previous category. The main function of the council of the Pharmaceutical Society is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the public interests.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all times maintained under the immediate supervision and control of a registered pharmacist.

The present system for pharmacy education requires a minimum of 3 years' attendance at the School of Pharmacy, Central Institute of Technology, Upper Hutt, at which the diploma in pharmacy is obtained. There is also a 4-year degree course in pharmacy at the University of Otago. Graduates from both courses are required to gain 12 months' pre-registration experience before becoming eligible for registration as pharmacists.

Any pharmacist or company in which not less than 75 percent of the share capital is owned by a pharmacist or pharmacists may establish one pharmacy. Unqualified persons or companies in which less than 75 percent of the share capital is pharmacist-owned must, however, secure the consent of the Pharmacy Authority, set up under the Act, before commencing business, and in all cases the establishment of more than one pharmacy under the same ownership, or the holding of an interest in more than one pharmacy by any person, is subject to the consent of the authority. All pharmacies must be registered with the society. There are about 1149 pharmacies in New Zealand. A recent survey showed that on average there were 1.44 pharmacists per pharmacy; about 250 pharmacists work outside community pharmacies in hospitals, Government departments, and the pharmaceutical industry.

MEDICAL, HOSPITAL, AND OTHER RELATED BENEFITS—Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, administered by the Department of Health and dealing with medical and like benefits, is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Medical Benefits—Medical benefits apply to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, these being principally:

  1. Medical services in maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading.)

  2. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate.

  3. Medical services other than anaesthetic services, involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner.

Every medical practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services is entitled, on behalf of the patient, to receive from the Department of Health a fee of $1.25 for a service provided in normal hours and up to $4.00 for a service rendered at night or on Saturdays, Sundays, or holidays; for social welfare beneficiaries, pensioners and their dependants, and for patients approved as “chronically ill”, the benefit ranges from $3 to $7; in the case of all children and young persons up to their sixteenth birthday, and those for whom family benefit continues to be paid, the benefit ranges from $4.75 to $8. For initial consultations with recognised psychiatrists, paediatricians, neurologists, and neuro-surgeons and general physicians, the Department pays a benefit of $20; with all other specialists, the benefit paid for children and young persons is $10, and the benefit paid for all other patients is $5. These rates apply only to the first occasion on which a patient is referred by a general practitioner to a specialist, and, in the case of an inter-specialist referral, with prior concurrence of the original doctor. For subsequent visits, the fee paid by the Department reduces to $1.25 for each visit, except in the case of Social Welfare beneficiaries and pensioners and their dependants, and the “chronically ill” for whom the fee is $3, and $4.75 in the case of children and young persons. In designated rural areas, an incentive bonus is payable. In 1977, the immunisation benefit was increased to $2.25 when the vaccine is administered by the doctor or a registered general nurse in his employ and under his direction. The immunisation benefit is in full settlement and no extra charge should be made. Most doctors make a claim directly from the Department of Health and ask patients for the balance of their fees. A minority require their patients to pay the whole fee and make personal claims on the Department of Health.

The number of medical practitioners providing general and specialist medical services in 1978 was 4377, and the cost per head of population in the year ended 31 March 1979 was $14.60. The average population per active general practitioner in 1978 was 1843.

Pharmaceutical Benefits—Persons receiving medical attention under the Act are entitled, generally without cost to themselves, to those medicines, drugs, approved appliances, and materials, prescribed by their medical practitioners and which are included in the Drug Tariff.

Prescriptions passed for payment in the year ended 31 March 1979 totalled 24240000 or 7.7 per head of population. The average cost per prescription was $4.68, the cost per head of population $36.04.

Hospital Benefits—Treatment is provided free by public hospitals where a patient is entitled to hospital benefits under the Act. In the case of private hospitals and other approved institutions benefits paid are in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients. The rates from 1 April 1979 are as follows:

  1. For surgical treatment $18.00 a day, with a minimum of $30.00.

  2. For medical (including psychiatric) treatment $14.00 a day.

  3. For geriatric treatment $16.00 a day.

  4. Hospital treatment for maternity patients $18.00 a day.

  5. For long-stay medical patients, $16.00 per day.

Free treatment is accorded outpatients at public hospitals; this also covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses, hearing aids, artificial limbs, surgical footwear, wheelchairs, orthopaedic implants in private hospitals, ileostomy and colostomy appliances, and urinals. It does; not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. In respect of surgical footwear, part payment by the patient is required.

A subsidy is also provided under the geriatric hospital special assistance scheme to assist geriatric patients in private hospitals where the patient could not be placed in a public hospital bed. The patient must contribute his income to the payment of fees. In the case of a married patient the income left in the hands of the spouse who is not hospitalised must be not less than the rate of National Superannuation for a married couple.

Psychiatric Hospitals—Treatment of patients in public psychiatric hospitals is also free. A licensed (private) psychiatric hospital may be recognised and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment are payable accordingly.

Maternity Benefits—Maternity benefits cover ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere. Recognised specialists may make a charge on the patient over and above the benefit. Licensed maternity hospitals are entitled to receive fees of $12.00 in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding 14 days.

X-ray Diagnostic Services—These X-ray diagnostic services on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, attract a health benefit:

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen.

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs.

  3. The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance, visas, emigration permits, and examinations for the sole or primary purpose of obtaining medical certificates for production to some other person, are not included in the free services. Eligible X-ray examinations at public hospitals are free, but those undertaken by private radiologists are limited to a specified benefit. Additional charges are the patient's responsibility.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services—The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and associated medical services. The following services are not included:

  1. Examination of specimens for public health.

  2. Post-mortem examinations.

  3. Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life insurance.

  4. The preparation of sera and vaccines.

Physiotherapy Benefits—Physiotherapy treatment afforded by contracting physiotherapists is the subject of a benefit under the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The standard benefit is $1 for each recommended treatment, but a higher rate of $1.50 is payable for beneficiaries and their dependants who qualify for the higher medical benefit. Where patients are treated in groups the universal benefit is 40 cents per patient.

To qualify for the benefit, physiotherapy treatment must in all cases be recommended by a registered medical practitioner. Treatment is limited to 6 weeks on a single recommendation but in the case of certain specified illnesses the Director-General of Health may extend the period of treatment on any one recommendation up to 6 months.

Home-nursing Services—Under the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1944, home-nursing services are provided free where the services are afforded by a registered nurse, midwife, or obstetric nurse in the employ of the Department of Health, a hospital board, or an organisation recognised for the purpose.

Domestic Assistance—Monetary assistance is given to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic help in the home, where it is required because of age and infirmity, or to support family situations in which the mother is incapacitated or needs help on account of family commitments.

Dental Services—The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960 provide for free dental treatment. These benefits are confined to persons who are under 16 years of age or under 18 years if still attending school or otherwise dependent. Treatment may be provided in a State dental clinic, by a contracting dentist for whom there is a prescribed scale of fees, or in the dental department of a public hospital.

Artificial Aids—The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids, such as artificial limbs, hearing aids, and contact lenses.

Breast Prostheses— Women undergoing a mastectomy on or after 29 July 1976 are entitled to a benefit of up to $30 to meet the cost of an initial breast form. Patients entitled to the benefit are issued with a certificate of eligibility prior to discharge from hospital for presentation to the supplier.

Contact Lenses—These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities; (a) conical cornea, (b) high myopia, where the degree of myopia present in the greatest axis of the better eye is not less than—10 diopters, (c) monocular aphakia, if the restoration of binocular vision is highly desirable by reason of the patient's occupation or other circumstances and binocular vision cannot be restored without the use of contact lenses. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an approved ophthalmologist.

Lenses may also be supplied in respect of any other ocular condition which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacles; in these cases recommendation by two ophthalmologists is necessary.

Hearing Aids—A free aid may be supplied, or a subsidy of $45 is payable towards the purchase of a hearing aid, where the patient suffers a hearing loss which renders the use of an aid necessary.

Eligibility on medical grounds for the provision of a hearing aid is to be determined by an otologist employed or engaged by a hospital board or the Department of Health.

Normally a patient will be eligible for the payment of the full benefit only once every 5 years. However, if in the opinion of the authorising otologist, a patient's existing aid is inadequate after less than 5 years from the date of its issue, and a new aid is required to improve hearing ability, the hearing aid benefit at full rates is to be payable.

Artificial Limbs—The free supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1956 or under the provisions of the Accident Compensation Act 1972.

  2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an approved orthopaedic surgeon.

  3. The limb is of an approved type and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopaedic adviser, be satisfactorily fitted.

For the purposes of the regulations “artificial limb” includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes limb socks for such limbs and for female amputees, replacement understockings.

Orthopaedic Implants—Artificial hips and similar implants also qualify for benefit under the arrangements for artificial aids.

Wheelchairs—Manually operated wheelchairs are available through hospital boards on a free loan basis to disabled persons who require them on medical grounds. Motorised wheelchairs are the subject of a 50 percent benefit towards their cost. The balance of the cost may be assisted with grants from lottery funds.

Acrylic Artificial Eyes—A benefit of up to $50 is available to all patients who have had an eye removed on and from 22 July 1977. For adults, the benefit is available towards the cost of the initial prosthesis only. Children and young persons will also be entitled to a benefit of up to $50 towards the cost of replacement eyes prior to their sixteenth birthday.

Wigs—A benefit of up to $100 is available to meet the cost of wigs required on cosmetic grounds by patients suffering from: (a) congenital dystrophy of the skin; (b) alopecia areata, severe and longstanding; or (c) in cases of illness or treatment of illness where baldness is not permanent but is likely to be prolonged. For adults the benefit is available towards the cost of the initial wig obtained. Children are entitled to “reasonable” replacements at intervals considered suitable by the medical officer of health.

The following table gives details of expenditure on the various classes of health benefits during the 5 latest financial years.

Item1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79

* Long-stay benefit introduced 1 July 1978.

Benefit introduced 1 April 1978.

Benefit introduced 1 June 1978.

   $ (thousand)  
Maternity benefits—
    Medical practitioners' fees4,8325,1484,8664,8925,952
    Medical practitioners' motor vehicle allowance145152139156198
    Obstetric nurses' fees48171933
 4,9815,3085,0225,0676,183
Medical benefits—
    General medical services19,90228,18028,39429,44935,798
    GMS motor vehicle allowance128125118124200
    Specialist medical services2,2532,6352,6683,0084,360
    Rural practice bonus and other incentives425587594606764
    Immunisation benefit433457496540647
    Practice nurse subsidy2696491,2572,2574,183
    Social workers in general practice---225
 23,41032,63333,52735,98645,977
Private practice and post-graduate grants3821403259
Special area and other arrangements—
    Section 117, Social Security Act161152129198156
 199173169230215
Hospital benefits—
    Treatment in private hospitals—maternity benefits368336351281258
    Treatment in private hospitals—medical, surgical, and Karitane6,7083,2614,1203,9353,735
    Treatment in private hospitals—geriatric benefit2,3848,58911,72812,59913,658
    Treatment in private hospitals—long stay benefit*----216
    Treatment in approved institutions6878251,1991,2821,209
 10,14713,01117,39818,09719,076
Pharmaceutical benefits—
    Drugs supplied—
    By chemists55,72768,91683,65496,362111,812
    By medical practitioners and Department of Health;148164140149185
    To institutions and private hospitals6047871,0571,2021,427
    Non-disposable syringes and needles for diabetics----25
 56,47969,86784,85197,713113,449
Supplementary benefits—
    Dental services4,4045,3345,1585,3166,359
    Laboratory services9,16910,72812,13613,48317,106
    Artificial aids3537766583
    Physiotherapy services;6131,0011,2381,3471,530
    Radiological services1,6001,7061,7521,8101,894
    Breast prostheses--72023
    Hair pieces----31
 15,82118,80620,36822,04227,026
                Total111,037139,798161,336179,134211,926

WELFARE SERVICES—Government assistance is offered to religious and voluntary organisations and local authorities in providing housing, accommodation, and services for elderly people and others whom it is considered are in special need. Under this partnership with Government, the social service agencies of all the major religious bodies, as well as other welfare organisations, have established additional accommodation for the aged, frail, and sick who need residential care in either an old people's home or a geriatric hospital. Where it is not possible to meet the need of elderly people through these agencies, the provision of residential care for the aged becomes a hospital board responsibility. At 31 March 1979 religious and welfare organisations provided 6635 home and hospital beds for the elderly. Hospital boards maintain 853 old people's home beds.

Other measures which are of importance in assisting elderly people to remain in their homes as long as possible are receiving increased attention. Chief amongst these are the provision of district nursing services, home aid, meals-on-wheels, laundry services, and occupational therapy. In general the services are provided by hospital boards with voluntary organisations and old people's welfare councils assisting in various ways. The importance of old people's clubs and social centres, with an adequate range of services, is also receiving increasing recognition. Government lottery funds are being used to assist in providing suitable premises and assisting welfare councils with administrative costs. During 1978 a total of 1,419,416 meals-on-wheels were delivered; the service is operated by 28 hospital boards with the assistance of voluntary drivers.

Old People's Homes and Hospitals—Subject to maximum subsidies of $16,000 per bed for old people's homes and $19,000 for geriatric hospital beds, and certain other conditions, religious or welfare organisations providing accommodation for old people may be granted 100 percent of the approved building cost. Since October 1974, the policy has been widened to provide an 80-percent subsidy towards the cost of approved improvements and the upgrading of existing accommodation, and 100 per cent for fire protection work as required by the local authority. The administration of policy is a Department of Health's responsibility.

During the year 1978–79, subsidies amounting to $4,783,681 were approved to assist in the provision of accommodation for 293 old people. From April 1950 to 31 March 1979 subsidies totalling $66,957,508 have been approved, and buildings erected as a result will accommodate 8365 old people.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANISATIONS—Over the years voluntary welfare organisations have made valuable contributions to certain aspects of the field of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from the public funds. Among the more important are the Royal N.Z. Society for the Health of Women and Children (Plunket Society), the Children's Health Camps Board, the New Zealand Red Cross Society, the St. John's Ambulance Association, the New Zealand Crippled Children Society, the Hearing Association, the Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind, the Family Planning Associations, the Neurological Foundation, the Rehabilitation League, the Laura Fergusson Trust for Disabled Persons, the New Zealand Society for the Intellectually Handicapped, the Cancer Society, and the National Heart Foundation. A fuller list of voluntary organisations in the field of health was published in the 1976 and earlier editions of the Yearbook.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Other publications dealing with health and medical services include the following:

The Public Health (Parl. paper E. 10), Department of Health (Annual).

Health, Department of Health bulletin (Quarterly).

Report of the Medical Research Council of New Zealand (Parl. paper E. 11).

Trends in Health and Health Services, Department of Health (2-yearly).

Health Expenditure in New Zealand—Trends and Growth Patterns, Department of Health (1979).

Accommodation and Service Needs of the Elderly, Department of Health (1976).

Health Manpower Resources 1978, Department of Health (1978).

Census of Population 1976; Bulletin 24—Cigarette Smoking, Department of Statistics.

Social Trends in New Zealand, Department of Statistics (1977).

Alcoholism: Challenge to Industry, Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council (1979).

Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 12—New Zealand Children 1979, Department of Statistics (1979).

Annual Report of the Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council (Parl. paper E. 26).

Report of the Clean Air Council (Parl. paper E. 22).

The Department of Health has published a considerable number of reports in its Special Report series in recent years. Inquiries concerning these should be addressed to:

Management Services and Research Unit,

Department of Health,

Private Bag,

Wellington.

5 B—HOSPITALS

The Hospitals Act 1957 requires the Minister of Health to ensure the provision and maintenance by hospital boards of hospitals and hospital services and to encourage the provision and maintenance of private hospitals. The Department of Health advises the Minister on, or determines in respect of boards, the extent and standard of hospital and allied services, the building requirements to provide these services, the numbers and levels of the main groups of professional staffs to be employed, the appropriate annual financial grants, the salaries and conditions of employment of about 60 percent of staff, and the measure of financial assistance to be given to private hospitals, including loan finance. The department also licenses and supervises private hospitals, inspects the work of all hospitals, and compiles financial and statistical data about them. There are 29 hospital boards and 161 private hospitals.

Since 1 April 1958, the cost of hospital treatment in public hospitals has been borne entirely by the State. Private hospitals, which provide about one-sixth of the available beds, receive partial payment from the Government for hospital treatment of patients; additional fees may be claimed from the patients. Hospital and home nursing services involve the Department of Health in establishing and assisting to maintain minimum standards of nursing service in general hospitals, in homes for the aged, etc.; in advising, inspecting, and reporting on such services in hospitals; and in generally advising the Minister on nursing.

Experience has been that, generally speaking, advisory boards, committees, and councils play a most valuable part in helping to formulate health policies and programmes, and, in certain cases, in administering policies or programmes laid down by Government. The setting-up of such agencies enables the Minister and the Department of Health to draw upon expert advice and wide experience and ensures that non-departmental people with up-to-date knowledge, day-to-day working experience, and responsibility in particular areas of health play a worthwhile part in health administration. A partnership of this kind is particularly important in the case of public hospitals, which are run by democratically elected boards. Recognition of this is seen in the requirements of the Hospitals Act that the Minister of Health may not act in certain public hospital matters without a recommendation from the Hospitals Advisory Council.

The department's objectives in the case of physical medicine and rehabilitation are to stimulate interest and co-ordinate treatment of diseases such as chronic arthritis, poliomyelitis, and cerebral palsy; to promote and maintain a unified rehabilitation service; and to maintain and develop physiotherapy and occupational therapy services. It supervises physiotherapy and occupational therapy training, licensing and services, and supervises the provision of rehabilitation services in public hospitals. (See Section 5A.)

A major development affecting hospital boards since 1977–78 is the injection of special funds from receipts of alcohol and tobacco duty to assist them in moving their services out into the community. This should eventually have a significant effect on the level of provision of beds by the larger hospital boards.

The welfare services involving the department include the medical and social care and general welfare of the aged. The department advises the Minister on subsidies to be paid to religious and welfare organisations which provide homes and hospital beds for the elderly, and administers legislation governing the standards and oversight of old people's homes.

HOSPITAL BOARDS—General and psychiatric hospitals (except for Lake Alice Hospital) are controlled by locally elected hospital boards. A hospital board of 8 to 14 members is elected every 3 years for each hospital district. It is the duty of every hospital board to provide, maintain, and staff such institutions, hospital accommodation, and medical, nursing, and other services as the Minister of Health considers necessary.

In recent years there has been a pressure of activity, replanning, and development in all medical services for which hospital boards are responsible. This replanning of medical services has been undertaken against a background of Governmental efforts to restrain the rapid growth in health expenditure. To this end, hospital boards have been required to accept a 1-percent reduction in their allocation of funds in 1979–80.

More rapid and comfortable transport is encouraging the build-up of specialist diagnostic and therapeutic resources in regional centres. To help meet the cost of these, boards have been allocated growth expenditure amounting to 1/2 percent of their base allocation.

The Director-General of Health is authorised to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint assistant inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act.

Hospital boards are required to operate their own ambulance services unless they enter into some arrangement with a subsidised voluntary agency. In this regard the Order of St. John and organisations such as the Wellington Free Ambulance perform valuable services.

HOSPITAL ACCOMMODATION: Public Institutions—The number of beds in public institutions available at 31 March 1979 and the average number occupied during the year are set out in the following table. These statistics relate to patients and inmates in all institutions (general, maternity, special hospitals, old people's homes, and psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals) including institutions under the control of the Department of Health.

Type of BedBeds AvailableAverage Number of Occupied Beds per Day
NumberProportion per 1000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1000 of Population
General15,1144.811,4163.6
Maternity27140.813190.4
Psychiatric and psychopaedic90332.977452.5
Total hospital beds26,8618.520,4806.5
Non-hospital beds9610.38720.3
                Total27,8228.821,3526.8

In addition to the 26861 hospital beds in public institutions at 31 March 1979 there were 5088 beds (4988 general and 100 maternity) in the 161 licensed private hospitals. If the beds in licensed private hospitals are included, the ratio of beds per 1000 of population becomes 6.4 for general beds and 0.9 for maternity beds.

The average number of occupied hospital beds per 1000 of population in hospital districts varies from 3.9 to 15.8. This variation can be accounted for in the main by the fact that many hospitals to a varying extent draw patients from other districts. Other factors which influence the figures are the availability of medical practitioners and their habits in sending patients to hospital or retaining them for home treatment, the availability of private-hospital beds, housing facilities, domestic assistance, private or district nursing assistance, and the efficiency of the outpatient departments.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public institutions for the year ended 31 March 1979 was 190, comprising 106 general hospitals, 51 maternity hospitals, 17 old people's homes, and 16 psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

A total of 405021 persons were treated or maintained in public hospitals or similar institutions during the year ended 31 March 1979. This figure, which included persons in maternity beds, psychiatric and psychopaedic beds, and non-hospital beds in old people's homes but not hospital outpatients, was equivalent to 12.9 percent of the population. The 1976–77 figure was 392930, and the 1977–78 figure, 392688.

Outpatient attendances at public hospitals (including dental but excluding X-ray, laboratory, and pharmacy) totalled 3754524 during the year ended 31 March 1979, compared with 3580286 the previous year.

Waiting Lists—At 31 March 1979 there were 37924 names on waiting lists for admission to public hospitals, a rate of 12.06 persons per 1000 residents.

STAFF: All Hospitals—The number of staff employed by hospital boards hospitals as at 31 March 1978 and 1979 were as follows:

Category of StaffAs at 31 March
19781979

* Note changes in category of staff.

Figures based on full-time equivalents.

Professional staff—
    Medical21532225.7
    Dietitians130132.3
    Laboratory technicians575548.9
    Occupational therapists333360.3
    Physiotherapists422464.2
    Radiographers347364.8
    Hospital scientific officers-48.3
    Other professional and technical9392164.4
Social workers352338.1
Nursing staff15,668*
Nursing staff (qualified)*11782.5
Nursing staff (unqualified)*4474.7
Students8356 
Nursing students*7003.2
Students, other*721.6
Administration/managers1730 
Administration, central offices*3953.6
Clerical support2254879.6
Managers/supervisors*472.1
Other14,56912953.8
 47,82848888.1

FINANCE: Loans—Boards have been authorised by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme. The position of loan liability is set out in the following table.

YearAmount UpliftedRepayment*Balance Owing
* Includes payments from sinking funds.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
1975–7641,32715,787204,376
1976–7752,76613,893242,996
1977–7863,65514,762292,928
1978–7972,68718,183348,116

Payments—Hospital board expenditure is subject to control by the Minister of Health. The sum provided by Government for public hospital maintenance expenditure is allocated to the individual hospital boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of known increases in salary and wage rates and prices plus an allowance for growth. A portion of the total is, however, held in reserve, to enable allocations to be made to boards having to meet the cost of commissioning major capital works reaching completion during the year. Additional grants are also made, when necessary, for general wage increases which may be approved after the basic allocation has been made. Grants for minor capital works and equipment are made to boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of price increases plus an allowance for growth. In general, major works over $20,000 are financed by loans raised by hospital boards, interest and principal repayments being met by Government grants. Expenditure for both public and psychiatric hospitals during recent years was as follows:

Grants to Hospital Boards1976–771977–781978–79
Capital— $(thousand) 
    Special capital349163787
    Health centres330390349
    Repayment of loan principal and payments to Sinking Fund13,72313,77917,145
    Works and equipment8,93511,46512,085
      Total23,33725,79730,366
Operating costs—
    Basic operating costs422,238500,328610,155
    Interest on loans12,74816,92123,216
    Commonwealth medical co-operation scheme403511
    Special items3857711,251
    Geriatric hospital patient assistance scheme142,4634,710
    Family health counselling service-71244
    Community care development-2,0855,850
      Total435,425522,674645,437
      Grand total458,762548,471675,803

PRIVATE HOSPITALS—At 31 March 1979 there were 161 licensed private hospitals, providing a total of 5088 beds. Private hospitals are shown by type and by number of beds in the following table as at 31 March of the years stated.

Type of HospitalNumber of HospitalsLicensed Beds
197719781979197719781979

* Included with other entries.

Beds for psychiatric patients in Calvary Hospital, Christchurch.

Maternity776146111100
Medical and surgical343433153915421471
Medical103109114293432473368
Medical and children's (Karitane)663200208105
Maternity, medical, and surgical323***
Psychiatric2-2331144
                Total155158161485251195088

The Government assists private hospitals by the provision of loan money for new hospitals and the upgrading and extension of existing hospitals. Amounts paid under this scheme during the last 3 years were as follows: 1976–77, $37559; 1977–78, $96,189; and 1978–79, $216,550.

PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—The total expenditure on psychiatric hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions) and particulars of receipts during 5 recent financial years are shown in the next table. This expenditure was incurred by the Department of Health until 31 March 1972, since which date psychiatric hospitals, with the exception of the Lake Alice Hospital, have become the responsibility of hospital boards. From 1 April 1978 the funding of psychiatric hospitals was fully integrated with that of public hospitals, and therefore separate data are not available for later years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal ExpenditureReceiptsNet ExpenditureAverage Cost per Occupied Bed
 $(000) $(000) $(000) $    
197442,28943141,8584,625
197548,54080247,7385,582
197661,8161,04460,7727,381
197772,6701,35771,3139,018
197884,3411,09683,24510,830

PUBLIC HOSPITAL PATIENTS: Principal Diseases and Disabilities—Detailed statistical information is supplied to the Department of Health about every patient, except normal maternity cases, discharged from or dying in public hospitals in New Zealand.

The following summary shows the principal diseases and injuries treated, together with the number of deaths and the fatality rate percent of total cases, in public hospitals in 1978. The disease headings are the subtitles of the International Classification of Diseases. More detailed information is available in Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data, Health Statistics Report.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in mortality statistics. Congestive heart failure, for instance, is comparatively highly ranked in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some underlying disease, which would take precedence over congestive heart failure in the statistics of causes of death. Hospital returns show each disease for which the patient was treated while in hospital, but the classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which the patient was admitted, regardless of what other unrelated diseases may have been present or developed during the stay in hospital. In mortality statistics, on the other hand, the underlying cause of death is of paramount importance. In the summary below a patient admitted on account of an injury is classified according to the nature of the injury. Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the injury, e.g., motor-vehicle accident, accidental fall, etc.

DISEASES AND DISABILITIES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1978 (INCLUDES READMISSIONS)
Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsDeaths in Public HospitalsFatality Rate Percent
Intestinal infectious diseases4441240.5
Tuberculosis862252.9
Zoonotic bacterial diseases26311.5
Other bacterial diseases6737310.8
Poliomyelitis and other enterovirus diseases of central nervous system35441.1
Viral diseases accompanied by exanthem73881.1
Arthropod-borne viral diseases6734.5
Other viral diseases202660.3
Rickettsioses and other arthropod-borne diseases25--
Syphilis and other venereal diseases188--
Other spirochaetal diseases66--
Mycoses89--
Helminthiases8622.3
Other infective and parasitic diseases28431.1
Malignant neoplasm of buccal cavity and pharynx4655111.0
Malignant neoplasm of digestive organs and peritoneum353578922.3
Malignant neoplasm of respiratory system270962523.1
Malignant neoplasm of bone, connective tissue, skin, and breast40042255.6
Malignant neoplasm of genito-urinary organs406842010.3
Malignant neoplasm of other and unspecified sites288761521.3
Neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue261429411.2
Benign neoplasms5223230.4
Neoplasm of unspecified nature568111.9
Diseases of thyroid gland779111.4
Diseases of other endocrine glands37911333.5
Avitaminoses and other nutritional deficiency562132.3
Other metabolic diseases896242.7
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs2087452.2
Psychoses33122006.0
Neuroses, personality disorders, and other non-psychotic mental disorders5042340.7
Mental retardation24120.8
Inflammatory diseases of central nervous system425348.0
Hereditary and familial diseases of nervous system19694.6
Other diseases of central nervous system46672735.8
Diseases of nerves and peripheral ganglia1880120.6
Inflammatory diseases of the eye76910.1
Other diseases and conditions of the eye5382100.2
Diseases of the ear and mastoid process57061-
Active rheumatic fever39430.8
Chronic rheumatic heart disease894444.9
Hypertensive disease18231106.0
Ischaemic heart disease10,982147313.4
Other forms of heart disease541072913.5
Cerebrovascular disease6131174128.4
Diseases of arteries, arterioles and capillaries350640311.5
Diseases of veins and lymphatics, and other diseases of circulatory system68151572.3
Acute respiratory infections (except influenza)5338120.2
Influenza21410.5
Pneumonia510655710.9
Bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma10,5724123.9
Other diseases of upper respiratory tract93154-
Other diseases of respiratory system16211036.4
Diseases of oral cavity, salivary glands, and jaws269040.1
Diseases of oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum40571102.7
Appendicitis5403100.2
Hernia of abdominal cavity5889270.5
Other diseases of intestine and peritoneum54861582.9
Diseases of liver, gall bladder, and pancreas50111853.7
Nephritis and nephrosis109312611.5
Other diseases of urinary system4800631.3
Diseases of male genital organs3969280.7
Diseases of breast, ovary, fallopian tube, and parametrium353530.1
Diseases of uterus and other female genital organs12,72880.1
Complications of pregnancy28541-
Urinary infections and toxaemias of pregnancy and the puerperium113510.1
Abortion62552-
Delivery162810.1
Complications of the puerperium59510.2
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue287060.2
Other inflammatory conditions of skin and subcutaneous tissue96780.8
Other diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissue189540.2
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever5447891.6
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bone and joint6701250.4
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system3565130.4
Congenital anomalies73191401.9
Certain causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality44931493.3
Symptoms referable to systems or organs18,7421110.6
Senility and ill-defined diseases37882266.0
Fracture of skull, spine, and trunk50771152.3
Fracture of upper limb4470100.2
Fracture of lower limb80962783.4
Dislocation without fracture139750.4
Sprains and strains of joints and adjacent muscles148520.1
Intracranial injury (excluding those with skull fracture)8683951.1
Internal injury of chest, abdomen, and pelvis949667.0
Laceration and open wound of head, neck, and trunk204130.1
Laceration and open wound of upper limb24961-
Laceration and open wound of lower limb178930.2
Laceration and open wound of multiple location27220.7
Superficial injury386--
Contusion and crushing with intact skin surface251960.2
Effects of foreign body entering through orifice88710.1
Burn1841311.7
Injury to nerves and spinal cord71420.3
Adverse effect of medicinal agents3243230.7
Toxic effect of substances chiefly non-medicinal as to source115250.4
Other adverse effects2930260.9
Special admissions without sickness16,083300.2
                          All conditions329,27911,9583.6

Duration of Stay in Public Hospitals—The average duration of stay in public hospitals in 1978 was 12.6 days. Among sufferers from specified diseases and disabilities, the longest average stays were made by those with cerebrovascular disease (60 days), followed by patients with other diseases of the nervous system (54 days), psychoses (51 days), and patients with hereditary and familial diseases of nervous system (44 days).

Accident Cases—A summary is given below of accident cases treated as inpatients in public hospitals during 1978 (figures include readmissions).

Type of AccidentTotal CasesPercentage of All Accident CasesAverage Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay as Percentage of Total
Transport—
    Railway590.113.47900.1
    Motor-vehicle traffic10,35319.012.5129,78620.2
    Motor-vehicle non-traffic5851.19.052550.8
    Other road vehicles17423.25.798511.5
    Water1920.49.418120.3
    Aircraft910.219.918090.3
                Total transport13,02223.911.5149,30323.2
Non-transport—
    Accidental poisoning17303.22.442290.7
    Accidental falls13,34024.518.0240,33137.4
    Other accidents13,56524.97.5101,35515.8
                Total non-transport28,63552.612.1345,91553.9
Surgical and medical complications and misadventures51859.514.573,56211.5
Late effects of accidental injury29195.417.250,3387.8
Suicide and self-inflicted injury25244.65.012,6092.0
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons18923.54.890541.4
Legal intervention4- -1.56- -
Injury undetermined whether accidentally or purposely inflicted2250.45.813140.2
Injury resulting from operations of war11- -12.4136- -
                Grand total54,417100.011.8642,237100.0

The largest group comes under the heading “Non-transport—Other accidents”, which includes accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments, machinery, falling objects, fire and hot objects, and so on.

About a quarter of all accidents came in this group. The 2 next largest groups comprised accidental falls and motor-vehicle traffic accidents. Victims of accidental falls also had the longest aggregate stay in hospital. This was because of the long period spent in hospital by elderly people who have sustained fractures of the femur in falls. Almost 1 in every 4 patients had been injured in a fall of some kind.

Motor-vehicle traffic accidents comprised the third largest group and had the second largest aggregate stay. Traffic accidents on roads are analysed in tables in Section 12 D Roads and Road Transport.

Accidents in the Home—A high percentage of non-transport accidents, especially those involving young children and elderly people, occur in the home. Accidents in the home in 1978 are included by type of accident in the previous section, but they are not separated out from accidents sustained elsewhere. The following table shows the number of patients discharged from, or dying, in public hospitals after treatment for accidents sustained in the home. It includes only inpatients in public hospitals; not, of course, the large numbers of home accident cases treated in outpatient departments, doctors' surgeries, and in the home itself.

Cause of AccidentTotal PatientsAggregate Duration of Stay in Hospital (Days)
Accidental poisoning by—
    Drugs and medicaments7572052
    Petroleum products and other solvents259348
    Pesticides, fertilisers, and plant foods111191
    Noxious foodstuffs and poisonous plants80112
    Other solid and liquid substances221533
    Gases and vapours2452
Accidental falls5688116,181
Struck by falling objects117942
Accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments16948251
Accidental burns86413,496
Accidents caused by foreign bodies5711302
All other and unspecified accidents220919,121
                Total12,595162,581

Deaths in Public Hospitals—The percentage of deaths in public hospitals to all deaths are shown in the following table.

YearDeaths in Public HospitalsTotal DeathsPercentage of Deaths in Public Hospitals to Total Deaths
197312,79725,31250.6
197412,56325,26149.7
197512,53925,11449.9
197612,89325,45050.7
197712,61425,96648.6
197811,95824,66948.5

Age and Sex of Patients—The age and sex of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1978 are shown below.

Age GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
  0–4 years21,96316,03838,001
  5–9 years11,970862120,591
10–14 years8873687315,746
15–19 years11,75812,62224,380
20–24 years10,59515,25225,847
25–29 years795215,98223,934
30–34 years652513,34319,868
35–39 years592410,02515,949
40–44 years5590818913,779
45–49 years6941796914,910
50–54 years8501792916,430
55–59 years9534758817,122
60–64 years9611777217,383
65–69 years10,653844919,102
70–74 years9148783216,980
75–79 years6609694013,549
80–84 years366949858654
85 years and over251845367054
Total158,334170,945329,279

PATIENTS IN PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—Under the Mental Health Act 1969 the control of psychiatric hospitals (with the exception of Lake Alice Hospital, Marton, which continues to make national provision for security patients) was transferred from the Department of Health to local hospital boards from 1 April 1972.

A detailed report Mental Health Data is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. The report contains administrative and clinical data about first admissions and readmissions (including replacements from leave), transfers, discharges, and deaths for all inpatients under psychiatric care. The report also presents information about psychiatric disorders in terms of age and sex, domicile, race, and length of stay.

The following table gives the annual averages and the rates per 100000 mean population for those in psychiatric hospitals and public hospitals. Final summary figures for 1977 and provisional figures for 1978 are included. More detailed figures for these years were not available at the time of going to press.

YearResident in Psychiatric HospitalOn Leave from Psychiatric HospitalTotal for Psychiatric HospitalsPatients in Public Hospitals
Average NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRate
* Provisional.
All Patients
19748930294.5180159.410,731353.91846.0
19758475274.5170955.410,184329.92006.5
19768171262.2180557.99976320.12056.6
19777877250.8177456.59651307.32678.5
1978*7619242.2180957.59428299.72467.8

Admissions and Readmissions—The provisional total of admissions to psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals during 1978 was 8686, compared with 8982 during the previous year. This total was made up of 3316 first admissions and 5370 readmissions (comparable figures for 1977 were 2881 and 6101). These figures exclude psychiatric units in general hospitals, The Bridge (Wellington and Auckland), and Rotoroa Island.

A readmission is a person admitted as an inpatient for psychiatric care who has previously received psychiatric care in a New Zealand hospital.

The readmission rate is not necessarily an indication of therapeutic failure and may in many respects be a more accurate index of therapeutic vigour. It is still possible to encounter grossly over-simplified ideas with regard to the operations of psychiatric hospitals. For example, it is sometimes assumed that discharge from hospitals is, or should be, an indication of final and complete cure.

In certain respects the long-established practice of publishing readmission rates for psychiatric hospitals (no similar figures appear for general hospitals) seems to perpetuate this misconception. Readmission figures are sometimes quoted as evidence that psychiatric hospitals “do not actually cure people”. As with many other types of illness, psychiatric disorders may require more than one hospital admission before the condition is stabilised.

Admissions to psychiatric hospitals for alcoholism and drug addiction under the Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act 1966 during 1978 are shown in the following table. The figures are provisional.

HospitalSection 8Section 9Total
Carrington91827
Oakley6713
Kingseat20626
Tokanui182038
Porirua11
Sunnyside81523
Cherry Farm91928
Rotoroa Island64771
The Bridge (Wellington)141226
The Bridge (Auckland)246
        Total150109259

Readmissions are not included in the above table.

Admissions under section 8 of the Act are made as a result of applications from the patients themselves; applications under section 9 are a result of applications made on the patients' behalves by reputable persons. Rotoroa Island and The Bridge, Wellington, and Auckland are conducted by the Salvation Army.

General Trend—The average number of occupied beds in psychiatric hospitals in 1978 was about 2.4 per thousand of population. This is the lowest figure recorded since 1881. No absolute conclusions can be drawn from a low bed-occupancy rate; but a consistently falling rate, despite substantial admission rates, can fairly be assumed to indicate an active philosophy of treatment and successful therapeutic programmest.

Discharges—There are 3 principal ways of being discharged from psychiatric hospital: (a) outright discharge, which means being formally discharged at the time of leaving hospital; (b) discharge on leave; and (c) discharged “not committed”, which means being discharged from a psychiatric hospital on the grounds that the patient's mental condition does not warrant his being detained. All people discharged from a psychiatric unit of a public hospital are discharged outright.

There were 6951 outright discharges from psychiatric or psychopaedic hospitals during 1978, compared with 7193 during 1977. An additional 758 patients were discharged or died while on leave.

Diagnoses—Numbers and rates of first admissions, readmissions, and discharges of patients under psychiatric care during 1976 are shown by diagnosis in the following table. This information was not available for later years at the time of going to press.

DiagnosisFirst AdmissionsReadmissionsDischarges
No.Rate*No.Rate*OutrightLeaveNot CommittedTotal
* Per million of mean population.
Senile and pre-senile dementia2648512339179281208
Alcoholic psychosis55181284190761167
Other organic psychoses2076623575282994385
Schizophrenia and paranoid states49816022047071796970242790
Depressive psychosis42613787528111918831282
Other functional psychoses2347587628186022751092
Depressive neurosis765245802257149351231567
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders2046524077396156417
Alcoholism74724019176152166400272593
Other personality disorders54417587228011421251601427
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children23676154493471410371
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition822611938146462194
Mental retardation2367690028987325181132
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)2066615249251563319
                All cases470415109597308011,212239533713,944

Deaths—During 1973, 352 patients died in psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals, compared with 478 in 1977.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Other publications containing data on hospitals include the following:

Hospital Management Data—Department of Health (Annual).

Mental Health Data—Department of Health (Annual).

Organisation of the Work of Hospital House Surgeons—Department of Health.

Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data—Department of Health (Annual).

Survey of Occupied Psychiatric Hospital Beds and Psychiatric Day and Outpatients, 1976—Department of Health (1979).

Bed Occupation Survey, 1976—Department of Health (1979).

Trends in Health and Health Services—Department of Health (2-yearly).

The Public Health (Parl. paper E. 10)—Department of Health (Annual).

A Health Service for New Zealand—(Parl. paper H.23 1974).

5 C—HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTS OF NEW ZEALAND CHILDREN

The heights and weights of primary school children in New Zealand were surveyed in 1913, 1925, 1934, 1954, and (most recently) in 1969. In 1973, for the first time, a survey was made of the development of pre-school children.

These surveys have revealed a pattern of growth similar to that of children in other developed countries.

Most notably, there has been a marked gain in both height and weight, especially between 1934 and 1954. A spurt in growth appears at between 11 and 12 years of age in girls and at between 12 and 14 year of age in boys, and in both sexes is associated with early maturation. Causes of earlier physical development are likely to have included better housing and education, more attention to health and health education, improved nutritional standards, fewer debilitating diseases, and the effects of measures taken to prevent deficiency diseases.

New Zealand figures suggest that significant changes in height, which have been a feature of the past half-century, will not continue. There is reason to believe that the continued weight increases are indicative of an emerging problem of overweight for height at all ages. This suggests that in New Zealand obesity may become the main nutritional problem. In view of its relationship to cardiovascular and other diseases in the adult, obesity requires greater attention when the health and physical development of New Zealand children are considered.

PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN—In early 1973 the Department of Health joined with the Plunket Society in the first national survey of the growth and development of pre-school children. Supine height, weight, chest, and head circumferences were measured. The age groupings consisted of 1 group for each month in the first year of life, and 1 group for each quarter year of life following. The sample consisted of 4951 girls (of whom 570 were Maoris and 114 Pacific Islanders) and 5161 boys (of whom 593 were Maoris and 123 Pacific Islanders).

As a general statement, it can be said that the pattern of physical development of pre-school children in New Zealand was shown to be virtually identical with that observed in children in affluent communities in other countries. Most authorities now agree that little difference exists between the height-weight patterns of well-nourished children regardless of their ethnic origins.

A comprehensive report on this 1973 survey was published by the Department of Health in its special report series under the title Growth of New Zealand Pre-School Children.

PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN—Each successive survey of primary school children has shown general increases over the preceding survey in heights and weights at all ages, in some decades more marked than others. The 1969 survey showed that the very marked gain in both heights and weights which occurred between 1934 and 1954 tends to be slowing down, especially at the lower age levels, although a significant gain in weights at the higher age levels still seems to be continuing.

In the 1969 survey the total number of school children included in the sample was 24852, taken from 19 health districts in proportion to the populations of the districts. Approximately equal numbers, about 2000, were sampled from each age group from 5 to 15 years. Roughly one-sixth of the children were Maoris and five-sixths were, in the main, Europeans but included small numbers of Indians, Chinese, Samoans, and other Pacific Islanders of the same Polynesian stock as the Maoris themselves. The number of Maoris was chosen again in relation to the total Maori population in each district.

As previous surveys had shown little significance in the difference of heights and weights between urban areas and rural districts no attempt was made during the 1969 survey to obtain separate figures for geographical groupings although, in selecting schools, allowance was made in the choice so as not to overload the figures in the direction of either urban, rural, or socio-economic groups.

A detailed report on the 1969 survey was published in the special report series of the Department of Health entitled Physical Development of New Zealand School Children 1969.

Chapter 6. Section 6 SOCIAL WELFARE

6 A—SOCIAL WELFARE AND SOCIAL WORK

GENERAL—Social services and the whole concept of state-supported or state-subsidised social welfare are continually evolving in response to the changing needs of society and the greater recognition of the responsibilities of that society towards its less-fortunate or more-vulnerable members.

The New Zealand social welfare system has grown pragmatically to meet local needs, and in the light of local experience, rather than under the influence of social or political theories. Even the 1938 Social Security Act, rightly regarded as a landmark in the history of social welfare in New Zealand, did not introduce any sweeping theoretical changes, and since then ideas have been refined and enlarged rather than radically altered.

Nowadays the Department of Social Welfare, formed in 1972 from an amalgamation of the Social Security Department and the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education, is the main Government agency in this field.

Also involved in social welfare are the Departments of Health, Education, Justice, Labour, and Maori Affairs.

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE—The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are to:

  1. Administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Children and Young Persons Act 1974; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; the Rehabilitation Act 1941; and the Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies for New Zealand.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Minister may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities in Government or voluntary organisations.

  5. Maintain close liaison with, and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among, any organisations and individuals (including departments of State and other agencies of the Crown) engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

  7. Provide administrative services to boards, councils, committees, and agencies.

The objects of the department's administrative services are to provide such administrative support, and advisory, training, and research services as are necessary for the efficient and effective administration of the department's functions. The department is a principal adviser to Government on matters of social welfare policy. It also has particular responsibilities to private and voluntary organisations. Units with special responsibilities for liaison with such organisations and for publicity and information have been established so that the public are kept abreast of developments.

The objectives of the policy for benefits and pensions are:

  1. To safeguard individuals in the community against loss of income or reduction in income brought about by age, incapacity, widowhood, orphanhood, unemployment, or other circumstances by providing income security at a level which will enable them to belong and participate in the community, and benefits for children as a contribution towards their maintenance.

  2. To provide assistance towards housing finance for families of moderate means by way of an advance of family benefit.

  3. To provide additional benefits for those whose income and financial resources are insufficient to meet their living costs and other commitments.

  4. To provide pensions on the death or disablement of members of the forces as recompense for physical loss, at a level reviewed and set each year at 1 April in accordance with movements in the Consumers Price Index; and to provide other allowances and concessions according to the nature and extent of disablement.

  5. To provide and maintain a service to ensure the rehabilitation and resettlement in civil life of former members of the forces.

The objectives of the policy for social work services are:

  1. To make better provision for the maintenance, care, and control of children who are under the protection of the State and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, maltreated, and delinquent children.

  2. To establish and maintain institutions, or arrange foster homes, for the care and control of children committed to the guardianship of the State.

  3. To promote and maintain a preventive work, social work, and general counselling service for persons and families facing social and economic difficulties.

  4. To promote and maintain an effective rehabilitation service to ensure that disabled persons are given encouragement, counselling, and assistance to restore them to a fuller and more meaningful life.

The social work services involve individual and family casework and general welfare work. Emphasis is given to the care and control of children including those with emotional or behavioural problems.

The residential programme includes the inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and the licensing and supervision of child care centres in order to ensure satisfactory standards are maintained. This division also has a responsibility for children in licensed foster homes.

Added emphasis is given in the programme to the rehabilitation of disabled persons. Co-ordination with other agencies which also have responsibilities in this work, such as the Department of Health and Department of Labour, is achieved through representation of the department on the National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, which also acts as an advisory body to the Government on rehabilitation.

MAIN FEATURES OF SOCIAL WELFARE SYSTEM—The present system cannot be characterised according to any single principle, theory, or formula. As already stated, it has evolved from changing needs and experience in dealing with them. For example, it looks like a form of community insurance, but is not financed, funded, or administered on an insurance basis. It is financed from general taxation; but a person's benefit bears no relation to his tax contribution. While basically income-tested and selective as to need within classes of benefit, it is also universally applied without regard to other income or means in 3 main cases (national superannuation, family, and medical benefits) and in the lesser miners' benefit. It transfers income from the more to the less affluent mainly on the basis of greatest help for those in greatest need. It reflects the traditional humanitarian, egalitarian, and pragmatic approach of New Zealanders and, most importantly, reflects an acceptance of community responsibility for social welfare.

The main features of the system are:

  1. Eligibility for benefits (other than emergency) is based on residence for varying qualifying periods and not on the amount of tax paid.

  2. Benefits (other than family, miners', national superannuation, and medical benefits) are subject to an income test with the amount of benefit being reduced if other income is over a prescribed level. Emergency benefits and additional benefits are subject to tests of both income and property.

  3. In paying national superannuation and family benefit without any tests of income or need it is assumed that for everybody over 60 years of age, and for all families with dependent children, a community-financed income supplement is necessary and desirable, irrespective of actual financial need or resources. Miners' benefit is not income tested, on the accepted assumption that if a person is disabled by disease arising from mining he needs to be compensated for losing income and enjoyment of life and that the income loss does not require to be established or tested.

  4. The concept of the family as the fundamental economic and social unit is recognised by the payments made in respect of the otherwise ineligible but dependent wife and children of a beneficiary; and the taking into account of the income of the husband or wife (legal or de facto) of a beneficiary when assessing the amount of those benefits subject to an income test.

  5. Contribution under a graduated income tax system and payment of benefits at a flat rate irrespective of contributions (that is, taxes paid) distinguishes the New Zealand system from many of those of other countries.

  6. The cash and medical benefits give a comprehensive coverage of need.

  7. Beneficiaries are given incentives to selfhelp and to work. From the start, amounts payable from standard benefits have been set below the average wages of low-earner groups; and small incomes, and most property, have been disregarded in assessing an individual's benefit. Conversely, national superannuation for people over 60 years, and the benefits for widows and domestic purposes beneficiaries with dependent children, or over a prescribed age, recognise these people's right to stop working if they want to.

  8. Funding is through taxation. The right to “contract out” on the grounds that the individual may not need, or qualify for, public aid is denied in the community interest, as it is with other State services such as education, defence, and police.

  9. The Social Security Commission has wide discretionary power to grant, withhold, or reduce benefits, and a general power of direction is given to the Ministers of Health and Social Welfare.

  10. With certain exceptions no person is entitled to more than one analogous benefit from either New Zealand or overseas.

  11. Standard rates with supplements, rather than differential rates according to the class of benefit, relate benefits to need rather than to the cause of need.

ADMINISTRATION—The Social Security Commission in the Department of Social Welfare administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Welfare, Part I of the Social Security Act 1964 dealing with cash benefits, while matters concerning medical, hospital, and other related benefits are administered by the Department of Health under the direction of the Minister of Health (see Section 5A).

The War Pensions Act 1954 is also administered by the Department of Social Welfare, which likewise handles ex-servicemen's rehabilitation.

Child welfare activities are governed by the Children and Young Persons Act and other legislation detailed later in this section.

FINANCIAL PROVISIONS—From 1 April 1964, when the Social Security Fund was absorbed into the Consolidated Revenue Account, the payment of medical benefits has been made by the Department of Health from money appropriated by Parliament for this purpose. From 1 April 1958, the cost of public hospital administration has been borne directly by general taxation; treatment in public hospitals is free. Details of medical benefits are set out in Section 5A—Health and Medical Services.

Payments—The New Zealand system has developed the following types of social welfare assistance.

Cash benefits as of right for those eligible by category, residence, and income, paid at flat standard rates (plus allowance for dependants) without regard to taxes paid.

Emergency benefits for those who need help but who are not, for any reason, eligible for standard benefits.

Additional benefit is available to beneficiaries who have limited income and assets.

Medical and pharmaceutical benefits for all members of the community; free public (and subsidised private) hospital care.

Universally applied benefits (with no means test) for dependent children, and for those over 60 years of age.

Particulars of payments under the Social Security Act during the last 5 financial years are contained in the following table.

Item1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79

* Expenditure on additional benefit which replaced supplementary assistance from July 1975, is included with expenditure for the related standard benefit.

National superannuation came into effect from 9 February 1977. The amount shown is for the period 9 February to 31 March 1977. Expenditure on superannuation and age benefits which were replaced by national superannuation is for the period 1 April 1976 to 8 February 1977.

Cash benefits—  $(thousand)  
    National superannuation114,980926,5061,162,889
    Superannuation140,950165,781159,432
    Age224,853311,795326,879
    Widows27,96734,42839,04541,94947,218
    Domestic purposes30,15648,90380,774111,793143,533
    Orphans381400516596692
    Family153,175164,695156,614183,148153,555
    Invalids13,66518,14623,13028.39233,912
    Miners848597115113
    Unemployment5,1558,49313,42919,86554,236
    Sickness15,88618,46724,41426,35230,326
    Benefit on death2,5983,9543,3592,967
Supplementary assistance5,4202,045****
Advances for repairs to homes180276272273286
Aid to families caring for disabled persons8164325614
Employment subsidy for disabled civilians63231
Capitalisation of family benefit6,3298,1614,7703,6747,968
                  Total cash benefits624,207784,284948,4721,346,3511,638,310
Health benefits—
    Maternity4,9815,3085,0225,0676,183
    Medical23,60932,80633,69736,21446,192
    Hospital10,14713,01117,39818,09719,076
    Pharmaceutical56,47969,86784,85197,713113,449
    Supplementary15,82018,80520,36822,04227,026
                  Total medical benefits111,037139,798161,336179,134211,926

About one-half of the total expenditure on cash benefits (including supplementary assistance advances for repairs to homes, and employment subsidy for disabled civilians) is paid without an income test.

The following table summarises social welfare expenditure according to type of benefit and per head of mean population, and also relates expenditure to gross domestic product (GDP).

Year Ended 31 MarchGross Domestic ProductExpenditure*
Health BenefitFamily BenefitOther BenefitTotalPer Head of Mean Population

* Excluding capitalised family benefits.

Provisional.

  $(million)$    
Amount
197510,086x111.0153.2464.7728.9239.22
197611,627x139.8164.7611.4915.9295.70
197714,030x161.3156.6787.11,105.0354.09
197815,316179.1183.11,159.51,521.8486.37
197917,738211.9153.51,476.81,842.3588.74
Percentage of Expenditure to Gross Domestic Product x
19751.101.524.637.23...
19761.201.425.267.88...
19771.151.125.617.88...
19781.171.207.579.94...
19791.190.878.3310.39...

Government expenditure on social services (including health and education) is shown in relation to total Government expenditure in a table in the Statistical Summary at the back of this Yearbook.

Benefits and Pensions in Force—The total number of social welfare cash benefits in force at 31 March 1979 was 949490. Particulars of the various social welfare benefits in force at 31 March for the 5 latest years were as follows:

Class of Benefit19751976197719781979

* Supplementary assistance was replaced by additional benefit from 2 July 1975. Figures are included with related benefits.

Replaced by national superannuation from 9 February 1977.

  Number in Force  
National superannuation371,697387,439397,010
Superannuation114,834111,738
Age174,514188,459
Widows'16,73816,72616,21116,10316,173
Domestic purposes17,23123,04728,40131,46535,385
Orphans'376411420382422
Family452,389463,006464,156465,485462,651
Invalids'9414991710,70711,36512,272
Miners'4541373426
Unemployment28945127365117,48417,894
Sickness78309077836776267657
Supplementary assistance19,480****
                Total815,745827,549903,647937,383949,490

Relationship to Wages—In the following table, based on one compiled originally for the Royal Commission on Social Security 1972, standard weekly benefit rates are related to nominal award wages and average weekly earnings.

YearStandard Benefit Rate*Percentage of Nominal Award Wage§Percentage of Average Weekly Earnings
UnmarriedMarriedUnmarried BenefitMarried BenefitUnmarried BenefitMarried Benefit

* Standard rate includes widows, miners, invalids, sickness, and unemployment benefits (except that a lesser rate is payable to unmarried invalids and sickness beneficiaries under 18 years and unemployment beneficiaries under 20 years).

Relates to adult males only up to and including 1977 and to all adults from 1978. It is the average of a comprehensive survey of the wages of occupational groups used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index compiled by the Department of Statistics. The average is determined after occupations are “weighted” according to their relative importance in the survey.

In the half-yearly survey, weekly wage payout and hourly earnings relate to all employees, males and females, adult and juvenile combined. Salaried executives are included but no working proprietors. Earnings include overtime, bonuses, and all allowances and special payments.

§ From 1978 onwards the all adults survey gives a slightly higher level of average wage rates than the previous survey covering adult males only.

 $    $    %    %    %    
197530.7551.2632.954.932.153.5
197636.2260.3634.256.933.656.0
197741.3068.8434.357.233.856.3
197846.3777.2833.5x55.8*34.056.6
197952.1386.8833.155.232.754.4

CASH BENEFITS—The rates of benefits have been increased from time to time, mainly as a result of the increased cost of living. More recent increases for invalids', widows', and miners' benefits are shown in the following table.

Date of IncreaseAmount of Increase per Week
Married CouplesUnmarried Beneficiaries
 $   $   
27 Jul 19774.842.90
11 Jan 19784.962.98
27 Jul 19783.482.09
10 Jan 19794.002.40
25 Jul 19795.603.36
9 Jan 19807.824.69

The list below gives a summary of the weekly rates for cash benefits. The term Unmarried includes those widowed or divorced. Later rates may be included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

BenefitWeekly Rate
10 Jan 197925 Jul 19799 Jan 1980

* Any of the above benefits with dependent children

National superannuation is not subject to an income test but is taxable.

Invalids* and sickness*
    Unmarried—$     $     $     
        18 and over48.7752.1356.82
        Under 18 without dependants37.1039.6643.23
    Married—
        Husband or wife separately40.6443.4447.35
        Husband (wife included)81.2886.8894.70
Widows*48.7752.1356.82
Domestic purposes—
    Solo parent or woman alone48.7752.1356.82
    Caring for sick or infirm—
        Unmarried and 18 or over48.7752.1356.82
        Unmarried and under 1837.1039.6643.23
        Married40.6443.4447.35
Unemployment*
    Unmarried person—
        Twenty years and over48.7752.1356.82
        Under 20 years without dependants37.1039.6643.23
    Married man (wife included)81.2886.8894.70
    Solo parent and 1 child78.2880.8888.70
    Solo parent and 2 children81.2884.8892.70
        Increased by $208 a year ($4 p.w.) for each subsequent child
    Married couple with 1 child84.2890.8898.70
        Increased by $208 a year ($4 p.w.) for each subsequent child
Miners—
    Unmarried person48.7752.1356.82
    Married man (wife included)81.2886.8894.70
    Miner's widow47.1750.5355.22
Orphans24.2025.8528.16
Family—
    Each dependent child3.006.006.00
Additional benefit is available to beneficiaries with limited incomes and assets and may include an allowance in respect of accommodation costs and any special needs.
Emergency Benefits—According to circumstances.
National superannuation(27 Feb 1979)(28 Aug 1979)(26 Feb 1980)
 $     $     $     
    Married person56.2656.3760.68
    Single person67.5267.6572.82
    Married couple112.52112.74121.36

Payment Whilst in Hospital—Married couples benefit is continued at the current rate during the period of hospitalisation where one party of a married couple is admitted to hospital.

Unmarried person benefit is continued at the current rate for the first 13 weeks of hospitalisation. The benefit is then reduced to $9 a week for a further 13 weeks, but this may be increased, if necessary, to meet continuing expenses.

Entitlement to benefit following a period of 26 weeks is dependent on the beneficiary's financial and personal circumstances, his or her needs, and the capacity to appreciate and understand any payment that may be made.

In general, where the beneficiary has no income or commitment, apart from the usual expenses or comforts, the rate of benefit is $4.50 a week.

Basic Income Exemptions—The basic income exemptions at the end of 1979 were as follows:

Widows', invalids and domestic purposes benefits, $1,300 a year.

Sickness, and unemployment benefits—$25 a week (but see below regarding unemployment benefits and personal earnings).

Orphans benefit—$260 a year.

National superannuation is taxable and is paid to qualified persons, regardless of income. If the inclusion of a non-qualified spouse is sought, an income test applies. The income exemption in this case is $1,300 a year.

Family and miners benefits are paid regardless of the financial circumstances of the beneficiary.

Adjustment of Benefit for Income Above Exemption—Invalids, widows, and domestic purposes benefits are reduced by 40c for every complete $1 a year of income over the appropriate income exemption of $1,300 a year and up to $2,080 a year, then 80c for every $1 a year.

Sickness benefits are reduced by 8c for every 20c over $25 a week up to $40 a week, then 16c for every 20c a week of income.

Unemployment benefits are reduced by 8c for every 20c of other income over $25 a week up to $40 a week, then 16c for every 20c a week.

Orphans benefits are reduced by $3 for every complete $4 a year of income over $260 a year.

National Superannuation—National superannuation, for persons aged 60 or over, replaced age and superannuation benefits from 9 February 1977. It is subject to a 10-year residence test and is taxable, but is not subject to an income test unless payment is claimed for unqualified spouse. There are no special contributions required as national superannuation is financed from ordinary government revenue.

The rates of national superannuation represent a percentage of the average ordinary-time weekly wage after tax. At the introduction of the scheme on 9 February 1977 the rate was 70 percent of the average ordinary-time weekly wage after tax and rose to 80 percent from 30 August 1978. The single rate is 60 percent of the married rate. Rates are adjusted every 6 months in line with the results of a survey carried out by the Department of Labour. The review dates for national superannuation art different from those for other social welfare benefits.

Widows' Benefits—Subject to an income qualification every widow who is the mother of one or more dependent children under 16 years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of a dependent child under 16 years of age who satisfies certain conditions is also entitled to the benefit.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' benefits in force at 31 March 1979, according to the number of dependent children. (Deserted wives are also included.)

Number of Dependent ChildrenWidows' Benefits
Nil10,303
13049
21630
3728
4304
5 or more159
                  Total16,173

Domestic Purposes Benefits—Persons who qualify for domestic purposes benefit are:

  1. A woman with a dependent child or children who is living apart from and has lost the support of, or is inadequately maintained by, her husband, or who is divorced from her husband, or whose husband is a prisoner;

  2. An unmarried mother of one or more dependent children;

  3. A father of one or more dependent children who has lost his wife by death, divorce, or some other cause.

  4. Women without dependent children who come within the definition of “a woman alone”, which is a woman who has never been married or who has lost the support of her husband, and who has cared for dependent children or for incapacitated relatives.

  5. Other persons qualifying for the domestic purposes benefit are those required to give full-time care and attention at home to a person who would otherwise have been admitted to hospital. In the case of both a solo parent and a woman alone, de facto marriages are considered as marriages.

Orphans' Benefits—A benefit in respect of orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under 16 years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was ordinarily resident in New Zealand or a period of not less than 3 years preceding the date of his or her death.

The number of benefits in force at 31 March 1979 was 422 (in respect of 514 children).

Family Benefits—The rate of the benefit is $6 a week for each child, until he or she reaches 16 years, or, if a full-time school pupil, the end of the year in which 18 years is reached. The rate was increased to $6 a week from 17 October 1979.

A family benefit or portion of a family benefit may be paid in a lump sum in advance for a period not exceeding 52 weeks in respect of the first child or a child who has commenced his first year of intermediate or secondary education.

A family benefit may be paid in cash, or to the credit of a bank account of the mother. The number of family benefits being paid to bank accounts at 31 March 1979 was 302215. The total number of benefits in force at 31 March 1979 was 462651 covering 983173 children, compared with corresponding figures of 465485 and 1017203 at 31 March 1978. At the end of the 1978 school year there were 86100 children over 16 at school in respect of whom benefits were being paid.

The average number of children in respect of whom benefits were paid was 2.13 per family at 31 March 1979.

Under the provisions of the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964, family benefits may be capitalised and paid in advance to assist parents with the erection or purchase of house properties, whether previously occupied or not, additions or alterations to existing homes, or in certain circumstances the repayment of mortgages and other obligations on family homes. In outline, the measure provides for the capitalisation of up to $3.00 of the weekly family benefit in respect of each of 1 or more children from the age of 1 year up to the age of 16 years, provided that the total of the advance or advances in the case of any one family is not less than $400 nor more than $3,000. The maximum income limit for eligibility is $125 a week for a family with 1 child, rising by $5 a week for each additional child.

Details of family benefit capitalisation in recent years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchApplications for Capitalisation ApprovedCapitalised Value of Benefits
  $(000)
197565656,329
197678168,161
197726634,770
197827643,673
197965917,968

Invalids' Benefits—An invalid's benefit is payable if a person aged 15 years or over—(a) is totally blind; or (b) is permanently and severely restricted in his capacity for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

In computing the income of any blind person no account is taken of his personal earnings. In addition, the benefit of a totally blind person may within certain limits be increased by up to 25 percent of his personal earnings. The personal earnings of a severely disabled beneficiary may be disregarded in whole or in part in computing his benefit.

Miners' Benefits—A miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted pneumoconiosis or any other occupational disease and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, provided that compensation in respect of the same disability is not being received.

Unemployment Benefits—An applicant for unemployment benefit is required to satisfy the commission: (a) that he is unemployed; (b) that he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work; (c) that he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment; (d) that he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months at any time. A person is not entitled to an unemployment benefit if he is a full-time student, or if he is not employed because of a strike either by him or by fellow members of his union at the same place of employment.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first 7 days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. The commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding 6 weeks, the commencement of the benefit if the applicant: (a) has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason; or (b) has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker. The benefit may be terminated if the beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit—e.g., national superannuation.

If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a spouse, an allowance may be paid in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

Benefits were granted to 50588 persons in 1977–78 and 87107 persons in 1978–79.

The following table shows the position regarding unemployment benefits and emergency unemployment benefits during the year ended 31 March 1979, Emergency benefits may be granted on grounds of hardship to persons who do not qualify for the ordinary unemployment benefit. The average duration of unemployment benefits (not including emergency benefits) which ceased during the 1978 calendar year was 14 weeks (13.2 weeks for men and 15.3 weeks for women).

 UnemploymentEmergency Unemployment
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Numbers obtained from a monthly count of benefits in force.
Benefits granted56,44230,66587,107249013153805
Applications declined18,176859226,7686644061070
Benefits in force at 31 March 19799444694516,3898646411505
Average number in force during year*11,065698018,0459347361670

Sickness Benefits—A person over the age of 15 years who is incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and as a result suffers a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, may apply for a sickness benefit.

The number of persons granted sickness benefit was 31900 in 1977–78, and 33000 in 1978–79.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1978 are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit (based on a 20 percent sample of the estimated 33000 benefits which ceased).

Period on Benefit (Weeks)Number of Benefits
MalesFemalesTotal
Up to 5360018005400
  5–8400022606260
  9–12265018204470
13–25423047709000
26–38150020603560
39–518204701290
52–779504101360
78–103420160580
104 and over7003801080
        Total18,87014,13033,000

Benefit on Death—As from 1 April 1975 a lump sum benefit is payable following the deaths of persons under 60* years of age, who leave dependants not entitled to lump sum payment under the Accident Compensation Act. A dependent widow or widower (including a party to a de facto relationship) will receive $1,000, and subject to a maximum of $1,500 for children, each dependent child will be paid up to $500.

Emergency Benefits—An emergency benefit may be granted on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit other than family benefit.

Additional Benefit—Additional benefit is for people whose income and cash assets are limited and who are paying accommodation costs in excess of a certain amount. The maximum amount of additional benefit is $16 a week for both married couples and single people.

Since 1973 a telephone rental concession equal to one-half of the amount of the rental may be granted to persons in receipt of invalids', widows', or related benefits. Since 1 January 1975 a concession equivalent to one-half of a television licence fee has also been available for these beneficiaries.

Disability Allowance—A disability allowance of up to $8 a week was introduced from 10 October 1975 for disabled persons receiving an income tested benefit or for persons whose income is such that they could qualify for an income tested benefit. The allowance can also be paid in respect of the disabled wife or child of such a person. The purpose of the allowance is to meet special expenses arising from the person's disability, such as transport costs, special diet, domestic help, or medicines not on free list, etc.

Handicapped Child's Allowance—From 18 October 1978 legislation provided for the payment of a nontaxable allowance of $8 a week to the parents of seriously physically or mentally handicapped children other than those already being cared for in full-time residential institutions.

Reciprocity with Australia—The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948 provided for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1 July 1949. (A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.)

For the purpose of any application for a benefit (except the New Zealand miners, orphans, or domestic purposes benefits) residence in Australia or birth in Australia is regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for invalids' or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive national superannuation unless he has attained the age of 65 years and, if under 70, he will be required to establish that he would have been able to qualify on income grounds for an Australian age pension had he remained in Australia. The act also provides that the department shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1979 comprised 606 national superannuation benefits; 37 widows' benefits; 51 invalids' benefits; and 1 domestic purposes benefit —a total of 702 compared with 696 a year earlier.

Reciprocity with United Kingdom—The Social Security (Reciprocity with United Kingdom) Act 1969 provides for reciprocity in a comprehensive range of benefits between New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The general principle of the agreement is that persons migrating from one country to the other will be taken into the social security scheme of the receiving country and paid benefits by the receiving country under the laws and conditions applicable to other residents of that country. No male person applying for national superannuation under the agreement is entitled to receive payment unless he has attained the age of 65. The qualifying age for women is 60 years.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1979 comprised 13773 national superannuation benefits; 156 widows' benefits; 4 orphans' benefits; 110 invalids' benefits; 2 sickness benefits; 5 unemployment benefits; and 3 domestic purposes benefits —a total of 14053 compared with 14035 a year earlier.

* Reduced to 60 from 65 years of age from 1 October 1976.

These are beneficiaries who were transferred to domestic purposes benefit from age benefit on the introduction of national superannuation.

New Zealand Residents in the United Kingdom—In the United Kingdom the agreement applies to former residents of New Zealand who claim retirement pensions, widows' pensions, widowed mothers' and guardians' allowances, family allowances, sickness and unemployment benefits under the National Insurance Act.

The qualifying age for retirement pensions under the National Insurance Act is 60 years for women and 65 years for men.

It is to be noted that, although a man may have been in receipt of national superannuation when he left New Zealand, he is not entitled to retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless he is 65 years of age. Special provisions apply to married women arriving in the United Kingdom from New Zealand as far as entitlement to the United Kingdom retirement pension is concerned.

Statistics from Census of Population 1976—In addition to the traditional census question on taxable income, information was sought for the first time at the 1976 Census of Population on the type of social welfare benefits held by persons aged 15 years and over. Respondents were required to specify the nature of all cash welfare benefits or pensions received during the year ended 31 March 1976. A summary of the results is given below. The figures apply only to persons normally resident in New Zealand, i.e., temporary visitors have been excluded. Total recipients of each type of welfare benefit have been shown.

The table indicates that 40.0 percent of the population aged 15 or over—or 2 in every 5—were in receipt of at least 1 social welfare cash benefit in the year ended 31 March 1976.

Class of Benefit or PensionTotal Beneficiaries*Percentage of Total Population 15 years and over
MaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotal

* Each beneficiary is included under every type of benefit or pension held.

Excludes cases where benefit(s) was not specified.

Includes War Veterans' Allowance.

No benefit or pension882,121435,6921,317,81381.339.260.0
Family8778436,604445,3820.839.320.3
Age70,619125,536196,1556.511.38.9
Universal superannuation51,57256,022107,5944.85.04.9
War pension29,44414,35543,7992.71.32.0
Sickness22,15710,31232,4692.00.91.5
Additional/Supplementary assistance724417,42924,6730.71.61.1
Domestic purposes59619,59220,1880.11.80.9
Widows' 18,90418,904 1.70.9
Unemployment7251548812,7396.70.50.6
Invalids'5130457597050.50.40.4
Other (e.g., emergency)2620496475840.20.40.3
Not specified272428295553.........

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES—Friendly societies or lodges had a membership of 53329 at the end of 1978 compared with 113000 in 1938 before the introduction of social security. They provide sickness and death benefits for members. The funds of the societies (including central bodies) totalled $50.5 million as at 31 December 1978.

Specially Authorised Societies—The majority of new societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act in recent years have been specially authorised societies in the form of credit unions; the number of such societies registered is now 260 and their funds totalled $42.6 million in 1978.

Medical Care Societies—The provisions of benefits to provide part or all of the costs of medical or surgical attendance in return for voluntary contributions may be administered through a separate fund of a traditional friendly society or through a society providing only such benefits, including the costs of private hospital treatment. The latter type of society may be registered under the Friendly Societies Act 1909, but at least 2 are known not to be so registered. It is, therefore, not possible to give comprehensive statistics of either membership or funds related to such benefits. The number of individuals covered for such benefits is approximately 460000 in societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act solely for the purposes and could be in excess of this figure in respect of traditional societies.

SOCIAL WORK—The establishment of the Department of Social Welfare from 1 April 1972 resulted in a widening of the scope of social work formerly undertaken by the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education and the Social Security Department. Although much of it is still concerned with the care, protection, and control of children and young persons, it now includes counselling work with the mentally and physically disabled, solo parents and their children, and the aged. The department now maintains a team of social workers and other staff who provide a general, individual, and family welfare counselling and guidance service for all age groups as well as undertaking general field investigation and inquiry work.

Services for Community Care—Assistance is given to community organisations providing care and training in the community for the handicapped, both physically and mentally, and for socially deprived children and pregnant women.

Financial assistance is given by way of subsidy to establish and operate residential homes, day care centres, and sheltered workshops. At 1 April 1979 the range and levels of available subsidies were as follows:

  1. Socially deprived children (i) 66 2/3 percent of capital cost of establishing residential accommodation and $27.40 per week for each child in residence, (ii) 66 2/3 percent of capital cost of establishing day care centres and $7.80 per week per child attending.

  2. Mentally handicapped persons: $6.00 per day for each child in residence.

  3. Physically and/or mentally handicapped persons: 80 percent of capital cost of establishing day care, sheltered workshop, and training facilities and 75 percent of cost of staff salaries.

  4. Field services: Annual grants to organisations providing field services, particularly for preventive work with children at risk.

Other assistance to organisations in this field include:

  1. An advisory service covering a wide range of activities from forward planning to details of administration and design;

  2. The engagement of Ministry of Works and Development in the search for, inspection of, and purchasing of suitable properties, on behalf of any organisation wishing to establish a subsidisable social welfare facility.

Standards of care and training are set by regulations, requiring residential and day care centres to be registered, and by periodic inspection to ensure that the standards are being maintained.

Social Work with Children and Young Persons—Besides clerical officers, social work services involve 548 social workers and 570 institutional workers. Casework duties include preventive work; investigations and reporting for the Children's and Young Persons Courts; supervision of children in their own homes; foster home, institution, and work placement: adoption and ex-nuptial birth inquiry work; the licensing of foster parents defined in the Act; reporting to courts on matrimonial proceedings affecting custody of children; registration of child care centres; inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and examination of requests made by them for financial subsidies; and the oversight of immigrant and refugee children. Social workers receive assistance in many of these duties from about 600 honorary social workers, who are people of integrity and local standing in their communities.

Institutional care facilities include long-term training centres for difficult and delinquent children, short-term facilities providing classification, emergency, and temporary care for both infants and older children, and family homes which provide care for children of all ages either on a short-term or long-term basis.

Social workers undertake a wide variety of miscellaneous investigations and inquiries concerning the welfare of children. Cases may be referred by neighbours, police, teachers, employers, doctors, solicitors, etc., or by parents themselves who are seeking advice and guidance. Some of these cases will respond quickly to help. Others may need preventive oversight and guidance over several months or even 2 or 3 years. Financial help can be given in special cases. In a relatively small number of cases preventive help is not sufficient and court action is the outcome of inquiries.

Social workers, on receiving from the registrars notifications of ex-nuptial births, make confidential inquiries and assist the mother as necessary in making provision for her child. From figures in the Births section of this Yearbook, it will be seen that about 82 percent of children born ex-nuptially remain with their mothers, whether or not she is living with the father, and only 10 percent are made available for adoption. Placements in adoption homes are made by social workers for those children (about three-fifths) for whom placements have not been made by private persons and other organisations. The smaller proportion of children being offered for adoption is thought to reflect the beginnings of a changing pattern in society, with an increase both in de facto liaisons and in the proportion of mothers wanting to undertake the sole care of a child.

Under the Adoption Act 1955 a social worker must give prior approval to the placement for adoption of a child or young person under 20 years of age, or alternatively, the applicants must apply for an interim order of adoption from the court. The court is required to obtain a social worker's report on such a placement before granting an order. A waiting period of at least 6 months is normally required, during which the placement is supervised by a social worker, before a final order can be made.

Any person who is not a close relative and who undertakes to care for a child under the age of 6 years apart from its mother for a period of more than 28 consecutive days for payment or reward must have her home licensed by a social worker. At 31 December 1978 social workers were visiting 73 children so placed.

Inspecting children's homes operated by private organisations and administering schemes of Government financial assistance to these homes is another important social welfare function. Financial assistance is given by payments of $27.40 per week for each child in care and subsidies of up to 663 percent on expenditure for extension or replacement of buildings or additions to facilities. A similar capital subsidy is available for private organisations to help in providing accommodation for unmarried mothers and their children.

Regulations for the registration and licensing of child care centres (e.g., day nurseries, creches, etc.), have been in force since 1961.

The Department of Social Welfare has built up a considerable body of knowledge on new trends and methods in the fields of both residential and day care for children. As a result it has become an important point of reference for information and advice.

Children and Young Persons Proceedings—The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, which came into effect on 1 April 1975, introduced substantial changes in the procedures under which the department carries out its functions in relation to juvenile offending and other problems concerning the welfare of children.

The main thrust of the Act is to extend the provisions for young offenders to be dealt with through care, protection, and control proceedings rather than through criminal prosecutions and to provide for such proceedings to be dealt with by newly-created Children's Boards rather than by courts.

Prior to the new Act, children or young persons coming to the notice of the police for offending were dealt with either by the Youth Aid section of the New Zealand Police or by prosecution in the Children's Court. Children and young persons considered to be in need of care, protection, or control were generally dealt with by way of complaint to the Children's Court under the provisions of the Child Welfare Act 1925.

Under the provisions of the Children and Young Persons Act 1974, a legal distinction is made between children (defined in the Act as persons under the age of 14 years) and young persons (defined as persons aged 14 years but less than 17 years).

Where a young person comes to notice for offending, the matter may be dealt with by the Youth Aid section of the New Zealand Police by way of consultation between the police and a social worker.

Children's Boards deal with children coming to official notice either for offending or because they are considered to be in need of care, protection, or control.

The Youth Aid section and the children's boards can deal with cases coming to their attention in several ways. These include warnings by the board or Youth Aid section, oversight by a social worker or Youth Aid officer, counselling of the child or young person, and counselling of the parents or guardian.

Both the Children's Boards and the Youth Aid section have the option of referring any matter to a Children's and Young Persons Court.

Children's and Young Persons Courts—The Children's and Young Persons Courts were established by the Children and Young Persons Act 1974. These Courts began operation on 1 April 1975. Figures in the following table are for the year ended 31 December 1978.

Children's and Young Persons CourtsNumber of Appearances
Appearances involving complaint under Children and Young Persons Act 19742958
Appearances involving charges for offences10,318
              Total appearances13,276

Total Cases Coming to Notice—The table below gives total numbers of cases coming to official notice each year during the period 1974 to 1978.

YearYouth Aid Cases Not Referred to Court or Children's BoardsChildren's Board Cases Not Referred to CourtCourt AppearancesTotal NumberPercentage Increase on Previous Year
197412,588...13,28725,8755
197512,679225112,76027,6907
19765293307212,88921,254−23
19775187x315712,88621,230- -
19783783278113,27619,840−7

The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, by making legislative provision for the Youth Aid scheme and by creating the Children's Boards, has increased the range of formal provisions by which cases can be resolved without court action. It might be expected, therefore, that virtually all disposals not involving court action will now appear in the statistics while in the past there were undoubtedly a number of informal disposals which escaped the statistical net. Thus, even in the absence of any increase in the number of cases being dealt with, the new procedures might be expected to produce an increase in the statistics for disposals not involving the courts. This in fact is what is observed; while the number of court appearances remains essentially static at around 13000, the number of non-court disposals at first increased, going from 12588 in 1974 to 14930 in 1975. The latest figures, however, show a sharp decline, especially in Youth Aid cases. Non-court disposals decreased from 8344 in 1977 to 6564 in 1978, considerably less than half the 1975 figure.

Appearances finalised in the Children's and Young Persons Court up to 31 December 1978 numbered 13276.

Decisions of the Children's and Young Persons Court during 1978 are summarised in the following table.

DecisionNumber
Discharged, or admonished and discharged3184
Admonished with some other penalty (fine, costs, restitution, forfeiture of driving licence, etc.)2838
Admonished and returned to the care of Director-General301
Placed under supervision of a social worker3719
Placed under guardianship of Director-General1030
Referred to Magistrate's Court or Supreme Court and given an adult sentence1481
Other order made723
                Total13,276

It can be seen from the table that the Children's and Young Persons Court resulted in a total of 1030 children and young persons being placed under the guardianship of the Director-General during 1978. The corresponding figure for 1977 was 925. A further 3719 children and young persons were placed under the supervision of a social worker compared with 3194 in 1977.

State Wards—State wards are children and young persons who, for a variety of reasons, have been subject to an order made by the Children's and Young Persons Court placing them under the guardianship of the Director-General of Social Welfare. The events leading to the making of such orders are as diverse as the people concerned, but they can be roughly divided into 2 broad categories. The first is parental inability or failure to provide a stable, permanent home or to meet a particular child's special needs. This would include cases of neglect, ill-treatment, and desertion as well as serious family problems beyond parent's control.

The second category is that of seriously disturbed or anti-social behaviour on the part of children and young persons which is beyond the capacity of their parents to amend or control.

The placement and oversight of wards is a major responsibility of social workers acting on behalf of the Director-General, and it is no light task. In addition to children placed under the Director-General's guardianship or in his temporary custody by court order, there are increasing numbers corning into care by way of voluntary agreement with parents. Such children are treated in almost every way as though they were wards. Parents seeking the department's help in this way do so for a variety of reasons, such as their own serious ill health, family break-up, and other pressures within the family or their desire to seek special care for a disturbed or difficult youngster. In 1978 there were 5962 state wards and 642 children in care under voluntary agreements.

At 31 December 1978 a total of 7081 children and young persons were under the care and control of the department. The reasons for their being placed were as follows:

Placed under guardianship of the Director-General by court order5962
Under control by virtue of an agreement with parents642
On court remand, postponement, warrant, etc.477
                Total7081

Children and young persons may come into care at any time from soon after birth to the age of 16 years. (Guardianship orders under the Children and Young Persons Act 1974 are not made in respect of young people over the age of 17 years.) Wards are automatically discharged at the age of 20 years but in practice, and depending on their circumstances, most are discharged with the approval of the Director-General at a much earlier age. Many return, after a period away from home, to the care of parents or members of their extended family and are discharged as soon as the Director-General is assured that they are no longer in need of supervision.

The majority of wards are cared for in the community and in 1978, 55 percent were living in foster homes, departmental family homes, or in the homes of relatives and friends. Fourteen percent were with their own parents as a trial to possible discharge. Of the remainder, 10 percent were at work.

A proportion of wards, especially those in older age groups, come into care because of anti-social, even criminal, behaviour. With help and guidance, some of these settle in the community but some have to be admitted to the department's various training institutions, usually after assessment and trial in boys' and girls' homes. A proportion go on to institutions under the control of the Department of Justice. In all, 20 percent of the wards in care are in institutions.

Details of children and young persons under the control and supervision of the department at 31 December 1978 are shown in the following table.

Placement of ChildrenNumberPercentage
In foster homes290841
Placed with parents for trial period101014
Living with and supported by relatives1793
In employment (excluding those with relatives, etc.)66810
In residential colleges1242
Receiving tertiary education8- -
In Government short-stay homes4156
In Government family homes75911
In private institutions4406
In Department of Education special schools361
In hospitals24- -
In psychiatric hospitals641
On probation30- -
In Social Welfare and Department of Justice residential training centres3905
Absent without leave4- -
In police custody22- -
                    Total7081100

COMMUNITY SERVICE FOR MAORI PEOPLE AND PACIFIC ISLAND POLYNESIANS—The legislative basis of the Maori community services programme is the Maori Community Development Act 1962 and the aim is the social and economic advancement and the promotion and maintenance of the health and general well-being of the Maori community and the facilitation of full integration of the Maori race into the social and economic life of the country. An important feature of the programme is that it does not seek to impose standards from without; rather, it calls upon the Maori and Pacific Island people to exercise the control and direction of their own communities in the essentials of good citizenship and civic responsibility.

The Maori organisations consist of 2 statutory groups and various voluntary groups. The statutory groups are:

  1. Maori associations comprising the New Zealand Maori Council, the district Maori councils, Maori executive committees, and the Maori committees. All are democratically elected and work independently of the department.

  2. The Maori Affairs Department, which works closely with all Maori groups as it realises that its main objectives cannot be achieved without full acceptance and participation by the people themselves.

The Maori Affairs Department, through the activities of its community services division in particular, collaborates with and gives Maori associations and other groups such assistance and advice as may be necessary or helpful so that the members themselves may find and apply their own solutions to their problems and develop and achieve the utmost satisfaction from their own culture. The department also collaborates with appropriate social welfare agencies, State and voluntary, in helping individuals and families who are experiencing difficulties in adapting themselves to their social and economic environment, accepting the full responsibility where a need is not being met. The department actively encourages these State and voluntary organisations to understand and to communicate successfully with the Maori so that they can work more effectively with the Maori people.

The Maori Affairs Department, again primarily through its community services division, assists Pacific Islanders of New Zealand nationality to adjust to the New Zealand situation and provides advisory services to individuals or groups facing difficulties.

The primary functions of the New Zealand Maori Council are to encourage Maoris as individuals and in groups to take the initiative in matters affecting their own welfare and that of their kinsfolk, and to be a forum of discussion in which they can crystallise their ideas and gain the co-operation of others in actively pursuing mutually agreed objectives and eventually achieving progressive improvement in the various spheres of welfare. By its own request it is charged with the duty of maintaining and promoting harmony between Maori and non-Maori.

Maori wardens carry out special functions. They are appointed by the Minister at the initiative of Maori committees to whom they are responsible. Their function is to assist in the maintenance of order and in stamping out mischief before it becomes crime. Wardens do not usurp the duties of the police but are an influence among the people in maintaining law and order.

The Maori Women's Welfare League was formed in 1951 and has branches throughout the country. Its membership approximates 3000. Special tribal groups, social, sports, and cultural clubs, church groups, and women's organisations are some of the many other groups which have their own spheres of action promoting and furthering the physical, social, spiritual, and moral well-being of the people.

The primary function of the Maori Women's Welfare League is to educate the mothers of the race to an appreciation of higher standards of attainment on the home front. It also interests itself actively in education, particularly at the pre-school level.

The Act provides for subsidies to be paid on moneys raised by Maori people through their associations for the promotion of community services.

An inter-departmental committee fosters and finances research into social and educational aspects of Maori and Pacific Island well-being.

Maori and Pacific Island community officers are intended to carry out quite a different range of functions from those of other social workers. They are not intended to replace child welfare officers, probation officers, or truant officers. Although they are available when other social workers encounter problems which are peculiarly Maori, their primary functions is to work with groups rather than individuals. For example, it is not strictly a Maori community officer's duty to deal with a Maori child playing truant from school, but if truancy is a common problem amongst Maori students in any locality, it is the community officer's duty to hold discussions with parents and try to convince them of the importance of ensuring that their children attend school regularly. A great deal of time of the community services staff is occupied in informing Maori and Island parents of vocational opportunities open to their children, in recruiting and organising vocational training groups for school leavers, stimulating the formation of play centres and other pre-school groups, and in dealing with youth problems in the cities. The whole emphasis is on youth and community development and the revitalisation of the family unit.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Other publications dealing with social welfare include the following:

Report of the Department of Social Welfare (Parl. paper E. 12)—(Annual).

The Public Health (Parl. paper E. 10)—Department of Health (Annual).

Accommodation and Service Needs of the Elderly—Department of Health (1976).

Home Help Services in New Zealand—Department of Health (1978).

The Welfare State?—Social Policy in the 1980s—New Zealand Planning Council (1979).

Family Statistics in New Zealand—Department of Statistics (1978).

Survey of Persons Aged 65 Years and Over, 1973–74—Departments of Social Welfare and Statistics.

Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 6—New Zealand Children and Young Persons Court Statistics—Department of Statistics (1979).

Justice Statistics—Department of Statistics (Annual).

Social Trends in New Zealand—Department of Statistics (1977).

Miscellaneous Bulletin No. 12 New Zealand Children 1979—Department of Statistics (1979).

The Prediction of Juvenile Offending: A New Zealand Study—Joint Committee on Young Offenders.

Trends in Health and Health Services—Department of Health.

Report of the Registrar of Friendly Societies (Parl. paper B. 18).

Report of the Department of Maori Affairs (Parl. paper E. 13).

6 B—WAR PENSIONS AND REHABILITATION

GENERAL—The war pensions programme is largely the outcome of New Zealand participation in 2 world wars in which large numbers of citizens served as members of the forces. It applies also to service in Korea, South-east Asia, and in any emergency, including obligations undertaken under the charter of United Nations and service with the Regular Force prior to 1 April 1974.

The war pensions scheme has developed from one which initially gave limited compensation for those returned from active service to one of comprehensive coverage for ex-servicemen who are disabled or incapacitated at any time of their lives as a result of their service, and for their dependants and also for the dependants of those who have died as a result of service.

The war pensions legislation is designed to provide (a) basic pensions to compensate for disablement or death, which provide for physical loss and are therefore compensatory in character, and (b) supplementary pensions, in appropriate cases, to meet loss of income. The latter depend on the means of the pensioner and are economic in character, acting as income maintenance and being therefore similar to social security benefits.

ADMINISTRATION—For many years social security monetary benefits and war pensions have been administered by the same department.

The authority for paying war pensions is vested in the War Pensions Board, an independent body appointed by the Minister in Charge of War Pensions, with a chairman, a medical member, and a representative of the members of the forces appointed on the nomination of the. New Zealand Returned Services Association. The administration of the War Pensions Act is, however, the responsibility of the Secretary for War Pensions who acts under the general direction and control of the Minister.

It is laid down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted then or within the first 2 months of service. This presumption does not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The boards are not bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

RATES AND ALLOWANCES—The list below summarises the rates of war pensions and allowances. The pensions for war disablement and war widows are now adjusted annually on a cost of living basis.

PensionWeekly Rate
10 January 197925 July 19799 January 1980

* Adjusted annually at 1 April in relation to movements in the consumers price index. The increase at 1 April 1976 was $3.80, at 1 April 1977 $3.55, at 1 April 1978 $4.35 and at 1 April 1979, $3.55 for total disablement pension.

Subject to means test on income.

Disablement pension*$    $    $    
    Total disablement33.8037.3537.35
    Special additional pension for blindness or serious disablement20.3022.4522.45
Economic pension
    Unmarried person48.7752.1356.82
    Married person40.6443.4447.35
Wife's pension40.6443.4447.35
War widow's pension—
    Basic pension*24.9527.5527.55
    Economic pension48.7752.1356.82
    Mother's allowance—
        One dependent child29.5131.7531.88
        Two dependent children32.5135.7535.88
          Increased by $4.00 a week for each subsequent child
Orphan's pension25.2526.9029.20
Child's pension3.006.006.00
Widowed mother's pension (totally dependent)—
    Basic pension*24.9527.5527.55
    Economic pension48.7752.1356,32
Widowed mother's pension (partly dependent)—
    Basic pension*4.004.004.00
    Economic pension46.5249.8854.57
War service pension and war veteran's allowance
     Unmarried48.7752.1356.82
    Married male40.6443.4447.35
    Married female40.6443.4447.35
    Age supplement (each)1.501.501.50
    Gratuity (veteran's widow)73.7279.6884.37
Dependent children (replacing the rates shown where there are dependent children)
    Solo parent and one child78.2880.8888.70
    Solo parent and two children81.2884.8892.70
            Increased by $4.00 a week for each subsequent child
    Married couple and one child84.2890.8898.70
          Increased by $4.00 a week for each subsequent child

Economic pensions, war service pensions, and war veterans' allowances are subject to a means test on income and are reducible if income from other sources exceeds $25 a week or $1,300 a year. In the computation of a wife's pension, the income of the husband only is taken into account.

Travel grants and other concessions may be made to severely disabled persons.

The social security legislation permits basic war disablement and war widows' pensions to be paid concurrently with any social security benefit and to be entirely disregarded for income tests.

Pensions for Dependants—From 1 April 1971 wives' pensions have not been payable in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 unless such pension was already payable at that date. From 1 April 1971 the wife of a member of the forces pensioned for total blindness in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 may receive a war service pension but not an age supplement. In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family.

Economic Pensions—An “economic pension” is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension a War Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property, the cost of living, and other relevant matters.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disablement do not receive economic pensions.

Servicemen pensioned in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 have not, from 1 April 1971, been eligible to receive an economic pension unless already in receipt of an economic pension at that date At 31 March 1979 there were 3228 economic pensions in force.

War Veterans' Allowances—These make provision on economic grounds for ex-servicemen, mainly of the First World War, who have become unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical incapacity. At 31 March 1979 there were 4703 allowances in force.

War Service Pensions—From 1 April 1971 the war service pension is payable on economic grounds in respect of overseas service in the Second World War or any subsequent war or emergency in which members of the New Zealand forces have served. Payable subject to an income test, the pension is designed for disabled or prematurely retired ex-servicemen who saw service overseas after 3 September 1939. Ex-servicemen of other Commonwealth countries may also qualify for the pension.

An applicant must also fulfil one of the following conditions: (a) be in receipt of a war disablement pension of not less than 70 percent of the maximum pension payable for total disablement; or, (b) being in receipt of a war disablement pension of less than 70 percent satisfy the War Pensions Board he is unable by reason of physical or mental infirmity to undertake permanent employment or (c) not being in receipt of a disablement pension and not having attained the age of 65 years, satisfy the War Pensions Board he is unable by reason of physical or mental infirmity to undertake permanent employment.

There are residential qualifications of 5 years for an ex-member of New Zealand forces, or an ex-member of other Commonwealth forces, who was a bona fide resident of New Zealand at the commencement of the war or emergency in which he served, and 20 years for other applicants.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pension in determining the amount of the basic war service pension. A war service pension cannot be paid concurrently with a social security benefit other than a family benefit.

The war service pension will ultimately be the only war pension paid for economic reasons. The rates and income exemption for this pension are similar to social security benefits and, by agreement with the War Pensions Board, the same general rules of treatment of income and assets are applied. In most respects, therefore, the war service pension is similar to its civilian counterparts, the sickness or invalids' benefit as appropriate.

Where any war service pensioner and/or his wife has attained the age of 65 years, an age supplement of a maximum of $78 a year each is added to the basic war service pension. At 31 March 1979 there were 5702 war service pensions in force.

EMERGENCY RESERVE CORPS PENSIONS—These pensions are payable where death or disablement was suffered by a member of the Emergency Reserve Corps in the course of service (including training), or was directly attributable to such service.

MERCANTILE MARINE PENSIONS—Pensions and allowances are paid in respect of death or disablement of members of the mercantile marine which are directly attributable to the Second World War.

ADDITIONAL BENEFIT—Additional benefit, which replaced supplementary assistance from 2 July 1975, is available to recipients of income-tested pensions and allowances, on a similar basis to social security additional benefit. At 31 March 1979, 4071 additional benefits were being paid to recipients of war pensions.

WAR BURSARIES—Bursaries for educational purposes are available to children of ex-servicemen in receipt of war service pension or 70 percent disablement pension and of deceased ex-servicemen in respect of whose deaths war pensions are paid.

During the year ended 31 March 1979, 730 bursaries were granted, expenditure being $120,207 for the year.

WAR PENSIONS MEDICAL RESEARCH TRUST BOARD—When a pensioner dies, any unpaid pension money not paid to dependants in the normal way may be paid to the War Pensions Medical Research Trust Fund for research into mental disorders or other fields of medical research beneficial to former members of the forces. This Medical Research Trust Fund is administered by a trust board which ensures that the money is applied to research beneficial to former members of the forces.

STATISTICAL REVIEW OF WAR PENSIONS, ALLOWANCES, ETC.—During the year ended 31 March 1979 the department dealt with 3887 applications for war pensions. Of these, 2948 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, war veterans' allowances, war service pensions, and pensions in respect of peacetime forces. The total for the previous year was 2921. Of these, 1866 were in respect of the applicant's own disability.

The number of appeals to the War Pension Appeal Board dealt with in 1978–79 was 288, of which 147 were upheld.

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force, except peacetime forces and war service pensions, at the end of March in each year and the expenditure during the years given.

Year Ended 31 MarchFirst World War (1914–18)Second World War (1939–45)K ForceWar VeteransSouth African WarMercantile MarineEmergency Reserve CorpsTotal
Number in Force
1977484722,1692476642119433,929
1978436221,7772665788119432,217
1979391621,8512794703119430,773
Expenditure $(000)
19778,60535,92215421,140428665,859
19788,80638,65418619,778429867,465
19799,49846,12924019,8784381475,801

The foregoing figures of expenditure include the following:

  1. Travelling allowances of $4.50 a week, paid to 604 pensioners at 31 March 1979

  2. Clothing allowances, of which 976 were being paid at 31 March 1979

  3. Gallantry awards, of which 169 were being paid at 31 March 1979.

The following are not included.

  1. Costs of certain medical treatment not available under social security, amounting to $287,276 in 1978–79

  2. Railway and bus concessions to pensioners with severe disablement and locomotive disabilities, costing $46,193 in 1978–79

  3. Funeral grants, which cost $119,817 in 1978–79.

Administration costs in connection with war pensions and allowances are included in the administration costs of the Department of Social Welfare which are given in Section 6A.

The number of pensions paid in respect of all wars and types of service are shown by class in the following table.

At 31 MarchDisablement PensionsDependants of Disabled Ex-membersOn Account of DeathTotal
WidowsParents and Other Dependants
 First World War, 1914–18  
19772188119253644847
1978185688241534362
1979156062229133916
 Second World War, 1939–45  
197719,306245248013822,169
197818,909209253412521,777
197918,934179262311521,851
K Force
1977240331247
1978258341266
1979270342279
Vietnam Force
1977181 32186
197819712200
197922112224
Peacetime Force
19771181462121259
19781233463101310
19791288362111364
Other
197742112156
197841111154
197944111157

Resettlement assistance is available to men who have served in South-east Asia for 6 months prior to 1 April 1972 and for 12 months after that date.

Application for housing loans, which attract a 3 percent concession rate of interest, must be lodged within 5 years from the date of return to New Zealand after qualifying service or 2 years after discharge from the forces whichever is the later. Application for interest-free furniture loans of $800 must be lodged within 5 years of date of return to New Zealand after qualifying service.

Applications for subsidised trade training and education assistance must be lodged within 2 years of return to New Zealand. Limited preferences in farm ballots are also available to ex-servicemen with a farming background.

Special provisions exist to ensure that rehabilitation assistance will continue to be available to all ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be interrupted or become necessary as a result of disability arising from service.

Expenditure—Rehabilitation expenditure (including loan authorisations) for the 3 latest years ended 31 March was as follows:

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197719781979
 $(thousand) 
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowance10810
Trade training—
    Salary subsidy1284
    Training of blinded ex-servicemen252830
Loans authorised6,6135,9467,163
                Total6,6605,9907,207

Further information on war pensions will be found in the annual report of the Department of Social Welfare (Parl. paper E. 12).

6 C—SUPERANNUATION AND PROVIDENT FUNDS

GENERAL—For many years the Government, local authorities, and increasing numbers of private employers have operated superannuation schemes to enable employees to make provision for their retirement in addition to the benefits provided under national schemes.

The Government Superannuation Fund in its present form was established on 1 April 1948, amalgamating funds which had been in existence since the early 1900s. Its revenues consist of members' contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated Account, trading departments, and other bodies, and interest earned on investments. The National Provident Fund was established on 1 March 1911, with the object of providing a superannuation scheme for the general public. It also provides superannuation for the employees of local authorities and other approved bodies, and maintains an investment pool in which local bodies invest their surplus funds and which provides an important source of their loan finance.

A scheme under which National Superannuation is payable to all New Zealanders over 60 years of age who meet a 10-year residential qualification was introduced from 9 February 1977. More details of this scheme are given in Section 6A—Social Welfare and Social Work.

GOVERNMENT SUPERANNUATION FUND—The Government Superannuation Fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as statutory chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury as deputy chairman, the Chairman of the State Services Commission, the General Manager of Railways, the Directors-General of Education and the Post Office, the Commissioner of Police, and 5 members appointed on the nomination of various employee organisations and one on the nomination of the Minister of Defence.

Membership—All State employees may belong to the fund and this covers those in departments under the control of the State Services Commission, the Education Service, the New Zealand Railways, and the Post Office. Membership is compulsory for permanent members of the armed forces, the Police, the Prison Service, judges of the High Court, Maori Land Court judges, District Court judges, members of Parliament, and members of the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau public services. In addition, from 1 January 1964 membership has been compulsory for permanent employees of the Government from age 17 to age 24 years.

Contributions—Deductions are made from basic salary on a sliding scale according to the age from which membership of the fund dates. These are at the rate of 6 percent for those joining when below 30 years of age, increasing by 1 percent steps each succeeding 5 years of age until a maximum rate of 11 percent is payable from the age of 50 years. From 1975 a flat rate contribution of 6 percent has been available for older members as an alternative to the standard rates. The benefit at retirement is proportionately reduced for these contributors.

Credit may be purchased in certain circumstances for periods of Government service not currently ranking and for full-time study or periods of training outside Government service and which resulted in a qualification being gained. Certain intervals in Government service may also be purchased for superannuation purposes. The costs of buying credit for these periods varies according to age and salary at the time of purchase.

Benefits—The principal objective of the fund is the payment of an allowance on retirement, which is usually between the ages of 60 and 65 years, but may be earlier with the consent of a contributor's controlling authority and of the board where retirement is because of medical unfitness for further duty. Standard retiring allowances are calculated at one one-hundred-and-twentieth of the average of a contributor's salary over the final 5 years of service, for each year of contributory service, plus an equal amount for the first 40 years of service. Up to a quarter of the annual allowance may be surrendered on retirement in return for a cash payment of 9 times the amount commuted.

On death before or after retirement an allowance at the rate of half the allowance a contributor would have received had retirement occurred on the date of death, or half the allowance actually being paid at the time of death, is payable to any surviving spouse, for life or until remarriage. The surviving spouse, if under the age of 61, may also surrender up to one-quarter of the annuity for a cash payment. An allowance of $78 a year is paid for children below 16 years of age (or 18 years where schooling is extended) or possibly to a higher age in the case of inability to earn a living because of physical or mental reasons.

All allowances are paid in advance in instalments each 28 days and no recovery is made where an entitlement ceased during a benefit period.

A cost-of-living adjustment scheme was introduced in 1969 providing for allowances to be increased relative to movements in the Consumers Price Index. Those already retired at the time the scheme was introduced receive an ex gratia adjustment based on 70 percent of price movements. Those who were already contributors in 1969 receive the basic 70 percent adjustment plus the proportion of the remaining 30 percent that the period paying the extra contributions bears to their total superannuation service. The adjustments reflect price rises that occur from the age of 60 years for superannuitants and the age of 55 years for widows. A recent variation to this scheme provides for adjustments to be made before the age of 60 if the retired contributor has completed 40 years actual or notional service.

Special Conditions—Armed forces contributors may qualify for a retiring allowance after completing their engagements with not less than 20 years' service. A special variation of the cost-of-living adjustment scheme allows this group to receive adjustments following the fifth anniversary of their retirement. The cost is 1 percent more than that required under the main scheme.

Female contributors who were employed before the introduction of equal pay for women in the State Services in 1962 still retain some special conditions related to the former entitlement of women to retire on completion of 30 years' service or on reaching age 55 years, but those joining the fund since 1962 have the same conditions as males.

Judges of the High Court contribute at the rate of 8 percent of their salaries and their retiring allowances are based on a varying formula which produces a maximum of two-thirds of the final salary after 20 years' service. They normally retire on attaining 72 years of age and with service up to 10 years they are paid the appropriate proportion of an allowance of a quarter of their salary. Each year of service beyond 10 attracts an addition to the allowance of one twenty-fourth of salary up to 20 years. A widow of a High Court judge receives half her husband's entitlement with a minimum of 15 percent.

District Court judges and judges of the Maori Land Court contribute at the rate of 9 percent of their salaries for retiring allowances based on one thirty-sixth of their final salary for each year of service, up to a maximum of two-thirds after 24 years' service. They normally retire at 68 years of age and the widow's benefits are calculated as for High Court judges.

Members of Parliament contribute at the rate of 11 percent of an ordinary member's salary for an allowance based on one thirty-second of an ordinary member's salary at the point of retirement for each year of service, up to two-thirds after approximately 21 years' service. They qualify for an allowance from 50 years of age on retiring from Parliament after not less than 9 years' service or not less than 8 years if this covers the duration of at least 3 sessions. The standard provisions for spouses and children apply.

Police and Prison Service contributors are obliged to retire at 60 years of age and to enable older entrants to attain additional superannuation service their service is counted as 1 year and one-seventh if they join the fund after the age of 25 years. A lesser fraction is added for those joining between 20 and 24 years of age. Increased rates of contributions are payable by those whose service is scaled up. The standard benefits apply.

Statistics—As at 31 March 1979 there were 126417 contributors to the Government Superannuation Fund. They paid $77,613,037 into the fund during the year. At 31 March 1979 there were 33082 superannuitants who were entitled to $90,095,594 a year, made up as follows:

Qualifications for AllowanceMalesFemalesTotalAnnual Allowances
  Number $(000)
Retired for age or length of service18,269342721,69675,016
Medically unfit86219410562,336
Total retiring allowances19,131362122,75277,352
Widows...9207920712,656
Children588535112387
        Total allowances19,71913,36333,08290,095

Total assets at 31 March 1979, which amounted to $531,559,611, included investments in Government stock, $519,948,860.

The average effective interest earning of the fund for the year ended 31 March 1979 was 6.72 percent.

As at 31 March 1979, contributors to the Government Superannuation Fund were distributed as follows:

Branch of ServiceNumberPercentage of Total
Armed Services12,5149.90
Education Service33,12026.20
Police51064.04
Post Office20,69516.37
N.Z. Railways11,3688.99
Public Service40,19131.79
Other employers34232.71
        Total126,417100.00

The following table gives a summary of financial statistics, together with the numbers of contributors, for the latest available 3 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of ContributorsAnnual Contributions*Interest Received From InvestmentsSubsidy From Government Trading Departments and OthersAnnual Value of AllowancesAccumulated Fund at 31 March

* Includes transfers from National Provident Fund.

Based on retiring and other allowances at end of year. Actual total paid during year ended 31 March 1979 was $87,558,330, plus $15,159,161 for retiring allowances capitalised.

    $(000)  
1977130,17658,99121,80356,12164,976401,665
1978129,64366,12725,63572,82777,294453,993
1979126,41777,61331,95690,94690,095528,821

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND—The National Provident Fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as statutory chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and up to three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The fund now provides services in a number of separate areas:

  1. Public Fund—The 2 oldest pension schemes have catered for the general public on an individual basis, sometimes with encouragement from their employer or as members of a group.

  2. Local Authorities Superannuation—Three schemes cover employees of all local bodies, quasi-government and other approved organisations, firemen, and nurses.

  3. National Superannuation Schemes—Two employer-subsidised schemes are available, one for farm employees and the other for any employees of companies, firms, Government departments, or local authorities willing to become contributing employers. A further scheme is available for the self-employed,

  4. Local Authorities Investment Pool—This ancillary activity enables local authorities to invest surplus funds at interest.

The State guarantees the benefits payable under all the schemes and meets all administration expenses. There are some elements of State subsidy in the public fund and local authority schemes, and a guarantee of minimum interest earnings in the national schemes.

Public Fund—Membership was available to any resident of New Zealand over the age of 15 years.

The first scheme of the fund, the Level Premium Scheme, available since 1911 and now closed to new members, enables contributors to purchase a pre-determined weekly pension from age 60 years by paying fixed regular contributions according to age on joining. For the first $20 per week a State subsidy of 25 percent is built into the contribution rates and after 5 years' membership contributors qualify for incapacity, widows', and dependent children's allowances.

The Annual Single Premium Scheme, which has been available to individuals and the self-employed since 1958, accepts contributions of any amount from members at any time. The contributions paid during each year are applied at the end of that year towards the purchase of a pension from age 60 years according to the contributor's then age. Only the first $1,000 contributed each year attracts State subsidy and this ceases once the aggregate pension purchased reaches $20 per week. There is a widow's benefit.

These 2 schemes, along with the Post 60 Scheme introduced in 1965, are now being phased out in favour of the Cash Accumulation Scheme introduced in 1975.

Cash Accumulation Scheme—This scheme is being very widely used by individuals. It enables them to pay when and whatever amount of contribution they so desire, and also allows them to choose their own date of retirement on superannuation. It is based on a cash accumulation principle and is highly regarded as the ultimate retirement benefit since it reflects the significance of changing interest rates and the impact of inflation. This scheme now provides the vehicle for superannuation previously provided by the Annual Single Premium, Level Premium, and Post 60 Schemes.

During 1978–79 the scheme was amended to allow a contributor to nominate a beneficiary, in the event of his or her death before becoming entitled to receive a pension. Belonging as they do to a scheme on a personal, rather than a group employee basis, it should be possible for contributors to direct that their superannuation proceeds be paid to anyone they may prefer.

Additional Benefit Plan—This provision was introduced in 1975. It allows an existing contributor to one of the fund's schemes to increase the estate or spouse benefit otherwise provided in the scheme by such amount as is required by paying an extra stipulated contribution. Most of the fund's schemes limit the benefit payable in the event of the contributor's death to a level no greater than the equity in the fund. This usually means that in the earlier years of a contributor's membership, the estate or spouse benefit could be much less than a prudent man would require. The Additional Benefit Plan satisfies this need.

National Superannuation Scheme—An employer-subsidised superannuation scheme was introduced in 1964 for farm workers, and in 1969 was expanded and made available to other employee organisations. It is now the largest single scheme in the fund. In 1975 more than 200000 employees used it as an alternative to the New Zealand Superannuation Scheme for compulsory superannuation purposes, and although many withdrew when the New Zealand Superannuation Act 1974 was repealed, the scheme is still flourishing. It has useful and simple provisions, is easy to understand and requires simple accounting and administrative procedures. During periods of non-employment it provides for the holding of credits and contains the modern facilities of portability.

Local Authorities Superannuation—The National Provident Fund continues to provide for superannuation for local authorities, and for employees of quasi-government organisations, and charitable and religious institutions. Under section 44 of the Act all local authorities are deemed contributors to the fund on behalf of their permanent employees who, qualified by age, elect to become contributing employees. Under section 58 of the Act other approved bodies are accepted under similar conditions by completing a special agreement with the board. The Standard Scheme is the main scheme, but variations thereof with special terms and conditions are available for use by firemen, nurses, harbourmasters and harbour board pilots, and aircrew employees of Air New Zealand. Contributory service is transferable between these schemes and with the Government Superannuation Fund, because of their great similarity.

Modification to the Capitalisation Option—One of the options available to a contributor on retirement is to surrender up to one quarter of the retiring allowance in return for a lump sum equal to nine times the portion of the allowance surrendered, and a reduced pension of the balance of the allowance. The Board has extended this provision to enable any surviving spouse who becomes entitled to an allowance on or after 12 April 1979 to exercise on the same basis the capitalisation option in respect of the spouses allowance, provided that the surviving spouse is under age 61 on qualifying to receive the allowance.

Investment Pool—The Local Authorities Investment Pool continues to be the main avenue for the temporary investment by local authorities, and other approved bodies, of surplus loan moneys and reserve funds. For the year ended 31 March 1979, the interest credited amounted to $17.5 million compared with $12,015 million for the year ended 31 March 1978. The balances of the pool account as at 31 March of 3 recent years are shown below.

As at 31 March$(million)
1977218.9
1978273.0
1979295.2

Investments by Fund—The fund's lending to local authorities in recent years is shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchNo. of ApplicationsAmount Considered $(million)Amount Approved $(million)
1977676117.2108.7
1978607111.4109.8
1979626121.5117.4

Approvals to the various local authorities during the year ended 31 March 1979 were as follows:

Class of Local AuthorityApplicationsAmount Applied ForAmount ApprovedAmount Deferred or Declined*
* The deferred amount includes an application for financial support well in advance of immediate requirements, hence the increase compared with the 1977–78 figure.
 No. $(thousand) 
Cities and boroughs24825,95625,697260
Counties593,7413,606135
Electric power boards8021,75721,557200
Fire service71,6551,655
Harbour boards7013,93610,5363,400
Hospital boards10041,34141,341
Sundry local authorities6213,16813,068100
        Total626121,553117,4594,095
1977–78 figures607111,407109,8171,590

Comparative Survey—The following table provides a survey of financial and other statistics of the National Provident Fund for 3 recent years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197719781979
* Fall in number includes many 1976–77 withdrawals of contributors who joined the National Scheme as an alternative to the New Zealand Superannuation Scheme for compulsory superannuation purposes.
New contributors during yearNo.13,86771636610
Total contributors at end of yearNo.244,148123094*123,723
Local authority scheme—
    ContributorsNo.18,89517,35416,009
    Contributions$(000)28,73631,18537,057
Public Fund—
    ContributorsNo.225,253105740*107,714
    Contributions$(000)24,66325,20228,203
Pensions and allowances at end of yearNo.10,54411,28811,957
Income—
    Contributions$(000)53,39956,38865,260
    Interest$(000)24,22330,65841,565
    Government subsidy$(000)6,0036,9276,680
          Total income$(000)83,62593,972113,506
Outgoings—
    Pensions and allowances$(000)11,27814,69117,980
    Other benefits$(000)14,2239,7809,262
        Total outgoings$(000)25,50224,47227,242
Investment pool at end of period$(000)218,932273,046295,175
Funds at end of period$(000)396,521466,021552,284

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information for potential members is available on request from the boards of the 2 funds. Further financial data is included in the following 2 Parliamentary papers:

Report of the National Provident Fund Board (Parl. paper B. 19).

Report on the Government Superannuation Fund (Parl. paper B. 20).

Chapter 7. Section 7 EDUCATION, SCIENCE, AND THE ARTS

7 A—EDUCATION

For a period of some 30 years from 1945 education in New Zealand was marked by rapid growth. In 1945 school, college, and university enrolments combined were 328000 or 19.3 percent of the population but by 1978 the combined enrolments had risen to just over 1000000 or over 32 percent of the population. This growth is accounted for by increased births for the major part of the period; a marked tendency for pupils to stay on longer at school and also to undertake further education after leaving school; and the development of new educational services. In the 30 years from 1949 to 1979 the number of pupils in primary schools almost doubled and pupils in secondary schools increased fourfold, as did the number of students in universities.

At the same time education grew more intensive and education expenditure rose from about 8 percent of total Government expenditure in 1948–49 to 13.6 percent in 1978–79.

The strongly egalitarian temper of New Zealand society—a product of historical, geographical, and economic factors—is reflected in education administration by the policy of making education at all levels freely available. In few other countries is there closer approximation to equality of educational opportunity—and few countries have a larger proportion of their population in schools, colleges, and universities.

ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION—The Education Act 1964 provides for free and secular education in State primary and secondary schools. For all children between the ages of 6 and 15 years, education is compulsory. University education is provided under the Universities Act 1961, and funds for universities are distributed by the University Grants Committee.

The central administrative body directing education is the Department of Education, whose permanent head is the Director-General of Education. The department consists of professional and administrative officers with its head office in Wellington. To bring administration closer to schools and institutions in the system the department has regional offices in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, each under the control of a superintendent.

The Department of Education, in discharging its responsibility to the Minister of Education for the administration of the system, advises the Minister on policy and development, controls the expenditure of money voted, ensures that schools are built and equipped when and where required and that teachers are recruited and trained, checks that standards are maintained in all schools (both State and private), and assesses the efficiency of teachers. An important professional function of the department is to conduct curriculum revision and development and to recommend curriculum changes to the Minister.

The control and management of State primary schools is the responsibility of the 10 education boards, and local secondary school boards control State secondary schools. These boards are responsible for the schools in their area. They are the employing authorities of the teachers. They disburse the grants received from the Department of Education for the maintenance of schools and building of new schools and for equipment and teaching materials. No local rates are levied for education either by municipal or local education authorities.

The Department of Education directly administers the Correspondence School and State special schools. It controls the inspectorate, supervises the staffing of schools, and conducts the School Certificate Examination. All State and registered private schools are visited regularly by inspectors who give assistance and guidance to teachers in educational matters. The department also administers the capital expenditure voted for school buildings.

The Department of Education has official contacts with the National Council of Adult Education and the University Grants Committee but the universities are independent in their educational activities.

Education Boards and School Committees—The members of education boards have in the past been elected solely by members of school committees on a ward system, but provision has now been made for the appointment to each board of a teacher to represent all teachers employed by the board.

Each State primary school controlled by an education board has its school committee elected by the parents of pupils and adults resident in the school district. It is a statutory body charged with management of property and other matters on behalf of the board. The members of school committees form the electorates for electing education board members.

A school committee's essential function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide, along with voluntary parent-teacher associations, a focusing point for local opinion on educational matters.

Secondary School Boards—Secondary schools are controlled and administered by their own boards of governors. The local boards controlling secondary schools (either singly, or several schools in the same town) are made up of representatives of the parents of pupils, of the education board of the district, and of other local groups and organisations, and provision has recently been made for the election of teacher representatives. Toe boards are constituted by the Minister and published in the New Zealand Gazette. In some metropolitan areas, groups of secondary schools have been linked together for administrative purposes under secondary school councils, but each school still retains its own board of governors which has a large measure of autonomy in the control and management of its own school.

Technical Institute Councils—Technical institutes, including the Technical Correspondence Institute, are controlled by councils with members representing business and industry, local authorities, the universities, and governing bodies of secondary schools.

Community Colleges—Amendments to the Education Act in 1974 created a new category of institution, Community Colleges, designed to meet continuing education needs particularly in provincial centres. They are governed as technical institutes. The first community college was opened in Hawke's Bay in 1975. Early in 1978 community colleges were established at Whangarei and Rotorua, and Southland Polytechnic changed its status to Southland Community College.

Teachers College Councils—Teachers college councils have the usual administrative functions, combined with some professional responsibility for the training of teachers. They include representatives of education boards, of the Department of Education, the universities, and of the teachers' organisations.

Private Schools—There are a substantial number of private primary and secondary schools conducted by religious bodies or private individuals. These schools are required by the Education Act 1964 to comply with defined standards of accommodation and teaching as a pre-requisite for compulsory registration under the Education Act. Financial assistance is provided by the State subject to certain conditions. Academic bursaries, secondary school bursaries, and Maori scholarships may be tenable at private secondary schools. Assistance for transport by rail and road and (in some cases) a boarding allowance may also be given to pupils attending private schools, whether primary or secondary. School publications are supplied to private schools. From February 1970 the Government has made grants to independent schools on the basis of teachers' salaries. For the first year the proportion was 20 percent and the estimated cost $2.5 million; the proportion rose by stages to 50 percent in 1976. Associated government controls are applied before new independent schools can be built, and there is a requirement that after a transitional period, new teacher entrants to independent schools must possess certain minimum qualifications.

In October 1975, the Private Schools Conditional Integration Act was passed to enable the voluntary integration of private schools into the State system. Four schools have now become integrated and other private schools are entering into negotiations. All Roman Catholic schools have expressed their intention to integrate.

Co-education—Co-education applies at all stages of the school system. All State primary schools and some private primary schools teach boys and girls together. At the secondary level all district high schools and three-quarters of the State secondary schools have both boys and girls on their rolls, whilst the remaining quarter of the State secondary schools and nearly all of the private secondary schools are single-sex schools. A comparison of the total enrolment of all secondary schools (State as well as private) shows that, over the last 2 decades, there has been a trend toward the provision of more coeducational than single-sex schools.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION—The following table shows the net expenditure from public funds on each branch or service of education for the latest March years.

Item1978–1979
1977–1978 Net ExpenditureSet ExpenditurePercentage of Total
* Programmes I to VI were previously funded from the Consolidated Revenue Account and Programme VII from the Works and Trading Account. From 1 April 1978 all education expenditure is funded from the Consolidated Account.
Programme—$(000)$(000) 
    I—Administration and general10,90314,8731.6
    II—Pre-school education11,46513,7041.5
  III—Primary and secondary education—
            Administration and support services34,96340,5624.4
            State primary education226,973263,36428.3
            State secondary education157,341186,59620.1
            Assistance to private schools21,01424,4852.6
            Integration of private schools1,7193,2080.3
            Special education10,49612,6931.4
                Sub-total—Programme III452,506530,90857.1
  IV—Higher education—
            University education111,631135,02514.5
            Teacher training46,58353,3795.7
            Senior technical and community education44,42456,2476.1
                Sub-total—Programme IV202,638244,65126.3
    V—National Library5,2046,4030.7
  VI—Research1,3131,7060.2
Total—Programmes I to VI*684,029812,24587.4
  VII—Education buildings—
            Primary and secondary schools77,29278,0958.4
            Universities28,78024,6922.7
            Teachers colleges5,8553,7880.4
            Technical institutes/community colleges11,58110,5141.1
Total—Programme VII* —123,508117,08912.6
                Total807,537929,334100.0

The foregoing figures do not include revenue received by universities from endowments, fees, etc., which are available for educational purposes.

The following table gives Government net expenditure on education and relates it to total Government expenditure in national accounting terms. The share of public expenditure devoted to education has increased significantly in relation to other forms of Government expenditure in recent decades (although there has been a decline since 1974). Much of the increased spending in earlier years was a direct consequence of roll growth.

As a result of the fall in the birth rate in recent years, primary school rolls have now started to decline.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet Education ExpenditureAs Percentage of Total Government Expenditure
Current (Salaries, etc.)*BuildingsTotalCurrent Education ExpenditureTotal Education Expenditure
* About 66 percent of current expenditure is on salaries of teachers and other staff.
  $(million) percent
1976505.3121.7627.012.615.8
1977580.9118.5699.412.715.3
1978684.0123.5807.512.114.2
1979812.2117.1929.311.913.6

The following figures relate Government net expenditure on education to gross national product and mean population.

Year Ended 31 MarchExpenditure from Public FundsExpenditure as Percentage of Cross National ProductExpenditure per Head of Mean Population
 $(000)percent  $     
1974440,2074.8146.96
1975526,6305.3172.08
1976627,0055.5202.42
1977699,4135.2x224.12
1978807,5375.4258.09
1979929,3345.3296.99

An international comparison of public expenditure on education as a percentage of gross national product is given in the following table for selected countries. Educational expenditure in many countries has been rising twice as fast as national income. These figures are taken from the U.N. Statistical Yearbook 1978.

CountryYearPublic Expenditure on Education as Percentage of G.N.P.
* As percentage of net material product.
Australia19756.3
Austria19765.7
Canada19767.8
Denmark19758.2x
France19765.8
Germany, West19755.2
Italy19755.0
Japan19755.5
Netherlands19758.7
New Zealand19765.5
Switzerland19765.2
United States19766.0
United Kingdom19746.2
USSR19767.5*

International comparisons need to be treated with reserve because of the differing education systems and measures of expenditure.

SCHOOL BUILDINGS—During the year ended 31 March 1978 a total of 9 new primary schools were opened. Two new intermediate schools were opened, and 1 new secondary school.

The lower birth rate and increased emigration of recent years have resulted in a decreased demand for new schools and additional classrooms. This will release more funds for the urgent replacement, remodelling, and upgrading of facilities at older schools.

Building expenditure for 1977–78 was as follows:

 $(m)
Universities (including equipment)28.7
Education buildings78.1
Technical institutes11.6
Teachers colleges5.9
Pre-school buildings2.5

Pre-school—Successive governments have given considerable priority to the provision of financial assistance to pre-school organisations for the establishment of buildings. A building code specifying the architectural and educational requirements of pre-school buildings was issued by the department in 1976. Education boards are now involved in the planning and maintenance of pre-school buildings, many of which are being sited on primary school grounds.

Primary—As a result of the falling total primary school roll experienced in recent years, the remodelling and replacement of existing primary school buildings, rather than the provision of additional school accommodation, occupies increasing prominence on current education board building programmes.

New primary school buildings continue to reflect the development and adaptation of the “open plan” concept to meet current educational needs. Many attractive and innovative designs have been developed by education board architects in concert with the teaching staff and the inspectorate.

Secondary—For some years the S68 standard plan has been the principal design used for new secondary schools, but the department is developing a series of other standard secondary school plans. These include a school based on the Whanau design, the first block of which was completed during 1976 at Penrose High School. The design of a relocatable secondary school was also commenced during 1977. This will be used in areas where the long-term need for a school is uncertain.

A new standard building design, the Leeston plan, is now coming into use for secondary and tertiary education. It is in modular form and caters for specialised teaching accommodation as well as classrooms. The first building will be erected at Leeston.

Tertiary—The Government approved, as from 1 April 1978, the establishment of new community colleges at Northland (Whangarei), Rotorua, and Southland (Invercargill) and, as from February 1978, senior technical divisions of secondary schools at Tauranga Boys College, Gisborne Boys High School, Wanganui Boys College, and Timaru College. A programme of new buildings and alteration work was commenced during-1977. A programme of major work for technical institutes continued during the year. The major capital works programme for teachers colleges is nearly completed.

Major capital works undertaken in recent years have included 2 new primary teachers colleges (North Shore and Hamilton) and major additions made to the existing permanent colleges following the introduction of 3-year training for primary teachers. A college for the secondary division of the Christchurch Teachers College has been built on a new site adjacent to the University of Canterbury. Senior technical education has also required substantial new buildings or additions to existing buildings, the biggest single project being the Central Institute of Technology at Trentham near Wellington.

University Buildings—Building and other capital requirements of universities are handled through the University Works Committee. This committee prepares for the approval of the Government an annual programme of projected expenditure on university capital works—buildings, land purchase, furniture and equipment, and subsidies on halls of residence. Expenditure in recent March years has been: 1974–75, $19.8 million; 1975–76, $26.4 million; 1976–77, $28.5 million; and in 1977—78, $28.8 million.

Correspondence School—The specially designed building for the correspondence school in Wellington is now completed after considerable delays, and was opened in 1979. After working in 12 different locations around Wellington, the school was reunited for the first time since 1970.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS—The numbers of scholars and students receiving instruction in educational institutions are shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers at 1 July.

Type of Institution197719781979

* Previous figures included children on the roll under 2 years of age.

Provisional.

Includes 4 Secondary Senior Technical Divisions.

§ Includes kindergarten trainees.

Pre-school
    Playcentres21,39619401*19375
    Kindergartens35,56036,81238,595
 56,95656,21357,970
Primary
    Primary schools under board control391,696390064x387,118
    Intermediate schools74,33474,09673,258
    Forms 1 and 2 at Form 1 to 7 schools557458305946
    Chatham Islands schools170169169
    Correspondence school120913991654
    Departmental special schools430360363
    Department of Social Welfare schools112129118
    Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind969788
    Private primary schools49,30948,89348,476
 522,930521037x517,190
Secondary
    State secondary schools195,770198467x193149
    District high schools and area schools279328312747
    Correspondence school728920912
    Departmental special schools151216x250
    Department of Social Welfare schools292322358
    Private secondary schools32,28132,28732,004
 232,015235043x229420
Technical
    Technical Correspondence Institute22,02226,40429,415
    Other technical institutes and community colleges—
        Full-time students472957606083
        Part-time students31,80134,28238765
    Technical classes at other institutions—
        Full-time students217200206
        Part-time students64,68875,12463,505
 123,457141,770137,974
Teacher training
    Teachers colleges6837§6234§5820§
University institutions
    Full-time internal students29,13029,67729,894
    Part-time internal students11,71912,15812,644
    Extra-mural students609964887349
    Agricultural short courses21217323
    Medical short courses181515
 47,17848,51149,925
          Total989,3731008808x998,299

The movement in school and university student population is illustrated by the diagram below, which is drawn on a logarithmic scale.

TEACHING STAFF—Statistics of full-time teaching staff at all educational institutions are shown in the following table.

Institution19781979
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
* Includes manual training assistants employed at manual training centres.
Kindergartens310821085411121116
Primary—
    State754611,65419,200....18,928
    Private3751535191036715271894
..792113,18921,110....20,822
Secondary—
    State*7425466712,0927524472912,253
    Private90075216526345031137
..8325541913,7448158523213,390
Technical institutes and New Zealand
    Technical Correspondence Institute1516356187216534202073
    Teachers colleges425127552388141529
    University institutions2609298290726623413003
        Total20,79920,47141,270....40,933

The levelling-off in the growth of primary school rolls which, on the basis of known births, is expected to continue until at least 1982, combined with a higher retention rate of teachers in the service, has resulted in a favourable staffing situation in primary schools. This has enabled all primary schools from 1977 to be staffed on a ratio of 1 teacher to every 31 pupils.

Improved pupil-teacher ratios have also been implemented for secondary schools.

Overseas Students—Overseas students attending New Zealand institutions at 1 July 1977 totalled 4047 of whom 1128 were from the South Pacific area (excluding Australia) and 2452 from South-east Asia.

Projected Students—A projection of education rolls, made in 1977 by the Department of Education and based on policies and trends at the time, is set out in the following table.

PeriodRolls
KindergartenTotal PrimaryTotal Secondary
Actual197735,600522,900232,000
Projected—198548,000471,300239,400
 199054,000451,600218,100

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS: School Certificate—A School Certificate Examination conducted by the Department of Education is taken by the majority of pupils at the end of 3 years of secondary education. The course of each candidate must include English, history or geography or a foreign language, mathematics or science. A candidate may enter the examination in any number of subjects up to 6 and is credited with passes in the individual subjects in which he or she is successful.

Sixth Form Certificate—These are awarded to pupils who have satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year on a single-subject basis—to a maximum of 6 subjects—beyond the level of School Certificate.

University Entrance—Pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a 4 years' secondary school course. Pupils not accredited for entrance to university may qualify by passing the University Entrance Examination which is conducted by the University Entrance Board.

The University Bursaries Examination and the University Entrance Scholarship Examination, taken by secondary school pupils usually in Form 7, are also conducted by the University Entrance Board; they are competitive examinations for supplementary awards for study at a university.

Higher School Certificate—Higher School Certificates are awarded after a 5-year course to pupils who have been accepted for entry to the Sixth Form and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 2 years; and to pupils who have obtained a qualification recognised by the University Entrance Board for admission to a university in New Zealand and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year.

Examination passes at other than university examinations are set out in the following table.

YearSchool Certificate*OtherUniversity EntranceUniversity Entrance ScholarshipUniversity Bursaries A and B

* Includes Certificate of Attainment.

The number includes Trained Teachers Certificate, Diploma of Teaching, Technical Teachers Certificates, City and Guilds of London Institutes Examination. Technological, Engineers, and Surveyors Assistants and Public Service Shorthand Typists Examination are not now administered by the Department.

Includes both accredited passes and passes by examination.

197552,34684415,3341383858
197654,88080416,6561594269
197754,570111817,6221704477
197857,767102618,6341824693
YearTechnician Certificate 3-year CourseN.Z. Certificate 5-year CourseCertificates Issued
Intermediate*FinalTradeAdvanced TradeIndustrial Practice
* The issuing of the Intermediate T.C.A. certificate was discontinued from 1977.
19753187529742241621125
197638662010881475647229
1977630*10812132653437
1978823*12152580785258

Comparative figures for the number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination and the number of passes by accrediting and by examination are given in the following table.

YearCandidatesPasses
AccreditedBy Examination
197524,40712,5162318
197628,32913,5913065
197730,08514,0453577
197831,90114,8893745
197932,94415,0724205

A total of 182 university junior scholarships and 4737 bursaries were awarded for undergraduate study in 1978.

SPECIAL EDUCATION—Whenever possible, handicapped children are enrolled with other children at ordinary pre-school services and in ordinary classes at their local primary or secondary school. When necessary, buildings are modified, special equipment is provided, and ancillary staff are appointed to assist their teachers, who are advised on suitable teaching programmes by the Department of Education inspectors of schools and psychologists, and by other specialist advisers.

A comprehensive range of special education services has been developed for those handicapped children whose special needs cannot be met in ordinary classes through these measures. Small part-time groups for handicapped pre-school children are attached to selected kindergartens and playcentres. Education boards provide special classes and resource centres at primary schools or separate special schools for pupils who are backward (mildly or moderately mentally-retarded), intellectually handicapped (more seriously mentally retarded), deaf, visually handicapped, physically handicapped, or maladjusted.

The education boards also administer special classes in hospitals, special schools in psychiatric hospitals, speech clinics and reading clinics, and employ itinerant teachers to assist children in ordinary classes who have a hearing handicap or serious reading difficulties.

Special classes for deaf, backward, and maladjusted pupils are provided at selected secondary schools.

The Department of Education itself administers 6 residential schools—2 for deaf children (which also admit day pupils), 2 for backward children and 2 for maladjusted children. The Department also provides the teaching services in Department of Social Welfare institutions for socially maladjusted children, and the education service in penal institutions administered by the Department of Justice.

This network of special schools and classes is supported by 3 specialised guidance services which also assist children in ordinary classes. The Hearing Assessment and Guidance Service offers guidance to the parents and teachers of deaf children. The Visiting Teacher Service provides liaison between teachers and the parents of pupils whose progress at school may be hampered by home difficulties. The Psychological Service provides a comprehensive diagnostic and advisory service for children who have learning or social difficulties. It maintains a close liaison with all secondary school guidance staff and with all health, education, and welfare services for children. These 3 services assisted approximately 30000 pre-school and school age children in 1979.

In 1979 some 1732 teachers were employed in the special education and guidance services. A total of 11301 children were enrolled in special classes and schools, and 8102 children were enrolled at speech or reading clinics.

The following table shows the number of pupils receiving full-time special education at primary and secondary schools (including intermediate, correspondence, and special schools) and pre-school pupils receiving part-time special education at 1 July 1978.

GroupBoysGirlsTotal
Visually handicapped140111251
Visually and hearing handicapped6612
Hearing handicapped498377875
Speech handicapped511024347544
Physically handicapped217137354
In health camps140129269
In hospitals348254602
Intellectually handicapped10286941722
Backward15388462384
Pre-school217178395
Maladjusted519375894
Educationally retarded12296451874
Others494325819
        Total11,484651117,995

The Department of Education co-ordinates the administration and development of the special education services for handicapped children through the district senior inspectors of primary and secondary schools.

PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION—Children below the age of 5 are not enrolled in State primary schools except in a few areas. Pre-school education is provided mainly by 2 national voluntary organisations which receive substantial support from the State. Assistance from the Government is also available to voluntary educational organisations for handicapped pre-school children, to voluntary social welfare agencies for children needing full day care, and to selected community-based, non-profit-making, preschool groups. Other institutions include informal family play groups, private and community kindergartens, and playcentres which operate independently and receive no direct Government financial assistance.

The Government pays the full cost of new sites for free kindergartens and recognised playcentres, a subsidy of $4 to $1 for buildings, and a subsidy of $2 for $1 for approved equipment. The maintenance of the buildings is the financial responsibility of the Government. In areas of special need, the cost of building and equipment may be met in full by the Government. Grants are made available to approved services for administration and day-to-day running costs.

In July 1978 there were 36812 children enrolled at 486 free kindergartens and 19401 children (including 2886 under 2 1/2 years of age) at 702 recognised playcentres. Just over 200003 and 4-year-olds were enrolled in other pre-school groups.

Kindergarten teachers are now trained in 7 of the teachers colleges and the Government gives training and student allowances on the same basis as primary and secondary teachers. Playcentre supervisors are trained part-time within their own associations and work on a part-time voluntary basis.

Some other training courses, mainly for day-care personnel, are provided through some technical institutes and through the correspondence school. A pre-school advisory service provides support and advice to all pre-school centres.

PRIMARY EDUCATION—Entry into a primary school is compulsory at 6 years of age, but it is the common practice for children to start formal schooling at the age of 5 years. If living in an isolated area, a child must be enrolled with the primary department of the Department of Education's Correspondence School. The top 2 years of the primary course, Forms 1 and 2, may be taken at a full primary, intermediate or a Form 1–7 school. On completing instruction in Form 2, usually after 8 years' school attendance, a child normally enters Form 3 of a secondary school, or alternatively the secondary department of an area school or a district high school. All children are required to attend school until they reach the age of 15 years.

The curriculum of the primary and intermediate schools, as set out in the syllabuses of instruction, covers oral and written language (including reading and handwriting), mathematics, social studies, art and crafts, science, physical education (including swimming), health education, music, and, for some children in Forms 1 and 2, French. At the Forms 1 and 2 levels, Maori language teaching and creative crafts such as woodwork, metal work, homecraft, and sewing are available to both girls and boys.

Teachers have the assistance of specialist teachers in a variety of fields, including science, physical education, art and crafts, reading, mathematics, music, Maori language programmes, and language programmes for Maori children. Itinerant specialists are also available to help teachers in small rural schools and teachers of infant classes. Specialist assistance in helping children with special needs is provided by the psychological service, speech therapists, visiting teachers, and advisers on deaf children.

The Basic Equipment Grant enables all schools to build up an adequate supply of teaching equipment and is supplemented by free textbooks, basic primer readers, art, craft, and physical education equipment. Schools also receive a book grant to purchase additional textbooks and other reading materials.

State Primary Schools—The figures set out in the following table refer to all pupils in State primary schools and intermediate schools and departments, including Chatham Islands schools, but exclude special schools.

YearSchools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments)Pupils at 1 JulyPupils at 30 SeptemberPupils at End of Year
19752215467,915484,058498,434
19762194467,811483,807494,722
19772149466,200481,584490,839
19782153464,329  

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the State primary schools, Chatham Islands schools, and Forms 1 and 2 at intermediate schools at 1 July in each of the years shown.

Age, in Years19771978
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
* Includes 1295 under 5 years of age.
  531,21129,69260903*29,40327,74657,149
  630,33529,10759,44230,30328,86759,170
  728,38026,62755,00729,74828,88058,628
  830,05728,56558,62229,42528,00257,427
  929,32728,16357,49029,19527,78856,983
1027,83327,20255,03528,51227,37655,888
1126,47725,19751,67426,93925,88852,827
1225,55124,33449,88525,11024,01649,126
139515725916,7749161680715,968
14548363911434276710
15110741848874162
16 and over141132273166125291
    Total239,485226,715466,200238,484225,845464,329

Size of Classes—The sizes of classes at State primary schools at 30 September are shown in the following table.

YearPupils in Class
19 or less20–2425–2930–3435–3940 or moreTotal
1975211922623797604728614917,135
1976211526774038618824364017,494
1977179420684431684219623117,128
1978184222714654680316553617,261
NOTE—Prior to 1970 special classes were excluded from this table, but from 1970 onwards special classes are included in the official size of class statistics. The table includes intermediate schools and departments and Chatham Islands schools.

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1978 there were 79047 Maori children attending State primary schools and 3418 attending private primary schools. Staffing is more liberal in schools with a large proportion of Maori or other Polynesian children.

Intermediate Schools—Pupils on the rolls of the 144 intermediate schools and 1 intermediate department at the end of 1978, numbered 74096. Of all children in Forms 1 and 2 at State primary schools at 1 July 1978, 64.81 percent were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1 July of each of the latest 2 years were as follows:

Age in Years19771978
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
10 and under279412691286390676
1112,79213,31026,10213,00713,46026,467
1218,07617,20735,28317,84717,10434,951
136632513711,7696649494411,593
14290193483255139394
1533610414
16 and over----11
        Total38,07236,26274,33438,05436,04274,096

Private Schools—The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools, including primary departments in private secondary schools.

YearNumber of SchoolsPupils atTeachers (Full-time)
1 July30 SepEnd of YearMaleFemaleTotal
* Not now received.
197532850,74552,02552,62627014171687
197632749,89951,20151,83429615431839
197732449,30950,63351,28128914551744
197832548,89350,119*37515351910

The majority of the schools are Roman Catholic Church schools.

SECONDARY EDUCATION—The secondary syllabus is based on a common core, consisting of English, social studies, general science, elementary mathematics, music, arts and crafts, and physical education, to be followed by a degree of specialisation within a wide range of subjects that may be taken to the School Certificate and University Entrance stage. All types of secondary schools are required to give all pupils during the first 2 years of their secondary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the common core subjects.

The following table shows the number of secondary schools for each of the latest 4 years (figures exclude the secondary department of the Correspondence School).

YearState Secondary SchoolsSecondary Departments of District High Schools and Area SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsTotal
197524142109392
197624839108395
197725437107398
197825636102394

In 1978, 28 of the State secondary schools enrolled only boys and 25 schools only girls, with 203 schools co-educational. Most of the private schools are single-sex schools. There were 94 State secondary schools with over 1000 pupils.

The inspection of secondary schools is carried out by inspectors of secondary schools attached to the Department of Education. In 1978 there were 61 inspectors. The entitlement is 66. The numbers of each sex attending schools providing secondary education at 1 July 1978 Were: State secondary schools, 101401 boys and 97066 girls; secondary departments of district high schools, area schools, and reorganised district high schools, 1362 boys and 1469 girls; private secondary schools, 16093 boys and 16194 girls; full-time pupils in the secondary department of the Correspondence School numbered 275 boys and 645 girls. In addition, 342 boys and 196 girls received secondary education in 18 special schools.

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1978, 29902 Maori pupils were receiving secondary education. This number comprised 27728 pupils attending State secondary schools (including secondary departments of district high schools) and 2174 pupils attending private secondary schools. An additional 184 Maori boys and 113 Maori girls received secondary education at the 18 special schools.

About 1 in 8 secondary pupils in the North Island is now Maori. There is a steady improvement in the number of Maori pupils passing the School Certificate Examination and progressing to Forms 6 and 7.

Secondary School Hostels—In 1978 there were 47 hostels for State secondary schools. A programme for 5-day hostels at certain rural secondary schools is being developed to strengthen rural secondary education.

Attainment levels of State and Private Secondary Schools—The following table gives particulars of pupils who left schools providing secondary education, classified according to years of attendance and attainments.

Year of AttendancePupils
19771978
First787689
Second57625395
Third16,94018,156
Fourth20,77123,277
Fifth12,90113,823
Sixth and over440531
              Total57,60161,871
AttainmentsPupils
19771978
University scholarship174195
University bursary42624550
Higher School Certificate32373401
University Entrance88269360
Sixth Form Certificate78328824
School Certificate (three or more subjects)63126761
School Certificate (one or two subjects)69997867
No attainments19,95920,913
              Total57,60161,871

Probable Destination of State and Private Secondary Pupils—An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils who left secondary schools during 1978 is contained in the next table.

Probable DestinationBoysGirlsTotal
Further full-time education at:
    University390224016303
    Teacher training
        Attending university full-time107264371
        Others (including kindergarten)130835965
    Technical institutes111628633979
    Other full-time education132351483
To join labour force:
    Professional, technical and related workers—
        Technicians9824631445
        Health services10821142222
        Others384377761
    Clerical work177659557731
    Sales work128527884073
    Service work (including Armed Forces)—
        Entering apprenticeships26254503075
        Others12239742197
    Agriculture, fishing, hunting—
        Entering apprenticeship9951351130
        Others29246473571
    Production, transport equipment operators, and labourers—
        Entering apprenticeships32832863569
        Others321615514767
No occupation or unknown7678755115,229
                Total31,86630,00561,871

CURRICULUM AND RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT—The principal functions of the development division of the Department of Education are to develop, co-ordinate, and revise curricula and syllabuses at all school levels; to provide handbooks and resource materials for teachers; to initiate pilot schemes of new courses and methods; to bring new or revised methods to the attention of teachers; and to assist teachers themselves in developing curricula at the local school level. Professional officers in the division have responsibility for development in subjects including science, mathematics, English, social studies, Maori language and studies, foreign languages, music, drama, physical education, reading, health, technical education, home economics, arts and crafts, libraries, and audio-visual media and evaluation.

The division also contains the School Publications Branch, the Visual Production Unit, and the National Film Library.

MAORI LANGUAGE TEACHING—During 1978 a total of 161 secondary schools taught Maori to more than 14000 pupils. Some 2300 pupils sat the School Certificate Examination in Maori. A further 18 Maori language teacher completed training as secondary teachers of Maori in 1978, and 15 began training in 1979.

The number of itinerant teachers of Maori was increased from 30 to 40 in 1978, giving guidance to teachers in developing programmes of Maori language and studies in primary schools. Following an evaluation of the work of these itinerant teachers it is estimated that 292 primary and intermediate schools were teaching Maori to 49800 primary school children' in 1978.

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools—In order to give children in country districts the advantage of special equipment and more specialised teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been a feature of the last 30 years. Composite schools have been developed in recent years to bring together larger concentrations of children from Form 1 and above. These are known as Form 1 to 7 schools and area schools.

The first Form 1 to 7 school was opened in 1962 and by 1977 there were 38 of these schools. This type of school usually developed from the translation of the secondary department of a district high school with the addition of Form 1 and 2 pupils from neighbouring primary schools. They receive improved staffing, accommodation, and equipment in the endeavour to promote equality of educational opportunity for country children.

However, a large number of Form 1 and 2 children remain in the country districts too small to support a Form 1–7 school. In these districts, area schools have been established. The area school is a unified school providing education from the infant stage to Form 7 for all children in the immediate vicinity, and from Form 1 upwards for children from contributing schools over a wider area. The first area school was opened in 1969, and more recently a number of district high schools have been reorganised and are operating on the same basis. At 1 July 1977 there were 26 of these schools.

Transport Assistance and Boarding Bursaries—In recent years school transport facilities have been steadily developed until now over 15 percent of the total school population receive assistance in one form or another. Most of these pupils are conveyed by buses under contract to education boards or operated by the Department of Education.

The trend towards consolidating small country schools and improving educational facilities in larger rural centres has been paralleled by the continuing movement of families into provincial towns and cities. These factors are resulting in only a relatively small increase in transport services.

Pupils carried by the school transport services have increased from almost 113000 (including rail transport) in 1971 to 117178 in 1978, while the number of separate transport services has increased from 2550 to 4173. These services covered a total of over 43000000 kilometres for the year, at a cost of over $19 million.

School boarding bursaries and course bursaries were increased in 1978 from $500 to $600 a year. The number of pupils receiving boarding bursaries increased to 3520 in 1978 compared with 3411 the previous year. A total of 1029 course bursaries were awarded in 1978 compared with 1140 in 1977.

The next table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding bursaries as at 1 July 1978, according to the type of school attended.

Type of SchoolPupils on RollPupils Transported to SchoolPupils Receiving School Boarding BursariesPupils Receiving Course Boarding Bursaries
State primary schools472,14465,245178-
State secondary schools (including district high schools)202,75649,6051962540
Private primary schools48,8931438105-
Private secondary schools32,2878901275489
          Total756,080117,17835201029

Correspondence School—Correspondence classes are conducted for the education of children in very remote areas and for those unable to attend school because of lengthy illness. The school is able to offer assistance to children of New Zealand citizens who are overseas, and also to children who are unable to fit into a school situation satisfactorily. Pregnant schoolgirls may continue their education by correspondence.

A corporate school spirit is developed through the school badge and uniform, daily radio lessons, club activities, the publication of a school magazine, periodical exhibitions of work, and by parents' and ex-pupils' associations. The personal link between the pupil and the school is strengthened by a number of teachers visiting pupils in their homes. At a district level, school day and school week gatherings are held periodically. Annually, a month-long residential school for invited pupils is conducted to enable pupils to gain the opportunity of social education by working in the classroom.

In addition, the school enrols pupils in secondary schools who require examination subjects which their own schools cannot provide, inmates of Department of Justice institutions, and adults who wish to further their education on a part-time basis. At the tertiary level, courses are offered for the Diploma of Teaching and Trained Teachers Certificate.

At the end of 1979 the total roll of the Correspondence School was 18277, made up the following: 276 pre-school, 933 primary, 978 secondary, 2431 pupils from other secondary schools; the Special Needs Section (pupils with significant educational handicaps) had 411 students, and the Individual Programme Section (pupils needing remedial tuition) had 124 primary, 90 secondary, and 553 adult students; there were 10311 adult students enrolled part-time; and teacher training courses had the following enrolments: 1372 studying for the Diploma in Teaching and Service Increment courses, 192 studying for the Trained Teachers Certificate, 38 in training for the Teaching the Intellectually Handicapped Certificate, 168 taking the retaining of teachers courses, and 400 taking the Early Childhood and Child Care courses.

The total staff was 393, and of this number 253 were secondary teachers, 64 primary teachers, (including those in the Special Needs Section and Individual Programme Section) 8 pre-school teachers, 10 tutors, 5 resident teachers, and 48 administrative staff. In addition there were 69 external tutors.

Agricultural Clubs—More particularly in rural schools, practical interest in agriculture has been stimulated by the widespread formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The pupils undertake projects in livestock rearing and crop growing which are judged annually on the club field day, usually held at the school or local centre.

The advisers on school science employed by the education boards play an important part in the formation of the clubs, and by giving technical advice do much to assure the successful completion of the various projects. The clubs receive active support from parents, teachers, and the farmers' organisations.

HEALTH SERVICES—Information on the medical and dental inspection of school children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5A (Health and Medical Services) of this Yearbook.

HEALTH EDUCATIONGrowing, Sharing, and Learning, the report of the Committee on Health and Social Education (the Johnson Committee), presented in August 1977, has been extensively commented on by the public and these comments have been analysed. The Government has studied the report and the analysis of public comment. The report placed special emphasis on six major themes, namely the importance of ensuring a well-balanced, all-round development of children; greater involvement of parents and community with the school; the important influence of the climate of human relationships in a school; expanded teacher education; the need for more physical and human resources; and the greater availability of support services. It also comments on the nature of teaching and on the possible content of programmes. Meanwhile, developments of existing programmes in health education have continued, with significant assistance being given by parents and community agencies, both inside and outside normal school programmes. The Johnson Report also drew attention to moral and values objectives within other subjects, particularly social studies, where teaching objectives and resources have been built up over the past decade.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS—In 1977 there were 9 teachers colleges (North Shore, Auckland, Auckland Secondary, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch (Primary and Secondary), and Dunedin), with staffs totalling 627 (480 males and 147 females). At 1 July 1977 there were 8669 students in training. This number includes 1548 holders of secondary teacher studentships (Division U) and 234 holders of primary teachers studentships (Division S) who were attached to teachers colleges while attending universities as full-time students as part of their training for teaching, and 716 graduates undertaking training for secondary teaching.

Secondary training is also available at teachers college outposts established in the Hutt Valley, Rotorua, Hawke's Bay, Palmerston North, and Invercargill.

The minimum entry qualification for admission to primary teacher training (Division A) and for entry to the secondary 3-year commercial course and the 3-year home-economics course, is Sixth Form Certificate with acceptable grades in four subjects. University Entrance is required for the 3-year Division B course in general secondary subjects and the 1-year Division C course is for graduates. Other specialist secondary training courses of 1 year's duration for adults include woodwork and metal work, commercial, music, and Maori language and these courses have various minimum entry requirements.

The following table shows the number of students in these three divisions at 1 July.

YearDivision ADivision BDivision C
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
197514144186244195319409
197613064188213189332344
197710703929161202357359
19789723596161185303351

The normal course of training for Division A students is a period of 3 years at a teachers college, followed by a further period of 1 year as a probationary assistant attached to a State primary school. The primary teachers' studentship scheme which was introduced in 1965 enables a number of selected students to attend university full time as part of the primary teaching course. Specialist studentships are available to selected students who wish to become speech therapists or teachers of deaf children.

Although the normal period of training for teaching is 3 years, courses may be shortened to 2 years for students partway through degree courses and to 1 year for university graduates and specialists courses such as are mentioned above for secondary teaching as well as those courses for speech therapists or teachers of the deaf or children with handicaps.

A concurrent secondary teacher training course (Division B) was introduced in 1966. The course provides for up to 3 years of concurrent training at a university or a technical institute and at a teachers college, and is available at Auckland Secondary Teachers College and at the secondary division of Christchurch Teachers College.

Successful Division B students may complete the teachers college course with 6 units of a degree or equivalent and apply for a Teachers University Studentship for a year of full-time university study in order to complete a degree. Under the provisions of this concurrent course a successful student may commence his career of teaching as a teacher-trained university graduate in 4 years. This is the same period of time taken by students who are awarded a studentship for 3 years full-time university study (Division U) followed by the 1-year course of teacher training for graduates in Division C.

The ages and classification of students at teachers colleges at 1 July 1978 are shown in the following table. Division E students are included in this table; Division E is a 2-year course for kindergarten student teachers.

CourseAge of Students (in Years)TotalTotal
Under 171718192021–2425 and over
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMFCombined
Division A—
    First year1216274934527614141424832226829710111308
    Second year---619333784366712577964012628111221403
    Third year-----93741096545159252457233712881625
Specialist-----5-8-96221420206484
Graduate (1 year-course)-----1---42464134237111148
        Total121628011280019199520472531446613432897235964568
Division B—
    First year---341131615743112315788
    Second year----1-710128151063413172
    Third year-------5823685513148997186
        Total--3412311330273586662019161185346
Division C total--------5182102698859303346649
Division E—
        First year-2-40161-28-10122-202183185
    Second year---4-28-51126-271142150152
        Total-2-44189-791361491344333337
Other courses---28-52163-341529565172257329
        Total 197812213121688842941088310795451562259399150440425546

NOTE—The following students on studentships and bursaries were enrolled at teacher colleges in 1977.

 MFT
Division S (primary teacher studentship)72162234
Division U (secondary teacher studentship)7797691548
Division B (secondary bursar studentship)272350
Secondary teacher bursaries---

FREE TEXTBOOKS IN SCHOOLS—Free textbooks are supplied to all primary and secondary pupils in both State and private schools. Under the free textbooks scheme, the books remain the property of the school controlling authorities and are issued on loan to pupils. The school authorities have a wide discretion in their choice of suitable books.

SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE—This service, which is financed by the Department of Education and administered by the National Library of New Zealand, aims at giving children access to the best literature. Books for children and young people are sent on repository loans or on exchange to approximately 2588 schools. The schools served are primary (both public and private), intermediate, and district high schools. Pupils of the Correspondence School also receive books regularly.

All schools, including secondary schools, receive additional books on request. Some 2034391 requests were filled during the year ended 31 March 1977.

AUDIO-VISUAL TEACHING AIDS—A varied series of programmes linked with the curriculum are broadcast each school day from all national radio stations. Special lessons are also broadcast each day for Correspondence School pupils.

National Film Library—The National Film Library was founded in 1942 at the Government Film Studios, Miramar, by combining the libraries of the Tourist and Publicity Department, the Department of Education, the High Commission for Great Britain, and the High Commission for Canada. It remained under the control of the Tourist and Publicity Department until 1945, when the full stock of the Army Educational Welfare Services was incorporated into the National Film Library and the responsibility for the National Film Library was handed over to the Department of Education.

In January 1955 a branch was opened in Auckland and in January 1966 a further branch was opened in Christchurch. Films are now distributed to the north half of the North Island by the Auckland branch, to the South Island (excluding the Nelson Education Board area and Marlborough north of Kaikoura) by the Christchurch branch, and to the remainder of the country by the Wellington branch. In addition, the Wellington office also offers a service to the Chatham Islands and to Western Samoa, Tokelau, Niue, Pitcairn, and the Cook Islands.

Each year the library spends substantial amounts on films, and stocks have been further augmented by valuable gifts from many of the diplomatic missions, from other Government departments, from various organisations, and from commercial enterprises. In fact, the National Film Library now holds most of the diplomatic film libraries, which are supplemented by the embassies as they deem necessary.

In its 16 mm film section the library has over 46000 prints of some 11000 titles, and each week over 12000 films are issued to some 3000 educational institutions and over 4000 community organisations. In addition to films, the Wellington branch also offers a record and cassette loan service, an audio-tape reel/cassette copying service, and a sample sheet music service. These services at present are limited to educational institutions only.

The record library has in stock some 11000 records, comprising 6000 titles. Issues during 1977 totalled 11300. In 1977 the record library also commenced a cassette loan service. The tape duplicating section each year issues 40000 copies of the 3000 masters at present held by the library and sells recorded cassettes to schools at cost. The library also holds full copying rights on a further 25000 masters.

Museums—To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers college in each of the 4 main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

School Publications—The School Journal, an illustrated magazine, is published in 4 separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. Parts 1 and 2 are published 5 and 6 times a year, while Parts 3 and 4 for the senior classes appear 4 times a year. Bulletins dealing mainly with literature and language, social studies, science, history, and geography (particularly of New Zealand) are published every year for primary and secondary schools. These and other publications are prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education and issued free to all primary and intermediate schools, both State and private.

A wide range of syllabuses, textbooks, and handbooks is published for secondary and primary schools.

Te Wharekura, a bulletin in the Maori language published 3 times a year, and Te Tautoko a supplementary reader, are issued free to secondary pupils studying the Maori language. Te Purapura is a publication for primary pupils who are learning Maori.

The Education Gazette is published by the department twice a month. It is a medium for the dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State and private schools.

Education, a magazine for teachers, is published 6 times a year. Education News, a publication designed mainly for parents and administrators, is published 10 times a year.

A number of publications are issued for the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand to accompany the broadcasts to schools, and the department also publishes occasional reports and studies.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE—On 1 April 1978 the Vocational Guidance Service was transferred to the Department of Labour and so became part of the new Employment and Vocational Guidance Service created to provide an educational, social, and occupational guidance and counselling service available to students and adults throughout the country (See Section 32—Employment).

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION—There are 6 separate universities and a university college of agriculture. These are the University of Auckland, the University of Waikato (at Hamilton), Massey University (at Palmerston North), the Victoria University of Wellington, the University of Canterbury (at Christchurch), and the University of Otago (at Dunedin), with Lincoln College a constituent agricultural college of the University of Canterbury.

At the centre there is the University Grants Committee, which functions under the Universities Act 1961. The primary function of the University Grants Committee is to advise the Government of the needs of New Zealand for university education and research. It determines the allocation of grants of money which it recommends for appropriation by Parliament to meet these needs, and reviews the expenditure by the universities of money appropriated by Parliament. The University Grants Committee is also responsible for the award of scholarships, and through its statutory sub-committee, the Research Committee, for the distribution of a Government grant for research. Another statutory subcommittee of the University Grants Committee, the Curriculum Committee, has responsibility in respect of regulation of courses for degrees and diplomas. In the performance of its duties it is required to have regard to the comparative equivalence of courses.

The Universities Entrance Board was established on 1 January 1962 to maintain a common educational standard for admission to the universities. The board prescribes the conditions of examinations for University Entrance, Entrance Scholarships, the University Bursaries Examination, and Fine Arts Preliminary.

The special problems of legal education are the province of the Council of Legal Education which prescribes the examination requirements of candidates for admission as barristers and solicitors of the High Court.

The test which applies for entrance to university is not financial but achievement at secondary school. In a country where equality of opportunity for self-improvement still counts for much, the right to a university education is conferred by qualifying for University Entrance. It is true that the relatively open system of admission entails some uncertainties about student numbers and planning university facilities for them. It also leads to higher failure rates arising from the mixed quality of the first-year intake; but this situation is improving in some respects without depriving the universities of their characteristics of open entry. Seventh Form work is now taken by the majority of entrants to the universities, and the fees charged and bursaries paid are now more closely geared to successful study after entry. It is likely, too, that the strengthening and diversifying of courses offered in the technical institutes will enable them to cater better for some students and improve the efficiency of tertiary education as a whole. In the meantime, however, relatively ready access to university education associated with flexible degree structures meets the national needs well and at a cost which is modest by overseas standards.

Apart from the income from students' fees and the relatively small amounts now available to some of the universities from endowments, the block grants from the Government determine the income of the universities to meet their running costs for each 5 years. Under the block grant system, grants have been calculated and approved 5 years in advance to enable the universities to plan their activities ahead in the knowledge of what their income from the Government will be. They are block grants in the sense that they are not itemised and their detailed calculation is not disclosed to the universities. This has the effect of making the governing bodies—the university councils—not only responsible for arranging their budgets within their incomes, but also free to make their own decisions about the allocation of new expenditure among the many competing academic proposals which arise within the institutions. With these grants the university councils have an obligation to expand existing classes as necessary where student numbers increase and, subject to the scrutiny of the Curriculum Committee, to offer such courses as they see to be warranted by the demands put on them by the students and by the New Zealand community in which they exist.

The universities in Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago, besides offering courses in the faculties of arts, science, commerce, law, and music, specialise in certain fields. The University of Otago provides courses in medicine and dentistry, mineral technology, home science, and physical education; the University of Canterbury provides courses in engineering (mechanical, electrical, civil, agricultural, and chemical) and fine arts; the University of Auckland provides courses in architecture, fine arts,engineering (mechanical, chemical and materials, electrical, engineering science, and civil), and medicine; and the Victoria University of Wellington provides courses in architecture, public administration, and social science. Massey University provides courses in agriculture, horticulture, food technology, and veterinary science, as well as courses in arts and science, and also provides extramural tuition in a number of subjects to students throughout New Zealand. The University of Waikato offers courses in the schools of humanities, social sciences, and science and, in association with the Hamilton Teachers College, offers courses in its School of Education leading to a Diploma in Education and the degree of Bachelor of Education.

Free University Education: Scholarships—The most important awards for those entering university are the University Junior Scholarships. These scholarships are tenable for 3 to 6 years, depending upon the minimum time in which the holder, studying full-time, could complete the recognised course taken under the scholarship. The University Junior Scholarship provides a scholarship allowance of $400 a year and is tenable with a tertiary study grant (see below). These scholarships together with private endowed scholarships, are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

Scholarships awarded during degree courses include Senior Scholarships awarded by the individual universities and Lincoln College (and of a value to be determined by them). The various university institutions also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. Scholarships awarded at the end of the university course are listed in full in the university calendars. Most of the postgraduate scholarships and post-doctoral fellowships are tenable in New Zealand.

Tertiary Study Grants—The grant and bursary provisions for students entering upon tertiary courses of education were substantially revised for 1980.

Fees Bursaries are awarded to students following part-time or full-time courses who have qualified for entrance to the university. These bursaries provide payment for 75 percent of tuition fees.

Ternary Study Grants are awarded to students who hold University Entrance and Higher School Certificate, or certain Sixth Form qualifications, and are tenable for any recognised course at a university in each year of the grant. Also, a student who is credited with 2 units in any year or 3 units over a period of years will qualify for a tertiary study grant.

A tertiary study grant may be held with a fees bursary. It provides for a basic grant of $23 a week, but students may apply for a supplementary hardship grant of up to $17 a week to bring the allowance up to $40 a week. Special rates are available for married students with dependants.

The tertiary study grant is also tenable for full-time courses at technical institutes and teachers colleges.

A and B Bursaries of $150 or $100 a year are awarded to students who gain A or B passes in the University bursaries examinations.

All these grants are subject to strict rules as to terms and suspension. A student who in any year does not pass a prescribed number of units or subjects will have his grant suspended and it will not be reinstated unless in a subsequent year of study he is credited with a prescribed number of passes.

Further details of the amounts payable and other conditions for these grants and bursaries are available from university liaison officers and from the Head Office of the Department of Education, Wellington.

Students—In 1978 there were 41835 students actually in attendance at the 7 universities. In addition, there were 6488 students attached to the various universities, but exempt from lectures, and 230 students who were taking short courses. Comparable figures for the latest 4 years are given in the following table. Students now exceed 1.5 percent of the population.

YearStudents Attending LecturesExempt StudentsTotal
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
197523,13013,8012477271442,122
197624,43715,4592883342846,207
197724,69516,1542782331746,948
197824,98216,8532843364548,323

The following table gives particulars of internal students who were taking definite courses at universities, including Lincoln agricultural college, during 3 recent years.

Course197619771978
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Agriculture165332019731620323194317223982120
Architecture588142730628172800726185911
Arts and music4986747812,4644686738612,0724948765312,601
Commerce36458444489420010555255418011755355
Divinity581573571572601575
Education817174725647781826260479019092699
Engineering232864239223576524222240672307
Fine Arts149156305147146293139157296
Technology368764444329052242786513
Home Science119219313261274-307307
Law200772527322101861298221099213030
Medicine and Dentistry138761420011582719230115537412294
Physical Education151140291149136285148145293
Science445616906146447817806258468818566544
Surveying19515210822841757182
Veterinary Science317133450300123423303123426
Others221715543771196415603524180016283428
        Total25,32315,90541,22825,57416,54042,11426,00817,37343,381
Adjustment for students enrolled in more than 1 course8864461332879386126510265201546
        Total24,43715,45939,89624,69516,15440,84924,98216,85341,835

Students on the books of the university institutions in 1978 are shown in the following table.

 AucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Universities
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMF
Internal students—
    Full-time50092751105374424061352276217213486168110622323233218519,01110,666
    Part-time171915754719174907071440106310341198732072472759516207
    All internal students672843261524166128962059420227844520287911352523957291224,96216,873
External students—
    Taking courses at Massey University85128183222333069961275786--494925383491
    Taking courses at own university1163714--39221310--13681305154
    All external students2011651936223330691351497096--18513028433645
    All students692944911543169751295128433729334590297511352524142304227,80520,518
    Overseas students included in total5271601046922590440225462159109231811022048828

Internal students by years of university study in 1978 are shown in the following table.

Year of University StudyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Internal StudentsOf These, Overseas Students Numbered
MFTotalMFTotalMFTotalMFTotal
First497329597932812183726495785479610,581265160425
Second40622468653061012101820467236788350298139437
Third3615236859835358221357415031907340441198639
Fourth2625136139867726891461339720505447382144526
Fifth16136332246861557141824741190366426489353
Sixth or later2123877300023611092345344841969645339898496
          Total19,01110,66629,6775951620712,15824,96216,87341,83520488282876

The ages of internal students at universities in 1978 are shown in the following table.

Age in Years at 1 JulyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Internal Students
MenWomenTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenTotal
Under 18354422776602513114146731087
18301220855097185641826319727265923
19349922755774290660950378929356724
20323319005133291499790352423995923
21255012293779444387831299416164610
2218387012539518363881235610643420
231197380157748629077616836702353
24803296109947727074712805661846
25–291631610224114309382368306115484609
30–34521316837817671148813389872325
35–391861973834144258396006221222
40 and over187255442539812135172610671793
        Total19,01110,66629,6775951620712,15824,96216,87341,835

Holders of bursaries in 1977 and 1978 are shown in the following table.

Bursary19771978
* Fees and allowances boarding bursary.
Fees bursaries (part-time)74417305
Fees bursaries (full-time)21322134
Abated tertiary bursary91189676
Unabated tertiary bursary*12,39612,848
Marriage allowance*125136
Supplementary allowance $15079898418
Supplementary allowance $10050594843
Teachers university206198
Secondary teachers bursary1742
Teachers bursary7884
Teachers college students29733123
State service study awards145131
Other2-
                Total bursaries34,79035,637

The nature of residence of full-time students at universities in 1978 is shown in the following table.

Nature of ResidenceAucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Full-time StudentsOf These, Overseas Students Numbered
MFTotalMF
Living at home43055385972344244219811287352420011,55210345
In halls of residence5443499293968584011388320516604865401175
Boarding60010324110722011211110124821494141100
Sharing flat or house with others203576618431041164558227246748388810,6361032362
Other or not known276411485952-6869443611307840
                Total776017973758448351671293541919,01110,66629,6771755722

Occupations of part-time university students in 1978 are shown in the following table.

OccupationMalesFemalesTotal
No occupation other than study571338909
University staff567347914
Teacher5045671071
Teachers college student65319742627
Government employee9616011562
Local body employee290157447
Private employment19406992639
Self-employed person18586271
Housewife or housekeeper1211451157
Full-time student at technical institute171734
Other occupations251276527
                Total5951620712,158

Total of assisted overseas students at New Zealand universities in 1978, by the nature of the assistance, are shown in the following table.

Nature of AssistanceMalesFemalesTotal
* Includes MARAC, bilateral aid, ASPAC, and Commonwealth Education Scheme.
Assisted by the New Zealand Government—
    Bilateral aid and assistance22776303
    Island Territories Scholarships10414
    Commonwealth Scholarships25732
    Aid to Africa Scholarships10212
    Others*17724
 28996385
Other assistance from—
    Fijian Government22123
    Other Governments (Malaysia, Perak, Hong Kong)9110
    WHO, UNESCO, Fulbright, CES10-10
    Lee Foundation14620
    Other131023
 681886
    All assisted overseas students357114471

Graduates—The numbers of degree graduates from New Zealand universities for the years ending with the graduation ceremony in 1977, 1978 and 1979 are shown in the following table.

CourseFirst DegreePost Graduate
197719781979197719781979
Arts174818521736496491452
Music4557464916
Law358407418161411
Science102510481092238263252
Commerce628679695423235
Philosophy133177177220
Divinity7--11107
Architecture868175--1
Engineering:
    Civil173201174495140
    Electrical9513092
    Mechanical859772
    Chemical353824
    Science686
    Agricultural12717
Agriculture47117--11
Horticulture644---
Forestry Science241934-33
Agricultural Science117101119143319
Horticultural Science162126146
Medicine and Surgery2002621955103
Medical Science-48--1
Dental Surgery556056327
Veterinary Science4858581-3
Social Science10297104223031
Home Science211716-2-
Pharmacy272419311
Technology393832223
Education126169173281126
Fine Arts142014111
Others129345961434
          Total515856065774111911601183

Time Taken to Complete First Degrees—The following table shows the time taken to complete first degrees for the year ending with the graduation ceremonies in 1978.

DegreeMinimum TimeMinimum Time + One YearMinimum Time + Two YearsMinimum Time + Over Two YearsAll Students
TotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomen
Bachelor Honours
    Arts/Music60358531--7141
    Law3773193215112
    Science12248195----14153
        Engineering17537-1---1833
    Agriculture/Horticulture388211---419
    Other289------289
          Total460110391214421515127
Bachelor
    Arts/Music8614764932701991022901371843985
    Commerce226461814011418867607111
    Law157251372034628435655
    Science4821652477297148110907261
    Engineering169393-28-8-2983
    Medical/Surgery2947844101032-35091
    Agriculture/Horticulture154236191424123335
    Education513940272714511716997
    Social Sciences753832147412612662
    Other123274652528-20234
          Total2592920137446755516557018250911734

Staff—The staffing of university institutions in 1978 is shown in the following table.

PositionFull-time StaffPart-time Staff
MFTotalMFTotal
Teaching posts—
    Full professor363636936-36
    Senior lecturer, associate professor, reader, lecturer-in-charge1430116154616315178
    Lecturer62610673220230232
    Junior lecturer, assistant lecturer14243185841195
    Instructor and demonstrator, engaged in teaching4827757662371003
        Total, established teaching posts2609298290712512931544
Other staff—
    Technician, research assistant, and other technical staff not engaged in teaching9012751176175875
    Library staff9332742051175226
    Administrative staff, clerical and office staff365973133813122135
    Groundsmen, tradesmen, cleaners etc.6073764476183259
          Total, non-teaching staff196616123578157538695

TECHNICAL EDUCATION—In 1945 technical education was a variant form of secondary education. It was provided by separate technical high schools and technical departments in other secondary schools, and was avowedly vocational in purpose. During the past 15–20 years technical education has been transferred from the secondary to the tertiary sector of the educational system. Technical high schools as such no longer exist. Vocational education and training is now provided by 13 technical institutes and 4 community colleges supported by apprentice and other tertiary vocational courses provided in 4 secondary schools.

This transformation is the result of a number of policy decisions which have created a demand for types of education and training in the post-secondary phase of a person's career.

The passing of the Apprenticeship Act 1948 made it compulsory for apprentices to undertake technical classes; the establishment, in 1949, of the Trades Certification Board and of national trades examinations gave point and direction to apprentice studies; the passing of the Technicians Certification Authority Act 1958 and the introduction of New Zealand Certificates gave encouragement to technician studies; the approval by the Government, in 1969, of the establishment of technical institutes in centres where there is sufficient technical work to occupy 10 tutors full-time advanced the opening of minor institutes in provincial centres by several years; the approval by the Government, in 1972, of the establishment of community colleges allows traditional technical education to be provided in conjunction with other educational services meeting the specific circumstances of the local community, particularly in the non-metropolitan provincial centres. There has been increasing investment in technical institute buildings: more than $14.7 million was spent in the 1975–76 year alone. Technical institute bursaries, which were introduced first in 1965, have now been discontinued and from 1976 technical institute students on full-time year-long courses are eligible, along with university students and teacher trainees, to receive the Tertiary Study Grant.

Technical education in New Zealand is still developing and expanding at a very rapid rate. It is being developed through national and regional technical institutes as well as smaller technical institutes or community colleges in provincial centres. The Central Institute of Technology, which gives a predominantly national block course service but also provides some special courses of a national character such as pharmacy, chiropody and occupational therapy, opened in 1960. In 1972 the institute moved to its permanent accommodation at Heretaunga. Technical institutes have been opened in the 6 main centres of population, and, with the opening of Manukau Technical Institute in 1970, the first of a number of suburban institutes was opened to serve the Greater Auckland area. The second, Carrington, opened in 1976. Since 1971, institutes have also been opened in the provincial centres, Invercargill, Nelson, and New Plymouth.

The full list of technical institutes is as follows; Auckland, Manukau, Carrington, Waikato, Taranaki Polytechnic, Palmerston North, Central Institute of Technology, Petone Technical Institute, Wellington Polytechnic, Nelson Polytechnic, Christchurch, Otago Polytechnic, and the New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute. In addition, Hawke's Bay Community College was opened in 1975 and both the Northland Community College and the Waiariki Community College at Rotorua opened in 1978. Also, in 1978 Southland Polytechnic changed to a community college. More community colleges or technical institutes are likely to be opened in the next 10 years in Porirua, Wanganui, Timaru, and Tauranga.

A standing committee on relationships in tertiary education has been set up to consider the problems of placement of courses and the rationalisation of tuition in the technician, semi-professional, and professional fields.

Trade and Technician Courses—The beginnings of technician training date from the early 1950s and were a result of the efforts of the engineering profession to specify a role for a highly-trained person whose qualifications were derived, not from study in a university school of engineering, but from theoretical studies taken in conjunction with industrial experience. The New Zealand Certificate of Engineering was introduced in 1954. This led, in 1960, to the establishment of the Technicians Certification Authority to prescribe courses and syllabuses and conduct examinations for technicians, and to grant diplomas or certificates. In 1979 further recognition of the scope of the work of the TCA was given, its base broadened and it was renamed the Authority for Vocational Awards. Both 5–year New Zealand certificates and 3–year technicians certificates are offered in the following subjects:

New Zealand Certificate: Advertising, Building, Commerce, Computer Technology, Data Processing, Draughting (Architecture), Draughting (Survey/Town and Country Planning), Engineering, Forestry, Land Surveying, Quantity Surveying, Science, Statistics, and Town Planning.

Technicians Certificates: Garage Management, Automotive, Civil, Draughting, Electrical, Engineering, Mechanical, Radio, Survey, Telegraph and Data, Telephone, and Hospital Officers Certificate.

The instruction for New Zealand Certificate courses is part-time, or by regular intermittent periods in full-time classes, or by correspondence from the Technical Correspondence Institute supplemented in science and workshop subjects by short practical courses at an institute. In a few cases, study can be taken at full-time courses in a technical institute, but for the first 2 or 3 years only. All New Zealand Certificates require students to be suitably employed during the last 2 stages of the course.

During the last 15 years there has been a spectacular increase in the range of technician courses and the number of students studying for New Zealand Certificates. New Zealand Certificates awarded annually have increased from 29 in 1960 to a provisional total of 1018 in 1978.

Apprenticeship training accounts for over 40 percent of the enrolment load of technical institutes. Examination prescriptions for a full range of trade courses and shorthand typing are prescribed by the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, which conducts 2 qualifying and trade certificate examinations for apprenticeship, and usually an advanced trade certificate, examination to be taken at about the end of the apprenticeship. Up to 31 March 1979, this board has issued 50315 New Zealand Trade Certificates and 13082 Advanced Trade Certificates.

Apprentices in almost all trades are obliged to spend at least 3 years in vocational part-time studies. However, the long established pattern where apprentices attend evening theory classes and short block or day release courses for practical training, is undergoing a radical change. An incentives scheme, approved by Government in 1974, subsidises the wages of apprentices on block training and encourages the adoption of lengthened block courses, particularly in the first year of training.

In addition to the national trade and technician courses, there are a large number of courses available which have been organised regionally to meet local demands. These include courses in commerce, work study, electronic data processing, journalism, and in industrial and commercial design. In addition, instruction is given on the examination syllabuses devised by independent organisations such as the New Zealand Society of Accountants, the Chartered Institute of Secretaries, and the New Zealand Institute of Valuers.

Statistics of students taking full-year courses in technical education at 1 July 1978 are shown in the following table. Courses are classified according to the International Standard Classification of Education.

Full-time Courses: As at 1 July 1978MalesFemalesTotal Students
Level 3
    Fine or applied arts6591156
    Commercial and business3418351869
    Medical and paramedical---
    Trade, craft, and industry631299930
    Other courses52693745
Level 5
    Commerce and business studies292258550
    Science354782
    Medical and paramedical182690872
    Engineering3098317
    Surveying42749
    Draughting621779
    Trade, craft, and industry645569
    Other courses110132242
        Total187840825960
Part-time Courses: As at 1 July 1978Students takingTotal Students
Day or Day and Evening CoursesEvening Courses OnlyCorrespondence Courses
MalesFemalesTotal
Level 3
    Technicians' Certification Authority courses15872194319931802173
    Apprentice1794678112,93520,411109921,510
    Vocational252921,607981113,50620,44133,947
Level 5
    Technicians' Certification Authority courses4708126047908305245310,758
    Professional and advanced technical3873272453489014293111,945
Level 9
    Non-vocational551250,816542615,34946,40561,754
        Total18,57483,26040,25368,57873,509142,087
Block Courses Held During 1978Student-weeksStudents
MalesFemalesTotal
Trade courses84,07119,948133821,286
Technicians Certification Authority courses and N.Z. Certificate courses19,61527442362980
Other courses24,806526714976764
        Total128,49227,959307131,030

New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute—The Department of Education established the Technical Correspondence School (now the Technical Correspondence Institute) in 1946, and from small beginnings, with a staff of a half dozen or so, this institute now employs over 450 full-time staff. With nearly 30000 students on the roll, the Technical Correspondence Institute is easily the biggest single educational institution in the country. It teaches one-third of all students enrolled at technical institutes in New Zealand. The institute writes, illustrates, and prints the material for all the courses offered by it, as well as writing and publishing authoritative textbooks on technical subjects with accent on New Zealand law, practice, and conditions. The 8 text books at present in print are widely used not only by Technical Correspondence Institute students but also by all other technical teaching institutions, tradesmen and technicians, and even the general public.

The Technical Correspondence Institute parallels the teaching standards of other technical institutes, and also provides instruction in many subjects not taught elsewhere. Of the apprentices who sit the annual examinations of the Trades Certification Board, some 40 percent are directed to enrol at the Technical Correspondence Institute.

The institute also prepares a large percentage of candidates for the Authority for Vocational Awards examinations in engineering, building, commerce, draughting, and science as well as for other professional and industrial examinations. Voluntary students studying for advanced trade, technician or professional qualifications comprise about two-thirds of the roll. The Technical Correspondence Institute offers over 900 subjects, from ladies' hairdressing, plumbing, and agriculture to airline pilots' licence and professional accountancy. To enrol at the Technical Correspondence Institute students must be engaged in the vocation relevant to their course of study, hence their correspondence studies are supported by practical experience. In some cases, laboratory work or practical instruction is required as part of the course. In such cases students attend short block courses at the Central Institute of Technology or other institutes.

EDUCATIONAL ATTENDANCE LEVELS OF ADULT POPULATION—The 1976 Census of Population included a question on the post-primary places of learning attended by those 15 years of age and above. An analysis of data obtained is set out below in 2 separate tabulations. The first gives details of attendance at general educational establishments including teachers colleges and technical institutes. The second table covers the remaining vocational institutions. Each person has been included in only 1 category in each table, although in some instances they may appear in both tables. The figures include those currently attending the institutions. Cases of nil or not specified post-primary attendance have been omitted.

InstitutionMalesFemalesTotal
Secondary school only603,641705,6241,309,265
University82,89935,574118,473
Technical institute143,86942,806186,675
Teachers college10,11938,75848,877
University and technical institute14,933364118,574
University and teachers college15,82722,94638,773
Technical institute and teachers college339518885283
University, technical institute and teachers college147713502827
      Total876,160852,5871,728,747
Vocational InstitutionMalesFemalesTotal
* Not hobby class.
Nursing school207339,73641,809
Vocational training centre10,195140511,600
University extension, W.E.A. course*4719556310,282
Armed forces school68523647216
Business college186648876753
Theological college, seminary352513794904
Professional institute43323824714
Dental nursing school940934102
Secretarial, etc., school10835073615
Music, art, drama school79219212713
Other tertiary9483693916,422
      Total43,95470,176114,130

NEW ZEALAND COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH—The Carnegie Corporation of New York was instrumental in founding the New Zealand Council for Educational Research in 1933 and supported it with grants for 10 years. Since 1945 the council has been supported principally by State funds, the remainder coming from contributions from educational bodies, philanthropic foundations, business organisations, and its own trading operations. It has remained, however, under independent control as provided for in the New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1945 (updated in 1972).

In its research programme, the council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and its main publications (60 research reports and numerous shorter studies in education) include critical surveys of major policy issues in New Zealand education and accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. These have brought about or helped reshape major developments in such areas as secondary, university, and adult education, intermediate schools, consolidation of rural schools, and care of children with special needs. The council also publishes a number of periodical publications, newsletters, the New Zealand Journal for Educational Studies, and a special research information package for teachers.

Since the 1930s, the council has served as the main source of supply for overseas and locally standardised educational and psychological tests used by universities, Government agencies, hospitals, business firms, and schools. In 1965 the council established a special Test Development Division to produce achievement tests designed specifically to suit the curricula of New Zealand schools. Known as the Progressive Achievement Tests, they are now used extensively in schools throughout this country, and also in Australia.

The council employs its own permanent research staff as well as temporary research fellows or project assistants, and it also assists honorary research workers in other institutions such as universities, teachers colleges, and schools. Its current research programme includes major projects related to educational planning, the supply of qualified people in the community, teaching practices, Maori and pre-school education, and services for children with special needs. The council also acts as a clearing house for information on educational matters and maintains 8 local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Palmerston North, Hamilton, Manukau, and Suva (Fiji).

MAORI EDUCATION FOUNDATION—The Maori Education Foundation Act 1961 established the Maori Education Foundation for the general purpose of promoting and encouraging the better education of Maoris and of providing financial assistance for that purpose. The capital resources of the foundation are $2,304,000. The principal purpose for which the Board of Trustees is empowered is to apply the income of the foundation to the educational and vocational training of Maoris. This includes the provision of bursaries to assist Maoris attending secondary schools or any New Zealand or overseas university, agricultural college, or institution of similar status; the provision of post-graduate scholarships for Maoris holding university degrees or diplomas; and the making of special research or study grants to Maoris undertaking special research or study projects. The bulk of the foundation's income is expended on grants to individuals. During the 1979 academic year, assistance totalling $526,730 was granted. Of this total, 570,590 was for tertiary awards, and $422,280 was for secondary awards. In a number of cases, foundation grants are a necessary supplement to other scholarships and awards.

POLYNESIAN EDUCATION FOUNDATION—In 1972 a Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation was set up on similar lines to the Maori Education Foundation. The aim is to assist New Zealand resident Pacific Islands families to further the education of their children. In 1979 the foundation granted 112 awards.

EDUCATION OF MAORI AND PACIFIC ISLAND CHILDREN—In 1970 the National Advisory Committee on Maori Education, which was set up to advise the Minster of Education on all aspects of Maori education, made recommendations to the Minister concerning curricula, staffing of schools, pre-vocational and vocational training, teacher training, adult education, and early childhood education. The committee's report, published in 1971, stated that to achieve equality of opportunity for Maori children, measures that were unequal had to be taken. It was further stated that Maoritanga—the sense of Maorihood and of traditional Maori culture and values—had to be recognised as a worthy study for teachers and for all New Zealand children, Pakeha and Maori alike. This has led to a far-reaching recognition in schools of Maori culture and traditions.

At the end of 1977 the committee met to evaluate progress and to determine further lines of development. A report was made to the Minister in April 1978.

Policies have been introduced to meet the recommendations in the original report, especially through teacher training. All teachers colleges now have courses in Maori language and Maori studies, and a special 1 year course to train Maori-English speakers to teach Maori in secondary schools began in 1974. Recently emphasis has been placed on educational provision for Pacific Islanders living in New Zealand. The establishment of a Pacific Islanders Educational Resource Centre, an English language teaching unit, and a supplementary training course for Pacific Island-trained teachers are evidence of this.

The educational performance and progress of Maori and Pacific Island children as a whole group has not equalled that of other New Zealand children for a variety of complex reasons; social, language, economic, and cultural. Generally, Maori and Pacific Island children have not stayed on as long at secondary school and relatively few of those doing so have continued their education at the tertiary level. In some cases, this has not been possible economically. Strenuous efforts have been made, particularly in recent years, to encourage Maori children to continue their education by increasing the appreciation of their problems on the part of teachers, by creating school situations conducive to a desire for further education, and by involving parents more closely in their children's education. Practical assistance has been given by increasing the number and value of scholarships awarded each year by the Department of Education. The Maori Education Foundation and the Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation have also given valuable help to Maori and Pacific Island students, particularly at the senior levels of education. The importance of, and the opportunities available in, vocational education beyond the secondary school level have been brought to the notice of young Maori and Pacific Islanders, through the schools and through vacation courses. Special trade training courses have been set up and extended.

If the efforts to upgrade the education of Maori and Pacific Island children are measured solely in terms of the proportion who pass subjects in the School Certificate examination, who obtain a trade certificate or a New Zealand certificate at the technician's level, or who complete a university degree, it is obvious that there is still much room for improvement. But it is fair to state that a good deal has been achieved at all levels of education and that there is a greater awareness of the value of education on the part of children and parents. In the whole country, too, there is a better informed appreciation of Maori and Pacific Island society and culture and of the need for special measures so that all children of these races in New Zealand receive the maximum benefit from the opportunities offered them.

CONTINUING EDUCATION—The development of technical education in New Zealand has already been described. The establishment of the Central Institute of Technology in 1960 and later of technical institutes, initially in the 4 main centres and later in other centres where the demand was sufficient, was followed in 1972 by the policy decision to establish community colleges. These were intended to provide not only traditional technical education, but also for the special continuing education needs of the community. Following this, in 1978 the Government established Senior Technical Divisions (STDs) in some secondary schools. These work as embryonic community colleges, but are attached to secondary schools during the developmental phase. In addition to the 13 technical institutes and 4 community colleges, there are now 4 senior technical divisions. These are at Tauranga, Gisborne, Wanganui, and Timaru.

National Council of Adult Education—The functions and powers of the National Council of Adult Education are set out in the Adult Education Act 1963. The council advises the University Grants Committee, the Director-General of Education and other bodies on adult education, co-ordinates and conducts pilot projects and experiments, maintains a national library and documentation centre on adult education, and publishes occasional papers and reports as well as a periodical entitled Continuing Education in New Zealand

University Extension—Although full responsibility and control of their continuing education activities rests with the universities, they use various systems to ascertain the views of (and in some cases to seek advice from) various community interests.

The typical extension department in each university has a director in charge and a staff of lecturers in a range of academic disciplines. In addition to teaching, the lecturers may plan and develop sections of the department's programme or have special responsibility for a geographical area and its programme. All 6 universities now carry out extension work, and show marked differences in their approaches and systems of organisation. A large number of part-time lecturers supplement the activity of the full-time staff (numbering about 40). The work is carried out by various methods—lecture courses, study conferences, seminars, schools of varying length (both residential and non-residential), and correspondence courses. While most universities continue to provide substantial extension programmes of liberal studies for the general public, there has been a rapid increase in programmes designed for specialised groups, largely occupational. Some of these are national in scope.

Secondary Schools—Most organised adult education is being done by evening classes in secondary schools. Since the revision of the School Certificate regulations to allow single subject passes, there has been some increase in adult classes leading to the School Certificate Examination, but there is a very wide range of other examinable and non-examinable courses. A new provision to the Education Act in 1975 allowed adults to return full-time or part-time to secondary schools, in day classes. In 1978 some 22 schools accepted an invitation to take part in a trial scheme for administering and funding extension classes in secondary schools. The number of adult admissions to secondary school are now over 2000, in addition to evening class programmes. There has also been an increase in the number of technical institutes which cater for a wide variety of education interests.

Correspondence Education:—Main agencies are the Correspondence School (over 10000 adult students) the extramural studies of Massey University (6029), and the Technical Correspondence Institute (over 29000 in 1979).

Health Services Education—Health related education accounts for approximately 14 percent of the technical education load and has been a major growth area over the last 5 years. With the transfer of nurse training to the education vote there are now some 700 students enrolling each year in nursing programmes alone. There are currently some 10 diploma and certificate programmes in the health related areas.

Voluntary Agencies—Many voluntary organisations make some provision for continuing education. For most of them, such as the Play Centres Federation, continuing education is incidental to other purposes. The following 2 organisations, however, have continuing education as their primary purpose.

Workers' Educational Association—District councils of the Workers' Educational Association exist in Auckland, West Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, and are now funded annually through the Department of Education. In Auckland and Canterbury there is a full-time organising tutor provided by the technical institute. District councils, in their own right, organise additional courses, summer schools, public forums and seminars. The co-ordinating body is the New Zealand Workers' Education Association which also publishes the WEA Review, and operates a postal book discussion scheme on a national basis. It also, jointly with trade unions and the National Council of Adult Education, conducts a postal education scheme for trade unionists and their wives.

Country women's Co-ordinating Committee—This national liaison committee of the Countrywomen's Institute and the Women's Division of Federated Farmers has regional committees at Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin and over 50 district committees. The organisation co-operates with other adult education organisations and also arranges classes of special interest to women.

There are a number of other locally-based continuing education programmes supported by the government. The Rural Education Activities Package has led to full-time community education organisers being appointed in Taihape, Gisborne and Blenheim with Kaitaia, Taumarunui, and Greymouth due in 1980.

Community Centres—Community centres which opened experimentally some 40 years ago in Feilding, Christchurch, and Westport were the forerunners of the newly established school-based community learning centres. Generally the centres receive professional and ancillary staffing and an annual grant. In effect, 11 community learning centres have been established.

Several other schools which have developed large community programmes have been given lesser levels of support in the meantime.

Still another group of schools have developed successful programmes within their own resources, or with additional support from the Ministry of Recreation and Sport.

All these schools have developed community education programmes which aim at increasing the community involvement in continuing education by making a wider use of schools for expanded extension programmes and, by using the resources of the community to enrich the programmes of pupils still at school.

The Community Action Programme (CAP) in the Wairarapa region is partly supported by the Government to provide a range of continuing education programmes to meet a wide variety of learning needs in the area. The Community Education Service (CES) in the Nelson region is a similar organisation supported by the Government to provide for the lifelong learning needs of people in the Nelson Province.

Special Employment Scheme—A scheme to assist young unemployed people was introduced in 1978. Special advisory committees co-operating with the Department of Labour's district offices assess local needs and employment opportunities in their area and courses ranging from a few days to 6 weeks are provided in the skills and pre-employment fields.

INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION—The Directorate for International Education provides technical advice to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on education activities under New Zealand's Overseas Aid Programme in South-east Asia and the Pacific and in Commonwealth countries outside that region. It provides advice to the Government on academic questions affecting the education and training of private overseas students in New Zealand. It also provides advice on New Zealand participation in the activities of international educational organisations, including the Commonwealth and the South-east Asian Ministers of Education Organisation.

In the Pacific, the directorate on request fills about 60 teaching and educational administrative positions. Officers and teachers serving in the islands have their service, grading, and superannuation rights protected. Advisory visits are made to most of the islands and supplies of resource material and apparatus are sent regularly to some countries. The directorate is continuing to print books in the vernacular for some areas.

The directorate operates a scholarship system giving island students education and training not otherwise available. In 1979, 216 students attended New Zealand schools, trade centres, teachers colleges, universities, Government departments, private firms, and technical institutes. In 1978 there were 10600 candidates from 120 island schools for the New Zealand School Certificate examination compared with 9390 from 109 schools in 1977, and 2808 candidates from 57 schools for the New Zealand University Entrance Examination compared with 2370 from 46 schools in 1977.

The directorate is responsible for bilateral educational and cultural exchanges programmes such as the New Zealand-Japan Exchange Programme. The latter is funded by the New Zealand and Japanese Governments and provides financial and administrative support for a wide range of activities for school teachers, artists, and scholars. Since the programme began operation in 1975, a primary objective has been the development of Japanese language learning and teaching in New Zealand. It is serving as a model for the development of programmes with other countries.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development—Membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1973 enabled New Zealand to participate in the activities of its Education Committee. In 1975 New Zealand also became a member of OECD's Centre for Educational Research and Innovation and the programme on educational building.

Further Information—A small selection of the many books on education is included in the Bibliography near the back of this Yearbook. The following official publications deal with statistics and administration rather than with pedagogy.

Report of the Department of Education (Parl. paper E. 1).

Education Statistics of New Zealand—Department of Education.

Reports of the University Grants Committee and University Institutions (Parl. paper E.3).

Report of the Maori Education Foundation (Parl. paper E.24).

Report of the Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation (Parl. paper E.21).

UN Statistical Yearbook—United Nations.

7 B—SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC SERVICES

“Over the last ten years, we have seen the world economy as a whole falter, and our own economy has been drastically affected. We have also witnessed the impetus of the Second Development Decade fall away. The whole effort to accelerate worldwide economic growth and to close the poverty gap has been most seriously prejudiced by a series of events including, now, the energy crisis. Science and technology cannot be divorced from these wider political and economic realities which threaten most countries' future welfare. New Zealand is concerned at the present state of events. There is a need now, more than ever before, to give greater thrust to the international move for more rapid development and its corollary—a more even distribution of the fruits of mankind's efforts.”

(New Zealand Plenary Statement, UN Conference on Science and Technology for Development, 22 August 1979.)

THE SCIENTIFIC VIEWPOINT* —Hailed as a means of allowing rapid development of resources by a more straightforward, clearly defined process than hitherto by integrating environmental evaluation with the planning process, the National Development Bill, enacted as the National Development Act 1979 at the end of the last Parliamentary session, is probably the most significant development for science for the year and perhaps even the new decade. Government scientists are becoming increasingly involved in providing data to assist planning of industrial development and land use from the point of view of both exploitation of resources and environmental protection. Scientists and scientific and engineering organisations provided considerable input at the committee stages of the Bill, most of it expressing concern about the difficulty of providing adequate scientific backing for decisions when procedures are speeded up.

For example, the New Zealand Association of Scientists said that, although previous procedures were cumbersome, time-consuming, and expensive, they had evolved over a long period and were designed to protect public health, the environment, and individual and community rights. The association was worried that provisions in the Bill would result in less scientific expertise being applied to planning. It recommended full technology assessment as well as environmental audit, and also the provision of funds for special-interest groups because they had demonstrated their competence in advising planners. The Royal Society of New Zealand similarly expressed the need for time to accumulate scientific data so that the best basis for decision-making could be attained. As an editorial in N.Z. Energy Journal stated: “If the assumptions on which decisions are taken were always clear and universally accepted, if the grounds on which a stand was made were sound and solid rather than treacherous shifting sands or quagmires, and if politicians were philosopher kings, then we might be able to accept the Bill promoters' right to speedy decisions.” The editorial implored the Government to “make haste slowly.”

A Department of Scientific and Industrial Research discussion paper on land use, (Only the Land Endures, DSIR Discussion Paper No. 3, 1980), expresses a view that environmental impact reporting procedures, instituted in March 1974 and administered by the Commission for the Environment, have been beneficial and in tune with good planning in which time and money spent early on investigations have been a sound investment. Delays could have been avoided by preparing environmental assessments as early as possible in planning and by ensuring that those preparing environmental impact reports have a sound understanding of natural processes.

One of the bodies set up under the Planning Act 1977, the Planning Council, added its view that the criteria of works treated under this new legislation should be narrowed to those projects making large contributions to exports, self-sufficiency, and employment and which needed to be started more urgently than was possible under existing law. Both the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 and the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967 were among a considerable amount of existing legislation that could be prevailed over by the new Act. The council proposed that the Act should be given a limited life to give time for town and country planning legislation as a whole to be reviewed and improved.

During the year another body set up under the Planning Act 1977, the Commission for the Future, produced 3 discussion books on New Zealand in the Future World. In the book about Resources and Technology, the main conclusions affecting science are that (1) New Zealand is very well endowed with natural resources, particularly energy resources; (2) because of this endowment, we have a wide range of options for the future; and (3) sustainability is a criterion which should guide all our resource-use decisions. The commission asks to what purpose we are developing our resources. “Is it simply to pursue an even higher standard of living, or are we keen to create our own particular type of lifestyle, where material wealth may be just one of a number of criteria of resource use? Are we keen to see further overseas investment in the development of our resources, or do we wish to rely more on our own skills and perhaps the slower use of our resources? Are we willing to embrace the concept of sustainability now, or will we argue that a future generation must meet that challenge when it arises?”

To many scientists the choice apparently made by the Government is to use overseas capital to help us to exploit our resources of natural gas, coal, and timber as rapidly as possible, to provide a higher standard of living now, and to worry about sustainability some other time. Evidence supporting this belief was the hilarity which greeted the recent introduction to Parliament by the Minister of Internal Affairs of an amendment to the Wildlife Act designed to extend protection to include various insects and other small creatures with other endangered wildlife. Regardless of one's view of the morality of selling these creatures overseas as collector's items, as is also happening with the tuatara, the attitude of the MPs betrays an alarming ignorance of the interactions between species and the repercussions that can sometimes result from destruction of some species.

It seems likely that for industrial scientists the decade ahead will provide considerable excitement, but for natural scientists it may mean lack of opportunities, struggle, and strife.

* Contributed by Science Information Division, DSIR.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH: One of the stated functions of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) is to implement research and development calculated to promote the national interest, and therefore the work of the department is mainly related to the fields of agricultural production and processing, energy, manufacturing, the natural environment, transport, building and construction, and the provision of scientific services to many organisations including several other Government departments.

Implicit in the whole range of the department's activities is the necessity to communicate the results of research and development to the end-user and to the community at large which will be affected by the development and application of research findings.

Effective technology transfer is recognised, here as elsewhere, as fundamental to the progress of a developed economy. The pace of scientific advance is so rapid, and the potential of new technologies to alter our way of life so great, that the ability to assess and assimilate technological change, and to adapt and apply it, is vital to the continuing welfare of our society.

The department, as perhaps the major national source and repository of technological information and expertise, has the obligation to ensure that these resources are used effectively to the benefit of the community.

An appreciation of this fundamental responsibility requires a continuing appraisal of the methods by which DSIR promotes technology transfer.

At present a variety of approaches is used. These include workshops, seminars, and field-days on new methods, equipment, or processes. In addition, the department's calibration and testing services assist industry to develop the capability to maintain the quality and interchangeability of products and components and to manufacture to strict specifications for local and export markets. The department also makes available specialised equipment for specific jobs or projects. This may extend to undertaking a limited production run as a practical demonstration of the benefits to be gained by the manufacturer installing similar machinery in the factory.

The industrial divisions also offer advisory or information services on specialised techniques, equipment, and industrial operations. These include advice on acoustics and noise control, a computer advisory service, advice on the applications of numerical control, and on electronics and metallurgy.

Surveys are undertaken to establish the technological needs of key industrial sectors. One such survey, of the information needs of manufacturers, is nearing completion. The results of this approach to a representative sample of 2000 businesses should provide a clearer understanding of what manufacturers consider to be their major problems in acquiring new technology and how DSIR can concentrate its resources to overcome them.

One difficulty in promoting technology transfer has been that although DSIR is widely located throughout the country the department cannot be represented in every area. As a consequence there are significant regions where contact with the local business community and its access to, and indeed awareness of, the services provided by the department may be limited.

As a method of bridging such gaps in coverage a series of regional development seminars is planned similar to one held in New Plymouth in 1978. This was a multidisciplinary exercise drawing on the department's skills and experience in engineering, processing, horticulture, and environmental impact assessment to illustrate to the local business community the type of assistance DSIR can provide.

Research associations, many of which were sponsored by DSIR, now number 12 and have a long history in New Zealand from the first, the Dairy Research Institute, formed in 1927, until the most recent, the Heavy Engineering Research Association, formed in 1978. They have been shown to provide an effective channel for technology transfer.

Research associations are funded partly by private firms in a particular industry (or by a national levy on the firms) and partly by Government grant through DSIR. Initially they provide the research facilities and equipment which each individual member firm may be unable to afford or fully utilise. The associations, once established, play a significant role in transferring technology by actively encouraging individual firms to progressively undertake more of their own testing, quality control, trouble-shooting, and short-term research and development. As these capabilities develop within the industry, the research associations are then able to devote a greater proportion of their effort to long-term research. There is no doubt that the sustained growth and development of the primary and secondary industries will increasingly depend on the ability of research associations to look into the future and determine research priorities, and to initiate research which may have practical application in 5, 10, or even 15 years' time.

A new departure related to technology transfer, but with wider implications, was the publication last year of DSIR Discussion Paper No. 1, Transport Fuels for New Zealand. This paper, produced by a DSIR working party, provides a comprehensive and detailed review of international trends in oil supplies and prices, the pattern of use of transport fuels in this country, conservation measures, and alternative or improved technologies which would reduce fuel requirements. Several chapters are devoted to the availability of local resources and possible methods and the economics of exploiting them to produce transport fuels. The document does not represent departmental policy, but is nevertheless regarded as a key step in the research planning process. The decision to open DSIR's planning to public comment was taken to ensure that all interested sections of the community could have the opportunity of helping to shape the programme at an early stage.

The report was presented for public scrutiny through an appreciation that the adoption of new and advanced technologies cannot be decided on their scientific merit alone, but that the choice of which technologies are adopted is also very dependent on social and economic considerations. The paper and subsequent discussion of its content should assist in the choice of which among the possible alternative technologies should be adopted to the national benefit and in the subsequent planning of appropriate research.

The public and outside organisations have welcomed the opportunity to contribute to the research planning, and the department has been pleased at the number of comments, criticisms, and suggestions received from individuals and interested groups.

A second paper, Breeding, Development, and Management of New Zealand Cultivars has also been published. Although of narrow public interest, this discussion paper should help in the rationalisation of breeding programmes for new varieties of cereals, grasses, clovers, and other commercial plants by Government agencies, the seed industry, and growers, and in finding a basis for agreement on the commercial exploitation of State-bred plant varieties to the ultimate benefit of New Zealand agriculture.

To promote the expansion of horticulture, the 1978 Budget provided for interest-free suspensory loans for selected growers to enable them to establish commercial-sized trial blocks of new horticultural crops. A condition of a loan is that research workers will have access to the blocks. The close liaison which is possible between scientists and growers will ensure that management advice on the new crop is readily available and that new scientific developments can be quickly applied to the methods of cultivation.

In the coming year, emphasis will be given to research and development in several priority areas including manufacturing, hill country pastoral production, horticulture, agricultural and fish processing, and liquid fuels, supported by a continuing policy of improving information services promoting technology transfer.

However, this programme is only part of the total national effort which must involve Government laboratories, the research associations, industry itself, and the universities. It is important for the most effective use of research resources that each sector carries out the work for which it is best suited. For example the department encourages work in the universities by granting research contracts for projects of national interest. This also ensures that DSIR does not carry out research that could be better done in the universities.

It is evident here and overseas that the countries best able to surmount the economic, social, and environmental difficulties which are world-wide will be those capable of assimilating and using the new technologies which are developing so rapidly.

In this context, DSIR must continue to have a central role in anticipating the needs of industry and agriculture for new technologies and ensuring that those adopted are appropriate to New Zealand conditions and requirements.

Agricultural Production—Producers of agricultural products are faced with both adverse trading conditions in many markets and rising internal costs. This situation emphasises the importance of the contribution of scientists and technologists to developing improved techniques for reducing inputs of capital, labour, fertiliser, and energy, while maximising outputs of a more diverse range of products and increasing the range of production opportunities available to the farmer and the grower.

The strong trend to crop and horticultural diversification continues, and DSIR is increasingly involved in assessing the suitability of various crops to different areas. To enable selected growers to evaluate commercially new horticultural crops in different regions, an incentive scheme has begun. Emphasis is being given to the use of tissue culture for rapid propagation of superior plant material; to the breeding of varieties with resistance to various pest/disease complexes; to integrated control of pests, using a combination of biological predators and chemical treatments; and to retention of product quality to the market place.

In pastoral farming research, emphasis continues to be placed on improving production from the major grassland regions by studying nutrient cycling and fertiliser requirements, problems of pasture establishment, the selection, breeding, and management of new pasture varieties, and the control of pests and weeds by biological predation and parasitism. Systems of forage farming are also under study, with a view to extending the seasonal kill in the meat industry.

The development of equipment for early detection of multiple pregnancies in sheep is being given high priority, since newly developed imaging techniques offer prospects of success.

The opportunities and possible problems arising from the use of increased quantities of nitrogenous fertiliser produced from Maui natural gas in both arable and pastoral farming are being assessed.

Processing of Agricultural Products—A considerable part of New Zealand's export income is concerned with the marketing of products based on processed agricultural raw materials. In some cases the processing industries are supported by strong research associations—the Dairy Research Institute, the Meat Research Institute, the Wool Research Organisation, and the Leather and Shoe Research Association. As well as supporting these Research Associations financially, DSIR also carries out research in specialised fields in support of the activities of the Research Associations (for example, automation of processing operations, research on storage and drying, pollution control systems, etc.). The department also provides funds to the Food Technology Centre at Massey University to enable full-time staff to be employed for answering technical inquiries, developing new products for specific companies, and for market research investigations.

The Food Processing group at the Plant Diseases Division of DSIR is concerned with the development of products based on the horticultural and crop sector.

The Industrial Processing Division, which became independent of Chemistry Division on 1 April 1978, has been actively involved in new product development. The raw materials (animal and plant) of our agricultural industries contain potentially valuable biochemicals that are, in turn, raw materials for pharmaceutical products. It would be difficult for a small country like New Zealand to process these raw materials right through to the stage of marketing the finished pharmaceutical products on world markets, but there are useful opportunities in part processing materials in New Zealand (i.e., “adding value”) for final processing by the big pharmaceutical houses overseas. The Industrial Processing Division has been actively involved in this type of activity. This division also undertook a collaborative project with the Apple and Pear Marketing Board to develop an automatic plant for treating apples to prevent, or substantially reduce, “bitter pit” by treatment with a calcium solution under pressure. This plant, which operated during the 1979 season, has proved to be highly successful, and is a good example of successful collaboration between a producer board, New Zealand manufacturing companies, and the department.

While there are undoubtedly significant opportunities for the further processing of the products with New Zealand agriculture, we should also be aware of the opportunities for the export of a wider range of fresh products (such as vegetables, fruit, etc.). For example, unprocessed fruit supplied to markets in good condition (i.e., well stored, well packaged, and well transported) are often more valuable than processed fruits. The Auckland Industrial Development Division and the Plant Diseases Division of DSIR have been actively involved in such areas, e.g., the development of methods for the transport of lettuce to South-east Asian markets, container-transport of artichokes to French Polynesia, rock melons to Japanese markets, and air-dried onions to various countries. Frozen berry fruits also are shipped to a wide variety of new markets, often to give continuity of supply when domestic supplies are unavailable.

Pastoral farming is to some extent a “divided” industry. In the sense that it is used here, “divided” means that the industry is often treated as one industry “up to the farm gate” and as a quite separate industry (transport, processing, etc.) thereafter. It seems likely that the efficiency of the industry could be improved if the whole system of raw materials production, transport, processing, storage, were treated as an integrated system rather than a sequence of independently managed systems, with little flow of information between them. Research on methods of managing the “total system” more effectively is under way in a joint programme by DSIR and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, and preliminary work with the dairy industry shows that this approach has great potential for improving the profitability of the total agricultural industry.

Other Primary Production—Work on forestry is done, in consultation with the Forest Service, by Ecology Division and Soil Bureau, both dealing with aspects of the ecology of native forests. Ecology Division's main interest in this respect is in the food and population changes of opossums in the Orongorongo Valley.

Staff at Chemistry Division are investigating the chemical composition of radiata pine wood and bark, and the possibility of commercial production of tall oil, and the Physics and Engineering Laboratory is studying wood structure using the scanning electron microscope and has produced original and attractive books on the subject.

The Logging Industry Research Association undertakes research into all aspects of logging, from extraction from the forest to semi-processing and transport to the factory or dockside.

Geological Survey has intensified the search for exploitable industrial minerals and rocks (see Minerals section). The survey is also the permanent repository for all earth science information, including oil prospecting done by private groups.

In collaboration with the Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association, considerable work is being done on means of producing usable fertilisers from Christmas Island “B” and “C” phosphates, although the “A” phosphate, being the one currently used, has been the most systematically investigated as a convenient source of plant nutrients.

Energy—Energy continues to be of current major importance and interest to New Zealand. During the year, the Ministry of Energy became firmly established, and DSIR's assistance included the secondment of an Assistant Director-General to that ministry during its first few months. In addition, the Government consolidated its petroleum activities under the control of a single corporation (“Petrocorp”), and established the exploration subsidiary (“Petrocorp Exploration”). The latter took over the responsibilities of an Onshore Petroleum Exploration Committee on which DSIR had been represented. Geological Survey specialists continued to provide paleontological and penological services to Petrocorp's drilling programme.

Although there were no discoveries of commercial oil in wells drilled during the year, a number of measures were taken to alleviate the effects on New Zealand of the projected world oil shortage. Perhaps the most important was the establishment, announced in the 1978 Budget, of the Liquid Fuel Trust Board. This board was charged with investigating the feasibility of introducing 15 percent of methanol into New Zealand petrol and of long-term solutions to the country's liquid fuel problems, all based initially on Maui gas. DSIR is represented on the board. It has also supplied the board's technical director, has loaned key staff temporarily, and has begun to undertake some of the board's essential investigations, all through its Industrial Processing Division.

Initial exploration of the eastern Southland coalfield was completed by the Mines Division of the Ministry of Energy and its contractors, and led to the discovery of lignite in-the-ground with a total energy content equal to that of several Maui gasfields. DSIR launched this investigation with its own drilling rig. Geological Survey geologists provided a basic geological service during the Mines Division's drilling, and are now assessing the full results. This lignite may well have the potential of being a future raw material for liquid fuel synthesis.

A major DSIR discussion report was released during the year. This gave the technological background to all the options available to New Zealand for obtaining transport liquid fuels from available resources, including natural gas, liquified petroleum gas, coal, timber, and crops. The Physics and Engineering Laboratory continued its research into the use of timber, both as a more efficient fuel for burning and potentially as a source of liquid fuel.

The expanded effort in geothermal energy exploration and development that was announced in the 1977 Budget gained further momentum in 1978–79. The earthworks were completed for a new laboratory building at Wairakei. Important projects during the year included exploratory drilling at Ngawha in Northland, pilot-plant studies to assist in the design of the condensers for Broadlands, and environmental research at Broadlands and elsewhere, including reinjection studies.

The 1978 Budget also announced a subsidy for the installation of approved solar water heaters. Testing work at the Physics and Engineering Laboratory has both assisted manufacturers in their commercial developments and become a basis for determining the necessary factors in approving designs.

Geothermal energy and solar energy were themes for separate scientific delegations from the People's Republic of China in 1978. In April, nine Chinese scientists spent 2 weeks with DSIR, mainly at Wairakei and other central North Island geothermal power projects, and in September eight scientists interested in solar collectors and solar thermal-electrical generation spent 10 days with DSIR looking at research and industrial developments in solar energy in New Zealand.

Manufacturing—Assistance to the manufacturing industry is a significant and growing aspect of the department's contribution to the development of the New Zealand economy. It is not, however, an easy area in which to achieve maximum impact because of the very great diversity of firms, products, processes, and technical problems.

During this past year the Physics and Engineering Laboratory has been carrying out a major survey of New Zealand firms aimed at obtaining a much better understanding of the level of technology used in New Zealand industry, where industry gets the technology it uses (locally developed, licence agreements, parent company, suppliers, etc.), how it uses technological information, the level of scientific and technical support firms have “in house”, factors that are inhibiting development, and, finally, how all of these characteristics vary with the size of the firm and the industry sector.

The results of the survey will be of great benefit to DSIR in identifying areas in which its present industry services are unsatisfactory, and, therefore, areas in which improvement can be initiated and efforts can be focused. Initial analysis of the survey results indicate that it will provide just the kind of data we need for more effective planning. The results of the survey will also be of great value to many other groups interested in the development of New Zealand industry, particularly in the factors that stimulate and inhibit development.

During the past year negotiations were completed for the formation of a Heavy Engineering Research Association and this new industry research group has now been established and a director appointed.

Building and Construction, Transport—Most of the work of DSIR in these spheres is done in support of various research associations and other Government departments. A wide variety of building materials, such as paints and wood finishes, adhesives, and plastics, metal, plaster, and stone components is tested for suitability for the job, strength, permanence, and the presence of undesirable chemicals.

A special study in DSIR is the design and construction of buildings to resist earthquake damage. A design in which load-bearing and vibration-damping structures are separated, leading to more efficient functioning of each, has been patented. The Building Research Association has been studying timber house framing with a view to revision of the code of practice, and has done considerable work towards preparation of a New Zealand code for fire resistance of buildings.

The Concrete Research Association, in collaboration with Chemistry Division, has been studying the behaviour of aggregates in relation to dimensional stability of concrete, and the use of pumice as a concrete aggregate. Work at the Pottery and Ceramics Research Association has dealt with bond strength between mortar and brick, and the testing of structural strength of brick masonry walls.

A problem that is becoming increasingly recognised is that of noise, the main source of which is road traffic, and DSIR has surveyed various urban and suburban areas to help specify requirements for insulation against noise. Studies have also been made of airport noise.

Natural Environment—With the growing appreciation of the value of scientific information for land use and land resource assessments, town and country planning, and control of erosion, ever-growing demands are being made on DSIR by other Government departments, e.g., Ministry of Works and Development, New Zealand Forest Service, Department of Lands and Survey; by local bodies such as catchment boards; by national authorities such as the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority and the Commission for the Environment; and by the private sector.

DSIR's work relating to New Zealand's natural environment therefore has to be far wider than what is commonly understood as “environmental research”. In the field of environmental reporting and auditing, DSIR scientists are asked to make practical comments based on the best available information. In answering such requests, full use is made of a considerable volume of basic scientific information, gathered over many decades, regarding the land, sea, and air surrounding New Zealand as well as its fauna and flora.

Gathering this basic information is an essential part of every nation's scientific effort, involving the disciplines of geology, geophysics, soil science, oceanography, atmospheric physics, zoology, botany, and ecology. The work is recorded in scientific papers, bulletins, and maps, which are published both in New Zealand—principally by DSIR itself—and overseas. It is vital that this fundamental work continues, so that the best decisions can be made about matters affecting the environment.

There are many uses for this basic information, in addition to the assessment of environmental impact. It provides a reservoir of information on reserves, forests, lakes, and coasts, and it has considerable relevance to such practical questions as the effect of effluent disposal on soils and on freshwater and estuarine ecology, and the causes and effects of soil erosion.

It provides an essential input for decisions on land use and management. For example, the recent inter-departmental King Country land use study made for the Minister of Lands drew heavily on the work of scientists in various disciplines already mentioned. Most of the scientific background information required under the recent Town and Country Planning Act is also provided by DSIR for the Department of Lands and Survey.

Work in the Antarctic is described in the next section.

Scientific Services—In addition to the research described above, DSIR carries out scientific work in a number of other fields, often in support of a Government department which may have the primary responsibility for research, together with administrative responsibility. Such research includes forestry,transport, human health, communications, techniques of storage, science, and the administration of justice. Centralised laboratory services are provided to commissions of inquiry and coroners, and to assist the police in their investigations of crime.

One feature of DSIR's forensic services that is a matter of social concern is the rapid build up in the number of drug analyses that the department is being asked to undertake. In the Auckland analytical office, for example, the number of drug cases for which analyses are required is increasing at the rate of 39 percent per year. While this increase may be partly related to increased police activity, there is little doubt that it also reflects an increase in drug usage. Additional staff have had to be appointed to cope with the rapidly increasing work load.

Geophysics Division is responsible for the New Zealand Time Service.

The Science Information Division edits and publishes all the DSIR publications and maps mentioned and many others, and offers a publication service to all New Zealand scientists in its research journals, New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, New Zealand Journal of Experimental Agriculture, New Zealand Journal of Botany, New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, New Zealand Journal of Science, and New Zealand Journal of Zoology.

The department's reputation for expertise and standards of service is high with the general public and overseas, as well as in scientific circles in New Zealand. Its activities, achievements, and organisation are described in its annual report to Parliament, available from the Government Printer.

Grants paid in 1978–79 to research and allied institutions by DSIR are shown in the following table.

InstitutionAmount
 $(000)
Universities (Auckland, Canterbury, Lincoln, Massey, Otago) and University Grants Committee350
Research associations—
    Building Research Association500
    Coal Research Association299
    Concrete Research Association80
    Dairy Research Institute964
    Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association120
    Heavy Engineering Research Association27
    Leather and Shoe Research Association102
    Logging Industry Research Association59
    Meat Industry Research Institute751
    Pottery and Ceramic Research Association90
    Research Institute Textile Services23
    Wool Research Organisation620
New buildings325
Overseas institutions—
    Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux90
    International Atomic Energy Agency148
    Others40
New Zealand institutions—
    Carter Observatory120
    Cawthron Institute287
    Royal Society of New Zealand190
    Testing Laboratory Registration Council124
    Others7
                Total5,316

Staff numbers and expenditure by DSIR for 1978–79 in scientific activity classifications are given in the following table.

ActivityStaff as at 31 March 1979Departmental ExpenditureGrantsTotal
 No.$(000)$(000)$(000)
Agriculture—Production79713,29343113,723
Agriculture—Processing831,4002,4853,885
Energy2174,0423954,437
Manufacturing2674,8053105,115
Natural environment4017,7584118,169
Other activities3766,7051,2857,991
Public building construction..3,859..3,859
                  Total214141,8625,31647,178

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—Almost all agricultural research within the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is conducted by the Agricultural Research Division, which has a staff of 270 scientists and 545 science technicians.

A major administrative change took place early in 1979. The country was divided, for research purposes, into 5 regions, each under the control of a regional director, agricultural research. At the same time the headquarters of the research division were moved from the Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre, Hamilton, to the ministry's head office in Wellington. The 5 regional directors are located at Whangarei, Ruakura (Hamilton), Palmerston North, Lincoln, and Invermay (Mosgiel).

Research is carried out at 7 main stations, on some smaller experimental stations and areas, and on farmers' properties throughout the country. The major work areas with which the 7 stations are concerned are animal production and metabolic diseases (Ruakura Animal); soil fertility and plant production (Ruakura Soil and Plant); hill country (Whatawhata); horticulture (Levin); animal health (Wallaceville, Upper Hutt); irrigation, soil fertility, and plant production (Templeton and Winchmore); and animal and plant production (Invermay).

In addition, district research staff investigate local problems throughout the country, and test (on experimental areas and farms in a range of environments) the findings of the research stations. Biometrics units at each of the main regions provide statistical services for research workers.

Some servicing activities are carried out for farmers and for farm-advisory personnel. Chief among such activities is soil testing. Each year, in 2 soil-testing laboratories at Ruakura and Invermay, some 60000 samples of soil from farms and experimental areas are analysed for their pH factor and for the major and minor elements. An advisory service communicates the recommendations to the farm advisers. Plant-analysis facilities are also available at both laboratories.

Major Agricultural Research Projects—Because of the vital importance of fertilisers in agricultural production, considerable work continues to be done on the fertiliser requirements of soils throughout New Zealand. Most of the major soil groups are being studied in detail. There are few (if any) soils or areas where it has not been possible, with suitable fertilisers, seed, inoculants, and (in some cases) drainage, to establish pastures satisfactorily. Such problem areas as sand, peats, gumlands, pakihi soils, and high country (up to about 900 m above sea level) have been significantly (and with profit) improved by using specialised techniques and, in many cases, specialised equipment.

From animal-production research, targets have been set which are acting as an incentive to producers—600 to 700 kg of milkfat or beef per hectare, or 340 kg of lamb and over 110 kg of wool. These levels of production have been achieved from selectively-bred animals grazed on productive, well-managed pastures. Studies of different classes of sheep in relation to beef cattle have provided valuable information on the most profitable type of stock to run.

Major sheep and cattle breed-evaluation and improvement projects fall into 2 categories—collaborative studies on properties administered by other Government departments, and integrated breeding studies on research stations in both the North and the South Islands.

Animal-health research is concerned with the diseases which afflict sheep and cattle. Internal parasites, mastitis, salmonellosis, facial eczema, bloat, brucellosis, and hypomagnesemia are some that are being investigated in the hope of finding more effective methods of preventing and controlling them.

Intensive work has been done throughout the country on pasture-pest research and (at Invermay) on deer production. Increasing emphasis is being given to horticultural production and to soil-water relationships.

As farming becomes more intensive, diseases can have much greater effects, and science must continue to seek for answers to all the existing problems—and to the new ones, as they arise.

OTHER GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries are responsible for about 73 percent of the total Government science expenditure. An increasing number of other departments do, however, undertake or sponsor research. The departments concerned and the expenditure involved are listed later in this section and more details of their research activities are contained in the appropriate departmental sections.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH OUTSIDE GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—The bulk of university funding comes direct from the Department of Education's Vote but university research is funded through the University Grants Committee. A number of Government departments are, however, substantially increasing their contact with the universities by granting research contracts for specific programmes of research.

There are 12 industry research associations which are funded jointly by Government and the industry they serve. The present associations are the Building Research Association, the New Zealand Coal Research Association, the New Zealand Dairy Research Institute, the New Zealand Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association, Heavy Engineering Research Association, the Research Institute Textile Services (formerly Launderers, Drycleaners and Dyers) the New Zealand Leather and Shoe Research Association, the Logging Industry Research Association, the Meat Industry Research Institute of New Zealand, the New Zealand Concrete Research Association, the New Zealand Pottery and Ceramics Research Association, and the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand. The total cost of the government funding for 1978–79 was $3,635,000. A new scheme which involved the classification of the associations into categories, with differing subsidies, was introduced from 1 April 1975 and has been recently revised.

The only major endowed research organisation in New Zealand is the Cawthron Institute at Nelson which was established in 1920 with a bequest of $500,000 under the will of Thomas Cawthron. As the value of the investment of the bequest has declined the institute has received increasing income from other bequests, chemical services earnings, and from a Government grant which comprises about 44 percent of the institute's income.

The organisation of medical research is described in Section 5A, Health and Medical Services, under the headings Medical Research Council and National Health Institute.

THE PRESENT ORGANISATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH—Decisions on national scientific policies are made by the Minister of Science and Technology and the Cabinet, subject to the guidance and control of Parliament during the annual consideration of the Estimates.

Scientific research in New Zealand is carried out by the research divisions of Government departments, universities, joint Government/industry-funded research associations and private organisations, including the Cawthron Institute, which receive government assistance. Accurate statistics on proportionate expenditure on research are not yet available but means of obtaining the necessary information are being studied, as the data are needed both for internal use and for OECD comparative purposes. It is certain, however, that the majority of research in New Zealand is funded by Government departments, of which 73.3 percent is expended by DSIR and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Advising the Government on a co-ordinated national policy for scientific research, which takes into consideration the work of all these agencies, is the role of the National Research Advisory Council (NRAC), which was established on 1 April 1964 to advise the Minister of Science and Technology on:

  1. the promotion and development of scientific research in New Zealand;

  2. the planning and co-ordination of scientific research and services in New Zealand, including:

    1. the determination of priorities among activities of Government departments having regard to research done by other organisations;

    2. the provision of scholarships and fellowships and the promotion of the training of research workers;

    3. the association of Government with industry in the promotion of fundamental and applied research, including the promotion of research associations;

    4. the collection and dissemination of scientific information including the publication of reports and journals;

  3. the promotion of co-operation with the governments of, or organisations in, other countries, or with international organisations, in scientific matters;

  4. any other matters that are appropriate for the carrying out of any of the above-mentioned functions, or that are referred to it by the Minister.

The National Research Advisory Council Act 1963 provides for 6 to 9 members, including the chairman, to be appointed by the Governor-General and for 3 ex-officio members, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Director-General of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Secretary to the Treasury. The council is assisted by 4 advisory committees (each chaired by a council member), covering the fields of primary production, manufacturing and processing, environmental and energy, and social services research.

By Government directive, all departmental proposals involving the establishment of new scientific activities or the major expansion, reduction, or modification of existing activities are referred to the council for evaluation, as are proposals likely to make substantial demands on scientific manpower or other scientific resources.

The following tables show the Government expenditure and manpower by department and scientific activity. Expenditure on research contracts ($821,000 in 1978–79) and on public buildings is excluded.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY DEPARTMENT
DepartmentGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants*
1976–771977–781978-791976–771977–781978–79
* Included in gross expenditure in previous columns.
  $(000)  $(000) 
Agriculture and Fisheries17,24920,72728,2876957511,789
Defence1,3061,8742,4292--
Education7531,2971,6026281,1361,385
Electricity691910610540
Energy Resources824836--760
Forest Service5,5046,7278,072653638
Internal Affairs593905982-476
Justice898472282032
Labour30541249563759
Lands and Survey321561732156-
DSIR29,90635,35443,0993,9803,9265,096
Social Welfare1221431711078
State Services Commission6980103---
Transport5,4576,1187,659-4786
Works and Development2,1312,5583,34222645-
                Total63,59376,47897,2725,6826,1709,369
GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY SCIENCE BUDGET ACTIVITIES
ActivityGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants*
1976–771977–781978–791976–771977–781978–79

* Included in expenditure in previous columns.

New activity from 1 April 1976, including elements from other activities such as Manufacturing and Minerals.

  $(000)  $(000) 
Agriculture27,38132,50441,8232,8252,9933,680
Forestry5,7946,7968,332103117137
Fisheries2,0042,4433,88624-915
Minerals78686095626722
Manufacturing3,6394,2665,090311262285
Building and construction1,3761,6571,993476582875
Transport9561,1771,691679
Natural environment14,83417,57221,037544553481
Social sciences1,1522,0832,5054321,2011,485
Human health1,0521,3171,352323648
Energy2,7913,4786,0565472701,177
Other scientific services1,8282,3252,551356142255
                  Total63,59376,47897,2725,6826,1709,369

NOTE—The Government expenditure on buildings solely for scientific use is not included in the above tables. The figure for 1977–78 was $3,681,971, and for 1978–79, $4,530,281.

SCIENCE BUDGET MANPOWER: STAFF CEILINGS
Activity1976–771977–781978–79
Agriculture205420501920
Forestry491469469
Fisheries117120130
Minerals635954
Manufacturing282280284
Building and construction10510666
Transport788289
Natural environment104110451050
Social sciences50101103
Human health838384
Energy165218267
Other scientific services151138139
                  Total472047514655
GOVERNMENT RESEARCH EFFORT
Year Ended 31 MarchGross Expenditure on Science*Percentage of Total Government ExpenditureTotal Staff Employed
* Including expenditure on public buildings for science.
 $(000)  
197663,4391.174635
197768,3601.174725
197880,1601.184751
1979101,8021.214655

The figures on Government expenditure are not complete. They include expenditure on scientific, technical, and support staff of the main science units within the Public Service; grants by these departments to research associations and other agencies; and expenditure on the science buildings and equipment of these departments. They do not include expenditure on scientific research and servicing in the trading areas of the State services such as New Zealand Railways and the Post Office or by the Reserve Bank; in the universities; the grants made to the non-government sector by the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee; the assistance to industry for research provided by the Development Finance Corporation ($2,544,000 in 1978–79); the allocation of Golden Kiwi lottery funds for scientific research ($300,000 in 1978–79); and the revenue foregone through taxation concessions to individuals and companies expenditure on research or donations to research foundations (Income Tax Act 1976).

In the most recent study undertaken, OECD has calculated civilian research and development expenditure as a percentage of gross national product to give the following country comparison. (This omits military and defence expenditure which inflates the expenditure unevenly for many countries.)

CountryYearPercent of GNP
Australia19741.2
Austria19721.0
Belgium19731.2
Canada19770.9
France19771.8
Japan19771.7
Netherlands19741.8
New Zealand19750.8
Norway19771.2
United Kingdom19752.1
United States19772.4
West Germany19772.0
Source: OECD Member Countries.

FURTHER INFORMATION—A number of publications in which research is published are mentioned in the text. Titles of research papers and other information on research are included in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Parl. paper G. 21).

Report of the National Research Advisory Council (Parl. paper G. 20).

DSIR Research—DSIR (Annual).

DSIR's First Fifty Years—DSIR (1976).

Many of the research institutions grant-aided by DSIR and some DSIR divisions publish their own annual or periodical reports.

7 C—SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN THE ROSS DEPENDENCY

The Ross Dependency comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160° east and 150° west longitude, together with the islands between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60° south.

Within these boundaries there are an estimated 400000–450000 square kilometres of land and 330000 square kilometres of permanent ice shelf. Apart from the mountainous regions and some coastal areas, the land is entirely covered by ice. The only human population consists of scientific and support personnel involved in research programmes.

By Order in Council of 30 July 1923 under the British Settlements Act 1887 (Imp.) the territories of the Ross Dependency were brought within the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Government. From time to time laws for the dependency have been made by regulations promulgated by the Governor-General of New Zealand. The Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977 makes provision for the implementation of a 200-mile EEZ in the Ross Dependency by Order in Council.

Administrative powers are vested in the Governor-General of New Zealand. Since 1956 the leader of the New Zealand Expedition at Scott Base has been vested with the powers of Justice of the Peace, and Coroner. The officer in charge has jurisdiction over all New Zealand nationals in Antarctica and is responsible for the implementation of the Antarctic Research Programme as directed by Antarctic Division, DSIR.

The Ross Dependency Research Committee formulates the annual scientific programme for approval by the Minister of Science and Technology, and the Antarctica Division, DSIR, then has the responsibility for the detailed planning and implementation of this programme.

The division employs staff and obtains supplies and equipment for all Government projects. University projects are financed and equipped from university sources. The operation and control of all projects is directed by the Antarctic Division through the officer in charge, Scott Base.

New Zealand's international relations on Antarctic affairs are conducted at the political level by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Whilst scientific contact with other countries and institutions engaged in Antarctic research is maintained at all levels, the primary channels are the Ross Dependency Research Committee, which reports to the Minister of Science, and New Zealand's National Committee on Antarctic Research (NCAR).

Antarctic Treaty—In 1959 New Zealand was one of the 12 nations to sign the Antarctic Treaty which requires that Antarctica be used for peaceful purposes only, and promotes international co-operation, freedom of scientific investigation, and exchange of information and scientific personnel. The treaty specifically provides that it does not prejudice existing territorial claims in Antarctica. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties, increased to 13 by the accession of Poland in 1977, meet regularly in full consultative meetings to consider questions of mutual interest within the treaty framework. Questions of resource management have assumed considerable significance in recent years and a series of special meetings has been convened to discuss these issues which pose a significant challenge to the stability of the treaty. Several countries, not all members of the Antarctic Treaty, are already harvesting the protein-rich krill, and there is considerable interest in the hydro-carbon potential of Antarctic waters.

The Antarctica Amendment Act 1970 provides means of enforcing the regulations contained within the Antarctic Treaty (known as the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora) and the prevention of pollution to the Antarctic continent and surrounding waters.

New Zealand Bases—Scott Base, located at Pram Point near Cape Armitage on Ross Island, was established for the first New Zealand expedition which was involved in the Antarctic Scientific Research programme during the International Geophysical Year 1957. Since then Scott Base has been continuously occupied by support staff and scientists. Over the past 10 years, the New Zealand scientific programme has been progressively expanded. In order to adequately provide for the increasing numbers of personnel participating in research activities, a base rebuilding programme was commenced in 1976, which includes construction of a new laboratory, power house, and administration and accommodation facilities. This project is expected to be completed in the mid-1980s.

Up to 12 staff members stay over the winter at Scott Base to sustain important continuous scientific observations. The base is one in a chain of international observatory stations used for the study of the upper atmosphere and earth sciences. At nearby Arrival Heights, studies are maintained in auroral physics, micropulsations, and ionospheric absorption.

Vanda Station, situated near the shores of Lake Vanda in the Dry Valleys region, is the only New Zealand Station on the Antarctic continent. Operated only during the summer season, Vanda Station functions as a support base for field parties conducting research activities in the Dry Valleys and as a centre for meteorological, hydrological, and glaciological studies designed to further understanding of the peculiarities of the region.

Cape Bird, situated 100 kilometres north of Scott Base on the northern tip of Ross Island, serves as a summer base for biological field parties conducting annual projects in terrestial and marine biology.

Emergency huts, fully provisioned, are also maintained at Lake Fryxell, Asgard Range, Lower Wright Valley, Cape Evans, and Cape Royds.

Scientific Programme—For the past 22 years New Zealand has been a direct participant in Antarctic scientific research. Each summer season, October to February, expeditions involving scientists from Government departments and New Zealand universities conduct research programmes involving such disciplines as geology, geomorphology, geochemistry, biology, glaciology, hydrology, and volcanology. The Dry Valleys region continues to attract the close attention of scientists, both national and international, and valuable environmental investigations are conducted in this ice-free area. From Vanda Station, studies are made in co-ordination with Scott Base programmes in upper air physics and earth sciences. Synoptic weather observations are made and other meteorological data collected at the base and at satellite stations in the Wright Valley. Geological surveys of little-known areas such as Marie Byrd Land, the Darwin Mountains, and Northern Victoria Land are features of current and planned research programmes.

International co-operation is today a major feature of the New Zealand Antarctic Research programme. Co-operative examples include the Dry Valleys and McMurdo Sound drilling projects. Mt. Erebus gas and lava sampling expeditions, and biological and geological projects which have been carried out together with scientists from West Germany, France, Japan, Australia, and the United States of America.

Biological studies continue each year at various locations where scientists conduct population census counts and tagging of seals and penguins. Marine plankton sampling takes place near Scott Base and further marine research is being concentrated in the Cape Bird area. Studies are also continuing of penguin and skua gull behaviour at Cape Bird and Cape Royds.

Whaling—Regulations dated 24 October 1929 prohibit whaling in the territorial waters of the Ross Dependency without licence. New Zealand is a member of the International Whaling Commission, which enforces conservation of whale stocks.

Transportation—New Zealand is one of the few remaining countries involved in the Antarctic to continue with the limited use of dog teams and sledges for transportation within the immediate vicinity of Scott Base.

However, the main transport requirements of the New Zealand research programme rely on a logistics support agreement jointly operated by the United States and New Zealand, utilising C141 Starlifter and C130 Hercules aircraft and helicopters. Bulk cargoes for the New Zealand operation are shipped via the U.S. supply vessel which annually visits McMurdo Sound.

Flight time between Christchurch and McMurdo Sound is usually between 6 to 10 hours, depending on the type of aircraft being used. During the 1979–80 season, RNZAF Hercules aircraft contributed 80 flights to the US/NZ logistics pool. Australia again participated in the flight programme from Christchurch under a tripartite agreement allowing Australian personnel to be transported by US ski-equipped Hercules C130 aircraft from McMurdo to the ANARE Casey Station.

Within Antarctica, movement and support of field parties is usually facilitated by helicopter and motorised toboggans. With the formation of metal- and snow-compacted roads around Scott Base and McMurdo, conventional wheeled vehicles are now able to operate satisfactorily.

Under the terms of the logistics agreement with the United States, New Zealand provides facilities and RNZAF cargo handling services at Christchurch International Airport and cargo handling personnel in Antarctica.

The Future—Whilst basic scientific studies continue in the Antarctic there is developing emphasis being directed toward meeting the more specialised demands of man's increasing knowledge of the region and the balanced utilisation of resources.

Antarctica has retained its IGY status as a unique natural laboratory from whence man can study the earth and surrounding space. Equally important, the continent continues to be the last relatively undisturbed area on earth from which may also be monitored the effect of man on the remainder of our global environment.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on New Zealand's role in Antarctica will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Parl. paper G. 21).

DSIR Research—DSIR (Annual).

DSIR's First Fifty Years—DSIR (1976).

Report of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Parl. paper A. 1).

7 D—SUPPORT OF THE ARTS AND CULTURAL ACTIVITIES

The quality of life depends not only on economic and material considerations and a pleasant unpolluted environment, but also on social and cultural advances. In other words, on the development and appreciation of literature and the arts.

Patronage has always been part of the history of the arts. In less egalitarian times it was usually royalty or a wealthy aristocracy that provided this; in modern times it is the State that must increasingly provide assistance if the arts are to flourish.

In New Zealand, as in most other countries, both the Government and local authorities have recognised the importance of the arts in the life of the community and have provided increasing support.

The traditional sources of assistance to the arts in New Zealand are the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, which had its origins in 1947 as a cultural fund; the New Zealand Literary Fund, administered by the Department of Internal Affairs, which was established in 1946; the New Zealand Historic Places Trust; and the National Art Gallery and Museum. More recently established are the New Zealand Authors' Fund, which compensates authors for the loss of royalties through having their books loaned out by libraries; a fund to assist art galleries and museums; and a lottery profits scheme to assist art organisations with capital projects. All 3 are administered by the Department of Internal Affairs.

The following table shows grants made in 1979–80 by the Government and from the lottery profits scheme.

GroupGovernment AssistanceLottery Grant
 $(thousand)
Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council2,300800
New Zealand Literary Fund7525
National Art Gallery and Museum339-
New Zealand Historic Places Trust151500
New Zealand Authors' Fund200-
Cultural facilities-450
Art Galleries and Museum Scheme175-
                  Total3,2401,775

The Department of Education has also played an important role in the support of cultural activities, giving new impetus through community colleges and such schemes as “Performers in Schools”, which is operated jointly with the Arts Council. Another major contributor to cultural activity in New Zealand is the Broadcasting Corporation, the most notable contribution being made by the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra.

The financial contributions made to arts organisations through the Ministry and Council of Recreation and Sport are also a significant item.

In addition, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is involved in fostering the arts through its Cultural Exchange Programme, which was established in 1974. Much more attention is being given in present-day conditions to cultural exchange as an arm of foreign policy, reflecting the increasing interdependence of the world as well as detente. Modest in financial terms, the programme's objective is to facilitate exchanges in all branches of the arts, including music, theatre, painting, crafts, sculpture, and writing, so as to enable New Zealanders to gain a closer first-hand knowledge of the culture of other countries. At the same time, it is hoped that the programme will stimulate the already active cultural scene in New Zealand and through tours and exhibits abroad extend overseas knowledge of New Zealand's cultural achievements. In planning and implementing the programme the Ministry of Foreign Affairs works closely with such organisations as the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, art galleries, and other groups and individuals.

QUEEN ELIZABETH THE SECOND ARTS COUNCIL—To commemorate the visit of Her Majesty the Queen to New Zealand in 1963, the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council was formed the following year. The Arts Council was charged to encourage, foster, and promote the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, to make accessible to the public of New Zealand all forms of artistic and cultural work, to improve the standard of execution of the arts, and to foster and maintain public interest in the arts and culture of New Zealand.

In pursuit of its principal objective of raising the standard of both the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, the council assists individuals working in the arts, and incorporated and non-profit making organisations, which have the capacity to work at a consistent level of artistic achievement so as to maintain sound standards of management and promotion, and which can offer career opportunities to trained and gifted people. Activities which are professional in character and standard thus receive priority of consideration for financial support.

During 1978–79 the council assisted over 140 individuals, as well as organisations or programmes. This assistance included training awards, maintaining training schools, annual grants for theatre, ballet, and orchestral activity, film projects, assistance with touring exhibitions, aiding arts festivals, fostering experimental work in the arts, and assisting national arts organisations. The council maintained its policy of encouraging professional activity in the arts as a matter of priority. With this assistance, the country's professional theatres continued to maintain their high standards of performance; the New Zealand Ballet Company continued to tour throughout the country; and the council was able to assist in the development of orchestral activity of a high standard in each of the main centres. The council, with the assistance of lottery monies, is also actively involved in the re-establishment of national opera.

The Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council Act 1974 provides for greater emphasis on regional development of the arts through 3 regional arts councils and through community arts councils.

NEW ZEALAND FILM COMMISSION—The New Zealand Film Commission was established on 13 November 1978, its functions, powers, and duties being defined in the New Zealand Film Commission Act 1978. Administration expenditure is met by the Department of Internal Affairs, but the Commission's main source of funds, at least for the initial period, is grants from the Lottery Board (for the period ended 31 March 1979 it received $600,000).

Up until 31 March 1979, the interim commission and the Film Commission itself had considered a total of 66 film projects, of which 23 had been offered financial assistance. Feature films assisted included A State of Siege, Angel Mine, Skin Deep, Middle Age Spread, and Sons for the Return Home. Marketing assistance was provided for some other New Zealand films, including Sleeping Dogs and Solo.

INTERIM CONSERVATION COMMITTEE—In September 1979 an Interim Advisory Committee for the Conservation of Cultural Property was appointed to advise the Minister for the Arts on all conservation matters for cultural property. Specific areas include paintings and words of art, books and documents, films, photographs, machinery, and textiles.

ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS—In 1973 a fund was set up to subsidise capital works of art galleries and museums. Subsidies are made available by the Minister of Internal Affairs on the recommendation of an advisory committee. A small proportion of the fund is made available each year to the 6 major metropolitan art galleries and museums in Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, to enable them to assist smaller art galleries and museums in their areas with approved non-capital expenses.

AWARDS IN LITERATURE AND ARTS—The following awards are available:

  1. New Zealand Literary Fund—This fund is financed by a yearly appropriation on the vote of the Department of Internal Affairs. Assistance from the fund is granted by the Minister for the Arts, who is advised by the Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

  2. Scholarship in Letters—The scholarship of $9,000 is awarded annually to an established New Zealand writer by the Minister for the Arts, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. Applications are made to the Secretary, New Zealand Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

  3. Victoria University of Wellington Writer's Fellowship—Funded jointly by the New Zealand Literary Fund and Victoria University, the fellowship is to enable a writer to work on a literary project at the university for 12 months. Details on the fellowship are available from the Registrar, Victoria University of Wellington, Private Bag, Wellington.

  4. Robert Burns Fellowship in Literature—This fellowship in literature is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. The fellow shall be resident for the academic year. The fellowship is open to New Zealand writers, preferably under 40 years. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

  5. Maori Writers' Awards—The Maori Purposes Fund Board annually makes available one award of $1,000 for creative writing in the English language, and another of $1,000 for creative writing in the Maori language. Applications from persons of Maori descent should be sent to the Secretary of the Maori Purposes Fund Board, Box 2390, Wellington.

  6. New Zealand Book Awards—Annual awards of $2,000 are made by the Minister for the Arts with the support of the Literary Fund and the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, for the best books published each year in the categories of poetry, prose fiction, and prose non-fiction.

  7. Award for Achievement—The Award for Achievement, of $500, recognises the contribution of one person to New Zealand literature. The award is granted each year by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

  8. Esther Glen Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually to the author of the most distinguished children's book written by a New Zealander. (Applications are not called for.)

  9. Russell Clark Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually to the illustrator responsible for the most distinguished illustrations for a children's book. The illustrator must be a citizen or resident of New Zealand. (Applications are not called for.)

  10. Hubert Church Prose Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, is available annually for the best first book of prose writing by a New Zealand author. (Applications are not called for.)

  11. Jessie Mackay Poetry Award— This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund is available annually for the best first book of poetry written by a New Zealand author. (Applications are not called for.)

  12. Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award—The Bank of New Zealand, in association with the New Zealand Women Writers' Society (Inc.), sponsors a biennial prestige memorial award for the short story.

  13. Bank of New Zealand Young Writers' Awards—Concurrently with the Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award, the Bank of New Zealand sponsors 2 awards for young writers. These are the senior award, for entrants aged 24 years and under; and the junior award for secondary school students. Both awards are for short stories.

  14. Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship (Winn-Manson Menton Trust)—The fellowship is to allow a New Zealand writer to write and study at Menton in the South of France. Applicants must be serious writers who would use the fellowship to further their literary studies and endeavours. For 1978 the fellow will receive $4,000, return airfares, and a contribution towards living expenses. Applications should be made to the Hon. Secretary, Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship, P.O. Box 10–256, Wellington.

  15. Young Writer's Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, the New Zealand Book Council, and the Department of Education, is available annually for writing by people under 20 years of age. There are categories for prose and poetry. Applications should be made to the Secretary, P.O. Box 2283, Wellington.

  16. James Wattie Book of the Year A ward— This award is made each year by Wattie Industries Limited. Full conditions of entry for the James Wattie Book of the Year Award, which is aimed mainly at encouraging the growth of publishing in New Zealand, are available from the Secretary, NZBPA, C/-P.O. Box 11005, Wellington.

  17. One-act Playwriting Competition—In this annual competition the winning play is workshopped and produced with the Theatre Federation assistance. Applications should be made to the Secretary, New Zealand Theatre Federation, P.O. Box 6158, Wellington.

  18. Biennial Playwriting Competition—This competition is for full length plays. Applications should be made to the Secretary, New Zealand Theatre Federation, P.O. Box 6158, Wellington.

  19. Professor J. C. Reid Annual Award for Excellence in Arts Criticism—The Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council of New Zealand sponsors an annual award to journalists for excellence in arts criticism in conjunction with the New Zealand Journalists' Union. The competition is administered by the New Zealand Journalists' Union, Box 6545, Te Aro, Wellington 1.

  20. Frances Hodgkins Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand painters and sculptors, preferably under 40 years. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

  21. Mozart Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand musicians who are serious composers. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Applicants should be at least 27 years old. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

  22. I.C.I. Writers' Bursary—The bursary of $5,000 is jointly funded by I.C.I. New Zealand Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. Its purpose is to enable a writer with potential, but not necessarily with a well established publication record, to work full time for up to 1 year on a particular project. The bursary effectively replaces the writing bursary offered by the Literary Fund in previous years, but the advisory committee is prepared to recommend that a second bursary, valued at $4,000, be offered entirely from the Literary Fund allocation should the standard of applications received warrant this.

  23. A.H.I. Literary Research Award—The award of $7,000 is jointly funded by Alex Harvey Industries Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. The award is offered annually to writers for research towards the publication of literary, historical, or critical works.

  24. Choysa Bursary For Children's Writers—The bursary of $5,000 is jointly funded by Quality Packers Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. The bursary is offered annually to writers of imaginative work for children.

  25. Canterbury University Writer-in-Residence—Value $7,200. Funded jointly by the New Zealand Literary Fund and Canterbury University, the scheme is to enable writers to work for 6 months at the university. Details of the Writer-in-Residence scheme are available from the Registrar, Canterbury University, Christchurch.

PROTECTION OF ANTIQUITIES AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES—The Antiquities Act 1975, which came into force on 1 April 1976, includes provisions controlling the sale of Maori artifacts within New Zealand, and all artifacts found after 1 April 1976 are deemed to be prima facie the property of the Crown. In addition, there are export controls on a wide range of items of historical significance: Maori artifacts; chattels relating to the European discovery, settlement or development of New Zealand; certain written and printed matter; certain works of art, reproductions, prints, films and sound recordings; type specimens of animals, plants and minerals; meteorites; remains of extinct fauna; and certain items of shipwreck.

Whereas the Antiquities Act is essentially concerned with “portable” objects, a companion measure, the Historic Places Amendment Act 1975, deals more specifically with the protection of archaeological sites. This also came into effect from 1 April 1976. From that time, it is necessary to obtain the consent of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust before damaging, destroying, or modifying any archaeological site or undertaking a scientific archaeological investigation of any site.

To enable the purchase of Maori artifacts and historic paintings, the Government continues to make grants to the National Museum and to the National Art Gallery.

NATIONAL ARCHIVES—The Archives Act 1957 established a National Archives to provide for the custody and preservation of the public archives of New Zealand. The Chief Archivist, appointed under the Act, has certain statutory powers, No public archives, as defined in the Act, can be destroyed without her approval and she has powers of inspection and direction in respect of the keeping of public records. Government records of permanent value are deposited with National Archives, and are widely used for original research by scholars, students, officials, and the public. As well as the public archives (i.e., public records out of current use) there are small holdings of semi-official and private papers of Governor Sir Thomas Gore Browne and some political figures, including Sir Frederick Weld, W. P. Reeves, Sir James Allen, W. Lee Martin, C. F. Skinner, and T. P. Shand. The papers of the New Zealand Company, R. J. Seddon, Sir Walter Nash, and Norman Kirk provide larger collections. The Nash collection is one of great significance covering his life and times. Some of the more note-worthy public documents are to be found amongst the archives of the Governor, Colonial Secretary, Maori Affairs Department, Samoan administrations, the armed forces (both in peace and war) and Legislative Department papers, 1854–1969.

National Archives has a records centre in Lower Hutt and one in Auckland. These provide storage for semi-current Government records as well as public archives. The total staff, including that of records centres, is 18. Officers of the National Archives collaborate with departmental records officers and occasionally with the State Services Commission on assignments on the management of current records. Some public archives of regional interest are deposited with certain non-government repositories approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs, such as the Hocken Library in Dunedin, the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch, the Hawke's Bay Art Society Gallery and Museum in Napier, the Auckland Institute and Museum, the New Plymouth Public Library, and the Marlborough Historical Society Museum in Blenheim.

During 1974 the Government approved the transfer of Cabinet Office papers to National Archives on a regular basis. The regular transfer of this group of papers is considered to be of great significance for the future of archives and historical research in New Zealand.

National Archives and the Alexander Turnbull Library have joined in establishing a War History Documentation Centre to gather and preserve documentary material about New Zealand's part in the two World Wars.

National Archives publishes an annual Summary of Work, including a list of new accessions to its holdings. A cumulative list of holdings to 1 April 1976 was published in 1977. The archives co-operates with the Alexander Turnbull Library in editing the National Register of Archives and Manuscripts. Since 1977 the National Archives, under the Local Government Act 1974, has assumed responsibilities for furthering the preservation of local authority archives.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST—The New Zealand Historic Places Trust was created by the Historic Places Act of 1954 to foster public interest in places and objects of national or local interest, and to assist and undertake their preservation, maintenance, and restoration. The trust consists of 15 members, and has the support of a growing associate membership (7061 in September 1979). It operates locally through regional committees.

The trust's main concern is to preserve sites and buildings. It has restored a number of properties and has also assisted in preserving many others by financial grants and technical advice. Twelve properties which are open to the public are administered; the Mission House at Waimate North, Kemp House at Kerikeri, Pompallier House at Russell, Clendon House at Rawene, the Mission House of Mangungu, Alberton, Ewelme Cottage and the Melanesian Mission Museum at Auckland, Hurworth House at New Plymouth, Old St. Paul's in Wellington, the Timeball Station at Lyttelton, Hayes Engineering Works at Oturehua, and the Post Office at Ophir. The trust also owns other properties and is involved in the administration of some which are owned by other organisations.

The trust has marked many historic places with plaques and noticeboards, and historic sites are sometimes protected by some form of reservation (although this is not yet on a scale to satisfy the trust). The accelerated loss of New Zealand's early historic heritage has always worried the trust, and the Historic Places Amendment Act of 1975 is now doing much to protect archaeological sites. No person may lawfully investigate, damage, destroy, or modify any archaeological site more than 100 years old except under a permit from the trust. The trust collaborated with the Ministry of Works and Development to survey areas affected by the Clutha power development, and the Maui gas pipeline, and to rescue and record the field monuments threatened by these projects.

The trust publishes booklets and leaflets, usually about buildings and sites in which it has been actively interested. It also has a growing photographic collection.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on support for the arts and cultural activities will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper. G. 7).

Report of the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council of New Zealand (Parl. paper G. 11).

Report of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust (Parl. paper G. 10).

Report of the Board of Trustees, National Art Gallery, National Museum, and National War Memorial (Parl. paper G. 12).

Report of the New Zealand Film Commission (Parl. paper G. 19).

Report of the New Zealand Lottery Board (Parl. paper G. 7B).

7 E—LIBRARIES

GENERAL—In general, New Zealand is well served with libraries and the book stocks and circulation figures compare favourably with those of other English-speaking nations. In most centres the local authority maintains a public library.

Under the auspices of the New Zealand Library Association, a comprehensive system of inter-library co-operation has been developed, particularly in the use of resources by means of inter-library loans.

NATIONAL LIBRARY OF NEW ZEALAND—By the National Library Act 1965, the Alexander Turnbull Library, the General Assembly Library, and the National Library Service were combined to form the National Library of New Zealand.

A comprehensive collection of New Zealand material within the requirements of the Act is maintained by the Alexander Turnbull Library.

The National Library is responsible for maintaining and developing a central reference and lending collection, and for making its resources available to other libraries. On 31 March 1979 this collection comprised over 457000 volumes together with 85000 volumes of periodicals.

The library also acts as purchasing agent for most Government department libraries operating within the Public Account and provides a cataloguing, reference, and library advisory service for departments.

The library has facilities for the preservation and restoration of items of intrinsic value. Microfilming and photographic programmes ensure preservation of items primarily of information value.

General Assembly Library—The General Assembly Library was established in 1858 and provides library services for Parliament. The chief librarian is guided by a committee of members of Parliament headed by the Speaker.

Since 1903 the library has been the depository for books, periodicals, etc., published in New Zealand. It receives regularly copies of all New Zealand newspapers and about 1700 New Zealand periodicals. Back files of both are very extensive. It also has one of the largest collections in the country of books or pamphlets relating to New Zealand. Several New Zealand newspapers are indexed daily.

The library has its strongest collections in subjects necessary to provide information for members of Parliament in their legislative duties. These include economics, politics, administration and law, biography, and history. It has a good collection of Government documents, mainly from English-speaking countries—particularly parliamentary papers and debates—as well as publications of international organisations such as United Nations and its subsidiary organisations, the OECD, and the EEC.

During the parliamentary recess, the library, which holds about 400000 volumes, is open to the public on the recommendation of a member of Parliament.

Alexander Turnbull Library—The Alexander Turnbull Library is a research library responsible for maintaining a comprehensive collection of library material relating to New Zealand, together with other specialist research collections. The original collection of 55000 volumes bequeathed by Alexander Horsburgh Turnbull (1868–1918) has been increased to approximately 220000 volumes of books and periodicals, 1600 metres of manuscripts, 33000 pictures of which 18000 are original paintings and drawings, 18000 maps, 350000 photographic prints and negatives, and 11000 reels of microfilm. The collections are augmented regularly by purchases, bequests, and donations from individuals and organisations.

The Trustees of the National Library in 1966 designated the Turnbull as the national collection of printed materials relating to New Zealand, and the library now receives all New Zealand publications under the compulsory deposit provision of the Copyright Act and prepares the current and retrospective New Zealand National Bibliography. Supporting the collections of printed books, periodicals, and newspapers are extensive collections of private papers and archives, paintings, drawings and prints of historical and topographical interest, maps, photographs, and sound recordings. The library also possesses research collections on the Pacific and the Antarctic with particular emphasis on history, early voyages, and ethnology. The general collections are strong in English literature, early printed books, and the development of the art of printing. The collection on John Milton and the mid-seventeenth century, a particular interest of Alexander Turnbull, is of international standing.

Extension Service—The Extension Division, known from its start in 1938 as the Country Library Service and later combined with School Library Service has recently changed its name and functions. Its services are provided through centres at Hamilton, Palmerston North, and Christchurch, supported by a Wellington headquarters unit. Bulk loans of books are made free of charge to libraries controlled by local authorities which operate a free library service locally and maintain it at a reasonable standard of efficiency. To towns and small cities loans are made from bookvans, subject collections are sent and books and periodicals are supplied in response to requests for information and individual titles. Libraries in cities receive bulk loans made direct from the centres instead of, or in addition to, loans from bookvans. Outside the boundaries of boroughs and cities groups of people may have books at the rate of $20 for 50 changed at regular intervals. Nine specially equipped bookvans, each carrying over 2000 books, travel the country.

Advisory services to public libraries, a spoken words cassette service, and collections of books for adult new readers are also available.

Libraries receiving books and services from the Extension Service at 31 March 1979 included 163 free public libraries, 747 small community libraries and groups, and 154 other libraries and institutions. The number of books lent to these libraries totalled 409521, and 147536 books were lent on request and in loan collections during the year.

School Library Service—Established in 1941, this section of the National Library is responsible for providing a library service to all schools throughout New Zealand.

The School Library Service operates from a total of 12 centres. There are the 3 in joint National Library centres in Hamilton, Palmerston North and Christchurch, and district centres in Auckland, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Hastings, Wellington, Nelson, Greymouth, Dunedin, and Invercargill.

Larger primary and intermediate schools receive reposity loans which remain in the schools to become part of local stocks, while smaller schools receive regular book exchanges for their libraries. A request and information service operates for all schools, and nearly 2 million books are sent out each year to satisfy requests. Books for use in schools are evaluated, selected, and ordered by the staff of School Library Service headquarters in Wellington. Annotated lists of books especially recommended are issued regularly to serve as guides for teachers in schools and staff in children's sections of public libraries, and material on school library organisation is prepared.

Library advisers work out in schools helping with library organisation, and special courses are held on aspects of library work for teachers and teacher-librarians, and their assistants.

Library School—From 1946 to 1979 the New Zealand Library School offered to university graduates a full-time 1–year course. It led to a diploma and to library posts at the professional level. Some 886 students had successfully completed the course by the end of 1979. Students on the course received the same allowances as students at teachers colleges. The school also conducted the block course for library assistants with University Entrance leading to the New. Zealand Library Association Certificate and to library posts at the intermediate level. Students attended on a full-time basis, usually on leave with pay from their libraries, for 3 blocks of tuition spaced at intervals of about 9 months and each taking 4 weeks.

The courses held in 1979 were the last to be given by the school. From 1980, library education will be given by 2 schools at Victoria University of Wellington and at Wellington Teachers College.

CENSUS OF LIBRARIES, 1974—The 5-yearly census of libraries for the year ended 31 March 1974 covered a total of 1703 libraries, including 268 public libraries (of which 77 were suburban branches), 34 tertiary education libraries, 1067 school libraries, the National Library, 98 libraries of learned societies and major commercial interests, and 76 libraries of Government departments and associated organisations.

Tertiary education libraries comprised the libraries of the 6 universities and 3 libraries closely associated with them; libraries of 9 teachers' colleges; 1 agricultural college library; 6 libraries of theological colleges; and 9 libraries of technical institutes. Book stocks increased by 50 percent in tertiary establishments between 1969 and 1974.

In the period 1969 to 1974, public library membership increased by 21 percent and circulation by almost 17 percent—a sign of renewed interest in the library services despite a marked increase in the sale of television sets in the same period. In the public libraries there were 4.48 books to each member and, on average, these books circulated 4.79 times annually. The numbers of public library staff remained almost constant between censuses but the numbers holding library qualifications rose by 39 percent.

School libraries were last surveyed in 1938 when a total of 114 district high and secondary schools were included. The average number of books per user was 7. In 1974, 360 district high and secondary schools were surveyed and the average number of books was 10 per user. The book stocks available increased by 51 percent. Primary (581) and intermediate (126) schools were also surveyed and library stocks surveyed for all schools included tapes, cassettes, gramophone records, films, and film strips as well as books.

A new survey held in 1974 was a census of bookshops or commercial libraries which numbered 159. Book stock numbered 487365 and membership was 43833—an average of 11 books a member. Of these libraries, 109 were in the North Island and 50 in the South Island.

The following tables summarise the results of the 1974 Census. The full results are given in a report Census of Libraries 1974 available from the Government Printer.

SPECIALIST LIBRARIES
Class of LibraryBook Stock at 31 March 1974Circulation During Year Ended 31 March 1974
Number of LibrariesBooksPeriodicalsTotalItems lent outside LibraryItems lent to other LibrariesItems borrowed from other Libraries
* Excludes armed forces and penal institutions which are included under public libraries.
(000)
National Library1402621942452761183
Libraries in universities, etc.342139604274315382633
Other libraries—
    Learned societies and commercial interests987224431165171813
    Government departments and associated organisations76*47591213871772929
                Total20973622178954046478178
PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AT 31 MARCH 1974
Class of LibraryNumber of Library SystemsOwn StockTotalFor Reference Only (Included in own stock)Country Library Service Stock
AdultJunior
RentalFree FictionFree Non-FictionFiction and Non-FictionAdultJunior

* Incorporates 15 Christchurch suburban libraries.

191 library systems covering 268 libraries.

(000)
In centres with an estimated population served of—
    50000 and over9*3223471224505239974132
    20000–499991824311335421692736358
    10000–19999331098917916254065916
      5000–9999359972969636252911
      3000–499925622328321451207
    Under 300045924620221791277
              Sub-total16592868919021033455312318350
Armed forces and penal institutions261861253107181
                  Grand total19194675019271037466012419152
PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOKS: CIRCULATION AND USE
Public LibraryNumber of LibrariesIssues from Own StockIssues from Country Library Service StockInter-library Loans
AdultJuniorTotalLent to Other LibrariesBorrowed From Other Libraries
RentalFree FictionFree Non-FictionPeriodicalsAdultJunior

* Incorporates 15 Christchurch suburban libraries.

191 library systems covering 268 libraries.

(000)
In centres with an estimated population served of—
    50000 and over9*500220671038158198710,25211-310
    20000–499991821827439461601475550610839- -13
    10000–199993310086566531021069348820660- -24
      5000–99993560733335465561192011946- -18
      3000–4999252511091017159627842416
    Under 30004521370302934085523- -7
              Sub-total165926339793122493534422,201583192478
Armed forces and institutions2641562211213293- -7
      Grand total191930340353144494535622,333593195486

NOTE: Because of rounding, totals in the previous 2 tables may differ slightly from the sum of the individual items.

International Statistics on Libraries—The following tables compiled from published UNESCO and other statistics show New Zealand's position in relation to other English-speaking countries as regards library resources, borrowers, and book circulation.

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, SPECIAL AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation in Year of Library Census (million)YearType of DataLibrary Category
NationalUniversitySpecialSchool

* In 1961.

Federal Government only, in 1965.

New Zealand3.01974Libraries1341741067
   Volumes (000)4245274325524829
Australia11.61966Libraries115....
   Volumes (000)10004241....
Canada21.81971Libraries1269580*3271
   Volumes (000)20128,418561312,513
South Africa22.91968Libraries347244..
   Volumes (000)........
United Kingdom53.71963Libraries34781177..
   Volumes (000)11,00027,68814,850..
United States208.81971Libraries32535354..
   Volumes (000)23,603371,38926794..
PUBLIC LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation in Year of Library Census (million)YearNumber of LibrariesBook Stock, Number of VolumesBorrowersCirculation, Number of Volumes

* 191 systems covering 268 libraries.

519 systems covering 660 libraries.

Public library systems with over 400000 service points including school libraries (18199), hospital and prison libraries, but not including 327 book mobiles or 131 gramophone record libraries.

    (000)(000)(000)
New Zealand3.01974191*4660103221,839
Australia11.6196652295471888..
Canada21.8197173226,160..62,162
South Africa22.91968519..12756450
United Kingdom53.7196356277,200....
United States208.8197150,479191,079..421,236

A summary of the results of the Census of Libraries 1979 is included as a special article at the back of this Yearbook.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on libraries will be found in the following publications. The select bibliography of New Zealand books, at the end of this Yearbook may also be found informative.

Census of Libraries 1974—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Trustees of the National Library of New Zealand (Parl. paper G.13).

UNESCO Statistical Yearbook.

Chapter 8. Section 8 LAW AND ORDER, AND PUBLIC SAFETY

8 A—JUSTICE

SOURCES OF LAW—The law of New Zealand consists of the common law, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament, statutes of the New Zealand Parliament, and regulations, bylaws, and other forms of subordinate legislation made under statutory authority.

The Common Law—The common law, sometimes referred to as case law or judge-made law, has been built up over the centuries by the courts in England and, later, in New Zealand and other countries where it was introduced. Like any living law, the common law continues to develop.

In New Zealand the policy of the courts has been to preserve uniformity with the common law in England. This is partly for reasons of convenience and partly because of the assumption prevailing in New Zealand that there is a single common law, the law of England, and that there are not separate, though similar, common laws in different countries.

United Kingdom Statutes—United Kingdom statutes in force in New Zealand comprise those passed before 1840 which were applicable to the circumstances of the colony at that date, and those passed between 1840 and 1947 which extended to New Zealand expressly or by necessary implication. Many of these statutes have, of course, since been repealed.

New Zealand Statutes—In 1947 New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster, and our Parliament has since been the sole authority with inherent power to legislate for the country. There are no constitutional restrictions on the laws Parliament can pass.

LAW REFORM—In any progressive society the law requires alteration from time to time if it is to reflect the life of the community and adequately give effect to the needs of the people. As in other countries in modem times, legislation is by far the most important means by which the law of New Zealand is adapted to changing circumstances. The responsibility for bringing before Parliament proposals for the revision of the common law and that part of the statute law not administered by other departments of State is in the hands of the Minister of Justice. The Minister is assisted in carrying out his responsibilities by 5 standing committees, each specialising in a particular area of the law. These committees consider topics referred to them by the Minister and report thereon to him. Until recently the Law Revision Commission, a large advisory body, also assisted the Minister of Justice. In 1975 it was replaced with a smaller and more informal Law Reform Council. The council comprises the Minister of Justice, the chairmen of the 5 standing committees, and the permanent heads of the State agencies involved in law reform. Its aim is to provide a means of communication among the committees and with those involved in the implementation of their reports.

Public Acts and regulations are drafted in the Parliamentary Counsel Office.

COURTS: Changes to the Court System—The first of a considerable number of changes to be made to the New Zealand judicial system as a result of recommendations by the Royal Commission on the Courts (1978) came into effect on 1 April 1980. From that date, the Supreme Court became the High Court; Magistrates' Courts became District Courts; and the Court of Appeal was reorganised.

The new High Court has shed much of its civil jurisdiction, leaving High Court judges more time to deal with major crimes, the more important civil claims, appeals, and reviews.

Magistrates have a new status as District Court judges and hear civil claims cases up to $12,000, not $3,000 as before. Under new legislation, additional criminal jurisdiction will be conferred on District Courts. District Court judges will be specially warranted to preside over jury trials, although trials on charges of murder, rape, drug-trafficking, and other more serious offences will continue to be heard in the High Court.

Since the statistics in this section refer to past years the original names of the courts have been retained in the tables.

Hierarchy of Courts—The hierarchy of courts in New Zealand now comprises the Court of Appeal, the High Court, and the District Courts. All exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, particular District Court judges are appointed by the Governor-General to exercise the domestic jurisdiction of the District Courts and, in practice, almost all District Court judges have been so appointed. The Children and Young Persons' Courts hear cases against those under 17 years of age.

As constituted by the Judicature Amendment Act 1957 the Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice by virtue of his office as head of the judiciary and of a president and 4 judges of the Court of Appeal appointed by the Governor-General. An additional judge or judges of the High Court may be nominated by the Chief Justice to sit on the Court of Appeal. The judges of the Court of Appeal are also judges of the High Court, but have seniority over all other judges of that court except the Chief Justice or the acting Chief Justice.

The Court of Appeal may from time to time appoint ordinary or special sittings or may sit in divisions and may make rules in respect of places and times for sittings and similar matters. This court, unlike other courts, exercises an appellate jurisdiction only. In addition to ordinary appeals from the High Court, certain other proceedings in inferior courts may, on an order from the High Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. The Court of Appeal also determines criminal appeals under the Crimes Act 1961.

All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final except where an appeal lies to Her Majesty in Council (the Privy Council). In cases where the amount at issue exceeds $5,000 there is an appeal as of right. In other cases leave to appeal is required. This leave may in most cases be granted either by the Court of Appeal or by the Privy Council itself. The Privy Council thus remains the final court of appeal in almost all civil cases and may also occasionally hear appeals in special criminal cases.

The High Court, which was first established by the Supreme Court Ordinance 1841, is now constituted under the Judicature Act 1908. The members of the court are a Chief Justice and 25 other judges, the number being fixed by statute. An additional judge or judges may be appointed whenever the Governor-General deems it necessary by reason of absence or anticipated absence of any of the judges on leave prior to retirement, each appointment being a permanent one from the time when it is made. The fixing of the number of judges, together with the provision that the salary of a judge shall not be diminished during his term of office, is an important safeguard for the principle of judicial independence. Judges, who must retire at 72 years, are appointed to hold office during good behaviour and may be removed only by the Queen upon an Address by the House of Representatives.

In 1968 a separate administrative division of the High Court was created. It consists of not more than 4 judges of the High Court assigned to the administrative division by the Chief Justice. The administrative division determines disputes over the valuation of land and hears claims for compensation when land is taken for public purposes. It hears appeals from administrative tribunals under the following Acts: War Pensions Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Cinematograph Films Act, Animal Remedies Act, Land Act, Medical Practitioners Act, Pharmacy Act, Nurses Act, Trade Practices Act, Distillation Act, Mining Act, Coal Mines Act, Town and Country Planning Act, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, and Clean Air Act. Other classes of applications may be referred to it by the Chief Justice.

District Courts are set up under the District Courts Act 1947 and possess an extensive jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases and domestic proceedings. The jurisdiction of the court is exercised by District Court judges, whose number is limited by statute to 68. A Chief District Court Judge has been appointed to oversee the running of the District Courts in addition to himself sitting in court. Justices of the Peace can sit as a District Court to hear a limited number of minor criminal charges. Justices of the Peace now deal with many prosecutions brought under the minor offences scheme. This is limited to offences that do not carry any liability to imprisonment, nor to a fine of more than $500.

District Court judges must have been qualified as barristers and solicitors of the High Court for at least 7 years. They are appointed by the Governor-General, and may be removed by the Governor-General for inability or misbehaviour only. They retire at 68 years of age.

Apart from these courts of general jurisdiction there are in New Zealand several courts with specialist functions. These include the Maori Land Court and Maori Appellate Court, which have jurisdiction in respect of questions relating to Maori land.

There are also numerous administrative tribunals exercising functions of a judicial nature and performing an important and increasing role in the legal system.

JURIES—The institution of the jury is regulated in New Zealand by the Juries Act 1908. Subject to certain exceptions, every British subject between 20 and 65 years of age and resident within 30 km of a High Court centre is liable to serve on a jury. The former right of women to exemption on request was removed in 1975, but there is a new exemption available to persons with continuous responsibility for the day-to-day supervision of a child under 6 years of age.

The list of exempted persons is contained in the Juries Amendment Act 1951. The following is a summary of the persons now exempted from jury service:

Members of the Executive Council and of the House of Representatives; judges of the High Court; judges and members of the Arbitration Court; judges and commissioners of the Maori Land Court; District Court judges; visiting prison justices and members of parole boards; coroners; the chairman of the Local Government Commission; the chairman and members of the Licensing Control Commission; officers of Parliament; clergymen; members of religious orders; persons wholly engaged in teaching and school inspectors; barristers and solicitors; medical practitioners, nurses, ambulance drivers, and dentists; registered chemists; members of the armed forces; Police and traffic officers; pilots, masters, and crews of vessels; members of fire brigades; certain Civil Defence personnel; members of an Inland Revenue Board of Review; and certain officers of the Department of Justice, including those engaged in court or prison work, and wives of prison officers.

Special juries are provided for in section 71 of the Juries Act. That section provides that in a civil action in the High Court triable by jury either party may, by leave of the court or a judge thereof, procure trial by a special jury instead of a common jury. Except with the consent of all the parties, however, no action may be tried with a special jury unless in the opinion of the court or a judge difficult questions in relation to scientific, technical, business, or professional matters are likely to arise.

LEGAL PROFESSION—In December 1978 there were 3771 members of the New Zealand Law Society holding practising certificates.

PENAL SYSTEM—The penal system exists to protect the community against those who would break the laws which are laid down so that citizens may live harmoniously together and the common good be promoted. This purpose is achieved principally through the processes of deterrence and reformation; in modern times in New Zealand as in other countries emphasis is placed wherever possible on the rehabilitation of the offender.

The paramount policy is to ensure first that those who, by reason of the nature of their offences or character of their offending, are a serious danger to society are removed from the community. Subject to that, the goal is to deal with offenders within the community wherever possible—that is, to impose sanctions that do not involve imprisonment. Where prison or other forms of detention are necessary the aim is to do as much as possible during the sentence to rehabilitate the offender and to bridge the gap between institution and free society. The interest of the community as well as of the offender is promoted by his reformation.

Treatment of Offenders Within the Community—The principal penalties available to the courts in dealing with offenders outside of prison are fines, probation, and periodic detention.

Fines—Fines are by far the most common sentence imposed by the courts in New Zealand, even if traffic offences are not taken into account. For very minor offences the imposition of a fine is the only sanction available to the courts, but even where there is power to sentence the offender to a term of imprisonment the courts often content themselves with fining him.

Probation—The legislation on probation is contained in Part I of the Criminal Justice Act 1954. The Court may release on probation any offender guilty of an offence punishable by imprisonment either on indictment or summarily. Probation is a conditional suspension of punishment and provides the opportunity for an offender to rehabilitate himself in the community. An offender may be released on probation for a period of not less than 1 year or more than 3 years and during this time he must accept the supervision of a probation officer and observe conditions imposed regarding employment and residence, associates, and general behaviour. These conditions are automatic, but the courts have power to impose further conditions at their discretion on granting probation. This power makes probation a very flexible type of treatment and it is coming to be more freely and imaginatively used. Where the offence consists of the destruction or damage of property, restitution of the whole or part of the loss is commonly required as a condition of probation. Some courts have in suitable cases made it a condition of probation that the offender do particular work of value to the community in his spare time. The probation method is widely used.

Persons on probation at 31 December of recent years were as follows: 1974, 6602; 1975, 7268; 1976, 7299; 1977, 7349; and 1978, 7734. In December 1978, of all offenders on probation and in penal institutions, 82 percent were on probation.

Periodic Detention—The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1962 made provision for sentences of periodic detention. Pursuant to this legislation residential work centres have been set up in Auckland, Otahuhu, Hamilton, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. These are available for offenders under 20 years of age. Where the Act applies, any person of the ages specified who is convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment or who wilfully refuses to pay a fine may be sentenced to periodic detention for any term up to 12 months. Under the sentence the offender is required to attend a work centre on a certain number of occasions each week and while in custody must attend classes or groups, undergo physical training, or perform work either in the centre or outside it. Work outside a centre may be at a hospital or school, at the home of an elderly or infirm person, or on Crown or local authority property. Work centres for young people provide sleeping accommodation as well as other facilities, and in practice such offenders sentenced to periodic detention are usually required to attend during the whole of a weekend. Non-residential centres have been opened at Auckland, Christchurch, Hamilton, Lower Hutt, New Plymouth, Otahuhu, Papakura, North Shore, Taupo, Hastings, Levin, Masterton, Wellington, Whangarei, Tokoroa, Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Palmerston North, Wanganui, Tauranga, Nelson, Dunedin, and Invercargill. At 31 March 1978 there were 2068 detainees reporting.

Other Powers of the Court—Although not sentences in the strict sense, various other means are available to the courts in dealing with offenders whose offences are not serious. They include conviction and discharge, the effect of which is that the offender has a conviction recorded against him but no sanction is imposed, and conviction coupled with an order that the offender come up for sentence if called upon within a specified period. This is a suspension of punishment conditional upon good behaviour but is not subject to the positive conditions of a probation order.

Finally the court, although it may find an offender guilty, may discharge him without conviction if it considers the offence to be of a trivial or technical character.

Detention in Penal Institution—The sentences of detention which the courts may now impose are as follows:

  1. Borstal training, which means detention in a borstal institution for an indefinite period not exceeding 2 years. The offender must be at least 17 years (in special cases 15) but under 21 years. The time of his release is decided by the appropriate Borstal Parole Board, which must consider his case from time to time. After his release he is on probation for 12 months.

  2. Detention in a detention centre, the term fixed by statute being 3 months. The offender must be at least 16 but under 21 years of age, and he may earn up to 1 month's remission of his sentence by good conduct. After his release the offender is on probation for 12 months.

  3. Imprisonment for a stated number of years or for life. An offender sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term may earn remission of up to one-quarter of his sentence, or, in exceptional circumstances, up to one-third.

  4. Preventive detention, which means detention in prison for an indefinite term to be decided by the Prisons Parole Board, but in any event not less than 7 years. This sentence may be imposed on conviction for certain sexual offences if the offender has been convicted for a sexual offence on at least one previous occasion. The offender must be 25 years of age or over. After serving 7 years of his sentence the offender may be released on probation on the recommendation of the Parole Board, provided the board is of opinion that he is not likely to resume his criminal career. The period of probation in each case extends for life. Preventive detention was restricted to sexual offenders by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967. Hitherto, it had been available for persistent offenders in a number of other cases.

Restrictions on Imprisonment—The policy is to restrict the use of detention of offenders in an institution as far as is practicable, consistent with the protection of the community from dangerous criminals.

In 1975 a restriction on detention prohibited a sentence of detention (other than a sentence of periodic detention) being imposed on any person not legally represented at some time before conviction unless he had the means to pay for legal representation but declined to employ a solicitor, or he was offered legal aid and refused it.

A court in dealing with any one convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment is now required in each case to have regard to the desirability of keeping the offender in the community so far as is practicable and consistent with the safety of the community.

CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: Court of Appeal—The law relating to criminal appeals from the High Court is contained in the Crimes Act 1961.

If it allows an appeal, the Court of Appeal may quash the conviction, vary the sentence, or order the case to be retried in the High Court.

Applications lodged in criminal cases and the results of the appeals are shown in the following table. Statistics in this form are not available for earlier years.

YearAppeals HeardAppeals Lodged
AllowedRefusedOther*Total
* Reserved decisions or cases adjourned.
1977210521166174
197820669145214
1979230511751227

Supreme Court—Criminal cases in the Supreme Court (now the High Court) are of 2 classes—those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the District Court and has been committed to the High Court for sentence or has been committed for trial and subsequently changed his plea to guilty, and those actually tried in the High Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court (as it then was) during each of the latest available 5 years. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender and this serves to explain the distinction between total cases and distinct persons.

YearTried in Supreme CourtSentences in Case of Committal for SentenceTotal SentencesTotal
Indictments and InformationsConvictions
MFMFMFMF
Total Cases
1974139716286248745101607581665
1975195620112271243879316142171831
19761884139126488616101880981978
1977179721711061484811315871611748
1978185818911161174685915841761760
Distinct Persons
1974587444283577550540545
1975749585473283763039669
19767425956637100766644710
19777046152645113363948687
197870277528471351566362725

Of the 779 distinct persons indicted during 1978, 575 were convicted, 4 were still awaiting trial at the end of the year, 124 were acquitted, 1 was found insane, and the prosecution was not proceeded with in the remaining 75 cases.

The next table summarises the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years.

YearTotal Convictions and SentencesDistinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced
Offences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, and ForgeryOther OffencesTotalOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, and ForgeryOther OffencesTotal
19744341079152166526220875545
197547410912661831270223176669
197655111882391978306260144710
197745510162771748282235170687
19785308733571760339205181725

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years classified according to the principal types of offences.

Type of Offence19741975197619771978
* Includes persons charged with murder but convicted of manslaughter.
Murder58131314
Attempted murder32136
Manslaughter*1515251621
Traffic offences involving death or injury23513
Assaults and wounding113153149174199
Sexual offences116771047493
Other offences against the person812913
Burglary, breaking and entering, and stealing from the person7975957265
Theft, receiving, and fraud114126148141115
Other offences against property1319121823
Forgery and uttering23542
Drug offences289083103121
Other offences4786616760
                  Total545669710687725
Per 10000 mean population1.792.172.282.202.31

Sentences imposed in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

Sentence19741975197619771978
* Also includes persons committed into the care of the Department of Social Welfare.
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)8960716170
Ordered to come up for sentence1220181917
Discharged45822
Fined7293919590
Imprisoned284383422381443
Detention centre (includes periodic)*5965689969
Borstal training1733292326
Preventive detention2--14
Detained in mental institution610364
                Total545669710687725

The death sentence for murder was abolished in 1961. On conviction for murder a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment is imposed.

Magistrates' Courts—As already stated, from 1 April 1980 Magistrates' Courts were renamed District Courts, and magistrates became District Court judges.

District Court judges deal with the majority of indictable offences. They have jurisdiction over all crimes against property and all but the most grave of other crimes, such as treason, homicide, rape, and perjury. A District Court judge may, however, decline to deal with an offence summarily, in which case the accused is committed for trial in the High Court in the ordinary way. The accused person has, moreover, the right to claim jury trial if he is charged with any offence, indictable or summary, punishable by imprisonment for more than 3 months.

A defendant may be prosecuted at a court hearing for several charges of one or more offences. All are included in “total charges”, which will therefore exceed the number of persons charged. The principal charge (i.e., that for which the heaviest sentence is imposed), for each person at each court appearance is selected to arrive at the “distinct case” classification. As a person may appear before a court on more than one occasion during the year, the number of distinct cases will not necessarily correspond with the number of individual persons involved.

The following table classifies the convictions in Magistrates' Courts (as they were then called) into more common offences or groups of offences for the latest available 5 years. The figures refer to total charges, with the corresponding number of distinct cases following the totals in each year. There were 45425 convictions against females in 1976 out of a total of 353699 convictions, and 39 397 females were included in the 290010 distinct cases.

Type of Offence19721973197419751976

* Excludes driving with excess blood alcohol. This is included in Other offences against good order together with convictions for failing to take breath or blood tests. Convictions for these offences totalled 9162 in 1975.

Exclusive offences of negligence or drunk in charge causing death or injury; conversion; drunk in charge including excessive blood alcohol; falling to take breathalyser or blood tests; failing to stop after accidents involving injury.

From 1 April 1969 excludes overparking offences and from 1 July 1971 some speeding offences, both handled by traffic controlling authorities and previously dealt with as court cases.

§ Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with 2 or more offences.

Common assault34053761364337193516
Sexual offences693704628576534
Other offences against the person18742557285434703593
Theft745678458375946110,544
Wilful damage17512022212721952336
Other offences against property (including forgery)12,32111,88412,27215,80418,336
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, etc.)*31113021448861397210
Offensive conduct or language, and vagrancy53285444674075817221
Other offences against good order74728795969011,12010,803
Breach of probation819811819951908
Offences relating to narcotics5321096164119481911
Failing to pay maintenance15101301133915972041
Other offences relating to administration of justice, drugs, etc.11231536159214902111
Failing to furnish return and making false return of land and income33023682215915662473
Unlawfully on licensed premises and other breaches of Licensing and Sale of Liquor Acts70286293708068538628
Deserting merchant ships5237384221
Other offences74977688727781439489
                  Sub-total65,27468,47772,76282,65591,675
Minor traffic offences166,457193,886219,395231,368262,024
                  Total231,731262,363292,157314,023353,699
                  Distinct cases§190,019213,945238,572257,208290,010
Rate per 10000 mean population for convictions, excluding minor traffic offences224.2230.6240.0267.8294.2

The next table classifies the result of hearings in all distinct cases heard in 1976.

Result of HearingOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, Forgery and CurrencyOffences Against Good OrderOffences Affecting Administration of Justice, etc.Other OffencesTotal

* Minor traffic offences accounted for 211105 of the cases where fines were imposed.

Mostly orders made.

Committed for trial or sentence331377531089878
Imprisonment61216041093520493878
Detention in detention centre92332100792605
Periodic detention41717191292215413684
Detention in borstal institution, etc.11554179721808
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)56924518662471084241
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence if required370695337284501736
Fined*38337403233,951229215,019262,498
Convicted and discharged (or pay costs)189470900244870810,817
Suspended imprisonment-(maintenance cases)---11221122
Miscellaneous345940235266634
Dismissed, withdrawn, or struck out1222230724,6312672233533,167
Discharged under section 42 of Criminal Justice Act2376481394832602622
Total distinct cases802118,606272,838837718,848326,690

Traffic Offences—Traffic offences form a large proportion of summary convictions. The most frequent traffic offences dealt with are breaches of parking regulations and excessive speed. Since 1 April 1969 parking infringements which result merely from overstaying a time limit have been dealt with outside the criminal law and from 1 July 1971 some local authorities and the Ministry of Transport have imposed speeding infringement penalties.

The following table analyses all traffic convictions dealt with in Magistrates' Courts for the latest available 5 years. A list of traffic offences resulting in convictions reported by officers of the Ministry of Transport will be found in section 12 D Roads and Road Transport.

Offence19721973197419751976
* Excludes trailers and caravans.
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing death981089111495
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing injury215221240301351
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing death91914611
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing injury620202516
Failing to stop motor vehicle after accident involving bodily injury242349303236147
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use18981879187822462458
Driving, or in charge of, motor or other vehicle under the influence of drink or drug66367897870295899381
Exceeding speed limits32,80839,06842,51155,96859,525
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle33,13835,76139,16534,15538,586
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of other vehicle11189838979
Incorrect lighting of vehicles58416054651859576138
Offences relating to the registration, etc., of motor vehicles968511,90612,83911,08813,654
Offences relating to driver's licence17,59720,56123,36325,68328,287
Breaches of parking regulations34,07239,25343,90243,28548,858
Other traffic offences33,20541,19451,01455,14366,897
                  Total175,561204,379230,643243,885274,483
Convictions per 1000 of mean population60.3068.8276.0879.0188.09
Convictions per 1000 motor vehicles*130.14142.13152.20154.90168.27

The previous table excludes charges for which persons were sent up from the Magistrates' Courts to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence. In 1976 there were 8 such charges for driving offences causing injury or death, 66 for converting a motor vehicle, and 24 for other traffic offences.

Disqualifications of drivers by length of disqualification are shown in the following table.

Period for which Driver Disqualified19721973197419751976
* Amended procedures for the processing of 1975 and 1976 data resulted in more accurate statistics. Short-term disqualifications for earlier years had been overstated.
Under 3 months21183192368719841160
3 months and under 6 months46386877644433282594
6 months and under 1 year54117230761777857786
1 year and under 2 years50267099737674508107
2 years and under 3 years11281392186719821524
3 years and under 4 years408431553488449
4 years and under 5 years3431515353
5 years and over140162213173177
Total disqualifications18,90326,41427,80823243*21850*

Drunkenness—The following table shows the number of convictions for all types of drunkenness (except driving with excess blood alcohol), together with the rate per 1000 of mean population, for each of the latest 5 years. Children and Young Persons' Courts, in which there were 84 convictions for drunkenness in 1976, are not included in this table.

YearConvictions for DrunkennessPer 1000 of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
1972294416731112.020.111.07
1973288913230211.940.090.97
1974428320544882.810.131.47
1975583330661393.780.201.99
1976681839272104.380.252.31

Repeated (or duplicate) convictions against the same person are included in the statistics shown in the preceding table.

In 1976 there were 7944 distinct case convictions for driving with excess blood alcohol concentration compared with 8319 cases in 1975. In addition 619 distinct case convictions were recorded for failing to take blood tests.

Offences by Women—Of the 404526 charges dealt with in the Magistrates' Courts in 1976, 51464 or 12.72 percent, were preferred against females. This figure showed an increase of 10467 from the 1975 total of 40997.

Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against women are of a relatively trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations.

Convictions for more serious offences are set out in the following table.

Offence19721973197419751976
Common assault134138141151155
Drunkenness167132205306392
Burglary, breaking and entering, etc.109157141147226
Theft18842055222424732569
Fraud and false pretences46280170311201457
Offensive conduct or language245257333448386
Vagrancy14880809280

Women received into prison under sentence during 1978 numbered 275, compared with 246 in both 1976 and 1977.

Totals for each offence group in 1978 (with 1977 figures in parentheses), were: offences against the person, 29 (30); property offences, 153 (148); drug offences, 17 (15); offences against good order, 5 (16); traffic offences, 10 (4); breach of probation or periodic detention, 25 (15); breaches of Immigration Act, 11 (1); breaches of Social Security Act, 6 (7); and all other offences, 19 (10).

Assessment of Crime—One important index of crime in the community is the number of those who are convicted of offences. This gives a useful guide to the amount of crime, providing the proportion of crime reported and the proportion of known crime whose perpetrators are detected remains more or less constant. This, of course, may not be a justified assumption. A greater number of court convictions might mean merely more efficiency by the police and a greater willingness on the part of the public to report offences that previously went unreported. Care should therefore be taken to avoid reading too much into figures for court convictions.

Over the 10 years 1967 to 1976, the number of convictions in the Magistrates' Courts (excluding minor offences), increased from a rate of 17.4 per 1000 mean population to a rate of 29.4 per 1000. Most categories of serious crime show an upward trend. Total convictions for offences against the person (of which common assault and assaulting, resisting, or obstructing the police form the major proportion), increased by 96 percent, property and forgery convictions increased by 95 percent.

History and current experience alike testify that crime almost invariably flourishes in large cities, particularly those that are growing rapidly and drawing large numbers of young people from a less sophisticated environment. This is less a penal problem than a social one. In New Zealand it has occurred to a marked degree only in recent years.

The following table gives an annual comparison by ages of the persons sentenced to penal institutions. In 1968, 35 percent of persons sent to penal institutions were 20 years of age or younger; in 1978 the proportion was 39 percent (a decline from the 42 percent in 1977). Similarly, 68 percent of those imprisoned in 1968 were under 30 years of age, in 1978 the proportion had risen to 78 percent.

Age in Years196519701975197619771978
15285660645656
16117223309299278240
17228380454459473382
18267454486534421418
19241427393467434376
20238437444410357339
21–2472210441091120411381122
25–29459600686744679660
30–34313387363369327367
35–39271253242216211225
40–44227222179170118149
45–49158196145158111111
50–541269588846772
55–59685844555147
60–64381633191826
65–691212131194
70 and over714533
              Total352048615034526847514597

PROBATION—The following figures show the number of persons placed on probation during the latest 5 years.

YearMalesFemalesTotal
197447858625647
1975576910006769
1976555210176569
1977548212966778
1978584213797221

The next table gives the number of offenders in each age group placed on probation during 1978, together with the period of their probation.

Age in YearsPeriod of Probation
MonthsYearsTotal
12151822 1/23
Males
Under 172928325280-4711
174139424363-1814
18–1972711641383171347
20–24814139491127281581
25–293236219761-2645
30–392423113558-8474
40–4988155018-4175
50–59362199-470
60–6911-64-122
70 and over1-11-3
              Total males294754218075043395842
Age in YearsPeriod of Probation
MonthsYearsTotal
12151822 1/23
Females
Under 1749205418-1142
171058622911206
18–1913488948-1280
20–24204141284336398
25–298444924-1162
30–39593422312130
40–49144136-37
50–599-44-17
60–694-11-6
70 and over---- 11
              Total females662614421965131379
              Total, both sexes360960322497008527221

PRISONS AND PRISONERS—The New Zealand prison population is accommodated in 27 institutions comprising 18 prisons, 4 borstals, 3 detention centres, and 2 police jails. Any person serving a sentence of not more than 8 days may be detained at any police station, which is also deemed to be a prison for that period. The prison population during the year 1978 is shown in the following table.

CategoryMalesFemalesTotal
Persons in prison at 1 January 197827401202860
Receptions during the year (including multiple receptions of the same person, but excluding transfers)960067510,275
Discharges during the year (including multiple discharges of the same person, but excluding transfers)987466710,541
Persons in prison at 31 December 197824661282594
Daily average number of prisoners26501252775

Not all prisoners received were actually persons undergoing sentence on conviction for criminal offences. Many, for example, are in custody awaiting their trial. In 1978, 112 debtors were released after being detained or imprisoned for non-payment of debt following a court order, and 24 persons were transferred to mental institutions.

Of the 10275 receptions, 5255 referred to persons who were remanded in custody pending a court hearing and who were later released after acquittal, a sentence not involving custodial detention, or a successful application for bail.

Persons received into penal institutions under sentence during 1978 are shown by age group and type of offence in the following table.

Age, in yearsOffences Against the PersonBurglary, Theft and Fraud*Conversion, Wilful Damage, etc.Drunken-nessOther OffencesTotal
Sexual OffencesViolent OffencesOther

* Includes forgery and currency offences.

Includes all other property offences.

Includes driving with excess blood alcohol concentration.

Under 21322507824269284011811
21–24251851438483673641122
25–291810792042661235660
30–39354931712195218592
40–49141636677579260
50–59118-2013940119
60 and over2--8-17633
        Total13761536167740738213434597

The next table gives particulars of ages and length of sentence of distinct persons received into penal institutions under sentence during 1978.

Age in YearsLength of Sentence
Under 1 Month1 Month and Under 3 Months3 Months*and Under 12 Months1 Year and Under 3 Years3 Years and Under 5 Years5 Years and OverOtherTotal

* Includes detention in a detention centre.

Includes life imprisonment.

Includes borstal detention and preventive detention.

Under 216113676312729136821811
21–241072044922455123-1122
25–298312926114229142660
30–391141202101182181592
40–496063893792-260
50–592937371312-119
60 and over10109211-33
Total4646991861684141636854597

The special types of detention (or imprisonment) imposed during 1978 are included in the previous table. The following table gives these special types of detention by age of detainee at the time when received into custody.

SentenceAge in Years
1516171819202124255455 and OverTotal
Borstal training—
    Males491071821698912608
    Females62028144274
Detention centre1081371386215460
Preventive detention33

Of the total of distinct persons received into penal institutions in 1978, 82 percent had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, and 55 percent had been convicted more than 6 times.

The number of prisoners received to serve a sentence imposed during the year 1978 for criminal offences was 4864, but deducting multiple receptions of the same prisoner, the number of distinct persons was 4597 (4322 males and 275 females). The corresponding total for 1977 was 5043, involving 4751 distinct persons (4505 males and 246 females).

An analysis of distinct persons received into penal institutions according to nature of sentence is given below for the 5 latest years.

Nature of Sentence19741975197619771978
Imprisonment34993611379434603452
Detention centre545585600548460
Borstal training763837874742682
Preventive detention21-13
        Total48095034526847514597
        Rate per 10000 of mean population15.8616.3116.9115.1914.69

The next table shows the number of persons in prison at 31 December in each of the latest 5 years.

At 31 DecemberPersons in PrisonProportion per 10000 of Population as at 31 December
Undergoing SentenceOn Remand and Awaiting Trial, etc.TotalUndergoing SentenceTotal in Prison
1974229514524407.457.92
1975259315927527.978.80
1976271313028438.719.12
1977271114928608.679.14
1978259416927638.298.83

Classification—The key to successful penal work lies in understanding the individual prisoner, and in order to assist the prisons administration to this end classification boards operate in the main reception prisons (Mt. Eden, Wanganui, Wellington, and Christchurch) and at Auckland Prison. Similar boards also function at the main reception borstal institutions.

Special emphasis has been placed on the treatment of people in prisons for the first time. If it is considered that they are likely to reoffend, then they are transferred to Wi Tako Prison where individual treatment programmes and specialist attention can be focused on their needs.

A census of convicted persons under the jurisdiction of the Department of Justice was taken as at midnight on 4 July 1972. This included persons sentenced to probation, periodic detention, and all forms of custody (borstal, detention centre, and prison).

The census revealed that a high proportion of persons included had had previous penalties. As would be expected this was most marked among prisoners. Seventy-two percent of male prisoners and 42 percent of females had been in penal custody before the present sentence. (Penal custody included prison, borstal, or detention centre.) Comparable figures for males in other treatment categories were 31 percent of borstal trainees, 24 percent of probationers and parolees, 23 percent of periodic detainees, and 2 percent of detention centre detainees.

The great majority of persons in the census were aged 24 years or less—72 percent of the total.

In general the level of education reached by the persons in the Department of Justice census was low. Only 22 percent of male and 24 percent of female sentenced persons remained at school beyond Form IV.

An ethnic breakdown of sentenced persons showed that of the males 57 percent were New Zealand born of non-Polynesian stock, 35 percent were Maoris, 2 percent were immigrant Polynesians, and 6 percent were other immigrants. The figures for females were 51 percent New Zealand born of non-Polynesian stock, 42 percent Maoris, 2 percent immigrant Polynesians, and 5 percent other immigrants. Of those males in penal custody, 50 percent were New Zealand born of non-Polynesian stock, 41 percent were Maoris, 2 1/2 percent were immigrant Polynesians, and 6 percent were other immigrants.

Measures Employed in Treatment:Vocational Training—Prisoners are put to work on some form of constructive employment, whether it be industrial production in a secure institution or food production on a prison farm. In addition, and particularly for the younger offender, an attempt is made to teach some particular skills.

Non-vocational Training—A variety of evening activities have been introduced into the prisons and training benefit is derived from these activities, whether they be recreational, educational, cultural, individual, or collective.

There are 18 full-time teachers serving in Auckland Prison, Mount Eden Prison, Christchurch Prison, Tongariro Prison Farm, Waikune Prison, Christchurch Women's Prison, Rolleston Prison, Wellington Prison, Wi Tako Prison; Waikeria and Manawatu Youth Institutions; and in Arohata and Invercargill Borstals. Part-time teachers provide a service for all other institutions. Teachers seek to help those prisoners whose educational attainment is such that they are disadvantaged in the community. They also assist those who are undertaking further education or technical courses either by correspondence or in prison classes. Such courses may be at any level ranging from illiteracy to university degree work. The interest thus shown by prisoners is encouraging, as in many cases it gives a prisoner better social and employment skills thereby reducing the chances of further offending.

All institutions receive at regular intervals a supply of well-chosen books from the National Library Service and, in addition, inmates are permitted a free use of the library's request service.

Psychological Services—Psychologists from the department's Pyschological Services are available to provide assessment and treatment and to assist the administration with decisions relating to an inmate's rehabilitation.

Not all assessments lead to psychological treatment. Of those that do, some will result in direct treatment by the psychologist in the form of counselling, psychotherapy, group therapy, or behaviour therapy. Others are dealt with by the combined efforts of the institution staff and psychologist to improve the offender's behaviour.

Referral may be through a classification or other committee of which a psychologist may be required to be a member but many inmates seek referral themselves.

Professional staff may be required to assist in developing programmes dealing with groups of offenders and in the psychology in-service training courses for prison officers.

Earnings—All prisoners are credited with modest earnings based on a system of marks assessed according to diligence. A portion of the earnings may be spent on tobacco, confectionery, and toilet necessities in a prison canteen, and this provides an incentive to good work and conduct. At the same time the loss of this privilege is a useful disciplinary measure. The balance of the earnings is paid to the inmate upon his or her release to help meet financial commitments during the first few days of freedom.

Punishments—An inmate charged with one of the less serious offences against discipline appears before the superintendent, who may impose a penalty or in his discretion refer the case to a visiting justice or to the court. A visiting justice may deal with all cases of offences against discipline and must deal with those which are outside the jurisdiction of the superintendent, unless he thinks they should be brought before the court. His powers of punishment are wider than those of a superintendent. The provisions as to offences and punishments are the same for both prisons and borstals.

Pre-release Hostels—The setting up in 1961 of the first pre-release hostel at Invercargill for male borstal inmates was an important step forward toward the goal of bridging the gap between the wholly controlled life of the penal institution and the responsibilities and temptations of free society. Further pre-release hostels have been established for male borstal inmates at Auckland, Hamilton, and Wellington, and at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch for adult male inmates. Selected inmates are sent to these hostels during the last part of their sentence. They live at these hostels and spend their leisure time there under supervision while working in the community. A pre-release hostel for women has been established in Auckland.

Release to Work—Inmates may be released during the day to engage in private employment. The selection of inmates for this privilege is made on the recommendation of the superintendent of a penal institution, by a special committee chaired by a magistrate. The inmates are required to contribute part of their wages towards the cost of their maintenance in the institution and part may also be withheld in satisfaction of outstanding fines or debts. The balance is made available to their dependants or is held by the Department of Justice for payment upon final release.

Post-release Care—Offenders serving a sentence of borstal training, preventive detention, or imprisonment for 12 months or more are discharged on probation. For a period of time they must be under the supervision of a probation officer and, during any part of that period falling within the maximum period they could have been detained in an institution, are subject to recall if their behaviour on release is not satisfactory. Offenders sentenced to detention in a detention centre are also subject to probationary supervision for 12 months following release. The period of supervision has a dual purpose—it is the protection of the community against further offending and it is at the same time an aid to the prisoner to re-establish himself. The step from custody to freedom is a difficult one for prisoners, many of whom require assistance, advice, and guidance during this period.

An offender serving a sentence of imprisonment of less than 12 months is on probation after release if the sentencing court so orders.

Parole System—The introduction of types of sentences designed to encourage the rehabilitation of an offender or to protect society against the hardened criminal, rather than merely to inflict punishment for an offence which has been committed, has created the need for a procedure to enable a person serving one of these sentences to be released as soon as he shows that he is fit to be returned to society.

This need is filled by the parole boards which have the responsibility of reviewing the cases of all persons sentenced to borstal training, preventive detention, or life imprisonment, and of recommending, or in the case of borstal trainees directing, release on probation at the appropriate time.

There are at present 4 parole boards: the Prisons Parole Board, which deals with all offenders except those sentenced to borstal training, and 3 Borstal Parole Boards which between them have jurisdiction over all borstal trainees. The Prisons Parole Board is now required to consider the case of every offender sentenced to a finite term of imprisonment for 5 years or more (thus excluding those sentenced to preventive detention or to life imprisonment, whose cases are dealt with under separate provisions) after the offender has served one half or 3 1/2 years of his sentence (whichever first occurs) and annually thereafter until the offender is released.

The Prisons Parole Board consists of a judge of the High Court as chairman, the Secretary for Justice, and at least 1 but no more than 5 other members, all except the Secretary for Justice being appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and being eligible for reappointment.

Each Borstal Parole Board consists of a District Court judge as chairman, the Secretary for Justice, the superintendent of the local borstal institution in respect of which the board is appointed, and 2 residents of the locality in which the institution is situated. All the members except the Secretary for Justice and the superintendent are appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and are eligible for reappointment.

Categories of persons whose cases were considered by the Prisons Parole Board and the Borstal Parole Boards during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

YearBorstal DetentionImprisonmentPreventive DetentionLife ImprisonmentTotal
19741710897161822
197518971488182071
197619441289172098
197718179811241950
197815478816281679

Of the cases coming before the boards in 1977, there were 884 recommendations made for release on probation and 16 persons on parole were favourably recommended for discharge.

JUVENILE OFFENDERS—Children's Courts were originally established in New Zealand under the Child Welfare Act 1925. The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, which came into force on 1 April 1975, renamed these Children and Young Persons Courts.

All offences, except murder or manslaughter on the one hand, and certain traffic offences not punishable by imprisonment on the other, committed by children under 17 years are dealt with in Children and Young Persons Courts, the procedure and rules of which differ widely from those of the ordinary courts. In addition, when an offender between 17 and 18 years comes before a regular court, the court may order his case to be heard in the Children and Young Persons Court.

Unless no other suitable room is available, sittings of the Children and Young Persons Court are not held in a courtroom. Proceedings in Children and Young Persons Courts are not open to the public, and no report of them may be published except with the consent of the presiding magistrate.

When a child is brought before a Children and Young Persons Court and charged with any offence, it is not necessary to record a conviction even if the charge is proved. The court has power without recording a conviction to impose any penalty or make any order as if a conviction has been recorded.

In the tables which follow, “Distinct Cases” relate to court appearances, the most serious or most heavily penalised of all charges for 1 person at 1 court hearing being selected as the distinct case.

The cases heard by Children's Courts and Children and Young Persons Court in the latest available 3 years resulted as follows:

DecisionTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
197419751976197419751976
* Includes periodic detention.
Dismissed or withdrawn17952192216497611751148
Admonished and discharged538643543590290025462176
Committed to care of Social Welfare Department2877211716341102896911
Placed under supervision741561625866320928862927
Committed to an institution*273324282947739700797
Fined468544494091324232993065
Otherwise dealt with312634863437139715661513
                Total cases28,01725,18823,72913,56513,06812,537

The following table shows the number of cases dealt with in Children's Courts and Children and Young Persons Courts during each of the latest 5 years. It is shown in 2 ways: i.e., total charges (meaning each offence counted once irrespective of the number with which a person is charged at the one time); and distinct cases (meaning only 1 charge, the most serious, is counted irrespective of the number a person is charged with at the time). All the Children's Court and Children and Young Persons Court tables are shown in this way.

YearTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
197222,166427626,44210,342263212,974
197322,814418326,99710,994261013,604
197423,603441428,01710,838272713,565
197520,679450925,18810,337273113,068
197619,517421223,7299871266612,537

Detailed statistics for Children's Court and Children and Young Persons Court cases during each of the latest 5 years are as follows:

Type of Offence19721973197419751976
Total Charges
Sexual offences153182196161162
Assaults81810601012964833
Other offences against the person678511372147
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering62526294620753434785
Theft, receiving, and fraud81627512789270236371
Unlawful conversion39604286457937363600
Wilful damage90410221150836772
Other offences against property*255295319370252
Offences against good order22662592293628352764
Indigent or delinquent child15901572144116292187
Other offences20152097217222191856
                  Total26,44226,99728,01725,18823,729
Type of Offence19721973197419751976
* Includes forgery and uttering.
Distinct Cases
Sexual offences113130146113114
Assaults678851841759685
Other offences against the person57778053117
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering26082608256521932104
Theft, receiving, and fraud35603423361331342935
Unlawful conversion of vehicles13051576147615131233
Wilful damage436461476420358
Other offences against property*8183989953
Offences against good order13641588166617881739
Indigent or delinquent child14371459125514381950
Other offences13351348134915581249
                  Total12,97413,60413,56513,06812,537

CIVIL JURISDICTION: Supreme Court—The jurisdiction of the High Court (previously the Supreme Court) is twofold, original and appellate. It has by statute a general jurisdiction to administer the laws of New Zealand. One important aspect of this original jurisdiction is an inherent power to control inferior courts and judicial tribunals through the writs of certiorari and prohibition. This is essentially a power to determine the limits of jurisdiction of other courts and is to be distinguished from its appellate function by which the High Court reviews a case which was properly heard and determined by a lower court. An appeal to the High Court lies only where it is provided for by statute. With certain exceptions, all cases determined in the District (previously Magistrates') Courts are subject to appeal to the High Court.

The next table shows the number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the amounts for which judgments were recorded in the civil jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the latest 5 years.

YearNumber of Actions CommencedCases TriedJudgments Recorded (Entered or in Cases Tried)
With JuryWithout JuryNumberAmount ClaimedAmount of Judgments
     $(000)$(000)
19744571713404655,0963,142
19755056713965287,8935,392
19763602634356165,5964,006
19773956674206919,7626,153
197840113548485311,7428,389

Court of Appeal—During the 5 years 1975 to 1979, 361 civil appeals were heard, of which 135 were allowed.

Magistrates' Courts—Since 1 April 1980, District Courts (previously Magistrates' Courts) have been able to hear civil claims cases up to $12,000, but previously Magistrates' Courts could only hear claims up to $3,000. However, if the parties agree in writing that the court shall hear their case it has jurisdiction whatever the amount claimed. In the exercise of this jurisdiction it may grant the same remedies, legal and equitable, as the High Court.

The following table shows the number of plaints entered, cases disposed of, amounts sued for, and amounts for which judgment was recorded in the Magistrates' Courts during the latest 5 years.

YearPlaints EnteredCases Disposed of
NumberTotal Amount Sued forNumberTotal Amount ClaimedTotal Amount for which Judgment Entered
  $(000) $(000)$(000)
1974125,19224,11775,95111,1459,459
1975144,93829,92479,66313,57112,072
1976144,00533,85184,38815,89114,331
1977144,30945,05782,05920,89318,056
1978142,26245,77583,08528,94719,892

The average amount claimed in each plaint, cases disposed of, was $93 in 1968 and $348 in 1978.

COMPENSATION FOR VICTIMS OF CRIME—The Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963 introduced the first statutory scheme in the world for compensation by the State to persons injured by crimes of violence and to the dependants of persons killed by such acts. The scheme is now administered by the Accident Compensation Commission by virtue of section 12(4) (a) of the Accident Compensation Amendment Act 1974 in place of the Crimes Compensation Tribunal.

The availability since 1 April 1974 of compensation under the Accident Compensation Act 1972 has had a significant impact on the criminal injuries scheme, which should phase itself out. The accident compensation scheme caters for all personal injury by accident in New Zealand, and thus covers the whole range of listed criminal injuries, including pregnancy by rape and criminal infection with disease. The accident compensation scheme is designed as a fund of first resort and in practice the 2 schemes have merged in all but the residual area of property damage caused by escapers. In 1979 awards totalling $20,383 were made.

LEGAL AID—The Legal Aid Act 1969 introduced from 1 April 1970 a scheme of legal aid in civil proceedings for persons of small or moderate means, and gave effect to the principle that no persons should be prevented by lack of means from having their grievances heard and determined fairly by the courts of the land. The scheme applies to practically all civil proceedings other than divorce. In order to receive legal aid the applicant must have a sufficiently meritorious case. Except in special cases of hardship, every aided person is required to make a contribution of $15 towards the cost of proceedings, and he will be liable to make an additional contribution proportionate to his income and capital resources.

Of the applications received by the 19 district legal aid committees during the year ended 31 March 1979, 13570 applications were granted, 1454 were refused, 227 were withdrawn, and 1550 lapsed.

The amount paid out in legal aid in the year ended 31 March 1979 was $2,215,142. Set off against this were contributions of $276,311 from legally aided persons and recoveries of cost of $199,668.

Comparatively few problems have been presented to district legal aid committees. Such problems as do arise are referred to the Legal Aid Board which gives advice or makes a ruling as required in the particular case.

The Department of Social Welfare is responsible, in accordance with the Act, for investigating the resources of persons applying for legal aid; for assessing their “disposable income” and “disposable capital” within the statutory limits and reporting to district committees on the maximum contribution, if any, that applicants should be expected to pay towards the cost of the proceedings in respect of which legal aid is sought.

THE LAW AND THE FAMILY—The work of Magistrates' Courts (now District Courts) used to be classified as civil and criminal. Domestic proceedings were procedurally and administratively an uneasy appendage of the criminal side. Following the passing of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, the domestic side of the work of Magistrates' Courts ranked as a separate division alongside the civil and criminal divisions. There is, for instance, a separate domestic record book, separate domestic statistics, and, wherever practicable, special courtrooms designed for the bearing of domestic cases. The aim here is to achieve a procedure which, though informal, still preserves dignity. The setting up of a full Family Court Division of the District Courts will come into effect shortly, probably by April 1981.

Domestic Proceedings—The basic objects of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968 are fourfold—

  1. To empower the court to ensure that a greater measure of justice is received by parties to domestic proceedings. The court is given much greater powers to ascertain the truth. It may call any person as a witness, and may require a lawyer to be provided—at public expense—to assist the court.

  2. To encourage by all practicable means the reconciliation of married couples. A duty is imposed on the court, and on the lawyers acting for each spouse, to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation, and to take all proper steps towards assisting a reconciliation. It is now possible to institute special legal proceedings for conciliation, quite separately from the other proceedings under the Act. On the other hand, the Act acknowledges as a fact of life that reconciliation procedures may fail, or be obviously hopeless. In such circumstances, separation orders are made available on broad and untechnical grounds. Legal recognition (in the form of a separation order) is now given to the fact that a relationship has actually and permanently broken down.

  3. To ensure that parents have an equal legal responsibility to provide for all their children, whether born in or out of wedlock. As an extension of this principle, the Act for the first time places on the father of ex-nuptial children a limited legal responsibility to maintain their mother. He may be required to maintain her for up to 5 years after the birth of such a child—in other words, till the child reaches school age. Previously, such men were liable to maintain the children only, leaving the mother to fend for herself.

  4. To deal with the perennial problem of maintenance, in such a way that both husbands and wives are dealt with as fairly as possible, and also to ensure that the person liable to pay such maintenance does not escape that obligation.

The basis for the making of maintenance orders has been much simplified and the courts have been given clear guidelines on the principles to be followed when making them. Also, the procedure for enforcing maintenance orders has been considerably tightened up.

The following tables give statistics for the year ended 31 December 1978 of applications and orders made under the provisions of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968.

Nature of OrderApplicationsOrders Made

* Custody, 2521; guardianship, 37; Custody order in favour of mother, 2162; in favour of father, 210; in favour of other parties and divided, 149.

Maintenance also granted in 1476 cases, 1331 of these in conjunction with a paternity order.

Separation58632440
Maintenance73553151
Custody or guardianship59602558*
Non-molestation2367266
Tenancy548206
Matrimonial home2969636
Paternity31761568
Consent to marry3119
Minor's contracts48

The following were the grounds for the separation orders; serious disharmony, 2326, defendant's conduct, 58, disharmony and assault or defendant's conduct, 56. One hundred and twenty-four of the applicants were husbands.

Relative ages of parties when separation orders were made in 1978 are given below.

Age of Husband (in Years)Age of Wife (in Years)
1619202425293034353940 and OverNot KnownTotal
16–1915520
20–245226722411347
25–29820728144104554
30–34131211191247465
35–39245171130252375
40 and over121581663931640
Not known11113539
      Total76513581469332431382440

The next table shows, in the case of separation orders for 1978, the age of wife at separation and duration of marriage.

Duration of Marriage (in Years)Age of Wife (in Years) at Date of Separation Order
1619202425292034353940 and OverNot knownTotal
Under 12529
1183010114477
23066153913136
326853015392170
4124341058181
58445221191172
6736218691169
7298421891152
8179924492155
97528862119
10–1412624377256477
15–19741627910325
20–24351231164
25 and over1193122
Not known12912
      Total76513581469332431382440

Numbers of children involved in custody orders granted in 1978 are shown below.

ItemNumber of Children InvolvedTotal
123456789 and Over
Numbers of orders7469204872508627322521
Total children74618401461100043016221165676

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on justice, crime, the Police, and kindred subjects will be found in the following publications:

Justice StatisticsDept. of Statistics (annual).

Report of the Department of Justice (Parl. paper E. 5).

Report of the New Zealand Police (Parl. paper G. 6).

Crime in New ZealandDept. of Justice, 1974.

Juvenile Crime in New ZealandDept. of Social Welfare, 1973.

Royal Commission on the Courts (1978).

The New Zealand PolicemanN.Z. Institute of Public Administration.

N.Z. Supreme Court Criminal Statistics: Time Series to 1976 (Dept. of Statistics bulletin).

Report of the Prisons Parole Board (Parl. paper E. 5A).

Reports of Borstal Parole Boards (Parl. paper E. 5B).

Annual Report of the Legal Aid Board (Parl. paper E. 7).

Social Trends in New ZealandDepartment of Statistics, 1977.

Family Statistics in New ZealandDepartment of Statistics, 1978.

The Prediction of Juvenile Offending: A New Zealand StudyJoint Committee on Young Offenders.

8 B—POLICE AND FIRE SERVICE

NEW ZEALAND POLICE—New Zealand's national police service dates, as a civil law-enforcement body, from the passing of the Police Force Act in 1886. Previously police work had been in the hands of the New Zealand Armed Constabulary raised in 1843, and again in 1867, and provincial police forces.

The Armed Constabulary were raised to fight in the Maori-Pakeha Wars as well as to maintain civil order. The abolition of the provincial police forces because of a requirement for centralised control coincided with the demise of the Armed Constabulary and pre-dated the introduction in 1886 of the New Zealand Police as a civil force.

Today the Police service is a national one and is controlled under the Police Act 1958. This Act amended the title to New Zealand Police, the word “force” being discarded.

Organisation—The national administrative and operational control of the Police service is vested in a Commissioner who is responsible to the Government through a Minister of Police.

For operational purposes New Zealand is divided into 16 police districts. Auckland District, by virtue of its greater population, is controlled by an assistant commissioner. Other districts, because of their varying size, are commanded by officers ranging in rank from chief inspector to deputy assistant commissioner. Police district commanders are responsible for the general preservation of peace and order, for the prevention of offences, and for the detection of offenders in their areas of command.

Policing is maintained by a system of mobile patrols and foot “beats” co-ordinated by an effective communications network which permits cohesion and direction of operations.

In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the Police Offences Acts, there are various statutes of a regulatory nature which the members of the Police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Gaming and Lotteries Act, Misuse of Drugs Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers Act, and the Secondhand Dealers Act. They also undertake certain inquiries and other duties on behalf of other departments of the Government service.

Police in country districts in some cases hold additional appointments such as registrars and bailiffs at District Courts, probation officers, and honorary fishery officers.

Recruiting—Recruit applicants for the Police who enter as constables must be between 19 and 34 years of age. Cadet applicants must be between 17 1/2 and 19 years of age. All applicants must meet strict educational, character, physical, and medical standards designed to ensure only the best and most suitable personnel are recruited.

On appointment, recruit trainees attend a 14 1/2-week training course and cadet trainees undertake a 12 month course at the Police College, Trentham, where they receive instruction in their powers and responsibilities as police officers.

Examinations for promotion to non-commissioned and commissioned ranks are aimed at selecting members who have shown the necessary potential to become effective supervisors and administrators.

Members who show a particular aptitude for the various specialist sections within the Police receive additional training at the Police College and in the field.

Strength—The effective strength of the Police at 31 March 1979 was 4758 sworn personnel, including 205 policewomen who have equal status and opportunity with their male counterparts. In addition to these members the department employed 651 civilian staff.

Transport—At 31 March 1979 the Police vehicle fleet totalled 861, including 681 cars, 110 vans of various types and landrover-type vehicles, estate cars, omnibuses, trucks, motor cycles, and other vehicles.

Crime Situation—Since 1969 the number of offences reported to the police during the year has increased from 153914 to 282656.

Today's criminal takes full advantage of modern technology, organisation, and transport in the commission of crime and also in circumventing detection.

Crime statistics do little to reveal the very substantial profits the criminal element extracts from the community by way of illegal drug trafficking or in the promotion of vice or in gambling. Profits from these sources provide the base for highly organised and lucrative criminal ventures. Again, where large amounts of money are the prerequisite to the successful criminal operation, there are those in the community who are prepared for large profits to make finance available, providing their remoteness from the more obviously criminal aspects of the activity is assured.

Coincidental with the duties crime imposes upon the police, the ebb and flow of quite normal public activity produces added pressure for police services. A decade ago a more leisurely social pace required a concentration of police effort mainly in major centres. Today, the need for police service is far more widespread and general. Rural areas which were formerly free from the scourge of lawbreakers can no longer accept with certainty their remoteness as a guarantee against offenders.

Police presence is required at holiday resorts, at numerous sporting fixtures such as cricket, football, boxing, car rallies, horse racing, motorcar and motor cycle events, and at pop concerts and many other promotions. Roving gangs must be kept under surveillance and public demonstrations need to be supervised.

The pattern of criminal behaviour in New Zealand is changing.

So called “white collar” crime has escalated in recent years, calling for new dimensions in police professionalism to deal with it. This aspect of police work is occupying more and more time.

To all these and other criminal activities must be added the overt challenge that violence and some “bikie” and kindred gang activities pose to social peace and tranquillity.

Crimes and Offences During 1978—Crimes and offences reported to the Police during 1978 totalled 282 656, a 10.56 percent increase on the previous year's total of 255663. The increase, however, should be treated with caution as 1978 was the first year of the computer-generated statistics from the Wanganui Computer Centre. This means that, while an increase could be expected on the basis of past trends, details of minor offences and incidents, which are now included, are likely to have had an inflationary effect on the overall total.

The changed procedures also mean that, except in some specific instances, it is all but impossible to make direct comparisons with the figures for previous years.

Offence1978
* Includes burglary (48000 offences) and theft (87000 offences).
Violence12,534
Sex2504
Drugs and anti-social behaviour34,809
Dishonesty185762*
Property damage17,735
Property abuses10,534
Administrative1152
Traffic17,626
              Total282,656

General—To ensure that they keep abreast with developments in other law enforcement agencies throughout the world the Police continuously review and experiment with new policing concepts and organisational changes. Technological improvements such as computerisation ensure that the New Zealand Police can be confident in their future ability to maintain a high standard of law enforcement.

Further Information—Further information on the police and crime will be found in the following publications: Report of the New Zealand Police (Parl. Paper G.6.); Report of the Department of Justice (Parl. Paper E.5); Justice Statistics (Department of Statistics); Crime in New Zealand (Justice Department, 1974); Juvenile Crime in New Zealand (Department of Social Welfare, 1973); The New Zealand Policeman (New Zealand Institute of Public Administration). Section 8A Justice may also be consulted.

NEW ZEALAND FIRE SERVICE—The Fire Service Act 1975, which came into force on 1 April 1976, established an integrated fire service controlled directly by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission in place of the multitude of fire authorities that had previously existed. One of the main aims of the integration was the removal of the fire service's greatest problem—divided control spread unevenly over 277 fire districts administered by almost as many diverse local authorities, fire boards, and fire committees. However, the retention of the volunteer system is a central feature of the reorganisation.

The New Zealand Fire Service is organised in a 4-tier structure as follows:

  1. The New Zealand Fire Service Commission: The successor of the Fire Service Commission has 3 members, one (the chairman) with a special knowledge of administration, while the other 2 have senior operational experience in the fire service. The term of office is not to exceed 5 years, but Commissioners may be re-appointed.

  2. Fire Regions: There are 6 administrative regions based on Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Their primary task is to co-ordinate their operational units to work in a close-knit organisation.

  3. Fire Areas: The fire regions are divided into fire areas, of which there are 22 in all. They are responsible for developing the fire fighting resources of their areas and for the training and operational efficiency of the brigades in districts within them.

  4. Fire Districts: Every united urban fire district, urban fire district, and secondary urban fire district which existed immediately prior to the commencement of the Fire Service Act 1975, was declared a fire district under the new Act. There has been some adjustment of fire districts since 1976. As at 1 April 1980 they numbered 274.

The New Zealand Fire Service Since 1 April 1976—From 1 April 1976 the operation and administration of the New Zealand Fire Service became the total responsibility of the New Zealand Fire Service Commission dealing through duly appointed commanders of regions, areas, and districts. Twenty-five of the 274 fire districts are served mainly by permanent firemen but with a leavening of nearly 1000 volunteers. The remaining 249 fire districts are manned by volunteer firemen who are an essential integral part of the New Zealand Fire Service.

The assets taken over by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission comprised some 388 fire stations, 308 houses and flats, and 1226 assorted vehicles deployed throughout New Zealand.

The Fire Service Act 1975 revised the apportionment of costs for the annual estimates of the New Zealand Fire Service between the insurance industry (including the levy on fire insurance policies) and the Government in the ratio of almost 3:1.

Fire Safety—Under Part II of the Fire Service Act the Fire Service Commission is required to take an active and co-ordinating role in the promotion of fire safety. To advise on this, the Commission has appointed a Fire Safety Advisory Committee, the membership of which includes representatives of the Accident Compensation Commission, the fire protection industry, the Building Research Association, the Insurance Industry Council, and the professional associations of architects, engineers, and master builders.

Fire Calls—The total number of calls attended by brigades throughout New Zealand during 3 recent years are shown below.

 197619771978
False alarms, non-malicious365339764285
False alarms, malicious207022492260
Accidental250422812395
Defective apparatus499855746104
    Total all false alarms13,22514,08015,044
Special services596966257487
Chimney fires284436263199
Gorse, grass, rubbish6911751810,139
Property fires993210,31310,737
Assistance calls to property fires374760510
                  Total calls39,25542,92247,116

Loss of Life—Sixty-two lives were lost by fire during 1978 compared with 41 the previous year and 47 in 1976. The most common known causes were cars igniting as result of accidents, which resulted in 8 deaths, smoking in bed (7 deaths), fires deliberately lit (6 deaths), and careless disposal of smoking materials, which resulted in another 6 deaths. Twelve deaths resulted from fires of which the causes were unknown.

Further Information—Further detailed fire statistics are contained in the New Zealand Fire Service Commission's Annual Report to Parliament (Parl. paper G.8).

Chapter 9. Section 9 DEFENCE

Table of Contents

DEFENCE POLICY—The maintenance of defence forces and a defence potential in New Zealand are related to the support of broad national objectives. Some of these objectives are relatively fixed because they reflect unchanging basic factors, such as resources, geographical remoteness, and dependence on overseas trade. Others are the products of history or circumstances. The objectives of New Zealand's defence policy may be summed up as the preservation of national security and control of our own area, including the Exclusive Economic Zone, and the promotion of security in the region around us. The most recent review of defence policy was published by the Government in November 1978. Earlier reviews of defence policy are contained in parliamentary papers A. 19 in 1961, A. 8 in 1966, and A. 5 in 1972. International relationships are discussed in Section 2 of this Yearbook.

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION OF DEFENCE—The Governor-General as Commander-in-Chief is empowered to raise and maintain the Royal New Zealand Navy, the New Zealand Army, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. These forces, together with public servants appointed under the State Services Act 1962, constitute the Ministry of Defence, which is responsible under the Minister for the central control of the whole field of national defence.

The Secretary of Defence is permanent head of the ministry and principal civilian adviser to the Minister, responsible in particular for co-ordinating the business of the ministry as a whole, including long-term financial planning as well as supervision of defence expenditure. In accordance with the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1978, the Secretary of Defence prescribes the pay, allowances, expenses, and other conditions of employment of all servicemen.

The Chief of Defence Staff is principal military adviser to the Minister; he is convenor and chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and conveys its advice to the Minister. Like the Secretary of Defence, he carries out inspections of the services and reports to the Minister.

Defence Council—The Defence Council is responsible for the administration and, through the officers appointed for the purpose, the command of the New Zealand Armed Forces. The Defence Council consists of the Minister as chairman, the Secretary of Defence and the Chief of Defence Staff as deputy chairmen, and the Chiefs of Staff of the 3 services. The Secretary to the Treasury and the Secretary of Foreign Affairs are associate members. In addition, the council may from time to time co-opt officers of other departments of State. Without limiting the duties of the Secretary of Defence or the Chief of Defence Staff, the Defence Council assists the Minister in formulating defence policy or recommendations thereon.

MISSIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND ARMED FORCES—To achieve the objectives of New Zealand's defence policy, the armed forces have the following missions:

  1. To provide forces capable of quick response to any threat to New Zealand itself, of controlling the Exclusive Economic Zone, and at the same time of upholding New Zealand's wider national interests in the area of prime concern—the New Zealand region and the South Pacific.

  2. To demonstrate the force of New Zealand's commitment to NAZIS by participating effectively alongside allied units in military exercises.

  3. To maintain trained, mobile, and self-sufficient forces to provide, on request, military assistance, technical aid, surveillance of outside activities, search and rescue, and disaster relief services in the South Pacific.

  4. To maintain a capability for limited support of national research and other interests in Antarctica.

  5. To undertake limited joint training and exercises by invitation in South-east Asia, as a demonstration of continuing interest in stability and security in that region, and to continue to respond to requests from the ASIAN and South Pacific countries for limited military training in New Zealand.

  6. To provide a capability to contribute to international peacekeeping operations.

  7. To provide assistance to the New Zealand community.

CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—To facilitate exchanges on military matters New Zealand defence liaison staffs are maintained in London, Scanner, Washington, Kuala Lumpur,Singapore, Jakarta, and Bangkok. In addition, some members of these staffs are duly accredited to other countries. The United Kingdom, Australia, and Malaysia have service representatives attached to their respective High Commissions in Wellington and there are service attachés on the staffs of the French, Indonesian, and United States Embassies in Wellington. Several other countries have service attache's accredited to, but not resident, in New Zealand.

DEFENCE SCIENCE—The Defence Scientific Establishment, Auckland, carries out research in fields of concern to all three Services. The establishment also undertakes metallurgical and other specialised studies related to the adaptation of equipment to the New Zealand environment.

Co-ordination of defence science policy is achieved through the Ministry of Defence, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the National Research Advisory Council. Commonwealth and allied co-ordination is achieved by membership of specialised bodies.

The Defence Scientific Establishment has been responsible for useful savings of foreign exchange, both in the rejection of faulty equipment as a result of metallurgical testings, and in enabling tasks previously carried out overseas to be undertaken in New Zealand. Electronic equipment produced by the Defence Scientific Establishment which has commercial potential has been made available to New Zealand industry for development and production and the work of defence scientists could result in the introduction into industry of new techniques bringing more economical production.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY FOR THE ARMED FORCES—The principal statute governing the armed forces is the Defence Act 1971.

DEFENCE EXPENDITURE—Expenditure on defence in the 3 latest years ended 31 March was made up as follows:

Item1976–771977–781978–79
 $(m)$(m)$(m)
Personnel125.03142.32179.02
Travel, transport, and communications8.1810.6012.04
Maintenance, operation, upkeep, and rental13.6218.7123.07
Materials and supplies37.6945.5547.66
Services4.515.436.08
Other operating expenditure1.472.091.83
Grants, contributions; subsidies0.190.200.59
Capital works5.545.399.23
Capital equipment18.6021.8819.99
                  Total214.83252.17299.51

About 75 percent of the Defence Vote is spent within New Zealand, mainly on salaries, capital works, servicing, and general operating costs, so that there is an important feedback into the economy. There is a deliberate policy to encourage greater logistic self-sufficiency both within New Zealand and in conjunction with Australia.

Defence expenditure is related to Government expenditure and gross national product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchDefence ExpenditurePercentage of Government Expenditure*Percentage of Gross National Product
* Excludes repayment of public debt.
 $(m)percent  percent  
1975166.854.51.7
1976193.474.11.8
1977214.834.21.7
1978252.174.11.8
1979299.514.11.9

STRENGTH OF ARMED FORCES—The following table gives the strengths of the regular forces of the 3 services over the last 6 years.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceTotal
197428455553423212,630
197528505523429712,670
197627345432425412,420
197727265441428912,456
197828255722421712,764
197928275670424212,739

Armed Forces Pay—The Armed Forces pay code was restructured and implemented in August 1978. The major features of the review, the first since 1965, were the linkage of military pay rates to those of the State Services, the reward for skill and qualification rather than length of service, and the expression of salary as a comprehensive annual salary rather than the previous daily rate made up of numerous pay elements. The opportunity was taken to incorporate many of the previous skill allowances into the military scales.

Armed Forces pay has now been properly aligned with State Service rates and there is provision for reviewing and updating the pay to keep it in line with State Service pay movements.

EMPLOYMENT OF WOMEN IN THE ARMED FORCES—The 3 women's services were disestablished on 29 July 1977 and their members integrated into the existing branches and corps of the armed forces. The aim of the new policy is to offer equal employment and career opportunities and common conditions of service for both sexes in respect of pay, postings, housing, engagements, terminal benefits, promotion, etc. Women will not, however, be employed in combat trades or in combat areas and will not be required to do work that is physically extremely demanding and is performed under arduous conditions. In addition, occupations for which lengthy and expensive training is required will not be open to women until the present low-retention rates of servicewomen improve.

It is hoped, however, that the new policy will lead to better retention rates for servicewomen and that this will, in future, make it possible for the range of occupations open to women to be further extended.

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY—The Government in New Zealand has since the earliest days made provision for naval forces in its defence measures. Royal Navy vessels regularly visited New Zealand waters, but these were soon supplemented by a number of Government-owned vessels, the first of which was the Australia, a schooner purchased from India in 1842. In addition, in 1877 the New Zealand Government began regular financial contributions towards maintaining Royal Navy ships in New Zealand waters. In 1921 the naval forces became the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy, and in 1941 they became the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Naval Staff exercises command and control of the Royal New Zealand Navy assisted in the performance of his functions by the Naval Staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

State of the Navy—Seagoing ships:

* On loan from U.S. Navy.

Two 27-metre inshore survey craft are under construction by, Whangarei Engineering Co. Ltd. and will replace the current vessels.

Frigates (Leander class) Waikato 
Canterbury 
Frigates (Otago class)Otago 
TaranakiResource Protection/Training
Survey shipMonowai 
Research shipTui* 
Patrol craftHaweaResource Protection
Taupo
Rotoiti
Pukaki
Survey motor launchesTakapu 
Tarapunga
RNZNVR motor launchesKoura 
Haku 
Paea 
Manga 
Kuparu 
Diving tenderManawanui 
Dockyard service craftArataki 

Shore Establishments—The naval base at Devonport, Auckland, consists of the office of the Commodore Auckland (the operational authority of the RNZN), HMNZS Philomel (the naval barracks and base support establishment), the Royal New Zealand Naval Hospital, the Naval Supply Depot, and the Dockyard.

HMNZS Tamaki is the training establishment for the Navy and is located at Narrow Neck, Devonport, Auckland.

The Dockyard is under the charge of a Captain Superintendent and is capable of refitting all units of the RNZN. The RNZN Armament Depot is situated at Kauri Point and the RNZN Hydrographic Office is at Takapuna.

HMNZS Irirangi is the naval radio receiving and transmitting station and is situated at Waiouru.

HMNZS Wakefield is the administrative unit for RNZN personnel in the Wellington area.

Strength of the Navy
CategoryAt 31 March 1977At 31 March 1778At 31 March 1979
Regular Forces
    Officers (male and female)296295307
    Ratings (male and female)243025302520
                Total272628252827
Non-regular Forces
    Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve (officers)46560
    Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve (all ranks)304347431
    Royal New Zealand Naval Fleet Reserve (ratings)289813151547

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve—There is a division of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve in each of the 4 main centres—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—where reservists are given the basic elements of naval training.

THE NEW ZEALAND ARMY—The Army is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the Defence Act 1971, and the policy outlined in the Defence White Paper 1978. It comprises a Regular Force, Territorial Force, and the Army Reserves.

New Zealand has maintained militia forces since the passing of the Militia Act of 1845. The first regular forces were the Armed Constabulary formed in 1846. The oldest continuously serving unit in the Army traces its history to February 1864.

Formed Army units have been dispatched overseas on active service in the South African War, World War I, World War II, occupation forces in Japan, plus Korea, Malaya and Borneo and subsequently Malaysia, and Vietnam. Units have been stationed in Malaysia and subsequently Singapore since the termination of active service in Malaysia in 1966.

Personnel are posted to one of the following corps: Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery; Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps; Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers; Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals; Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment; New Zealand Special Air Service; New Zealand Army Air Corps; Royal New Zealand Corps of Transport; Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps; Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps; Corps of Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers; Royal New Zealand Dental Corps; Royal New Zealand Chaplains Department; New Zealand Army Pay Corps; New Zealand Army Legal Service; Royal New Zealand Provost Corps; Royal New Zealand Army Education Corps; or the Royal New Zealand Nursing Corps.

Command and Administration—The Chief of General Staff exercises command and administration of the Army, assisted in the performance of his functions by the General Staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—To meet the requirements of the 1978 Defence Review, the New Zealand Army is structured to provide a force capable of rapid deployment for low-level military operations or civil assistance tasks; and a broad range of both Regular and Territorial Force units, based on the framework of an infantry division, to provide the basis for expansion when required.

In New Zealand the Army is organised into one command—New Zealand Land Forces. Headquarters, New Zealand Land Forces, is responsible for the day-to-day command of the Army in New Zealand and for the implementation of Army General Staff policy. New Zealand Land Forces consists of 4 formations which are geographically oriented and responsible for all functions and command within their allotted region.

Units and staff deployed overseas remain under national command.

Strength of the Army
Category At 31 March 1977At 31 March 1978At 31 March 1979
Regular Forces
    Officers (male and female) 677768701
    Other ranks (male and female) 476449544969
              Total 544157225670
Non-regular Forces
    Territorial Force (all ranks) 586158525903
    Officers Reserve 520520581
    Class A ReserveOther ranks1111-
    Class B Reserve154014161373

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE—The Royal New Zealand Air Force was constituted as a separate armed service by the Air Force Act 1937 and its administration was vested in an Air Department which was responsible for military aviation and the regulation of civil aviation in New Zealand. With the passing of the 1964 Defence Act the Air Department was absorbed into the Ministry of Defence.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Air Staff exercises command and administration of the Royal New Zealand Air Force assisted in the performance of his functions by the air staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—The RNZAF in New Zealand is divided into 2 Groups and 1 independent base; in addition, 1 support unit with rotary winged aircraft forms part of the New Zealand forces based in Singapore. Operations Group, with Headquarters at RNZAF Base Auckland, is responsible for all operational functions and operational flying training, and Support Group, with Headquarters at RNZAF Base, Wigram, is responsible for all formal individual training (except advanced pilot training) and certain support functions. RNZAF Base, Shelly Bay, acts as the supporting administrative and domestic base for all RNZAF personnel assigned to Wellington for duty in Air Staff and Defence Headquarters.

The RNZAF provides support for the search and rescue organisations in New Zealand and the South Pacific area, and for the New Zealand civil defence organisation. In addition, the RNZAF provides support to civil and government agencies, which cannot be provided by civil aviation facilities.

The operational units of the RNZAF comprise: a utility helicopter support unit based in Singapore as part of the New Zealand Force, South-east Asia; maritime, long- and medium-range transport and helicopter squadrons based at RNZAF Base Auckland; and offensive support and medium-range transport communications squadrons at RNZAF Base, Ohakea. Flying training units are located at RNZAF Bases Wigram and Ohakea, while ground training is carried out at RNZAF Bases Auckland, Woodbourne, and Wigram.

Engineering—Direction of RNZAF engineering services is co-ordinated by Air Staff, Defence Headquarters. Specific levels of aircraft maintenance are assigned to bases and squadrons. A range of overhaul and repairs and some manufacture of aeronautical equipment is carried out at No. 1 Repair Depot, RNZAF Base Woodbourne. A proportion of repair and overhaul work is contracted to civil industry in New Zealand and overseas.

Strength of the Air Force
CategoryAt 31 March 1977At 31 March 1978At 31 March 1979
Regular Forces
    Officers (male and female)677655654
    Airmen and air women361235623588
              Total428942174242
Non-regular Forces
    Territorial Air Force148158164
    Active Reserve487757916
    General Reserve625534470
State of the RNZAF
PlanesPrincipal Role
16 StrikemastersAdvanced flying training, strike-role training
13 SkyhawksOffensive air-support operations
5 C 130 HerculesAir transport
5 P 3 B OrionsAir transport
10 AndoversAir transport
10 DevonsNavigation and air electronics training
14 Iroquois helicoptersTactical air transport
10 Sioux helicopters
3 Wasp helicopters
4 Airtourers 
13 Airtrainers 

ARMED FORCES OVERSEAS: Five Power Defence Arrangements—The Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement, under which New Zealand had maintained forces in Malaysia as part of a Commonwealth Strategic Reserve was terminated in October 1971. It was replaced by the Five-power Defence Arrangements, effective November 1971, by which Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom separately concluded agreements with Malaysia and Singapore. Within the framework of these arrangements, and at the request of the governments of Malaysia and Singapore, the 3 first-mentioned nations agreed to station elements of their armed forces in these countries. These elements were initially grouped into an ANZUK force, but the decision by Australia in 1973 to withdraw a substantial portion of its ground forces from the region led to a decision by New Zealand and the United Kingdom to establish separate national command arrangements. Accordingly, with effect from 31 January 1974, command of the New Zealand elements of the ANZUK force was transferred to the Commander, New Zealand Force South-east Asia. This New Zealand contribution to stability in the area currently comprises an infantry battalion, a utility helicopter support unit, a headquarters, periodic deployment of RNZAF strike aircraft to the area, and sundry supporting units. The withdrawal of British Forces from the area was completed in 1976.

United Nations Observers—At the request of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, New Zealand provided military observers in United Nations truce supervisory operations in Kashmir in 1951 and in the Middle East in 1954. The number of observers in Kashmir was 4, except for the period of hostilities in mid 1965 when, for a short time, New Zealand provided 9 officers. The number of observers in the Middle East has varied between 2 and 7. During 1976 New Zealand withdrew all observers from Kashmir and reduced the number of observers in the Middle East from 5 to 4.

Commonwealth Peace-keeping Force—During the early months of 1980 a small number of New Zealand troops were included in the Commonwealth Peace-keeping Force in Zimbabwe-Rhodesia.

MUTUAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME—Since 1973 bilateral military assistance and co-operation activities, which had been conducted with several countries over a number of years, have been developed and administered as a mutual assistance programme involving all the ASEAN countries (Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia) plus Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and Tonga. The main aim of the programme is to help the countries concerned to improve the capability of their armed forces and at the same time to provide New Zealand with training experience and deployment opportunities in these countries. Activities within the programme include training in New Zealand for personnel on an individual basis, or for small groups or, upon occasion, for units up to company size. Courses given range over a wide spectrum of military training limited only by the availability of places on particular courses and by the requirements of the countries to whom the assistance is available. Small numbers of New Zealand personnel are sent to these countries as instructors or on appointments arranged by way of interchange with officers coming to New Zealand. Senior officers are invited to this country on familiarisation and planning visits, and as opportunity offers, gifts of equipment are made.

Antarctica Support—New Zealand activities in Antarctica rely heavily on logistic support co-ordinated with the United States. The main defence contribution is related to the provision of RNZAF transport flights to McMurdo assisted by a mobile air movements team and army cargo handlers. Helicopter aircrew are also assigned for duty with the United States forces and 4 physical training instructors have been assigned to Scott Base to assist in Antarctic survival instruction to both US and NZ personnel.

COMMUNITY ASSISTANCE: Hydrographic Survey—The RNZN has undertaken marine surveys since 1949 and is the sole authority for the production of nautical charts in New Zealand. The area of charting responsibility covers a wide area of the South-west Pacific from Tuvalu in the north to the Ross Sea in Antarctica. To undertake this task HMNZS Monowai which entered service in 1978 carries out oceanic and off-shore surveys, and the two inshore survey craft, Takapu and Tarapunga carry out inshore and minor surveys around the New Zealand coast.

Fishery Protection—The introduction of the 200–mile Exclusive Economic Zone on 1 April 1978 increased the need to maintain a surveillance and policing effort. To undertake this task, the frigate HMNZS Taranaki and the 4 patrol craft are employed full time on fishery, protection patrols. Surveillance flights are undertaken by RNZAF Orion and Andover aircraft.

Search and Rescue—All 3 services support the civil defence and search and rescue organisations. During the year 1 April 1978 to 31 March 1979 there were 6 major oceanic searches; 16 incidents involving Army manpower, vehicles, stores, equipment, and rations; and the RNZAF located and carried to safety 81 people from 104 incidents.

Miscellaneous—Other assistance provided to the community includes fire-fighting and co-operative tasks with the Forest Service, NZR, NZED, and Meteorological Service; explosive ordnance disposal; assistance in civil emergencies; participation in ceremonial occasions; and the carriage of supplies and personnel to New Zealand's offshore islands on behalf of other Government departments.

NEW ZEALAND CADET FORCES—The Cadet Forces were established under the Defence Act 1971 and comprise the Sea Cadets, Air Training Corps, and School Cadet Corps. Previously these forces were part of the armed forces.

The Cadet Forces are primarily community-based youth training groups aimed at teaching leadership, comradeship, self confidence, and good citizenship to boys and girls between the ages of 13 and 18 years. Sponsorship is jointly provided by the community, the Government through the Ministry of Defence, the Navy and Air Cadet Leagues, and the schools in which cadet units are established.

On 31 March 1979 the Cadet Forces comprised 1015 sea cadets led by 95 officers in 15 town and 3 school units, 3263 school cadets led by 81 officers in 13 school units, and 2964 Air Training Corps cadets led by 165 officers in 44 town and 3 school units.

STRENGTHS OF ARMED FORCES IN WAR: South African War—Approximately 6500 troops from New Zealand served in the South African War.

First World War, 1914–18—A total of 124 211 persons (including 91941 volunteers) were called up for overseas and home service prior to 12 November 1918. Of these, 100444 went overseas.

Second World War, 1939–45—The net intake of men to the armed forces—i.e., exclusive of transfers between the services and of re-entries—during the Second World War was 194000, equivalent to 67 percent of the male population between the ages of 18 and 45 years. In addition, approximately 10000 women served in the forces. It is estimated that approximately 140000 persons served overseas.

CIVIL DEFENCE—The planning, organisation, co-ordination, and implementation of the measures necessary for the safety of the public (except for those emergencies which can be dealt with by the normal emergency services) are described as civil defence. Communities using their own resources and drawing upon volunteers have an obligation to take the steps necessary to prevent or reduce loss of life or distress. Assistance to territorial local authorities in meeting their obligations and the co-ordination of the support of Government planning and resources are the responsibilities of the Ministry of Civil Defence. The declaration of a state of “civil defence emergency” grants special powers to territorial local authorities, to civil defence controllers appointed by them, to the Police, and to the Director and Regional Commissioners of the Ministry of Civil Defence.

The Ministry of Civil Defence was established in April 1959 as an integral part of the Department of Internal Affairs. Three Regional Commissioners of Civil Defence were appointed in June of the following year, 1 each to the Northern and Central Regions dividing the North Island and 1 to the Southern Region covering the whole of the South Island together with Stewart Island and the Chatham Islands. The current concept of civil defence dates from December 1962 when the Civil Defence Act 1962 came into force. The setting up of regional and united councils under the Local Government Act 1974, each with a mandatory responsibility for civil defence, has led to a significant change in local government responsibilities and overall civil defence organisation. The 3 Ministry of Civil Defence Regions (Northern, Central and Southern) will, in due course, be replaced as each local government region is constituted a civil defence region.

Every territorial local authority has an obligation to prepare a civil defence plan, to set up a civil defence organisation, and to appoint a Local Controller of Civil Defence for the purpose of dealing with a disaster in its district should the use of civil defence measures be warranted. Neighbouring local authorities may unite for civil defence purposes and then together they have an obligation to prepare a joint local civil defence plan, to set up a combined civil defence organisation, and to appoint a Group Controller of Civil Defence. At 31 December 1979 there were 118 local and combined civil defence organisations (i.e., excluding regional organisations).

Every regional or united council has an obligation to prepare a civil defence plan, to appoint a Regional Controller of Civil Defence, and to set up the organisation necessary for dealing with a disaster in its region beyond the capability of any one particular local or combined civil defence organisation. Each region in existence under the Local Government Act 1974, the Auckland Regional District, and the Chatham Islands County are constituted as Civil Defence Regions in the charge of a Regional Commissioner of the Ministry of Civil Defence located at Auckland, Palmerston North, or Christchurch. Each Regional Commissioner has several civil defence regions in his charge grouped for administrative convenience into the Northern, Central or Southern Civil Defence Zone. By 31 December 1979 the following civil defence regions had been constituted:

AucklandEast CapeNelson Bays
Bay of PlentyTaranakiMarlborough
 WanganuiWest Coast
 WairarapaCanterbury
  Southland

(It is expected that the Northland and Tongariro Civil Defence Regions will be constituted early in 1980 and others will follow later in the year).

Each Regional Commissioner exercises powers and functions established in the Civil Defence Act 1962 under the general direction of the Director of Civil Defence in Wellington. The National Civil Defence Committee comprising the permanent heads of 12 Government departments most closely involved in disaster relief measures, has a responsibility to advise and assist the Minister and Director of Civil Defence in the planning and implementation of civil defence measures. Representatives appointed by members of this committee form regional civil defence advisory groups at Auckland, Palmerston North, Wellington, and Christchurch to provide a like service for Regional Commissioners.

A National Civil Defence Operational Headquarters is established in the sub-basement of the executive wing of Parliament Buildings and is in the charge of the Director of Civil Defence. This headquarters is ready for use but is activated only when required. It provides the means for coordinating the use of all Governmental and non-Governmental resources and, where necessary, for the control of the overall civil defence effort where a disaster situation makes demands which cannot be met by a Regional or United Council and the appropriate Regional Commissioner of Civil Defence. Each Regional Commissioner has an established operational headquarters (Auckland, Palmerston North, and Christchurch) to enable him to meet his operational responsibilities towards each civil defence region in his zone.

SECURITY INTELLIGENCE SERVICE—The New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969 gave statutory recognition to the New Zealand Security Service, which was established on 28 November 1956.

Subject to the control of the Minister in Charge of the Security Intelligence Service, the functions of the service are to obtain, correlate, and evaluate intelligence relevant to security; to advise Ministers on security matters; to co-operate as far as practicable and necessary with State Services and other public authorities in New Zealand and abroad in the performance of its functions; and to inform the New Zealand Intelligence Council on any new area of potential espionage, sabotage, terrorism, or subversion in respect of which the Director has considered it necessary to institute surveillance.

It is not a function of the Security Intelligence Service to enforce measures for security or to institute surveillance of any person or class of persons by reason only of his, her, or their involvement in lawful protest or dissent.

There is a Commissioner of Security Appeals, to whom complaints may be made in writing at the office of the Supreme Court in Wellington.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information will be found in the following publications. Report of the Ministry of Defence (Parl. paper G. 4).

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Chapter 10. Section 10 LAND DEVELOPMENT AND USE

10 A—PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

GENERAL—Planning for economic development and growth is the concern of a wide range of sectors, including agriculture, manufacturing, transport, forestry, building, mineral development, and energy production. New Zealand is at present undergoing complex structural change with high resource costs and pressure on financial resources, and therefore a need for more careful selection of investment, even though demand has slackened. Within the urban areas themselves, competing demands for industrial, commercial, residential and recreational land have arisen as proponents of each particular use have sought their most suitable available location. Left unchecked, these conflicts of interest could lead to unsatisfactory and uneconomic patterns of development. This has necessitated a planning framework within which competing demands can be resolved.

In recent years, world opinion has had forced upon it an appreciation of the damage to the environment, in the form of pollution and the destruction of natural resources, that can result from uncontrolled economic development. New Zealand, during the early years of the last century, suffered what is now recognised to have been irreparable damage from the destruction of native forests and wildlife. However, during the last decade New Zealand has taken warning from the unfortunate experiences of some more highly developed countries. Concern for possible future effects of economic growth on the environment led to the holding of the Physical Environment Conference in May 1970 and has resulted in the enacting of what is, by world standards, advanced environmental legislation.

LAND USE—With almost 27 million hectares of land and a population of just over 3 million, New Zealand has not in the past been conscious of the problems of resource utilisation experienced in the more densely settled countries. An extensive coastline (approximately 15,000 km), great variety of landscape and responsive soils, and a generally favourable climate at lower altitudes are some of the assets which, because of the small population, have been utilised without any serious detrimental effects on the social and economic fabric. In retrospect, however, it is apparent that some of the land and other resources have been wastefully exploited. Maori settlement brought significant ecological changes, largely through fires and hunting. The impact of European settlement was much greater, measured by the large areas of indigenous forest cover destroyed, the extensive native grasslands burnt for sheep grazing and ploughed for crops and sown pasture, the wetlands drained and reclaimed, the unsightly tailings left after gold mining, the increase in soil erosion, and the general loss of wildlife habitats.

The growth and changing distribution of the population have been strongly influenced by the distribution of the most productive soils. In the nineteenth century, when the population was small, the ultimate results of preferential settlement of the best agricultural land were not appreciated. Generally, the most productive areas became the most prosperous when the towns within them grew, and it was at the expense of the most productive soils. Later, manufacturing and tertiary industries tended to be located in these towns because of the labour, markets, and services they offered.

Between 1949 and 1964 urbanisation claimed about 15800 hectares of good farming land, and expansion up to 1984 will require another 30000 hectares of land. Considering that the total area of good farming land includes approximately 8300000 hectares of first-class pastoral land and 500000 hectares of first-class cropping land and that agricultural production derives benefits from urbanisation, this is not considered a serious problem on a national scale. In certain localities, however, unrestricted urban expansion could have serious limiting effects on agricultural production in the future. The problem is most acute around Auckland, the population of which is now over 800000. It is not possible to reverse the historical factors that have determined the present population distribution, but the national policy for the protection of the soils potentially most productive may avoid this in future. In the past, economic growth has been pursued with scant regard for its impact on the environment. Single and immediate use rather than balanced long-term use of resources has been the common practice, and has tended to place the advocates of exploitation and protection in opposing camps.

The problem now is how to combine the economic and social pressures on soil, water, plant, and fauna resources with the maintenance of ecological and aesthetic qualities.

The general purpose of regional or district planning schemes under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 is the wise use and management of the resources, and the direction and control of the development of a region, district, or area for the overall benefit of the whole community.

Emphasis is given to the conservation, protection, and enhancement of the physical, cultural, and social environment, the wise use and management of New Zealand's natural resources, and the preservation of the natural character of the environment.

In New Zealand the provision of extensive national parks and smaller reserves has done much to preserve (at least in selected areas) the characteristic beauty of the landscape, and to make it accessible to the general public for recreation and enjoyment.

Development schemes causing modification of natural features can, in the planning stage, make provision for restraint, restoration, and even the addition of compensating amenities. The rate of development in New Zealand must make this an essential ingredient of planning. But it must be stressed that there will be no more completely unmodified or true wilderness country. Once it is destroyed, wilderness is gone forever. Wilderness is extremely fragile, and soil erosion, degradation of vegetation, and destruction of animal species can come about through any alteration of the environment, even the most innocent access road.

Scientific investigations and research have reinforced the validity of the beliefs based on sentiment and aesthetics that there are dangers in any disturbance of natural equilibrium of air, water, soil, plants, animals, and stabilised land-forms, or in the pollution of any of them. Changes in the balance of dominance of even obscure organisms or a slowly declining water-table can be factors in the deterioration of countryside. It is essential to retain reference areas from which the changes in soils, plants, and animals resulting from man's activities can be assessed. A whole catchment will usually be the desirable minimum effective area.

Conservation, however, means much more than the preservation of scenic and scientific values. It implies the maintenance without diminution of the basic land resources on which New Zealand's economy and way of life are so largely based. Of these resources the most important are soil, water, and vegetation, the last both natural and introduced, and both forests and grasslands. The concept of conserving soil, water, forest, and grassland resources is dynamic rather than static, and embodies the principle of preservation through wise use.

The problems are capable of solution provided there is a sufficient understanding by administrators and by the public of the importance (and often the interdependence) of the different values involved and of the ecological implications of any decision affecting land use. Conflicts between different demands on the countryside are inevitable, but with adequate planning and management they are mostly capable of resolution. For example, an agriculturally productive landscape can provide such rich and satisfying contacts with the diversity of nature that in many ways the man-made landscape based on agriculture or forestry need be little less interesting and satisfying than the wild one. Likewise, soil conservation practices not only restore vitality and health to the soil but also create pleasing patterns in the landscape.

The total area of New Zealand, excluding the Ross Dependency in the Antarctic, but including minor islands, is estimated to be 26906000 hectares.

The broad grouping of land use is shown in the following table.

Land UseHectares (million)
* Includes relatively small areas in cities and boroughs.
Occupied farm land—
    Improved grassland8.95
    Tussock and other native grassland used for grazing4.89
                Total grassland13.84
    Land in (or prepared for) crops, fruit, or nursery gardens0.45
    Plantations of exotic trees0.83
    Other land on farm holdings6.10
                Total occupied farm land21.23
Land in cities and boroughs0.37
National parks, reserves, and domains2.69*
Other land, including waste land, such as mountains, bare rock, water surfaces, roads, etc.2.62
                Total land26.91

Land Use Advisory Council—The Land Use Advisory Council was established in 1972 with the task of developing criteria on which sound land use decisions can be made; and its order of reference requires it to have regard to physical, ecological, economic, social, environmental, and other relevant factors, and to determine means by which these factors may be more precisely defined.

Members of the council represent Maori, departmental, farming, scientific, and geographic interests. As its name implies, the council is an advisory body to Government. In the first instance its findings were intended to guide the use of lands of the Crown but it is probable that the criteria and guidelines formulated will assist all who are required to make land use decisions.

The council has studied urban sprawl and its effect on rural land, the protection of prime agricultural and horticultural land, the availability of basic land resource data for planning purposes, and the measures adopted by the Government for determining the use of its land. The experiences of a number of overseas countries in planning land development, use, and management have been studied. Consideration has been given to the various legitimate uses of the nation's land, including such nonproductive use (in terms of food or goods) as recreation, soil conservation and water management, the preservation of wildlife, and historic and ecological management; and some thought has gone into the means for determining which use shall take priority in the event of there being two strong competing claims.

The council has been involved in sponsoring a series of “educational” meetings aimed not just at policy makers but also at encouraging wider community awareness of the physical, biological, economic, social, and environmental values which influence (or should influence) rural land use decisions. It is expected that the findings from these meetings will assist the Government to formulate a national land use policy and guidelines.

Land Inventory—The Department of Lands and Survey is building up a land inventory. The object of the inventory is to identify land tenure, land use, and land cover; and for other contributing agencies to produce more detailed data relating to other basic issues such as soils and geology as will enable a more realistic appraisal of the resources of an area to be achieved. The existence of these data should enable both local government and the Central Government to plan with greater confidence.

The regular coverage of aerial photography by the Department of Lands and Survey provides a useful monitoring too for changes in land use. New Zealand is also participating in the Earth Resources satellite programme. The 5-yearly 1:100000 urban flying programme will also assist local authorities to keep abreast of development.

FRAMEWORK FOR PLANNING—New Zealand's principal planning legislation, the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, provides a process by which needs, opportunities, and issues relating to land and water use can be identified and appropriate objectives and policies formulated. Measures can then be implemented and embodied in regional, district, and maritime planning schemes.

The purpose of planning is defined in the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 as being “the wise use and management of the resources, and the direction and control of the development of a region, district, or area in such a way as will most effectively promote and safeguard the health, safety, and convenience, and the economic, cultural, social, and general welfare, of the people and the amenities of every part of the region, district, or area”.

Opportunities for public participation in town and country planning were enhanced by the 1977 Act. The third-party rights of objection now include “any body or person representing some relevant aspect of the public interest”.

The revision of the Town and Country Planning Act also provided an opportunity for greater emphasis on environmental matters, and for the implementation of the Government's policy of integrating the procedures laid down in the various “environmental” statutes such as the Reserves Act, the Forests Act, and the Historic Places Act.

Matters to be dealt with in district schemes in particular include (to quote the Schedule to the Act):

“The preservation or conservation of—

  1. Buildings, objects, and areas of architectural, historic, scientific, or other interest or of visual appeal;

  2. Trees, bush, plants, or landscape of scientific, wildlife, or historic interest, or of visual appeal;

  3. The amenities of the district.”

In the administration of district planning schemes, there must be regard to section 3 of the Act which includes specific reference to the protection and enhancement of the environment as a matter of national importance.

In considering appeals against any public work the Planning Tribunal is required to have regard to criteria whether the site is suitable for the proposed work, and the economic, social, and environmental effects of the proposal.

All public bodies, including the Crown, are now required to adhere to the provisions of any approved regional planning scheme. All public works are subject to the procedures laid down in Part VI of the Act, which requires that all Crown proposals which are not in conformity with the provisions of the relevant district scheme are to be advertised and to be subject to rights of objection and appeal. In the case of Crown works, the Minister of Works and Development can (as an alternative to an appeal) request the tribunal to conduct a public inquiry which must take into account the “economic, social, and environmental effects of the proposal and such other matters as the Ministry may determine”

National Planning—In the preparation, implementation, and administration of regional, district, and maritime planning schemes the following matters, which are declared to be of national importance, must be recognised and provided for:

  • the conservation, protection, and enhancement of the physical, cultural, and social environment;

  • the wise use and management of New Zealand's resources;

  • the preservation of the natural character of the coastal environment and the margins of lakes and rivers, and the protection of them from unnecessary subdivision and development;

  • the avoidance of encroachment of urban development on, and the protection of, land having a high actual or potential value for the production of food;

  • the prevention of sporadic subdivision and urban development in rural areas;

  • the avoidance of unnecessary expansion of urban areas into rural areas in or adjoining cities;• the relationship of the Maori people and their culture and traditions with their ancestral land.

The first two and the last two of these considerations were introduced under the 1977 Town and Country Planning Act.

Regional Planning—Regional planning is concerned with establishing policies and programmes at all levels of government which reflect the needs and desires of the people of each region, and which are reconciled with the national interest and competing demands for national resources. Urban centres and rural areas cannot be planned in isolation from each other or from the nation as a whole.

Under the 1977 Town and Country Planning Act regional planning has four main features all of which are new.

  1. Regional planning is the responsibility of united and regional councils.

  2. Regional planning schemes are to be approved by the Government before they come into operation.

  3. Approved regional planning schemes must be adhered to by the Crown and every local and public authority.

  4. District and maritime planning schemes must conform with approved regional planning schemes.

Matters to be dealt with in regional planning schemes have been greatly expanded under the new Act to embrace social, economic, and environmental policies. Reference is made for example to “natural resources and environment—the identification, preservation, and development of the regions' natural resources including water, soil, air and other natural systems, farmlands, forests, fisheries, minerals . . . and areas of value for the enjoyment of nature and the landscape”.

Under the Local Government Act 1974 regional or united councils are being established for all regions of New Zealand, and these will all have regional planning responsibilities and powers given under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977. The combined effect of these Acts is likely to emerge as a major constitutional innovation. The regional planning process offers a means by which local and Central Government, representing the regional communities and the national interest respectively, can reach agreement on development and welfare policies and priorities for the allocation of resources for each region. Agreement can be expressed in the regional planning scheme, and changes of policy can be worked out within the process of changing the scheme.

The new system does not introduce another tier of government, rather it is aimed at giving a regional dimension to Central Government programmes and a common policy base to local government activity.

Regional Planning Process—The key provision of the new legislation will be the requirement that once regional schemes have been agreed to by the Central Government, all public authorities, both central and local, will be required to give effect to their provisions. The significance of this step lies in the practical necessity it creates for local and Central Government agencies to take a constructive part, along with the regional community, in the formulation of the objectives, policies, programmes, and other provisions of each scheme. Responsibility for initiating regional planning action lies with the regional and united councils, which will operate through regional planning committees that include a representative of the Crown.

What the new regional planning legislation aims to provide is a process that allows for the public evaluation of options and alternatives—the determination of objectives and policies, and the adoption of a programme of implementation that is related to community priorities and the resources available.

National policies, or changes in policy, on such matters as energy development, transportation, afforestation, or housing finance can have marked regional implications and significantly affect regional prosperity and well being. It is important therefore that expressed regional preferences and priorities are considered as an integral part of national policy formulation, and that the regional consequences of national policies are understood before they are adopted. Two-way communication between the Central Government and the regions must be a vital element in any new process. The new regional bodies and the regional planning system provide the opportunity for this, and for expressing agreed measures in regional planning schemes.

District Planning—Every district scheme under the Act is required to have as its general purpose the wise use and management of the resources of the district, and the direction and control of its development, in such a way as will most effectively promote and safeguard the economic, cultural, social, and general welfare of the people and the preservation of the amenities of the district. It must also recognise and provide for matters of national importance defined in the Act. Every city, borough, and county council or other authority responsible for the general administration of a district must provide and maintain a district scheme unless exempted by the Minister of Works and Development. Any such exemptions are likely to apply only to districts of small population where little change is expected. Almost the whole country, in terms of population or area, is covered by district schemes prepared under the previous Act of 1953, although not all such schemes have passed through all the legal stages necessary to be made operative.

Councils are now beginning to recognise the potential of the district planning scheme as an effective instrument for bringing about innovative change not only in land use control but also in environmental management and local administration in general. The key to this is the greater emphasis being placed on the scheme statement as a means of expressing policies which have been subjected to the formal approval procedures, including objection and appeal, that the Planning Act provides. A renewed concern for a more humane basis to planning has focussed on the destruction of areas of natural beauty near urban areas, the loss of historic areas of cities, and the destruction of neighbourhood communities as past errors which must not be repeated. With this in mind, a number of councils have recently made provision for Special Character Zones. These are zones which have a special character derived from the age, condition, or character of the buildings or general layout. In these zones the aim is to preserve the special character (using controls where necessary) by encouraging new buildings designed in sympathy with the existing environment, and by more liberal approaches to the rehabilitation and use of existing properties. Currently there are also moves towards allowing far greater social and economic diversity in rural areas.

The need to plan for areas below mean high water mark, which are subject to increasing pressures from various demands, led to the introduction of maritime planning under Part V of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977.

The provisions provide a statutory procedure to establish maritime planning areas on the joint recommendation of the Minister of Works and Development and the Minister of Transport; and to appoint maritime planning authorities.

Three maritime planning areas have been established covering the Waitemata, Manukau, and Wellington Harbours.

In each case the respective harbour board has been appointed the maritime planning authority.

In addition, under Part 1 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, the Minister of Works and Development may extend regional boundaries to include adjacent water areas and this provides for the planning of land and water to be brought together under the same administration.

If the maritime planning area is within harbour limits, the appropriate harbour board becomes the authority, unless it declines the appointment.

The authority is required to set up a maritime planning committee with representation on it from the regional or united council, the regional water board, territorial local authorities, and the Central Government. Maritime planning schemes are not expected to cover the whole of the coast, but only those areas where there are problems of conservation and management or conflict between the use of the water and adjacent land areas. This will have the effect of requiring all public bodies involved in managing these areas to adhere to the regional planning scheme.

In addition, under Part I of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, the Minister of Works and Development may extend regional boundaries to include adjacent water areas and this provides for the planning of land and water to be brought together under the same administration.

The Auckland Regional Authority and the Marlborough United Council have had their regional boundaries extended to include harbours and coastal waters. It is anticipated that other regional or united councils will apply for similar extensions.

National Development Act 1979—The National Development Act provides for “the prompt consideration of proposed works of national importance by the direct referral of the proposals to the Planning Tribunal for an inquiry and report and by providing for such works to receive the necessary consents” (preamble to Act).

Under the Act, application can be made to the Minister of National Development for the status of national importance to be applied to a proposed work. The procedures which follow are intitiated by Order in Council which may be issued by the Governor-General if he considers that the work is major and likely to be in the national interest, and that it is essential that a decision be made promptly as to whether or not the consents sought should be granted. The Governor-General must also be satisfied that the work is essential to the development of New Zealand's resources, or self-sufficiency in energy, or expansion of exports, or import substitution, or to the development of significant employment opportunities.

Following the Order in Council the application is referred to the Planning Tribunal. Details of the proposal are sent to all authorities who might normally grant approvals under the terms of 22 statutes listed in the schedule to the Act, notably the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 and the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967. These authorities send a report to the Planning Tribunal. At the same time an environmental impact report, prepared by the applicant, is submitted to the Commissioner for the Environment who calls for public comments. The report is audited by the commissioner and the audit is made available to the public.

The Planning Tribunal then considers, at a public inquiry, the matters concerning consents being sought by the applicant. The Minister of Works and Development, the local authority, the Commissioner for the Environment, and any body or person affected by the work or representing some relevant aspect of the public interest have a right to be present and heard at the inquiry, as of course does the applicant himself. Every statutory authority which would otherwise grant consents (and had earlier reported to the tribunal) must be represented and available for cross examination at the inquiry.

Following the inquiry, the tribunal reports and makes recommendations to the Minister of National Development. The report is made available to the public. After taking into account the tribunal's report and recommendations and the criteria to which a work of national importance must conform, the Governor-General by Order in Council may then declare the work to be of national importance, granting the consents sought in the application, with such modifications, conditions, restrictions, or prohibitions as he thinks appropriate. The effect of the Order in. Council is therefore to apply consents to the construction and operation of a particular work as if the consent had been granted under the provisions of the various Acts which would have applied.

The Act includes provisions and procedures for the variation or cancellation of such conditions as might be specified in the Order in Council. Any legal proceedings arising from any consents relating to work approved under the Act are subject to priority proceedings in the courts.

The Act is administered by the Ministry of Works and Development.

RECREATIONAL LAND—Existing national parks and reserves are, for the most part, close to the centres of greatest and most rapidly growing population. Until recently little was done to secure in public ownership those areas where most New Zealanders take their holidays—by the water. Along the north and north-east coasts, where the climate is best and the population densest, many of the most desirable areas of coastline have already been subdivided, notably on the North Auckland, Bay of Plenty, and Coromandel coasts. Besides limiting public access, this can destroy scenic values. Similar considerations apply in respect of lakes, rocks, and offshore islands. In recent years the Crown has purchased a number of islands or parts of islands for reserve purposes. Some of these are grouped in the Hauraki Gulf and Marlborough Sounds Maritime Parks. Moves are being made to control subdivision in coastal and lakeshore areas.

Access along rivers 3 metres wide, lakes in excess of 8 hectares, and foreshores has usually been provided: on all alienations of Crown land since 1886, on private subdivision for towns near rivers or the sea coast since 1923, and on partitions of Maori land in counties sines 1967.

The Land Act has provided since 1948 that around every lake with an area of 8 hectares or more there shall be laid off a strip not less than 1 chain in width.

New Zealand has some 24 percent of its land under forest. It is important that a forest cover should be maintained wherever it constitutes the most desirable form of land use. Forests meet a wide range of basic human needs—social, recreational, and spiritual, as well as economic.

New Zealand is fortunate in that a large area of native forests was set aside in the early days in reserves of various types (State forests, climatic reserves, scenery preservation reserves, reserves for the preservation of flora and fauna, and reserves for the growth and preservation of timber). As a result New Zealand is well endowed with forested wilderness and with other native forests having scenic, recreational, and wildlife values. Per head of population, New Zealand probably has a larger area of forests of this type than any other developed country. Early land administrators laid the basis for a national park, a forest park, and a protection forestry system which is widely envied.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for leisure pursuits in surroundings of great natural beauty—for the study of wildlife (plant and animal); for walking and tramping; and for shooting and fishing. Most of the attractive forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation; recreational use can be allowed in almost all such protection forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting can be of benefit through its contribution in destroying wild animal pests. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes the improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining shelter huts, assets also of use to Forest Service personnel. Entry is unrestricted except that, in the interests of safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

In order to avoid the mistakes inherent in haphazard development, the National Parks Authority has for some years been encouraging national park boards to prepare management plans for their respective parks. These plans establish concepts and guidelines for the preservation and use of national parks, and afford the means by which park use and management can be reconciled with the preservation in perpetuity of the park's scenic beauty, and natural and historic features.

The older exotic forests also offer the attractions that only a sylvan setting can provide and have the advantage of accessibility. In many places, walks and picnic spot.; have been prepared for use by the public, and selected areas will be preserved from felling for their scenic value.

A related topic is the protection and conservation of bush and trees within urban areas. Not only do trees and areas of bush provide beauty and additional amenities in urban surroundings, but they provide habitats for birds and other wildlife, encourage the cycling of water and nutrients, and assist with erosion control. Local authorities have the power to require that, when land is subdivided, trees and bush areas shall be preserved.

ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES

In addition to the Government departments with responsibilities for administering the diversity of legislation for the protection of the physical environment, there are several authorities with responsibilities for the physical and social environment. Some of the more prominent of these are discussed below.

COMMISSION FOR THE ENVIRONMENT—The ministerial portfolio for the environment and the Commission for the Environment were established in 1972. The Minister's responsibility is to ensure that the Government has before it the best information available on the environmental aspects of projects and policies under consideration and on the possible effects of current trends on the future environmental well-being of the country.

The commission functions as a small investigatory and advisory agency without executive or management responsibility. It undertakes studies for the Minister and investigates and makes recommendations on the environmental implications of proposed Government projects. It often has an initiating and co-ordinating role on environmental issues which are assuming new importance in a changing society, or for which responsibility is shared by several management agencies. The commission's overall role is to assist in the development of policies designed to promote sound physical and social environmental management.

A major responsibility of the commission is to audit environmental impact reports. These are written appraisals of the environmental consequences expected from new developments or policies. The Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures which have been in force since 1 March 1974 require environmental impact reports for all major projects of the Central Government and for all other projects that need Government approvals or funds. Power development, the petro-chemical industry, and the creation of a marine reserve have been among the projects recently reported on. More than 70 such reports have been subject to commission audit since the procedures came into being.

The procedures which the commission administers provide for the critical examination of environmental effects expected from the projects or alternatives to them and include provision for public submissions to the commission, which produces a written audit of the environmental impact report and the project. The audit is sent to the authority promoting the project and is published before a decision is taken on the proposal.

The National Development Act 1979 requires an environmental impact report to be prepared on all Government and private projects which follow the approval procedures of that Act. Under the Act, the Commissioner for the Environment is required to audit such reports and is given independent standing to appear in subsequent hearings.

Aside from its role under these procedures, in which it is largely reacting to the proposals of others, the commission also initiates studies aimed at drawing attention to important environmental questions facing the country. The possible environmental effects of the use of new technologies and toxic chemicals, the protection of sections of wild water in the river systems of the country, community noise, milk and beverage packaging, and product charges on packaged goods, are some examples of studies initiated by the commission. Other initiatives are taken in organising discussion groups and seminars on a wide range of issues that often involve bringing together representatives from Government departments, agencies, industry, and environment groups. In addition to these activities, which are part of an active approach to environmental education at all levels, the commission also has a commitment to the development and production of education resource material for school and community use.

The Commission for the Environment also services the independent guardian groups established to advise the Government on the ways in which areas of important environmental interest should be safeguarded. Three such groups have been appointed—the Guardians of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, the Guardians of the Rotorua Lakes, and the Guardians of Lake Wanaka.

The commission's staff covers a wide range of environmental disciplines but an important feature of its operations is collaboration with other agencies with the expertise required for the evaluation of particular aspects of projects under study.

ENVIRONMENTAL COUNCIL—The Environmental Council was established in 1970 following the Physical Environment Conference held in May of that year. It reports to the Government through the Minister for the Environment.

The constitution of the council provides for 16 members, including the chairman who is not a serving Government official. Five Government departments are represented—Treasury, Health, New Zealand Forest Service, Works and Development, and Lands and Survey. Three positions are drawn from those with experience in municipal and county local government, and regional planning; the remaining positions are filled by private citizens with knowledge and experience in environmental matters or appropriate qualifications.

The council has no executive powers. Its terms of reference are:

  1. To advise the Minister for the Environment on such matters as he may refer to it and on such matters as the council may raise itself on the state and trend of the environment and on measures to be taken to manage it.

  2. To publish from time to time such information upon environmental problems as the council considers necessary to serve the public interest.

  3. To co-operate with other sector councils in matters of mutual interest; in particular, to provide the Planning Council with information, forecasts, and data arising from the above, and requested by the council to enable it to carry out its functions.

The main role of the council is to advise on general matters of policy and principle rather than to examine the environmental consequences of specific projects. It has, however, alluded to specific developments to illustrate its concerns. Examples of the policy issues in which the council has been involved are the need for national policies on the subdivision of coastal land, the use and management of coastal waters and the seabed, and the use and preservation of wetlands.

A special article by the chairman of the Environmental Council entitled The New Zealand environment and changes in environmental management since 1970 will be found near the back of this Yearbook.

NATURE CONSERVATION COUNCIL—The Nature Conservation Council was set up by statute in 1962. It can enquire into the effects of any proposed public or private works in areas of scenic, scientific, or recreational interest, and it makes recommendations to the Government through the Minister of Lands. The council's concerns include electric power schemes, location of power and telephone lines,roading, harbour reclamations, native forests, mining applications, air and water pollution, recommendations for reserves, and aspects of town and country planning. Although it has access to Government information, it speaks with an independent voice, and is able to make public any of its reports or recommendations.

The council frequently advises non-Government conservation groups and co-ordinates their views. It also keeps the general public informed through its environmental publications, and through its sponsorship of the National Conservation Week each year.

CONTROL OF MINERAL EXPLOITATION—Mining has in the past left small areas of the landscape so scarred that their visual impact today suggests that mining in general produces only perpetual devastation. In fact most areas where mining has ceased need show no sign that they were ever mined.

To ensure that the land is maintained in a suitable condition, the Minister of Energy is empowered under the Mining Act 1971 to impose whatever conditions he thinks fit on a mining licence, and he may impose or vary these conditions at any time, even after the grant of the licence. Over public reserves and foreshore a condition may be attached in exchanging a prospecting licence for a mining licence that the licensee should provide a contribution towards a community asset.

Problems can occur where mineral exploitation takes place on freehold land. Local authorities have the necessary power to make regulations to control these activities, and they may use this power to maintain the long-term quality of the environment.

RE-AFFORESTATION MEASURES—In recent years Government-sponsored loans and grants have encouraged afforestation on private land, which has assisted in restoring the balance of forests on induced grasslands. In addition the Forest Service has embarked on a programme of revegetating eroded upland areas in important river catchments and also establishing dual-purpose forests where production of wood may be complementary to the protective nature of forests, for example, in East Cape - Poverty Bay where over 100000 hectares will be planted over the next 40 years.

The New Zealand Forest Service prepares regional development plans for major timber supply regions throughout New Zealand, covering both State and private forestry. These plans set out the potential of the regions. For those forests under State control the Forest Service prepares regional management plans which describe and prescribe State forest activities in both indigenous and exotic production forests as well as protection forests in the mountains.

SCIENTIFIC STUDY—About one-fifth of the staff of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is engaged on research on physical environment matters including ecological studies of national parks, investigations into beech forest ecosystems, and identification of marine animals and plankton. The department has undertaken bathymetric studies of lakes and the ocean floor around New Zealand. Basic geological, soil, and botanic surveys provide information for the land use surveys which guide urban development. Further information is given in the Science and Scientific Services Section of this Yearbook.

The National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO) has statutory responsibility for integrating research and survey activities in the field of water and soil conservation. The work is carried out by the Water and Soil Division of Ministry of Works and Development (MWD) and catchment authorities throughout New Zealand.

Three MWD science centres at Aokautere, Christchurch, and Hamilton carry out investigations in land resources, physical water resources, and water quality respectively.

The NWASCO land resource inventory, published as 1 inch to the mile worksheets and available as computer-stored data, is a major milestone in assisting land development planning providing, as it does, the first such inventory with truly national coverage.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION BY INDUSTRY—Statistics of expenditure on environmental protection have been obtained in the integrated economic census of manufacturing and are shown in the following table for 1976–77. The expenditure shown is that incurred directly on processes or operations which are for the benefit or protection of the general public, such as the disposal, eradication, or cleansing of effluents, wastes, poisons, vapours, or similar obnoxious matter; protection from radiation;land stabilisation or beautification; the replacement of overburden; and similar work designed to protect or restore the environment. The total relates only to manufacturing establishments employing 10 or more persons engaged full time, and excludes ancillary units servicing more than one manufacturing industry.

New Zealand Standard Industrial ClassificationExpenditure on Environmental ProtectionPercentage Environmental Expenditure of Value Added
 $(000)percent  
Major Division 3—Manufacturing (total manufacturing industries, excluding single-establishment enterprises employing less than 10 people, and ancillary units servicing more than one manufacturing industry)6,4350.22

WATER RESOURCES AND MANAGEMENT—Latest estimates put New Zealand's consumption of water at 1440 million cubic metres per year, of which agriculture uses 60 percent. The remaining 40 percent is split nearly equally between industrial and domestic use.

Approximately 96 percent of the population are supplied by public water supply systems and 4 percent rely on an independent domestic supply (rainwater collecting, aquifer bores, etc). Industry obtains about 33 percent of its requirements from public supply systems and 66 percent from its own independent sources.

With such a large consumptive use of water the protection of waters is nationally important. It is achieved largely through the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967, with protection of soils against flooding provided by the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941. These acts are administered by a central policy-making organisation, the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO), and a complementary regional organisation.

The National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO) consists of the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority, the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, and the Water Resources Council. Representation on the national authority and the 2 councils includes counties, municipalities, catchment authorities, and regional water boards; farming, manufacturing, and recreational interests; and appropriate departments of Government. Some 20 regional bodies known as catchment authorities administer the 1941 Act and, as regional water boards, administer the 1967 Act.

There are two principal means of managing water resources to protect them—the water and soil resource management plan, and the water management (allocation) plan. Although not statutory documents, these are accepted publications giving the public the opportunity to make comment and present submissions on their expectations of the use of natural water.

A water and soil resource management plan is prepared by a regional water board as a general statement of its policies for all soil conservation and water management matters. In this plan the prime objectives for the use of water are stated.

A water management plan is the next stage on in planning. In this plan, the board indicates how it wants to apportion water to different uses and what quality and quantity will be maintained in the water body. After opportunity for public comment the plan serves as a guide to the regional water board when issuing new water rights, or when varying existing rights, and serves as a guide to intending users of the water as to restrictions that may be applied. It is implemented through water classification and the setting of minimum and maximum flows to which statutory recognition can be given when required, and through the water right process.

Both plans are reviewed periodically.

To carry into effect the planning policies the regional water board has 3 procedures available:

  1. The classification of a body of water into water quality classes, which represents a minimum water quality standard, below which the quality must not fall.

  2. A second and possibly complementary method is by the authority fixing the maximum and minimum acceptable flow, or levels or range of flows, of any body of natural water following consultation with interested parties.

  3. The water right process provides a statutory public forum (with appeal rights) where a particular application can be discussed in the light of all known and potential competing users. Water rights are also subject to appropriate conditions imposed by a regional water board, which amongst other things, protect other users.

Town and Country Planning Act 1977—The imposition of man-made boundaries on the natural environment does not recognise the interrelation between different parts of the environment. However, the interaction, between land-uses and water-uses is an essential element in planning for the water's physical state and uses.

All planning schemes are to have regard to the principles and objectives of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941 and the Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967. This applies to wherever land and water meet. The administration unit to overcome this artificial division is the regional authority.

The significance of these general principles is that statutory recognition is now given on how our resources should be used. Water is an important resource and planning authorities should be able to control the manner and way this resource is used, if necessary the prohibition of its use, and the introduction of measures to protect it. Sound technical advice is also necessary if these resources are to be used wisely.

Irrigation—Most New Zealand soils have a seasonal moisture deficiency and would benefit from irrigation to reach their maximum productivity. Many soils presently farmed under dry land conditions are capable of substantially increased production under irrigation.

Throughout the country there are presently 8 major irrigation schemes at various stages of construction. The Lower Waitaki scheme to serve 14500 ha and the Morven-Glenavy scheme to serve 12100 ha are now almost complete. The Waiau Plains scheme (Canterbury, 17000 ha) is now well into construction with the first farms due to receive water in 1980. The Maniototo scheme (Otago, 9300 ha) is also proceeding well, with design work continuing for the inclusion of a hydro-electricity scheme in shared headworks with the irrigation scheme. The Loburn trickle irrigation scheme (Canterbury) has now been opened and serves an area of horticultural crops.

Schemes recently approved by the Government include the Glenmark scheme in North Canterbury (involving water harvesting in many small dams) and the Kerikeri trickle irrigation scheme in Northland. Communal irrigation schemes are financed and constructed by the Government. In an increasing number of cases the operation of the schemes is being taken over by local authorities.

Charges for water are fixed so that over a period of 40 years the revenue should meet the costs of operation and maintenance and the periodic renewal of items of capital works, together with the recovery of an agreed portion of the scheme's capital cost.

In addition to these large Government-supported schemes, irrigation is used on single farms or orchards in many parts of New Zealand. Water is generally drawn from underground sources, or pumped from rivers and drains and applied by a variety of spray, trickle, and flooding techniques.

The Ministry of Works and Development (MWD) is continuing its activities for the investigation, design, and construction of new irrigation schemes, including the co-ordination of other Government and local agencies. To qualify as an approved scheme an irrigation proposal must, in general, include a minimum of 4 farm businesses and also meet agreed engineering, economic, and water management standards.

Approved irrigation schemes are financed on a basis of the Government's providing the full capital cost of all off-farm works and approved fixed on-farm works, and half of the cost of off-farm distribution works within the irrigable area to be recovered. The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation takes security for the full capital cost of approved fixed on-farm works. One half of the cost is recovered by way of mortgage and half is treated as a suspensory loan. The loan is written off at the expiration of 10 years. Approved irrigation development not qualifying as a scheme may qualify for Rural Banking and Finance Corporation loans of 100 percent with interest and capital repayments deferred, if necessary.

Local irrigation committees involving landholders have been set up to reappraise existing schemes and, through the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO), advise the Minister of Works and Development on their upgrading, operation, and maintenance. There are also committees of officials for each of 7 MWD districts, convened and chaired by the district commissioner of works and including representatives of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation, and regional water boards. These committees are charged with the technical evaluation of irrigation proposals, and recommendations on the worth of proposals are made to the Government through NWASCO.

SOIL CONSERVATION—The changes in vegetation consequent on land development have been reflected in disturbed soil conditions in many parts of New Zealand. The protective, stabilising, and water-controlling combination of vigorous native vegetation litter, and spongy soil has given way to a shallow-rooted, less protective carpet of grass on a compacted, impervious, and often exhausted soil. Soil erosion now occurs on more than 8 million hectares of hill country and mountain land, about one-third of the total area of New Zealand.

Successful techniques that have been developed to control erosion include spelling, control of burning and animal pests, oversowing, topdressing, strict grazing control, soil conservation, fencing, stock-water ponds, gully control, contour ploughing, terraces, grassed waterways, and open and close tree planting. Cost-sharing rates are available to farmers carrying out these control practices.

Land resource surveys (inventory and capability) are used extensively in New Zealand. The technique involves making an inventory of the physical factors of rock type, soil, slope erosion degree and type, and vegetation, and the assessment of the potential of the land for safe sustained use.

The National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NTWASCO) has recently completed coverage of New Zealand on a scale of 1: 63360. This national land resource survey divides the country into approximately 80000 land management units. The national coverage, coupled with its computer storage of both boundaries and codes, is a very effective and flexible physical base for soil conservation and general land use at regional through to local levels.

Similarly, such information is also compiled at more detailed scales by catchment authorities for small catchments and individual farm properties, allowing soil conservators to recommend the best treatment (conservation practices) and management of particular areas of land so as to ensure sustained permanent production from any one area. A plan is formulated by a soil conservator and then discussed with the landowner concerned. The plan may then be adjusted to suit the landowner's ability to carry it out over several years.

Soil conservation and water management activities are now entering a new phase with involvement in planning. Catchment authorities make submissions to local councils, providing land and water resource information and soil conservation and water management objectives and policies, so that physical risks to development can be considered when social and economic factors are evaluated at the planning stage. Consideration of physical risks to development is required under the Town and Country Planning Act. This will help prevent some of the costly mistakes made in the past, for example, the location of buildings in flood-prone or landslip-prone areas.

Two new areas of involvement are in identifying physical suitability for urban development, and in the calculation and identification of areas susceptible to coastal erosion.

The activities of the catchment authorities are complementary to the planning activities of local councils. Catchment authorities are concerned with the management of soil and water resources, while the councils are concerned with changes in land use and with planning for the physical, social, and economic environment.

Coastal Erosion—The coastlines of New Zealand total about 15000 km in length, of which 80 percent is exposed to the open sea. The remainder is sheltered. For the exposed part, about 56 percent is static, 25 percent is eroding, and 19 percent is accreting. History has shown that even the accreting section of coastline may revert to erosion, so that, in total, almost half of New Zealand's coastline has a high susceptibility to erosion.

Coastal erosion has proved expensive in the past. Between 1953 and 1979 the total cost of coastal protection works within the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation's policy was $4.8 million (present day costs).

Severe storms during July 1978 caused much erosion along the coasts of both islands. Areas known to have suffered damage were Omaha in Rodney County, where the timber protection wall was completely demolished; Raumati, near Wellington, where sections of the newly-constructed wall failed; and Ohiwa Spit in the Bay of Plenty.

Coastal protection was required to protect badly-planned subdivisions. Most, if not all, of the threatened subdivisions could have been developed further inland from the beach.

The planning section of the Planning and Technical Services Group, Water and Soil Division, Ministry of Works and Development, is providing a coastal planning service through MWD works districts. Based on geological data, coastal protection strips delineating land highly susceptible to erosion processes are being identified to assist planners.

POLLUTION—Public concern for the environment has led to an increased awareness of pollution problems. Organisations have responded by involving the public in the decision-making processes and by amending legislation to provide the appropriate controls.

At present, different parts of the physical environment are protected by different organisations, with co-ordination provided by the Commission for the Environment. The problems of water pollution are being controlled by the Water Resources Council and the regional water boards; those of air pollution by the Department of Health under the provisions of the Clean Air Act 1972; and many local authorities have introduced bylaws to control noise problems in their areas.

Within the territorial sea and harbours, the Marine Pollution Act 1974 controls the discharge or dumping of oil or any other substance declared a pollutant. New Zealand also has a contingency plan for dealing with oil pollution in coastal waters and on the shore.

Pollution of our rivers and lakes can be caused by soil erosion, farm run-off, industrial waste, or domestic sewage. The Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967 provides for the control of waste discharges through water rights. These will have certain conditions put on them to ensure that the discharge has had adequate treatment sufficient to protect the receiving waters.

Diffuse forms of pollution, like soil erosion, require different approaches, such as through changing land use practices.

Sewage and farm run-off add nutrients to the water which in some lakes (e.g., Lakes Rotorua and Horowhenua) has caused excessive growth of weeds and algal blooms, to the detriment of water quality.

Waste disposal from cities and the forestry and meat industries are the major contributors to pollution of the land. Urban solid-waste disposal is largely by the land-fill technique, and most major cities are establishing tip sites planned to last up to 50 or 100 years. Until recently large amounts of wood were left in the forest during logging or dumped near sawmills. Now, much of this waste wood is chipped for use in pulp mills, either within the country or overseas.

Organic chemical pesticides and herbicides are widely accepted as essential for efficient agriculture and horticulture. The use of such chemicals is controlled by the Agricultural Chemicals Board under the auspices of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The board controls the import of chemicals and has an approved list of proprietary herbicides and pesticides for use in different situations such as in or near water, and also gives guidance on the application of those chemicals.

Several divisions of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research are concerned with monitoring pollution. The Chemistry Division conducts surveys of mercury contamination of fish and water, arising from geothermal outflows. Nitrate concentration in ground waters, and insecticides in water are measured, and checks are kept on heavy metals in foods. The Oceanographic Institute traces the biological effects of heated water discharges from thermal power stations. The Physics and Engineering Laboratory participates in the Earth's Resources Technology Satellite programme. The department also assists such organisations as the Dairy Research Institute, the Meat Industry Research Institute, the Wool Research Organisation, and the Leather and Shoe Research Association, which are industrial research groups all supporting projects to reduce pollution and increase the use of by-products from their industrial processes which have in the past been wasted.

New Zealand's geographical shape and location is favourable to the dispersal of air pollutants. Some areas, such as Christchurch, suffer from air pollution problems. The Clean Air Act 1972, the first part of which came into effect on 1 April 1973, established the principle of air pollution control on industry by the best practicable means. Provision was also made for the establishment of smokeless zones. The first clean air zone under the Act has been established in Christchurch.

The Clean Air Council was established under the Clean Air Act 1972 to advise the Minister of Health on all aspects of air pollution. It advises local authorities on their work under the Act and co-ordinates the work of control authorities and voluntary organisations. It publishes reports from time to time, and is undertaking research work through four committees studying respectively clean air zones and domestic heating, motor vehicles and air pollution, rural pollution, and planning co-ordination.

MARGINAL LANDS LENDING—The purpose of the Marginal Lands Act 1950 is to assist farmers to restore, maintain, and increase production on properties that are not economic but are potentially so. The Marginal Lands Board fulfils its role as a last resort lender by providing finance where it is not available through normal private lending institutions. The board finances development work, purchase of livestock and chattels, purchase of additional land for amalgamation to make farms economic units, and refinancing of existing securities where the need is most critical. Also, arising from an amendment to the Act in 1977, the board is now empowered to lend to landless farmers for the purchase of uneconomic (“stepping stone”) farms to enable young men to be established on their first unit. This can either be built up to an economic level with outside income from related farm work and board assistance, or sold when developed to provide a deposit for an economic property.

The board comprises the Minister of Lands (chairman), the Director-General of Lands (deputy chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, and 4 private persons with a farming background appointed by the Minister.

To assist the board in undertaking its activities, local committees have been established in each land district consisting of a representative of the Department of Lands and Survey (chairman), the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, and a private farmer selected and appointed for each district by the board.

The pattern of the board's lending over the past 3 years is illustrated by the figures in the table below:

Purpose of LoansYear Ended 31 March
197719781979
* Includes purchase of uneconomic land (“stepping stone” units).
  $(thousand) 
Development (including stock, plant, and seasonal)9911,0841,352
Purchase of additional land1,4271,6672,334*
Refinance305316875
                Total2,7233,0674,561

In total, to 31 March 1979, the board has assisted 1948 farmers to the extent of $51.2 million.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on the relationship of the environment and economic growth will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Lands and Survey (Parl. paper C. 1).

Report of the Commission for the Environment (Parl paper C. 7).

Report of the Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust (Parl. paper C. 2).

Report of the Director-General of Forests (Parl. paper C. 3).

Report of the Nature Conservation Council (Parl. paper C. 4).

Report of the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority (Parl. paper D. 2).

Ministry of Works and Development (Parl. paper D. 1).

Proceedings of Soil and Plant Water Symposium 1976—DSIR (1977).

Land Application of Treated Sewage Effluent—DSIR (1976).

Research into Aquatic Weeds in New Zealand Waterways—DSIR (1976).

Slope Stability in Urban Development—DSIR (1977).

Eutrophication of Lake Rotorua—DSIR (1977).

The Physical Environment Conference 1970: Reports, Papers and Proceedings.

See also the special article The New Zealand environment and changes in environmental management since 1970 in the present Yearbook.

10 B—PUBLIC LANDS

CROWN LAND—There are 5.7 million hectares of Crown land which are held under lease or licence by individuals for farming or other purposes. Land permanently set aside for national parks and public reserves comprises 2.69 million hectares. The Department of Lands and Survey is also developing 0.67 million hectares of land of which 0.44 million hectares is intended for subdivision and settlement as individual farms.

Administration—Crown land is administered under the authority of the Land Act 1948. The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands. New Zealand is divided into 12 land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands.

The central authority under the Land Act is the Land Settlement Board consisting of the Minister of Lands (chairman), the Director-General of Lands (deputy chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Valuer-General, a representative of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation, the Deputy Director-General of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, and not more than 4 other persons appointed by the Minister.

The Land Settlement Board is required to appoint one or more land settlement committees for each land district, and 20 of these committees have been set up. Each committee consists of 3 members with the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as chairman and 2 private farmer members.

The Land Settlement Board, through the Department of Lands and Survey, disposes of Crown land for farming, residential, commercial, and industrial purposes. The demand for this land, particularly farm land, is considerable.

DISPOSAL OF CROWN LAND—Crown land is normally offered to the public at valuation and the successful applicant decided by ballot, although in exceptional circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Any land may, however, be offered for disposal by tender at an undisclosed minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an upset price.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:

  1. Farm land, urban land, commercial, or industrial land—(a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) on deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee simple. Annual rent is reviewed at 11-yearly intervals.

  2. Pastoral land—(a) On pastoral lease for term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding 21 years, with no right of renewal or of acquiring the fee simple.

  3. Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding 5 years.

Selections—The following table shows details of selections during the year 1978–79.

TenureNumber of SelectionsTotal Area SelectedPurchase Price or Annual Charges
  hectares$(000)
Freehold29115371,325
Renewable leases679895113
Pastoral leases and licences---
Deferred-payment licences84121218
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)37119918
Licences to occupy5884374188
Leases of endowment and other lands9166613
                  Total 1978–79115818,8831,842
                  Total 1977–7898651,4721,663

Leases and Licences—The following table shows the total number of leases and licences current as at 31 March 1979.

TenureLeases and LicencesAreaAnnual RentAnnual Instalments*
* Including improvement loading.
 No.hectares (000)$ (000)$ (000)
Renewable leases68217081,23827
Leases in perpetuity6106576375-
Pastoral leases and licences51229611953
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)7239031911
Deferred-payment licences12,0521117117,417
Misc. leases and licences2006407314
Licences to occupy4383145522-
Leases of endowment and other lands12561392447
                  Total 1978–7933,85857762,9777,479
                  Total 1977–7834,73357082,8446,580

Freeholdings—The following table shows the number of leases and licences freeholded, either for cash or on deferred payments, during the year ended 31 March 1979.

Method of PaymentCrown LandsEndowment and Other LandsAreaPurchase Price
 No.No.hectares$(000)
Cash29023697315
Deferred payments396280,5677,779
                Total 1978–79686484,2648,094
                Total 1977–78708797,98610,593

Further details on leases and licences may be obtained from the annual report of the Department of Lands and Survey, Parliamentary paper C.1.

LAND DEVELOPMENT AND SETTLEMENT—The Land Settlement Board was constituted in 1948 and is responsible for the administration of land policy and the development and settlement of Crown land through the Department of Lands and Survey. The development of land in preparation for ultimate subdivision and settlement of farm units involves clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, the erection of essential improvements, and the installation of water supplies under a development programme undertaken annually. As at 31 March 1979 some 448217 hectares were under development by the Department of Lands and Survey. It is expected to yield an estimated 1043 farms for settlement by landless farmers before the turn of the century. The major development districts as at 31 March 1979 were Southland with 136034 hectares; Rotorua-Taupo district, 60934 hectares; North Auckland, 64940 hectares; Te Kuiti, 49471 hectares; and Otago, 29494 hectares.

Despite the state of the economy and the need to reduce expenditure, the Government has maintained a settlement programme over recent years and consequently there is a growing shortage of undeveloped Crown land available to enable the department's operations to be maintained. Where possible the department is purchasing suitable private land for medium- or long-term development in conjunction with adjoining Crown land. With the acceleration of the rate of settlement, the Government has recognised the need to maintain the pool of settlement land. This has resulted in funds being made available for the purchase of sheep and cattle properties capable of being converted to dairying and fully settled within a period of two years.

From the inception of the settlement programme in 1941 to 31 March 1979 a total of 4445 ex-servicemen and civilian settlers have been settled on farms of their own. The aggregate area of the farms has totalled 731397 hectares.

The Department of Lands and Survey is continuing to pursue its policy of heavy culling of stock to improve stock quality and breeding programmes aimed at the establishment of flocks and herds of top class with stock of proven genetic background. The main concentration on breeding is at Waihora Farm Settlement near Rotorua where results to date have been impressive. High fertility rams are still being made available for use in the department's development programmes in other districts and, for the first time, during 1978–79 a limited number were sold to the public. This large scale programme is the biggest of its kind in New Zealand and the department's involvement in this field is of interest to the farming industry generally both in this country and overseas.

The Department of Lands and Survey in association with the New Zealand Forest Service has established joint farm forestry ventures in North Auckland, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury and Otago. This is a relatively new concept in New Zealand, involving the grazing of stock among widely spaced trees. Indications are that it could be a profitable one.

Over recent years the Department of Lands and Survey has been continuing to diversify its farming operations. The fields in which it is currently involved include Angora goat farming, deer farming, exotic sheep and cattle breeding, citrus fruit growing, grape growing, raising olive trees, and similar operations.

NATIONAL PARKS AND RESERVES: History—From the founding of the colony, land has been the raw material used in the creation of a basic economic and social structure which forms part of our way of life. Royal Instructions issued to New Zealand's first governor—Captain William Hobson—who reached this country in 1840, included the concept of reserving land for public use and enjoyment. Under various pieces of general and special legislation a progressive policy of preserving and maintaining open natural and recreational areas for the people has been a facet in the land use policy and administration of the Central Government. Natural areas retained at a time when much of the country was relatively unmodified are still available today in the form of national parks, and scenic and allied types of reserves.

National Parks—The national park system in New Zealand had its origin in 1887 when Te Heuheu Tukino and other Maori chiefs gifted to the Crown the summits of their sacred mountains of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The gifted area provided the nucleus of our first national park—Tongariro—which was formally constituted by Act of Parliament in 1894. Special legislation in 1900 established Egmont as our second national park, while Fiordland had its beginning in 1905 with the reservation of over 800000 hectares as a public reserve for “a national park”.

General legislation for national parks was incorporated in the Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act 1928, but following World War II, increased interest by a growing population in national parks and outdoor recreation generally, paved the way for one general law governing the administration of all national parks—the National Parks Act 1952.

The 1952 Act established the National Parks Authority as an independent statutory body comprising 11 people representative of both Government and private organisations. Six of them are ex-officio members—the Director-General of Lands (who is chairman), the Deputy Director-General of Lands (who is deputy chairman), the Secretary for Internal Affairs, the Director-General of Forests, the General Manager of the Tourist and Publicity Department, and the General Manager of the Tourist Hotel Corporation. The other 5 members are appointed by the Minister of Lands for terms of 3 years on the recommendations of the Royal Society of New Zealand, the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society, and the Federated Mountain Clubs, plus 2 to represent the 10 national park boards. The authority is serviced by the Department of Lands and Survey.

Each national park is under the control of a National Park Board, chaired by the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district most concerned. Boards comprise up to 8 other members appointed by the Minister of Land on the recommendation of the authority, one of whom is a nominee of the Federated Mountain Clubs and the New Zealand Ski Association where the nature of the park is such that the authority considers it desirable for mountain climbers and skiers to have representation. Egmont and Tongariro retain historical variations in board membership. Where the Tourist Hotel Corporation administers land, or controls any tourist facility on land in or adjacent to a park, an additional member is appointed to the board by the Minister of Lands on the recommendation of the Minister of Tourism. Salaried rangers in the Public Service are responsible for development, protection, interpretation, and management in each park and their work (chiefly in the area of park protection) is supplemented by the voluntary help of suitable persons appointed by boards as honorary rangers.

The status of National Park land cannot be changed except by Act of Parliament.

Description—New Zealand's 10 national parks, covering 2152830 hectares (or one-thirteenth of the country's land area) of beautiful or unique natural features and scenery, steeped in Maori legend, offer many alternative opportunities for enjoying open air recreation and the contemplation of nature and wildlife. Mountains, glaciers, forests, lakes, rivers, fiords, and beaches offer opportunities for people to tramp, climb, ski, fish, hunt, camp, and picnic. There are pleasant drives for motorists, short nature walks, alpine gardens, visitor centres and, during holiday periods, nature programmes. Accommodation, transport, and other services in or near the parks are provided by park boards, Government agencies, private enterprise, and voluntary organisations. Although the National Parks Act provides for freedom of entry and access by the public, this is subject to conditions and restrictions “necessary for the preservation of the native flora and fauna or for the welfare in general of the parks”. Access to “special areas” constituted under the Act is (if the circumstances warrant) by permit only. The Act also requires parks to be administered and maintained so that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state; that their value as soil, water, and forest conservation areas is maintained; and that as far as possible, native flora and fauna are preserved and introduced flora and fauna exterminated.

Development permitted by the National Parks Act includes the erection of houses for rangers and park staff, the provision of camping grounds, huts, hostels, accommodation houses and other buildings, ski tows and similar facilities, parking areas, reading and tracks. In “wilderness areas”, established in terms of the Act, development is restricted to foot-track access. Authority policy and park management plans provide guidelines and criteria for the extent of acceptable development in national-parks.

Virtually all the finance for national parks is provided by the Government but cash donations by private individuals and organisations are encouraged: these earn a $2 for $1 subsidy from the Government.

Of the 10 national parks, the first 3 listed below are in the North Island and the remainder are in the South Island.

Urewera National Park (206523 hectares, established in 1954), surrounds the beautiful Lakes Waikaremoana and Waikareiti. As the traditional home of the Tuhoe, “the Children of the Mist”, it is rich in Maori folklore. The park protects the largest remaining area of native forest in the North Island and provides a home for many species of native birds.

Tongariro National Park (76655 hectares, established in 1894), includes the three active volcanic cones of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. Ruapehu's snowfields are the winter playground of the North Island. Lake Rotopounamu, still free from exotic fish, and Mount Pihanga are two other focal points of the park.

Egmont National Park (33536 hectares, established in 1900), contains one of the world's most symmetrical mountains, known to the Maoris as “Taranaki”, and preserves magnificent scenery and vegetation within a 9-kilometre radius of the summit. Dominating Taranaki province in the west of the North Island, the near perfect cone varies from heavily-forested lower slopes to the bare scoria, rock, snow, and ice at the upper levels.

Abel Tasman National Park (22370 hectares, established in 1942), with a broken coastline and rich in historical significance, has numerous tidal inlets and beaches of golden sand fronting Tasman Bay. Botanically, the park is unique as its bush-clad slopes show a blending of the natural cover of both the North and South Islands, a phenomenon of nature not found elsewhere in the country.

Nelson Lakes National Park (57507 hectares, established in 1956), is named after the chief focal points for visitors, the beautiful lakes Rotoiti and Rotoroa. These nestle in rugged mountainous country with extensive beech-forest clad lower slopes. The Mount Robert area, with its magnificent views, provides visitors with winter recreational opportunities on its ski fields.

Arthur's Pass National Park (98408 hectares, established in 1929), is a rugged and mountainous area straddling the main divide of the Southern Alps. It is an area of high peaks (at least 30 over 1800 metres), snowfields, deep-cut valleys, snow-grass clad ridges, forest-clad hillsides, high waterfalls, wide shingle riverbeds, and rushing torrents, all providing endless scope for physical endeavour or quiet appreciation.

Mount Cook National Park (69957 hectares, established in 1953) and Westland National Park (88680 hectares, established in 1960), share a common boundary along the main divide of the Southern Alps. Their magnificent alpine scenery, containing almost all of the 27 peaks over 3050 metres in height, includes New Zealand's highest mountain, the 3764-metre Mount Cook, known to the Maoris as “Aorangi”—freely translated as “Cloud Piercer”. Their attractions are as varied as their altitude, ranging from well known glaciers such as Tasman (at 29 km long one of the longest outside polar regions), Franz Josef, and Fox, to hot springs, placid lakes, and the sub-tropical luxuriance of the rain forests.

Mount Aspiring National Park (287162 hectares, established in 1964), is a complex of impressive glaciated mountain scenery which includes the headwaters of seven major rivers. The park's distinctive character is enhanced by bush-covered mountainside and pleasant river flats and valleys. Its focal point, often referred to as the Matterhorn of New Zealand, is the 3036-metre Mount Aspiring, a 4-ridged peak rising from the Bonar Therma-Volta ice shelf, and the country's highest peak outside Mount Cook National Park.

Fiordland National Park (1212032 hectares, established in 1952), is one of the largest national parks in the world, and is renowned for the rugged grandeur of its scenery which includes fiords, mountains, forests, waterfalls, and lakes. The better known lakes are Manapouri, backed by snow-capped peaks, and Te Anau. The park is the only known habitat of two flightless birds, the takahe (notornis) and (except for a small colony on Stewart Island) the kakapo.

RESERVES—The main pieces of current legislation providing for the setting aside of land for public use, e.g., for the preservation of flora and fauna, scenery preservation, or recreation, are the Land Act 1948 and the Local Government Act 1974 and its subsequent amendments. The Land Act enables land owned by the Crown, including foreshore areas, to be reserved for any purpose desirable in the public interest, while under the Local Government Act local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision is made for public reserves on subdivision of land.

The current legislation governing the administration, management, and control of reserves is the Reserves Act 1977. This Act established 7 distinct categories of reserves, each with its own management requirements. The 7 categories are: recreation, historic, scenic, nature, scientific, Government purpose, and local purpose. In addition there is provision to declare any reserves or class of reserves which contain values of national or international significance to be New Zealand reserves or even New Zealand reserves meriting special protection in which case revocation can only be effected by Act of Parliament. All reserves will be classified according to their principal or primary purpose into the above categories. The classification process will take some time to complete but considerable progress has been made. Until finally classified, all reserves shall be held and administered for the purpose of their existing reservation.

Scenic Reserves—Scenic reserves, of which there are 1008 with an overall area of 322114 hectares, are set aside to preserve features or areas or areas of scenic interest such as native forest, limestone and glow-worm caves, thermal areas, sea coasts, lakes, rivers, waterfalls, scenic vantage points, and forested areas with considerable conservation value. Some of these reserves are mainly of local or regional significance while many of the larger ones, which are in the nature of junior or mini national parks, are of national importance. Public use of scenic reserves varies greatly, ranging from off-road parking and picnicking to camping, tramping, and hunting (subject to written permit).

Scenic reserves in excess of 2000 hectares include Lewis Pass, Wanganui River, Buller Gorge, Rakeahua, South Cape (Stewart Island), Lake Kaniere, Gouland Downs, Glenhope, Lake Brunner, Rahu (Reefton), Mangamuku Gorge, Tangarakau, Te Tapui (Cambridge), and Waioeka Gorge.

Improved maintenance, management, and control of scenic reserves has been accomplished through the classification of their principal values and most appropriate usage. The appointment of salaried reserves rangers in the Public Service to ensure that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state “in the public interest” and for the “benefit, enjoyment, and use of the public” has also been of considerable assistance. In addition, native trees and shrubs are being propagated at the Department of Lands and Survey's Taupo Nursery to promote scenic restoration activities in reserves throughout the North Island but with particular emphasis on the Taupo basin in the wake of power scheme works. A nursery has also been established at Home Creek in Southland to service requirements for the South Island.

Land with acceptable scenic interest, while remaining in private ownership, may receive the benefits of preservation and protection of the Reserves Act 1977 through being declared private protected land. Areas which have received such protection include White Island in the Bay of Plenty, where petrels and gannets nest in large numbers annually, and a large area of the Pukeiti Rhododendron Trust property, near New Plymouth, and adjoining Egmont National Park, which is in native bush.

Historic Reserves—One hundred and nine areas of historic interest totalling 1984 hectares are set aside as historic reserves. The Department of Lands and Survey co-operates closely in the administration and investigation of historic sites with the New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Historic reserves mark the landfall and landing places of early voyagers such as Tasman and Cook, the site of missionary Samuel Marsden's first sermon on New Zealand soil, sites of early fortifications, of engagements during the Maori wars, and buildings of historic value. (The Treaty House area at Waitangi, administered by the Waitangi National Trust, is not a historic reserve in the strict sense.) Sites of Maori rock drawings and places of significance in New Zealand's early constitutional history are also preserved.

Nature Reserves—Land is reserved for bird sanctuaries, for the preservation of flora and fauna, or some similar purpose in cases where the land provides a habitat for bird or plant life of such importance that some control on public access is desirable. In all there are 86 reserves in this category with a total area of 181153 hectares. Some of them are mainland areas, but most are off-shore and outlying islands. Major areas of particular public interest include Little Barrier Island in Hauraki Gulf, the only known habitat of the stitch bird, and now part of the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park; Cape Kidnappers gannet colony in Hawke's Bay; Kapiti Island off Wellington's west coast; the white heron colony in South Westland; and Taiaroa Head albatross colony near Dunedin.

All of New Zealand's subantarctic islands, except for a small area surrounding the meteorological station on Campbell Island, are reserved for nature purposes and provide a habitat for marine mammals and millions of sea birds. As well as Campbell Island, the reserves include the Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, and Snares Islands. To the north of New Zealand, most of the land in the Kermadec Islands is similarly reserved.

Access to these reserves is by permit only, a policy followed solely in the interests of preservation of the plant and animal life to ensure an absolute minimum of human interference to anything living and growing naturally there. The reserves are administered by the Department of Lands and Survey.

Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park—This park was established under the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act in 1967. The park may include reserves of any type on or off the east coast of the North Island from Whangamata Harbour to Home Point at the northern end of Bland Bay. It includes such well-known islands as Motuihe, Rangitoto, Browns, Motutapu, Motuora, Poor Knights, Little Barrier, and part of Kawau containing the historic Mansion House. The park is administered by a board of 10 members.

Marlborough Sounds Maritime Park—This park was established under the provisions of the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 and is administered by a 13-member board. The park provides for co-ordinated management of existing scenic, historic, recreation, and other public reserves located within the coastal region stretching from Cape Soucis in the west to Rarangi in the south-east. Appropriate island reserves are also included.

Bay of Islands Maritime and Historic Park—This park was established in 1978 under the provisions of the Reserves Act 1977. The park provides for co-ordinated management of existing scenic, historic, recreation, and other reserves located within the coastal region, stretching from the Whangaroa Harbour in the north to the Whangamumu Harbour in the south, and includes many reserves on the mainland in and around Kerikeri and Russeli and on many of the adjacent islands. The park is administered by a board of 10 members.

Wildlife Reserves—There are 3 classes of wildlife reserves, namely wildlife sanctuaries, wildlife refuges, and wildlife management reserves. The first 2 classes may be proclaimed over land of any tenure, and any such proclamation prohibits only certain actions in respect of wildlife but does not affect the land ownership. Any of the 3 classes may however be declared in respect of lands of the Crown, or on lands specially acquired by the Crown. In such cases the declaration is made pursuant to the Land Act 1948, thus conferring upon the lands public reserve status pursuant to the Reserves Act 1977.

Wildlife Sanctuaries—The role of these is protecting fragile wildlife habitats from the effects of entry by humans or animals; or protecting wildlife species which are low in numbers regionally or nationally, or are confined within a small number of habitats which are sensitive to disturbance.

The major administrative and management objective is the total or partial exclusion of the public from such areas. Written permits to enter a sanctuary are required from the Secretary for Internal Affairs.

At present there are 13 wildlife sanctuaries, all but two of which are on off-shore islands.

Wildlife Refuges—This status is given to wildlife habitats which require protection to ensure the well-being of the habitats and to maintain the natural regional or local distribution and presence of wildlife.

The primary management functions are to carry out habitat maintenance, and to allow the public freedom of access, except that firearms, domestic animals and disturbing influences (e.g., power boats), are prohibited.

Wildlife Management Reserves—The objective for this class of reserve is much the same as for a wildlife refuge but the primary management functions are to manipulate and improve the habitat for wildlife, and to allow freedom of public entry together with a variety of activities, including the hunting of game species of wildlife.

Recreation Reserves—Recreation reserves, including public domains which are now categorised as recreation reserves, number 1115 covering 33 326 hectares. These provide for the recreational needs of the people as a whole. While many such reserves are designed primarily to provide for organised sport there are a large number which preserve for public use attractive and natural areas, particularly along the coastline, and provide facilities for camping. Some outstanding examples of coastal reserves are Orewa, near Auckland, Ohope Beach, near Whakatane, Queen Elizabeth Park, near Wellington, Momorangi Bay in the Marlborough Sounds, Kaiteriteri and Pohara in the Nelson district, and Waikuku Beach in Canterbury. Universally known city reserves are the Auckland Domain and Hagley Park, Christchurch. Native bush is protected on reserve land.

Summary of Areas Reserved—The following table records the main classes of reservations at 31 March 1979.

Type of ReservationNo.Hectares
* Includes Wanganui River Reserves complex as 1 unit (previously included as 110 units).
National parks102,152,830
Scenic reserves (public)*1008322,114
Historic reserves (public)1091984
Reserves for the preservation of flora and fauna (public)86181,153
Recreation reserves (formerly domains)111533,326

QUEEN ELIZABETH THE SECOND NATIONAL TRUST—The Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust was established by Act of Parliament in December 1977 to encourage and promote the provision, protection, and enhancement of open space for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of New Zealand. The formation of the trust commemorates the Silver Jubilee of Her Majesty the Queen.

The trust was set up to fill a growing need for an independent body to oversee the development of an overall open space plan and policy.

The main specific functions of the trust are to advise the Minister of Lands, other ministers, Government departments, and other bodies on all matters concerning open space; to investigate, identify, and classify potential reserves and recreation areas as to their significance; to promote research into open space; to co-ordinate the activities of interested Government departments and other bodies or persons; to negotiate open space covenants; and to acquire open space in its own name.

The trust is administered by a board of 10 directors, 3 of whom (including the chairman) are appointed by the Minister of Lands, 2 by election by the members, and 5 by the minister after consultation with Federated Farmers of New Zealand Inc., the New Zealand Maori Council, the New Zealand Counties Association Inc., and the Municipal Association of New Zealand Inc.

Board meetings are attended by the permanent heads of the Departments of Lands and Survey, Internal Affairs, Maori Affairs, the New Zealand Forest Service, the Ministry of Works and Development, and the Commission for the Environment.

An essential part of the trust is the membership. A list has been opened for individual, corporate, and life membership of the trust. As well as electing 2 directors, it is hoped that the members will form an integral part of the trust's operation, particularly on a local level.

Present Activities—A major task is the preparation of a data base of the open space resource, including land, rivers, lakes and coastline. Associated with this is a study of the regional demand for open space.

The promotion of open space covenants is an important aspect of the trust's work. Three types of covenant are being negotiated. The first type is providing a service for farmers with areas of native bush or other important landscape on their property that they wish to see preserved. A covenant ensures the preservation of an area in perpetuity without the landowner losing title to the land.

The second type is to secure access for the public to areas of open space, particularly near urban centres. The third type requires a series of covenants with all landowners in an area to preserve a major landscape such as a peninsula or river valley.

The trust may purchase land in its own right when a need is recognised. Local Authority grants and other donations to the trust for the purchase of land attract a $2 for $1 Government subsidy.

The trust is taking a special interest in ensuring the preservation of wild and scenic rivers of national and regional significance.

The trust will make its position known and recommend appropriate action when deficiencies in the existing system for provision of open space come to its attention. The trust sees its role in this respect as ensuring that all aspects of open space are adequately taken into account by the proper authorities. As a general rule the trust will adopt this role of broad oversight and consultation rather than become the initial or principal advocate for particular causes.

The trust will encourage existing bodies to acquire or set aside open space where the need by the user is seen to be greatest, e.g., in or close to areas of greatest population density.

NEW ZEALAND WALKWAYS—The purpose of the New Zealand Walkways Act 1975 is to establish “. . . walking tracks over public and private land so that the people of New Zealand (can) have safe, unimpeded foot access to the countryside for the benefit of physical recreation, as well as for the enjoyment of the outdoor environment and the natural and pastoral beauty and historical and cultural qualities of the areas through which they pass.”

To promote, supervise and co-ordinate this development, the Act constituted the New Zealand Walkway Commission and charged it with the responsibility for walkway administration, with power to delegate duties to 12 district walkway committees, one for each land district constituted under the Land Act 1948, and also to other controlling authorities. In recognition that public, local authority, Government agency, and private lands would be used for walkways, the composition of the commission was structured accordingly, with the members of the commission being the Director-General of Lands (chairman), and the Director-General of Forests, and a representative each of the Municipal Association of New Zealand, the Counties Association of New Zealand, the New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport, the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand, and the Federated Farmers of New Zealand. Similar representation composes each district walkway committee.

Although only 5 walkways, having a total length of 32.3 km, had been gazetted as at 31 December 1979 a further 27 sections of walkway are presently open throughout the country. Together, the total length of those areas open for public use is 260 km. There are numerous urban walks established by local authorities which are regarded as being complementary to the New Zealand Walkways System and therefore have not been brought under the provisions of the New Zealand Walkways Act 1975.

FURTHER INFORMATION—The Government Printer has produced a number of very attractive publications dealing with the National Parks, both individually and in total, and with scenic reserves. Other publications dealing with public lands include the following:

Report of the Department of Lands and Survey (Parl. paper C. 1).

Report of the Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust (Parl. paper C. 2).

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

10 C—MAORI LANDS

USE OF MAORI LAND—The term Maori land is a technical one, denoting land that has always been owned by Maori people. Such land is usually held by right of succession to tribal ancestors. All except an insignificant portion of it is owned by defined people in defined proportions. All sales and some leases of such land still require ratification by the Maori Land Court.

At 31 March 1979 the area of Maori freehold land in New Zealand totalled 1224104 hectares. In addition, many Maori people own homes in urban areas and others own farm land purchased from non-Maoris that is designated, for record purposes, as “General” land.

The Maori Land Board was constituted under the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1974 to promote greater involvement in, and identification of the Maori owners with, land development activities. The board is assisted by district Maori Land Advisory Committees.

MAORI LAND DEVELOPMENT—Owners of Maori land have access to usual lending institutions but it is not easy to borrow money for land development unless mortgage security can be given. Multiplicity of ownership often prevents this. Under the Maori Affairs Act 1953 the Maori Land Board, through the Department of Maori Affairs, may lend money for the development and settlement of Maori land. This procedure does not affect the legal ownership, but the rights of the owners are suspended and the board has the right to exclusive occupation of the land.

Loans can also be made on the security of livestock alone.

Policy is directed towards the settlement of Maori farmers on farms which will provide an adequate standard of living. Thirty-six farmers were settled in the year ended 30 June 1978.

At 30 June 1978 there were 108667 hectares, of which 69636 hectares were in grass, on stations farmed by the department.

The total annual grassing programme is approximately 1200 hectares.

The original objective of Maori land development was to subdivide developed blocks for settlement by Maori farmers. Recent trends have shown a preference by the owners to form incorporations or trusts to assume control on their behalf when properties are sufficiently consolidated and have attained financial stability.

Over the past decade afforestation of Maori land has become a popular alternative to development for traditional pastoral farming.

MAORI TRUSTEE—The Maori Trust Office was originally created to take over from the Public Trust Office the administration of certain Maori reserves and the administration of the estates of deceased Maoris and those under disability. The Maori Trust Office now forms part of the Department of Maori Affairs. It is headed by the Maori Trustee, comparable in status and functions with the Public Trustee. Most Maori Trustee activities have been decentralised by the delegation of wide powers to the district officers of the Department of Maori Affairs, who deal primarily with all Maori Trustee matters in their districts.

The following table is a summary of the assets and liabilities of the Maori Trustee as at 31 March in each of the last 3 years.

ItemAs at 31 March
197719781979
  $(000) 
Assets—
    Cash1,9221,1471,067
Investments—
    Government securities2,2451,7001,950
    Local authority debentures3,5534,5374,669
    Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft5,9275,5515,827
Land, buildings, and miscellaneous329345265
            Total13,97613,28013,778
Liabilities—
    Amounts held for beneficiaries and sundry depositions8,4117,8158,121
    Reserves and appropriation account4,9135,0785,179
    Sundry creditors, etc.652387478
                Total13,97613,28013,778

FURTHER INFORMATION—The annual Parliamentary report of the Department of Maori Affairs (E. 13) includes reports on the Maori Land Board and the Maori Trust Office. See also Section 10E in this Yearbook.

10 D—SURVEYS

GENERAL—The Department of Lands and Survey is the national survey and mapping organisation. Its major functions include the extension of the survey control system, examination of all land title surveys, regulation of survey standards, provision of the survey planning and aerial photograph requirements of the Government, and the publication of all topographic, cadastral, and special maps of New Zealand.

SURVEYING—The New Zealand survey control system, in the form of triangulations and other geographically located stations, provides for the effective integration of surveys executed by all sectors for the purposes of land title definition, land development and utilisation, engineering project and communication constructions, mapping production, and navigational aids fixation.

Examination by the department of all land title surveys ensures the security of tenure essential to development, and the maintenance of all survey records on a microfilm system provides for ready access and utilisation of data. The control of survey standards, maintenance of discipline, and training of professional surveyors is effected through the statutorily constituted Survey Board under the chairmanship of the Surveyor-General.

Other departmental services provided to Government include surveys for land title, land development, navigational purposes, earth deformation studies, administration of justice, and land, and environmental planning.

The practising surveyors in the private sector play a major role in surveys of private lands under the Land Transfer Act 1952, the planning and development of housing projects, and the execution, under contract, of some government surveys.

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY—Extensive use is made of aerial photography in the production of photogrammetric mapping and in the annual provision of basic physical resource and planning data. Photography is undertaken by private aerial survey firms under contract to Department of Lands and Survey, which maintains a complete library of air photos for all national purposes and general public usage.

Under agreement with the authorities in the USA the department now receives and holds multispectral imagery collected by earth resources satellites for use in studies associated with land use and management, regional planning, and scientific research in New Zealand.

MAPPING—Both the mile to an inch maps and the basic metric topographical and cadastral maps now under production provide a reliable inventory of physical resources and an up-to-date identification of land parcels and legal situations. They are in heavy demand for housing, constructional and farm planning and development, extension of public and social services, protection of the environment, the general use and guidance of the public, and the administration of central and local government.

Regularly updated street maps cover all towns.

The Department of Lands and Survey also produces and publishes a wide range of other maps for various purposes including recreational maps, maps of National parks, and miscellaneous and general maps of New Zealand, the Pacific, and Antarctica. In addition, as the mapping agency for Government in New Zealand, the department produces maps needed to service the activities of other departments, particularly aeronautical charts for military and civil use, meteorological maps and charts, and maps for the Ministry of Works and Development, the New Zealand Forest Service, and other Government departments.

Project and special mapping produced by photogrammetric methods and also by using orthophotographs is executed at larger scales to provide an essential base for investigation and design of energy, irrigation, forestry, and communications projects.

Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices except Wellington and at the Head Office of the Department of Lands and Survey. In addition, a large number of private selling agents have been appointed throughout New Zealand and overseas. All maps for sale are listed in the Catalogue Of Maps published by the department.

The first National Land Resource Survey carried out for the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation by land resource scientists in the Water and Soil Division of the Ministry of Works and Development was completed in 1979.

The information is published as Land Resource Inventory Worksheets at 1 inch to the mile (North Island, 169 worksheets; South Island, 184) and available as computer-stored data.

10 E—REGISTRATION OF TITLES AND TRANSFER OF LAND

REGISTRATION OF LAND OWNERS—Title to land in private ownership in New Zealand is a matter of public record. The keeping of these records is the function of the Land and Deeds Division of the Department of Justice.

Almost all privately owned land in New Zealand is held under the land transfer system, presently embodied in the Land Transfer Act 1952. The system was introduced to New Zealand by the passing of the Land Transfer Act 1870. This Act was based on legislation enacted in South Australia in 1858, largely at the instigation of Sir Robert Torrens. Today the principles enunciated by Torrens are the basis of land registration throughout Australasia. The principal features of the system are registration of title and guarantee of that title by the State.

The objects of the Land Transfer Acts since 1870 have been to provide security of title by means of state guarantee, simplicity by use of standardised forms in language readily understood by the layman, accuracy by the use of precise survey data, the reduction of costs by simplification of conveyancing procedures, expedition by streamlining and constantly revising recording procedures, and suitability to circumstances by relating our land registration system directly to our social and economic structures.

Under the land transfer system, land and interests in land do not pass by the execution of an instrument of transfer but by the registration of that instrument. A person acquires a legal interest in land not because he has entered into an agreement to purchase the land, but because he has registered the instrument of transfer and it is recorded on the register that he is the owner.

The certificate of title is the pivot on which the whole land transfer system turns. A certificate of title is issued under the hand and seal of the District Land Registrar which guarantees to the registered proprietor of the land described in that certificate his rights of use, occupation, and enjoyment, the extent and position of his boundaries, and the nature of any encumbrances or interests affecting his land, such as mortgages or rights of way. Two copies of the certificate of title are issued; one copy forms the Land Transfer register, and the duplicate is held by the owner. This duplicate must be presented to the Land Registry Office for noting whenever documents affecting the estate for which it was issued are submitted for registration. Any change in the registered proprietorship which occurs through transfer, death, or other devolution, and the encumbrances to which the land is subject may be entered on the register by the registration of the appropriate documents in the manner prescribed by the Land Transfer Act.

Interests in, and charges against, land arising from many other statutes may be noted against the Land Transfer register. Successive governments have charged the Land and Deeds Division with duties of surveillance under the laws relating to the subdivision and aggregation of land, disposition of public reserves, anti-slumming requirements of local authorities, and many other aspects of land use and occupation.

Certain leases and licences of Crown land may be registered under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act, and Maori land when vested in any person for a freehold estate comes automatically under the land transfer system.

Settlement of matrimonial homes as joint family homes has been a widely used procedure since its inception almost 30 years ago and since that time there has been a steady increase in the number of settlements registered (see section 19).

Certificates of Title Issued—The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the latest 6 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal
197445,932
197552,196
197657,008
197753,196
197849,516
197942,176

MAORI LANDS—Before European settlement, all land was held by the various groups and tribes of the Maori people in accordance with their traditional customs and usages, and the land so held was described as Maori customary land. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Grown. Almost all of the land which was formerly Maori customary land has now been converted to other forms of title by one or other of the following processes:

  1. Purchase or other acquisition by the Crown (from whom in turn the European colonists obtained land for farms, etc.).

  2. The issue of a Crown grant to a Maori owner on the recommendation of the Maori Land Court.

  3. The issue of a freehold order by the Maori Land Court in favour of the Maori or Maoris found entitled upon an investigation of title. This process was used instead of process (b) after the introduction of the land transfer system into New Zealand.

Land which was included in titles issued under processes (b) and (c) became known as Maori freehold land.

Maori freehold land becomes Crown land if all interests in it are purchased or otherwise acquired by the Crown, or becomes General land when bought by a non-Maori, or declared by the Maori Land Court to be General land.

Maori Land Court—The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other judges as the Governor-General may from time to time appoint. It is a Court of Record and its general function is to deal with problems peculiar to multiple ownership of Maori lands including the partitioning and combining of titles for better utilisation, the effecting of exchanges, directing the holding of meetings of owners, and confirming or disallowing resolutions passed by such meetings, confirming sales, and making other miscellaneous orders including in certain cases, determining entitlement and vesting in persons entitled, and the beneficial interests of deceased owners, in Maori freehold land.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any 2 or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that 2 Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the court. With certain exemptions, the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

During 1978–79 the Maori Land Court conducted 92 sittings throughout New Zealand and dealt with 5593 applications, from which a total of 9965 orders were made.

On 7 August 1978, His Excellency the Governor-General appointed a Royal Commission to inquire into the structure and operation of the Maori Land Court and the Maori Appellate Court. The Royal Commission was to report its findings by 30 May 1980.

Acquisition of Land—Safeguards have been made for long-term planning in the use of land, whether publicly or privately owned, in order to ensure that it and its resources are used to the best advantage of the community as a whole. Legislation introduced in 1968 and 1969 (by amendment to the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952) prevents, where there is an operative regional plan or proposed or operative district scheme, the acquisition by overseas interests of land of 4000 sq metres or over designated or zoned as reserves for recreation or other purposes, and all islands or parts of islands within 150 kilometres of the mainland, and the Chatham Islands. The legislation covers rural and farm land of 2 hectares or over. Here a purchase may be approved if specified conditions, directed to ensuring beneficial use of the land from a national viewpoint, or permanent future residence, are met.

The court shall grant its consent where the purchaser or lessee is a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand, i.e., who has resided in New Zealand for 2 1/2 years and the court is satisfied that he intends to continue to reside in New Zealand. Where the purchaser or lessee is not a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand or is an overseas company, the court shall not grant its consent unless it is satisfied that the land is not required for any reserve purpose and that the land is not an island or forms part of the Chatham Islands. In the case of farm land, the court must be assured that the purchaser or lessee intends to conduct experimental or research work on the land which will benefit agricultural industries in New Zealand or the community generally, or that the land will be used for purposes other than agricultural with greater advantage to the community, or in the case of an individual that he intends to reside permanently in New Zealand and farm the land exclusively for his own use and benefit and has the ability and means to do this.

Part I of the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act authorises the Minister of Lands to take in certain circumstances any farm land that is suitable for settlement, and is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production.

Part II deals with the control of sales and also leases (for 3 years or more) of farm land to prevent undue aggregation. The consent of the court is required unless the purchaser or lessee owns no farm land, has no interest in any estate or trust owning farm land, has not since the passing of the Act transferred any farm land to any person as trustee or created any trust in respect of farm land, and has entered into the transaction solely on his own behalf.

The Act prevents the purchase of farm land, without the consent of the court, by a trustee for any person under the age of 17 years, or the purchase by a company or trustee for a company to be formed where the shareholders are fewer than 10 in number and any member of such company is under the age of 17 years (or where shares will be held in trust for any person under that age at the date of the transaction).

LAND TRANSFERS—The following table shows property transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during the latest available years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal TransfersTotal Consideration
NumberPercentage Change*AmountPercentage Change*
* On the previous year's figures.
   $(m) 
197597,334−22.62,135.1+0.1
197698,003+0.72,202.8+3.2
1977101,968+ 4.02,691.6+ 22.2
197885,705−16.02,538.6−5.7
197991,229+ 6.42,964.6+16.8

The continued rise in both the numbers of land transfers and the total consideration involved which characterised the early 1970s reached a peak in 1973–74, when there was an increase of nearly 20 percent in the number of transfers and one of nearly 60 percent in the consideration involved. The following year witnessed a sharp fall in the number of land transfers, although the consideration involved was almost the same. A significant decrease in the number of transfers (and a considerable decline in total consideration) during the year ended 31 March 1978 has been followed by a moderate increase in numbers and a substantial increase in total consideration during the 1978–79 year.

The following table shows all land transfers by consideration group for the year ended 31 March 1979. The division into freehold and leasehold demonstrates the relatively small percentage of land transfers involving leasehold property.

Consideration GroupFreeholdLeaseholdAll Transfers
NumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage Consideration
$      $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000)
Under 4,00044498.51.92380.41.946878.91.9
4,000– 7,999653139.06.01711.05.6670240.06.0
8,000– 9,999405035.68.8690.68.9411936.28.8
10,000– 14,9998352101.012.12012.412.18553103.412.1
15,000– 19,9998471146.517.32854.917.38756151.417.3
20,000– 49,99945,8121,379.630.1101529.228.846,8271,408.830.1
50,000– 199,99910,322864.083.735033.796.210,672897.684.1
200,000 and over880307.9349.93310.3312.6913318.2348.5
          All groups88,8672,882.032.4236282.635.091,2292,964.632.5

Land transfers by size groups during 1978–79 are shown in the following table for both Islands and for New Zealand as a whole.

Size Group (hectares)North IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
  hectares (000)$(m) hectares (000)$(m) hectares (000)$(m)
Under 258,80471,649.623,0093556.781,81392,206.4
2 and under 61689684.6661229.223508113.7
6 and under 11587431.2313211.9900743.1
11 and under 20589833.922139.68101143.5
20 and under 50138045106.14741425.5185459131.6
50 and under 756443768.11891114.68334782.6
75 and under 1003643040.41731415.85374456.2
100 and under 2005607767.44576053.11017138120.5
200 and over650281102.346521164.61115491166.9
Total65,2674952,183.625,962320781.091,2298142,964.6

This table includes both urban and rural land transfers. The majority of the urban transfers will be in the Under 2 hectares size-group, which includes 90 percent of the total number. Besides normal residential properties, this size-group will include many business, commercial, and industrial properties, and high-density residential properties (such as blocks of flats) in urban centres.

A final table shows all land transfers during the 2 latest available years by land registration districts. The urban areas of Auckland are in the North Auckland Land Registration District.

Land Registration District1977–781978–79
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
  hectares (000)$(m) hectares (000)$(m)
North Auckland25,54276.6769.528,30994.3953.8
South Auckland13,988113.0451.914,369120.2493.3
Gisborne99751.636.4119348.042.1
Hawke's Bay340073.2110.8385978.1139.6
Taranaki249439.870.9245933.877.8
Wellington13,874149.4399.215,078121.0477.0
Marlborough105820.727.5110526.935.9
Nelson247829.164.0241919.066.9
Westland5675.29.26317.012.2
Canterbury13,112107.7380.512,919106.5399.0
Otago523665.6129.4559799.5163.1
Southland295957.789.4329160.6103.9
                Total85,705789.62,538.691,229814.52,964.6

Figures of average consideration, and indeed all land transfer data, should be used with caution owing to the great diversity of property transactions covered by the figures. These transactions include, for example, sales of residential properties, farms and farmland, all classes of commercial, industrial, and business properties, sections, and parcels of land bought for such purposes as large-scale manufacturing, forestry, recreation, reserves, and later sub-division. Movements in prices of individual types of properties are better indicated elsewhere. The Building and Construction section of this Yearbook includes an urban house property and section index, compiled by the Department of Statistics and designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for house properties and sections sold during each half-year. Recent annual figures from a farmland sale price index, compiled by the Valuation Department, are shown below. Family sales are excluded, as are sales of land having a significant potential for urbanisation or any purpose other than farming. The base is calendar year 1960 (=1000).

Year Ended 31 DecemberIndex NumberPercentage Change from Previous Year
19753999+ 15.0
19764404+ 10.1
19774951+ 12.4
19785420+ 9.5

FURTHER INFORMATION—The Monthly Abstract of Statistics shows monthly data on land transfers and also publishes an annual supplement. Other information on land registration and titles will be found in the Parliamentary reports of the Department of Maori Affairs (E. 13), the Department of Justice (E. 5), and the Valuation Department (G. 26).

10 F—VALUATION OF LAND

GENERAL—Equitable land values are a basis for many of the relations of the Central Government and local authorities with the individual. In particular they are required in connection with the following: (a) the levying of land lax; (b) the apportionment of rating levies over contributory local authorities; (c) the levying of rates by local authorities; (d) the advancing of money on mortgage by Government departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act; (e) the assessing of stamp, estate, and gift duties; (f) the fixing of prices payable to the Crown or by the Crown for transfers of land.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE—The Government Valuation of Land Act 1896 set up a separate Government department charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the Central Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act 1951, and in the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by district valuers and valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate (a) the value of the land; (b) the value of the buildings (if any) and other improvements (if any) upon such land; and (c) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, not to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law, the increased value Attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local authority expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, is incorporated in the “land value”. “Improvements” on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land. With the introduction of land value in 1970 (in place of unimproved value) the term “improvements”, correctly speaking, includes only those items of work done or material used which result in structural additions to the property.

The “capital value” is, broadly speaking, the unencumbered market value of the land at date of valuation, and the “value of improvements” is the added value given by the “improvements”.

THE VALUATION ROLL—A valuation roll is prepared for each district over which a territorial local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth the ownership, description, and valuation of each property, including rates postponement and special rateable values where these are required to be determined.

Revision of Rolls—District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at intervals of not more than 5 years unless for good reason he decides otherwise.

The Supplementary Roll—There is, in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes—e.g., the granting of loans by Government departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and estate duties—form the supplementary roll.

Objections to Valuations—In the case of a revision of a district valuation roll, the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any valuation thereon. Where a particular property only is revalued, the owner and any local authority affected by the alteration in the valuation have a right of objection. If, after the Valuer-General has reconsidered the matter, the objector is still dissatisfied he may ask for the objection to be heard by the Administrative Division of the High Court.

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION OF THE HIGH COURT—The Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948 as amended in 1968 and 1977 provides for objections under the Valuation of Land Act to be determined by the Administrative Division of the High Court. In addition to its jurisdiction under the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948, the division hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act 1928 and determines values under the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952. Land valuation tribunals for particular localities operating under the general jurisdiction of district courts exercise prime jurisdiction in all matters except those where provision is made for them to be heard in the first instance by the Administrative Division. There is a right of appeal from a tribunal's decision to the Court with a further right of appeal to the Court of Appeal in certain cases.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Court's order, he may, within 14 days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Court at less than the capital value, he may, within 14 days after the sealing of the Court's order require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within 30 days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING—The district valuation roll, so long as it continues in force, is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the land value is framed.

The third major rating system is the annual (rental) value system, where the annual values are assessed by valuers appointed by the local authorities concerned. The Valuer-General may be so appointed. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would let from year to year reduced by 20 percent in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 percent in the case of land, but it may not be less than 5 percent of the value of the fee simple. A new valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or triennially.

Parts IV and V of the Rating Act 1967 provide for local authorities to grant applications for rates postponement in respect of certain residences in commercial and industrial zones and for farmlands in counties with valuations reflecting potential use for urban development. Rates postponement values are determined either under the Valuation of Land Act or the Rating Act, according to the system of rating in force. Special rateable values for non-conforming commercial or industrial land in residential or rural zones are also provided for in order that these classes of properties will not enjoy a rating advantage. Likewise special rateable values may be determined for rural or residential land or commercial or industrial areas, for single or double unit dwellinghouses in areas where values are influenced by demand for multi-unit housing, and for “existing use” properties, i.e., properties used for any purpose for which the owner or occupier is entitled to use the land pursuant to section 90 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977.

Part VI of the Rating Act provides for rating relief for farmlands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town councils, and county councils in respect of county towns. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farmlands lower than the normal rateable values.

Equalisation of Values—The Rating Act, Part IX, provides for an equitable adjustment of rates and of levies based on rateable values as between the several constituent districts comprising the district of an ad hoc local authority where those constituent districts have been revalued by the Valuer-General at different times. Provision is also made for equalisation to be done where the several ridings of a county have been revalued at different dates.

CAPITAL VALUE AND VALUE OF LAND—The figures in the following table show valuations over a period of years for the whole of New Zealand; they are gross values and include the value not only of rateable properties but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating. Valuation figures back to 1878 were given in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

As at 31 MarchCapital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*

* Included in previous column.

Includes the districts revalued after 1 March 1971 on the “land value” basis provided for by the Valuation of Land Amendment Act (No. 2) 1970, Which came into effect on that date. Earlier figures are on the basis of unimproved values only.

 $(million)
19626,945.72,061.1
19637,373.62,212.1
19647,760.42,345.8
19658,459.22,644.5
19669,085.02,865.5
19679,836.13,184.2
196810,631.63,487.0
196911,349.73,705.2
197012,515.64,170.7
197113,305.74,489.0
197214,331.35,046.3
197315,657.25,704.1
197417,871.76,778.3
197524,383.510,433.6
197630,011.513,386.7
197735,575.215,981.5
197841,228.718,696.5
197945,650.720,651.8

In the following table the gross values and net values for the latest years are analysed in more detail. Net values include all rateable property and all properties on which local authorities recover grants in lieu of rates. In interpreting these figures it is essential to realise that substantial boundary changes take place from time to time.

As at 31 MarchGross ValuesNet Values
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*
* Included in previous column.
$(million)
Counties
197712,264.56,896.911,465.56,659.6
197814,715.88,232.613,753.77,938.9
197916,278.69,013.815,218.68,697.9
Cities and Boroughs
197723,269.29,073.721,501.88,364.7
197826,481.910,457.724,493.09,658.9
197929,349.311,632.527,227.710,824.9
Town Districts
197741.510.937.710.2
197831.06.228.05.8
197922.85.520.95.1
Grand Totals
197735,575.215,981.533,005.015,034.5
197841,228.718,596.538,274.717,603.6
197945,650.720,651.842,467.219,57.9

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up-to-date has the effect in the preceding tables of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes.

With the present resources at the Valuation Department's disposal, an up-to-date revaluation of all properties in New Zealand would be an impossible task but by using the principle of valuation equalisation mentioned earlier, it is possible to compile up-to-date gross values by local body districts for the whole country. The gross capital value figures shown below have been compiled on the level of values as at 31 March 1979.

Territorial AreasGross Capital Value
 $(million)
Counties and communities20,926.4
Cities and boroughs32,484.3
Town districts29.8
 53,440.5

A comparison of these figures with the gross values shown for the year ended 31 March 1979 given previously, illustrates the point that valuation statistics tend to have the effect of delaying the appearance of current movements in the property market.

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 31 March 1979, and of rateable property values between the different types of local authority districts, also as at 31 March 1979.

Local Authority DistrictArea*PopulationNet Property Values
Capital ValueValue of LandValue of Improvements
* 31 March 1978 estimate.
Percentage Distribution
Counties and communities98.626.535.839.428.4
Cities and boroughs1.473.464.160.571.5
Town districts0.10.10.10.1
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

VALUERS REGISTRATION BOARD—The Valuers Act 1948 provides for the registration of land valuers and for some control of their work. There is a Registration Board under the chairmanship of the Valuer-General, which issues certificates for registration to all valuers and annual practising certificates to public valuers. The main objects of the Act are to secure a high standard of valuation work throughout the country and to encourage competent valuers. Of the 1358 valuers registered as at 31 March 1979, 528 have taken out annual practising certificates for the current year. The majority of the remaining 830 registered valuers are either employed in Government departments or do not make valuations for members of the public and thus are not required to hold annual practising certificates.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Particulars of values for each county, borough, and town district in considerable detail are contained in the research publication, The Real Estate Market in New Zealand, published by the Valuation Department and in the annual report, Local Authority Statistics, published by the Department of Statistics. The parliamentary report of the Valuation Department (Parl. paper G. 26) may also be consulted.

Chapter 11. Section 11 NATIONAL PLANNING

Table of Contents

DEVELOPMENT OF CONSULTATIVE PLANNING—New Zealand has now had several years of experience with a form of consultative planning, instituted as a result of the National Development Conference in 1968. The need for long-term planning in order to achieve a faster, more balanced, economic growth rate coupled with a proper consideration for environmental, social, and other non-material factors first came to the fore in the early 1950s.

During the 1950s and 1960s, “key sector” conferences were held on housing and on industrial, export, and agricultural development. These conferences reflected a changed attitude regarding the Government's role in growth and development. As a result of the work of the Agricultural Development Conference, in particular, medium- and long-term projections were accepted as the basis for planning and targets were set for agricultural production up to 10 years ahead. Another feature was the formation of continuing machinery after two of the conferences. This took the form of a Trade Promotion Council and an Agricultural Production Council.

Other sectors became interested in this approach to planning within sectors. Preparations were being made by the end of 1967 for conferences on forestry and tourism to be held in early 1969. One drawback of this type of action was that each sector tended to view its problems and future in isolation. The Government decided therefore to hold a National Development Conference, with plenary sessions in August 1968 and May 1969, to set economic planning on a national basis. The outcome of the conference was the adoption of national and sector growth targets and a large number of recommendations, many of which were later implemented.

THE NDC SYSTEM—The NDC planning structure, which succeeded the National Development Conference, consisted of a National Development Council and eventually 16 sector councils, including 7 bodies already in existence before the conference. The National Development Council, which was chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister, was designed to oversee and co-ordinate the work of the sector councils and to provide a direct link between the NDC system and the Government. The council was served by a Targets Advisory Group (TAG) chaired by the Governor of the Reserve Bank. A planning secretariat, located in the Treasury, served both the council and the Targets Advisory Group.

Considerable changes were made during succeeding years (for example, the National Development Council was abolished and its functions taken over by the Cabinet Committee on Policy and Priorities, and the Targets Advisory Group was renamed the Planning Advisory Group), but by the mid-1970s there was a general feeling that momentum had been lost and a major overhaul or replacement of the central planning organisation was necessary.

During 1976 the Government established a task force on social and economic planning under the chairmanship of Sir Frank Holmes. The objectives were to review past planning activities in New Zealand, to advise on major trends and issues, and to recommend a planning mechanism that would assist in the development of New Zealand's economy and society. The task force completed the exercise in October 1976, and issued its report entitled New Zealand at the Turning Point in December (the synopsis from this report was reprinted as a special article in the 1977 Yearbook). As a result of its recommendations a New Zealand Planning Council was set up in March 1977 as a first step towards the development of a national planning system as envisaged by the task force.

THE NEW ZEALAND PLANNING COUNCIL—In selecting the council members the Government was influenced by a task force recommendation that membership should reflect wide experience in many fields rather than represent particular sectional interests. Other notable departures from the NDC experience include a full-time chairman and secretariat, and the presence on the council of a senior Minister of the Crown with portfolio responsibilities directly relevant to the council's work (the Minister of National Development). Sir Frank Holmes, who had led the task force, was appointed the council's first chairman.

Although the council had been in operation since April 1977 a Statute (the New Zealand Planning Act, 1977) was enacted in December 1977 to formally establish the council and to set out its functions and powers. These include:

  1. To advise the Government on planning for social, economic, and cultural development in New Zealand;

  2. To assist the Government to co-ordinate such planning;

  3. To comment to the Government on programmes for social, economic, and cultural development in New Zealand, and to recommend the priorities that should be accorded to them;

  4. To act as focal point for a process of consultative planning about New Zealand's medium term development;

  5. To foster discussion among those agencies (Government and private) concerned with planning particularly in the economic, environmental, social, and cultural fields;

  6. To submit advice to the Government on links between planning at the national and regional levels;

  7. To prepare reports on any matter affecting the economic, social, or cultural development of New Zealand.

Before the New Zealand Planning Council was established the Government was assisted in its long-term economic planning and the development of natural resources by the Planning Advisory Group and a number of councils with a wide coverage of economic, social, and cultural affairs.

Most of them were originally sector councils under the National Development Council. Although the Planning Council maintains close links with those that still exist, they are not part of its formal structure; and it has also developed a wide network of consultation with many other individuals and agencies involved in planning.

In February 1978 the Monetary and Economic Council was disbanded and its role in monitoring economic trends and policies was assigned to the Planning Council. An Economic Monitoring Group (EMG), which works independently of the council, was set up in April 1978. It has produced three reports in a series Economic Trends and Policies; No. 1 in September 1978, No. 2 in September 1979, and No. 3 in April 1980.

Planning Council Publications—Between August 1977 and December 1979 the New Zealand Planning Council had published or issued the following documents.

NZPC Series
    No.1. A Moment of Truth1977
    No.2. Regional Options1977
    No.3. Town and Country Planning Bill1977
    No.4, Planning Perspectives 1978–19831978
    No.5. Taxation Reform. By Donald T. Brash and Graeme Thompson1978
    No.6. Income Maintenance and Taxation: Some options for reform. By Paul Bevin, Avery Jack and John Jensen1978
    No.7. Working Together1978
    No.8. New Zealand and the European Community1978
    No.9. The Future for New Zealand Agriculture: Economic Strategies for the 1980s. By Ian McLean1978
    No.10. Australian Relationships with New Zealand1978
    No.11. Economic Strategy: 19791979
    No.12. The Welfare State?: Social Policy in the 1980s1979
    No.12a. Public Expenditure and its Financing: 1950–19791979
    No.13 Implications of New Energy Developments1979
    No.14 He Matapuna—Some Maori Perspectives1979
Planning Papers
    No.1 The National Development Bill1979
    No.2 Land as Turangawaewae: Ngati Whatua's Destiny at Orakei. By I. H. Kawharu1979
    No.3 Finding a Pathway to the Future: He Ara Ki te Aomarama. By S. M. Mead1979
    No.4 Whakatupuranga Rua Mano—Generation 2000: An Experiment in Tribal Development. By Whatarangi Winiata1979

COMMISSION FOR THE FUTURE—The New Zealand Planning Act 1977 gave statutory recognition to both the New Zealand Planning Council and the Commission for the Future, which had been established in September 1976.

The principal general functions of the Commission for the Future are to study the possibilities for the long-term economic and social development of New Zealand; to report to the Minister of National Development on these possibilities; and to publish the information and stimulate further public discussion. In carrying out these general functions the commission is required to give special attention to the long-term implications for New Zealand of new or prospective developments in science and technology, and to have regard to prospective trends, policies, and events in New Zealand or overseas which could have important consequences for the country's future. The membership of the commission consists of not more than 7 members appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of National Development, a Minister of the Crown, a Member of Parliament nominated by the Leader of the Opposition, a member of the Planning Council, and the Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

The commission co-ordinates its activities closely with those of the Planning Council to avoid duplication of effort and to ensure the most efficient use of available resources.

This year the commission is undertaking the second half of its overview study, namely, the scenario production of alternative strategies for New Zealand. These will continue to be accompanied by a programme of public participation to encourage discussion of alternative futures and of new technologies and their use.

THE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL—The Social Development Council is a planning and advisory body responsible to the Minister of Social Welfare. The council has 6 members representing Government departments, and 12 private members, selected for their personal qualities and general or particular experience in the social field, but not as direct nominees of particular interest groups. The secretariat for the council is provided by the Department of Social Welfare.

The Social Development Council had its origins in the National Development Conference which was set up in 1968 to review New Zealand's resources, and to indicate broad lines for economic development over the subsequent decade. As a result of criticism that the conference's first session had been preoccupied with purely economic matters, the examination was broadened to include the development of a better social environment.

Among the recommendations to come from the National Development Conference was that for a permanent planning structure to be set up to continue the work of the conference. The National Development Council was established as the central body of the planning structure. A framework of sector councils was established and among these was the Social Council, whose task was to focus on the social aspects of development including those arising from the targets and programmes of other sector councils. The Social Council met for the first time in August 1971.

In December 1972, the functions of the National Development Council were transferred to the Cabinet Committee on Policy and Priorities. The Social Council continued to function with a change of name to the Social Development Council and altered terms of reference.

Under its present terms of reference, the council keeps under review social aspects of development and social policies needed to bring about a desirable quality of life. The council has a brief to initiate social development proposals for submission to the Minister of Social Welfare and to advise the Minister of Social Welfare and other Ministers through him of changes required in social policies, social needs arising from economic development, and any related aspects. It co-ordinates with other planning and advisory bodies and maintains contact with organisations concerned with social research.

Social Goal—The ultimate goal of the Social Development Council is a society in which the direction of development and social change is towards providing the maximum opportunity for each person to achieve happiness, and thus a society in which:

  1. Each person is able to create and belong to family or other intimate groups where a secure and happy environment is provided for children and dependent adults;

  2. Each person is regarded as having dignity and being worthy of respect, has the maximum freedom of choice and action without encroaching upon the rights of others, and is not discriminated against by reason of sex, race, culture or other distinguishing characteristics; and in which;

  3. Each person is able to contribute towards the identification and achievement of objectives for a multicultural community and is encouraged to understand and appreciate the religious, political and cultural attitudes, beliefs and customs of other persons and groups and to act responsibly within the community.

Specific Objectives—The following more specific objectives are considered to be important at the present time for helping progress toward the ultimate goal. An advantage of these is that the extent to which they are achieved can be measured by data available or obtainable:

  1. Each person has access to employment and vocational opportunities which are satisfying and within his or her capabilities.

  2. Each person has the maximum opportunity to be as physically and emotionally healthy and fit as his or her potential allows, and has ready and adequate access to necessary health and social welfare services.

  3. Each person has equal and effective access to opportunities to learn knowledge, skills, and attitudes, which will enable the development of the person and of his or her contribution to the well-being of the community.

  4. Each person or family group is housed adequately according to their needs in keeping with currently accepted standards.

  5. No person has his or her participation and enjoyment in the community restricted by an inadequate income.

  6. The hazards of injury, accident, and crime are kept to a minimum, and each person has adequate access to processes of law and equal rights before the law, is aware of his or her obligations under the law, and does not experience any avoidable hardship through being the victim of injury, accident, or crime.

  7. Each person has the right to leisure and the opportunity to participate in leisure-time activities including social, intellectual, artistic, cultural, and physical pursuits.

  8. Each person has the opportunity to participate in community decision-making and is encouraged to accept his or her responsibilities to the community.

OTHER PHASES OF NATIONAL PLANNING—Other phases of national planning are dealt with in other sections of this Yearbook. Land development and use, and the sometimes-conflicting claims of economic growth and the preservation of the natural environment, are discussed and described in Section 10A—Physical Environment and Economic Growth. Energy planning comes into Section 20—Energy Resources; industrial planning into Section 18—Manufacturing; and the scientific, agricultural, and industrial research that provides the essential background information for meaningful planning is briefly described in Section 7B—Science and Scientific Services. The question of finance for development comes into the Finance sections, especially Sections 29 and 30.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Fuller reports will be found in the two following Parliamentary papers:

Report of the New Zealand Planning Council (Parl. paper D. 9).

Report of the Commission for the Future (Parl. paper D. 10).

Chapter 12. Section 12 TRANSPORT

12 A—GENERAL

New Zealand, as a nation dependent on overseas trade and geographically remote from many of its trading partners, relies more heavily on transport than do many other countries. During recent years its transport industry has been the subject of a comprehensive examination and review by the Government. Transport has far-reaching effects on the economy, on society, and on the environment, and it was the recognition of the close link between transport and the general welfare of the community that highlighted the need to establish a transport policy as an integral part of New Zealand's broad development strategy.

Transport in New Zealand is complicated by the geographic configuration of the country, the separation into 2 main islands, the location of the main urban areas, the number and situation of the main ports, the seasonal nature of much of the production, and the large proportion of one-way loading in the internal transport system. In its overseas trade the country is still largely dependent on overseas shipping companies to carry its exports to distant markets and bring in imports.

Transport and Industry—Transport is an integral part of the production process. It supplies the factories with raw materials, and carries away the manufactured goods. It supplies the transport services by which the men and women who work in the factories travel to and from their homes. The efficiencies which have been achieved as a result of the greater concentration of industrial plant in recent years can to a certain extent be attributed to the development of technologically advanced and efficient transport services.

The priority given today by the international financial institutions to transport development in the less economically advanced countries of the world is further recognition of the importance of an adequate transport system as one of the foundations for national development.

Transport and Economic Development—One of the key elements in the attainment of a high standard of living in this country has been the development of an efficient internal transport system. There is no doubt that the establishment of rail and road links from the interior to the coastal ports was a prerequisite to the large-scale development of New Zealand's primary industry during the last century, and that it was the growth of international sea-transport and of a fast, regular service of refrigerated cargo ships that enabled New Zealand to evolve from a subsistence economy to one of the world's major exporters of meat and dairy produce.

The Distribution of Goods—Transport, as a key means of the mass distribution of goods, ensures that ample supplies and a wide variety of goods are readily available within all centres of population. The standard of living enjoyed by people living in the ever-growing urban concentrations that are a feature of developed countries depends ultimately on efficient national and international transport systems. Additionally, ready transport availability from the point of production to the points of consumption reduces the need for large warehouse holdings of goods. The reduction in warehouse costs can assist in the lowering of retail prices.

Relationship with Costs—Transport costs make up a substantial part of the price of a product. The cost of transport as a portion of the total cost of a product varies from a small percentage to the major portion. Obviously, transport costs make up a greater proportion of the cost of a bulky raw material than of a sophisticated manufactured item.

Transport and the Economy—It is estimated that the transport industry provides employment for over 9 percent of the labour force, and that the cost of moving goods and people is over $2,000 million each year. This figure provides an indication of the substantial sums spent on transport annually by private motor vehicle owners, road carriers, bus operators, rental vehicle firms, taxi proprietors, freight forwarders, shipping companies, and aircraft operators as well as the considerable amount of expenditure on our roads, ports, airports, and railways by both central and local government. In addition, the Central Government, through its ownership of Air New Zealand Ltd., Safe Air Ltd., the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand, and the New Zealand Railways Department, has acquired fixed assets valued at over $550 million in transport services in this country. As well as contributing to the provision of transport facilities through the payment of certain road, air, and sea user charges, the transport industry, through the payment of income tax, customs duties, sales tax, local body rates, the local authority petroleum tax, and various registration and licence fees, contributes a significant amount to the annual taxation revenue of the country. Furthermore, transport is a major consumer of industrial goods. It utilises large portions of the country's rubber, lead, zinc, steel, copper, and aluminium needs, for instance, and its high consumption of imported oil products has been a matter of national concern in recent years. Finally, as a major consumer of industrial products and as a means of distributing exports to our distant and diverse markets, transport has a significant effect on the country's balance of payments.

Transport and the Physical Environmental—The roads, airports, ports, railways, and pipelines of this country have an effect on the communities surrounding these facilities. They affect the location of manufacturing, retailing, and the distribution industries and influence the character of an area. On the other hand, they can divide communities and create not aesthetic problems as well as problems of pollution. Environmental and aesthetic considerations has have ............... increased attention in recent years. For example, the environmental aspects of major roading schemes are carefully considered in relation to their purpose, need, design, benefits, and detractions.

Transport and Society—Apart from the various considerations outlined in the previous paragraphs which closely affect the quality of life in this country, transport has numerous other effects on our society. For instance, the availability, type, and extent of transport can influence the character of a city or suburb. A city or town can be dominated by its port or its rail facilities just as a suburb can become, owing to its transport system, largely a “dormitory” suburb of a distant commercial area.

An efficient network of roads and other transport services both serves to knit together a community and discourages narrow parochialism by providing the means of cheap, convenient, and comfortable travel by which mental horizons are widened and the bonds of family or friendship kept strong. If the economic life of a country is heavily dependent on its transport system, so too is its social and cultural development.

The effect on a community of a change in transport policy must therefore be carefully evaluated by those responsible for running the country.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Publications dealing with shipping, railways, roads and road transport, and civil aviation are listed at the ends of the appropriate sections. Two publications discussing transport policy in general are:

A New Direction for New Zealand Transport (Parl. paper F. 13, 1974).

Interim Report on Transport (Parl. paper F. 14, 1975).

The annual report of the Ministry of Transport (Parl. paper F. 5) should also be consulted.

12 B—SHIPPING

The development of the container ship, the unitised cargo ship, the roll-on roll-off ship, and barge-carrying systems such as the “lash” (lighter aboard ship) system have brought about a world-wide revolution in the handling of maritime cargoes, and a new concept of the co-ordination of transport through the substitution of capital-intensive for labour-intensive operations. New Zealand is fully involved in this technological change.

A cargo-handling co-ordination committee serviced by the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport is affiliated to an international association with a control office in the United Kingdom.

PORT DEVELOPMENT—To ensure the control of harbour development a New Zealand Ports Authority was established by legislation in 1968. Amongst its several functions is the fostering of an efficient and integrated ports system and, to that end, the preparation of a national ports planning system.

Under this plan, harbour authorities must obtain the authority's approval for major capital projects, e.g., container cranes, storage sheds, and tugs. Consents granted during the year ended 31 March 1979 involved developments costing $13 million.

A feature of port development in recent years has been the acquisition of container cargo handling facilities. As a result of the containerisation of New Zealand's major export trades, New Zealand's 4 container ports—Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, and Port Chalmers—have all invested substantially in container cranes, straddle carriers, storage sheds, and ancillary facilities.

Auckland and Wellington each has 3 container cranes, Lyttelton 1 and Port Chalmers 2. In 1977 approval was given to the port of Mount Maunganui to purchase a multi-purpose gantry crane at a cost of $3.7 million. The crane came into operation in 1979 and is used extensively in the logging trade through the port.

CARGO TRAFFIC—The number of containers handled during 1978–79 was 246518, an increase of 31443 (+14.6 percent) on the total of 215075 handled in 1978. The 246518 movements comprised 112190 unloaded, 114296 loaded, and 20032 miscellaneous container movements. Increased numbers of containers were handled at every container port in 1978–79, the most significant increase being at Port Chalmers. By ports, Auckland handled 91986 containers, compared with 82520 last year; Wellington 80140 compared with 73725; Lyttelton, 22052 compared with 17978; and Port Chalmers, 52340 compared with 40852 in the previous year.

U.K./Europe Trade—Associated Container Transportation (ACT), in conjunction with the Australian National Line (ANL), operates 6 vessels which serve both Australia and New Zealand. Similarly, ANZECS (Australia - New Zealand - Europe Container Service), a consortium comprising 5 shipping lines, operates 12 container vessels between New Zealand, Australia, and Europe. The Shipping Corporation of New Zealand (SCNZ) is a member of ANZECS, and in September 1978 introduced its container ship, New Zealand Pacific, into the trade.

In addition, Scan Carriers provide a 2-ship containerised roll-on roll-off service calling at Timaru, Napier, and Auckland.

East Coast-North America Trade—This trade is almost completely containerised. ACT and ANL have combined to form the PACE Line which operates 5 vessels (3 ACT and 2 ANL) in similar fashion to their combined U.K.-Europe service. The Columbus Line operates 5 vessels which call at Auckland, Wellington, and Port Chalmers. Farrell Lines operate 4 vessels which call only at Auckland and Wellington.

West Indies and U.S. Gulf Trade—In 1980 a 3-ship container service operated jointly by Shaw Savill Line, Bank Line, and the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand was established. The Shipping Corporation's New Zealand Caribbean is to be one of the 3 ships for the joint service. Columbus Line already operates a 3-ship container service to the West Indies and the U.S. Gulf calling at Auckland and Wellington.

West Coast-North America Trade—This trade is also served by cellular container vessels. The Columbus Line operates 4 vessels on the trade and they call at Auckland and Wellington; and Farrell Lines operate 3 container/“lash” vessels which call as Auckland. Star Line Limited entered the West Coast-North America trade in February 1978 with 2 container vessels calling at Lyttelton, Wellington, and Auckland.

Japan-Korea Trade—This trade has now become almost fully containerised following the introduction of a 2-vessel container service in late 1976 by the 5 member lines of the New Zealand Eastern Shipping Committee. New Zealand ports of call for these vessels include Auckland, Wellington, and Port Chalmers.

Goods for Korea are normally transhipped via Japan but it is probable that, with the predicted growth in trade with that country, direct services will become necessary.

Middle East—In October 1978 Blue Star Line established a 2-ship container service with calls at Port Chalmers, New Plymouth, and Auckland.

Trans-Tasman—The Union Steam Ship Company operates 5 roll-on roll-off vessels on the trans-Tasman run, the Union Hobart, Union Lyttelton, Union Rotorua, Union Rotoiti, and the Marama, which was taken off the Pacific service and placed into the Tasman trade. The Union Company also operates, under agency, the Tasman Enterprise and Tasman Venture, 2 purpose built bulk carriers used to transport timber products to Australia for the Tasman Pulp and Paper Company. Maritime Carriers New Zealand Limited entered the trans-Tasman trade in 1978 with the M.V. Dunedin and the M.V. Waitaki.

Pacific Islands Trade—The Shipping Corporation operates on behalf of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs a New Zealand - Cook Islands - Niue - Tahiti service with its 2 unit-load vessels, the Tiare Moana and the Fetu Moana. The service with these vessels commenced operation in 1978 and was necessitated by the growing need to rationalise and increase the efficiency of shipping services to the region.

Pacific Forum Line—The Pacific Forum Line was established in June 1977 as a South Pacific Regional Shipping Line jointly controlled by member countries of the South Pacific Forum including New Zealand. The line's headquarters were established in Apia, Western Samoa, and operations began in May 1978 with 3 chartered conventional vessels, 1 being contributed by New Zealand.

In late 1979 and early 1980 these vessels were replaced by more suitable container vessels, these being chartered to the Pacific Forum Lire by Tonga (Fua Kavenga), Western Samoa (Forum Samoa), and New Zealand (Forum New Zealand).

Ports in New Zealand, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, Kiribati, Tuvalu, Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, New Caledonia, and Australia are now served.

Inter-Island and Coastal Services—A regular ferry service across the Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton, at the head of the Marlborough Sounds, is provided by rail ferries operated by the Railways Department. The ferries Aramoana and Aranui, which carry passengers and freight, normally make 25 round trips per week throughout the year. Two other ferries, Arahanga and Aratika, were designed to carry freight but, in addition, have limited accommodation for truck drivers and others whose vehicles are being carried. The Aratika has since been converted to carry passengers and freight.

During the year ended March 1979 the ferries carried 691615 passengers, 144551 passenger cars, 8859 trucks and trade cars, and 1725334 manifest tonnes of other goods. Gross revenue amounted to $33,281,585, an increase of $4,767,789 or 16.7 percent, and expenditure totalled $30,039,912, an increase of $3,172,335 or 11.8 percent, resulting in a profit of $3,241,673, compared with last year's profit of $1,646,226.

The Shipping Corporation of New Zealand operates the roll-on roll-off vessel Coastal Trader on the New Zealand coastal trade serving Auckland, Lyttelton, and Dunedin. Other ships engaged in the coastal trade are relatively small. Coastal shipping trade includes the movement of newsprint from Mount Maunganui to the South Island, cartage of cement and coal, and the Onehunga-Nelson trade.

SHIPPING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—In 1974 a Government-owned shipping corporation was set up to establish and operate shipping services as empowered by the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973. Development of the United Kingdom - Europe trade has grown with the introduction in October 1979 of the Shipping Corporation's new large container ship, New Zealand Pacific into the Australia - New Zealand - Europe container service (ANZECS) fleet of vessels serving New Zealand, Australia, Western Europe, and the United Kingdom. This milestone marked the expansion of the corporation's participation in this most important trade to New Zealand, from operating 2 small conventional vessels (1 of which has now been sold) to full membership of the ANZECS consortia, operating one of the world's largest refrigerated container vessels.

New Zealand's trade with the Japan-Korea area has steadily grown—as has the SCNZ carriage of the trade. At present, Korea continues to be served by transhipment via Japan, but it is likely that with the predicted growth in trade with that country Korea will require improved direct services. With the launching of the New Zealand Caribbean in late 1979 the Shipping Corporation has entered into the West Indies - US Gulf Trade, giving New Zealand exporters greater access to Caribbean and United Slates Gulf ports.

SCNZ Agencies—Commencing with the agency for Shaw Savill and Albion Co. Limited in 1974, the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand now acts as agents for the following companies:

Shaw Savill & Albion Co. Limited; New Zealand Line; Comalco Chartered Vessel Bulknes; Bank & Savill Line; Pacific Forum Line; Salen Rederiana—Sweden; and Nissui.

In the container terminals at Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, and Port Chalmers the corporation acts for:

Overseas Containers Limited; Japan Line; Mitsui OSK; Crusader Swire Container Service; Mapag—Lloyd Aktiengersellschaft; Ned Lloyd Ljnen B.V.; Compagnie Generale Maritime; and Lloyd Triestino di Navigazione Sp.A.

SHIPPING ON NEW ZEALAND REGISTER—At 31 December 1979 there were 1472 ships on the New Zealand register, the total gross tonnage being 303060 and net tonnage, 162142. (Gross tonnage is defined by Lloyds as the capacity in cubic feet of spaces within the hull and of the enclosed spaces above the deck available for cargo, stores, passengers, and crew, with certain exceptions, divided by 100. Thus, 100 cubic feet of capacity is equivalent to 1 gross ton. Net tonnage is derived from gross tonnage by deducting spaces used for the accommodation of the master, officers, crew, navigation equipment, propelling machinery, and fuel.)

Most of the vessels on the register are relatively small. Vessels not exceeding 15 net tons, employed in trade solely on the coast or inland waters, are not required to register under the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952. These small trading vessels, along with yachts and other pleasure craft, may be registered at the request of the owners.

The following table shows registered trading vessels. Ships in overseas trade are mainly engaged in trans-Tasman and Pacific Islands trading movements.

YearNumber of VesselsNet Registered Tonnage*Number of Crew
* 1 ton equals 2.53 cubic metres.
Coastal Trade
19771543,125565
19781543,843538
Overseas Trade
19771985,322637
19781884,577526

PORT STATISTICS—Demands made on ports by overseas and coastal vessels are illustrated in the following table, which gives the total, number and tonnage of all calls made each year.

YearOverseas VesselsCoastal VesselsTotal
Number of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet Tonnage
  tons (000) tons (000) tons (000)
1976376220,886777811,30311,54032,189
1977340022,317763911,17811,03933,495
1978325123,134674110,506999233,640
1979343825,199678211,44010,22036,639

All Calls of Overseas Vessels—The following table shows for 3 recent years the number of calls and net tonnage of overseas vessels arriving at New Zealand ports, either direct or coastwise.

Port197719781979
Number of CallsNet Tonnage of VesselsNumber of CallsNet Tonnage of VesselsNumber of CallsNet Tonnage of Vessels
  tons (000) tons (000) tons (000)
Bay of Islands15131896879
Whangarei103148611915691161699
Auckland970663989866839767464
Onehunga472548316443
Taharoa282402130819669
Tauranga433244444925574312621
Gisborne167318382971
Napier2079901789551951036
Taranaki754088450776508
Waverley156331470112629
Wellington423325742935714494026
Picton1910211741270
Nelson152639162675255766
Westport5412714
Greymouth5433
Lyttelton370201339222993722248
Timaru1105358644491495
Otago214158517116451901946
Bluff1931108159979136814
                Total340022,317325123,134343825,199

CARGO STATISTICS—With cargo statistics it should be noted that the term “tonne” does not invariably denote a weight of 1000 kg. It is practicable to obtain the actual weights involved for only a portion of the goods handled. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulas as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, etc., to the tonne. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, is recorded in measurement tonnes, 1 cubic metre of space being regarded as the equivalent of a tonne. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in measurement tonnes, direct comparisons of tonnages of imports and exports are not always valid.

The following table gives a summary of the tonnage of cargo passing through all ports for the latest 4 calendar years.

YearInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

* Excluding transhipments.

Transhipments included twice.

Manifest tonnes (000)
1976833110,0381497977821934,863
1977840310,1971458086906836,044
197877039609147728610,22835,120
1979727910,858139721310,99136,620

With the rise of ports handling specialised cargoes and major ports mechanically handling bulk loads and goods in containers on and off cellular container ships, the pattern of cargo movements has changed rapidly. Technical developments in packaging (containers, pallets) and transport (bulk loading) has tended to concentrate mechanised handling of cargo through a few ports with the consequent displacement of the manual labour of waterside workers.

The total tonnage of cargo handled by waterside workers in the year ended 30 September 1978 amounted to 12.3 million tonnes, a reduction of almost 0.9 million tonnes when compared with the 13.2 million tonnes handled in the previous 12 months. Overseas cargo handled decreased by 334442 tonnes and coastal and trans-Tasman cargoes by 526417 tonnes.

There was a substantial reduction of 680287 tonnes in overseas conventional general cargo unloaded during the year ended September 1978, while bulk sulphur and phosphates increased 120379 tonnes and other bulk cargoes unloaded increased 80710 tonnes.

The total cargo unloaded and loaded by cellular container ships increased substantially from 1639946 tonnes in 1976–77 to 2095326 tonnes in 1977–78, an increase of 455380 tonnes or 27.8 percent. This increase followed an even larger growth in container cargoes in 1976–77, when 639415 tonnes or 63.9 percent more cargo was handled than in the previous year. Total cargo handled on cellular container ships has therefore increased more than 100 percent in the last 2 years.

A summation of cargo movements through ports shows that total tonnage throughputs of New Zealand ports have more than doubled since 1962 largely as the result of the double handling of oil to and from the refinery, and the growth of exports of forest products. Tonnages of farm produce—butter, cheese, meat, wool, and fruit—have remained relatively stable over the years but have dropped from 8.1 percent of total throughput in 1964 to 5.2 percent in 1979. The figures and percentages for different types of cargo are given in the following table. Transhipments have been included. It should be noted that cargo figures shown in this and other tables refer to calendar years, and that the “tonnes” are “manifest tonnes”.

Item197719781979
* Mostly refrigerated, except wool.
 tonnes(000)tonnes(000)tonnes(000)
Inward cargo18,74517,45918,276
Outward cargo17,29917,66118,344
Total throughput36,04435,12036,620
Some Principal Farm Products*
    Butter165153194
    Cheese896580
    Meat, frozen894867858
    Wool365383402
    Fruit, fresh298349367
    Total, farm products listed181118171902
      Percentage of throughput5.05.25.2
Forest Products
    Total—timber only178117462050
    Percentage of throughput4.95.05.6
Bulk Commodities
    Cement108511001014
    Coal and coke199139119
    Grain333328331
    Fertilisers175719802031
    Sand, shingle, and shell323238113684
    Total, bulk commodities660673587179
    Percentage of throughput18.321.019.6
Oil Products
    Total, oil products12,44011,51211,600
      Percentage of throughput34.532.831.7
Other Cargo
    Total, other cargo13,40612,68513,889
      Percentage of throughput37.236.137.9

The next table shows for each port the total inward and outward cargo in 1979. Loadings of bunker fuels are not included. A large proportion of the coastal movement concerns oil tankers working from the Whangarei refinery, while the movements of cars by tourists build up the Wellington and Picton tonnages.

PortInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

* Excluding transhipments.

Transhipments included twice.

manifest tonnes
Parengarenga461568,01972,634
Houhora35273527
Awanui39993999
Mangonui34433443
Whangaroa
Bay of Islands746746
Whangarei488,7693,149,3723,170,352161,6136,970,106
Mangawhai
Auckland1,265,2642,774,84613,136186,3921,366,8135,619,587
Onehunga116,61615,24418431,37475,586239,188
Raglan20,95020,950
Taharoa2,005,9432,005,943
Tauranga761,006731,57235,1502,351,7823,879,510
Gisborne14,16651,41065,576
Napier278,858442,657516,4351,237,950
Taranaki202,148254,008503,77178,1451,038,072
Waverley1,418,6001,418,600
Wanganui51,75251,752
Wellington1,607,1691,449,623124,0441,445,854915,6815,666,415
Picton1,140,8601,093,01426,8702,260,744
Nelson206,23853,95133,488543,480837,157
Tarakohe172,770172,770
Wesport14167,27115,133182,418
Greymouth
Lyttelton495,926893,9861799174,760291,6371,859,907
Chatham Islands9117237211,489
Timaru173,27399,37913,148125,701411,501
Otago220,961306,79532,309833,8061,393,871
Bluff204,009686,18181,630212,7221,184,542
Half Moon Bay542118177238
              Total7,278,83310,857,628139,1637,213,49110,991,35736,619,635

Inward Overseas Cargo—The following table shows the tonnage of some major items of inward overseas cargo handled in 1979. Transhipments are excluded.

PortIron and SteelMachineryFertilisersMotor Spirit, KeroseneOil, Other MineralsMotor Vehicles and PartsGypsum, Plaster of Paris
manifest tonnes
Whangarei782148,9992,991,4718120
Auckland370,146102,280147,852416,11327,074281,94638,473
Tauranga405,73580,877143
Napier10,2493153348,57936,5341361
Taranaki5187976232,521137
Wellington95,84834,2391223339,98357,726284,667
Nelson341,7412911,421
Lyttelton43,86117,732165,660214,002848561,60517,369
Timaru946313371,39523640
Otago817868,45616,90329685805
Bluff257,30710,325
All other ports91173233
          Total536,111161,5861,889,4681,114,7373,084,779633,72981,188
PortFresh FruitGrainSugarTextilesAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tonnes
Whangarei3,149,372
Auckland96,36630,286148,43696,6761,019,1982,774,846
Tauranga9350235,467731,572
Napier132141,460442,657
Taranaki1832014,984254,008
Wellington768313123,309604,8141,449,623
Nelson7268553,951
Lyttelton33,76660669421,816302,936893,986
Timaru14248121,73799,379
Otago242204,243306,795
Bluff418,549686,181
All other ports298515075954415,258
          Total142,29640,010156,637143,4702,873,61710,857,628

Outward Overseas Cargo—In the section dealing with the export trade it is pointed out that pastoral products make up over 70 percent by value of New Zealand's exports. The following table shows how the various ports participated in the handling of the volume of the main items in the outward overseas cargo, excluding transhipments, during 1979.

PortButterCheeseOther Milk ProductsFrozen and Preserved MeatsHides and SkinsTallowWool
manifest tonnes
Whangarei11,2332153,886533161
Auckland75,63222,779200,775199,83820,20725,35359,627
Onehunga72665250031634176
Tauranga43,705752151,4712341140824404
Gisborne374285
Napier234135146,885374515,44719,684
Taranaki17,498733724,26010,1217832131
Wellington39,63340,72651,633328,93040,1453119234,919
Picton
Nelson26915892239
Lyttelton138519,15652,19111,301604143,276
Timaru70640,318105211,6057361
Otago20072917626852
Bluff19448,39013613,5656575
All other ports
Total188,42973,999507,723738,56876,61684,444384,981
PortFresh FruitBeans and PeasPaper, Newsprint, etc.Timber, SoftwoodIron-sandAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tonnes
Whangarei580890,520161,613
Auckland48,900158912,18922,0823677,8391,366,813
Onehunga496121684359462,92375,586
Taharoa2,005,9432,005,943
Tauranga731319,2481,308,338516,7092,351,782
Gisborne47,58351,410
Napier71,72821210682,639272,793516,435
Taranaki8780348014,64578,145
Waverley1,418,6001,418,600
Wellington2846242113783880166,051915,681
Picton19,213765726,870
Nelson90,10217431,50616,336543,480
Lyttelton13520,73122729,229107,965291,637
Timaru35490851859,198125,701
Otago70809838,138777,840833,806
Bluff1412,417131,431212,722
All other ports15,13315,133
          Total222,14029,811337,6351,957,8423,424,5462,964,62310,991,357

MERCHANT NAVY QUALIFICATIONS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport conducts regular examinations for merchant service personnel who wish to obtain certificates of competency as master, mate, or engineer. There are different standards of certificates for foreign-going, home trade, and restricted limits ships. The foreign-going certificates as master, first mate, second mate, and first-and second-class steam and motor engineer, are valid in most Commonwealth countries. Examinations are also conducted for skippers and mates of deep sea, coastal, and inshore fishing boats. Voluntary examinations are held for yachtsmen.

NAUTICAL SCHOOLS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport maintains nautical schools in Wellington and Auckland. Courses leading to the examinations for all grades of masters and mates certificates are available. Courses are also held for able seamen and ordinary seamen, for yachtsmen, and in radar.

SHIP SURVEY STATISTICS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport carries out the survey of ships as required by the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952. Some 1577 certificates of survey were issued in 1978. The department is also required to issue certificates to vessels engaged in international voyages in accordance with the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960, to which New Zealand is a signatory. Also special surveys are made for seaworthiness after damage, for efficiency of equipment, and for tonnage measurement.

LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE—On headlands, capes, reefs, and shoals around the 6968 kilometres of coastline and the waters in harbours and lakes controlled by the Ministry of Transport there are 252 navigational aids. These aids comprise 19 manned lighthouses, 113 automatic lights, 89 day beacons, 17 navigational buoys, 1 fog signal, and 13 radio beacons. Their provision, maintenance, and servicing is a responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport, and involves an expenditure of approximately $1 1/2 million annually. Lighthouse tenders, aircraft, helicopters, and road transport, along with a number of workshops, are used to provide this service to give the mariner reliable navigational aids. Light dues collected from overseas and coastal ships meet most of the running costs of the service.

The beacon light on Tiritiri Matangi Island, the main coastal approach to Auckland Harbour, is of 11-million candlepower, and is one of the most powerful in the Southern Hemisphere.

WRECKS—In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Transport, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a district judge, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, or in any river or lake, the Receiver of Wreck for that district has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

Shipping Casualties—During the 1978 calendar year 237 shipping casualties were reported to the Ministry of Transport. The table below shows the type of vessels involved and the nature of the casualty.

Type of ShipMachinery Breakdown and MiscellaneousCapsizing and CollisionStranding and GroundingFounderingFireTotal
Passenger2114
Cargo122712
Fishing571212339
Dredges, tugs, etc.11114
Pleasure92383099178
        Total10149452220237

Fishing boat accidents on the New Zealand coast resulted in the loss of 15 vessels and 11 lives. As a result of pleasure boat accidents, 15 deaths were recorded.

Casualties involving serious damage, injury, or loss of life were investigated and preliminary inquiries were carried out in 19 cases. No judicial inquiries into any of the casualties were conducted.

SAFETY OF SHIPS—A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, administered by the Ministry of Transport, is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960 and the International Load Line Convention 1966, to both of which New Zealand is a signatory. Both conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters.

MARINE POLLUTION—The Marine Pollution Act 1974 gives effect to a number of international conventions relating to oil pollution. The most important of these is the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1954, as amended in 1962 and 1969. The Act prohibits the discharge of oil within the territorial sea and restricts the discharge of oil elsewhere to insignificant amounts. A contingency plan has been developed to deal with a major spillage of oil in the vicinity of New Zealand and a considerable quantity of oil pollution control equipment and oil dispersant is being stockpiled in New Zealand to deal with such an eventuality.

PLEASURE CRAFT—The Census of Population and Dwellings 1971 revealed that 77529 households (9.7 percent of all households) had one or more pleasure boats. Of such households, 50971 were in main urban areas.

Means of propulsion of the 77529 boats enumerated were as follows: outboard motor 35101; inboard motor 18651; inboard jet motor 1494; sails and engine 1180; sails 9413; oars and paddles 10645; other means and not specified 1045.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on shipping, ports, and cargo may be found in the following publications.

Transport Statistics—Department of Statistics.

(This annual report is usually preceded by separate bulletins on Shipping and Cargo Statistics, Railways, and Road Transport.)

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Waterfront Industry Commission (Parl. paper G. 2).

Report of the Ministry of Transport (Parl. paper F. 5).

Report of the New Zealand Ports Authority (Parl. paper F. 5A).

Report of the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Parl. paper F. 13).

Turnround of Overseas Shipping—Waterfront Industry Commission (4-monthly).

Royal Commission on Containers: Final and Interim Reports (1972).

12 C—RAILWAYS

RAILWAYS DEVELOPMENT—A network of railways extending over 4500 km links almost all the principal centres of population in New Zealand. Almost all the railways services in the country are provided by the New Zealand Government Railways Department, using the title New Zealand Railways for trading purposes. The department also operates road services over more than 10000 route kilometres of highway, and a rail and road vehicle and passenger ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton. Over 21000 people are employed by the department.

Recent years have seen notable progress in development of the system and a steady increase in the carrying capacity of its main lines. Extensive use is being made of the latest developments in railway-transport technology, including diesel and electric traction, transistorised equipment for centralised traffic control, mechanised equipment for freight handling and track-maintenance work, and electronic data-processing machines to assist with accounting and statistical operations. Many new types of goods wagons have been and are being introduced, and numerous station buildings, goods sheds, bridges, etc., are being replaced by up-to-date structures in a continuing programme.

In 1971 the Te Rapa marshalling yard, near Hamilton, was opened. This 30-hectare yard is the only one in New Zealand to have a semi-automatic hump-shunting system, while the electronic equipment makes it the most advanced of New Zealand Railways' marshalling yards.

In September 1978 the Kaimai deviation was opened. The deviation, which includes an 8.9-km tunnel, substantially shortened the railway distance between the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty.

Under construction is the 9-kilometre Mangaweka deviation between Mangaweka and Utiku. This deviation which includes 3 bridges with a total length of 610 metres will eliminate a difficult section of the main trunk line which is very expensive to maintain and replace it with a low-maintenance, all-weather, high-speed route.

The establishment of a nationwide computerised wagon control scheme began in February 1979 with the start of operations at the Napier Traffic Monitoring System (TMS) centre. Seven more centres will be brought into service and, when fully established nationwide, the system will provide increased wagon utilisation with improved speed and efficiency in the department's freight operations.

A brief history of the first hundred years of railway development in New Zealand was included as a special article in the 1963 edition of the Yearbook.

EXTENT OF THE SYSTEM—The total route length of railways vested in the New Zealand Government Railways Department and open for traffic at 31 March 1979 was 4536 kilometres—2555 kilometres in the North Island and 1981 in the South Island. In addition, the Railways Department was working traffic over a further 7 kilometres of railways owned by other Government departments. Double line was worked over a total of 254 route kilometres, of which 208 kilometres were in the North Island. A total of 100 route kilometres of railways electrified on the 1500-volt direct current overhead contact system was in use at 31 March 1979.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND ENGINEERING—In most instances, Government railways in New Zealand were constructed by the Public Works Department, now the Ministry of Works and Development, and handed over to the Railways Department upon completion. Recent practice has been for the Ministry of Works and Development to construct the earthworks, bridges, tunnels, and buildings, and for the Railways Department to lay the tracks and install signals.

Track—All track is laid to a gauge of 1067 mm. The major routes are laid with rails 85 or 91 lb per yard (42.2 or 45.1 kg/m) but these lines will be progressively relaid with rails weighing 50 kg per metre. Secondary and branch lines have generally been laid with rails weighing 55, 70, and 72 lb per yard (27.3, 34.7, and 35.7 kg/m) and the practice is to relay these lines with heavier rails from the main lines. Treated Pinus radiata sleepers, laid about 1480 per kilometre, have gradually replaced Australian hardwood sleepers, and locally manufactured concrete sleepers are also being used on selected areas on the main routes. Track with fishplates and bolts at every joint is progressively replaced with rails welded at the joints on all major routes and on some secondary lines.

Bridges—To carry the railways across gorges, rivers, and streams in New Zealand, about 2600 bridges and viaducts have been built with an aggregate length of 90 kilometres. The longest railway bridge is that over the Rakaia River, 55 kilometres south of Christchurch. Completed in 1939 to replace an original timber structure of the 1870s, it is 1743 metres in length.

The highest viaduct is the Mohaka, completed in 1937 to carry the Napier-Gisborne railway 97 metres above the bed of the Mohaka River. Twenty-one New Zealand railway viaducts carry the rails more than 33 metres above the streams they cross.

Tunnels—There are 183 railway tunnels in New Zealand. The 3 longest tunnels are Kaimai (8.9 km), between Tauranga and Hamilton; Rimutaka (8.8 km), between Wellington and Masterton; and Otira (S.5 km), between Otira and Arthur's Pass.

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service—An air freight service across Cook Strait was commenced in February 1947. In recent years this service has been considerably affected by the alternative service offered by the rail ferries, and has operated at a loss.

Cook Strait Rail/Ferry Service—Three ferries carrying road and rail vehicles and passengers are operated by the Railways Department between Wellington and Picton. Two of the vessels, Aramoana and Aranui, can carry 30 rail wagons, about 55 cars, and 800 passengers. A third vessel, Aratika, was converted from a freight-only ship in 1976 and now carries 50 rail wagons, about 70 cars, and 800 passengers. A fourth vessel, Arahanga, carries 50 rail wagons and 40 road freight vehicles.

In 1977 Aramoana was extensively refitted and in 1978 Aranui received a similar but less extensive refit.

ROLLING STOCK: Wagons—The Railways Department's fleet goods and livestock wagons at 31 March 1979 totalled 28597 with a total carrying capacity of 493059906 kg. In recent years thousands of new wagons have been introduced, including long, covered bogie wagons with wide doorways for mechanical loading of palletised freight, for use on express goods trains. Special-purpose wagons include those designed for log traffic, packaged timber, and bulk commodities such as cement, flour, plaster, heated tallow, sulphuric acid, and aluminium sulphate, and wagons for coal traffic for the Mission Bush steel mill. Many bogie flat-top wagons have also been built or modified for the ever-increasing volume of container traffic. In addition to the wagons owned by the department, another 269 privately-owned wagons are also in use, mainly for petrol and cement traffic.

PASSENGER SERVICES—In addition to the normal suburban services, New Zealand Railways run 4 prestige passenger trains. These are the Silver Fern, Northerner, Southerner, and Endeavour.

The Silver Fern daylight express railcar runs 6 days a week, between Auckland and Wellington. This service is licensed, air conditioned, and has hostesses.

The Northerner express runs nightly between Auckland and Wellington, and has both day and sleeping cars. The train, which has a licensed dining car, stops at many of the smaller towns not served by the Silver Fern.

The Southerner runs 6 days a week between Christchurch and Invercargill. This train has hostesses and a buffet car. The Endeavour, which runs daily between Wellington and Napier, is similar.

Most provincial passenger services are run by Railways' Road Services following the withdrawal of railcars, many of which were worn out. However, on routes where there are geographical and social considerations, refurbished railcars, with their motors removed, have been placed in service. These cars, known as “Ac” cars, are hauled by diesel-electric locomotives.

The following table sets out the numbers of rail passenger journeys and the corresponding receipts.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of JourneysPassenger Revenue
SuburbanNon-suburbanTotalSuburbanNon-suburbanTotal
 (000)(000)(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
197717,189128918,4784,3485,5779,925
197815,396100616,4024,6955,85210,547
197915,742100716,7495,5196,08711,606

GOODS TRAFFIC—The following table shows the volume of goods traffic in tonnes and tonne-kilometres, and the revenue received from goods and parcels traffic consigned by rail.

Year Ended 31 MarchGoods Carried (Excluding Parcels)Total Revenue from Goods and Parcels Traffic
TonnesNet Tonne-kilometresNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal
* Revenue from rail parcels traffic was $4,703,000 in 1976–77, $4,735,000 in 1977–78, and $5,313,513 in 1978–79.
 (000)(million)$(000)$(000)$(000)
197713,6013723.5135,96553,246189,211*
197812,5773401.7143,57755,062198,639*
197911,7223281.0157,54164,230221,771*

MOTIVE POWER—Dieselisation of New Zealand Railways began in 1949 and was completed by 1971. The most powerful diesel-electric locomotives in service are the American-built 2050 kW “Dx” class.

At 31 March 1979, 421063-kW “Da” class locomotives were shipped to Australia for rebuilding and 27 of these locomotives have since returned to New Zealand as class “Dc”.

Twenty “Df” class locomotives were bought from General Motors of Canada for service on the Christchurch-Picton line and in the North Island.

The 6 “Dh” class heavy shunting locomotives purchased from the General Electric Company of America entered service during 1978–79 and tenders were called for the supply of a number of further high-powered shunting locomotives to work in major yards.

At 31 March 1979, New Zealand Railways had 312 mainline diesel-electric locomotives, 193 diesel shunting locomotives, 14 electric locomotives, and 2 steam locomotives.

The electric locomotives are used in the Wellington suburban area and to haul trains through the 8.5-kilometre Otira tunnel.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Gross revenue and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue
* Deficit recovered: from Vote: Stabilisation.
  $(000) 
1977248,070260,073−12,003*
1978266,404304,184−37,780*
1979299,513346,786−47,274*

The chief items of expenditure for 1978–79 were wages, $204,501,696; fuel (including electricity) for locomotives, road vehicles, and rail ferries, $17,637,075; stores and materials, $55,929,611; depreciation, $22,041,873; and miscellaneous, $31,937,389.

The revenue and expenditure for recent years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items' are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or Loss
Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.
 $(000)
1977202,41945,651214,79645,277−12,377+374
1978212,74853,656251,86352,320−39,115+1,336
1979237,26662,247287,24159,545−49,975+2,702

The respective Island figures of revenue and expenditure for railway operation only (i.e., omitting subsidiary services) are given below for the 1978–79 year.

Section of RailwayRevenueExpenditureOperating Deficit
$(000)
North Island170,462193,59228,130
South Island66,80488,64921,845
New Zealand237,266287,24149,975

The revenue and expenditure of the various subsidiary services conducted by the Railways Department is set out in the following table. Full working costs are charged against these services, and interest which is debited to road services and rail ferries is credited to miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

ServiceRevenueExpenditure
1976–771977–781978–791976–771977–781978–79
 $(000)
Advertising388384412371373374
Departmental houses1,6601,8502,2633,7834,7375,261
Road services—
    Passenger and goods16,44018,44921,61917,92420,34323,870
Cook Strait rail ferry service23,59528,51433,28223,19926,86730,040
Miscellaneous3,5684,4594,671---
                  Total45,65153,65662,24745,27752,32059,545

Revenue—In the following table the railway operating revenue is classified according to the class of traffic, etc., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassenger TrafficGoods and ParcelsCatering ServicesTotal
$(000)
19779,925189,2113,283202,419
197810,547198,6393,563212,749
197911,606221,7713,888237,266

Expenditure—The railway operating expenditure is shown under various heads in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance of Way and WorksMaintenance of Rolling StockLocomotive TransportationTraffic TransportationHead Office and General Charges*Catering ServicesTotal
* Includes superannuation subsidy.
    $(000)   
197752,89346,05835,19363,31111,0276,314214,796
197865,29753,90440,95272,31312,2537,144251,863
197975,29463,08645,04381,41514,3548,048287,241

Expenditure has been influenced by progressively higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment, as well as higher costs of fuel and materials.

Capital Expenditure—Expenditure on capital works and new equipment is set out in the following table.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197719781979
* Includes Capital Equipment Credits.
$(000)
Plant and equipment2,4543,8983,998
Works programme19,15420,35519,828
Rolling stock22,718*17,337*27,392*
Motor vehicles4,3725,0674,414
Rail ferries6,857*3,203*4,095*
                    Total55,55549,86059,729

This capital expenditure has been met from the department's own depreciation reserves, National Development loans, and overseas credits.

The relative proportions of capital funded from these sources were as follows:

SourceYear Ended 31 March
197719781979
 $(000)percent  $(000)percent  $(000)percent  
Railway depreciation17,3543119,8914022,29237
National Development Loan22,8114123,1274621,13036
Overseas credits15,390286,8421416,30727
                Total55,55510049,86010059,729100

RAIL FERRY TRAFFIC—Traffic statistics for the rail ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Return CrossingsTotal Passenger JourneysMotor Vehicles (of all kinds)Freight in Railway Wagons
NumberManifest TonnesLeadweight TonnesManifest Tonnes
19771955685,290152,976841,3681,004,3641,284,598
19781945724,242157,615866,883999,5021,612,268
19791906691,615153,410843,755956,5841,725,334

Financial statistics for the Cook Strait ferry service are as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure, Total
PassengerCateringPassengers Motor VehiclesGoods (Rail and Road)Total
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
19773,4866293,06716,41323,59523,200
19784,1387993,82719,75028,51426,868
19794,6488744,42423,33633,28230,040

The following diagram illustrates the traffic on the railways and road services.

Figure 12.1. GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES—The number of persons employed by the Government railways at 31 March 1979 was 21293 (excluding 783 sea-going staff employed on the Cook Strait rail ferries), compared with 21338 a year earlier.

ACCIDENTS AT LEVEL CROSSINGS—Accidents at level crossings resulted in the death of 3 people and injury to 21 others in 1978–79; in the previous year 12 were killed and 26 injured.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS—There are a number of short private railways in New Zealand, principally lines serving collieries and other industrial undertakings. The 11-km line of the Ohai Railway Board, extends from Wairio (north-west of Invercargill) to coal mines at Ohai. The Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., in the North Island, operates a 10-km private line from Awakeri to its mill at Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty.

RAILWAY OPERATED ROAD SERVICES—There is a network of railway-operated road services the origin of which dates back to November 1926 when a bus service between Napier and Hastings was purchased. Others were acquired in the following years (notably the services within the Hutt Valley and between the Hutt Valley arid Wellington in 1927 and 1928), but it was 1934 before the first long-distance coach service was taken over. The main development of the network took place between 1936 and 1951, when the route distance over which licences were held rose from 418 to 9641 km. Now the Railways Department maintains in its fleet almost 21 percent of all the vehicles used to provide road passenger services throughout the country. At 31 March 1979, the Railways Department's road services branch employed a staff of 1601.

Suburban bus services at Auckland, Rotorua, Hastings, Hutt Valley, Wellington-Khandallah, Titahi Bay, Paraparaumu, and Dunedin, with a fleet of 268 vehicles at 31 March 1979, carried 11823000 passengers and earned a total revenue of $3,901,503. All the other road passenger services, both long and short distance, with 603 coaches, buses, and other vehicles, carried 7917000 passengers and earned a revenue of $16,422,597. The routes of the services in operation at 31 March 1979 covered 10144 km of highway.

In addition to the road passenger services, a small number of road goods services were operated. Goods traffic on these services, for which some 79 motor vehicles were maintained, produced a further $1,294,810 in 1978–79. A rail ancillary goods service is operated by the department's Traffic Branch for the carriage of goods consigned to or from wayside stations.

The following selected statistics illustrate the development of the Railways Department's road services operations.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoute Kilometres at 31 March*Number of Passenger Vehicles at 31 MarchNumber of Other Vehicles at 31 MarchTotal Passenger JourneysTotal Passenger and Goods RevenueTotal Expenditure, Including Interest Charges
* Route kilometres for which licences are held.
    (000)$(000)$(000)
1977997578237720,32316,44017,924
197810,14178138119,90018,44920,343
197910,14477437819,74021,61923,870

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Railways Department (Parl. Paper F7)

Transport Statistics (Dept. of Statistics)

Monthly Abstract of Statistics (Dept. of Statistics)

12 D—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

GENERAL—Capital investment in New Zealand's roading and road transport system exceeds that of all other forms of transport services. There are more than 96000 kilometres of road and over 1.6 million motor vehicles, while the population census in 1976 revealed that there were 38289 road transport drivers in the labour force. A further 40344 persons were employed in the repair, servicing, and sale of motor vehicles, and 11791 persons were engaged in motor-vehicle assembly and body building.

ROADS AND BRIDGES—The cost of providing adequate roads in New Zealand as a proportion of annual investments is relatively high in comparison with many other countries, largely because of the nature of the country and the wide variety of terrain frequently encountered within relatively short distances, and of occasional rain and flood damage.

Annual roading expenditure by Central and Local Government is now almost $245 million. Maintenance comprises a little over half the expenditure.

Because of its many swiftly-flowing rivers and streams and its inland gorges and deep ravines, New Zealand is faced with major bridging problems, which are perhaps different in character and more complex than those generally found elsewhere. A survey of bridging in 1974–75 confirmed that many 30-to 40-year-old bridges warranted strengthening or replacement in order to meet current motor transport requirements. In view of financial stringency, the National Roads Board has set priorities for bridging work, with the replacement of emergency Bailey bridges taking first priority, followed by the elimination of bridge weight-carrying restrictions and improvements to trafficable bridge widths.

Motorways are expensive to construct and are justified only in areas of high traffic density. They require strong foundations and thick surfacings to stand up to the heavy, fast, and continuous traffic. However, they confer two great benefits—greatly increased traffic capacity and greater safety. The limited number of access points, designed to permit smooth and safe entrance and exit, and the complete absence of ordinary intersections, contribute substantially to safety and the uninterrupted, fast flow of traffic, which also reduces transport costs.

With increased financial stringency, the main emphasis of State highway activities in recent years has been on the maintenance and improvement of existing roading assets.

Details of formed roads and streets at 31 March 1978 are given in the following table.

Nature of SurfaceCities and BoroughsDistrict CouncilsCountiesTown DistrictsTotal
County RoadsState Highways and Motorways
 kilometres
Paved or sealed10,675190724,42995985746,666
Metal or gravel727200739,686736543,161
Unmetalled79154612134316698
      Total, formed roads11,481406870,23610,6776396,525

There are 13297 bridges of 3 metres and over with a total length of 300497 metres.

Auckland Harbour Bridge Traffic—From May 1959, when the toll bridge opened, to March 1979, the Auckland harbour bridge has carried 305 million vehicles. In the 1978–79 year the bridge had a daily average of 72163 vehicles crossing it: the highest daily figure being a record 95773. With traffic totals continuing to grow it is estimated that the eight-lane facility will reach its ultimate carrying capacity in the nineteen eighties.

Traffic totals for March years are shown in the following table.

Class of Vehicle1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79
* Estimated.
   (thousand)  
Cars11,13911,23611,43411,91712,440
Motor cycles, etc.272270256252245
Commercial vehicles299290297278271
Exempt vehicles100204208212221
Southbound*11,78511,97612,17612,65013,164
                Total23,59423,97624,37125,30926,339

ROADS ADMINISTRATION—The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act 1928, the Local Government Act 1974, and the National Roads Act 1953. Administration of the country's reading system is exercised by municipalities in respect of streets, by county councils in respect of county roads, and by the National Roads Board in respect of State highways.

The National Roads Board is charged with the responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs. The board came into being in 1954 as the result of the passing of the National Roads Act. This same Act provided for the establishment of the National Roads Fund. Under the chairmanship of the Minister of Works and Development, the National Roads Board is an organisation of 10 members, representative of the private motorists, commercial vehicle owners, counties, municipalities, the Ministry of Works and Development, and Ministry of Transport. It is of interest to note that Government members are in a minority. The representative nature of the board ensures that the widest possible background of knowledge and experience is brought to bear on roading matters. Essentially the board is a politically orientated policy-making body; it is required to think nationally and to act nationally. The most important functions of the board are:

  1. to administer the National Roads Fund.

  2. to provide a roading system adequate for New Zealand's needs.

  3. to advise Government on all matters concerning roading including the provision of finance.

  4. to assist and advise local authorities on roading problems.

  5. to undertake at intervals of not more than five years a comprehensive survey of the roading position in New Zealand.

The money in the National Roads Fund is derived from road taxation paid by the users, the private motorist and the commercial vehicle operator. Through this roads fund the money is returned to the road user in the form of safer, smoother, more economical travel. It is an inviolate fund. Under the legislation by which it was brought into operation on 1 April 1954, all taxation paid into it must be immediately available and be used for roading purposes. In effect the National Roads Act provided for an independent fund at the disposal of an independent board and removed the element of uncertainty associated with annual appropriation of funds through Parliament. Nevertheless opportunity is provided for Parliament to debate the board's activities.

The National Roads Board can be likened to a board of directors with the Minister of Works and Development as chairman and Director of Roading as chief executive officer. The board meets regularly once a month. Most of the business is conducted in open meeting with representatives of the press in attendance.

The board employs no staff directly but the Ministry of Works and Development provides an engineering and administrative service for which it is paid 6.8 percent of total National Roads Board expenditure. The roading division of the Ministry of Works and Development carries out the executive functions of the board and in servicing the board calls on the specialist services of other divisions and branches of Ministry of Works and Development as required, e.g., bridge design, land purchase, accounts, legal, etc.

For State highways and motorways, the board meets the full cost of construction and maintenance, while the maintenance and construction of county roads and municipal streets are subsidised by the Board. Some 94 percent of the State highways are now sealed. The National Roads Board is the controlling authority for State highways. As the board's agent, the Ministry of Works and Development has responsibility for financial control and technical control. In certain cases, the board has delegated its powers of construction and/or maintenance to local authorities.

In the case of county roads and municipal streets, responsibility lies with the local authority concerned. Apart from the question of standards on major works, there are no strings and no overriding control by Central Government.

Under the National Roads Act, in December of each year the board is required to estimate its income for the following year and to make its primary allocations of funds expected to be available. The board then prepares a final programme of road works for the coming year. At the present time there are three sectors and funds are allocated on the following basis: for counties—not less than 23 percent of motor revenue; for municipalities—not less than 16 percent of motor revenue; for State highways—not less than 50 percent of motor revenue; this leaving 11 percent of motor revenue for allocation to any or all of the above, at the discretion of the board.

For purposes of roading administration, New Zealand is divided geographically into 22 roads districts and funds are allocated by the board to each sector in each district as fairly and equitably as possible having regard to particular needs.

In each roads district there is an advisory body known as a District Roads Council. These councils are representative of the same interests as the board itself. Although they have no executive powers, their recommendations concerning relative priorities have considerable influence on board decisions. In addition to its regular meetings the board makes visits of inspection to several roads districts each year. These visits afford an opportunity for board members to get a better appreciation of local problems, needs, and conditions through observation and discussion, and to maintain personal contact with District Roads Councils. The board is thus able to keep in close touch with the roading problems of New Zealand, and is better able to discharge its responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs.

Finance—A National Roads Fund has been established within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation with an annual contribution from the Government. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Motor spirits tax of 4.25c per litre from all lightweight petrol-powered vehicles using public roads is paid into the National Roads Fund. All heavy motor vehicles including trailers, and all remaining lightweight non-petrol-powered vehicles are required to purchase distance licences at a cost that varies according to their nominated maximum gross weight, their axle configuration, and the distance they travel. The income from these road user charges is all credited to the National Roads Fund.

Following is a statement of receipts and expenditure of the National Roads Fund for the latest 3 March years. Receipts are less collection expenses.

Item1976–771977–781978–79
  $(thousand) 
Receipts—
    Petrol tax (net)85,822106,447109,447
    Distance tax7,5578,8741,127
    Road user charges......48,302
    Fees and charges—
        Heavy traffic fees13,17610,003–120
    Contribution from Consolidated Account21,00010,00014,000
Advance from Loans Redemption Account4,000
Miscellaneous receipts—
    Repayments of advances to local authorities10410595
    Rents1,4641,4681,891
    Sales of land and buildings9831,056821
    Interest on advances to local bodies2110
Bailey bridging hire89103174
Interest on investments5261104
Miscellaneous41412172
                  Total receipts130,663142,239175,923
Expenditure—
    Highways maintenance29,34237,02343,656
    Highways construction35,73137,14041,308
    Local authority roading subsidies and grants49,83958,63668,244
    Local authorities advances6064
Administration and general expenses—
        Ministry of Works administration9,0369,16510,599
        Fees and travelling expenses547883
        Miscellaneous expenses2,0431,6341,354
Bridging expenses—
    Bailey bridging, etc35831699
    Unauthorised expenditure226
    Repayments of advances from Loan Redemption Account2,000-4,000
                Total expenditure128,405144,054169,413
    Balance in fund at end of year2,3145007,009

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on motorways and State highways construction, renewal, or maintenance during the last 5 years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable.

Class of Expenditure1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79
* Excludes motorway structures.
   $(thousand)  
Construction and improvement27,63826,86619,37430,46234,783
Bridges and other structures*12,96414,75416,3576,6786,525
Maintenance, repairs, etc.19,66225,88929,34237,02343,666
              Total60,26467,50965,07374,16384,974

State Highways—The National Roads Act provides for the declaration of roads as State highways with the approval of the Minister of Works and Development. In 1969, the National Roads Board reviewed the State highway system and re-affirmed the principle that the network must continue to be based on the pattern of national development, needs of defence, and directness of route and main travel desire lines. The most important principles in designing a State highway system are that the total length of the system must be based on routes of primary importance; that routes must be equitably distributed in relation to the pattern of national development; and that routes must be confined to those which have characteristics in keeping with the function of the system.

Although urban development with its growing industrialisation is a predominant problem, the National Roads Board is also aware of the need for continued development of a fully effective interregional network with adequate rural feeder roads. Balanced development of the total network is essential if primary production is to increase and production costs are to be restrained.

Highways Standards—In order to qualify for highway subsidies local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the National Roads Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. The National Roads Board also produces complementary guides to good practice, and standard specifications for roading materials and construction methods.

Motorways—The Public Works Act makes provision for the declaration of motorways. Motorways provide efficient and economic means of communication, while the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

The total length of motorways in use at 31 March 1978 was 118.6 kilometres.

New Sealing—During the year ended 31 March 1978 28.2 kilometres of new sealing on highways was completed, giving an aggregate of 10936.5 kilometres of sealed highway, 94 percent of the total length.

National Roading Expenditure—Details of New Zealand public roading expenditure financed from the National Roads Fund, the Consolidated Account, and local authority funds (both from revenue and loans) are summarised as follows:

Item1977–781978–79
 $(thousand)
State highways expenditure 74,163 84,964
Subsidised highway, section 12A 1,775 1,624
County roading expenditure—
    From county funds35,804 41,214 
    From National Roads Fund32,377 38,670 
    From Consolidated Account (vote: Developmental Roading)1,290 1,609 
  69,471 81,493
Municipal roading expenditure—
From municipal funds41,968 47,437 
From National Roads Fund24,481 27,894 
  66,449 75,331
              Total 211,858 243,412

NOTE—Table above includes subsidies paid under section 12A of the National Roads Act to the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority ($1,000,000) and the Christchurch Road Tunnel Authority ($200,000). The Christchurch Road Tunnel Authority was abolished from 1 April 1979.

Local Authority Roading—The National Roads Board pays a basic subsidy at the rate of $1.50 for each $2 that is spent by local authorities out of their own funds on such programmes of subsidised works as have been accepted for a financial year by the board, and approves grants in special cases.

In recognition of the urgency and importance of the country's bridge renewal problem, the board makes generous grants for local authority bridge replacements. Wooden bridges built 50 and 60 years ago, which have served the country well, continue to deteriorate at a greater rate than replacements can be built. In 10 years to March 1976 there were 2006 bridges completed, totalling 49908 metres.

For the year ended 31 March 1979 the following amounts were paid to local authorities from the National Roads Fund for roading.

Local AuthoritySubsidyGrantsTotal
  $(thousand) 
Municipalities19,2288,66227,890
County councils23,07615,65238,728
                Total42,30424,31466,618

Loan Assistance—To assist counties and municipalities with their planning the National Roads Board meets 30 percent of the cost of approved transportation surveys in urban areas. Plans have been completed or are in the course of preparation in all city areas with a population in excess of 30000 people.

Needs studies have been made for county and municipal roading and the board has carried out regional surveys to assess relative needs.

It is envisaged that more comprehensive and co-ordinated surveys will become necessary as development increases in complexity, and that the board's criteria will need to extend further into the field of productive economics.

Development Roading—In addition to the expenditure on roading from the National Roads Fund, moneys are provided annually by the Consolidated Account (Vote: Developmental Roading) for development of road construction. Under this heading subsidies are paid to local authorities for the construction of new roads giving access to farmlands being brought into production. This Vote also finances access roads to lands being prepared for farm settlement by the Lands and Survey and Maori Affairs Departments, as well as certain new roading of a national development character.

New roads constructed for farm access are handed over to the care of local authorities, while national roading normally becomes the responsibility of the National Roads Board for maintenance as part of the State highway system.

Government roading expenditure from the Consolidated Account (Vote: Developmental Roading) for the year ended 31 March 1979 was $1,916,000, excluding Maori land roading, Crown land roading, and tracks totalling $827,000.

Overall Roading Expenditure—The following table shows the total expenditure on roading from all sources for the year ended 31 March 1979.

National Roads Fund—$(000)$(000)
    State highways84,964 
    Subsidies, etc.–local roading68,188 
  153,152
Consolidated Account (Vote: Developmental Roading) 2,743
Local authority funds—
    Municipalities47,437 
    County councils41,21488,651
Total 244,547

Roading expenditure over the last 5 years is related to Gross National Product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoading Expenditure: Central and Local GovernmentTotal as Percentage of Gross National Product
MaintenanceConstructionTotal
* Provisional.
 $(million) percent  
197555.03103.83158.861.59x
197664.57110.26174.831.53x
197798.3182.51180.821.31*x
1978101.51110.35211.861.41*
1979127.9116.6244.5 

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR VEHICLES—The amounts for initial registration fees are: motorcars, from $32 to $100 according to age or engine capacity; motor cycles, trailers, and traction engines, $20; power cycles, $12; heavy trucks, $100; light trucks and vans, $60; farm tractors, $4; and any other motor vehicle, $40.

Annual licence fees are as follows: motor vehicles $20 (except veteran or vintage motor vehicles, $6 and $10); trailers (2 tons or less loaded), $12; motor cycles, $12; power cycles, $8; tractors, $16; traction engines, $6; trade licences for motor cycles are $12, and trade licences for other motor vehicles $20. Other fees include drivers' licences, 50c, and changes of ownership, $10. All such fees, except those for drivers' licences which are payable -to the local authorities, have been credited to the Consolidated Account since 1 July 1967. Additional to these fees are the Accident Compensation levies which replaced compulsory third-party insurance.

The various types of motor vehicles licensed as at 31 March in each of the last 5 years are itemised below.

Type of Vehicle19751976197719781979
* Class 3 vehicles under these headings are now listed on their own under Miscellaneous.
Cars1,129,6111,172,0001,200,0031,215,6381,244,751
Rental cars52795425589955335484
Private taxicabs13213010184114
Light goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight 2 tonnes and under)132,150137,184155,782161,401173,468
Heavy goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight over 2 tonnes)74,62673,97076,42075,29074,424
Contract vehicles12051192125012801268
Omnibuses26172660267426222659
Public taxicabs31133082308429872951
Service coaches513563594684757
Motorcycles66,81598,833104,147103,712104,570
Power cycles26,8414207287921031890
                Total, motor vehicles1,442,9021,499,2461,552,8331,571,3341,612,336
Trailers, including trailers exempted from payment of annual licence fees and caravans*301586x325193x351411x353007x367,335
Dealers' cars41914405437344263716
Dealers' motor cycles321292212214302
Vehicles including cycles exempted from payment of annual licence fees (farm tractors etc.)*94847x100561x101001x92511x89,104
Miscellaneous13,53013,48413,79114,64012,376
                Total, all vehicles1,857,3771,943,1812,023,6212,036,1322,085,169

Motor vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee include a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' motor vehicles used solely on the farm and only venturing on roads to proceed from one part of the farm to another, or from farm to garage for repair, etc., excavators, scoops, trench diggers, cranes, and logging trucks (used on private roads), etc.

The following table shows the changes in relationship between the number of licensed vehicles and population as at 31 March in the latest 6 years.

As at 31 MarchNumber of Persons in Population per CarNumber of Persons inn Population per Motor Vehicle (Excluding Trailers)
19742.82.0
19752.72.0
19762.71.9
19772.61.9
19782.61.9
19792.51.8

Motor spirit usage in New Zealand during the latest March years is shown in the following table by grade. The grades shown are 83 octane (regular or standard), 96 octane (super, supreme, or premium) and other, which may include some non-petroleum based racing fuels. The figures are based on returns made by oil companies to the Customs Department in connection with the assessment of motor spirit duty. However, they include motor spirit used for farming purposes and in industrial engines for which the purchaser can claim a rebate of duty.

Year Ended MarchMotor Spirit Usage§
96 Octane83 OctaneOthersTotal

* 3 April 1976 to 1 April 1977.

2 April 1977 to 31 March 1978.

1 April 1978 to 30 March 1979.

§ Based on deliveries by oil companies to resellers, bulk sales, and use in own fleet.

litres (000)
19762,098,487174,0934962,273,076
1977*2,137,605144,4615222,282,588
19782,140,120111,8804982,252,500
19792,228,538100,9296432,330,110
19802,121,85779,6577262,202,241

Diesel fuel is widely used by heavy trucks and buses, but actual figures of consumption are not available.

The following diagram illustrates the trend that has taken place in the number of motor vehicles licensed, and in the consumption of motor spirits by motor vehicles. Diesel-fuel consumption, which has grown substantially in recent years, is not available. This should be borne in mind when analysing petrol consumption figures.

Estimates based on survey data collected during the New Zealand Transport Study indicated that the average travel in 1972 for passenger cars and light vehicles was 13 673 kilometres; for heavy goods-service vehicles the average was 20534 kilometres; and for passenger-service vehicles the average was 27859 kilometres.

Registrations of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country are as follows for the 3 latest years.

December YearNew Can and Station WagonsC.C. RatingCars Previously Registered Overseas*New Motor Cycles
Up to 13001301 to 20002001 to 50005001 and OverTotal
* Included in previous column.
197726,51726,3717932100461,824275014,028
197825,37233,232759994567,148268114,522
197929,03933,131796270970,841268221,558
December YearNew Commercial Vehicles By Gross Weight in KilogramsOmnibus and Service CoachesTotal Commercial Vehicles
2500 or Less2501 to 45004501 to 90009001 to 1450014501 and Over
* Included in previous column.
197713,2621519789135093826618,124
197814,391170773098178630618,901
197914,505206067098989026319,377

Not included in the previous tables are new tractors, of which 2811 were registered in 1978 and 2694 in 1979.

Road Transport—The Transport Act 1962 is the main legislation governing road transport and the road transport operations of the Ministry of Transport; attendant regulations set out the rules of the road, the requirements as to motor vehicle equipment, and the obligations of motor drivers and owners and pedestrians.

Transport Licensing—Transport licensing is primarily an economic measure to achieve better coordination of road and rail transport and to prevent excessive competition and duplication of services within the road transport industry. Public passenger buses, taxicabs, rental vehicles, and certain harbour ferries can only be operated with a licence. A transport licence is also needed for the cartage of goods in the following circumstances:

  1. When they are carried for hire or reward by means of a motor vehicle.

  2. When they are carried in competition with the New Zealand Railways beyond specified distances whether for hire or reward or not, except with vehicles which together with their load, weigh 3500 kg or less and farmers' vehicles with a payload of up to 5000 kg.

Thus goods service licensing extends beyond the common carrier operating throughout the country and can include farmers and businesses carrying their own goods in their own vehicles if these vehicles are over the laden weights or carrying the load prescribed above and they wish to operate them beyond certain distances.

In general, goods cannot be carried by road between places where a route is available which includes at least 150 kilometres of rail. However, for some goods such as livestock, fresh meat, fresh fruit and vegetables, poultry, and fresh fish, there is no restriction at all. In addition, this restriction ceases to apply where use of the railway would increase the journey by more than one-third of the shortest road route available. The licensing authorities (see below) may also grant exemption from the railway restriction in particular cases where this is in the public interest.

Apart from the exemptions in respect of competition with the railways, there is complete freedom from transport licensing for certain special or limited transport services.

New Zealand is divided into 17 transport licensing districts (including one harbour ferry district at Auckland) which are administered by five full-time licensing authorities appointed by the Minister of Transport for terms of up to 5 years. They adjudicate on applications for a licence to enter the industry, on transfer or renewals of licences, and on changes to or withdrawals of transport services.

In addition, there is a Regional Transport Licensing Authority for the purpose of hearing applications relating to passenger-service licences (other than taxicab-service licences) or harbour ferry service licences that are operated or intended to be operated within the Auckland Regional Authority's district.

The factors to be considered in dealing with these applications are specified in the Transport Act 1962, and emphasis is placed on consideration of the public interest and of users of public transport. There is a right of appeal from the decisions of licensing authorities to the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

Charges for transport services do not come within the jurisdiction of the licensing authorities. Public bodies operating public passenger services fix their own charges; the Secretary for Transport all others. In every case there is a right of appeal to a Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Both the Minister of Transport and licensing authorities have powers in respect of public inquiries into or reviews of transport services and licences. Reviews of taxicab services must be made at least every three years in the four main centres and in other centres with a population of more than 20000.

In general, licences may be either continuous, seasonal, or temporary (not more than 14 days). However, all rental service licences have a duration of three years after which application must be made for their renewal.

Operations of Licensed Goods and Passenger Services—The following table gives a summary of statistics of the licensed road transport industry for the year ended 31 March 1978. All the figures are estimates.

ItemTaxicabsRentalGoods
Total kilometres run (million)143209591
Kilometres per vehicle (000)522527
Total revenue ($million)3436467
Revenue per vehicle/km (cents)241779
Total capital ($million)1133346
Capital per vehicle($)3,9883,99415,803

As at 31 December 1978 the number of vehicle authorities issued was 2939 for taxicabs, 8459 for rental vehicles, and 24637 for goods vehicles.

The next table shows financial and statistical data on passenger services licensed under the Transport Act 1962 for the year ended 31 March 1978. All the figures except the numbers of vehicles are estimates.

Type of ServiceTotal Kilometres RunTotal RevenueTotal AssetsNumber of PassengersNumber of Vehicles
* 364 goods vehicles, 777 coaches, omnibuses, and tour cars.
 (000)$(000)$(000)(000) 
Suburban service and service coaches46,05224,85035,698..1240
Mixed business and school contracts10,0744,2602,894..430
Local body services43,96720,96444,91294,2641270
NZR Road Passenger and Goods Services42,63520,98412,97619,9001141*
            Total142,72871,05896,480..4081

Fuller details on NZR road services are given in the previous section on Railways, and fuller details on local body services at the end of this section.

Household Motorcars—A question on the availability of motor cars was included in the 1971 Census of Population. It was found that, out of a total of 801686 households, 441459 (55.1 percent) owned a car or had a business car available for use, and an additional 192776 households (24.0 percent) had two or more cars available for use.

Transport to Work—The 1976 Census of Population again included a question on the usual method of travelling to work by the labour force. This question was first asked in 1971. The table below analyses the means of transport used according to the occupations of those in full-time employment (i.e., working 20 hours or more per week).

A comparison of 1971 and 1976 statistics confirms the overall decline in patronage of public transport during the intercensal period and the increased use by the work force of private motor vehicles.

The following table shows the means of transport to work of members of the labour force by occupation major group.

Occupation Major GroupMeans of Transport
Drive Car, Truck, or VanPassenger in Car, Truck, Van, or Firm's BusPublic BusTrainMotor Cycle or Power CycleBicycle

* Unemployed persons.

Includes related workers.

Professional, technical98,20812,56712,585490480206699
Administrative and managerial workers33,55512531210792420199
Clerical84,10926,91440,86711,16960695469
Sales workers79,727822010,640125322532062
Service workers37,45384099386145833803289
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forest workers, fishermen and hunters25,267714168810232861385
Production workers , transport equipment operators, and labourers251,43359,79837,910782724,23818,640
New workers seeking employment
Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described439511611511236265287
Workers not reporting any occupation11
              Total 1976614,147125,464114,79827,74147,93138,030
              Percentage48.39.99.02.23.83.0
              Total 1971494,188107,816132,21925,97223,05642097
              Percentage44.29.611.82.32.13.8
Occupation Major GroupMeans of Transport
WalkOther MeansWork at HomeNot Applicable*Total (Including Not Specified)

* Unemployed persons.

Includes related workers.

Professional, technical24,84989156861687178,821
Administrative and managerial workers186613399010640,908
Clerical22,78282938192288205,918
Sales workers13,70026450981290125,280
Service workers17,764104310,835161695,981
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forest workers, fishermen and hunters10,437135578,9851040130,690
Production workers , transport equipment operators, and labourers49,740234465716529468,836
New workers seeking employment42934293
Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described137898354588820,003
Workers not reporting any occupation116001603
              Total 1976142,5166957112,33926,3371,272,333
              Percentage11.20.58.82.1100.0
              Total 1971138,5305805126,70517,9371,118,835
              Percentage12.40.511.31.6100.0

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS—Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the Police. During the year ended 31 December 1978, there were 10384 reported accidents resulting in 654 fatalities, and injuries to 15178 other people were reported.

The annual totals of people killed and injured on the roads have decreased each year since 1973. These decreases are attributed to the fuel crises and associated measures, the reduction of the open road speed limit to 80 km/h, the compulsory wearing of safety helmets by motor cyclists at all speeds, the increased use of seat belts, revision of the Traffic Regulations, and stricter laws on drinking and driving.

Details of the nature of road accidents for the calendar year 1978, which have been compiled by the Ministry of Transport, are set out in the following table.

Classification of AccidentsFatalInjuryTotal
Overtaking35318353
Head on (not overtaking)97723820
Lost control or ran off road on straight629821044
Lost control or ran off road while cornering14816761824
Collision with obstruction18606624
Rear end15483498
At intersections or driveways—
    Vehicles moving in same direction, one turning10723733
    Vehicles crossing paths, not turning3210381070
    Vehicles crossing paths, one turning16603619
    Vehicles merging2197199
    Vehicles moving in opposite directions, one turning right21735756
Vehicles manoeuvring10432442
Pedestrian crossing road8910361125
Pedestrian—other25143168
Miscellaneous892100
Unknown-99
            Total588979610,384

The ages of persons killed and injured in motor accidents is shown in the following table.

Age Groups (Years)KilledInjured
197619771978197619771978

* Includes accident for which complete data is not available.

Killed immediately or died within 30 days of accident.

Under 5242627467408x360
5–9192219758684x608
10–14142019983893800
15–1915418616256675239x4379
20–2498111118319131652638
25–29436643143514351193
30–34363033818843804
35–39292525591627518
40–44222730526496420
45–49302227518479388
50–54272930477462387
55–59202421388406314
60–64271917373341308
65–69162728306288248
70 and over506755509473408
Unknown age1888*1286x1405
            Total60970265417,89517525x15,178

A classification of road users killed and injured during the calendar year 1978 is given in the following table.

Type of CasualsKilledInjuredTotal
Driver of—
    Car19243484540
    Rental car64753
    Taxi2121
    Van16369385
    Truck8148156
    Articulated truck22426
    Bus2020
    Other41317
Motorcyclist9122812372
Passenger17648315007
Pillion riders13432445
Cyclist30588618
Pedestrian11612241340
Other77
Unknown825825
            Total65415,17815,832

Of particular concern is the number of school children and pre-school children killed or injured on the roads while cycling or on foot. During 1978, 15 child pedestrians under school age were killed. Among child pedestrians and cyclists of school age, 30 were killed in 1978 compared with 32 in 1977, and 774 were injured in 1978 compared with 893 during the previous year. The totals of killed and injured are shown by age groups in the following table.

Age of Child (In Years)PedestriansCyclists
197619771978197619771978
Under 518216212520x3
5–9318316265129106x76
10–15210203166357300297
            Total710681556488406x376

Total casualties and rates for the latest available years are shown in the following table.

Calendar YearPersons KilledKilled per 10000 Vehicles on RoadPersons InjuredInjured per 10000 Vehicles on roadCasualties (Kitted and Injured) per 10000 Vehicles
* Provisional.
19738435.8623,385160.0168.4
19746764.5020,829137.5141.9
19756284.1019,839126.0130.0
19766093.7317895x109.6x113.3*
19777024.2717525x106.7111.0x
19786543.9015,17890.694.5
1979*553    

The following table shows motor accident death and injury rates in 1977 for New Zealand in comparison with Australia and Great Britain.

CountryPersons KilledPersons InjuredKilled 10000 VehiclesKilled 100000 PopulationInjured 10000 VehiclesInjured 100000 Population
New Zealand70217,5254.2722.3106.7556.0
Australia357891,6165.0025.0134.0651.0
Great Britain6614342,000..12.0..630.2

ROAD SAFETY: Enforcement of Traffic and other Laws—Traffic on roads in five cities and boroughs is controlled by local authorities. Elsewhere throughout the country it is controlled by the Ministry of Transport which is also responsible for traffic on motorways. In national emergencies or major disasters, all traffic control comes under the supervision of the Ministry of Transport.

In addition to regulation of traffic and standards of driving, traffic officers enforce the laws relating to heavy traffic, tyre pressures, and the allowable weights of vehicles and loads on different classes of road. They also enforce the legislation concerning the licensing of road transport services.

Traffic officers are not part of the Police and do not engage in criminal investigations. They form, however, a uniformed and disciplined enforcement body and a close liaison is maintained with the Police. A traffic officer now has a wide range of tests available to him where he suspects that a driver is affected by alcohol or drugs or a combination of the two.

Persons giving a traffic officer a good cause to suspect that they are driving while under the influence of alcohol or who commit a driving offence may be required to give a breath screening test. If this proves to be positive the person may be required to give either an additional evidential breath test or if he prefers a blood test.

Under new legislation introduced on 1 December 1978 a person commits an offence and is liable for prosecution if either:

  1. His/her breath-alcohol concentration as recorded on an evidential breath testing device exceeds 500 micrograms of alcohol per litre of breath; or

  2. His/her blood-alcohol concentration exceeds 80 mg of alcohol per 100 ml of blood.

Wearing of seat belts is now compulsory for drivers and front-seat passengers in most classes of light vehicles registered after January 1955. As from 1 November 1979 all new cars registered must have seat belts fitted in the rear passenger seats and it is compulsory for rear seat passengers to wear these. For all people 8 years old and over it is law that they wear seat belts where fitted. Children under 8 years old should be restrained in a proper child restraint.

From 1 December 1973 it has been compulsory for all motor cyclists and pillion riders to wear safety helmets at all speeds.

Offences—Penalties are awarded by Courts for driving and other offences under the Transport Act 1962 and attendant regulations. There is also a system in operation whereby points are automatically registered according to a fixed scale against persons convicted of driving offences.

The Secretary for Transport has authority to suspend drivers' licences for 6 months where 100 or more demerit points are received in less than 1 year, or for 3 months where this number of points are received within 2 years. Official warnings are issued and compulsory interviews take place before these levels are reached.

Breaches of certain parking, speeding, and overloading laws are dealt with under an infringement system. A motorist is able to pay an infringement fee within a certain time and thus avoid court proceedings if he so desires. In 1974 provision was made for the infringement system to be extended to certain other offences, which are not punishable by imprisonment.

Speed Limits—The maximum speed for highways generally is 80 kilometres an hour. However, lower limits are prescribed for certain vehicles, e.g., 70 kilometres for heavy goods vehicles.

A general speed limit of 50 km/h is fixed in cities, boroughs, town districts, or other localities declared to be closely populated localities. Areas with a speed limit of 70 km/h may also be specified by the Minister of Transport; and limited speed zones may be established for which the maximum permitted speed may be either 80 km/h or 50 km/h depending on conditions and circumstances.

Inspection of Motor Vehicles—All vehicles using the roads must be inspected every 6 months to ensure that their mechanical and structural fitness is of a satisfactory standard. Most lightweight vehicles are required to have a warrant of fitness which can be issued at approved garages, or at testing stations operated by local authorities or the Ministry of Transport. All heavy vehicles, with minor exceptions, undergo a more exacting examination for a certificate of fitness, which, in respect of passenger service buses, has special regard for the safety and comfort of passengers. Taxicabs and rental vehicles also require a certificate of fitness.

The design and standard of construction of vehicles manufactured, assembled, or modified in New Zealand are also regulated to ensure safety.

Insurance—Under the Accident Compensation Act 1972 a motor vehicle scheme provides cover for everyone in respect of personal injury caused by motor accidents. There is a Motor Vehicle Fund financed by premiums paid with the annual licence fee. The legislation came into effect on 1 April 1974, replacing the compulsory third-party scheme previously operating.

Road Safety Education—Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out through the press, radio, and television and by means of posters, etc. Special road safety campaigns and traffic improvement courses are held from time to time.

The main emphasis in schools and teachers' colleges centres around integrating traffic education into the current social education programmes. Traffic Education Units are co-operatively planned and implemented by traffic instructors and teachers and are based on the special social and traffic needs of the students.

The New Zealand Defensive Driving Council provides a safety course for all licensed drivers.

Traffic safety advice is given to the Government by a permanent parliamentary select committee, by the Road Traffic Safety Research Council, and by a number of other bodies, including the 46 local road safety committees.

TRAFFIC OFFENCES—The following table shows the nature of the offences resulting in convictions during the latest 3 calendar years. The table covers only offences reported by officers of the Ministry of Transport; in addition traffic prosecutions are taken by the police, particularly for serious offences, following accidents or other police investigations. Some city councils employ their own traffic control staff and total convictions are therefore rather higher than shown.

Type of Offence197619771978
* These convictions relate only to speeds in excess of the speeding infringement range.
(a) Accident promoting offences—
    Driving or attempting to drive while under the influence of drink or drugs727554485
    In charge of a motor vehicle while under the influence of drink or drugs401637
    Breath test/blood-alcohol offences467641415469
    Warrant of fitness offences15,99913,58013,627
    Certificate of fitness offences503384421
    Certificate of loading offences305175167
    Exceeding certificate of loading744974
    Reckless driving141138139
    Driving in a dangerous manner887907756
    Driving at a dangerous speed562584577
    Driving without reasonable consideration264214254
    Careless use of motor vehicle487650234601
    Overtaking offences647455239
    Failure to keep to the left242620461735
    Failure to yield right of way930906833
    Failure to stop in half clear road397472631
    Exceeding 50 km/h*8673929311,456
    Exceeding 70 km/h*501541391
    Exceeding 80 km/h*12,89512,91810,016
    Breaches of limited speed zone810561
    Exceeding temporary speed limits14592395586
    Exceeding by-law, etc.16824
    Failure to stop at traffic lights171216741876
    Failure to stop at compulsory stop sign344529482440
    Failure to give way at give way sign561508514
    Failure to yield right of way at pedestrian crossing258200144
    Failure to stop/or give way for siren732692
    Failure to comply with road signs532463372
    Cycling of fences321282173
    Pedestrian offences5774
    Passenger of fences576995
    Horse traffic offences17
    Motor cyclist exceeding 50 km/h without safety helmet (rider or pillion)*860827688
    Provisional motor cyclist exceeding 50 km/h*100153108
    Exceeding 70 km/h with trailer*476463441
    Exceeding 70 km/h with heavy motor vehicle*21050143
    Exceeding 80 km/h (omnibus)*14
    Exceeding other limits198123128
    Defective brakes401400351
    Lighting offences268122161622
    Failure to dip lights1718874
    Mechanically defective or unsafe vehicle597945203833
    Trailer offences330336199
        Total (accident promoting offences)75,37770,26565,950
(b) Non-accident promoting offences—
    Failure to obey officer1116872877
    Failure to fulfil duties after accident336276326
    Owner failing to supply information313148414116
    Failure to pay parking infringement fee271594472
    Failure to pay overloading infringement fee4213393
    Failure to pay speeding infringement fee10921182972
    Failure to pay instruction course fee*152
    Heavy traffic licence not carried or no heavy traffic licence954618564
    Heavy traffic licence defaced or obscured391352
    Exceeding heavy traffic licence845898528
    Mileage tax offences3282181
    Driver's licence offences12,03197729019
    Driving whilst disqualified1014960952
    Probationary drivers' offences219168404
    Vehicle licences and registration offences320828963051
    Breaches of drivers' hours regulations10611
    Over 100 demerit points268
    Other miscellaneous offences149120235
    Safety-belt offences422031844332
    Noisy motor vehicles202515821237
    Emitting excessive smoke935357
    Loading offences612608701
    Other nuisances6180109
    Aiding and abetting187
    Stock offences101315
    Other by-law offences476559
    Unlicensed goods service9910196
    Breach of goods service licence264182149
    Exceeding rail restriction limit112141115
    Unlicensed passenger service87
    Breach of passenger service licence101520
    Rental vehicle offences467220
    Taxicab offences12175
    No vehicle authority or not carried517532144
    Other transport licence of fences170149152
        Total (non-accident promoting offences)32,83930,26229,066
        Parking offences16,33417,74913,493
        Total—all offences124,550118,276108,509
        Parking infringement—notices issued450,744448,796373,098
        Speeding infringement—notices issued71,76356,01647,755
        Overloading infringement—notices issued676671775525

URBAN PASSENGER SERVICES OPERATED BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The data provided in this section covers the whole of the urban passenger transport services operated by local authorities, and no account is taken of the various motor-bus services operated by the New Zealand Government Railways, or by any private enterprise.

From 1 November 1969 to 31 March 1971 local authorities received grants from the Ministry of Transport of twice the amount of heavy traffic fees paid in relation to urban passenger service operations. From 1 September 1972 a grant equivalent to heavy traffic fees paid on urban passenger buses was paid to all operators, municipal and private. In March 1974 the grant was increased to 200 percent of heavy traffic fees paid.

In 1977 the Government announced a new policy in the field of urban transport. A bus replacement programme amounting to $50 million over 5 years was announced. It applied to the four main local authorities operating public passenger services—Auckland Regional Authority, Wellington City Council, the Christchurch Transport Board, and Dunedin City Council. These four therefore no longer receive assistance from the Urban Public Passenger Transport Council.

It is also proposed to establish Urban Transport Authorities in Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and an Urban Transport Council at the national level.

An Urban Public Passenger Transport Council was established under the Ministry of Transport Act 1968 with the function of administering Government assistance by way of loans and grants for capital expenditure to urban public passenger operators, both public and private; and to encourage and conduct research into urban passenger transport and associated matters. During 1978–79 the Council made loans and grants totalling $205,000 to local authorities operating urban transport, and loans totalling $293,060 to private operators.

Recent years have been difficult for urban passenger transport operators, with mounting losses and falling numbers of passengers. During the year ended 31 March 1979 the local authority urban passenger services had an aggregate loss of $17.8 million compared with $15.4 million in the previous year. Over the same period, the number of passengers carried dropped from 94.3 million to 94.1 million, so that there was a loss per passenger of 18.9 cents compared with 16.3 cents the previous year.

Details of revenue and expenditure incurred by local authority passenger services only are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueAverage Fare per PassengerRevenue per Km RunExpenditureExpenditure per Km Run
Passenger FaresTotalOperating ExpensesCapital ChargesTotal (incl. “Other”)
 $(000)$(000)CC$(000)$(000)$(000)C
Auckland
    197810,08911,30621.0244.1818,3761,00019,37675.71
    197911,59014,08724.0351.1421,9401,00922,99783.48
Gisborne
    197812913427.3451.381612818972.42
    197915115733.8161.111722720077.93
New Plymouth
    197828128815.6241.7941810852676.39
    197932032818.1445.884987257179.78
Palmerston North
    197822423121.9931.904644651070.43
    197928028021.5243.355184656587.38
Eastbourne
    197830632833.9151.3929735x33752.78
    197929834133.1654.103393938561.12
Wellington
    19784,2444,32120.7677.927,2214947,715139.12
    19795,0335,30524.8989.948,4918959,386159.12
Christchurch
    19783,0713,53122.4147.255,3414675,80977.73
    19793,2163,90223.2051.066,5053436,84989.62
Timaru
    197813414817.2540.222454929480.21
    197914616019.4647.072695432294.71
Dunedin
    19781,4381,51123.4967.712,077992,17797.53
    19791,5001,58926.6079.092,312352,347116.81
Invercargill
    197823024321.8939.094393947776.88
    197925832325.8845.715703960886.07
Total: All Services
    197820,14822,04021.3749.9335,0402,36537,40984.75
    197922,79226,47224.2257.0641,6152,55944,22995.34

Details of vehicles, kilometres run, and passengers carried are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVehiclesKilometres RunPassengers Carried (000)Passengers per km Run
Trolley BusesMotor BusesTrolley Buses (000)Motor Buses (000)

* Includes able can.

Includes cable car running 47000 km during 1978 and 27000 km during 1979.

Auckland
    19783361976324,82947,9961.88
    19793265948327,06448,2211.75
Gisborne
    1978112614731.81
    197992564451.74
New Plymouth
    19782268917992.61
    19792371517652.47
Palmerston North
    19782372410191.41
    19792364613012.01
Eastbourne
    197818638x9031.42
    1979186308991.43
Wellington
    1978110*1431996x355020,4433.69
    1979104*1692048385020,219343
Christchurch
    1978178747313,7061.83
    1979178764213,8601.81
Timaru
    1978133677772.12
    1979133407482.20
Dunedin
    197817674301802x61232.74
    19791767294171456402.81
Invercargill
    19782262110531.69
    1979227079961.41
Total: All Services
    1978160*11163189x40953x94,2922.14
    1979153*1181282643,56694,0962.03

The length of routes covered by the services are given in the following table.

Area and ServiceAt 31 March
19751976197719781979
 kilometres
Auckland
    Trolley bus61.4853.2723.348.148.14
    Motor bus604.71650.35717.53776.37776.37
Gisborne
    Motor bus28.9728.9728.9725.5040.05
New Plymouth
    Motor bus49.8953.1156.3356.3364.62
Palmerston North
    Motor bus144.84193.12203.20347.90286.80
Eastbourne
    Motorbus25,7525.7525.7525.6025.60
Wellington
    Trolley bus51.5851.5851.6051.6051.60
    Motor bus106.76106.76106.80106.80106.80
    Tram, cable0.620.620.620.620.62
Christchurch
    Motor bus279.54293.62294.73294.73294.73
Timaru
    Motor bus39.2739.2766.4866.6566.65
Dunedin
    Trolley bus22,7522.7523.2323.0023.00
    Motor bus56.2056.2056.2056.2056.20
Invercargill
    Motor bus45.0646.6746.67x46.67x46.67

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on roads and road transport will be found in the following publications:

Transport Statistics—Department of Statistics, Annual.

Road Transport Statistics—Department of Statistics bulletin, Annual.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Ministry of Transport (Parl. paper F. 5).

Report of the National Roads Board (Parl. paper F. 8).

Roading Statistics—National Roads Board (annual).

Urban Transport in New Zealand (Parl. paper F. 5B, 1977).

Breath Tests in New Zealand—Ministry of Transport, annual.

Motor Accidents in New Zealand—Ministry of Transport, annual.

Traffic Research Reports—Ministry of Transport:

Driver Recall of Roadside Signs.

Priority Rules at Uncontrolled Intersections.

Accidents at Shopping Centres.

Compulsory Safety Helmet Legislation and Motor Cyclist Accidents.

Attitudes towards Drinking and Driving.

Short-term Traffic “Blitzes”.

Traffic Safety Research in New Zealand.

The Alcohol-impaired Driver.

Regulations and Enforcement.

Traffic Accident Trends and Patterns.

Evaluation of the New Zealand Compulsory Seat Belt Legislation.

Blood Test Legislation in New Zealand.

An Operational Study of a Wellington Urban Bus Route.

Road Traffic Safety Research Council—Annual report and research projects.

Report of the Working Party on Road User Charges (Parl. paper F. 5B. 1979).

Report of the New Zealand Urban Public Passenger Transport Council (Parl. paper F. 9).

Report of the New Zealand Police (Parl. paper G. 6).

Survey on Driving Practices and Opinions 1975—Department of Statistics bulletin, 1979.

Report of the Road Safety Committee (Parl. paper I. 17A).

Statistics of the Licensed Road Transport Industry—Ministry of Transport, annual.

12 E—CIVIL AVIATION

In terms of the use of air transport per head of population, New Zealand ranks among the leading -nations of the world.

Modern aircraft provide regular flights on a network of internal air services operated by the domestic division of Air New Zealand, while the international division of Air New Zealand, in competition with other international airlines, provides links with various nations in the Pacific and South-east Asian regions.

Early days of commercial aviation in New Zealand, and the growth and development of the international service, are described briefly in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

AIR SERVICES—Air New Zealand (New Zealand Division), and the wholly-owned Safe Air Ltd., the air freight carrier, provide the bulk of domestic services. Mount Cook Airlines provides mainly internal tourist services. Safe Air Ltd., provides a freight service across Cook Strait and a Chatham Islands service. Other regular tertiary air services are provided by Air Central Ltd., James Aviation Ltd., Eagle Aviation Ltd., Cookson Airspread Ltd., Mercury Bay Aero Club, Mt. Cook Group Ltd., Sea Bee Air Ltd., Stewart Island Air Services, and the Auckland Aero Club. In addition, at most aerodromes there are light aircraft operators licensed for air charter and air taxi services. Aero clubs and flying schools provide facilities for training and private flying. The agricultural aviation industry has continued to flourish, and an increasingly significant role is being played by helicopters.

International air services are operated by Air New Zealand, together with QANTAS, Pan American World Airways, UTA French Airlines, Singapore Airlines, British Airways, Air Pacific, Polynesian Airlines and Continental Airlines. In addition, Air Nauru was licensed to commence services between Nauru and New Zealand from December 1979.

During 1978–79 Air New Zealand's international operations earned or saved an estimated $133 million in overseas funds, an important contribution to the country's external balance of payments. The company's fleet carried 953210 international passengers compared with 914224 during the previous year. The airline's international flight revenue for the year to 31 March 1979 totalled $220.9 million.

LEGISLATION—The principal legislation affecting civil aviation in New Zealand is the Civil Aviation Act 1964. This Act established the Department of Civil Aviation which later, under the Ministry of Transport Act 1968, became a Division of the Ministry of Transport.

The Air Services Licensing Act 1951 made provision for the establishment of the Air Services Licensing Authority, a 4-man independent body, with the primary function of receiving and determining applications for the grant, renewal, amendment, or transfer of air service licences. Under the Act, an air service licence is essential for any air transport or specified aerial work conducted for hire or reward. There is a right of appeal against the decisions of the Air Service Licensing Authority to the Air Services Appeal Authority. International air services are governed by intergovernmental air transport agreements and the International Air Services Licensing Act 1947.

New Zealand is a party to the Warsaw Convention of 1929 as amended at The Hague in 1955 and these conventions define the financial liabilities of international air carriers towards their passengers. New Zealand has signed but has yet to ratify the Guatemala City Protocol which, although not in force, raises the limits of liability from $15,000 to $100,000. Air New Zealand is also a party to the airline agreement known as the Montreal Agreement, which for travel to and from me United States of America imposes a limit of US$75,000. This limit is now being extended world-wide in its application, pending the entry into force of the Guatemala City Protocol. Liabilities of domestic air carriers are governed by the Carriage by Air Act 1967.

The Airport Authorities Act 1966 empowers local authorities, with the consent of the Governor-General in Council, to establish, improve, operate, or manage airports. In pursuit of these objectives, local authorities may enter into joint-venture agreements with the Crown.

The Aviation Crimes Act 1972, which came into full force in March 1974, gave effect to the Tokyo Convention 1963 relating to offences commented on board aircraft, the Hague Convention 1970 relating to hijacking, and the Montreal Convention 1971 relating to aerial sabotage.

In 1976 an amendment to the Civil Aviation Act 1964 established the Aviation Security Service as a branch of the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport. The Aviation Security Service was charged with the screening of passengers and baggage and, where necessary, the searching of passengers, baggage, cargo, aircraft, aerodromes, and navigational installations. It was also to carry out security patrols, and in general, review, investigate, and inquire into security techniques, systems, devices, etc., co-operating where necessary with the Police, airport officials, Government departments, and other responsible authorities.

The International Air Tariff Regulations 1978 were introduced to control international air tariffs in relation to travel between New Zealand and overseas. The Secretary for Transport is empowered to approve tariffs, and it is an offence to sell or provide international carriage by air otherwise then in accordance with such approved tariffs. Air travel organisers are required to keep records relating to international air travel for 2 years and to make them available to the Secretary for inspection.

AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES AND FACILITIES—The Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport is the responsible authority for the provision of all facilities for air navigation in New Zealand and certain associated Pacific nations, and by delegation the facilities for flying operations in Western Samoa.

Air navigation facilities include a variety of electronic aids such as non-directional medium-frequency beacons (NDB), very high-frequency beacons (VOR), instrument landing systems (ILS), surveillance radar (SRE), precision approach radar (PAR), distance measuring equipment (DME), and also visual aids to navigation including visual glide slope indicators (VASI), high and low intensity approach, runway, and taxiway lights, aerodrome identification beacons, obstruction lights, hazard beacons, runway markings, cloud height measuring devices, wind strength and direction indicators, etc.

To assist the safe, orderly, and expeditious use of the air navigation system the division provides a comprehensive ground services organisation comprising air traffic control units, communications services, crash-fire services, a search and rescue service, and ground safety organisations. Units of the ground services organisations are located at the majority of aerodromes served by regular scheduled air transport services in New Zealand and Pacific island territories, operating from control towers and associated departmental buildings. In addition, control centres and communications centres are established at Auckland and Fiji for the conduct of international operations and at Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin to provide services to en-route aircraft throughout the entire country. A search and rescue service is provided from rescue co-ordination centres established by the division, whose responsibility it is to co-ordinate the effort and resources of military and civil agencies in the planning and direction of major search and rescue operations, whether air, land, or sea.

The division maintains a flight supervision and standards service and conducts examinations and issues licences for all categories of aircrew and ground personnel. Specially equipped aircraft and qualified aircrew are continuously engaged on the checking and calibration of all air navigation facilities.

An Aeronautical Information Service prepares and publishes New Zealand Aeronautical Information and Notices to Airmen and, in collaboration with the Lands and Survey Department, produces aeronautical maps and charts, etc.

An aeronautical training college is established at Christchurch International Airport where regular courses are conducted in air traffic control, meteorology, radio engineering, communications, and crash-fire procedure.

AIR NEW ZEALAND: DOMESTIC AIR SERVICES—The New Zealand Division of Air New Zealand provides regular services to centres throughout the North and South Islands with a fleet consisting at 31 March 1979 of 9 Boeing 737s, 16 Fokker Friendships, and 1 British Norman Islander.

Statistics of the operations of the National Airways Corporation for the year before the merger with Air New Zealand and for the domestic services of the New Zealand Division in the year ended 31 March 1979 are shown in the following table.

ItemYear Ended MarchPercentage Increase
19781979
Revenue passengers carried—
    Scheduled2,286,3882,388,718+ 4.5
    Charter15,039  
Passenger kilometres created (000)—
    Scheduled1,516,5691,595,000+ 5.2
    Charter8435  
Revenue passenger kilometeres (000)—
    Scheduled1,076,7421,135,000+ 5.4
    Charter5369  
Revenue passenger load factor71.071.2 
Average passenger journey (kilometres)470.93  
Revenue tonne-kilometres created (000)180,975186,000+ 2.8
Overall tonne-kilometres used (000)—
    (a) Passenger and baggage94,410126000+ 4.9
    (b) Freight24,217
    (c) Mail1467
        Total120,094126,000+ 4.9
Overall revenue load factor66.467.7 
Operating Account$(000)$(000) 
    Revenue98,568....
    Expenditure91,591....
    Operating surplus6,977....

Revenue—The revenue increase from domestic air services during the year ended 31 March 1979 was $14,160,000 or 14.8 percent. Revenue by categories and from incidentals was not available for the latest year.

CategoryRevenue for Year Ended 31 March1978–79
19781979Percentage Increase
$(000)
Passengers79,568110,20014.8
Freight14,199
Excess baggage219
Mail1,026
Charters1,048
Incidental2,507
Total98,568  

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS: Domestic—The following table gives the summarised result of the operations of scheduled domestic air services during recent years.

Calendar YearKilometres FlownPassengers CarriedPassenger-kilometresFreight Carried* (Tonnes)Freight (Tonne-kilometres)Mail (Tonne-kilometres)
   (000)   
197425,61522551,004,23264.023,7311447
197525,17123121,033,67861.224,5391617
197624,67022941,055,32264.627,8111415
197726,52624081,123,10163.829,2361531
197828,22825201,179,10561.028,0471496

International—The following table shows passengers, freight (including excess baggage), and mail carried by international scheduled air services on scheduled routes.

Calendar YearPassengers CarriedFreight CarriedMail Carried
 (000)tonnestonnes
1974111727,6682084
1975117930,8772270
1976124539,7062229
1977128641,6842286
1978141549,2092366

INTERNATIONAL AIR SERVICES—New Zealand's own airline, Air New Zealand Ltd., provides services to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Hong Kong, Singapore, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, Fiji, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Tahiti, Honolulu, and Los Angeles. Its international fleet comprises 3 Douglas DC8s and 7 Douglas DC10s, while B737s are used on shorthaul Pacific operations.

Other services through New Zealand include: Pan American World Airways—from the United States to Auckland via Tahiti; through Honolulu, and Nandi to Auckland and beyond to Sydney; British Airways—twice weekly from the United Kingdom to Melbourne and Auckland; Union de Transport Aeriens—weekly from Tahiti to Auckland and beyond to Noumea; QANTAS—a full range of trans-Tasman services; Singapore Airlines—twice weekly direct from Singapore; Polynesian Airlines—twice weekly from, Apia via Tonga to Auckland; Continental Airlines—from the United States to New Zealand via Honolulu and Pago Pago; Air Nauru weekly from Nauru to Auckland.

A minority financial interest is retained by Air New Zealand in the regional South Pacific operators: Polynesian Airlines Ltd. (PAL)—operating between Western Samoa, American Samoa, Tonga, Niue, Nandi, and Auckland; and Air Pacific Ltd.—operating form Fiji to the British Solomons, Kiribati, the New Hebrides, Western Samoa, Tonga, Nauru, and Auckland. Cook Islands Airways is a subsidiary company of Air New Zealand.

International scheduled air services are shown by sector groupings in the following table, which shows figures for the latest available December years.

Sector and Traffic19761977
InOutInOut

* Auckland, Wellington, or Christchurch to Melbourne or Brisbane (and vice versa) and Wellington or Christchurch to Sydney (and vice versa).

Other Pacific short-haul sectors are Auckland to Noumea, Norfolk Island, Tonga, or Suva (and vice versa).

Pacific long-haul sectors are Auckland to Honolulu, Papeete, Pago Pago, Rarotonga, Singapore, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Hong Kong, or Apia (and vice versa).

Trans-Tasman—
    Auckland — Sydney - Auckland
        Flights1163115710991097
        Passengers163,916157,041163,091163,516
        Freight and mail (tonnes)6554650765467118
        Kilometres flown (000)2818280025902581
Other trans-Tasman*
        Flights2386238822422260
        Passengers302,824305,910290,441321,009
        Freight and mail (tonnes)5655936554638673
        Kilometres flown (000)5664566855715421
Pacific short-haul—
    New Zealand – Nandi – New Zealand—
        Flights646626522529
        Passengers67,39170,61364,86571,213
        Freight and mail (tonnes)1499373013973353
        Kilometres flown (000)1546137611881200
Other sectors
        Flights553552639640
        Passengers25,16525,92332,82829,747
        Freight and mail (tonnes)19413542921456
        Kilometres flown (000)86286010441051
Pacific long-haul
        Flights1008107610461085
        Passengers101,148110,543117,646125,361
        Freight and mail (tonnes)2597609630198305
        Kilometres flown (000)4953545564066445

Traffic on international scheduled services is shown by airport in New Zealand in the following table. Passengers and freight in transit are excluded.

Airport and Type of Traffic19761977
Into N.Z.Out of N.Z.Into N.Z.Out of N.Z.
Auckland (Mangere)—
    Passengers455,397456,126483,028496,982
    Freight (tonnes)11,92820,24912,63223,126
    Mail (tonnes)12046561263703
Wellington (Rongotai)—
    Passengers73,17273,33662,26362,326
    Freight (tonnes)1362164611841202
    Mail (tonnes)1518712969
Christchurch (Harewood)—
    Passengers131,875140,568123,580151,528
    Freight (tonnes)1804434712133742
    Mail (tonnes)68635963

Lengths of flight stages from Auckland Airport are given below. These are airport-to-airport great circle distances.

DestinationDistance
 km
Apia2893
Brisbane2293
Hong Kong9145
Honolulu7086
Los Angeles10,480
Melbourne2635
Nandi2156
Norfolk Island1091
Noumea1859
Pago Pago2902
Papeete4093
Rarotonga3013
San Francisco10,503
Singapore8410
Suva2141
Sydney2158
Tonga2004

Distances to the Australian cities from the airports at Wellington and Christchurch differ slightly from the Auckland figures given above: Wellington-Sydney is 2235 km; Wellington-Melbourne, 2589 km; and Wellington-Brisbane, 2495 km; Christchurch-Sydney is 2124 km; Christchurch-Melbourne, 2413 km; and Christchurch-Brisbane, 2495 km.

AIR FREIGHT—Air freight involves mostly exports and imports to and from Australia, and imports from United States and United Kingdom. Exports concern mainly made-up textiles, meat, fish, and live animals, notably racehorses. Imports air-freighted are mainly machinery, scientific instruments, pharmaceutical products, and textiles.

The following table is a summary of the value of exports and imports transported by air during the 212-month periods ended June 1978 and June 1979. Fuller details are available from the Department of Statistics.

CommodityExportsImports*
New Zealand ProduceImported Merchandise
197778197879197778197879197778197879

* Cost including insurance and freight.

Includes manufactured goods classified chiefly by material. From 1 July 1978 figures are based on S.I.T.C. (Rev. 2).

 $(thousand)
Meat and meat preparations10,54013,30265757
Dairy products and eggs4832,1754416964
Fish and fish preparations5,2509,13216377131,558
Fruit and vegetables5,2306,8242946649879
Other foodstuffs (including animal)8157413267247322
Live animals17,98020,6263403315,4476,234
Beverages and tobacco5034683,0403,217176201
Hides, skins, and undressed fur skins8,0319,5709021
Animal and vegetable crude materials n.e.s.4,5937,688331,4181,549
Petroleum and petroleum products1,11463113.91617.9785754
Medical and pharmaceutical products3,4063,66489962026,36533,097
Other chemicals2,0552,8431,3671,70210,74019,751
Textile, yarn fabric, made-up articles, etc.9,96214,13535461019,44428,748
Other manufactured goods9,10812,2969541,55424,12634,582
Machinery and transport equipment16,41723,41133,48829.764157.611190,869
Scientific instruments, optical goods, watches and clocks3,0104,3555,6447,10532,14649,212
Other miscellaneous manufactured articles30,42743.7525,1624,26526,43735,700
Other goods1931,259515913,7529,949
            Total129,116176,87265,30467,367319,594412,847

AERIAL WORK—Aerial topdressing as a means of improving hill pastures and checking and preventing soil erosion was begun commercially in 1949. The industry developed rapidly and is now an established feature of the national economy. About half of the total fertiliser and lime applied to farms in New Zealand is spread by means of aircraft.

Aerial spraying (i.e., the release from the aircraft of agricultural chemicals in liquid form, such as insecticides and weedicides) has also been developed. The volume of this work has increased to more than 40 million litres a year. Since early 1974 there has been a significant change in application rates due to low-volume spraying techniques of insecticides, particularly in treatment for nodding thistle. This has resulted in a slight reduction in figures for litres sprayed, although there is growth in the area treated. A technical qualification is mandatory for pilots engaged in the application of all agricultural chemicals. The qualification is to ensure that pilots are familiar with the chemical properties and correct techniques in applying the agricultural chemicals, many of which are highly toxic.

A summary of aerial work operations follows.

ItemYear Ended 31 December
19731974197519761977
Hours flown159,140141,993141,098285,039155,906
Number of operators8383858794
Material distributed—
    Fertiliser and lime (tonnes)1,335,8231,105,375865,4431,062,1531,241,624
    Seed (tonnes)26982174197828256181
    Spray (litres)45,712,25344,127,28441,499,24943,313,16245,597,787
    Animal poison (tonnes)53277152843010,2318299
    Supplies (tonnes)50795398349676583394
    Fencing (tonnes)124263076110731479
    Dusts (tonnes)68171034
    Prills (tonnes)1191944266167
    Miscellaneous (tonnes)25281934404971937215
Source: Ministry of Transport.

Later figures of fertiliser and lime applied from the air are included in the fanning section

CIVIL AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS—Civil aircraft accidents are investigated by the Office of Air Accidents Investigation headed by the Chief Inspector of Air Accidents who has statutory powers of his own in respect of his investigative duties and responsibilities.

During the calendar year 1979, 161 aircraft accidents were reported in New Zealand. Twenty-one fatal accidents claimed the lives of 19 pilots, 2 flight engineers, 15 cabin crew, and 250 passengers. In addition 4 non-occupants, were killed. Seventeen persons suffered serious injury, and the remaining 141 pilots and 84 passengers involved received minor or no injuries. Twenty-nine fixed-wing and 14 rotary-wing aircraft were destroyed. Forty-nine helicopter accidents included 6 aircraft engaged in agricultural aviation, 21 in venison recovery, 15 in other aerial work, 4 in private flights, 2 in air transport operations, and 1 in aero club activities.

Included in these figures are the fatalities suffered in New Zealand's greatest disaster—in the air or otherwise. This occurred when an Air New Zealand DC10 crashed on Mount Erebus in Antarctica in November with the loss of 257 lives.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information may be found in the following publications:

New Zealand Civil Aviation StatisticMinistry of Transport, annual.

Report of the Ministry of Transport (Parl. paper F. 5).

Transport Statistics—Department of Statistics.Air New Zealand Annual Report—Air New Zealand.

Monthly Abstract of StatisticsDepartment of Statistics.

New Zealand Civil Aircraft AccidentsMinistry of Transport (Aircraft accident reports, briefs, and summaries are also available on subscription from the Office of Air Accidents Investigation, Ministry of Transport).

Chapter 13. Section 13 COMMUNICATIONS

13 A—POST OFFICE

HISTORICAL—With the arrival of Governor Hobson in 1840 the first post office proper was set up at Kororareka (now Russell). The same year saw the establishment of offices at other settlements in the north and at Port Nicholson (Wellington), and the beginnings of overland mail routes. By 1858, 73 post offices had been opened to provide communication services for the scattered settlers. In that year a Post Office Act was passed making the Post Office an independent department of State.

The system of communication by telegraph was inaugurated in the 1860s. A separate department, the Telegraph Department, was created by Act of Parliament in 1865 to take responsibility for the erecting of telegraph lines and the opening of morse telegraph offices. The North and South Islands were linked by telegraph cable in 1866 and by telephone cable in 1926.

The telegraph and postal services were amalgamated in 1881. Under the Post Office Act 1959, the name of the department became the Post Office, and the Minister's title became Postmaster-General.

A table in the Statistical Summary towards the back of the Yearbook shows the growth of postal and telecommunication activities over the latest 50 years.

POSTAL BUSINESS—At 31 March 1979 there were 1354 post offices in New Zealand.

Because of a change in postal categories and rating structures introduced on 1 October 1977, it is not practicable to relate all current postal statistics with those published for earlier years. The following table shows the new categories which now form the basis of postal statistics now prepared and gives the numbers of articles posted during the latest 2 available years.

Year Ended 31 MarchLetters (Standard and Non-Standard)Other Articles (Including Packets, Newspapers, etc.)ParcelsTotal
  million  
1978559.378.113.2650.6
1979565.784.010.8660.5

The average numbers of items posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31 March 1979 were: letters, 179.9; other articles (printed papers, commercial papers, newspapers, and magazines), 26.7; and parcels, 3.4.

Chartered air services are used to convey the bulk of surface mail between the North and South Islands.

Private boxholders as at 30 September 1978 totalled 134655.

Rural Mail Delivery—The rural delivery system enables country residents to obtain postal notes, money orders, and stamps, to register correspondence, and to collect or post their mail in boxes at or near then-gates. The deliveries are generally performed by contractors who handle the mail in conjunction with the carriage of goods, and thus the rural mail delivery is in many areas the medium by which residents obtain their newspapers, bread, parcels, etc. At 31 March 1978, the total number of boxholders was 90309 and at 31 March 1979, it was 93236. The cost of the rural delivery service is $8.3 million a year.

Inland Airmails—Particulars of letter class articles carried by air within New Zealand during the latest 4 years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchWeight
 kg
1976911,111
1977853,268
1978924,137
19791,006,641

Overseas Airmails—The weight of airmail dispatched from New Zealand is about 35.0 percent of the total amount of mail forwarded overseas each year. In 1978–79, 320358 kg of letters, 264470 kg of newspapers and packets, and 251616 kg of parcels were posted by overseas airmail.

Trans-Tasman Air Services—The first flight of the regular trans-Tasman service linking Auckland and Sydney took place on 30 April 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. The existing service provides for flights between New Zealand (Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch) and Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane) with a frequency overall of at least one flight each day.

New Zealand - United Kingdom Air Service—This service operates daily to London, the transit time New Zealand to the United Kingdom being normally 30 hours.

At London Airport, airmails for 13 European countries are transferred to the first available flights to destination and the majority normally arrive within 36 hours of departure from New Zealand.

New Zealand - Hong Kong and Singapore Air Services—There are direct services from Auckland to Hong Kong and from Auckland to Singapore. Airmail to countries in the Far East is dispatched to Hong Kong, Singapore, or Sydney for reforwarding.

Trans-Pacific Services—The trans-Pacific service operating between New Zealand and North America commenced on 20 July 1940. Airlines now operate a daily service to the United States.

Pacific Island Services—Airmails are forwarded by New Zealand-operated air services to the Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, and Western Samoa (Apia). Local air services provide connections from Apia or Nandi to American Samoa, Kiribati, Nauru Island, New Hebrides, Niue, Solomon Islands, and Tonga.

Overseas Parcel Post—Particulars of overseas parcels received and dispatched in each of the latest 4 years are contained in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchOverseas Parcels ReceivedOverseas Parcels Dispatched
NumberWeightCustoms DutyNumberWeight
  kg$(000) kg
1976668,2572,574,0852,441513,3891,424,915
1977577,5292,212,9142,670477,8851,339,854
1978561,9612,104,388..408,8701,224,374
1979553,7082,038,083..354,6511,188,069

Postal Mechanisation—The Wellington Postal Centre is extensively mechanised and a similar modern centre is being built in Christchurch.

Money Orders—Inland postal money orders for amounts exceeding $7 (for $7.00 and lesser amounts postal notes are generally used) and telegraphic money orders for any amount may be purchased to send money within New Zealand, the Cook Islands, and Niue. Postal money orders may also be issued in New Zealand for payment in 64 foreign administrations, and an overseas telegraphic money order service is available to Australia, Fiji, Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Irish Republic, Norfolk Island, and Western Samoa. For remittances exceeding $4 to foreign countries a permit is required.

A special rate or commission applies to money orders payable in foreign countries, except to the Cook Islands, Niue, and Western Samoa to which the inland rate applies. In addition to commission, telegraph fees are also payable for money-order telegrams.

Postal Notes—Postal Notes ranging from 10c to $2 and for $3, $4, and $5 are available for payment within New Zealand, Niue, and the Cook Islands.

Postal notes are negotiable, and their period of validity is unlimited. They are a popular medium for making small inland remittances by post, and during the year ended 31 March 1979, 1510335 postal notes valued at $3,774,345 were purchased by the public.

British Postal Orders—These are both issued and paid in New Zealand. Denominations sold are 10p, 15p, 25p, 50p, 75p, £1, and £2 sterling. (In decimal currency, which has applied in the United Kingdom from 15 February 1971, five new pence equal the previous one shilling). Commission is payable. For all remittances exceeding £2 per day a permit is required. As these orders are payable in several British Commonwealth countries they are a popular medium for making small postal remittances to overseas countries, especially the United Kingdom. During the year ended 31 March 1979 the Post Office sold 830886 British postal orders valued at $3,023,425 and paid 144213 orders valued at $1,213,508.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK—Details on the Post Office Savings Bank are given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TELEPHONE SERVICES—The first telephone exchange was installed in 1881 and the telephone system has since then been expanded to over 800 exchanges serving 1085727 subscribers at 31 March 1979.

Telephone exchanges are grouped into 291 free-calling areas within which there is no charge for local calls. The long-term objective is to reduce the number of free-calling areas to about 80. Toll fees are charged for calls between different free-calling areas, at rates varying according to distance.

About one sixth of the main telephones are business telephones. At 31 March 1979 there are 22 410 applicants awaiting service, about half of whom were awaiting connections in Auckland city and environs.

According to the latest comparative data available (January 1978) compiled by the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks fifth in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the USA (74.4), Sweden (71.7), Switzerland (65.9), Canada (63.2), and New Zealand (56.0).

Subscriber Toll Dialling (STD) service is in operation in Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and in several smaller centres. It is being progressively extended as new telephone exchange equipment is brought into service. At 31 March 1979 STD service was available to 46.4 percent of subscribers.

A broadband toll link, comprising microwave, radio, and co-axial cable systems, connects main centres from Whangarei to Invercargill.

The following table indicates the growth of telephone installations (the figures are as at 31 March).

Item1976197719781979
Main telephones—
    Automatic946,991977,1771,008,0921,033,732
    Manual72,19571,28656,06551,995
Extension telephones584,514618,898644,585669,982
Public telephones5328538152905165
Private line telephones241238192180
Toll offices1164115211191097
                    Total telephones1,610,4331,674,1321,715,3431,762,151
Telephones (all types per 1000 population)514533545560
Applicants awaiting installations27,01329,51725,79322,410
Number of toll calls (inland and outward international)80,685,52479,393,72682,975,84186,204,129

TELEGRAPH SERVICES: Telegrams—The downtrend in inland telegrams has continued. In the year to 31 March 1979, 2.8 million telegrams were lodged compared with 3.1 million in the preceding year. Of these, 66 percent were lodged by telephone, 12 percent by telex, and 22 percent handed in over Post Office counters. At the delivery end, 45 percent were delivered by messenger, 42 percent telephoned to the addressee, and 13 percent telexed.

The public telegraph network comprises 109 teleprinter offices which interwork through Gentex (automatic circuit switching).

Telex Service: Telex—the international abbreviation for Teleprinter Exchange Service—is a customer-to-customer service using page teleprinters. An international manual telex service for communicating with overseas subscribers commenced in New Zealand on 1 September 1960 with 16 subscribers. Service was then available with 23 overseas countries. Automatic service was introduced in 1964 with a total of 150 subscribers. Demand for telex connections has increased steadily and at 31 March 1979 there were 3271 subscribers.

The monthly rental for a standard teleprinter is $112.50 and for a machine equipped with a tape reader and transmitter $150. Inland calls are charged at 5.625 cents per 6 seconds. In the year to 31 March 1979 rentals totalled $5,460,046 and call revenue was $6,211,593.

Ancillary telex services include a public telex service at all Chief Post Offices, Hastings, and Lower Hutt (15000 messages, mostly international were handled in the year to 31 March 1979); Phonatelex (messages accepted by telephone for onward transmission by telex) was introduced on 1 October 1977 and 37800 messages were handled in the first full year ended 31 March 1979. Teltex, which provides for the hand or telephone delivery of telex messages sent to any public telegraph delivery office had an annual volume of 439600 messages to March 1979.

Data Service—The use of computers in the commercial sector has created a need for facilities for transferring data from one point to another. The Post Office leases both inland and international circuits for data transmission. It also leases data modems (200, 600/1200, and 2400 bits per second) for use on leased lines, and provides a datel service for the exchange of data using the switched telephone networks (local, toll, and international).

For the Datel Service, Post Office modems are mandatory and subscribers are also required to rent a business telephone connection. Modems for operation at speeds of 200, 300, 600, 1200, and 2400 bits per second are currently available. Yearly rentals range between $186 and $720 for modems and between $225 and $389 for a business telephone connection. There is no charge for Datel calls within each free-calling area. Calls between different areas are charged at the same rate as telephone calls. Where the toll and international services are used for data calls the ruling toll or international rates apply as appropriate.

INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS: Cable Links—Telegraphic communication overseas was first established between New Zealand and Australia by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka (Nelson) to Sydney in 1876, and between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island, Suva, and Fanning Island in 1902. In 1945, the Commonwealth's external telecommunications systems were brought under Government control and, in accordance with the Commonwealth Telegraphic Agreement 1948, the New Zealand Post Office purchased the assets in New Zealand of Cable and Wireless Ltd., the private company previously controlling these services, and took over the operation of the overseas cable services.

In July 1962 a new submarine cable with a capacity of 80 telephone channels was brought into operation between New Zealand and Australia as part of a Commonwealth round-the-world cable project. The cable was extended from New Zealand to Fiji in December 1962, and in December 1963 was further extended, via Hawaii, to Vancouver and across Canada by microwave to Montreal. At Montreal it links up with the trans-Atlantic telephone cables, to connect with Britain, and provide high-quality circuits for telephone, telegraph, and telex communication between New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Canada, the United States of America, and Britain. This cable system links New Zealand with most of the world's major countries, and it was supplemented by the bringing into service in March 1967 of the South-East Asia Commonwealth Telephone Cable which extended the system from Australia to New Guinea, and (via Guam) to Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Singapore.

An additional high capacity trans-Tasman submarine cable, a joint New Zealand-Australia multi-million dollar project was brought into service in early 1975. Known as “Tasman” this cable has a total capacity of 640 telephone circuits.

International Telephone Service—Telephone communication by cable, satellite and radio is now available to almost all countries of the world, as well as to Ross Dependency (Scott Base), Raoul Island, Chatham Islands, Campbell Island, merchant ships, and H.M. New Zealand and Australian warships.

An International Gateway telephone exchange in Auckland handles all New Zealand's outgoing and incoming international telephone calls. International Subscriber Dialing (ISD) enabling New Zealand subscribers to dial overseas subscribers directly was introduced on 1 December 1979. The facility which is presently available to 50 percent of New Zealand subscribers is being progressively extended as is the number of countries to which the service is available.

International Data Service—DATEL service (operated via the switched telephone network) is available to a number of countries. Operation at speeds up to 2400 bps is permitted.

A service providing access to data bases and computing facilities connected to the Tymnet and Telenet networks located within the USA was opened on 18 September 1979. The service is named OASIS—Overseas Access Service for Information Systems. It is intended that the service will be extended to similar facilities in other countries.

International Telex Service—Since its inception in 1960 this service has continued to grow steadily and at the present time is available with 183 countries. An important development in New Zealand's international telex service was the introduction in July 1968 of automatic subscriber-to-subscriber calling. Telex subscribers in New Zealand can now call most overseas subscribers automatically without the aid of the international assistance operator. In August 1977 automatic telex service became available to ships at sea.

International Telegraph Service—Telegrams are an important part of international communications and a world-wide service is available. Phototelegraph service is also available to a number of countries.

Satellite Communications—Because of the rapid increase in international telecommunication traffic, an earth station was opened in 1971 at Warkworth, near Auckland, for communicating with other countries via satellites in space.

In addition to providing additional international telecommunications facilities, the earth station is used for both “live” and recorded television relays. The earth station works through a satellite over the Pacific Ocean.

International Radio Services—Telegraph and telephone services between New Zealand and places in the Pacific area not served by cable or satellite are provided by radio through a high-power transmitting station at Himatangi and a receiving station at Makara.

Direct radio circuits are operated from New Zealand to Apia, Rarotonga, Niue, Ross Dependency (Scott Base), and Chatham Islands. Communication is effected with other islands in the Cook group by Rarotonga Radio through feeder stations. Stations in Tokelau communicate with Apia Radio.

Radio Services to Shipping—The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on 26 July 1911. Other stations are located at Auckland, Awarua, and Chatham Islands. These stations provide a service for the exchange of radio telegrams with ships at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand and Australia. A free radio-medical service also operates for ships at sea and lighthouses on the New Zealand coast. The number of ships licensed to operate radio equipment is 10081.

INLAND RADIO SERVICES—The use of radio as a means of communication continues to grow. In the Post Office very-high-frequency service, 5692 subscribers are provided with radio-telephone service to 45202 mobile units through 89 base-stations throughout the country. A further 14196 mobile units are provided with service through 3328 Government and private owner-operated base stations. The biggest growth is in the Citizen radio service where the number of walkie-talkie sets licensed increased during 1978–79 from 21110 to 28679, an increase of some 35 percent. The amateur service provides facilities for experimental communications between persons interested in radio as a hobby, and 4960 licensed stations are operated by qualified amateur operators. There are now 119073 radio transmitting stations of all types licensed compared with 107228 in 1978.

REVENUE—The revenue of the Post Office for the latest financial years is now shown.

Item1975–761976–771977–781978–79
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Postal revenue—
    Postages43,01365,17774,91181,236
    Private box and bag rentals and rural mail delivery fees8031,7021,7761,801
    Miscellaneous6681,1162,0472,545
 44,48467,99578,73485,582
Telecommunications revenue—
    Telex5,9348,71010,76613,051
    Telegraph6,0057,9578,1148,207
    Tolls74,43491,135115,183133,435
    Telephones100,352152,202184,576223,740
    Overseas telecommunications16,11718,73122,15630,016
    Radio533652744821
 203,375279,387341,539409,270
Miscellaneous revenue—
    Fees from Government departments, etc.9,67814,04913,22712,803
    Money order and postal note commission670953977995
    Rents received500693604743
    Other revenue4,1624,3984,9185,080
 15,01020,09319,72619,621
    Total revenue262,869367,475439,999514,473

Revenue and expenditure for the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure
 $(000)$(000)
1974206,256212,495
1975232,221252,995
1976262,869301,589
1977367,475346,295
1978439,999402,344
1979514,473464,851

CAPITAL—Capital expansion necessary to meet demand requires substantial provisions for new telecommunications systems and the replacement of those which have become obsolete. Accommodation to house this equipment, to provide post offices in newly developed areas, and to replace old and inadequate offices is an important part of Post Office capital development.

Capital expenditure on telecommunications development and buildings is financed partly by the Post Office, and partly from the Loans Account, on which interest is paid at the rate of 10 percent. The interest payment amounted to $36.4 million in 1978–79.

In 1978–79, $61.1 million was spent on the development of telecommunications systems and $16.8 million on land and buildings. In addition, $10.4 million was invested in other assets such as motor vehicles, tools and plant, and office equipment. This expenditure was financed from Post Office resources, the Loans Account, and capital equipment credit arrangements. The capital liability of the Post Office is now $508.9 million and liability under capital equipment credit arrangement is $5.6 million.

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS—Because it has numerous offices readily accessible to the public, the Post Office also undertakes agency work for other Government departments. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

Receipts—For the following departments: Education (examination fees, etc.), Health, Inland Revenue (land tax and income tax, under PAYE system), Lands and Survey, National Roads Board (Road User Charges), Public Trust Office, Housing Corporation (State rents, loan and interest repayments), Electricity (some electric-power receipts), Ministry of Transport, Tourist and Publicity, Valuation, Customs (collection of Customs duty and sales tax), Treasury (Government Superannuation, National Provident Fund receipts, and motor vehicle registration and licence fees).

Payments—Departments of Social Welfare (social welfare benefits and war pensions, etc.), Health (refunds of medical expenses), Defence, Labour (subsidised wage payments), Public Trust Office, Police (witness warrants), Treasury (Government superannuation payments and miscellaneous payments for other departments), Ministry of Works and Development, and for Reserve Bank (interest warrants and coupons).

Other services performed by the Post Office are the issue of licences in respect of motor vehicles and radio apparatus, and assistance to the Marine and Civil Aviation Divisions of Ministry of Transport on radio matters. In some of the smaller centres postmasters act as registrars of births, deaths, and marriages. In each of the 92 electorates a postmaster or senior officer is appointed electorate officer, as an agent of the Department of Justice, with responsibilities for accepting registrations and displaying rolls as directed by the Chief Electoral Officer.

Other activities include the receipt of levies under the Motor Vehicle Accident Scheme as provided for under the Accident Compensation Act 1972, the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatisation societies, organising and selling health stamps, and collecting television licence fees.

STAFF—Staff numbers at 31 March are shown in the following table.

Classification1976197719781979
Permanent staff32,63731,81532,12233,234
Temporary and non-classified staff6270641567726161
              Total staff38,90738,23038,89439,395

VEHICLES—The Post Office fleet as at 31 March 1979 consisted of 6210 vehicles; 1265 trucks, 3068 vans, 1868 cars, and 9 motor scooters. Of this fleet 839 vehicles are used for hire to other departments, 4226 for engineering work, and 1145 on postal, telegram delivery, and other general work. The fleet travelled 84.16 million kilometres in the year ended 31 March 1979.

FURTHER INFORMATION—For further information see Parliamentary paper F. 1. Report of the Post Office.

13 B—TELEVISION AND RADIO BROADCASTING

The Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, which was created by the Broadcasting Act 1976, came into existence on 1 February 1977. It united under 1 central board, 4 independent statutory bodies—TV1, TV2, Radio New Zealand, and the Broadcasting Council of New Zealand—which had been established by the Broadcasting Act 1973. In their place, 3 programme services (TV1, TV2, and Radio New Zealand) and a Central Services Division were established, though under the Broadcasting Amendment Act 1979 the 2 television services were amalgamated on 16 February 1980 into a single television service—Television New Zealand, which has 2 autonomous divisions. They consist of a Production Service, based in Auckland, and a Network Service, based at Avalon (Lower Hutt). The Production Service has responsibility for all New Zealand television programme production while the Network Service has responsibility for scheduling programmes and advertising on both TV1 and TV2 networks of the corporation. In the exercise of its duties and functions the Act stipulates that the corporation “acts as a trustee of the national interest” and “operates its services with the maximum independence”, and provides programmes which “inform, educate, and entertain”. The announced intention of the 1976 legislation was to restore direct ministerial responsibility for the public broadcasting system, to improve administrative efficiency and financial viability, and to establish a tribunal with powers to control some aspects of broadcasting, including the establishment of further private radio stations. At the same time it was intended to preserve those features of the preceding system which were throught to be advantageous to listeners and viewers in general.

Earlier forms of control dating back to the introduction of the first “wireless” stations in New Zealand were the Radio Broadcasting Company of New Zealand Ltd. (1925–31); the Broadcasting Board (1931–36); the National Broadcasting Service and the National Commercial Broadcasting Service (1936–45); the New Zealand Broadcasting Service (1945–62); and the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation (1962–75). Information on these organisations appears in the relevant Yearbooks.

BROADCASTING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—The corporation consists of not less than 7 and not more than 9 members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Broadcasting. Since 1977 the chairman of the corporation has served in the capacity of an executive chairman. There are Directors-General for Radio New Zealand and the Production and Network service of Television New Zealand. The secretary of the corporation is in executive charge of all centralised functions.

In general terms the corporation's responsibility is to carry on public broadcasting services and to develop, extend, and improve them in the public interest. In doing so, it must have regard for the general broadcasting policy of the Government. The Minister may direct the corporation in writing but any such direction must subsequently be gazetted and laid before Parliament.

The corporation is required to maintain standards of accuracy, impartiality, decency, and good taste; and to this effect must promulgate rules governing programmes and advertising. The Independent Broadcasters' Association is represented on the committee formulating these rules. Additionally the corporation is charged with maintaining a New Zealand identity in its programmes, with respecting the privacy of the individual, and with avoiding the coincident presentation on the 2 television channels of programmes of a like nature. Formal complaints from the public on certain aspects of programming must receive proper consideration and if dissatisfied with the corporation's decision, the complainant may refer the matter to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

The corporation is responsible for the publication of the New Zealand Listener and for the administration of the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra. Up to two-thirds of the cost of operating the orchestra may be met by Government appropriation.

The corporation is empowered and expected to promote and encourage artistic, cultural, and educational development in the community.

BROADCASTING TRIBUNAL—A tribunal of 3 members, appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Broadcasting, is empowered to consider applications and grant warrants for additional radio stations, public or privately-owned. No warrant may be granted for any television station additional to the TV1 and TV2 Services without the express permission of the Minister. The tribunal has no authority over any shortwave station.

It is also empowered to consider and determine complaints which in the opinion of the complainant have not been satisfactorily dealt with by the Broadcasting Corporation. The tribunal must have regard for Government policy on broadcasting and must comply with any written direction from the Minister which does not derogate from its duty to act judicially. Any such direction must subsequently be gazetted and laid before Parliament.

RADIO—Radio New Zealand provides programmes for 56 medium-wave broadcasting stations, and 2 short-wave transmitters of the External Services Division, the latter having a number of assigned frequencies. Of the 56 medium-wave stations, 36 broadcast advertising material. No advertising is broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. Twenty-one stations maintain a daily 24-hour service, apart from shutdowns for maintenance purposes once a month, between 11.15 p.m. and 5.30 a.m. The shutdowns are staggered to give the minimum loss of coverage to listeners.

Coverage of Short-wave Service—The External Services Division of Radio New Zealand broadcasts the Home Service (National) Programme to the Pacific on 2 transmitters from 1800 to 0830 G.M.T. daily. Then one frequency beams this programme to Australia until midnight. The Home Service programme also continues to the Pacific on one frequency until midnight G.M.T.

Special breakouts to take Concert and Sports Networks to the Pacific and Australia are generally to cover major and international sporting events, e.g., All Black tours and cricket series. Radio New Zealand's Overseas Programme Unit supplements this with weekly despatches of taped programmes; news, current affairs, talks and comment including vernacular programmes. The shortwave service also carries home service news and magazine programmes in Maori, Tongan, Samoan, Niuean, and Cook Island Maori.

Local Broadcasting—Whereas in many Commonwealth countries local broadcasting has only recently begun, in New Zealand it is in many ways the most important part of the national system. Local stations not only provide a wide range of entertainment and information programmes, but also play a valuable social role through new community services and participation in cultural activities. Decentralisation of administration enables local radio stations to be highly responsive to the communities they serve.

Broadcasts to Schools—This service was virtually phased out at the end of 1979, being supplemented by a new service of the Department of Education embracing modern teaching methods more suited to the use of tape replays than direct broadcasts to schools.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Non-commercial)—Two private non-commercial stations are now in operation. One is operated by the Otago Radio Association Incorporated and has been broadcasting since 1922 from studios located in Dunedin. It broadcasts on Wednesday, Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday nights from 1800–2230 hours and Sunday mornings from 0900-1230. The other station is owned by Radio Rhema Inc. with studios in Christchurch, and began transmission in November 1978. Broadcasting hours are Monday to Friday 0600-1805 and Saturdays, Sundays, and public holidays from 0600-2400 hours.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Commercial)—The first warrants for private commercial broadcasting stations were issued on 30 June 1970 to Radio Hauraki and Radio i, both located in Auckland, and transmissions began on 26 September 1970 and 31 October 1970 respectively. Radio Waikato was issued with a warrant on 31 July 1970 and began transmission on 2 November 1970, followed by Radio Whakatane with a warrant dated 24 November 1970 which began transmission on 30 June 1971, and Radio Otago with a warrant dated 8 June 1971 which came into operation on 20 November 1971. Later warrants enabled Radio Avon in Christchurch and Radio Windy in Wellington to begin operations late in 1973 and Radio Pacific in Auckland in April 1979. Advertisements are not permitted to be broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. If Anzac Day falls on other than a Sunday, advertisements are not permitted before 1300 hours. The Broadcasting Act 1973 prohibited the issue of any further warrants, but the 1976 Act reinstated the right to grant them to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

Independent Broadcasters Association—In 1970, holders of warrants for private commercial radio stations formed a federation which was subsequently approved by the Broadcasting Authority in August 1971. The general objects of the federation are to conserve the rights and interests of the members in broadcasting. The name was subsequently changed to the Independent Broadcasters Association (Incorporated).

Committee of Private Broadcasters—This consists of a chairman appointed by the Minister, and 2 members appointed by him on the nomination of the Independent Broadcasters Association. It investigates allegations of breaches of warrants or rules by private stations, and is responsible to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

TELEVISION—In August 1958 the Government decided that the 625-line system would be the standard for any television service in New Zealand.

In October 1958 approval was given to the then New Zealand Broadcasting Service to purchase equipment to enable technical investigations to be made. The service began regular transmissions in Auckland in 1960, in Christchurch and Wellington in 1961, and in Dunedin in 1962.

In October 1969 the Minister of Broadcasting directed the Broadcasting Authority to carry out an inquiry into the extension of television services. Following extensive hearings in 1970, the authority recommended that the existing TV services be converted to colour transmission (using the PAL system). Colour telecasts began in a limited way in October 1973, and conversion of the remaining transmission equipment was completed by March 1975. At the end of 1979, 64 percent of licensed television sets were colour sets.

Extension to Coverage—Television coverage has been steadily extended to all areas of New Zealand. By the end of 1979 the first television programme (the TV1 Network) was being disseminated by six 100 kW transmitters, 150 kW, 17 of from 1 to 25 kW, and 219 installations of less than 1 kW. These transmissions reached about 99 percent of the population.

Some 133 small units are operated by private individuals or societies, the latter receiving financial assistance from the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand. These small transmitters cover less than 1 percent of the population.

Transmission of the second television programme (the TV2 Network) began from 300 kW transmitters at Auckland and Christchurch on 30 June 1975. By the end of 1979 it was carried by five 300 kW transmitters, two 100 kW, 3 of from 1–25 kW, and 59 installations of less than 1 kW. Three small installations were operated by private groups. Approximately 90 percent of the population was covered by second programme transmitters. By the mid-1980s TV2 should have full nationwide coverage.

Second programme transmitters for other areas are to be provided progressively until identical coverage is achieved for both programmes.

Over 94 percent of homes in New Zealand are equipped with television sets.

Television Programmes—The BCNZ Television New Zealand Service operates 2 national networks in colour—the TV1 network which originates programmes from the Avalon television complex in Lower Hurt and the TV2 Network which originates programmes from the Auckland studios. TV1 transmits some 83 hours of programmes per week and TV2 some 71 hours. Five days are commercial with Sundays being non-commercial on each network and Fridays non-commercial on TV1 and Mondays noncommercial on TV2.

TVNZ has production studios at Auckland (3), Avalon (3), Christchurch (2), and Dunedin (2). Colour outside-broadcast units are stationed at each of the 4 main centres (Auckland 3, Wellington 2, Christchurch 1, Dunedin 1) and are deployed for live coverage of sport and programme production from towns and cities in both islands. Comprehensive film facilities are installed at each centre.

With the change in the administrative organisation of TV1 and TV2 into a unified 2-channel operation from 16 February 1980, the stated intention was to give a wider range of programming to viewers and to rationalise the use of facilities by the channels. The specific BCNZ objectives were to provide the kind of complementary programming which a two-channel co-operative system could offer the public; offer wider scope for regional television; eliminate competitive practices which annoy viewers; cater to minority and cultural audiences at more suitable times than had previously been possible; and to fulfil the social, cultural, and educational potential of television. Local output for the 1979–80 financial year was estimated at 2550 hours and in the following year it is hoped that with independent private production added, the percentage of local output across both channels will reach 40 percent. This content includes drama, news, and current affairs, light entertainment, religion, service programmes, and sport. The balance of programme output is purchased from overseas, mainly from Britain, the United States, and Australia. The use of satellite links permits same-day presentation of world news items and live telecasts of significant overseas events, particularly in the field of sport.

NEW ZEALAND SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA—The New Zealand Symphony Orchestra was formed in 1946 as the National Orchestra and adopted its present title in 1975. It is a full symphony orchestra widely known for the high standard of its public concerts as well as its performances over the air. Distinguished guest conductors and celebrity artists from other countries, along with resident soloists and New Zealand choirs, appear regularly with the orchestra. As a national orchestra, its tour programme is one of the most extensive in the world, involving some 15000 miles of internal travel annually. The playing strength is 89 players, which enables the orchestra to undertake the complete symphonic repertoire.

In 1974 the orchestra undertook its first overseas tour to 3 Australian cities. Its second, in February 1980 was to Hong Kong. As well as presenting nationwide concerts the orchestra has given many studio recordings for both radio and television. It has also made several commercial recordings. There is also a small training orchestra of string players which was established in 1961 as a scheme to develop promising students wishing to gain experience of the orchestral profession. The NZSO also organises an annual season by the National Youth Orchestra which was established in 1959.

NEW ZEALAND LISTENER—Programmes and advance information for national television channels and radio stations are published in the weekly journal, the New Zealand Listener, first issued on 30 June 1939. The circulation of the Listener as at the end of September 1979 was 320844. The readership is estimated to be 1203000. As well as containing programme information the Listener occupies a special place in New Zealand journalism as a leading periodical dealing with the current scene. It publishes interviews, articles, and reprints of broadcasts as well as fiction, poetry, and criticisms. Through its editorial and correspondence columns, the Listener provides a forum for serious public discussions on important issues.

FINANCES—There have been 2 principal sources of revenue: licence fees and radio and television advertising. Under the NZBC licence, fee revenue was credited to the accounts of the non-commercial stations and sale's revenue to those of the commercial stations, although a common fund was in fact operated with all revenue being available for the general purpose of broadcasting. The NZBC was abolished on 1 April 1975 and was replaced by 4 corporations—Television Service One, Television Service Two, Radio New Zealand, and the Broadcasting Council of New Zealand. Under that structure the licence fee revenue was allocated amongst the 4 organisations by the council. On 1 February 1977, when the four-corporation structure was replaced by the consolidated Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, a single main bank account, known as the Broadcasting Account, was established. All income and payments are handled through this account.

Gross revenue from licence fees and from advertising for the latest 5 financial years is shown in the following table.

Item1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79
 $(thousand)
TV-licence fees17,92725,76927,59529,74131,719
Radio advertising10,19610,97412,38714,85016,621
TV advertising14,12020,89430,35239,095x43,749
                Total42,24357,63770,33483,686x92,089

LICENCES—As from 1 October 1971 the radio licence, which stood at $3 a year, was abolished and the monochrome television licence raised from $13 a year to $20. A colour television licence fee of $35 was introduced on 1 November 1973. On 1 January 1975 licence fees were increased to $27.50 (monochrome) and $45 (colour).

The following table summarises licences for television receivers issued by districts.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedinTotalNumber of Sea Covered by Hirers' Licences*

* Included in preceding figures.

Includes 82027 colour sets in 1975, 188911 in 1976, 302212 in 1977, 394195 in 1978, and 499210 in 1979.

Including other.

1975272,730209,150108,82864,494790599135,397
1976287,244230,362110,62268,590811182124,344
1977285,067219,507116,17568,554815798126,495
1978298,896226,004118,80470,953843555131,898
1979298,516222,356119,36069,035859885150,618

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on broadcasting will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper F. 3).

Report of the Broadcasting Tribunal (Parl. paper F. 4).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

13 C—NEWSPAPERS AND CINEMAS

NEWSPAPERS—Although printing in New Zealand began peacefully enough with the production of hymns in the Maori language, the early years of the New Zealand press appear to have been stormy, acrimonious, and marked by frequent shortages of the basic necessities of newspaper production. The first newspaper to be printed in New Zealand was the New Zealand Gazette of 18 April 1840, but like most early New Zealand newspapers it was short-lived. Much of the newspaper writing of early days was powerful, dogmatic, sometimes virulent and irresponsible, and the Government or other target of attack reacted with equal force. One way of closing down a rival or too-critical newspaper was to buy up the press on which it was printed. When this method of silencing was used against the Auckland Times in 1842 the proprietor continued publication with the aid of a job-lot of assorted old type, a load of coarse paper, and a mangle. Another paper appeared for some weeks printed on red blotting paper, and others appeared on occasion on green or blue paper or in varying paper sizes or qualities. Appeals for supplies of paper sometimes appeared in advertisements and one paper made a despairing appeal for treacle, apparently an essential ingredient in inking-rollers. One Auckland paper was made to yield to a unique form of forceful persuasion. In 1865 the New Zealander published an article which gave offence to the Navy, whereupon a large number of sailors passed a hawser through the newspaper office and back over the roof, and threatened to overturn the building unless there was a full retraction.

Since 1840 about 500 different newspapers have appeared in New Zealand, but relatively few have survived. The oldest surviving newspaper is the Taranaki Herald, started in 1852. A number of the large metropolitan dailies still in existence were started in the 1860s.

By world standards, New Zealand has had (and continues to have) a large number of newspapers for the size of population. In the past, difficulties of geography and the scattered nature of the centres of population prevented any daily newspaper achieving a national circulation. Today, aided by distribution during the dead hours before dawn, the morning papers published in Auckland and Wellington are, between them, able to cover much of the North Island, while the Christchurch morning paper covers much of the South Island. Nevertheless, the provincial press remains fairly strong, New Zealand still has a relatively large number of local papers published daily, weekly, or 2, 3, or 4 times a week which, by offering a detailed coverage of local news, are complementary to the newspapers published in the main centres rather than in competition with them. Most of the provincial dailies are evening papers.

There are 7 daily newspapers in the 4 main metropolitan areas, with a total circulation of approximately 694000. In the smaller cities and provincial towns there are about 30 daily newspapers. New Zealand also has about 110 general-interest non-dailies, of which 78 publish once to 3 times a week.

The total number of magazines, periodicals, and journals published and sold in 1974–75 was 19421000 and in 1975–76, 14484000. The total number of copies of daily newspapers sold in 1974–75 was 331346000 and in 1975–76 it was 316784000.

In the following table, based on the UN Statistical Yearbook, the total circulation of daily and non-daily (including Sunday) newspapers is shown per 1000 inhabitants for selected countries. Circulation figures for non-daily papers in New Zealand include those for the weekly, fortnightly, or monthly local papers distributed free in many districts.

CountryYearCopies per 1000 Inhabitants
DailiesNon-dailies

* 1974.

1973.

Australia1975394..
Canada1973235289
Denmark197534130
France1975214196*
Germany, West197531255
Italy197511346
Japan1974526..
Netherlands197331582
New Zealand1972365547
USSR1975397264
United Kingdom1975388..
United States1975287166

Advertising—The advertising revenue of newspapers and periodicals is shown in the following table for the latest available years.

Type of Publication1974–751975–761976–77
  $(000) 
Newspapers, daily53,37858,56169,876
Newspapers, other than daily5,8986,6408,056
Magazines, journals, and periodicals3,4843,2372,784

CINEMAS—The survey of cinemas for the year ended 31 March 1975 covered 203 theatres compared with 208 in 1973. Cinema admissions, which had been dropping since the introduction of television in 1961, showed a recovery in the last survey. Compared with the position 2 years earlier, total admissions during 1974–75 were up by 3.2 million and admissions per head of population, at 5.1, were above both the 1972–73 and the 1970–71 figures, although well below the wartime peak of 21.3 in 1944–45 when admissions totalled 35.4 million. The next survey of cinemas is scheduled for 1980–81.

The following table gives figures of cinema attendances and takings.

YearTheatresAdmissionsGross Admission TakingsAverage Admission PriceAdmissions Per Head of Mean Population
 No.No.$(000)CNo.
1970–7121013,0877,82859.84.6
1972–7320811,8709,85583.04.0
1974–7520315,03514,12994.05.1

The following statistics refer to the 3 latest surveys.

Item1970–711972–731974–75
* Includes 1 circuit or itinerant operator.
Cinemas—
    Screenings 6 days per week120134134
    Screening odd days per week897469
    Circuit1  
                  Total210208203
Cinemas according to seating accommodation—
    Under 200101613
    200 and under 500766878
    500 and under 100010310595
    1000 and over201917
                  Total210*208203
Seating accommodation (all cinemas) No.129,434126,185119,365
Average seating capacity per cinema No.616607588
Persons engaged—
    Full time—
        Males No.261227241
        Females No.190226244
    Part time—
        Males No.425405422
        Females No.664784886
Performances per year No.89,69094,94891,304
Average attendance per performance No.146125165

Statistics on the commercial operation of theatres are given in the following table. These statistics relate only to cinemas, and do not purport to show employees, revenue, and expenditure of the motion picture industry as a whole. In particular, the full revenue and expenditure in connection with screen advertising, and also head office expenses of controlling companies (including such items as interest on debentures and mortgage charges), unless recovered from exhibitors, are not recorded in the statistics. The item “Rent” under Expenditure does not represent the rental value of all theatres, but only the rent paid where theatres were leased or rented.

Item1970–711972–731974–75

* Includes drawings of working proprietors.

In 1972–73 other receipts included a large increase in revenue from sales of confectionery and beverages not recorded in previous surveys.

Revenue— $(thousand) 
    Admission receipts7,8289,85514,129
    Screen advertising337362413
    Other receipts5021,2942,029
              Total8,66711,51116,571
Expenditure—
    Salaries and wages*1,8882,4523,288
    Film hire2,6403,2125,193
    Advertising2,8283,6814,565
    Rent
    Repairs and maintenance
    Depreciation
    Other expenses
              Total7,3569,34513,046

Classification by Statistical Areas—In the following table, cinemas have been classified by statistical areas; further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

The average attendance per performance in 1974–75 rose in all areas except Marlborough.

Statistical AreaPopulation Estimate at 1 April 1975CinemasSeating AccommodationAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions Per Head of PopulationPerformances For YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Seating Capacity per Hall
 (000)No.No. of SeatsCNo.No.No.No.
Northland100.49444480.93.92918135494
Central Auckland796.74025,995104.45.726,771170650
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty464.13718,24472.25.013,812168493
East Coast48.58346680.76.62.163148433
Hawke's Bay144.97382783.04.13088193547
Taranaki104.910577777.84.43157146578
Wellington591.93325,02399.14.917,612164758
Marlborough34.33134974.12.2103474450
Nelson72.36389481.04.22054149649
Westland22.54167076.55.2984119418
Canterbury428.12514,602102.14.410,363183584
Otago185.815670293.54.04706160447
Southland111.06437280.84.02642169729
                Total3105.4203119,36594.05.191,304165588

Classification by Urban Areas—Statistics for the principal urban areas are as follows. Further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

Urban AreaPopulation Estimate at 1 April 1975CinemasSeating AccommodationAdmissions per SeatAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions per Head of PopulationPerformances per YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
 (000)No.No. of seatsNo.CNo.No.No.No.percent  
Northern Auckland746.43524380183104.96.02539517697718.0
Western Auckland
Central Auckland
Southern Auckland
Upper Hutt Valley333.71513592134109.25.510188179100317.8
Lower Valley
Porirua Basin
Wellington
Christchurch297.9149382169106.65.3814319578724.8
Dunedin114.46367317197.65.5372316964726.1
              Total1492.47051,027167105.65.747,44917992419.4

Classification of Cinemas—The following table shows further statistics of cinemas classified by the number of screening days weekly.

ScreeningCinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAverage Admission ChargeAdmission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Admission Takings
 No.No. of seats(000)C$(000)$(000)percent  
Six and 7 days per week13495,70814,32194.713,5675,03737.1
Fewer than 6 days per week6923,65771578.656215727.9
              Total203119,36515,03594.014,1295,19336.8
ScreeningPersons EngagedPerformances for the YearAverage Number of paid Admissions per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
Full TimePart Time
MaleFemaleMaleFemale
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.percent  
Six and 7 days per week26325237485882,33817478422.2
Fewer than 6 days per week41201116689668040519.8
              Total30427248592491,30416574722.1

Chapter 14. Section 14 FARMING

14 A—GENERAL

SOILS—Soil is a product of its environment—its composition depends on the parent ingredient, the climate, the length of time it has weathered, the topography, and the vegetation under which it has formed. The complex soil pattern of New Zealand is a result of the many different lands of rock, and the various conditions under which the soils have formed.

New Zealand includes such extremes as the subtropical climate of North Auckland, the cold uplands of the alpine regions, and the semi-arid basins of Central Otago.

The country's topography is also varied—50 percent of the land is classifiable as steep, 20 percent is moderately hilly, and only 30 percent is rolling or flat.

The natural vegetation ranges from kauri forest to subalpine scrub, and from tussock grassland to broadleaf forest. From time to time, occurrences such as river floods on alluvial plains, sand drifts, or a volcanic ash eruption interrupt and alter the pattern of soil development.

Regional differences in New Zealand's soils result mainly from the effects of climate on topography. Soils develop more rapidly under high temperatures and a heavy rainfall. In New Zealand, distinct soil gradations are found, both from north to south and from west to east. These closely follow the isohyets (lines connecting places that receive the same amount of rain) on a climatic map.

Increased knowledge of the soils of New Zealand has brought about a change in approach to soil management. Soils have been mapped and their properties and uses determined. This has stimulated the rapid conversion of large areas of “problem” land into good farms and has raised land use to a new pitch of efficiency, which reflects the modern changes to farming as an up-to-date science.

Farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers, phosphatic fertilisers, lime, and trace elements. The use of aircraft for topdressing and oversowing of grass is resulting in considerable improvements to hill pasture, with a consequent increase in carrying capacity and production.

New Zealand soils may be classified on a regional basis as follows.

RegionSoilsVegetation and Land Use
North Auckland Peninsula and Auckland regionNorthern yellow-brown earths and podzols left by kauri forest. Loams and clays from volcanic rocks. Soft-rock uplands with volcanic outcrops.Heavily forested (high rainfall and humidity). Patches of rich dairy land on formerly swampy organic soils. Some wool and store sheep. Dairying, fat lambs near Auckland. Patchy land use.
Bay of Plenty - Waikato - Thames - Hauraki PlainsVolcanic ash covers much of area. Most soils intrazonal or azonal. Yellow-brown pumice soils in Bay of Plenty. Peaty soils with high ground water on Hauraki Plains.Intensively-farmed dairying region. Land use almost entirely based on grass and clover, with great reliance on topdressing. Some fat lambs. Extensive exotic forests in Bay of Plenty region.
Volcanic PlateauPumice soils, lacking in essential trace elements. Yellow-brown pumice soils from volcanic material.Largely undeveloped scrub and native forest. Extensive exotic forests. Topdressing of former manuka and scrub area for farming.
East CoastSouthern and central yellow-brown earths. Patches of recent alluvial soils along rivers. Yellow-grey earths on rolling land south of Hawke Bay.Semi-extensive sheep farming (wool and store sheep). Intensive fat-lamb production on flat to rolling plains. Market gardens and orchards near Napier and Hastings. Some pip fruit. Pockets or dairying close to main ranges from Norse-wood south.
TaranakiRing plain consists of yellow-brown loams, with granular clay from volcanic ash. Overlay of fertile ash and sediment from Mount Egmont. Softrock uplands away from coast.Distinct contrast between rich, closely-farmed dairying ring plain and inland country with its steep ridges mainly covered in second-growth forest or dense gorse, and severely eroded.
Manawatu-Horowhenua Coast PlainSand dunes and swampy hollows common along coast. Steep-land yellow-brown earths inland. Extensive young soils from dune sands along coast.Many hollows contain native flax (Phormium tenax). Pockets of dairying and fat-lamb production.
NelsonPockets of fertile, recent alluvial soils in yellow-grey and yellow-brown earths.Orchards and market gardens. Hops and tobacco also grown on flat, rolling land.
Marlborough-Kaikoura CoastYellow-brown earths with pockets of alluvial soils.Where land is developed, mainly sheep or cash cropping.
West CoastExtensive grey podzols, with recent swamp soils on alluvial flats.Mostly undeveloped scrub and native bush. Some dairying.
Canterbury PlainsVery thick layer of gravel deposited by rivers—thickest and coarsest near mountains from which rivers flow. Soils range from stony gravel to fine silts.Deep layer of fine sediment provides fertile soil for cereals and fodder crops, and makes good sheep pasture. Cash cropping on former swamp near Christchurch.
OtagoHigh-country yellow-brown earths on ranges, yellow-grey earths, often stony, in basins.Sheep fanning for wool and fat lambs plus some cattle and some orchards. Irrigation necessary in low-rainfall area.
Southland and FiordlandSouthland Plain has extensive deposits of gravel and silt. Fiordland has mostly subalpine grey soils and grey podzols.Fat-lamb production in Southland. Fiordland agriculturally undeveloped and unproductive. Scenic attractions.

NATURE OF FARMING—Most of the dairy farms are in lowland areas of the North Island, where naturally fertile or improved soils make for good grass growth. Approximately 90 percent of the total dairy stock in the country are grazed on the flat and undulating land of Northland, South Auckland-Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, and Wellington. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry and carrying capacity may be as high as 2.5 cows per hectare, and annual production as high as 400–450 kg of milkfat per hectare. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. In most of the dairying areas lamb raising is also undertaken.

On the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are raised.

Sheep finishing farms are generally located on land which is of high fertility, either naturally or as a result of topdressing. Country of this type is usually flat to undulating in topography, and tends to be concentrated on the coastal plains and river valleys of both islands, e.g., the Waikato basin, the Poverty Bay flats, and the Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, Canterbury, and Southland plains. In the North Island it is normal to rely on pasture as a sole diet, while in the drier and colder areas of the South Island it is necessary to grow special crops for supplementing the ewe flock feeding over the winter.

Finishing farms vary considerably in area and in the size of flock carried. A flock of 1500 to 2000 ewes is commonly regarded as a 1-man unit. The average range in carrying capacity is from 7 to 15 ewes wintered to the hectare. Lambing percentages are variable but average from 90 to 100 lambs per 100 ewes mated. The aim of the farmer is to sell a high proportion of these lambs, straight off their mothers, at carcass weights around 12–14 kg. In the North Island, cattle are normally purchased in the spring and in the autumn, and are finished, if possible, by the following autumn. On some properties, store wether lambs from the hill-breeding flocks may also be brought in for finishing. The amount of meat produced on finishing farms averages about 160–170 kg per hectare.

Hill country sheep farming covers extensive areas in both islands. The stock carried consists of mixed-age flocks of breeding ewes, ewe hoggets for replacements, and rams. Where part of the property is underdeveloped, wethers may also be carried. Products sold are wool (which usually represents 50 percent or more of the total farm income), some wether lambs, store lambs for finishing and, of most importance, breeding ewes.

A large proportion of the beef cattle are also run on hill-country properties.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. The bulk of New Zealand's wheat, oats, and barley production comes from these districts. The majority of the cereal-producing farms also finish sheep and lambs.

OCCUPIED LAND: Tenure—The tenure of occupied land at 30 June 1978 by size of holding is given in the following table.

Size of Holding (Hectares)Number of HoldingsFreeholdCrown Land, Leases and LicencesLeasehold*OtherTotal Land Occupied
* Includes land leased from private individuals (461951 ha), land leased from companies (262503 ha), land leased from trustees (444250 ha), and land leased from local authorities (150541 ha).
 hectares (000)
Under 5646918.70.30.7- - 19.7
      5–9529032.40.82.20.135.5
    10–14268327.51.02.9- -31.4
    15–19192627.81.33.30.132.5
    20–29338369.33.17.80.280.5
    30–39314994.84.19.40.3108.6
    40–494079156.86.414.70.5178.4
    50–593218152.97.814.50.4175.6
    60–795701334.721.034.71.0391.4
    80–994492337.821.636.41.1396.9
  100–1496985710.760.781.62.3855.3
  150–1994786677.577.770.53.3828.9
  200–29963061220.6172.2133.13.71529.6
  300–3993146842.9133.2104.03.21083.3
  400–59929991114.7184.5144.66.11449.9
  600–7991360699.1137.192.05.9934.2
  800–999810515.2127.671.63.4717.8
1000–1199475367.3104.145.14.9521.4
1200–1999945928.0393.3110.011.11442.5
2000–3999599786.9733.5105.613.31639.2
4000 and over6001083.87434.2234.549.38801.8
              Total69,40110199.49625.31319.2110.421254.4

Land Usage—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1978 by statistical area is given in the following table.

Statistical AreaNo. of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneCrops, Fruit, or NurseryPlantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingTotal Area of Holdings*
Established Before 30/6/77Established During Year Ended 30/6/78Area Prior to 31/3/77Planted in 1978 Season
* Including “Other”.
 hectares (000)
Northland6209643.710.613.737.94.637.71073.1
Central Auckland6152284.23.48.325.81.88.9413.7
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty16,1101748.734.627.2393.911.640.53385.0
East Coast1490541.26.58.824.63.428.3719.2
Hawke's Bay4299893.120.019.743.34.049.81325.3
Taranaki4468435.87.93.43.50.413.4612.8
Wellington78511400.333.729.637.52.4149.41990.9
                North Island46,5795947.1116.6110.6566.628.2328.09520.0
Marlborough1289200.39.810.115.11.6514.81159.3
Nelson2304148.09.912.766.53.390.81416.8
Westland75590.33.10.613.91.140.1939.0
Canterbury8745977.8111.7173.141.31.41553.53350.4
Otago4733793.040.462.244.23.71991.43291.2
Southland4996653.036.763.620.50.9409.61577.7
                South Island22,8222862.3211.7322.4201.512.14600.111734.4
                New Zealand69,4018809.4328.3432.9768.240.44928.121254.4

Farm Type—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1978 by farm type is shown in the following table.

Farm Type**Number of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneLand In or Prepared for Fruit, Grain, Cops, Vegetables, etc.Plantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingOther Land on HoldingTotal Area of Holdings

* Seventy-five percent or more is derived from stated activity.

From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity, and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§ Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

|| More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

The relevant percentage of income may be derived from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

** These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

hectares (000)
Dairy farming*15,1591090.511.13.627.289.61222.0
Sheep farming*17,0353661.1128.229.23486.5710.48015.5
Beef farming*6427457.44.012.7272.7216.0962.8
Pig farming*56610.11.60.60.32.515.2
Cropping*141133.743.80.20.92.781.2
Dairy farming with sheep39354.30.90.85.16.867.9
Dairy farming with beef60771.60.80.44.412.189.2
Dairy farming with other30019.01.60.10.21.222.1
Sheep farming with dairy12319.80.60.61.13.625.8
Sheep farming with beef54881991.029.716.8722.6397.83157.8
Sheep farming with cropping1195178.539.91.031.08.1258.4
Sheep farming with other39362.02.90.564.05.3134.7
Beef farming with dairy13714.10.2- -0.31.616.2
Beef farming with sheep1025206.42.23.425.747.5285.3
Beef farming with other27216.52.40.736.316.572.4
Cropping with sheep63351.835.90.32.12.292.3
Cropping with other2088.45.90.30.93.318.8
Pig farming with other1585.80.5- -0.30.57.1
Stud farming||68144.81.40.21.71.549.7
Mixed livestock3470727.913.09.8178.7173.41102.8
General mixed farming§1376154.852.81.113.67.6229.9
Poultry farming||5966.10.50.20.12.08.9
Market gardening and flowers||170916.118.50.13.41.739.7
Orchards||22218.923.10.71.92.637.2
Tobacco growing||2235.22.00.41.02.511.1
Nurseries||3651.02.1- -0.10.33.5
Plantations||5908.50.3657.511.61114.61792.5
Other farming92942.23.326.920.6974.81067.8
Idle land5711170.43.5- -13.92178.62366.4
          Total, all farm types69,4019137.7432.9768.24928.15987.521254.4

FARM EMPLOYMENT SURVEY—At 30 June 1978 the total number of persons working on farms was 157026, an increase of 4.8 percent compared with the 1977 total of 149902. Of these, 84896 (80796 in 1977) were working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers, 61032 (58585 in 1977) of whom worked 30 hours or more a week. There were 39805 (38213 in 1977) permanent paid employees, 10483 (9937 in 1977) paid casual employees, and 21842 (20956 in 1977) unpaid family members.

Female working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers increased by 1330 or 8.4 percent from 30 June 1977 to 30 June 1978 (and by 2572 or 19.3 percent from 30 June 1976 to 30 June 1977). This emphasises the trend for women to be included in the ownership structure of partnerships and farming companies. Male working owners also increased by 4.3 percent (4 percent) while the number of males employed increased by 5.7 percent (1.1 percent) during the same periods.

There were 69401 (68571 in 1977) productive farm holdings included in the survey. On 57792 holdings (56127 in 1977) there were working owners, leaseholders, or sharemilkers. On 25380 (25508 in 1977) there were permanent paid employees, and on 11842 (12014 in 1977) casual labour was employed during the year.

Of the 84896 working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers, most were engaged in the following farm types: dairy, 14512, 17.1 percent; sheep, 15139, 17.8 percent; beef, 6037, 7.1 percent; mixed livestock, 3095, 3.6 percent.

At 30 June 1978 sheep farms accounted for 22.2 percent of paid full-time and part-time employees, dairy farms for 17.9 percent, mixed livestock farms for 6 percent, and beef farms for 2.1 percent, while the same farm types accounted for 18.4, 6.8, 9.4, and 1.7 percent respectively of all paid casual employees at the same date.

Paid casual employees at 30 June 1978 numbered 10483 or 20.8 percent of the total paid labour force. Of these casual employees, 66.0 percent were employed on farms of under 200 hectares. Of the paid permanent full-time and part-time employees, 42.8 percent were employed on farms of less than 200 hectares.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE ON FARMS—An annual survey of capital formation in the fanning industry is made by the Department of Statistics. For the year ended 30 June 1978 capital expenditure was reported by 53.3 percent (36966) of the 69401 farms and plantations surveyed.

The following table shows capital expenditure by type during the latest available 5 years. For each type of expenditure the figure given is net, i.e., receipts from “trade-ins” or sales have been deducted from the gross expenditure.

YearBuilding and ConstructionTransport VehiclesTractors and Farm MachineryOther Improvements and DevelopmentTotal Capital Expenditure
 $(million)
1973–7459.145.841.465.0211.3
1974–7584.433.640.543.6202.1
1975–7693.250.758.849.0251.7
1976–77113.362.582.657.8316.3
1977–78123.954.169.263.3310.5
NOTE—Up to 1974–75 this table excludes holdings given over wholly to plantations of timber trees.

The following table shows capital expenditure, net of sales, by farm type and size group It includes holdings given over wholly to plantations of timber trees. This table refers to the year ended 30 June 1978.

Farm TypeSize Groups (hectares)Total Expenditure
Under 2020–4950–99100–299300–799800 and Over

* Seventy-five percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§ Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions; one of which is cropping.

|| More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

    $(thousand)   
Dairy farming*684.88,008.227,211.617,882.81,409.517.655,214.5
Sheep farming*4,452.02,564.33,571.532,146.526,835.024,845.294,414.3
Beef farming*3,918.02,450.21,803.32,813.51,135.2506.912,627.1
Pig farming*1,215.9387.9345.8201.5204.615.52,371.2
Cropping*1,030.1990.9603.82,695.3624.3- -5,944.5
Dairy farming with sheep34.6102.3256.4958.3442.78.51,802.8
Dairy farming with beef127.251.5556.42,144.7270.1141.63,291.5
Dairy farming with other5.6351.9610.1331.028.8- -1,327.4
Sheep farming with dairy48.32.959.4248.776.8113.6549.7
Sheep farming with beef558.0415.3812.89,075.412,340.815,835.139,037.5
Sheep farming with cropping36.4220.2635.25,653.72,027.6534.29,107.4
Sheep farming with other227.1114.6187.6672.1387.3485.92,074.5
Beef farming with dairy61.416.443.1131.0105.5- -357.4
Beef farming with sheep145.0283.7199.11,151.4846.41,168.73,794.3
Beef fanning with other209.3119.8119.3159.349.4202.9859.9
Cropping with sheep98.9180.7561.63,680.4998.264.75,584.4
Cropping with other57.3151.9245.0242.351.8- -748.4
Pig farming with other109.3122.983.1251.3103.9- -670.5
Stud farming||529.0274.8428.7601.6286.722.12,143.0
Mixed livestock||1,067.21,000.01,081.14,956.34,269.34,016.716,390.6
General mixed farming§421.2636.81,591.45,508.42,106.2279.910,543.9
Poultry farming||1,737.3252.8136.3308.433.9- -2,468.6
Market gardening and flowers||4,053.11,575.4728.7642.4172.8101.27,273.7
Orchards||7,414.92,149.4525.3494.743.443.510,671.1
Nurseries||1,327.7322.6126.8156.8- -- -1,933.9
Plantations||90.2116.679.884.4162.011,972.312,505.3
Other farming1,792.2502.6500.2758.9406.9983.84,944.6
Idle land1,554.5249.242.622.49.017.01,894.7
          Total, all farm types33,006.323,615.943,145.993,973.855,428.161,376.7310,546.7

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—The Agriculture Production Account covers the activities of all market-oriented establishments classified to agricultural and livestock production or to agricultural services (major groups 111 and 112 of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification). All types of farms are included, together with agricultural services operated by contractors, such as top-dressing, weed-spraying, harvesting, threshing, shearing, and scrub cutting. Other services included are herd testing and artificial insemination. Farms operated as trading enterprises by the Department of Lands and Survey and the Department of Maori Affairs are included, but not Government research farms or farms attached to prisons, psychiatric hospitals, or universities.

The account includes all income derived from the activities of the establishments covered, including their characteristically farming activities, and also their “other” productive activities. However, property income (such as dividends and interest) accruing to the proprietors of fanning establishments is excluded.

New Series—The account for years 1971–72 to 1978–79 production is grouped into 2 series. The first series include years 1971–72 to 1976–77 and are based on the methodology and treatment adopted for the agriculture industry in the 1971–72 input-output study.

The new series, which start with the revised account for 1976–77, differ substantially from the previous series. They are based on the principle that (a) producer's value is the gross sale value and (b) for every particular output (income) value in 1 industry there must be a corresponding value of inputs (expenditure) in some other industry. Items of inputs affected by the above principle are: animal health, weed, and pest control; railage and cartage; and administration and general expenses. More details of the methodology incorporated in the new series accounts was published as a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. The numerous technical and methodological changes introduced in recent years have made the Agriculture Production Account consistent with both the 1971–72 and the 1976–77 Input-Output Tables and with the revised New Zealand System of National Accounts (NZSNA).

The Agriculture Production Account for 1978–79 shows that the value of the gross output from agriculture rose 25 percent, compared with 1977–78. The value for this previous year had remained almost stationary in comparison with 1976–77. Although there were increases in the value of dairy production, crops, and horticulture, the most significant increases were in receipts for livestock and wool. Larger than usual slaughtering of cattle and sheep caused a drop in numbers on the farms, and only pigs and deer showed any significant increases in this latest year. Costs of goods and services, salaries, wages, and interest rose by 23.9 percent. These costs were held to a certain extent by a reduced application of fertiliser. Increased spending on animal health and weed and pest control was to a certain extent covered by subsidies.

The overall result was that proprietory income rose by 42.3 percent whereas it had declined 14.7 percent in 1977–78.

AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION ACCOUNT
Item1971–72 Series1976–77 Series
Year Ended MarchYear Ended March
197519761977197719781979*

* Provisional.

In 1976 and subsequent years, stabilisation payments, which are part of subsidies in Production Account 1, Agriculture, of SNA, are not included.

Input—  $(million)   
Intermediate consumption7379571,2201,2921,3151,663
Compensation of employees194223262262281319
Operating surplus—
    Interest paid110128158158196239
    Proprietors' surplus from farming activity3815718348397161,019
Consumption of fixed capital144174202203228255
Indirect taxes334047475564
Less subsidies−10−21−26−26−23−99
                Gross input1,5882,0702,6972,7752,7683,461
Output—
Characteristic products of industrial activity1,5812,0642,6872,7652,7583,451
Other products7610101010
Gross output1,5882,0702,6972,7752,7683,461

The following table shows details of the Agriculture Production Account item, Intermediate consumption.

Item1971–72 Series1976–77 Series
Year Ended MarchYear Ended March
197519761977197719781979*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Animal health, weed and pest control49608795106142
Shearing expenses353843434854
Fertiliser, lime, and seeds7899129129155138
Vehicle expenses7795122135143158
Electricity152026263339
Feed and grazing8591105105111117
Agricultural services303653594752
Repairs and maintenance83101123132138157
Packing and containers79991213
Railage and cartage293238535662
Administration and general expenses4254648291109
Insurance10810101213
Rent182328302831
Inter-farm purchase of livestock179291383383336578
                Total7379571,2201,2921,3151,663

GROSS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION (GROSS OUTPUT)—The following table of Gross Agricultural Production shows the value of production for March years.

Item1971–72 Series1976–77 Series
Year Ended MarchYear Ended March
197519761977197719781979*
* Provisional.
$(million)
Sheep and lambs187226387402388543
Wool223405555584502613
Cattle187247351364353563
Pigs363741424647
Dairy products363435482482513530
Crops and seeds108143152162164168
Fruit454660606582
Vegetables565556628796
Poultry and eggs6677828285101
Agricultural services91102126126145155
Other—
    Farm products171923263333
    Non-farm products7610101010
Physical change of livestock at average market price—
    Deer....+4+4+7+29
    Sheep−2+9+23+23+64−19
    Cattle+26−28−41−41−31−77
    Pigs−1+3+3+1+9
Inter-farm sales of livestock179291383383336578
                Gross agricultural production (gross output)1,5882,0702,6972,7752,7683,461

VOLUME OF NET AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—The index of the Volume of Net Agricultural Production is arrived at by deducting intermediate consumption expressed in constant dollar terms from outputs in constant dollar terms and expressing the difference in index form.

The importance of the net volume series lies in the fact that it measures the volume of the contribution of the agriculture industry alone, after elimination of the contribution of all other industries to gross agriculture output. The net index is preferable to the gross index in analysing the contribution of agriculture to the country's real gross domestic product and the changing importance of agriculture in the economy and its productivity.

In the following table the series is shown in index form and in annual percentage movements. The base is 1971–72 (= 1000).

Year Ended MarchIndex NumberChange from Previous Year
* Provisional.
  percent  
1973901−9.9
1974840−6.8
1975980+16.7
19761013+3.4
19771036+2.3
19781135+9.6
1979*1083−4.6

Problems which are specific to farm accounting are related to the production process of the industry itself—its seasonal nature, and its dependence on biological factors and climatic conditions. All these intervene in various ways between real resource use and output. Also, operations are not necessarily restricted to an annual cycle (e.g., the application of fertiliser in one year can affect output for a number of years) but the accounts are always made up for one year. As a result, year-to-year comparisons between resource use and output and, in the final analysis, the net profit (net income, surplus) of the farming industry, can be affected by fortuitous factors.

This is the principal reason why year-to-year changes in real gross production and real net production can differ to a marked degree.

VOLUME OF GROSS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—The index of the Volume of Gross Agricultural Production, which is a year-to-year quantum measure of commodities produced by all New Zealand farms and hence available for export or domestic consumption, is shown in the following table. The index of the Volume of Gross Agricultural Production for each of the latest 5 years is shown for the component product groups, as well as for the production of the whole agricultural industry. The expression base for each product group separately, and for the agriculture industry as a whole, is the year ended June 1972 (= 1000).

ProductsYears Ended 30 June
1972197519761977x1978x1979*
* Provisional.
Volume Index Numbers
Sheep and lambs1000833905934945875
Wool1000947100610059631049
Cattle1000909973949925923
Pigs10008368621012977920
Dairy products1000986106110769821071
Crops and seeds10009761189124811541040
Fruit100011331083111211841151
Vegetables100010398288841064975
Poultry and eggs100011071192120811171101
Other farm products100013511377137113121386
All agriculture industry production10009501015102510401010

DAIRY PRODUCTION—The following table shows milk production and utilisation of milkfat during each of the last 5 seasons, year ending 31 May. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

 1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79
* Includes milk fed to stock and waste, but excludes separation loss.
 Production*
Milk, litres (million)5907607564205886x6297
Milkfat, tonnes (000)273.3296.5302.9278.6301.3
Liquid milk, cream, and ice cream, litres (million)558557525521518
 Utilisation of Milkfat Processed (000 tonnes)
Butter197.3211.3225.8203.0218.4
Cheese33.940.133.331.034.5
Other whole milk products12.716.216.017.021.3
        Total243.9267.6275.1251.0274.2

Production by dairy factories during the latest 5 seasons is set out in the following table.

Product1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79*
* Provisional.
 tonnes (000)
Creamery butter205.1219.8219.1189.9x234.6
Whey butter2.73.02.72.4x2.6
Anhydrous milkfat31.629.441.338.9x25.2
Frozen cream5.97.04.08.2x7.7
Cheese88.6104.881.080.7x93.0
Condensed and evaporated milk16.311.910.85.74.6
Whole-milk powder10.922.050.949.958.8
Infant food6.712.916.217.411.2
Skim-milk powder243.7207.0205.7172.0173.9
Buttermilk powder24.224.323.519.422.9
Acid casein29.544.641.443.945.9
Caseinates1.14.09.99.910.0
Rennet casein3.94.26.73.07.4
Lactose7.6x9.5x9.1x9.3x10.8

The butter produced in New Zealand is of a salted “sweet cream” type and, because the cows are fed almost entirely on grass, it has a high carotene content which makes it yellower than the butter from countries where cows are fed indoors for much of the year. The predominant cheese variety produced is cheddar. Whole-milk powder is made from the whole milk, while skim-milk powder is made from the separated milk following the removal of the milkfat for buttermaking. Buttermilk powder is made from a by-product of the butter manufacturing process. Lactose is made from whey, a by-product of cheesemaking. At one time skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey were fed to pigs, but in recent years they have almost entirely been processed to produce powders and specialised dairy products.

The following table gives average milkfat and milk production per cow “at factory”.

SeasonDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per Cow
MilkfatMilk
* Provisional.
 (000)kglitres
1974–7520801282732
1975–7620921372765
1976–7720741432998
1977–782053131x2726x
1978–79*20401422950

Herd sizes have increased as suppliers with small herds have ceased production and as dairy farms have been amalgamated. The number of suppliers to dairy factories and milkfat production per supplier is shown in the following table. (Source: N.Z. Dairy Board)

SeasonDairy Company Suppliers*Average Size of HerdMilkfat per Supplier

* Does not include town milk suppliers (about 1700).

Provisional.

   kg
1974–7517,70411214,350
1975–7617,42011515,725
1976–7716,78611616,625
1977–7816,126120x15675x
1978–7915,80012217,200

Tanker collection of milk by the dairy factories began in 1951. By 1960, 55 percent of the milkfat supplied to dairy factories was received as milk (instead of cream as previously); this had increased to 79 percent by 1966 and by 1977–78 was 99 percent.

The following diagram shows the progress of the dairy industry over a long period of years.

The New Zealand Dairy Board of 13 members functions under the Dairy Board Act 1961. Apart from 2 Government representatives, all are producer members—3 are appointed by the New Zealand Cooperative Dairy Company, 8 are elected by other dairy companies, with voting proportionate to the quantity of milkfat received by those companies from their suppliers in 6 geographically-defined wards.

The Dairy Board's work is divided broadly into 2 sections; one concerned with the development of the dairy industry and the other with marketing of dairy produce. (This latter activity is described in Section 21A, Marketing of Farm Products.) It is a further function of the board to promote the bobby calf and pig industries.

The Dairy Board has the broad function of linking manufacturing plans and growth with export market requirements. It is responsible by statute for the purchase and sale of export dairy products and for the development, in all respects, of the dairy industry. Since the board is the sole purchaser of produce for export, this purchasing power helps to link manufacturing plans with commercial reality.

MILK PRODUCTION—The administration and organisation of the town milk supply is the responsibility of the New Zealand Milk Board (see Section 21A).

During the year ended August 1979, town milk suppliers provided 722.9 million litres of milk. Of this, 465.6 million litres went to the milk stations and eventually reached the consumer in the form of 386.3 million litres of pasteurised milk and 9.2 million litres of sweet cream. The balance of the total production went to dairy factories (236.7 million litres), to the manufacture of ice cream, flavoured milk, yoghurt, and cottage cheese (20.6 million litres), and for sale as raw milk (6801 litres).

MEAT PRODUCTION—The following table shows in summary form production of meat. Figures are shown at bone-in weights for years ended September.

Product1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79
 tonnes (000)
Beef477.0599.0529.9533.7490.5
Veal31.129.127.827.821.1
Mutton163.9155.2156.2159.6162.8
Lamb327.0357.6341.5342.0351.1
Pig meat34.232.839.038.235.7
Other incl. offal55.560.658.058.858.1
                Total1088.71234.31152.51160.31119.3
Source: Department of Statistics

PRODUCTION FOR EXPORT—Export meat production for years ended September is shown in the following table. Measured on a product weight basis, export meat production fell by 1.5 percent in the 1978–79 season to the lowest level since 1974–75, some 9.4 percent below the record 766 thousand tonnes produced in 1975–76. Small increases in export lamb and mutton production in 1978–79 were insufficient to offset a 7.7 percent drop in export beef and veal production.

Type of MeatTwelve Months Ended September
197719781979
 tonnes (000) shipping weight
Lamb—carcasses264.2257.4257.5
    —cuts48.756.259.8
Mutton—carcasses87.083.886.8
    —cuts5.96.88.4
Beef—manufacturing160.7173.1161.1
    —other65.752.849.0
Veal9.910.58.2
Pigmeat0.80.90.1
Other meats0.70.40.9
Edible offal44.144.344.3
Inedible meat and offal15.218.418.0
                Total702.8704.6694.1
Source: N.Z. Meat Producers Board.

Lamb export slaughterings during the 1978–79 season, at 24.8 million, were down 2.2 percent on the previous season's figure.

After some years of high slaughter levels for cattle there was a considerable reduction during the 1978–79 season. This reflects in part the reduction in the base herd that has occurred during the recent period of liquidation, and in part the increase in prices for beef which tend to encourage producers to stabilise herd numbers.

The following table gives livestock slaughter statistics at meat export works and abattoirs, omitting killings on farms and in rural slaughterhouses, for years ended September.

AnimalsYear Ended September
19751976197719781979
 head of stock (000)
Lambs25,42825,96125,41726,32626,042
Sheep70946592690076957435
Cattle21372573228724052129
Calves14411295128311901074
Pigs720721826802725
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

About two-thirds of lambs tailed are killed during the season, and some 90 percent of the lamb meat is exported.

Meat consumed in New Zealand represents approximately one-third of total production; quantities per head are shown in Section 24 Consumption of Food.

Producer Control—The principle of producer control of the export meat industry was established in 1922. A system was created in which the processing and exporting companies—public, private, and cooperative—worked under the overall direction of the Meat Producers Board. This system over the years has given the producer a choice of the people to do business with and a choice of methods of selling his stock. That choice for the producer meant that he obtained full benefit from a competitive situation. The system has also given the producer, through his representatives on the Meat Producers Board, the chance to influence through sales promotion the sale of his meat right down to the retail shops half a world distant. The board has controlled shipping to place supplies and has advertised widely, especially in Britain; it controls its own system of grading export meat; and it is general spokesman for the industry.

The Meat Producers Board and the Wool Board are in the position of having to make not only long-term decisions but also to meet day-to-day situations as they occur. This they do with the aid of their own technical staff and through an economic service which is in close and constant contact with the sheep farming industry throughout New Zealand.

WOOL PRODUCTION—New Zealand holds third place in the world as a producer of wool, and second place as an exporter. Production is mainly of cross-bred wool.

The weakness of demand for wool for the 1977–78 season was followed by a weak recovery in the first half of the 1978–79 season, emerging into a strong recovery in the second half. As a result, prices rose gently to a peak in mid October, fell from October to January, and then rose strongly to the end of the season. The average price for wool sold at auction during the 1978–79 season was 218.80 cents, the highest in 30 years other than in 1977–78. However, when converted to common dollar terms to allow for inflation it was considerably below the prices received in the early 1950s.

Because of the relative stability of the market there was minimal support. Two thousand six hundred bales were bought under intervention (0.2 percent of the offering) and 3000 bales under Strata Price Control (1.5 percent of the offering). This compared with purchases of 123000 bales in 1977–78.

The following table shows for the last 5 seasons the total wool production (greasy basis), the movement in the average price per kilogram of wool (greasy basis), and the estimated total value of wool production (obtained by valuing the production estimate at the overall price per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction).

Season Ended 30 JuneTotal Wool Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price Per Kilogram (Greasy Basis)Estimated Value of Total Wool Production
 tonnes(000)cents$(m)
197529491.75269.8
1976312157.12489.9
1977303219.58664.3
1978311190.43591.9
1979321218.80701.5

Because of lack of information on changes in stocks of wool on farms, the above figures of production should not be taken as precise measures of actual production in each season.

New Zealand Wool Board—The New Zealand Wool Board was originally set up under the Wool Industry Act 1944. It was amalgamated with the New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation by the Wool Industry Act 1977. The amalgamation took effect on 7 February 1978. The board has 6 representatives of woolgrowers, elected by an electoral committee of 26 (the members of the committee are in turn elected by sheep farmers. The same committee elects the grower representatives on the Meat Producers Board). Representatives have a 3-year term and are eligible for re-election. The Wool Board also has 2 members appointed by the Governor-General on the nomination of the Minister of Agriculture. The Director-General of Agriculture is automatically a member, and the tenth member, chosen for his commercial experience, is appointed by the Governor-General on the nomination of the board.

The general objective of the board is to obtain, in the interests of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool. Among its functions are: to promote the use of New Zealand wool in existing or new markets; to develop and maintain a marketing system for New Zealand wool suited to the requirements of the world's textile industry; to market wool to the best possible advantage; to bring about the greatest possible efficiencies in the preparation, handling, distribution, shipping, and selling of wool; to encourage the production in New Zealand of types of wool suited to market requirements; to promote research into wool and sheep; and to set minimum prices for wool and operate a minimum price funding scheme.

Main sources of income for the board are: (i) A 3-percent levy on gross wool receipts ($20.5 million in the 1978–79 season) which is used exclusively for promotion and research; (ii) Interest on investments ($10.2 million for the 1978–79 season); (iii) Government grants for research and development ($2 million in 1978–79).

The board is active in all aspects of the wool industry from production through to advertising wool products overseas. Its production section is engaged in the promotion of breeding practices suited to today's market, proper wool handling and clip preparation, and co-operation with wool and sheep research organisations throughout the country. The field service trains 1000 shearers a year in the Wool Board shearing technique.

Perhaps the board's biggest role is in the New Zealand marketing system and the operation of its market support schemes. It values all wool offered at auction and intervenes in the market according to its commercial judgment. In doing this it may buy wool. During the 1978–79 season, however, there was very little support buying. The board sells from the stockpile of bought-in wool, normally through the established wool trade in New Zealand. The wool is also valued for the purpose of ensuring a minimum return to growers (the minimum floor price). In the 1979–80 season the floor price was set at an average of 200 cents per kilogram, greasy weight. When the sale price for a lot at auction falls below the appropriate minimum price, the board pays the difference to the grower as a supplementary payment. Supplement is also paid on privately sold wool, provided the buyers display it under specified conditions for appraisal by the board.

The board's market support operations are funded by its general capital and reserves which totalled $92.7 million at 30 June 1979 and which had their origin in profits on the sale of wool accumulated during World War II. Supplementary payments under the minimum prices scheme are funded by a minimum price funding levy introduced on 1 July 1976. Currently the levy is 2 percent of gross proceeds from all shorn wool sold for the first time.

A wool auction sales committee, comprising representatives of the board, the New Zealand Woolbrokers Association, and the New Zealand Woolbuyers Association, set up under provision of the Wool Industry Act 1977, draws up and supervises the roster of wool auction sales.

The board is also empowered to grant or revoke licences to export wool. Under the regulations the board has to keep a list of registered private buyers, registered wool exchange operators, and scourers.

It is involved in the development of market innovations, such as the sale of wool by sample, it is a negotiator of freight rates, and operates a number of wool stores for its own use. Board economists conduct a market intelligence service covering production, disposal, and market prices.

The board provides a technical service to wool processors and textile manufacturers, both in New Zealand and overseas, and is extensively involved in the promotion of wool textiles, on its own account and in co-operation with garment and carpet manufacturers and the retail trade throughout New Zealand. It also supports New Zealand manufactured wool products in export markets.

In the 1978–79 season the board's share of the budget of the International Wool Secretariat was just under $20 million. The IWS is a partnership with Australia, South Africa, and Uruguay. It has its headquarters in London and operates in almost all countries with a substantial consumer market.

It offers technical and fashion advice in menswear, womenswear, and furnishing to manufacturers, administers the Woolmark and the Woolblendmark (maintaining quality control in more than 13000 factories), and promotes wool through campaigns with manufacturers and retailers. Extensive research and development is also undertaken.

The board provides about 40 percent of the revenue of the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand (WRONZ). In 1978–79 this was $710,000. Established in 1960 at Lincoln, Christchurch, the organisation has a professional staff of about 35. It conducts fundamental research on the wool fibre and applied research on scouring, processing, and performance of New Zealand wools. It is also developing the measurement of wool characteristics as an aid in marketing. The board is represented on the WRONZ executive.

The board is also represented on the Wool Testing Authority. Wool testing, which has been carried out in New Zealand since the 1940s, is used by buyers and processors as a basis for trading. Certificates are provided for yield, vegetable matter, fibre diameter, and moisture content.

With the Meat Producers Board, the Wool Board maintains the New Zealand Meat and Wool Board's Economic Service, which provides economic data for both boards and outside organisations through a survey of a representative 500 pastoral farms.

The board administers on behalf of the Government the Individual Grower Income Levy Retention Scheme. Under this scheme a proportion of the gross proceeds from the sale of wool is retained when the adjusted weighted average sale price at auction exceeds a “trigger price” set by the Minister of Agriculture (300 cents per kilogram, greasy in the 1979–80 season). The proceeds so retained are credited to individual growers accounts and are refundable to growers after 5 years, or in special circumstances as described in the regulations. Funds are held by the Reserve Bank. In February 1978 the Government authorised the repayment of all funds held in these accounts (amounting to $26 million in more than 40000 accounts). Funds in the Reserve Bank at the end of the 1978–79 season amounted to $46,000.

The board also administers, on behalf of the Government, the supplementary minimum floor price scheme introduced in 1978 for an initial period of 2 years. This provides a Government-backed minimum price to growers at a level higher than the board's minimum price of 200 cents per kilogram (average greasy basis). For the 1979–80 season this has been set by the Government at 235 cents per kilogram greasy and Government has announced that the price will be no lower for the next season (1980–81).

During the 1978–79 season, when the supplementary minimum price was set at 205 cents per kilogram, a supplement was payable for the first 4 sales of the season and 8 sales in December and January, when prices were relatively low. The total paid out by the end of June 1979 was $1,362,433. Funds for supplementary payments above the board's minimum levels are provided by the Government.

Supplementary payments are calculated on a percentage basis—using the adjusted weighted average sale price (AWASP) for each auction sale. In cases where the sale AWASP is below the supplementary minimum price level, the percentage difference between the AWASP and the supplementary floor price is added on to the realised price by the broker. For private sales the buyer completes an application on behalf of each grower, on the basis of which the board pays the supplement direct to the grower.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION COUNCIL—This council was set up following a recommendation of the Agricultural Development Conference in 1964 but has not met since late in 1974. There are 22 District Agricultural Advisory Committees which bring together at local level all the organisations which service agriculture in that region. These committees review the progress of agriculture in their district; identify factors limiting production and propose remedial measures; and ensure that farmers and their advisers are fully aware of development incentives and concessions and the availability and terms of finance.

AGRICULTURAL TRAINING COUNCIL—The Agricultural Training Council was gazetted as an industry training board in 1971 under the Vocational Training Act following recommendations of the 1970 Training in Agriculture Conference. The role of the council is to provide organised training in those sectors of the primary industry for which it is responsible and at the same time work closely with those agencies and other industry training boards having responsibilities in other sectors of the primary industry.

The council comprises representatives from Federated Farmers of N.Z. Inc., N.Z. Federation of Young Farmers, National Farm Cadet Scheme, Farm Workers' Association, the horticultural industry, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Vocational Training Council, Department of Education, Massey University, and Lincoln College.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries was formed in 1972 by grafting the fisheries management and research divisions of the former Marine Department on to the Department of Agriculture. The principal functions of the ministry are to promote and to encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, horticultural and fishing industries in New Zealand, including the stock, poultry, fruit, vegetable, flax (Phormium tenax), tobacco, hops, and honey production industries, with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing the production of those products; and to promote, control and encourage the marketing and sale of those products.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries provides a service of which the main object is the advancement of the interests of agriculture and fisheries. Under a director-general of agriculture and fisheries there are divisions of animal health, meat, dairy, advisory services, agricultural research, fisheries research, fisheries management, economics, management services, and administration. Though the service is primarily advisory, the ministry administers a number of Acts and regulations.

Animal Health—The major objective of the Animal Health Division is to safeguard the health of livestock in New Zealand by preventing the introduction of serious exotic diseases and to work towards the eradication of existing endemic diseases. The division's veterinarians examine animals and certify them as suitable for export, and they maintain surveillance and quarantine procedures which reduce the risk of introducing foreign diseases with import of animals and animal products. The division operates quarantine stations for imported livestock. Five regional animal health laboratories are operated by the division and provide diagnostic support to practitioners and veterinarians of other divisions of the ministry. It also operates a national reference laboratory for infectious diseases and for diagnostic tests of imported and exported animals. A central brucellosis laboratory services the national brucellosis testing scheme.

Through the district pest destruction boards, the division is associated with the Pest Destruction Council in the destruction of rabbits, hares, opossums, and wallabies.

Meat—The Meat Division is responsible for the inspection of stock intended for slaughter at abattoirs and export meatworks and for the later inspection of the carcasses. It is also responsible for the standard of hygiene at these establishments as well as in meat packing houses, rural slaughterhouses, game packing houses, and export fish packing houses. Veterinary certificates for meat, game, and fish exported are given by veterinary staff of the division, and meat-inspection staff are responsible for grading meat produced at abattoirs for local consumption and supervising the grading of meat for local consumption at export meatworks.

Dairy Produce—Quality control in all aspects of dairy food production is essentially the job of the dairy industry itself. However, the Dairy Division is responsible for assuring all buyers of New Zealand dairy produce that strict quality standards are indeed being maintained.

In this role the division gives advice in, and supervises, all aspects of the manufacture of dairy produce. Supervision starts on the farm and extends through dairy food processing plants to storage facilities and to loading out for shipment.

All dairy farms are visited regularly for inspection and advice by farm dairy instructors. Milk tankers are inspected constantly and milk is graded before processing by Government tested and certificated staff. All processing plants are inspected and classified; the division licenses and registers each plant and must approve its design, operation, and quality control performance.

Samples from each lot of dairy produce manufactured are tested by officers highly experienced in assessing the flavour, texture, body, and presentation of produce. They are backed by comprehensive chemical and microbiological assessments performed in laboratories at Auckland, Tauranga, New Plymouth, and Wellington. The laboratory network is itself supported by a national reference laboratory at Hamilton. Specialist advisory officers are available for problem-solving or general support on farms, or in dairy food manufacturing plants.

The division supervises the town milk industry in the same way.

Whenever possible, a proportion of dairy produce is examined at its destination overseas. Officers are maintained in, or visit, customer countries for this purpose.

Advisory Services to Farmers—The Advisory Services Division provides advisory services to farmers and horticulturalists and undertakes the various activities such as plant diagnostic, quarantine, testing, and field inspection services needed to meet the ministry's responsibilities under the Plants Act 1970.

The graduate advisory officers, who service the districts, are backed by specialists in the fields of agricultural engineering, animal husbandry, and farm economics. Extension work operates through individual farm visits, group techniques, and the mass media.

Outside its extension work, this division is responsible for certification and testing of herbage and cereal seeds, for the Flock House Farm Training Institute at Bulls, and for the education and training aspects of the Telford Farm Training Institute at Balclutha. The division also provides a specialist advisory service for poultry farmers and beekeepers.

The advisory service extends to commercial producers of pip, stone, citrus, and subtropical fruits, vegetables, berry fruits, cut flowers, nursery stock, grapes and wine, bees and honey, hops, and tobacco. It covers all aspects of production—soil management, disease and pest control, and crop production and handling. Advisory officers demonstrate and adapt research results in districts for all horticultural crops and beekeeping. More emphasis is being given to commercial horticultural units to assist producers to improve the profitability of their holdings.

Horticultural inspectors inspect commercial plant nurseries, market gardens, and orchards for plant pests and diseases to restrict their spread. They advise producers on when to pick, and give instruction in grading and packing fruit for export and local markets. They also inspect fruit, vegetables, and plant material for export from New Zealand. All pip fruit delivered to the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board for local and export markets is inspected by horticultural inspectors. An orange-quality testing service is provided for the Citrus Marketing Authority and a honey-grading service for the Honey Marketing Authority. All honey for export is inspected before certificates are issued.

Information, in the form of seasonal forecasts of production, is supplied to marketing organisations. Periodic surveys are made of orchards, market gardens, and nurseries.

Agricultural Research—All research stations of the ministry are under control of the director of agricultural research, with headquarters at Wellington. Regional directors at Hamilton, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Invermay control the 4 research regions into which the country is divided. Research activities are more fully discussed in Section 7B Science and Scientific Services.

Economics—The Economics Division deals with all aspects of agricultural policy including international trade and trade negotiations in relation to agriculture, international quality standards, liaison with international agencies, the analysis of national production and marketing policies, and the general economic position of farmers. Other functions include the economic appraisal of projects associated with agricultural development and resource use, the economics of the fishing industry, and the economic evaluation of research proposals.

Port Agriculture Service—The Port Agriculture Service is a uniformed branch of the ministry under the control of a superintendent. Its chief responsibility is to prevent the introduction into New Zealand of serious animal and plant diseases and pests. Officers of this service are located at ports and international airports, and deal with all items of concern to agriculture from overseas.

TOPDRESSING—Topdressing with artificial fertilisers has been an important factor in the intensification of grassland farming. Most New Zealand soils need fertilisers, especially phosphates. Superphosphate has been produced in New Zealand in increasing quantities since the 1880s, using rock phosphates from Nauru and Ocean Islands; Christmas Island is now an increasingly important source of supply. Over the years there has been a marked changeover from straight superphosphate as the principal fertiliser for grassland and crops—usual variants are serpentine superphosphate or aerial superphosphate, or a mixture of superphosphate with potash, additional sulphur or a trace element. Production of chemical fertilisers in superphosphate manufacturing works during the year ended 30 September 1978 totalled 2325000 tonnes, the highest figure since 1973, when production totalled 2503000 tonnes. Approximately half of the sown grassland receives fertiliser annually, with about half the fertilised area covered by aerial distribution; about 45 percent of the quantity is distributed by aeroplanes from 8000 airstrips. Total expenditure on topdressing of farm land comes to about $220 million annually, including fertiliser transport and application costs. New Zealand occupies less than 0.3 percent of the world's land area, yet this country uses 2 percent of the world's fertiliser production.

The use of lime to correct soil acidity and increase the availability of trace elements grew steadily from 1890 to a peak of 1.5 million tonnes in 1945. Since then the usage has dropped to less than 1 million tonnes annually; there is now a more judicious application of lime and a greater use of trace elements, such as molybdenum, according to proved soil needs.

The following table gives particulars of areas of grassland topdressed during the latest available years. From 1972 this information is being collected triennially.

Year*Area TopdressedQuantity of Fertiliser and Lime Spread
Fertiliser OnlyLime OnlyFertiliser and Lime TogetherTotal Area TopdressedBy Ordinary MeansBy Aeroplanes
* Year ended 31 January to 1970 and 30 June thereafter.
 ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)tonnes(000)tonnes(000)
19704853.8165.4632.95652.12003.8951.3
19714758.3171.8695.75625.82218.9930.4
19724758.7187.5741.75688.02189.61020.2
19754143.4226.6555.24925.21819.5747.1
19784835.3337.9737.55910.82049.41163.1

Information on fertiliser and lime applied from the air is obtained from aerial topdressing operators by the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport. Figures for the latest 5 years are shown below.

Year Ended 30 JuneFertiliser OnlyLime OnlyTotal Fertiliser and Lime
 tonnes (000)
197571587802
19769291261055
19779651611126
197810791441223
197910681411209

IRRIGATION—Most New Zealand soils have a seasonal moisture deficiency and require irrigation to reach their maximum productivity. Many soils presently farmed under dry land conditions are capable of substantially increased production under irrigation.

The area and type of land irrigated during the year ended 30 June 1976 is analysed by statistical area in the following table.

Statistical AreaNo. of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneCommercialOther CropsOther LandTotal
FruitVegetables
 Hectares
Northland15554446912290221247
Central Auckland321154820010329122873
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty17916222751583532093
East Coast5020098184482
Hawke's Bay4032586127292723215018
Taranaki47672713692
Wellington2653360169466263174275
                  North Island142010,532248328967244516,680
Marlborough1572067204503741113526
Nelson43217555935331752244657
Westland
Canterbury154159,468493230018,45224780,960
Otago87654,3891380226121339557,603
Southland2590913922
                  South Island3031118,5882670356222,171677147,668
                  New Zealand4451129,1205153645822,895722164,348

Further information on irrigation is included in Section 10A Physical Environment and Economic Growth.

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC.—For many years a number of grants and subsidies have been paid to the farming industry and allied organisations from public funds.

The following table shows the pattern of major payments in recent years.

Subsidy, Grant, etc.1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79x1979–80*
* Estimates.
 $(thousand)
Lime transport assistance4923793543
Fertiliser and lime transport subsidy8,1829,16112,72216,11223,42726,900
Adverse events relief1452633742026,054900
Eradication of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis—
    Compensation for condemned animals, loss of production payments, hardship payments, and incidental costs2,9792,6872,3431,9461,9682,350
Agricultural pests control3,0254,0694.8355,6896,2677,054
Subsidies to nassella tussock boards7613,1451,2721,5341,2361,469
Subsidies to county councils under the Noxious Weeds Act
Noxious plants control scheme8,7467,7088,8758,135
Agricultural Engineering Institute327373429495602720
Herd Improvement Council147160176200223271
National Hydatids Council192
Veterinary Services Council606060565960
Fertiliser price subsidy35,50261,50759,33550,83270,17846,580
Special Assistance Fund2
Dairy diversion scheme (beef)7084043,869350
Grant to New Zealand Wool Board2,8792,0002,0002,0002,0002,000
Livestock Incentive Scheme4852,2979,070
Grants to Dairy Products Development Centre175188180209235257
Pipfruit pesticides rebate391586
Fertiliser and lime bounty14,69715,51616,0177,8462,060
Feed storage construction subsidy2198398182
Lucerne establishment grants417655209708340
Sharemilkers' Suspensory Loan Scheme 145319371314416
Cartage grants to dairy companies264399547213
Grant to Agricultural Training Council for regional training officers2293110198250370
Special payment, sheep and cattle58,57145
Artificial breeding incentive416600
Land development loans: interest subsidy Supplementary minimum prices scheme—
    Wool1,348200
    Dairy15,000
Special payment to freezing industry1,88016
Meat industry hygiene grant408500
Rural export suspensory loans54250

Lime Transport Assistance and Subsidy—From 30 November 1959 a subsidy on lime transport was paid to farmers applying lime to newly developed land which was lime responsive, had not previously been limed, and which was cultivated and sown for the first time; or, if it could not be cultivated, which received its first dressing of lime. The rates of subsidy were 3.7c per tonne-kilometre for the first 100 km and 1.2c per tonne-kilometre thereafter. A revised scheme which subsidises the transport of all lime from approved lime works at the same rates of transport subsidy as those applying to fertiliser became operative from July 1976.

Fertiliser Price Subsidy—A uniform subsidy of $5 per tonne ex works on all fertiliser was introduced on 6 July 1970. The rate has been altered several times since it was introduced, but has stood at $15 per tonne since 21 June 1979.

Fertiliser Transport Subsidy—Since 1965 a subsidy on the transport of fertiliser has been payable. Since 1 June 1978 the rate has been 8c per tonne-kilometre for up to 65 km, 5c per tonne-kilometre for between 65 and 250 km, and 3c per tonne-kilometre for over 250 km.

Fertiliser and Lime Bounty—This bounty was introduced on 24 January 1975 to encourage the application of fertiliser and lime. The rates for spreading fertiliser were altered several times. From 1 June 1978, however, the bounty for air-spread fertiliser has been $2 per tonne, and the bounties for ground-spread fertiliser and for fertiliser spread by the farmer himself have been abolished.

For lime, the original bounty of $2 per tonne when spread by a contractor and $1 per tonne when spread by a farmer remained unchanged until 1 June 1978, when it too was abolished.

Noxious Weed Eradication—The Noxious Plants Control Scheme was introduced from 23 May 1975. Expenditure during 1978–79 was $10.72 million.

Supplementary Minimum Prices Scheme—In June 1978, the Government introduced this scheme in an effort to arouse greater long-term confidence in the profitability of pastoral farming. The scheme established new minimum prices for meat, wool, and milkfat for the 1978–79 season. It has continued in force for the 1979–80 season. It also guarantees that the minimum prices for these commodities for the 1980–81 season will not be lower than those it established for 1979–80. The new “minimum prices” supplement those set under the stabilisation schemes that are operated by various producer boards. When market returns fall short of the set prices, the “support payments” that become necessary are to be met by the Government. The producer boards, however, will still be responsible for the cost of any price- or market-support arrangements up to their own minimum prices. The scheme was designed as an interim measure, to be superseded in the longer term by more comprehensive stabilisation arrangements.

Other Items—Most of the remaining items represent an attempt to deal with a specific problem (such as the eradication of brucellosis or of bovine tuberculosis) which is of importance to the whole community, but the handling of which would impose a serious burden on the individual or on a small group, or the Government's contribution towards the running costs of a particular organisation, such as the Agricultural Engineering Institute.

FARM MACHINERY—The following table gives details of farm machinery for those items where comparison is available. The 1974 and 1977 figures relate to holdings of 1 hectare and over (previous years 4 hectares and over). Machinery owned by farm contractors is not included. The next year for which data on farm machinery will be available is 1980.

Type of Machine19651970197119741977
Agricultural tractors89,43195,50296,66695,28990,152
Milking machines32,88727,93025,79321,40818,917
Shearing stands65,91871,05572,66968,27170,621
Pick-up balers10,24712,61812,92612,99417,770
Side delivery rakes24,17825,37825,06422,22328,539
Harvesters—
    Forage42805403545152254861
    Header58295724559148284409
Electric fence units63,97070,14074,58371,33668,384
Field mowers..52,00551,00842,72040,787
Ploughs..42,10141,39233,64630,710
Disc harrows..32,97932,49930,28852,493
Cultivators......21,48320,402
Grain drills......14,39113,573
Spray irrigation plants......49445119
Weed and crop sprayers......31,64030,556
Lime and fertiliser spreaders......19,94620,504
Potato planters......1174954
Potato harvesters......15071383
Grain silos or bins......16,19319,424
Grain capacity (tonnes)........722,943
Effluent disposal units........7344
Water pumps........60,423
Chainsaws........49,721
Bikes........32,299
Farm trucks......32,96733,798

Milking Machines—At the end of June 1977 there were 18917 milking machine plants in use, with a total of 180493 sets of cups, compared with 21408 machines and 181445 sets of cups at 30 June 1974.

Agricultural Tractors—The classes of tractors on farm holdings at 30 June 1974 and 1977 are given in the following table.

Type19741977
Diesel oil—
    Crawler79397313
    Wheel52,20953,063
              Total60,14860,376
Petrol or kerosene—
    Crawler37133910
    Wheel31,42825,866
              Total35,14129,776

14 B—CROPS

Crops grown in New Zealand are in general sufficient to meet domestic needs for agricultural products, apart from tropical and subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, etc.

Local requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones are normally supplied from New Zealand orchards. The production of pipfruit (apples and pears) is sufficient to make them New Zealand's major horticultural crop. They are grown mainly in two areas—Hawke's Bay (in the North Island) and Nelson (in the South Island). Apples are the biggest single earner among New Zealand's horticultural exports.

Grapes are grown mainly for winemaking, principally in the Auckland, East Coast, Hawke's Bay, and Marlborough regions.

Kiwifruit is the most important subtropical-fruit crop. Production is increasing rapidly to meet the expanding demands from overseas markets. Citrus fruits, tamarillos, avocados, feijoas, and passion fruit are also grown commercially.

Subtropical fruit is grown predominantly in the subtropical northern area of the North Island.

Citrus fruit is imported in substantial quantities, but the demand for all other subtropical fruit is met by the local production.

Potato and onion production is normally adequate.

Wheat production fluctuates in relation to price incentives and imports are sometimes necessary.

Animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full 12 months of the year, but the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summer months. Hay and silage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though some districts specialise in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders, other than grass and clover, hay, and silage, is grown in the South Island, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

The renewal and extension of pastures require the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass seed. There is an appreciable export trade in some species of grass seeds.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION—Grain growing is localised to a considerable extent. The Canterbury statistical area, with its fertile plains, supplies more than one-half of New Zealand's wheat yield, over one-third of the threshed oats, and over one-half of the barley yield. In recent years, however, the North Island has been growing a higher proportion than previously of the wheat and the barley crops.

Maize growing is largely confined to certain parts of the East Coast (notably, Cook County) and to the South Auckland-Bay of Plenty areas.

Peas for threshing are grown extensively in Canterbury (which produces three-quarters of the total yield) and, to a lesser extent, in Marlborough and Wellington. More than two-thirds of the area that is closed off for the production of grass seeds is also in the Canterbury district.

New Zealand's potato production is mainly centred on three areas—Pukekohe, near Auckland, which is relatively frost free, produces mainly early potatoes; the Manawatu-Opiki region (North Island) produces main-crop and some early potatoes; and Canterbury produces main-crop potatoes.

The Pukekohe district also provides the Auckland area with a considerable share of its vegetable requirements, as well as being the North Island's main onion-growing area.

Wellington City draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts; while Ohakune (in the centre of the North Island), with a climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages and broccoli, supplies them to both Auckland and Wellington.

Hastings, in Hawke's Bay, has become a centre for the canning and processing of many vegetables.

In the South Island, market gardening is carried on near the cities, on the rich soils near Christchurch, to the south of Oamaru, and on the Taieri Plains, just south of Dunedin. Nelson, too, produces considerable quantities of fresh and processed vegetables, most of which are marketed in Wellington.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions. The Nelson and Hawke's Bay districts are notable for their apple and pear orchards, a high percentage of the crops from these districts normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits, notably apricots. Hawke's Bay and Nelson are also noted for their peach production. In certain particularly warm areas of the North Island with suitable soils citrus fruits are grown, the principal areas being Kerikeri, in Northland; Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty; and Gisborne.

Grape growing is of importance near Auckland and in Hawke's Bay, and to a lesser extent in South Auckland. Tobacco growing is confined to the Nelson district, hop growing also being concentrated in this area.

The following table shows the varieties of wheat, oats, barley, and peas threshed during the year ended 30 June 1978. It should be noted that some holdings grow more than 1 variety of a crop and that if, for example, a holding grows 3 varieties of wheat it appears 3 times in the “Number of Holdings” column. As a result, the aggregates of holdings by individual varieties may exceed the totals of holdings under particular crops.

VarietyNumber of HoldingsArea From Which ThreshedTotal YieldAverage Yield Per HectarePercentage of Surveyed AreaPercentage of Total Yield
  hectarestonnestonnespercent  percent  
Wheat— (000)(000)   
    Aotea115014.855.13.7216.2916.76
    Hilgendorf6246.820.43.007.486.21
    Arawa2492.17.23.432.312.19
    Gamenya1371.85.22.901.981.58
    Kopara203933.4117.03.5036.7435.59
    Takahe86111.951.24.3013.0915.58
    Karamu157419.570.53.6221.4521.45
    Other680.62.13.500.660.64
              Total483490.9328.73.62100.00100.00
Oats—
    Onward6503.19.73.1318.1318.76
    Mapua208310.033.13.3158.4864.02
    Black Supreme2460.82.32.884.684.45
    Grey Winter300.10.22.000.580.39
    Achilles920.20.52.501.170.97
    Other White3550.72.13.004.094.06
    Other3532.23.81.7312.877.35
              Total353217.151.73.02100.00100.00
Barley—
    Carlsberg7026.321.73.448.908.39
    Kenia1151.34.23.231.841.62
    Research2102.48.03333.393.09
    Zephyr414746.1167.63.6465.1164.79
    Other168114.757.23.8920.7622.11
              Total620570.8258.73.65100.00100.00
Peas—
    Field varieties—
    Maple5798.021.12.6438.4635.82
    White3362.67.22.7712.5012.22
    Blue Boiling3543.711.43.0817.7919.35
Garden varieties7806.519.22.9531.2532.61
              Total169520.858.92.83100.00100.00
Maize—
              Total150324.8174.57.04100.00100.00

Detailed statistics of crops are contained in the annual report Agricultural Statistics and in statistical bulletins issued by the Department of Statistics.

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS—Details of areas for threshing, total yields, and yields per hectare of the principal grain and seed crops during recent years are set out in the following table.

YearWheatOatsBarleyMaizePeas
Areas for threshing (hectares)
1974–7557,65619,036104,49520,55821,822
1975–76103,74212,79284,73926,02818,980
1976–7796,23616,75774,32628,56618,804
1977–7890,98216,22270,83724,76120,802
Total yields (tonnes)
1974–75179,17450,219262,881157,59947,522
1975–76388,17841,820285,495184,46954,515
1976–77354,03557,997272,096210,41945,023
1977–78328,75651,540258,690174,53659,051
Yields per hectare (tonnes)
1974–753.122.642.527.672.18
1975–763.743.273.377.092.87
1976–773.683.463.667.372.39
1977–783.613.183.657.052.84

The following table which gives the number of holdings and total area sown during the 1977–78 season shows cereal cropping on various types of farm. The areas include threshed, fed off, and crop abandoned during the 1977–78 season.

Farm Type**WheatOatsBarleyPeasMaize
Area ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal Yield

* Seventy-five percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§ Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

|| More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

** These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

 hectarestonneshectarestonneshectarestonneshectarestonneshectarestonnes
Dairy farming*28898115550914565395148410164611,363
Sheep farming*16,35256,248683421,20713,06844,361117430261991508
Beef fanning*1746323474543187438985133125
Pig fanning*401565199583577472571939
Cropping*14,83055,6478752860988038,213607018,292807958,267
Dairy farming with sheep281362258167631349325137
Dairy fanning with beef6228361821388214431591190
Dairy fanning with other15159716553931343381169297190
Sheep fanning with dairy4918633102109350423
Sheep fanning with beef246097509312887502119,030604191011077693
Sheep fanning with crop-ping17,52762,5562783873310,29536,844293371964372466
Sheep fanning with other2689111895525672143132032229
Beef farming with dairy6927043218112823322
Beef fanning with sheep3291291431084952043501652792028
Beef farming with other3591466308743413841354096924911
Cropping with sheep14,89654,76613614692853532,322421312,6276254355
Cropping with other1501532866205139551513441016170012,773
Pig farming with other63167243531184479465590
Stud farming||11747320468019475946103110565
Mixed livestock1592510338911632473887629591814138292
General mixed farming§19,18269,1962115715412,47745,910419911,230537638,068
Poultry farming||54280510264874146996651
Market gardening and flowers||32313753310178428971765743882255
Orchards||2112412356921427523052394
Other farming2478357922965122141755533022201
    Total, all farm types909,82328,75616,22251,54070,837258,69020,80259,05124,761174,536

WHEAT—The following diagram shows the fluctuations that have occurred in the area sown in wheat, together with the total yield and the average yield per hectare.

Wheat Board—Control of the distribution of both imported and locally produced wheat rests with the New Zealand Wheat Board, which is also responsible for the distribution of flour and associated offal. The operations of this board, which consists of representatives of flourmillers, wheat growers, bread bakers, the poultry industry; the grain seed and produce business, the Department of Trade and Industry, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, with the Minister of Trade and Industry as chairman, and 1 person with no direct association with any of the above industries as deputy chairman, are governed by the Wheat Board Act 1965.

All New Zealand milling wheat is purchased from farmers by the Wheat Board through the agency of grain merchants acting as brokers for the board. The board is responsible for the distribution of all imported wheat and its functions also include arrangements for the processing of wheat by flourmillers and the sale of the resultant flour and offal to merchants, bakers, pastry cooks, grocers, and others.

The annual consumption of wheat in New Zealand for flour and cereal foods approximates 320000 tonnes. Wheat is also required for poultry foods and seed. Research is assisted by a levy on wheat and flour on recommendation of the Wheat Research Committee.

MAIZE—Maize is principally grown on the east coast of the North Island, Hawke's Bay, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty. During the last decade the area sown has greatly increased from 3061 hectares in 1967 to 28566 hectares in 1977. The introduction of improved hybrid maize varieties has considerably increased the yield of grain threshed. Maize is used as poultry feed and is becoming a more important feature of supplementary feed for pigs and other livestock.

BARLEY—Barley is used mainly in the manufacture of stock feeds, and for malting. The production of barley is increasing steadily, mainly because of the growing demand for stock feeds.

OATS—Most of the oats are grown for threshing and green feed and not for chaff. From the grain milled, rolled oats, oatmeal, and proprietary oaten foods are produced, along with feed for animals and fowls.

VEGETABLES—The following tables show vegetable production for the fresh market and for processing during the years 1977 and 1978. The first table shows production for the fresh vegetable market, by area and yield.

Vegetable19771978
Area GrownProductionArea GrownProduction
* Includes both outdoor and glasshouse production.
 hectarestonneshectarestonnes
Asparagus119224206335
Beans—green10273868673
Beetroot92130939981
Brussels sprouts15918321581886
Cabbage111927,434120930,588
Carrots96426,261101627,245
Cauliflower110522,397131825,504
Celery9133721254018
Kumara5346009100115,155
Lettuce74616,52684218,136
Parsnips25563542756478
Peas8126745384
Sweetcorn38745252694139
Tomatoes*24327,0803149992
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

The second table shows production for processing, by area and yield.

Vegetable19771978
Area GrownProductionArea GrownProduction
* Outdoor-grown tomatoes only.
 hectarestonneshectarestonnes
Asparagus3071033329806
Beans—broad46311894351881
Beans—green141611,29511999939
Beetroot1012506822506
Brussels sprouts37380
Cabbage401160521466
Carrots14972761045467
Cauliflower601393661042
Celery1225220
Kumara782487
Peas12,55737,41511,21943,236
Sweetcorn188323,943268831,716
Tomatoes*56533,81951931,935
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

There has been a marked increase in recent years (and notably in the past 12 months) in the quantity of broad beans, brussels sprouts, cabbage, celery, peas, and sweetcorn grown for processing. The quick-freezing industry has expanded rapidly as have other forms of processing; namely, canning, freeze-drying, and the manufacture of prepared foods. The major areas producing vegetables for processing are the Heretaunga Plains around Hastings, Gisborne, Christchurch, and Timaru. Peas and tomatoes are the 2 main crops followed by sweetcorn, beans, carrots, onions, beetroot, and asparagus.

The total net area of land devoted to the production of outdoor vegetables (excluding potatoes) during the October 1978 year was some 26550 hectares. The aggregate area of the fresh-market crops was estimated at 13400 hectares, and at 15150 hectares for the process-vegetable crops.

For the June 1979 year, fresh-vegetable exports (excluding potatoes) totalled some 45727 tonnes, of which 43278 tonnes were onions.

POTATOES—The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet home market requirements.

Potato yields have risen to such an extent that a population of 3 million is now supplied from the same area as were 1? million people 30 years earlier. Most of this increased production has been the result of research, the introduction of new varieties, and better farming practice.

Figures for area and yield of potatoes for the latest available 5 years are as follows:

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonnestonnes
1973–748606206,19223.96
1974–758854225,52225.47
1975–769495248,32126.15
1976–779867270,49727.41
1977–789285237,29125.56

ONIONS—Areas in, and yields of, onions for the latest available 5 years are as follows:

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonnestonnes
1973–74109924,66222.44
1974–75131629,01322.05
1975–76143938,18226.53
1976–77161646,48228.76
1977–78176051,15729.07

GLASSHOUSES—The following table shows the area and yield of glasshouses (heated and cold) given over to the production of vegetables and grapes.

Vegetable or Fruit197619771978
AreaYieldAreaYieldAreaYield
* Between 1977 and 1978 the minimum areas for recording the size of holdings and of individual crops was increased, so that some small holdings are no longer being recorded.
 m2 (000)tonnesm2 (000)tonnesm2 (000)tonnes
Tomatoes1335.219,0601448.121,0551165.219,877
Cucumbers and gherkins97.7136298.9155497.71987
Beans49.015118.712119.275
Capsicums and peppers7.533
Grapes53.629458.428849.0200
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

LINSEED—Most of the linseed is grown under contract for the production of linseed oil. About 3500 hectares are sown each year. The oil is extracted mainly for use in paints, and the residue provides a valuable concentrate for stock food.

SEED CERTIFICATION—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates a seed certification scheme covering the more important herbage species, cereals, brassicas, and potatoes. Bred varieties of these species are produced by the Grasslands and the Crop Research Divisions of the DSIR. These are then reproduced under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries which releases them as Breeder's seed which in turn produces Basic seed. The final stages in the multiplication of certified seed are known as 1st and 2nd Generation seeds. Basic and Certified seed, 1st and 2nd Generation, are sold through the usual commercial channels.

GRASS SEED—The areas of grass, clover, and lucerne crops harvested for seed, are given in the following table.

Crop1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78
* Excludes mixed pasture.
 hectares
Ryegrass46,18328,47211,20916,78413,039
Clovers14,86119,60721,74719,03014,659
Other grasses and clovers, and mixed pasture7608591748043223*3666*
              Total68,65253,99637,76039,03731,364

The production of machine-dressed grass, clover, brassica, and other seed for the year ended 31 December 1978, compiled by the Department of Statistics, is set out below together with the corresponding totals for the 2 previous years. The figures are taken from returns from seed dressing plants.

Type of Seed12 Months Ended 31 December
197719781979
Ryegrass— Kilograms (000) 
    Ariki ryegrass653379424
    Italian ryegrass (including Western Wolths)138210541297
    Nui ryegrass185218222534
    Perennial ryegrass638754786272
    Short rotation (H1) ryegrass193017551441
    Tama ryegrass94811601149
Other grasses—
    Browntop250109193
    Chewings fescue111629
    Cocksfoot364475582
    Crested dogstail280504578
    Prairie grass1575111
    Timothy165226260
    Yarrow22198
    Yorkshire fog12136
Clovers—
    Broad red clover624445353
    Lotus5117
    Lucerne21317787
    Mixed clovers5412149
    Montgomery red clover391397195
    Pawera red clover164422
    Suckling clover7841178
    White clover385541575956
    Huia white clover517
    Pitau white clover11453
Other—
    Kale205453347
    Maize776322051673
    Peas—
        Garden19,30718,45617,392
        Field19,82232,15826,476
    Rape149223163
    Turnip4515093

Machine-dressed seed returns show that, in addition to the above, a total of 213 tonnes of Ellet ryegrass and swede were processed during 1979.

Large quantities of grass and clover seed have been exported during recent years, especially to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. Details of the volume and value of exports during recent years will be found in Section 22B of the Yearbook.

HORTICULTURAL LAND USE—The following data, supplied by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, give an indication of the net areas of land devoted to the main horticultural crops in 1979.

 hectares
Outdoor vegetables (includes process crops, but not potatoes)27,597
Pip fruits6154
Vineyards4177
Kiwifruit3487
Registered nurseries (943)2488
Stone fruits2466
Citrus fruits1936
Berry fruits1674
Other subtropical fruits630
Hops144

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY—Pip and stone fruits are grown commercially throughout New Zealand, whereas citrus and subtropical fruits are largely confined to the coastal strip from North Auckland through the Bay of Plenty to Poverty Bay.

During 1978, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries carried out its sixth comprehensive survey of commercial orchards throughout New Zealand. The following table compares the 1978 survey data with the situation at the end of 1979. The main producing areas for the various fruits are also given.

Fruit SurveyMain Districts
19781979
Pip fruit—hectares 
    Apples53675710Nelson, Hawke's Bay.
    Pears443444Hawke's Bay, Nelson.
Stone fruit—
    Apricots541570Otago.
    Cherries107112Otago, Marlborough.
    Nectarines349380Otago, Hawke's Bay.
    Peaches10191055Hawke's Bay, Auckland, Otago.
    Plums326349Hawke's Bay, Auckland.
Citrus, fruit—
    Grapefruit446428Bay of Plenty.
    Lemons116116Bay of Plenty.
    Mandarins273296Bay of Plenty, Northland.
    Oranges (sweet)478589Northland, Poverty Bay.
    Tangelos468507Bay of Plenty, Northland, Poverty Bay.
Subtropical fruit—
    Kiwifruit16533487Bay of Plenty.
    Passionfruit2636Bay of Plenty.
    Tamarillos204327Northland, Bay of Plenty.
    Avocados113153Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay.
    Feijoas65114Bay of Plenty.

Fruit Crop Disposal—Estimated production and methods of disposal of the various tree-fruit crops in 1979 are shown in the following table.

FruitDisposalTotal Production
Export* (fresh)Local Market (fresh)Processing
* Includes the quantities of major fruit exports only. Detailed figures are not available for the other fruit. Any exports are therefore included in their local-market figures. The following figures do however give some indication of other fresh-fruit exports during the June 1979 year: stone fruits, 434 tonnes; citrus fruits, 55 tonnes tamarilios, 21 tonnes; feijoas, 12 tonnes; and passionfruit, 8 tonnes.
Pip fruits— tonnes 
    Apples78,98265,19135,885180,058
    Pears16917322527514,288
Stone fruits—
    Apricots398127616742
    Cherries46258520
    Nectarines36611343795
    Peaches11,238641217,650
    Plums415010395189
Citrus fruits—
    Grapefruit218730035190
    Lemons97415632537
    Mandarins254332546
    Oranges548710066493
    Tangelos431912165535
Subtropical fruits—
    Avocados8989
    Feijoas157200357
    Kiwifruit14,9202230150018,650
    Passionfruit781088
    Tamarilios1745981843

BERRYFRUITS—Berryfruits are grown commercially throughout New Zealand.

The following table sets out the estimated net areas occupied by the various berryfruits during the 2 latest years. The main producing areas for each of them are also listed.

FruitYearMain Districts
19781979*
* Provisional.
 hectares 
Black currants311749Otago-Southland, Canterbury.
Blueberries812Waikato.
Boysenberries233336Nelson, Hawke's Bay.
Brambles (other than those listed)6596Waikato, Nelson.
Gooseberries1011Horowhenua, Wairarapa.
Raspberries178200Nelson, Canterbury.
Red currants22Wairarapa, Waikato.
Strawberries236268Auckland, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury.
                Total (all kinds)10431674 

The estimated production and disposal figures for the 1978–79 berryfruit crop are set out in the following table.

FruitDisposalTotal Production
Market (fresh)Processing
  tonnes 
Black currants134615749
Blueberries88
Boysenberries40815081916
Brambles (other than those listed)424183
Gooseberries34640
Raspberries4857471232
Red currants325
Strawberries356112654826
                Total (all kinds)467541848859

Fresh-berryfruit exports for the June 1979 year amounted to 411 tonnes, of which strawberries accounted for 339 tonnes.

GRAPE GROWING AND WINE PRODUCTION—The estimated net area of the vineyards throughout New Zealand as at December 1979 was 4177 hectares. The main grape-growing areas are Poverty Bay, Hawke's Bay, Auckland, Marlborough, and Waikato.

Grape-wine production in 1979 amounted to over 42.3 million litres, of which about 288000 litres were exported.

The area of table grapes under glass in 1979 was around 50000 square metres, with an estimated production of 200 tonnes. Exports of fresh glasshouse grapes, mainly to Japan, amounted to about 8 tonnes.

APPLES AND PEARS—A summary of the activities of the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board appears in Section 21. Over 700 orchardists consistently sell apples and pears to the board. Over 80 percent of the total crop received comes from Nelson and Hawke's Bay.

The following table shows the quantities of the main varieties of fresh apples and pears received by districts by the Apple and Pear Marketing Board during the 1978–79 season.

VarietyHawke's BayNelsonOther DistrictsTotal
Apples— cartons (000)  
    Granny Smith15058413042686
    Sturmer Pippin19955499852
    Golden Delicious24047589804
    Red Delicious57224996917
    Cox's Orange Pippin6644256564
    Delicious23628160577
    Dougherty15615512323
    Jonathan314914166
    Other337239123699
              Total apples331433858897588
Pears—
    Packham's Triumph37624103
    Winter Cole4339587
    Winter Nelis49121879
    Other46311289
              Total pears17514439358

Exports of apples and pears in the 1977–78 season totalled 4651000 cartons (excluding processed goods).

HOPS—The whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea County and all the requirements of hops for New Zealand are produced. Production per hectare (approximately 2.47 acres) usually ranges between 1400 kilograms and 1800 kilograms.

The total crop produced in the 1979 season was 258918 kilograms. About 98 percent of the crop is picked by machines. Hop gardens covered 155.96 hectares in 1979 compared with 199.6 hectares the previous season, and the yield averaged 1660 kilograms per hectare. A total of 24,010 kilograms of hops was exported to West Germany. The balance was used in this country.

A Hop Marketing Committee of 6 members (one Government and 5 producers) was established by the Hop Marketing Regulations 1939 to regulate and control the marketing, either locally or overseas, of all hops produced in New Zealand and to assist the industry generally.

TOBACCO—Tobacco is grown mainly in the Motueka district. Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, burley, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco. Some 3600 tonnes of raw tobacco leaf was imported during 1974–75, 3650 tonnes during 1975–76, 3500 tonnes during 1976–77, 4320 tonnes during 1977–78, and 2657 tonnes during 1978–79.

SeasonNumber of GrowersArea Planted*ProductionEstimated Value of Crop
* Contract area amended after planting operations completed.
  hectareskg(000)$(000)
1974–75306176430077,485
1975–76308177533499,372
1976–77315184727199,044
1977–783091813x355912,314
1978–793151718328212,598

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 98 percent and burley leaf for 2 percent of the 1978–79 crop.

Approximately half the tobacco used by New Zealand manufacturers in the production of cigarettes and cut tobacco is New Zealand grown. The actual average percentages used during recent years ended 30 June has been as follows: 1970, 49.4 percent; 1971, 49.3 percent; 1972, 49.1 percent; 1973, 49.2 percent; 1974, 48.3 percent; 1975, 47.1 percent; 1976, 45.9 percent; 1977, 44.2 percent; 1978, 41.6 percent; and 1979, 44.7 percent.

14 C—LIVESTOCK

GENERAL—Agriculture is a major industry upon which much of New Zealand's prosperity depends. It has the capacity to expand provided the circumstances are favourable for development. The lines of development are influenced by overseas prices received for farm products in the form of meat, wool, butter, cheese, milk powder, casein, etc. Although there is a time-lag associated with livestock breeding, the livestock numbers are an indication of the response of farmers to financial incentives, although weather factors, such as drought, are also involved.

Livestock numbers over a 50-year period are shown in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

New Zealand has more than 20 times as many animals as people: this ratio is probably not exceeded in any country in the world. Grasslands have been developed to the extent that the best dairy farms can carry 2£ cows to the hectare, and the best sheep farms can support up to 25 sheep to the hectare throughout the year.

The first sheep stations in the 1840s were stocked with Merinos from Australia. During the 1850s and 1860s several English breeds of sheep were imported, notably Southdowns, Leicesters, Lincolns, and Romneys. In 1855 there were 761700 sheep in the country; by 1870 there were 9700000. Until 1882, the year of the successful introduction of cargo refrigeration when mutton and lamb exports were sent to London, the Merino and its crosses were predominant, because the only sheep products of any importance for export were wool and a little tallow, obtained by boiling down carcasses. Then the Merino was superseded in the North Island by breeds more suited to the climate and conditions. Today the flock sheep of the North Island are nearly all predominantly of Romney blood. In the South Island, Merino blood in varying degree continued to play an important part in the flock structure but Merino crosses are now restricted to the foothills of the Southern Alps, while Corriedales are more profitable in the better hill country, and crossbreeds and long-woolled British breeds at lower levels.

In 1851 there were 193000 cattle in New Zealand and by 1897 the number had reached 1138000. Cattle raising and fattening are usually associated with hill-country sheep farming and fat-lamb fanning respectively, and beef stock are grazed chiefly in the North Island. The latest available survey of cattle by breeds show that the most popular breed of beef cattle is now the Aberdeen Angus (75 percent), with Herefords (17 percent), and Shorthorns (6 percent) next in number.

The growth of dairy herds was related to the availability of refrigeration for the export of butter from 1882, and the development of butter and cheese factories. There were 300000 dairy cows by 1897, 185000 of them in the North Island and 115000 in the South Island. Now the North Island has more than 11 times as many dairy cows as the South island. Estimates of breeds in 1971–72 were: Jersey, 58 percent; Friesian, 34 percent; Ayrshire, 3 percent; Shorthorn, 1 percent.

In the following table, livestock numbers are shown by farm-type category as at 30 June 1978.

Farm Type**Beef CattleDairy CattleSheep and Lambs Shorn††Pigs

* 75 percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§ Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

|| More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent.

** These farm types are defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

†† Year ended 30 June 1978.

  (thousand) 
Dairy farming*140250629140
Sheep fanning*15781242,29312
Beef farming*786143934
Pig farming*8522260
Cropping*822062
Dairy farming with sheep17563122
Dairy farming with beef6496442
Dairy farming with other342915
Sheep farming with dairy8101851
Sheep fanning with beef1611918,9666
Sheep farming with cropping36124964
Sheep farming with other307357
Beef farming with dairy231314
Beef farming with sheep25729901
Beef farming with other401194
Cropping with sheep116552
Cropping with other102292
Pig fanning with other451944
Mixed livestock689104528345
General mixed farming§8212177313
Poultry farming||42362
Market gardening and flowers||191991
Orchards||61551
Tobacco growing||340
Other farming72146173
                Total, all farm types5507291175,580473

Figures as at 30 June 1978 gave a total of 5507275 for beef cattle (of which, breeding cows and heifers totalled 1916358 compared with 1965542 the previous year), and a total of 2910736 for dairy cattle, of which 2020396 (compared with 2006820 the previous year) were dairy cows in milk.

The 1978 figures showed a 5.7 percent decrease in beef cattle, and a 0.4 percent increase in dairy cattle. The beef cattle herd has been increasingly supplemented in recent years by dairy-bred cattle reared for beef production, as indicated by the declining calf kill.

The dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island which, in 1978, had 77 percent of the total cattle and 92 percent of the dairy stock. Localising the dairying industry still further, it is found that 66 percent of the milking cows of New Zealand are in the northern half of the North Island.

Beef cattle are fairly evenly spread over the North Island, except Taranaki and areas close to Auckland.

If the number of beef breeding cows 2 years old and over are taken as a guide to beef production, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty and Wellington statistical areas easily lead with 35 percent of the New Zealand total between them. Hawke's Bay is next, followed by Northland and East Coast in that order. These 5 districts together pasture 68 percent of breeding cows.

Northland, Central Auckland, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty statistical areas account for 43 percent of the pig population and Wellington and Taranaki for 22 percent. The number of pigs kept in the Nelson and Canterbury areas has increased considerably in recent years and 20 percent of the pig population is now in these areas. Tanker collection of whole milk from dairy farms has reduced the rearing of pigs as a sideline; major developments have taken place in the rearing of grain-fed pigs in large units.

Sheep farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The statistical areas of major importance are Canterbury, Wellington, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Southland, Otago, and Hawke's Bay in that order. These 6 districts accounted for 85 percent of the total sheep population in 1978.

The following table shows the distribution of livestock at 30 June 1978.

Statistical AreaDairy CattleBeef CattleAnimals Shorn*Pigs
Sheep and HoggetsLambs
* During year ended 30 June 1978.
   (thousand)  
Northland330669164974816
Central Auckland22627775528956
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1333117479464100129
East Coast5407242611133
Hawke's Bay516586754271112
Taranaki486199137865543
Wellington2578298710380759
                North Island2688421329,61813,424319
Marlborough21109132131721
Nelson559970526617
Westland3079177661
Canterbury594149763176177
Otago293307444108419
Southland282637673196116
                South Island223129527,0835456152
                New Zealand2911550756,70118,879471

Detailed statistics of livestock are contained in the annual report Agricultural Statistics. This publication also contains the summary tables from parliamentary paper C. 5A, a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns.

SHEEP—The following table analyses categories of sheep.

At 30 JuneRamsWethersBreeding EwesDry EwesHoggetsTotal
RamWetherEwe

* Includes dry ewes.

Included with wethers.

Included with wether hoggets.

 (thousand)
 Totals
1974910127540,366316298200910,71055,883
1975909130041,1083362891576980255,320
1976880115841,200334304164610,86956,390
19778771405*42,782314198911,73859,105
1978954x2166*44,515345236311,82162,163
197993746,108342325812,88063,523
   Stud Sheep (Entered in Flock Book)  
19721955752102251016

Data on sheep breeds collected in 1979 indicate that, of the 63.5 million sheep in New Zealand at the end of June 1979, 28.4 million (44.6 percent) were Romneys, 11.4 million (17.9 percent) were Perendale, 11.3 million (17.8 percent) were Coopworth, 5 million (7.9 percent) were Corriedale, 3.7 million (5.8 percent) were Merino and half-bred, and 3.8 million (6 percent) were other breeds.

In the 1978 Budget the Government announced a livestock subsidy scheme of 50c per head for sheep and this could be reflected in the returns for that year.

The following table shows numbers of flocks by size of flock.

Size of Flocks19741975197619771978
1–9953325421537646665484
100–19920622073196019052211
200–49938073854374635703806
500–99947734593439142804243
1000–149948984788456643094114
1500–199947004556445844364292
2000–249933283256343734643694
2500–499952395246545859246359
5000–999911901200125814591597
10000 and over250248254283318
Total flocks35,57935,23534,90434,29636,118
Average flock size15711570161617231721

The following table, based on an annual survey by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, shows estimates of the number of lambs born and the percentage of lambing.

YearNumber of Breeding Ewes at 30 JuneEstimated Percentage Of LambingEstimated Number of Lambs
 (000) (000)
197440,36693.5337,755
197541,10896.4839,663
197641,20097.8040,294
197742,78297.7041,798
197844,51597.1043,224
197946,108 45,290

CATTLE—Numbers of cattle at 30 June of the 3 latest available years are given by categories in the following table.

Category197619771978

* Heifers not yet in milk, and cows not in milk during season but intended to be used again for dairying.

Includes bobby calves (5200 in 1976, 5157 in 1977 and 3271 in 1978).

Includes cows culled from dairy herds (53341 in 1976, 28774 in 1977, and 20362 in 1978).

Dairy stock—
    Cows and heifers, 2 years old and over—
      Cows in milk during season2,035,8522,006,8202,020,396
      Others*37,92133,65934,746
    Heifers—
      One and 2 years old416,498414,711424,824
      Under 1 year old378,127381,366369,815
    Bulls and calves intended for dairy breeding56,32457,13657,684
              Total dairy stock2,929,9222,898,8492,910,736
Beef stock—
    Breeding cows and heifers, 2 years old and over2,229,7841,965,5421,744,573
    Cows, 2 years old and over, not used for breeding198,731189,182197,282
    Heifers—
      One and under 2 years old502,626651,516633,959
      Under 1 year old788,107747,570703,552
    Steers and bulls of all ages2,314,5832,256,2082,207,547
              Total beef stock6,087,1725,838,7925,507,275
              Total cattle9,017,0948,737,6418,418,011

A feature of dairy farming in recent years has been the move to the amalgamation of farms to provide more economic units. The following table, which shows dairy cattle by size of herd, demonstrates how the trend towards amalgamation has resulted in larger herds on individual holdings. In June 1973, 37 percent of dairy cattle were in herds of 200 or more; by June 1978 the percentage had risen to 42.

At 30 JuneDairy Cattle in HerdTotal Dairy Cattle
1–3940–7980–119120–199200–299300 and Over
 (thousand) 
19745313739212877884173074
19754913339212657663932998
19764312139012377483902930
19773911035512377524062899
19783710131612237884462911

PIGS—Pig numbers fell in the late sixties as farmers began increasingly to supply whole milk to dairy factories instead of separating off the skim milk, which was frequently used to feed pigs. There was increased emphasis on grain-feeding, and a significant increase in pig numbers in the grain-producing areas of the South Island. After falling throughout the first half of the present decade, pig numbers showed a small increase in 1976, a very substantial increase in 1977 and then another fall in 1978. However, despite this, the 1978 figure was substantially above the figures for the 3 years preceding 1977.

At 30 JuneBreeding Sows One Year Old and OverOther Pigs of All Ages (Including Boars)Total Pigs
197456,576405,150461,726
197553,553368,838422,391
197656,429376,415432,844
197760,809424,152484,961
197855,686415,613471,299

DEER—A type of livestock farming which is of growing importance is deer-farming. Venison finds a ready overseas market and almost all the meat produced is exported. (In 1977–78 venison exports totalled 2688 tonnes valued at $10.6 million; in 1978–79 the provisional total was 1700 tonnes valued at $17.2 million. The principal market is the German Federal Republic.) Deer farming is controlled by the New Zealand Forest Service because of the status of the deer in the wild as a noxious animal. Deer farms have to be licensed and registered, and permits are issued for specified numbers of animals or specified areas.

The first deer-farm licence was issued in March 1970. By 1980 in excess of 80000 animals were held in captivity. Some 1300 properties were involved.

POULTRY—In 1978–79 there were 648 registered poultry runs forming the basic commercial units of the poultry industry. Farmlets comprising 100 birds or less are exempt from registration. The following table shows registered poultry runs in 1978–79 by flock size and the number of birds.

Flock Size (Birds)Number of RunsNumber of Birds
101–5008720,351
501–1000156141,392
Over 10004053,048,663
      Total6483,210,406

The Poultry Board Act 1976, which amended and consolidated the Poultry Runs Registration Act 1933, provided for the registration by the occupiers of poultry farms with 100 or more head of poultry as from 1 July 1977.

Eggs—The commercial groups sell most of their eggs through licensed egg floors and are therefore mainly responsible for supplying eggs to retail shops in the cities and larger towns.

Commercial poultry farms are distributed over both Islands, but there are concentrations around Auckland, Tauranga, Christchurch, and Oamaru. The poultry industry does not cater for overseas markets, though limited quantities of frozen egg pulp, surplus to local requirements, are exported.

Reference to the field covered by the Egg Marketing Authority is given in Section 21A of this Yearbook.

The following table shows eggs handled by licensed distributors for years ended 30 June.

YearEggs
 doz(m)
1973–7453.5
1974–7556.7
1975–7651.1
1976–7756.1
1977–7851.8
1978–7950.7

Table Poultry—The Poultry Board has continued to maintain a dose liaison with the New Zealand Poultry Processors' Association (Inc.), an active organisation comprising the majority of processors of all types of poultry for table meat consumption. The main basis of concern to the board in this area has been that of ensuring and maintaining an economic outlet for the egg producing industry's by-product—the roasting fowl—some 3 million hens that have completed their 13–15-month laying cycle. Not only is there fierce competition to be faced by the roasting fowl from meat chicken interests for its continuing share of the available market, but the coming into force of the Poultry Processing Regulations 1978 on 1 July 1980 will most likely tend to reduce the opportunities commercial poultry farmers presently have of disposing of their birds in quantity for a reasonably economic return.

The continuing expansion throughout New Zealand of various “takeaway” retail establishments has been a notable feature of the table poultry industry in very recent years, and has had a vast influence on the changing eating habits of the country's population. It is estimated that over 60 percent of all meat chicken marketed are sold through these increasingly popular outlets, and it is difficult to foresee any slowdown in these activities while red meats are inclined to become a less competitive source of foodstuff.

While no firm statistics are compiled on table poultry meat consumption within New Zealand it is widely held that in 1977–78 it was in the vicinity of the following figure:

BirdsTotal
 (million)
Meat chicken22.00
Roasting fowl3.00
Turkey0.50
Duck0.35
Geese0.02
 25.87

On this basis the per capita consumption was 10.4 kg which compares favourably with the 1973 figure of approx. 7.1 kg.

BEES—The rich pasture lands of New Zealand and some bush areas are favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey, although more intensive farming methods and land development have eliminated many sources of nectar for the bees.

Sales of honey by the New Zealand Honey Marketing Authority during the year ended 31 May 1979 amounted to approximately 2730 tonnes, of which 1850 tonnes was sold overseas.

Following is a summary of registrations under the Apiaries Act 1969 at 31 May 1979.

GroupHives
1–56–5051–250251–500501–10001000+Total
Beekeepers312410882076769524607
Apiaries33562539209721253378494318,438
Hives established675417,11125,86133,98856,42886,728226,870

Only approximately 200 beekeepers were completely dependent on honey production and beekeeping for their livelihood.

FURTHER INFORMATION ON THE FARMING INDUSTRY—There are numerous publications dealing with aspects of the farming industry and only a selection can be given here.

Report of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Parl. paper C. 5).

N.Z. Horticulture Statistics—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Annual).

Report of the Department of Lands and Survey (Parl. paper C. 1).

Sheep Returns (Parl. paper C. 5A).

Agricultural Statistics—Department of Statistics (Annual). (The annual report is usually preceded by a series of bulletins).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics

Economic Review of New Zealand Agriculture—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (1978).

N.Z. Fertiliser Statistics—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Annual).

Productivity Statistics of New Zealand Agriculture, 1960–1975—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Annual Reports of Producer Boards, (N.Z. Wool Board, N.Z. Dairy Board, N.Z. Meat Producers Board, N.Z. Milk Board, N.Z. Potato Board, Wheat Board, Tobacco Board, N.Z. Honey Marketing Authority, N.Z. Poultry Board and Egg Marketing Authority, N.Z. Apple and Pear Marketing Board, etc.)

The Future for New Zealand Agriculture—N.Z. Planning Council (published by Fourth Estate Books).

The N.Z. Meat Producer—N.Z. Meat Producers Board (monthly).

Dairy Industry: Information at a Glance—N.Z. Dairy Board (Annual).

N.Z. Pork Industry Council (Annual Report).

Chapter 15. Section 15 FORESTRY

Table of Contents

GENERAL—Until the early nineteenth century extensive evergreen forests covered some two-thirds of the country, the remaining third being the low-rainfall zones in the east of the South Island (carrying only tussock grasses) and the rocky mountain tops above 1100–1400 metres. Because of the abundance, use of timber during the early days of European settlement was wasteful, and in clearing land for farms large areas of forest were felled and burnt, often going well beyond the limits now considered desirable by extending into steep terrain unsuited to development. Not until towards the end of the nineteenth century was the need to conserve forests of the high mountain watersheds recognised.

Today, in addition to forest set aside in national parks, about 4 million hectares of land valuable either for timber production, recreation, or forest growth vital to soil and water conservation has been constituted State forest, and there is also a large private forest estate. Resources have been built up by afforestation with introduced species, mainly conifers, which produce usable wood in 25–30 years, a much shorter time than the slow-growing indigenous species.

The following table shows the present area of forested land in relation to other categories of land.

Type of LandAreaPercentage of Total Area
 hectares (million) 
Total forested land7.026.0
Pasture and arable land13.550.2
Other non-forested land6.022.3
Minor islands0.10.4
Lakes, rivers, etc.0.31.1
      Total area26.9100.0

FORESTS TODAY—About three-quarters of the forest area is classed as unmerchantable. This is mainly Crown-owned indigenous forest which, because it covers much of the remote and mountainous high-rainfall country, has as its primary function soil protection and water regulation. The limited production possibilities it offers must be subordinated to its protective role.

Of the 6.2 million hectares of indigenous forests that remain, only about a million hectares are merchantable by today's standards. Greatly increased use of exotic timber has enabled the rate of cutting in State indigenous forests to be reduced, allowing emphasis to be placed on the management of indigenous forests for sustained wood yield or as reserved natural stands. A lower cutting level is also evident in privately-owned indigenous forests.

Merchantable forests also include almost all the planted (exotic) forests, about half of which were established and are owned privately or by local authorities. There are about 784000 hectares of productive exotic forest, over half of which is in the Bay of Plenty - Taupo region, where very large plantings were made from 1923 to 1936. The distribution of the planted forests was influenced mainly by availability of cheap undeveloped land at that time. The output of timber from the exotic forests greatly surpasses that from the indigenous forests.

The exotic conifers, particularly radiata pine, have high growth rates, ease of establishment and ease of re-establishment on cut-over areas, and they produce wood that has many uses. Plantings of such trees are being extended and developed to provide for increasing domestic and export demand.

The distribution by area of forest land is shown in the table below.

Forested LandIndigenous ForestsExotic ForestsAll Forests
 hectares (thousand)
State forest29934463439
National parks and reserves15501550
Unoccupied Crown land361361
Other tenures13423381680
        Total62467847030

BOTANICAL COMPOSITION OF FORESTS: Indigenous Forests—These can be broadly grouped into podocarp/broad-leaved forest (which includes kauri forest) and beech forest, but there are also many subgroups and transition zones.

Podocarp/broad-leaved forests are found at all latitudes in the 3 main islands, more particularly those of the north and of the warm wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes, and there is a general increase in luxuriance and in numbers of species from south to north. This type of forest has suffered severely by destruction in land clearing or from heavy logging. There are still some large areas on steep country, such as the Ureweras, but these are essentially protection forests. Fairly extensive areas in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island contain most of the remaining indigenous softwood supplies. However, recently large portions of the forests in these regions were set apart as ecological reserves. The residual production areas will be managed for low levels of cutting only. Otherwise, the remaining forest of this type consists of pockets, some of which may be worked out in a few decades.

The principal podocarp is rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) and important secondary ones are totara (Podocarpus totara), matai (P. spicatus), and miro (P. ferrugineus). Important species at higher elevations are Hall's totara (P. hallii) and kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii). Kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides), once common on low-lying swampy river silts now cleared for farming, is becoming scarce. The smaller podocarps of the silver pine group (Dacrydium biforme, D. colensoi, and D. intermedium) are dominant in bog forests occupying limited areas in the central North Island and scattered widely over the South Island although concentrated largely on the West Coast, where they have been largely cut over for posts and sleepers.

The main broad-leaved species associated with the podocarps are kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa), rata (Metrosideros umbellata and M. robusta), and tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa) in the North Island and western Nelson.

Kauri forests are found in the north of the North Island. In them, kauri (Agathis australis) either occurs frequently or is locally dominant—otherwise they are akin to the podocarp/broad-leaved forest, though with many additional hardwoods. They have been almost destroyed by logging and fire and only limited stands now remain.

Beech forests, in which one or more of the southern beech (Nothofagus) species are dominant, are the forests of the south, of the mountains, and of the dry lowlands; but the species are absent from some localities where their presence might be expected, e.g., Mt. Egmont, the region 160 km south of the Taramakau River in Westland, and Stewart Island. In the main, these forests are protection forests, but there are large areas in accessible regions that have been cut over and are regenerating, and others that have not yet been logged and will be reserved for sustained-yield management or replacement by fast-gnawing exotics.

Scrub and second-growth broad-leaved species occupy much of the land now classified as forest. There were, before European settlement, limited transition areas carrying manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides) between tussock grassland and forest proper. With deliberate destruction by fire of much tussock and forest these manuka belts have extended, and manuka even occupies extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from its own original stands. In this respect it is important, for it is often a stage in succession back to forest proper.

Exotic Forests—Introduced conifers form the bulk of the large and valuable exotic-forest estate, and among these radiata pine (Pinus radiata) is the supreme multi-purpose tree. Radiata pine grows rapidly in New Zealand (reaching saw-log size in 25–30 years), produces a large volume of usable wood, and is remarkably adapted to a variety of sites. Other major species are Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii),Corsican pine (Pinus nigra (laricio)), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa). In recent years, planting of the last two species has declined because they have proved less versatile and slower growing than radiata pine.

The largest exotic forests are in the centre of the North Island; medium and small plantations are distributed throughout most of the country. Radiata pine constitutes about half the area of State plantations and about 90 percent of private plantations.

MANAGEMENT OF STATE FORESTS—The management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards protecting, conserving, and perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests of the country, and creating an exotic forest estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce and to provide for large exports.

Spreading awareness among the general public of the human and physical environment has brought the management of the remaining indigenous forests under critical examination. In 1975 a new policy covering State indigenous forests was approved by Government. It provides principles to guide the future use and management of these forests, giving due regard to sound forestry practices, the wishes of the public, and social and economic welfare on a regional and national basis. To manage forest land on the basis of optimum use, dominant forest values (whether they are of protection, amenity, production, or otherwise) must be identified and defined. Recognising forest zones is a sound basis for reconciling numerous objectives. The values identified first in forest zoning are soil and water conservation and biological significance. Scenic appeal, potential for recreation, and wood production values are considered subsequently. This policy was given specific effect in 1978 with the release by the Government of more detailed policies covering the two most important remaining indigenous forest regions—the West Coast, and Central North Island. In both instances substantial reductions in allowable cut have been made to provide for ecological reserves and management of the productive forests on a sustained or long-term periodic-yield basis.

In relation to the approximately 4 million hectares of State forest land administered by the New Zealand Forest Service, conservation embraces: the husbanding of indigenous forests yielding timber needed for special purposes, but which are difficult to perpetuate and must therefore be used as sparingly as possible; the management in selected areas of less silviculturally difficult forests, such as terrace rimu in Westland, central North Island podocarps, beech in Southland and north Westland, and kauri in North Auckland, on a sustained yield basis; the creation and management of exotic forests on a sustained yield basis for the production of wood for a wide range of uses; the establishment or maintenance in a healthy state of protective vegetation on hill and mountain land to preserve soil and to control stream channel aggradation; the protection of exotic and indigenous forest against fire, disease, and noxious animals for the maintenance of a supply of exotic and indigenous wood, as a vegetative cover to preserve soil and water values, as a habitat for wildlife, and for its scenic and other amenity values in perpetuity; the legal reservation of selected forest types as forest sanctuaries and dedicated areas; the use of exotic and indigenous forest for recreational and other purposes, including spiritual enjoyment, where this is not incompatible with essential soil and water conservation.

Increasing interdependence between forests and the social and economic benefits derived from indigenous and exotic forests in regional development emphasise the necessity for planning all forest operations on a regional basis.

Indigenous Production Forests—Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve restriction of the annual cut, rigid insistence on full utilisation, and block sales of carefully measured standing timber.

The ecology of the natural forest associations and the silvicultural characteristics of the individual species are being studied. Past work has shown the importance of preserving a forest climate. Carefully conducted selection logging of terrace rimu forests in south Westland provides a favourable forest environment for the regeneration and growth of rimu. A sustained-yield policy, based on experience of both large-scale operations and selective logging trials, has been developed for central North Island forests. The policy allows mature trees, which are likely to die and decay within a few decades, to be identified and carefully harvested. The forest's natural regeneration is enriched by planting native seedlings.

In many districts, forests of mixed podocarps and tawa have been logged for rimu, leaving tawa behind. Recently, however, tawa has been found useful as a hardwood pulp, and in the Bay of Plenty wood unsuitable for saw logs is being used for this purpose.

The kauri forests, now only remnants, are owned principally by the State. Management of them has the objective of perpetuating kauri as a species in the interests of science and public enjoyment, in natural stands and as managed forests. Large representative areas of mature and immature kauri have been set aside as sanctuaries, programmes of research and artificial establishment intensified, and the annual cut reduced to the lowest level consistent with economic, social, and legal constraints.

The prospects of improving and perpetuating the beech forests on a sustained-yield basis are good. Both major species, red and silver beech, when given the right conditions, will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to produce saw logs in 100–130 years; and both show their best development on sites that are unsuitable for agriculture. Many large areas of beech forests are still intact and, in the case of red beech, there are extensive stands of young forest which have originated after fire, wind throw, or mining activities. Against these favourable circumstances must be set the presence in many localities of red deer and other feral animals, the browsing of which may check or even prevent effective regeneration.

Exotic Forests—State exotic forests date from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting began in 1898 and proceeded slowly until 1922, by which time 19000 hectares had been established. From 1923 to 1936 there was a boom in afforestation, with no less than 150000 hectares planted by the State and 120000 hectares by commercial companies. After the boom period planting continued on a more modest scale, but in 1961 State planting was increased and the Government provided for financial inducements to encourage planting by private landholders and local authorities—with the aim of doubling the exotic-forest estate by the end of the century. The annual rate of State planting has increased to more than 5 times the rate achieved then (4000 hectares in 1961, 21700 hectares in 1979). The figure of over 22000 hectares for 1975 private plantings is about 10 times that for 1961.

Now that the stage of large-scale utilisation has been reached, there are opportunities to increase productivity by correcting the deficiencies in the distribution of age classes, replacing unthrifty plantations, and improving the quality of the trees, and at the same time, meeting the demand for forest products and ensuring continuity of supplies. The diversity of products now marketable permits utilisation of trees of a wide range of sizes and aids the operations needed in management practice.

Present policy is to concentrate new exotic forests in areas where there is scope for building up integrated wood-based industries to supply New Zealand markets and material for export. The planted forests (both State and private) already supply nearly 90 percent of the total wood production.

Stabilisation of Sand Dunes—This aspect of the Forest Service's work has a twofold objective—the stabilisation of dunes for the protection of agricultural and pastoral land and the establishment of exotic production forests. The Forest Service plants marram grass, sows lupin, and later establishes trees on certain protective zones. Eight schemes are in operation—at Aupouri, Mangawhai, Woodhill, Waiuku, Tainui-Kawhia, Waitarere, Santoft, and Pouto—embracing around 60000 hectares. About 25000 hectares of trees have been planted.

A most successful co-operative venture is under way in two Northland localities, where the Crown has leased large areas of Maori-owned coastal sand dunes (adjacent to Aupouri and Woodhill forests) for stabilisation and afforestation.

Stabilisation of Eroding Farmlands—A consequence of past forest clearing for farm land on some unsuitably steep areas has been accelerated water run-off and erosion. Wide spread landslipping, aggradation of riverbeds, and subsequent flooding have been sufficiently severe to require remedial works in which reafforestation plays a major part. Extensive plantings are under way in the East Coast and Poverty Bay and on the western Kaimai Range. Carefully managed, these can fulfil a productive role for timber supply and also maintain a protective cover.

Afforestation of Maori Land—In addition to the two areas of Maori-owned coastal sand country mentioned above, the Crown has also leased 9 other areas of Maori land for co-operative forestry ventures. These total 55000 hectares, with 22000 being already planted.

Protection Forests—The vegetation of the mountainous areas—forest, scrub, and alpine grassland—is of the highest importance to the welfare of New Zealand. Many rivers that bring water to low-lying farmlands or provide the domestic water supply of cities and towns have their headwaters in the mountainous back country. The mountains receive frequent heavy rain and are mostly formed of rock that erodes easily when exposed to rain, wind, and frost. The blanket of montane vegetation protects the thin soil layer and stabilises rocky slopes. This prevents soil and rock from reaching streams and altering their flow characteristics. Settled flood plains can be protected by a combination of river-training works and a good cover of vegetation on catchments to ensure the most stable stream flow possible.

Browsing animals that were introduced into the forest and mountain lands many years ago and, in the absence of natural enemies and limiting climate, multiplied excessively are the major threat to the continued protective function of the vegetation of these areas. Consequently the first step in the effective management of these areas is control of the numbers of these animals to a level that will allow an adequate vegetative cover to grow and persist.

Techniques to assess the condition and trends of vegetation, alpine climate, rates of erosion, the possibility of introducing new forest and scrub species into badly depleted areas, and changes in animal populations and methods of control are undertaken by the Forest Service and other agencies in support of management of protective forest lands.

Recreation in State Forests—Over one million hectares of State forest is set aside as forest parks which, although mainly protection forests, provide scope for recreation. In addition, a further 110000 hectares of State forest land has been set apart as recreation areas.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for recreation in surroundings of great natural beauty—for study of plant and animal life; for challenging tramping; and for shooting and fishing. Most of the forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation and recreational use can be allowed in almost all such forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting, for instance, can be of benefit in destroying wild animal pests. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining huts. Entry on foot is unrestricted except that, in the interests of public safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

The older exotic forests, two of which are forest parks, also offer attractions and have the advantage of accessibility. In many there are walks and picnic spots for the public, and selected areas are reserved from felling for their scenic value.

Safeguarding Forests and Timber: Fire Prevention—Fire is the greatest single menace to forests; within a few hours it can destroy a valuable timber crop or undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance. Indigenous forests are fairly fire resistant but can become fire-risks in drought conditions. Without doubt, however, the major risk occurs in the plantations of exotic conifers.

The fire-protection organisation of the Forest Service operates over the entire country, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves, national parks, and all other State areas. The Forest Service also gives support to other rural fire authorities, particularly those with high country fire hazards. A fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the department has fire-fighting responsibilities and well equipped fire-fighting crews can be brought into action at short notice and controlled through a radio network. Aerial fire-detection patrols operate when and where required, and aerial fire-fighting in the form of helicopters fitted with special buckets, has been adopted to deal with fire outbreaks. When weather or other conditions may lead to the start of forest or rural fires and endanger life and property, the Forest Service may issue a warning of fire hazard conditions, impose a total ban on lighting fires in the open, and take charge of an area so endangered by declaring a regional fire emergency.

A new Forest and Rural Fires Act, which became law on 1 April 1979, provides for a nationwide fire control system (involving all fire authorities), affords private forest owners the opportunity for protection identical with State areas, and sets up a mediator to deal immediately with any controversy.

Wild Animals—Under the Wild Animals Control Act 1977 the Forest Service is responsible for the control of deer, goats, chamois, pigs, and other introduced wild animals on all lands where the damage they cause is detrimental to the welfare of the country. On State forest and unoccupied Crown land the Forest Service also deals with opossum and wallaby control; but on pastoral land control of these two animals comes under the Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

The widespread populations of many of these animals have a serious effect on the growth of trees and ground cover in production as well as in protection forests. The forest floor of ferns, mosses, and shrubs has been extensively damaged by deer and goats, while the upper storey is adversely affected by the canopy-feeding opossum.

Control of Insects and Disease—In conjunction with private enterprise the Forest Service has organised joint spraying operations to control the pine needle blight Dothistroma pini. Aerial spraying of a copper fungicide is an effective means of dealing with the disease. Increasing research is being directed towards the debilitating effect of Swiss needle cast (Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii) on the growth of Douglas fir.

Pathologists and entomologists of the Forest Research Institute maintain a constant watch on forests, woodlots, and shelter belts to detect incipient epidemics in time for effective control measures to be taken. Much information is accumulated to elucidate the relationships between the organisms and the forests.

Timber Inspection and Quarantine—Forest Service timber inspection and quarantine cover all sawn, hewn, and natural round timber, wooden manufactured items, wooden packing, and ship's dunnage entering or leaving the country.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES—More money is spent on establishing and tending State forests than is obtained in revenue. Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry is met in full from taxation, as distinct from the development of State forests, which is financed from national development loans.

Sources of finance are shown in the following table.

Source1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79
* Expenditure and receipts now recorded in Consolidated Account, which replaced Consolidated Revenue Account from 1 April 1978.
 $(000)
Consolidated Revenue Account expenditure6,7858,4598,83910,602133,301
    Less receipts758512014259,908
    Required from Consolidated Revenue Account6,7108,3748,71910,46073,393*
Works and Trading Account expenditure61,52478,70494,552109,090*
    Less receipts39,90837,64759,68757,327*
    Loan moneys required21,61641,05734,86551,763*
Net finance required from Government funds28,32649,43143,58462,22373,393

PRIVATE FORESTRY: Private Forest Estate—Exotic forest holdings other than State forests (New Zealand Forest Service) or those on Crown lands amount to 338000 hectares.

Forestry Incentives—In 1978, 7211 hectares of new planting was carried out under the Government's forestry encouragement loans scheme (for local authorities) or forestry encouragement grants scheme (for individuals, trusts and partnerships, and small companies). Also, 5136 hectares of established planting was pruned and thinned under both schemes. The total area planted since the schemes' inception now totals 60721 hectares.

As an added incentive, standing trees do not incur land tax, death duties, or local body rates. There are also income tax concessions.

Extension Services—In addition to the financial assistance provided under the encouragement schemes, the Forest Service also provides guidance in all plantation matters. Because of the high interest in private forestry, increasing emphasis is being given to providing information and training services. Handbooks are available, a correspondence course is offered through the Technical Correspondence Institute, and short residential courses are held periodically.

Farm forestry associations also assist in promoting the schemes and advising on the management of woodlots.

FOREST UTILISATION: Removals of Roundwood—By the 1930s the easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone, whereas some of the exotic forests had reached the stage where harvesting could begin. By 1939, of the 1700000 cubic metres per annum of roundwood for industrial use, some 280000 cubic metres came from the exotic forests. By 1948 the total annual removals of roundwood had gone up to 2300000 cubic metres with 820000 cubic metres from the exotic forests. The exotic forests are now by far the more important source of wood. In 1979 they supplied 8573000 cubic metres, or 94 percent of the total supply from exotic and indigenous forests.

The table below shows the quantities of timber produced by the forests of New Zealand to supply the forest industries, which comprise 377 sawmills, 9 plywood and veneer plants, 3 particle board mills, 7 pulp and paper mills, and 2 fibreboard mills. This roundwood production does not include firewood.

Year Ended 31 MarchIndigenous WoodExotic WoodTotal
cubic metres (thousand)
19751002.77397.58400.2
1976959.67344.38303.9
1977861.18892.89753.9
1978692.08574.09266.0
1979581.08573.09154.0

Sawn-timber Production—Radiata pine and other pines account for about 89 percent of the total cut of exotics; Douglas fir provides most of the remainder. Only 13 percent of the country's timber requirement comes from the indigenous forests, and this proportion is being reduced to the point where a small sustained yield in indigenous timber can be maintained for special purposes.

The table below gives the production of rough-sawn timber in recent years.

Total sawn-timber production by years over a 50-year period is included in the Statistical Summary at the back of the Yearbook.

Year Ended 31 MarchSoftwoodsHardwoodsGrand Total
IndigenousExoticTotalIndigenousExoticTotal
 cubic metres (thousand)
197532817162044393422086
1976326161819444811592003
197729618672163472492212
197822317041927322341961
197917316541827353381865

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past 5 years.

SpeciesYear Ended 31 March
19751976197719781979
 cubic metres (thousand)
Rimu and miro272266242185152
Matai17201693
Totara86432
Kahikatea2932322114
Tawa821171215
Beech2726291919
Other indigenous53363
        Total, indigenous366374343255208
Exotic pines15421427166215221479
Douglas fir147153161141131
Eucalypts310223
Other exotic2839444144
        Total, exotic17201629186917061657
        Total (all species)20862003221219611865

Export Wood-chip Industry—The industry originated in 1969 in the Nelson region where two mills now produce both indigenous and exotic wood chips for Japan. They use trees unsuitable for sawn-timber production, enabling replanting with more productive species, and also provide outlets for forest and sawmill residues which would normally be wasted. Nelson remains the principal chip export port, handling about 40 percent of the country's total chip exports.

Wood chips have been exported through the port of Mount Maunganui since 1972, through Lyttelton since 1975, and through Port Chalmers since 1977. Total chip exports reached a record 216000 bone dry units in 1979.

Pulp and Paper Industry—The total value of sales of pulp, paper, and paperboard was over $370 million in 1976–77. Over the last 10 years total production of pulp (the basic commodity) has risen at an average annual rate of 9 percent, and production of paper at 5 percent. Production of pulp rose from 455000 tonnes in 1968–69 to 1043000 tonnes in 1978–79. The industry is mainly concentrated near the big exotic forests on the volcanic plateau of the North Island. There are 7 pulp and paper plants in New Zealand, 6 of which are in the North Island. Of these 6, 4 are integrated with sawmills to utilise fully the total input of wood. The 7 companies are:

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.—This company was formed in 1952 to utilise wood from Kaingaroa State Forest. Practical assistance and financial backing were given by the Government, which is represented on the board of directors. The company's plant is at Kawerau, Bay of Plenty. The pulp and paper mill began operation late in 1955 and the sawmill early in 1956. The annual rated capacity of the sawmill is 200000 cubic metres of sawn timber on the basis of one shift a day, while the capacity of the pulp and paper plant is 325000 tonnes of newsprint and wallpaper base, 245000 tonnes of chemical pulp, and 295000 tonnes of mechanical pulp.

N.Z. Forest Products Ltd.—This public company utilises about 2200000 cubic metres of timber a year from its own pine forests and also small quantities of hardwood (tawa) from State forests. Annual plant capacity is 265000 tonnes of kraft, packaging, printing, and writing paper, 450000 tonnes of kraft pulp, 55000 tonnes of refiner groundwood pulp for fibreboard production, and 115000 cubic metres of sawn timber a year, the last on a one-shift basis. The company uses 12000 cubic metres of timber to make wooden cases and has the capacity to produce 12000 cubic metres of plywood on a one-shift basis, 11 million square metres of wallboard, and 100 million multi-wall paper bags annually. The integrated pulp mill, paper mill, sawmill and veneer lathe is at Kinleith near Tokoroa: the fibreboard, multi-wall paper bag, and wooden case mills and plants are in Auckland. The company is also a joint owner, with Australian Paper Mills Ltd. of Australia and U.E.B. Industries Ltd., of Fibre Products N.Z. Ltd., a firm which makes a range of moulded pulp products, including 32 million moulded fruit trays a year.

Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., a subsidiary of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., has an annual production capacity of 130000 tonnes. The company manufactures mechanical and semi-chemical pulp which it uses, with considerable quantities of waste paper, in the production of paperboard. The company owns its own radiata pine forest at Matahina and hauls the logs 42 kilometres to the mill by road. It also operates a sawmill near the board mill to take the larger logs from the forest.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. makes tissue and various lightweight papers adjacent to the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.'s plant at Kawerau.

New Zealand Paper Mills Ltd., at Mataura, now a subsidiary of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., has been in operation for more than 100 years. It has 2 machines producing a range of papers from kraft wrapping grades to specialty printing and writing papers. The company uses New Zealand-made sulphate-pulp and supplements this with wastepaper and small quantities of imported specialty pulp. Annual production capacity is 19000 tonnes of paper. Adjacent to the paper mill is a small bagmaking factory, producing a range of single-ply bags.

Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd.—In 1969 the Government invited tenders for the processing of 9 million cubic metres of wood from Kaingaroa State Forest. After examining the proposals received, the Government awarded the sale of roughly two-thirds of the volume to Carter Consolidated Ltd. This led to the formation of the company, which has built an integrated sawmill and refiner groundwood mill at Whirinaki in the Napier district. This project, which is geared to the Japanese market, began producing wood pulp in March 1973. Present productive capacity is about 204000 tonnes of refiner groundwood pulp and 70000 cubic metres of sawn timber annually. Newsprint production is planned for the late 1980s when additional wood supplies are expected to be available.

Winstone Samsung Industries Ltd.—The company's new thermo-mechanical pulpmill at Tangiwai produced its first pulp in the latter part of 1978. The plant, which uses exotic wood from the Karioi State Forest, has a rated capacity of about 68000 tonnes annually. About 70 percent of its production will be exported to the Republic of Korea, with the rest to be offered on world markets.

The basic products of the pulp and paper industry are mechanical and chemical pulp, which are converted into such products as newsprint, kraft, and other paper, paperboard, and fibreboard.

The following table gives the production of wood pulp in New Zealand in recent years.

Year Ended 31 MarchWood Pulp
Chemical*Mechanical

* Chemical pulp includes semi-chemical pulp.

Mechanical pulp includes groundwood pulp and defibrated pulp.

 tonnes
1974465,300351,057
1975521,161371,618
1976565,376387,736
1977581,453521,203
1978606,759490083x
1979578,615464,195

Production figures for paper in New Zealand in recent years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchNewsprintOther Printing and Writing PaperOther Paper and PaperboardTotal Paper and Paperboard
 tonnes
1975208,52333,852304,459546,834
1976219,13434,213301,607554,954
1977275,36938,773320,450634,592
1978276,62731491x333047x641,165
1979260,31133,075337,635631,021

The rise of production of pulp and pulp products is clearly shown in the following graphs, which also show rough-sawn timber production.

Wood-based Panel Products Industries: Plywood—Five factories manufacture plywood, and the total output for the year ended 31 March 1979 was 42000 cubic metres. Total production of veneer in the industry in 1978–79 was 60000 cubic metres.

New Zealand Forest Products plywood plant at Kinleith began production of industrial and structural grades of plywood for both the domestic and export markets in 1976. The plant has a capacity of 12000 cubic metres on a one-shift basis (twice that of any other plywood plant in New Zealand or Australia) and uses radiata pine from Kaingaroa State Forest together with wood from the company's own pine forests.

Radiata pine has become increasingly important as a species for peeler log supply because of the demand for industrial plywood and now constitutes about 79 percent of total peeler log production. Now that the indigenous forests have become depleted, the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence, in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs, and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers logging State indigenous forests to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Fibreboard—Although fibreboard is manufactured from wood pulp, it is by end use a panel product. Production started in 1943 and has increased steadily. A new mill in Canterbury began producing medium-density fibreboard by a dry process in 1976. This product is now successfully establishing itself on domestic and export markets.

Particle Board—Particle board is manufactured from roundwood and sawmill residues. There has over recent years been a rapid expansion in the domestic market for this product for interior panelling and flooring as well as furniture manufacture.

Production of plywood, veneer, fibreboard, and particle board is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVeneerPlywoodParticle BoardFibreboard
 cubic metrestonnes
197535,40027,000112,90043,900
197632,20019,300128,48144,000
197741,10026,000159,56656,100
197847,70033,200107,30051,400
197960,30042,000120,60061,800

Production of Round and Split Produce—Considerable quantities of native timbers have been used in the past to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, and firewood, and for a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge-timber requirements, but as with forest products in general, most post and pole requirements are now met from exotic resources. A massive increase in the volume of posts and poles treated (from 5000 cubic metres in 1955 to 330000 cubic metres in 1978–79) indicates the switch from indigenous roundwood to exotic roundwood.

Wood Preservation—In the year ended 31 March 1979, 45.0 percent of all sawn timber produced was preservative treated: by world standards the proportion treated is very high, partly because of the relative ease with which otherwise non-durable exotic softwoods such as radiata pine can be treated.

Features of the preservation industry are: the very wide use in house building of timber treated by diffusion or vacuum-pressure methods with water-borne preservative at low retentions to prevent insect borer attack; the wide dispersal of small treating plants specialising in such treatment; and the quality-control function exercised by the Timber Preservation Authority.

Timber Preservation Authority specifications prescribe the preservative treatments for different service conditions. For treatment of exterior timbers against decay multi-salt preservatives (essentially solutions of copper, chromium, and arsenic compounds) at high loadings are widely used, but oil-type preservatives (e.g., creosote) are also acceptable. The usual method of application of multi-salt preservatives is by vacuum pressure, but such variations as the oscillating-pressure method (OPM), the Lowry process, and the alternating-pressure method (APM) have been introduced. Oil-based preservatives are applied by pressure, hot and cold bath, and cold soak and are used for poles, posts, and sleepers. For timber out of contact with the ground and protected from the weather lighter treatment with water-soluble preservatives is acceptable. Two basic formulations of alkyl ammonium compounds and 1 light organic solvent preservative have recently been approved for certain uses. Provisional approval for preservative treatment by the sap displacement technique has also been given.

The following table shows the quantities of sawn timber treated.

YearOpen TankDiffusion Impregnation*Pressure ImpregnationTotal
* Mainly boron.
 cubic metres
1974–7537396,370561,971958,378
1975–769359,238570,849930,096
1976–7764402,883618,4881,021,435
1977–7830350,297551,433901,760
1978–791400308,045532,169841,614

In addition, 330000 cubic metres of other timber, such as sleepers, poles, and fence posts, were treated by one of the preservation methods in 1978–79.

OVERSEAS TRADE—Forest products are important earners of overseas funds. For the year ended June 1979 exports of forest products were valued at about $299 million; Australia was the largest customer, taking 37 percent, mainly in the form of pulp and paper, and Japan was the next largest, taking 32 percent, mainly pulp and logs. For the same period, imports of forest products into New Zealand were valued at $62 million.

Timber Exports—There is an established market in Australia for sawn radiata pine and Douglas fir. Japan takes large volumes of logs, and a significant quantity of sawn timber. Korea and the People's Republic of China are also taking logs, and the Middle East is taking sawn timber. Only special categories of indigenous timbers are permitted for export, and these are strictly regulated.

Timber Imports—Durable Australian hardwoods are still imported for use as large poles, crossarms, wharf, bridge, and constructional timbers, etc. The demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses, exterior joinery, and weatherboards continues. Other imports are normally limited to tropical hardwoods for the furniture trade and specialty purposes.

Pulp and Paper Exports—These are now established exports of great value to New Zealand. Australia takes significant volumes of pulp and paper, and Japan takes large volumes of pulp. Both chemical and mechanical pulp are exported. Newsprint accounts for 67 percent of all paper exports.

Pulp and Paper Imports—Short-fibred pulp and special papers are imported and constitute over 70 percent of the value of our total forest products imports.

VALUE OF EXTERNAL TRADE IN FOREST PRODUCTS
Year Ended 30 JuneWood ProductsPulpPaper and Paper ProductsAll Forest Products
 Imports $(000) c.d.v.
197516,7491,20035,41353,362
197611,7271,75921,56535,051
197717,3321,58536,81855,735
197813,1102,69832,58148,389
197913,5532,20946,49662,258
 Exports $(000) f.o.b.
197536,08543,58739,306118,978
197641,95658,78066,624167,360
197764,50570,02785,924220,456
197879,54269,71984,485233,746
1979111,43986,291101,553299,283

The following tables give New Zealand's imports and exports of timber for the latest 5 years.

TIMBER IMPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneSawn TimberLogs and Poles
HardwoodsNorth American Softwoods*OakOtherTotal
* Douglas fir, redwood, and cedar.
 cubic metres (thousand)
197532210.11.7555
19761580.91.1258
197721132.0367
19781562.0239
19791361.0205
TIMBER IMPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneIndigenous TimberRadiata PineDouglas FirOther ExoticTotal ExoticsTotal All Sawn TimberLogs and Poles
SawnCases
 cubic metres (thousand)
19754.01221356.0164170695
19764.0143458.0196200714
19775.020514215.02632681136
19784.027913712.0x329x333x1070
19797.033954618.04084151063

NOTE—Small quantities of roundwood are included in the exports.

The following table gives New Zealand's external trade in pulp and paper for the latest 5 years.

Year Ended 30 JuneWood Pulp Fibreboard*Paper and Paperboard
NewsprintOther Paper and PaperboardTotal

* In cubic metres.

Excludes manufactures of paper and paperboard; excludes minor items for which no quantities are given.

 Imports (tonnes)
197541022542786150,63058,491
197656402820619,76919,975
19774012358866431,10439,768
19788521220227,57727,779
19796413715636,74143,897
 Exports (tonnes)
1975312,1692454120,58752,147172,734
1976359,9194407132,11784,306216,423
1977420,3984969175,92780,208256,135
1978429,8904140190,35071,708262,058
1979443,23113,948206,51199,958306,469

RESEARCH—The Forest Service undertakes and co-ordinates its forestry and forest-products research through the Forest Research Institute, with two divisions at Rotorua and a third at Christchurch, employing 137 scientists, 201 technicians, and a large servicing staff. An advisory committee for each division of the Institute ensures that the research programmes are relevant to the needs of the forestry and forest-based industries.

The Institute maintains a continuous exchange of scientific information with other research organisations in New Zealand and overseas, and provides opportunities for research fellowships under the National Research Advisory Council's fellowship scheme, as well as some finance for universities to undertake contract research.

The institute produces its own annual report.

Production Forestry—This division is responsible for research into all aspects of growing forests for productive purposes. Its research programme includes forest establishment, genetics and tree improvement, silviculture and the economics of silviculture, soils and site productivity, mensuration, entomology, pathology, tree physiology, forest biology survey, and the ecology, silviculture and management of indigenous forests.

A large research nursery and tree improvement trial area has been established within the Institute's grounds at Rotorua, as well as a comprehensive network of research trials in State and private forests throughout the country.

Forest Products—This division undertakes research aimed at making the best use of wood. Its research includes: wood formation, structure and quality; drying, and preservation; timber engineering; adhesives and composite wood products; pulp and paper; wood chemistry; and the production of ethanol by wood hydrolysis and fermentation. In carrying out its work, this division maintains close contacts with the timber and building industries and is therefore represented on numerous agencies associated with building standards and timber use and preservation.

Protection Forestry—Located in the grounds of the University of Canterbury at Christchurch, this division undertakes research to protect and restore the soil, water, and other values of forests. It studies the condition of mountain-land forests, the biology and control of introduced animals such as deer and opossum, the influence of forest operations on slope stability and erosion, and the revegetation of eroded areas.

Industry, the universities, and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research also carry out research into many aspects of forestry and forest products.

TRAINING IN FORESTRY—The Forest Service recruits school leavers up to 20 years of age as forestry trainees. They work and train for 12 months in the field while continuing their education, often by correspondence, to gain prerequisites for further study. Management-orientated trainees wishing to obtain the New Zealand Certificate in Forestry undertake 3 years of block study courses at the Forestry Training Centre as well as practical training in forests to gain a balanced education in forest management. Research and technical trainees are also catered for with course alternatives for the certificate, and an increasing number of Forest Research Institute technician recruits are studying for the New Zealand Certificate in Forestry rather than the New Zealand Certificate in Science.

Planning- or technically-orientated trainees wishing to do university study attend a 4-year degree course in forestry at Canterbury University, doing practical work during vacations. Private students may also study for a bachelor of forestry science degree and take post-graduate courses leading to a master of forestry science degree and Ph.D. in forestry.

To build up a permanent skilled-labour force, the Forest Service recruits each year about 70 youths 16 to 18 years of age. These junior woodsmen receive a 2-year course of basic training in the practical skills of forestry at one of the woodsman schools at Kaingaroa, Golden Downs, Berwick, Ashley, or Aupouri, followed by a third year of advanced training given in small groups in selected forests.

Each year the Forestry Training Centre in Rotorua holds about 40 in-service management courses for forest industry personnel. The Timber Industry Training Centre, also in Rotorua, provides courses in sawmill practice, sawdoctoring, and timber machining. Accommodation, catering, and recreational facilities of a high standard are available at the Forest Training Centre Hostel for those attending courses.

EMPLOYMENT—In 1977 the people employed in the forestry sector comprised 3.6 percent of the total labour force. Because the major manufacturing units are logically located near their raw material supplies, there is a concentration of employment near the largest forest areas. This is seen in the central North Island, where over half the country's exotic forests are located and where one-quarter of the regional labour force is engaged in forest industries. In fact the forest industries have had a very marked effect on regional development. The current prosperity and the fast growth of population in the Rotorua-Bay of Plenty area is due in no small measure to the expansion of the forest industries. Apart from the expansion of the established towns such as Rotorua, the industrial development of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., and Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. led to the establishment of the completely new town—Kawerau—and the rapid growth of another—Tokoroa. The development of these industrial complexes has also stimulated other industries especially transport, vehicle repair, and building and construction. Similarly the expansion of exports of forest products was partly responsible for the increased tonnages that have passed through the ports of Tauranga and Napier over the last decade.

The following table shows the number of employees and working proprietors in the forest industries at 15 April 1978 and 1979.

At 15 AprilForestry*LoggingSawmillingTimber MerchantingPulp. Paper, and PaperboardOther§Total

* Includes silviculture, nurseries, etc.

Includes felling, cutting, and haulage.

Includes planing mills.

§ Includes other wood industries, plywood and veneer factories, manufacture of furniture and fittings, wooden and cane containers, and wood and cork products.

1978458631086643335911,09113,13641,923
1979597131086819338011,54313,55644,377

THE OUTLOOK—The State owns 75 percent of the remaining indigenous timber and about half of the 0.8 million hectares of exotic forest. It makes sales, of either standing timber or logs, from both types of forest. The contribution of the indigenous forests to timber supply has diminished considerably but it is hoped that these forests will in the future supply small volumes of special purpose timbers. The exotic forests are readily renewable and are managed for sustained yield. Their full possibilities have not yet been reached but owing to the irregularity of past planting programmes their composition is far from ideal and there are problems over maintaining a steady rate of expansion of output.

The large area of exotic forest in private ownership has arisen for the most part from speculative planting in the 1920s and 1930s. Most of the forests then established have since come under the control of industrial companies, which are utilising them and managing them, in several cases, to ensure regular and permanent supplies for their major wood-using factories. The other privately-owned indigenous forests are subject to uncontrolled exploitation and are expected to be exhausted at no distant date.

Increased production up to the end of the century will be based for the most part on existing forest resources and will be sustained thereafter by additional new planting. It is expected that the current new planting rate of about 45000 hectares a year will diminish only slowly.

New Zealand's forest industries are favourably placed in regard to the basic requirement for expansion—wood supplies from exotic forests, which will increase substantially from 1990 onwards. By 1990 roundwood removals will probably have increased to double the present levels, and by the year 2015 they could be 4 times those at present. Efficient processing is well established, providing a good basis for further expansion; projections indicate that demand for forest products will grow both at home and abroad. In many countries wood supplies are inadequate for their needs, hence these countries must import timber.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Additional information will be found in the following publications: Report of the Director-General of Forests (Parl. paper C. 3)

Statistics of the Forests and Forest Industries of New Zealand (N.Z. Forest Service, updated periodically).

Chapter 16. Section 16 FISHERIES

Table of Contents

Food from the sea figured prominently in the diet of the Polynesian inhabitants of New Zealand for over a thousand years. And although fish was also important to white settlers, it is only within the last two decades that fishing has attained status as a significant industry.

Whalers and sealers were the first Europeans to tap the potential of New Zealand waters. In 1844 whale oil and other products were fetching more than £50,000 on London markets.

Fishing had existed as a way of life among the European inhabitants of New Zealand for more than a century before, in 1945, the Government of the day introduced a system of restrictive licensing of fishing vessels which provided for the vessels to land catches only at the port of registration. Surplus fish were exported, but there was no steady export trade. In 1962 a Parliamentary Select Committee was appointed to examine the prevailing restrictive licensing system and review practices. It recommended the abolition of the system, which had restricted the expansion and diversification of the industry.

At this time there was a mounting world-wide demand for protein foods. Russian and Japanese fishing boats were penetrating into the hitherto unexploited south-west Pacific, including New Zealand waters, where of the 42 food fishes known to be caught locally, only 7 were being marketed regularly.

Restrictive licensing was abolished in 1964 and the Fishing Industry Board was established to help promote the industry.

From 1964 onwards, the industry has not only expanded, but also diversified into rock oyster and mussel cultivation and begun to employ different catching methods to land tuna and other pelagic species, which previously represented a largely untapped resource in New Zealand waters.

The establishment of new industrial plant principally to export quality wet fish, regular supplies, the development of attractive packaging, and the introduction of Government quality standards and control are now resulting in expanding export markets.

With the advent of the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone in 1978, the New Zealand fishing industry required further investment in large off-shore vessels such as mid-water and deep-water trawlers and purseseiners. Shore facilities, including processing establishments, have also required expansion to cope with the increased landings.

Resources and Fishing Methods—Trawling and Danish seining are the principal methods of taking demersal or bottom-dwelling fish, which form the basis of New Zealand's fishing industry. These two methods accounted for nearly 65 percent and just under 5 percent respectively of the total wet fish catch in 1976. Lines and set nets accounted for another 14 percent. Other methods used are purse seining and trolling, employed in fishing for pelagic or surface-dwelling fish, which form an increasing proportion of the total wet fish catch.

Between 1964 and 1978 production of fin fish increased from 29924 tonnes to 69520 tonnes and the value of all fish exports increased from $4.1 million to over $27 million.

The biggest stimulus to the export industry has been the development of the rock lobster fishery, exports of which have flourished after a demand for frozen tails arose in the United States from 1948 onwards. In 1962 rock lobster landings totalled 4501 tonnes. Five years later landings had risen to 8078 tonnes and in 1968 jumped to 10909 tonnes valued at $7,433,006. This was the peak year of a fishery in the Chatham Islands, where prolific rock lobster grounds had been discovered. Total landings began to taper off in 1971, and now appear to have stabilised at around 3500 tonnes. They totalled 3752 tonnes in 1978 compared with 3533 tonnes in 1977, 3702 tonnes in 1976, and 3318 tonnes in 1975.

Fishing Grounds—The continental shelf, which extends out to a depth of approximately 200 metres, is fairly narrow. Though in some areas, such as the Taranaki Bight, it extends for a considerable distance off shore and in others, such as the south-west of the South Island, it is almost contiguous with the coast line, its average width is approximately 19 kilometres. There are 36 trawl-fishing ports, including 16 of major importance. These are located fairly evenly around the coastline, with trawlers having access to the whole continental shelf. The boundary of the shelf occurs at about the 200-metres isobath which, until recently, was the maximum depth.

Boats work throughout the year, with no marked fluctuations except for seasonal changes to fish particular species. A full-time trawler averages between 100 and 160 days at sea a year, but there are regional variations due to climatic differences.

Trawling is more intensive along eastern coasts, but the fishery on western coasts is increasing, especially in the South Island.

Vessels—Since 1945 the average size of trawlers has increased from 12 to 16 metres and from 16 to 26 gross tons. Engine power has risen from an average of 40 bhp to 150 bhp.

North Island boats are generally larger than those of the South Island. At Auckland and Gisborne average size approaches 20 metres and 200 bhp, and at Lyttelton and Timaru boats average 14 metres.

Crews number between one and three, with the national average about 2.5.

In 1968 pelagic fish amounted to only 15 percent of the total fishing catch here, whereas they comprise 60 percent of the world catch. By 1971 the percentage of pelagic species in the total New Zealand catch was 21 percent. However, most of these were still trawl caught.

Species landed have been barracouta, trevally, tuna, kingfish, kahawai, mackerel, and pilchard. Of these, barracouta, trevally, and tuna have been exported. Tuna landings as recently as 1968 were a mere 18 tonnes. By 1975 they had risen to 1807 tonnes, and by 1977 they were about 6300 tonnes. The increased landings were due mainly to the advent of chartered super-seiners fishing for skipjack tuna on the north-east coast of the North Island. Locally-based purseseiners are also adding to the tuna catch and diversifying into other pelagic species such as trevally, mackerel, and kahawai.

New Zealand landing figures offer no real indication of the total potential harvest of the seas in the south-west Pacific, but the build-up of Japanese and Russian fleets suggests that there are substantial virgin stocks which are now being subjected to heavy exploitation. The extent to which the New Zealand industry will participate in fishing this area depends upon the economic outlets for the fish and the availability of capital for investment in large all-weather vessels capable of fishing down to 500 fathoms (914 metres).

Fisheries Development—Responsibility for the optimum development of fishery resources rests with two divisions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Fisheries Research and Fisheries Management Divisions. Promotion of industrial development is a responsibility of the Fishing Industry Board.

The research programme is headquartered in Wellington, with freshwater centres also in Christchurch and Rotorua. The 42-metre, deep sea research vessel, James Cook, is used extensively all around New Zealand, and the 19-metre Ikatere mainly for inshore studies in north eastern waters. Virtually all the major New Zealand demersal and pelagic fish species are being studied by the Research Division. In a number of cases the work has progressed to the establishment of safe biological yields for coastal species and the work is now being expanded to include assessment of the deeper water resources within the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Shell fish teams are also studying biology and behaviour, and fisheries for rock lobsters and dredge oysters. Biology and methods of cultivation of rock oysters and mussels are also under investigation.

Study began during 1976–77 on demersal fish resources in trawlable waters deeper than 200 metres and within 200 miles of New Zealand. First objectives are to establish basic biological parameters, such as growth and mortality rates, spawning areas and seasons, fecundity, and movements. A number of species are being investigated. Information from previous Japanese exploratory expeditions is being examined, and the James Cook is being used to collect complementary data.

The 27-metre technological vessel, W. J. Scott, based at Nelson, undertakes various gear tests and exploratory fishing. Among long-standing programmes are a 2 1/2-year trawl survey in the southern plateau area south of Stewart Island, which determined the up-to-date prospects from the bottom-trawl industry in that area. An aimed-trawling survey on preselected transects, covering the entire continental-shelf area of the east coast of the South Island, began in 1978. It is testing the viability of midwater trawling for the less-preferred species as a means of safeguarding the prime demersal in-shore species. This study is continuing in 1980.

Development until recent years has in the main been influenced by a traditionally small and highly selective domestic market which has not encouraged diversification in processing methods for fish which did not meet the normal domestic demand for a white fleshed, bland, non-oily, relatively bone-free type of fish.

Generally, fisheries development involves two important factors. The first is where a demand develops for a particular type of fish and this stimulates a search for this fish. The second factor is new treatment and packaging of a resource which has not previously found favour in the traditional fresh fish market in New Zealand (e.g., mackerel).

There are changes in the world-wide demand for fish as the more popular species reach the point of over-exploitation. Thus fish species which in the past had little or no value on either the domestic or the export market are now acquiring a new value internationally. The time is very appropriate for the expansion and development of certain types of fisheries but a great deal will depend upon the economics of these operations.

The governing legislation for the fishing industry is the Fisheries Act 1908, which is administered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977 redefined the territorial sea and established a 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone.

Fishing Industry Board—This board was established in 1964 under the Fishing Industry Board Act. Since then there have been great improvements in the quality of fish products and their presentation and in the wider use of less popular fish species. There have been new developments in fishing vessel design and construction; in fishing gear and in catching methods; in the utilisation of species formerly regarded as commercially worthless; in fish farming; in processing, packaging, and marketing; in food technological research; in technical education; and in co-operation within the industry.

A levy of approximately 1 percent of the landed value of fish came into force on 1 January 1965 and provides finance for the board's activities. The board through its committees investigates local supply and marketing, export development, and technical education.

Assistance to the Fishing Industry—During 1976–77 the administration of the State Loan and Mortgage Guarantee Scheme for assistance to the fishing industry was transferred from the Fishing Industry Finance Committee to the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation. The year ended 31 March 1979 was one of continued expansion in the Rural Bank's lending to the fishing industry. Loan authorisations, which totalled $3.57 million in 1976–77, reached $7.95 million in 1977–78 and $13.46 million in 1978–79. However, loan authorisations in 1979–80 fell back to $8.66 million.

Loan authorisations to the fishing industry during the 3 latest available years are shown in the following table.

 1977–781978–791979–80
NumberValueNumberValueNumberValue
  $(m) $(m) $(m)
Loans for catching887.049410.60685.78
Loans for processing facilities150.75182.56252.28
Rural export suspensory loans10.1620.3090.60
        Total1047.9511413.461028.66

Section 30 B “State Finance for Farms and other Primary Industry” should also be consulted.

Assistance to the fishing industry in the 1977 budget included increased loans to assist young well-qualified fishermen to purchase their own fishing vessels; a fishing vessel ownership savings scheme similar to the farm ownership savings scheme; the establishment of a development grant fund; lower interest rates; and an extension to the incentives for training scheme.

Further assistance to the fishing industry was given in the 1978 and 1979 budgets, including suspensory loans for full-time fishermen excluded from particular fisheries as a result of the application of the Controlled Fisheries Regulations, assistance to companies upgrading fish packing-houses to comply with hygiene regulations, and suspensory loans towards the cost of installing approved refrigeration and chilling equipment on board fishing vessels.

SPECIES OF FISH—Of the many kinds of excellent edible fish, the most important is the snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), which is the principal species in the catch (mainly by trawl) in the north-western part of the South Island, the west coast of the North Island, and the east coast of the North Island to just south of East Cape; next in importance are tarakihi (Cheilodactylus macropterus) and trevally (Caranx georgianus) which are taken mainly by trawlers and purseseiners working off the east coast of the North Island and in smaller quantities off the coasts of the South Island. The groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) is caught on lines in the deeper water from North Cape to Stewart Island, but principally in Cook Strait and on the rocky parts of the east coast of the South Island, while the blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the staple line-caught product of the southern line fisheries, particularly about Foveaux Strait, Stewart Island, and at Chatham Islands. The flounder and sole (Pleuronectidae) occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters. Rock lobsters (crayfish) are fished mainly at the Chatham Islands and around the south-west of the South Island.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow waters, and most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 145 metres. Depths of over 180 metres occur at a comparatively short distance from the coast. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, kingfish, and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; and trawling and Danish seining, by which flounder, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, John Dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets and drag nets are used for flounder, snapper, and mullet.

Pelagic Fisheries—Blue mackerel, Scomber japonicus (Cuvier and Valenciennes), and jack or horse mackerel, Trachurur declivis, are taken by purse seining. The smaller pelagic species include pilchards, Sardinops neopilchardus (Steindachner), sprats, Sprattus antipodum Hector, and the anchovy, Engraulis australis (White).

Arripis trutta, the New Zealand kahawai, which forms the basis of a commercial fishery in Australia, schools at the surface in substantial numbers in our waters and is being caught in increasing quantities.

Of the larger, oceanic-pelagic species, the southern bluefin tuna, Thunnus maccovii, is found from the far north of New Zealand to the south of the South Island in summer. Though hardly exploited commercially by local fishermen, it is fished off-shore by Japanese long-line vessels, particularly to the east and west of the North Island. The skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelanis) appear in substantial numbers during summer and an annual catch of the order of 12000 tonnes is available for harvest, mostly on the north and east coasts of the North Island. Albacore (Thunnus adalunga) occurs more on the West Coast of New Zealand extending as far as Jacksons Head. It is believed that the fishery for this species, which is currently based on trolling, could be substantially increased by live-bait fishing. Both species are under detailed investigation.

The duty-free importation of new and secondhand fishing vessels of 21 m and over has given a considerable boost to the trawl-fish production. The quota allocations and area-fishing controls imposed on foreign fishing vessels within New Zealand's 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone have resulted in the regeneration of fish stocks that is now taking place. The overall New Zealand fish landings have been almost doubled. Considerable developments have also been noted in the international joint-venture fields, particularly in the squid fisheries and in demersal trawling within the Exclusive Economic Zone. The 1979 skipjack-tuna season brought a two-fold increase in the number of super-seiners working this fishery.

CATCH—The tonnage of fish landed annually by the fleet has increased from 6488 tonnes in 1936 to 77574 tonnes in 1978.

Composition of the catches is extremely varied and most species are landed whole. About 40 species are landed, but many only in small quantities. In 1978, the 3 dominant species contributed 41 percent of the total landings. These were snapper (23 percent), skipjack (11 percent), and trevally (8 percent).

In some individual fishing areas one or two species predominate. The trawl fishery in Hauraki Gulf is largely a snapper fishery, tarakihi is the chief species in the East Cape and eastern Cook Strait areas, and sole, red cod, and elephant fish predominate on the east coast of the South Island.

The catch in landed weight and value is shown in the following table.

Class1975197619771978
tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)
Snapper11.63,09214.44,85612.65,16217.710,027
Trevally3.54755.79506.51,1846.51,718
Tarakihi3.48033.51,1124.11,5164.21,930
Gurnard2.02762.95423.37173.8954
Barracouta2.52333.73554.75515.2500
Hapuku1.14151.14911.05491.41,014
Elephant fish0.62750.81910.82260.6287
Flounder0.96801.29961.41,2401.61,587
Mackerel0.3171.1841.91512.0180
Class1975197619771978
tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)
* Including some other minor items.
Sole0.73221.26471.71,0092.21,751
Shark2.46833.66744.51,1803.51,240
Red cod0.7640.91312.32673.8551
Albacore0.616230.93211.6858
Skipjack1.22094.51,0875.41,4598.92,663
Other6.51,4278.22,2968.92,62014.64,615
        Total, wet fish38.09,13352.814,41660.018,15377.629,875
Rock lobster3.35,8503.79,3043.513,8963.814,952
Oysters (dredge and rock)9.93,37810.03,80110.84,38310.15,479
Mussels1.6962.22470.73560.772
Paua0.52010.62700.84460.6395
Scallops9.52,2836.12,1145.72,3053.21,250
Southern spider crab1
Squid0.1210.1340.61691.8498
Other0.37180.34970.53620.7317
        Total, all fish63.221,68075.830,68282.940,083*98.552,839

The value of fisheries products is shown in the following diagram.

MAIN FISHING PORTS—Auckland and neighbouring Manukau continue their leadership of New Zealand fishing ports. These two centres registered 12963 tonnes of wetfish in 1976 out of a record total wetfish catch for New Zealand of 52757 tonnes. Nelson, in third place, is the fastest growing fishing centre, with a 1976 catch of 5350 tonnes. Twenty-three ports reported catches of over 500 tonnes, an indication of the wide dispersion of the industry.

EXPORTS—The total value of New Zealand's fisheries exports during the 1978–79 June year increased by $4.2 million (about 7 percent) over those for 1977–78. Again, the total of $61.7 million set a new record.

The value of the rock lobster exports was $22.7 million, which was almost the same as in 1977–78, and represented 37 percent of the total value of all the fisheries produce exported. The table that follows shows the quantity and value of each of the principal classes of fishery products during the three most recent June years. Rock lobsters are exported mainly to the United States. The main markets for our other fish are Australia and Japan, but New Zealand now exports fish and fish products to a total of more than 25 countries.

CommodityQuantityValue
197719781979197719781979
* Quantity figures do not include oysters, which are not recorded by weight.
 tonnes (000)$(million) f.o.b.
Fish24.528.633.320.530.135.6
Rock lobsters2.01.92.023.022.422.9
Shellfish*0.90.80.95.15.03.4
                  Total27.431.336.248.657.561.9

FOREIGN FISHING ACTIVITY—Since the Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act came into effect on 1 April 1978, foreign trawling activity has been strictly controlled and catch limits are enforced. A 200-mile wide economic zone has been established in which Japanese, Russian, and South Korean fishing vessels continue to operate by treaty. To assist in management allocations the zone has been subdivided into 8 fishing areas, and apportionments are made to countries for specified quantities by area. By-catch levels can be set for selected species.

The following allocations were made in 1978, the wetfish allocations to apply until 31 March 1979, and the squid allocation to 31 August 1979.

CountryWetfishSquid
 tonnes (000)
Korea, Republic of323
U.S.S.R.6015
Japan6533

DREDGE OYSTERS—The principal oyster beds around the coasts of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South Island and Stewart Island. During 1978 a total of 124547 sacks of oysters, valued at $4,080,296, were dredged from these beds. Tasman Bay, in Nelson yielded a further 9000 sacks, valued at $380,065. The total 1978 dredge-oyster catch of 133547 sacks, valued at $4,460,000, represented an increase of 1.9 percent in landings and a rise of 23.4 percent in value on the previous year's figures.

Dredge-oyster catches during the latest 5 seasons for which figures are available are shown in the table below.

SeasonFoveaux StraitTasman BayTotal
Sacks (000)Value $(000)Sacks (000)Value $(000)Sacks (000)Value $(000)
1974119.52,1011.824121.32,125
1975114.72,8568.7117123.42,973
1976115.03,10710.8179125.83,286
1977122.13,3599.0256131.13,614
1978124.54,0809.0380133.54,460

ROCK OYSTERS—In addition to the 2 Government experimental rock-oyster farms, many private farms are in production in Northland and the Hauraki Gulf. The industry is in the process of changing from tray to stick cultivation.

Total production on rock-oyster farms in 1978 was valued at just over $1,018,000. A high proportion was exported to Singapore, Hong Kong, and the Pacific Islands.

OTHER MARINE FARMING—Green tipped mussels are farmed in the Marlborough Sounds area. Production is growing, and markets in New Zealand and overseas are proving profitable.

Other species being farmed include dredge oysters (in the far South and Marlborough), scallops (in Marlborough), paua, and kina (sea eggs).

ROCK LOBSTERS—Rock lobsters occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast. Part of the catch of rock lobster is sold in local markets for domestic consumption and part is exported as frozen rock lobster tails and whole rock lobsters.

With the development of the export of frozen rock lobster tails to the United States of America and the productive fishing in the Chatham Islands, the catch of rock lobster increased until 1968. The boom period, however has now passed and the aim of all concerned is to ensure that this valuable fishery stabilises to provide regular supplies for overseas and local markets.

YearProduction (whole)Exports*
QuantityValueQuantityValue
* Years ended June.
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
197435727,053174410,677
197533185,850150311,642
197637029,304175418,134
1977353313,896181022,615
1978375214,952189822,437
1979....202222,866

FISH MEAL AND FISH OIL—In 1977, 3 companies produced commercial quantities of fish meal and fish oil from whole fish offals and frames. Fish meal production totalled 782 tonnes, valued at $335,516. Fish oil production totalled 35 tonnes, valued at $15,570.

BIG-GAME FISHING—Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District. They attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), Whakatane, and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The heaviest black marlin swordfish (443 kg) was caught off the Bay of Islands.

To preserve this very important fishery the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950 prohibit the taking of swordfish by other than rod and line, and stipulate that the line be not heavier than No. 39 linen thread line. In addition, a limit bag of not more than 4 fish per boat per day has been imposed.

In the 1976 season, big-game fish caught included 8 black marlin, 290 striped marlin, 9 blue marlin, 502 mako sharks, 153 hammerhead sharks, 26 thresher sharks, 124 assorted tuna species, and 445 kingfish.

PAUA—Relatively few years ago paua was, strictly speaking, a non-commercial shellfish. Maoris have traditionally taken paua as a regular item of diet, but it was largely neglected as food by the pakeha until very recent years. Even now it is only a small item in the retail sales of fish in New Zealand. The recent change in the demand for paua has come about in the context of the ban on the export of the unprocessed flesh, which would have been processed overseas. Some New Zealand canners have solved the problems of bleaching and canning the flesh, to produce an article acceptable at substantial prices in, primarily, South-east Asian markets.

A close season for paua from 1 February to 31 May each year was introduced in 1972. Stocks are believed to have increased slightly since then.

WHITEBAIT—This fishing is based on Galaxias species which, so far as is known, are not taken on a commercial scale in the other countries where they occur. Whitebait fishery is carried on in the tidal reaches of many rivers, from August to November in the North Island and from September to November in the South Island. The most productive fishing grounds are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally, the whitebait fishery gives employment to over 300 regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishers. With improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aeroplanes have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed, particularly on the West Coast of the South Island. In the 1978 season about 123 tonnes (worth 5859,418) were recorded for the West Coast of the South Island, while 10 tonnes (worth $67,270) was the figure for the Waikato River. The large number of itinerant buyers makes it increasingly hard to collect catch data, and the figures should therefore be regarded as conservative.

FRESHWATER FISHERIES: Acclimatised Species—These include quinnat or chinook salmon, brown and rainbow trout, and perch. The local administration and management of these species is delegated to acclimatisation societies and to the Department of Internal Affairs for the Rotorua and Taupo fishing districts and for the Southern Lakes Acclimatisation District, where it acts as an acclimatisation society. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries assists with management investigations, and provides technical advice. It also conducts research on behalf of acclimatisation societies.

A fishing licence is required for the taking of acclimatised fish. The estimated revenue from angling licences in a season is approximately $300,000.

Indigenous Species—Eels are the only indigenous species of which a significant commercial harvest is taken from New Zealand's freshwaters. The catch of “wild” eels amounted in 1978 to 1586 tonnes (worth $329,213) compared with 906 tonnes (worth $525,414) in 1977.

Research—The research programme includes both introduced fish, and native species. The effects of environmental changes associated with man's activities are of major concern. Research leading to the estimation of streamflow needs of fish, the need for fish passes, and the effects of eutrophication on trout is being carried out.

Studies on the quinnat and sockeye salmon aim to enhance the stocks and evaluate their commercial potential.

The native species are being studied, especially the eels which are subject to considerable commercial exploitation. Also the aquaculture potential of eels and freshwater crayfish is being investigated.

Fish disease research together with a diagnostic service for New Zealand is provided.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on fishing and fisheries will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (Parl. paper C.5).

Report of the New Zealand Fishing Industry Board (Parl. paper C.6).

Report of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B.25).

Catch—Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (monthly).

Chapter 17. Section 17 MINERALS

Table of Contents

The mineral industry in New Zealand began with the discoveries of the gold prospectors of the 1850s and 1860s. Gold production reached a peak in 1873 when it earned 75 percent of all export earnings. Coal mining also began about 1850, and early this century the value of coal produced exceeded that of gold for the first time. In 1961 coal in turn was replaced by building aggregate, sand, and gravel as the most valuable mineral product, and that in turn has been exceeded in importance by natural gas. From 1969–72 the world-wide mining boom resulted in a great upsurge in mineral exploration in New Zealand. At its peak in 1971 estimated annual expenditure reached $1.7 million. No major metalliferous mineral deposits were discovered, but the impetus given to the mining industry has continued.

The existence of extensive ironsand deposits on the west coast of the North Island has been known for more than a century. Numerous attempts had been made to smelt the ironsand but, as none had been successful, the State-owned New Zealand Steel Investigating Co. was set up to investigate the feasibility of steelmaking from the ironsands. In 1963 the company reported that an industry was economically and technically feasible, using ironsand from near Waikato Heads and Waikato coal. Construction of the steel mill at Glenbrook was completed in 1970 and the mill now provides a significant proportion of the country's steel requirements. Now that technical difficulties have been overcome, mill expansion is expected to more than double production by 1984.

In addition, ironsand is mined for export at 2 localities (Waverley and Taharoa) on the west coast of the North Island. The value of ironsand concentrates exported in 1978 exceeded $26 million.

Coal production over the last 40 years has varied between 2 and 3 million tonnes per annum. However, recent steep rises in the cost of imported fuels, and the prospect of shortages, has led to renewed interest in the country's coal resources, mainly for electricity generation and industrial uses. A large thermal power station at Huntly began operating in 1980, and three new mines now being developed at Huntly will produce over 2 million tonnes per annum when fully operational.

After a long period with little activity, serious exploration for oil and gas resumed about 20 years ago, resulting in the discovery of 2 natural gas fields. The Kapuni field was discovered in 1959 and started production in 1970 with gas being supplied to 9 North Island centres and to a number of industrial consumers. The much larger Maui offshore gas field was discovered in 1969 and the first stage of development is completed. The gas produced is being used initially for electricity generation, and as a premium fuel. Exploration for oil has continued with the drilling of several wells both on-shore and offshore, so far without success. Expenditure on mineral exploration for 1978 was $626,752.

The Mineral Resources Council, originally established as a sector council on minerals for the National Development Council, keeps all aspects of mineral development under review.

MINERAL PRODUCTION—In New Zealand non-metallic minerals such as coal, clay, limestone, and dolomite are both economically and industrially more important than metallic ores. A decade ago, almost the total value of mineral production was represented by coal and limestone, together with sand, rock and gravel for roads, ballast, building, and construction purposes. The position has changed over the last few years with the increased production of ironsand for export and the increasing output of gas and condensate from Kapuni taking precedence. This change in values will be further enhanced as Maui gas flow increases over the next few years. Nevertheless, the quarrying industry, which produced about 22 million tonnes of aggregate and sand and about 3.4 million tonnes of limestone in 1978, is of prime importance.

The following table shows the production of minerals and metals from mines and quarries. The values are assessed at pit mouth or quarry.

Mineral19771978
QuantityValue*QuantityValue*

* Based on selling price ex mine (or equivalent).

Based on overall price at State coal mines (64 percent of total production).

Includes a high percentage of CO2 .

§ Thousand litres.

Estimated value.

Tonnes (000) unless otherwise stated.

Fuelstonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)
Coal2368.944,8202182.545,658
Petroleum condensate860973m3..724012m3..
Natural gas2256.58 × 106 m3..2124.65 × 106 m3..
LPG11959.4§..15204§..
Natural gasoline7375.7§..8287§..
Metals    
Gold222.96 kg1,122219.084 kg1,438
Silver235.53 kg3862.617 kg10
Iron ore0.132
Ironsand (export)2771.318,9003775.826,999
Ironsand (local)183.11,345170.51,189
Tungsten ore (scheelite)0.0011100.002133
Non-metallics    
Bentonite2.6989.8153
Clay for bricks, tiles, etc.173.0676118.7504
Clay for pottery94.71,26533.5858
Diatomite1.149
Dimension stone16.837426.6407
Dolomite23.143824.3498
Greenstone3026 kg1739881 kg46
Limestone, agricultural1731.76,9751615.27235
Limestone for roads307.8796250685
Limestone, industrial170.41,289158.61,222
Limestone and marl for cement1590.22,9541365.83121
Magnesite0.6240.839
Perlite1.020.52
Pumice28.610939.589
Rock (harbour work, reclamation, and filling)4895.74,9022286.73,596
Salt53.063165687
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for building aggregate6143.319,2874961.616,908
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for roads and ballast15258.532,17415171,534,609
Sand for industry75.328971.8356
Serpentine89.0919115.71,144
Silica sand146.5669127582
                    Total..140,430..148,230

Figure 17.1. MAIN LOCALITIES NON METALLIC MINERALS MAIN COAL AND GAS FIELDS

MAIN LOCALITIES NON METALLIC MINERALS MAIN COAL AND GAS FIELDS

LEGISLATION—Legislative control of mineral production is contained in the Ministry of Energy Act 1977, the Atomic Energy Act 1945, the Coal Mines Act 1979, the Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959, the Mining Act 1971, the Quarries Act 1944, the Petroleum Act 1937, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. The administrative agency is the Ministry of Energy.

COAL—Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well defined areas, outside which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coalfields, with the class of coal found in each, are—

Bituminous Coal (Metallurgical): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfields), Reefton (Garvey Creek).

Sub-bituminous Coal (Steaming): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago (Kaitangata), Southland (Ohai).

Lignite (Low Grade Steaming): Southland.

Coal Utilisation and Research—Coal utilisation and research is fostered by the New Zealand Coal Research Association. Finance for the association's activities is raised by a levy of 10.0 cents a tonne made by coal wholesalers, including State coal mines, and a Government grant.

Fuel Technology Service—The Ministry of Energy and the Coal Research Association have established a fuel technology service in Auckland, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Dunedin to advise industrial and domestic consumers on the efficient use of coal.

Survey of Coal Resources—The Mines Division of the Ministry of Energy (formerly the Mines Department), in association with the N.Z. Geological Survey, has in recent years accelerated its coal exploration programme. As well as undertaking exploration to locate and evaluate deposits for specific demands, e.g., as at Huntly to supply coal for thermal power generation, there is in progress a broad programme to evaluate all New Zealand's coal resources in order to facilitate long-term planning and efficient resource management and stimulate use of an indigenous energy source.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable coal reserves of New Zealand. Recoverable coal is coal which it is estimated could be recovered by mining techniques that are established in New Zealand with coal at the present selling price. The reserves are expressed according to the following criteria:

  1. “Measured coal” is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established.

  2. “Indicated coal” is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.

  3. “Inferred coal” is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples or measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

There are areas where the presence of coal in mineable quantities is undoubtedly possible but there is insufficient geological knowledge to include these in the table. As exploration proceeds more will be learned of this coal as well as about the coal in the categories, Measured, Indicated, and Inferred.

Detailed information concerning geology, coal type, rank, and extent of the coalfields is given in the Geological Survey Bulletins and for an overall picture a suitable reference is Williams G. J., Economic Geology of New Zealand, Monograph Series No. 4, published by the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.

The major coal exploration effort has been in the Waikato, East Southland, Otago, and Grey regions, In the Waikato, major deposits of coal mineable by underground methods have been located, as well as some important discoveries of opencastable coal, which is in very limited supply. The coal is suitable for electricity generation and general industrial use.

The East Southland programme has located 6 major deposits of lignite which could technically be mined by opencast methods. This is a very large energy resource by New Zealand standards, but because of the medium-term energy demand situation and mining costs, it is more appropriate to consider the resource as one available for longer-term use. Potential uses of the lignite, such as conversion to liquid fuel, can in the meantime be fully investigated and adequately planned for.

The lignite deposits of Central Otago were explored during 1978–79, resulting in the location of 460 million tonnes. The coal exploration programme has now been shifted to the West Coast of the South Island, where the Grey coalfield is being drilled.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable reserves, which total 3445 million tonnes.

LocalityCategory
MeasuredIndicatedInferred
* The total lignite available in Southland amounts to some 4400 million tonnes, but adequate recoverability factors have not yet been assessed.
Bituminoustonnes (000)
Buller31,500620012,100
Murchison3001400
Garvey Creek33437102600
Reefton55412206800
Greymouth245018,30056,000
Pyke River15,000
Shag Point20800
 34,83829,75094,700
Sub-bituminous   
Waikato—
    Maramarua897932,50032,200
    Huntly111,800120,200122,000
    Rotowaro12,78089301800
    Glen Massey18001400
    Whatawhata480370700
Kawhia234031019,000
Mangapehi7170
Taranaki (includes Ohura)—
    Waitewhena, Aria, Mokau, Tangarakau15050046,000
Retaruke4300
Collingwood100100100
Heaphy River1000
Charleston11,700
Punakaiki90702000
Buller Gorge, Inangahua, Fletchers Creek739705600
Kaitangata2701230200
Ohai2248530045,700
 139,310179,450293,700
Lignite   
Canterbury36022,000
Otago, includes—
    Green Island47037802300
    Kaitangata23,85067,00032,000
    Pomahaka875016,200
    North Otago11,9306350700
    Central Otago24015,000
Southland* , includes—
    Eastern Southland2,301,000107,000
    Maitland410050,000
 36,8502,390,980245,200
              Total coal in each category210,9982,600,180633,600
              Total of all coal types in all categories3444778

One of the biggest potential uses for coal is for electricity generation.

In future there is likely to be a smaller number of larger, mechanised, underground mines. Coal mining will become much less labour-intensive.

There are 3 coal areas of major future significance—Waikato, Buller, and Southland.

Waikato—The Waikato area has measured and indicated resources of low/moderate-ash, low-sulphur, sub-bituminous coal of 298 million tonnes. Inferred resources are an additional 158 million tonnes. Production costs range from $6 to $20 per tonne. Reserves are adequate to supply the 1000 MW power station at Huntly, plus the steel industry's projected requirements. Further work to increase measured and indicated reserves is currently being undertaken for proposed additional thermal power station capacity. The Waikato coalfield is well placed to serve Auckland's industrial development, and coal is railed to the Bay of Plenty for the pulp and paper industry. New Zealand Steel Ltd's development programme anticipates an increased demand of over 500000 tonnes a year by the late 1980s.

Main markets for Waikato coal are electric power generation, dairy factories, paper mills, freezing works, carbonisation, space heating, brick and tile manufacturing, cement and lime works, general industries, and domestic heating.

Southland—The Southland coal area essentially comprises the Ohai and Mataura Valley coalfields. Ohai contains 53 million tonnes of Waikato-type coal, mostly inferred, but has little significance because the principally domestic market is likely to decrease. Mataura is important because of its ready access to the Bluff industrial area, and because the reserves of moderate-ash, low-sulphur coal are large, potentially cheap and opencastable.

Buller—The Buller area has measured and indicated resources of low/moderate-ash, low/high-sulphur, bituminous coal amounting to 38 million tonnes, but only 7 million tonnes of it is low-ash and low-sulphur. Inferred reserves amount to 12 million tonnes. The significant fact is the high proportion (about 30 million tonnes) that is opencastable, and therefore low-cost ($12 per tonne) coal.

Coal Consumption—Coal has always been important in New Zealand's mineral industry, and had a higher production value than any other mineral between the First and Second World Wars. Usage slumped in the late 1960s but, with the increased price of oil and prospects of oil shortages, coal consumption prospects are now rising again, especially as industries are in some cases reconverting their heating and steam plants to coal firing.

The approximate distribution of coal consumption during recent years is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports.

User197619771978
 tonnes (000)
Factories114911251075
Gasworks808075
Households288290240
Public hospitals and central heating, etc.240265267
Electricity generation730610x525
                    Total24872370x2182

Summary of Operations—The following table summarises coal-mining operations during recent years.

YearOutputPersons Ordinarily Employed
UndergroundOpencastTotalUnderground MinesOpencast MinesTotal
SurfaceUnderground
 tonnes (000) Number 
1975717169524124157714141600
1976723176424874267133891528
1977635173423694526885101650
1978581160221824016955071603

The total output of underground and opencast mines up to and including 1978 is estimated at 196.7 million tonnes.

In 1978 the State operated 14 of the 30 underground mines in operation, and these produced 511290 tonnes of coal; 14 of the 37 opencast mines were operated by the State and they produced 934226 tonnes of coal. The profit on operations of State coal mines for the year ended 30 September 1978 was $4,218,313 after payment of interest on loan capital.

Derived Products—Low temperature carbonisation works at Rotowaro (100 km south of Auckland) use the Lurgi process to produce a range of products derived from coal which forms part of the output of local State mines. During the year ended 30 September 1978 the works produced 11078 tonnes of carbonettes, 1826228 litres of tar and oil, 12 459 tonnes of char, 1162 tonnes of pitch and 999157 litres of creosote. This company is at present engaged on investigations into the building of a replacement plant of modem design and similar capacity.

Meremere Power Station—This station, of 210 MW capacity, which has burnt up to 700000 tonnes of coal each year over the last 2 decades, is nearing the end of its useful economic life. From 1980 State coal will no longer be supplied to it from the Kopuku field, which has usually supplied two-thirds of its requirement, and in about 5 years time Meremere is expected to close down.

Huntly Power Station—Initially this station (1000 MW capacity) will be fired with Maui gas. The first of its four 250 MW units will be commissioned in 1980. However, when the Maui gas flow is diverted to petrochemical manufactures, commencing about 1983, the Huntly plant will gradually become a coal-fired electricity generation station consuming more than 2 million tonnes of local coal each year.

PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS—Prospecting and mining for petroleum in New Zealand is governed by the Petroleum Act 1937, the Petroleum Regulations 1978, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. These give the Minister of Energy the authority to grant petroleum prospecting and mining licences over land and marine areas including the New Zealand continental shelf. As at 31 December 1979 there were 6 petroleum prospecting licences covering 23853.4 km2 of New Zealand land, territorial sea, and continental shelf. Three petroleum mining licences covered 126.9 km2 of the Kapuni field in Taranaki, 302 km2 of the Maui field in the continental shelf off-shore Taranaki, and a small area of less than 1 km2 in Hawke's Bay.

Activity in the search for petroleum is being maintained. One on-shore prospective well was drilled in 1979.

A continually growing network of high-pressure gas pipelines now totals 1059 km, including the pipelines recently commissioned to carry gas from the Maui field to power stations at New Plymouth and Huntly. Construction, now in hand, of 79.5 km of 324 mm lateral pipeline is to supply the paper mill at Kinleith from the New Plymouth-Huntly pipeline. Investigations are continuing for several small lateral pipelines to supply boroughs and industries and also for an extension from Huntly to the Auckland area. The capabilities of existing pipelines have been increased by the installation of compressors part-way along pipelines, and by pipeline duplication (“looping”).

Gas from the Kapuni field is used mainly as a premium fuel and is supplied to the Natural Gas Corporation for distribution to Auckland and Wellington and other centres en route. Condensate separated from this gas before it is supplied to the corporation is delivered as feedstock to the petroleum refinery at Whangarei.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MAUI FIELD—The Maui field is being developed in two stages: Stage One consists of the installation of Maui Platform A, drilling of production wells, the installation of separate submarine pipelines for gas and condensate, and the on-shore processing facilities for the Maui production station at Oaonui. Treated gas is distributed by transmission pipelines to the New Plymouth and Huntly power stations. Maui gas will also be available for direct use by domestic and industrial consumers.

Commissioning of Stage One commenced in May 1979.

Stage Two of the development provides for a second platform, Maui Platform B, additional and independent submarine pipelines, and an expansion of the on-shore processing facilities.

Stage One Development—The first drilling and production platform, Maui Platform A, is installed some 37 km from the Taranaki coast, close to the Maui 3 exploration well, in a water depth of some 110 metres. Fourteen production wells have been drilled from the platform. The tower base of the platform was fabricated in Japan and was upended on location in early January 1976. Difficulties arose during the 1975–76 construction season as a consequence of severe weather and installation work was suspended in June 1976. Installation work recommenced with a larger construction vessel in December 1976.

The piling of the tower to the sea bed and the installation of the modules, living quarters, and helideck were completed late in 1977 and drilling operations commenced early in 1978. A 254 mm condensate pipeline and a 610 mm gas pipeline carry the condensate and the gas to the on-shore processing facilities at the Maui Production Station at Oaonui. The laying of these submarine pipelines also commenced in January 1976 but was suspended in June 1976, again as a consequence of the very severe weather. Work recommenced in December 1976 and was completed in 1977.

At Oaonui, 2 gas refrigerator trains, each with a capacity of approximately 7 million cu metres a day, process the gas stream to meet the gas delivery specifications, and 2 stabiliser trains, each with a capacity of 1500 tonnes per day, stabilise the condensate to enable subsequent sea shipment to the Whangarei refinery.

The Maui A platform, submarine pipelines, and onshore gas processing station were commissioned in May 1979.

In September 1979 the decision to proceed with the construction of the second stage of the development was deferred for a further period of 1 year because of the low demand at present for increased supplies of natural gas.

Costs—The budgets approved for Maui A in September 1979 provided for a total expenditure of NZ$667.9 million.

IRON RESOURCES—New Zealand's largest resources of potential iron ore are contained in the black sands of the western beaches—from Westport southwards in the South Island and from Wanganui to Muriwai in the North Island. Titanomagnetite sands make up most of the black sands in the North Island, but from Waikato Heads northwards the beach deposits also contain ilmenite in varying proportions. In the South Island beach sands, ilmenite is the chief iron-bearing material. These beach sands have been estimated to contain some 800 million tonnes of titanomagnetite, with a further 8.6 million tonnes of ilmenite in the North Island and 43 million tonnes in the South Island.

A process has been developed whereby the titanomagnetite sands can be smelted on a large scale economically to produce a good grade of steel. A steelworks has been constructed at Glenbrook, 58 km south of Auckland, by New Zealand Steel Ltd., and the plant began production late in 1969 using ironsand deposits from the North Head of the Waikato River, 19 km away. Production of steel billets from ironsand commenced in November 1969.

New Zealand Steel Ltd., now proposes to expand its Glenbrook plant to double output by 1985. A further expansion may then be commissioned. Coal use should increase to 300000 tonnes per annum and local iron sand concentrate use to 350000 tonnes by 1985. By 1990 coal use may be 600000 tonnes per annum and ironsand concentrate use up to 700000 tonnes.

There has been a small annual production of iron ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district, for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock licks, and in the brickmaking industry.

Near Waverley, 32 km north of Wanganui, an ironsands mining unit produces titanomagnetite concentrates for direct export to Japan through off-shore bulk-loading facilities and in 1978 some 1417191 tonnes were exported. New Zealand Steel Ltd. has developed a similar undertaking at Taharoa near Kawhia, and 2358680 tonnes were exported in 1978.

GOLD—The gold mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, declined in importance with the exhaustion of the more accessible alluvial-gold deposits and of ore from the zones of enrichment. Annual production is now mainly confined to one dredge at Taramakau on the west coast of the South Island. However, workings of residual stockworks at the old Martha Mine at Waihi have yielded favourable results in a pilot plant process. Interest in possible gold-bearing areas has increased rapidly over the past year, and has developed to the extent that other large-scale dredging operations are proposed for the West Coast of the South Island.

SILVER—A small quantity of silver is won by the West Coast gold dredge, the remainder of the silver comes from Waihi.

Figure 17.2. MAIN LOCALITIES, METAL MINING, AND PROSPECTING

MAIN LOCALITIES, METAL MINING, AND PROSPECTING

TUNGSTEN—The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

The Scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, and the scheelite is erratically distributed in the veins. Access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high. Although the price of tungsten ores has improved, scheelite mining continues to be on a small scale, being confined to the Glenorchy and Macrae's Flat fields in Otago, and Top Valley in Marlborough.

COPPER—Production of copper has ceased since the Tui mine, near Te Aroha, closed in 1973. Small mines have been worked in Northland in the past, at Parakao and Pupuke. Prospecting has been carried out at a number of localities, but no significant deposits have been discovered. Exploration for economic deposits of copper in a number of geological environments continues.

MANGANESE—Manganese ores are found in many localities chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. Prior to 1960 there was some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits are, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore.

MERCURY—Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand. No mining is at present being carried out. Past production has been limited, the main bulk came from the cinter deposits in Northland, at Puhipuhi and Ngawha Springs. Recently there has been interest in the disseminated mercury in Northland.

LEAD AND ZINC—An ore-bearing reef of lead and zinc was mined near Te Aroha, producing lead-copper sulphide and zinc sulphide concentrates for export to Japan, but the mine closed in 1973. Prospecting still continues, however, on the Coromandel Peninsula, in the East Cape region of the North Island, and in Nelson.

MOLYBDENUM—Some promising geological environments exist for economic molybdenum mineralisation in north-west Nelson but, to date, exploration has failed to locate an economic deposit. Exploration is also being carried out on the Coromandel Peninsula.

TIN—Cassiterite in the form of “stream tin” occurs in small deposits on the Tin Range near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island. These, and lodes in greisen on the range itself, were worked on a small scale early this century.

PLATINUM—Platinum occurs in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel, but quantities produced have been insignificant.

SILICA—At Parengarenga, in northern Northland, there are large deposits of pure quartz (silica) sand. Over 100000 tonnes from here, 30000 tonnes from Tarakohe in Golden Bay, and 13000 tonnes from Mt. Somers in Canterbury are used each year, mainly for glass manufacture. There are lump silica deposits in Southland of a high quality suitable for the production of ferro-silicon and probably silicon metal.

DIATOMITE—Diatomite is a light powdery material used as a source of silica and as a filtering agent. It is worked in the Rotorua-Taupo volcanic zone and at Middlemarch, Otago.

BENTONITE—Production of bentonite continued at Coalgate in Canterbury and at Porangahau in Hawke's Bay for applications such as foundries and pelletising stock food. A new drilling grade meeting A.P.I. specifications is being used on oil rigs in the Taranaki area. Export shipments were sent for iron ore pelletising in Australia as well as to Japan and Taiwan.

HALLOYSITE—Halloysite is a clay used as a filler in the paper industry, and for ceramics. It has been mined in Northland since the Second World War. Though nearly all production is for local consumption, possible expansion of the small existing export market is being investigated.

SULPHUR—Prospecting proved a 6 million tonne deposit of sulphur at Rotokawa in the Taupo area in 1968. The deposit is mixed with pumice and work on the development of a separation process is continuing. The Frasch Process cannot be applied here owing to the porosity of the overlying beds. Prospecting and mining have ceased at present. Further development will await additional research and finance.

PERLITE—Perlite is a volcanic glass expanded by heating; it is used as an insulator and in light-weight concrete. There are deposits in the Rotorua-Taupo area.

ASBESTOS—Chrysotile asbestos, mainly associated with serpentines in ultramafic occurrences, occurs at a number of localities in the South Island. The most significant deposits are those of the North West Otago (Pyke River) area, but further work is required to determine the limits of mineralisation. Tests of the fibre indicate that it is of favourable economic quality.

PHOSPHATE—The only deposit of phosphate ever to have been worked in New Zealand is that at Clarendon in Otago. Mining ceased in this area in 1944. The most promising source of phosphate is thought to be the nodules occurring on the sea floor on the eastern half of the Chatham Rise (west of Chatham Island). Evaluation is still continuing. Exploration for phosphate in other geological environments has not revealed any economic deposits as yet.

SERPENTINE—Serpentine is a magnesium-rich rock used as a fertiliser additive. Deposits are being mined at Piopio, near Te Kuiti, and North Cape, in the North Island, and Lee Valley, Collins Valley and Mossburn, in the South Island.

GREENSTONE—The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone”, occurs as rounded aggregations in the talc or talc-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply was obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers, and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. At the present time the main source of supply is from a deposit of greenstone boulders in Olderog Creek, a tributary of the Arahura River. The boulders are reduced in size by a portable diamond trepan saw and airlifted by helicopter. Some of this has been cut and polished in New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations this mineral has been in short supply. The best-known occurrences of bowenite, the serpentine variety of greenstone, are in Fiordland, but these are not systematically or commercially exploited.

PEAT WAX—There are an estimated 4000 hectares of moorland peat on the Chatham Islands with an average thickness of 4 metres. This peat contains peat wax derived from a particular plant which grew in the area. The peat wax is being investigated for commercial application in carbon paper, polishes, varnishes, cosmetics, and explosives. Similar investigations are taking place with deposits in Central Otago.

The existence of high-melting-point waxes in peat deposits on the Chatham Islands has been known for more than 30 years. Comparable waxes have also been discovered in the lignites of Otago and Southland. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is carrying out research in processing methods that might produce saleable products from these minerals. Laboratory-scale work has investigated a range of solvent systems, and different extraction techniques. Larger-scale work is also being done on the production of bulk samples of wax for further analysis and evaluation. Thus, successful commercial development will involve co-operation between industry and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

ILMENITE—Ilmenite, which is a source of titanium oxide for the paint and other industries, occurs extensively in the beaches of the west coast of the South Island in association with monazite, gold, and zircon. A reconnaissance survey by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research indicated reserves of over 50 million tonnes of ilmenite-bearing sands, and subsequent work by New Zealand and Australian companies has indicated considerable reserves in the Westport and Barrytown areas. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has carried out extensive laboratory work aimed at producing a synthetic rutile from these rather low-grade (46 percent TiO2) ilmenites. The companies concerned have also carried out both concentration and beneficiation studies with encouraging results. The main obstacle to the development of this mineral is now in marketing rather than in treatment.

SALT—At Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of sea water. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose. Salt was first harvested in 1952.

Production of salt in the latest 6 years is shown in the following table.

YearSalt ProducedValue
 tonnes$(000)
1973101,500447
197454,864454
197540,000464
197641,000516
197753,000631
197865,000687

STATE AID TO MINING—State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz (a) geological survey and bulletins; (b) detailed investigation of the occurrence and development of economic minerals; (c) schools of mines; (d) financial aid to prospecting and for access roads to mining fields; (e) research by Chemistry Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—An understanding of the country's geology is imperative for long-term assessments of New Zealand's mineral resources. In New Zealand almost all Government geological work is carried out by the New Zealand Geological Survey, a scientific institution founded in 1865, which since 1926 has been a branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Works and Development, and other Government departments consult the Geological Survey on geological problems. Only that part of the work of the Geological Survey that concerns the discovery and development of mineral resources is discussed here. Other aspects of applied geology include engineering geology, the study of earthquakes and volcanoes, and effects of engineering works and other developments on the physical environment.

The survey's principal work is to prepare geological maps of New Zealand and to determine the country's geological structure and geological history. Along with this, the survey studies and helps to assess the country's mineral deposits, geothermal steam, and underground water resources, and gives advice on geological problems encountered in State and private civil engineering projects, such as the construction of hydro-electric dams, bridges, tunnels, roads, and building foundations.

The Geological Survey has issued regional geological maps on a scale of 1 mile to the inch, covering about one-third of the country. Maps (scale 1: 250000), informally known as the “Four mile” series, are available for the whole country. Bulletins will continue to be issued at intervals for areas of special economic or scientific importance. Most new maps will in future be published on metric scales—1: 10000, 1: 25000, 1: 50000, 1: 100000, etc. In 1972 a new 1: 1000000 geological map was published (in 2 sheets) of each of the North and South Islands; and in 1973 maps on the same scale of the Quaternary geology (Pleistocene and recent deposits, together with the location of active faults, recent and active volcanoes, and changes in shore lines, etc.). Several sheets of the industrial series geological maps, at a scale of 1: 25000, have been issued. They cover to date most of the Auckland area and the city of Hamilton. In 1979 the first sheet of a new urban series, also at 1: 25000, was published. This covers the Nelson urban area.

A 2-volume work, The Geology of New Zealand, is now available.

Geological mapping has also been carried out in New Zealand's island territories and in the Ross Dependency, Antarctica.

Prospectors and mining companies may seek advice and assistance from any of the district offices of the Geological Survey as well as from the head office in Lower Hutt, which houses the administrative and specialist research sections.

Mineral Resources Surveys—The Economic Geology Section of Geological Survey is responsible for the investigation of potentially valuable deposits, coupled with closer study of the changing overseas economic emphasis. The work is largely concerned with the implementation of the Mineral Resources Council's recommended programme. A new inventory of New Zealand's minerals is now available, and a publication Industrial Minerals and Rocks, containing articles of interest to engineers, mining companies, and local bodies, is produced from time to time. In earlier years, when gold was of major importance, the survey reported on all major goldfields. Deposits of ores of iron, copper, tungsten, manganese, chrome, uranium, aluminium, and other metals have also been investigated over the years, and the survey took complete responsibility for the raw material geological investigations for the new steel industry. Field studies are made by the geologists, and laboratory examination of ores by the petrology specialists. Chemical analysis is usually done by the Chemistry Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Petrology Section makes free identification of rocks and minerals forwarded by the Ministry of Energy, prospectors, and others.

Coal—During the last two decades, coal as a mineral resource has been largely over-shadowed by natural gas. Nevertheless, coal remains among New Zealand's most important mineral resources, and mapping the coal fields in detail has been one of the survey's major undertakings in economic geology. Work has proceeded in co-operation with the Ministry of Energy and with the Coal Research Association. Detailed maps and bulletins on Greymouth, Reefton, Kaitangata, Ohai, and Waikato coalfields have been published. Although the mapping of the coalfields is largely complete, survey geologists continue to help with the large number of day-to-day problems in the coalfields and undertake constant revision. A major revision of coal estimates is currently being made. Geological work is being undertaken for the Ministry of Energy in connection with the present extensive drilling in the Huntly area.

Oil and Gas—Oil companies draw on survey maps and bulletins for basic information about the country's stratigraphy and geological structure which enables them to narrow down areas deserving more detailed examination. Close and mutually beneficial co-operation has usually developed between survey geologists and paleontologists and those of oil companies. Copies of oil company reports and maps continue to be deposited with the Government in terms of the Petroleum Act. The Geological Survey is the national repository of collections of rocks, fossils, and drill cores collected by the oil companies, and has recently expanded its Petroleum Section, partly in response to increased Government participation in exploration.

Paleontological and stratigraphic information by the survey helped the search for oil in Taranaki which was rewarded by the discovery and development of large reservoirs of natural gas at Kapuni, and off-shore in the Maui field. The collections of fossils and drill cores held from earlier Taranaki oil-exploration bores greatly helped prediction of the type, age, and thickness of strata the drills would penetrate. Geological Survey micro-paleontologists are assisting oil companies in interpreting the stratigraphic progress of off-shore oil wells and provide a complete service for many recent drill-holes, both on-shore and off-shore.

Constructional Materials and Other Non-metallic Minerals—As far as it is possible with the staff available, the survey advises the Ministry of Works and Development and local authority engineers, contractors, and other users on where rock materials for road metal, aggregate, building stone, sand, etc., can be obtained. Marl, limestone, and pozzolana for cement manufacture, perlite, bentonite, clays, talc, mica, and magnesite are other non-metallic minerals in the utilisation of which the survey has played a part. Current aid to industry given by the survey, includes detailed projects on northwest Nelson deposits of wollastonite, asbestos, dolomite, and talc magnesite; the limestone resources of Auckland and Otago have been assessed in detail; and North Auckland sands and halloysite clays have been the subject of New Zealand Geological Survey publications.

CENSUS OF MINING, QUARRYING, AND PROSPECTING—The third 5–yearly census of mining, quarrying, and prospecting was taken for the production year 1973–74. At earlier censuses, only operators of mines and quarries registered with the Mines Department (now part of the Ministry of Energy) were surveyed, but the 1973–74 census included for the first time holders of licences issued by other Government departments.

Production—The value of all output from mines and quarries registered with the Mines Department was $73.1 million, and, in addition, there was a value of output of $2.6 million from firms holding licence?, issued by other Government departments. This gave a total output value of $75.7 million for the production year 1973–74.

The main products were shingle, sand, and gravel with a total value of production of $18.2 million, quarried rock, sand, etc., $19.9 million, coal $14.5 million, limestone $6.2 million, and clay for manufacturing $1.1 million. The remaining $15.8 million consisted mainly of ironsand concentrate, gold, silica sand, bentonite, serpentine, salt, marble, and scoria.

The statistics in the following table refer only to operators of mines and quarries registered with the Mines Department. An analysis of returns received from firms operating under licences issued by other departments is given separately later in the section.

ItemOperating Full TimeAll Types Operating Part TimeGrand Total
Predominant Type of Mining or Quarrying
Shingle, Sand, Gravel, Quarried Rock, etc.LimestoneClayCoalOther Inc. GoldTotal

* Valuation of production was at the point at which the minerals were washed, graded, crushed, screened, powdered, or otherwise crudely treated and were ready for sale or transfer for further use.

Included in salaries and wages, other expenses, and capital expenditure.

Type of organisation—
    Registered private company1744412112126256318
    Registered public company181783349857
    Co-operative471111
    Individual ownership15332235477
    Partnership6292191938
    Government101112921
    Local authority622643498
Total28572203429440180620
Nature of business—
    Underground mines operated34236642
    Surface mines or quarries operated794904123369843031287
    Productive bores333
Total7949041574110233091332
Average number of persons employed during the year (excludes working proprietors)19763447313244154132674199
Salaries and wages paid for year (including bonuses, overtime, etc) to above persons$(000)9,2241,7632676,0712,42319,74713519,882
Number of working proprietors2755859579174
Production during the year(*)—
    Shingle, sand, and gravelcu yds(000)11,800282611,83558712,422
    $(000)15,5825411615,65239416,046
    Quarried rock, sand, etc.cu yds(000)10,31015014310,46829110,760
    $(000)19,21013839319,36315119,514
    Limestonetons (000)1083304243436263463
    $(000)3265,6742786,081466,128
    Clay for bricks, tiles, pottery, and other manufacturingtons(000)538156520434238
    $(000)12331,022141,081421,123
    Coaltons (000)2402240232405
    $(000)14,46114,4611914,480
    Other$(000)1467611115,48615,71910515,824
    Total value of production$(000)35,2765,9741,03914,48515,58372,35875873,116
Less salaries and wages$(000)9,2241,7632676,0712,42319,74713519,882
Less other expenses$(000)22,7583,5636779,6418,33044,96942545,395
Surplus$(000)3,29564895−1,2274,8317,6411987,839
Net output (net value added)$(000)12,9122,4823764,8707,63128,27034128,611
Expenditure on capital assets—
    Land—excluding purchases for resale$(000)2661721303304
    Buildings—
    Residential$(000)221821812231224
    Non-residential$(000)891104214538710397
    Other construction$(000)2739361,0782,5403,98933,992
    Motor cars and station wagons$(000)22335934613623365
    Other transport vehicles (road, air, or sea)$(000)730184982241,237301,267
    Plant, machinery, and equipment$(000)4,506837492682415,901605,961
Total$(000)6,1091,294651,5233,41212,40310712,510
Sales of assets at realised value$(000)8493407442711,709221,731
Expenditure on exploration surveying, and prospecting$(000)583122744688164820
Environmental protection expenditure$(000)30818192712049215507

The statistics in the following table were compiled from returns received from firms operating under licences issued by the following:

  1. Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport who issue licences under the Harbour Act 1950.

  2. Lands and Survey Department who issue licences under section 165 of the Land Act 1948.

  3. Ministry of Works and Development who hold licences which are sub-issued to catchment boards.

 QuantityValue
No. of units—213(000)$(000)
Production during year—
    Shingle, sand and gravelcu yds15512,114
    Quarried rock, sand, etc.cu yds308380
    Limestonetons2759
    Clay for bricks, tiles, pottery, and other manufacturingtons66
    Coaltons..2
    Other- -26
Total value of production...2,587
Exploration—
    Expenditure on exploration, surveying, and prospecting (including purchase during the year of vehicles and other fixed assets)— $(000)
    Salaries and wages 116
    Other expenses 236
Total 351

Prospecting—Returns received from holders of licences issued by the Mines Department showed 53 units engaged full time in mineral exploration and prospecting. The following table shows details. Expenditure by these units is in addition to that by mining and quarrying units in production and by units holding licences from other than the Mines Department, as shown in the previous tables.

Units Engaged in Prospecting During 1973–74
Type of organisation—
    Registered private company31
    Registered public company11
    Individual ownership4
    Partnership7
Total53
Nature of business—
    Exploring for oil or gas11
    Exploring for mineral ores41
    Other exploring3
Total55
Average number of persons employed during year on mineral exploration82
Salaries and wages paid for year (including bonuses, overtime, etc.) to above persons$(000)462
Number of working proprietors19
Operating costs other than salaries and wages during the year$(000)2,318
Sales of services during the year—
    Fees or other receipts derived from mineral exploration services rendered$(000)85
Expenditure on capital assets$(000)228
Sale of assets at realised value$(000)20

A short summary of the results of the 1978–79 Census of Mining and Quarrying is included in the Latest Statistical Information at the back of this Yearbook.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on minerals and mineral production will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Ministry of Energy (Parl. paper D. 6).

Report of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (Parl. paper G. 21).

The Geology of New Zealand—N.Z. Geological Survey.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics (Results of the 1973–74 Census of Mining, Quarrying, and Prospecting were published as a supplement to the May 1976 Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Production figures for coal and gas are published monthly).

Industrial Minerals and Rocks—DSIR (occasional).

Details of N.Z. Geological Survey map coverage and publications are available from N.Z. Geological Survey, PO Box 30368, Lower Hutt.

Chapter 18. Section 18 MANUFACTURING

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—The function of the early manufacturing industries in New Zealand was to supply locally the immediate needs of the small scattered communities for food, clothing, building materials, and home furnishings and to provide shipping with ropes, spars, and repairs. These handicraft activities grew into factories as the settlements expanded and as there developed more opportunities for the organisation and specialisation of labour, and for the more complex processing of domestic or imported raw materials. Flour mills, flax mills, ropewalks, and sawmills appeared in the early eighteen forties followed by breweries, brick kilns, and cooperages in the mid forties and, later in that decade, lime kilns, ship and boat yards, soap and candle works, and tanneries.

By 18.7, the first year in which statistics of factory production were collected in conjunction with the population census, manufacturing establishments included grain mills, breweries, biscuit factories, a bone-manure works, brick and tile yards and potteries, candle and soap works, coachbuilding workshops, fellmongeries, tanneries, wool-scouring works, flax works, aerated water and cordial factories, iron and brass foundries, lime kilns, malt kilns, engineering workshops, a patent slip, a petroleum works, rope and cordage works, sawmills, sash and door factories, ship and boat yards, and a woollen mill. The factories of this period were still primarily concerned with the satisfaction of the needs of the limited local markets.

The development boom of the eighteen seventies, the rapid rise in population, and the better communications between internal markets encouraged further factory expansion. There was to some extent a natural protection from overseas competition in the high freight rates on imports. Other factors which assisted in this expansion were the admission of certain raw materials free of duty, the imposition of a tariff on some finished goods, and the granting of bounties for new factories by central and provincial governments. These were followed by protection by way of tariff in 1888 when the home market was shrinking and capital and labour were beginning to leave the colony. Footwear and clothing factories, the manufacture of machinery, and metal industries were protected by this tariff. A wider protective Customs tariff was imposed in 1895. During the depressed years of the eighteen eighties low wage costs enabled some New Zealand manufacturers to export their products, but this was partly attributable also to the special suitability of some New Zealand products, such as farm implements, to the needs of other developing communities overseas.

The first shipment of refrigerated meat in 1882 opened the way for the establishment and growth of the meat-freezing and butter and cheese industries. Ten years after this first shipment, 21 meat-freezing works and 104 butter and cheese factories had been established.

The recovery from the long depression, the resumption of large-scale immigration at the beginning of the present century, the spectacular development of meat-freezing and dairy factories, and the breaking in of new land, especially in the North Island, all contributed to the revival of a strong internal demand which stimulated manufacturing growth.

Auckland early established itself as the predominant manufacturing province in New Zealand, but in the general prosperity following the gold boom of the sixties, there was a spectacular increase in manufacturing activity in Otago, which led Auckland until the nineties. Canterbury was the next most important manufacturing province. Today, however, Auckland has clearly re-established its predominance and is followed by Wellington and Canterbury.

With the rising population and increased export income during the first decade of this century, manufacturing continued to expand at a steady rate. The growth continued to be concentrated on industries processing farm products for export and those supplying the more simple goods, housing materials and equipment, repairs, and supplies for farmers. In this period the electrical, wire-work, sheet-metal, and motor-vehicle industries had their beginnings.

Developments in the nineteen twenties included the expansion of the vehicle industry (particularly motor and cycle assembly), sawmilling, and the metalworking, furnishings, and apparel industries. These developments carried forward the tendency for industries processing farm products to be less dominating in value of production and employment compared with other types of industry.

During the depression of the nineteen thirties the total volume of factory output declined with the contraction of New Zealand's export income and the drop in internal demand. While prices fell the output of factories processing farm products rose, but not sufficiently to offset the loss in volume from other manufacturing industries. The rapid fall in purchasing power caused the farmer to produce more, but the impact of the depression on the factories processing “non-farm” materials meant a heavy reduction in the output of consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural and dairy machinery and implements. By 1934–35, however, the volume of factory production had been restored to the 1929–30 level.

Apart from metalworking and vehicle factories, which had improved their position significantly, industry emerged from the depression in much the same pattern as before.

The recovery of manufacturing after the depression was primarily the result of better export prices, more public development, and an expansionist monetary policy, all of which resulted in the re-engagement of most of the unemployed.

There had been little time for any protective effect of exchange control and import selection to stimulate industrial expansion between the date these measures were introduced (December 1938) and the outbreak of war in September 1939. It was the war and its shortages which changed the manufacturing pattern and gave great encouragement to industrial development. The engineering and apparel industries, which contributed so much to war needs, made the greatest progress.

Production expanded in response to the need to replace imports that the United Kingdom and other countries could no longer supply and to provide uniforms, weapons, equipment, and provisions for New Zealand and allied armed forces.

One protective effect of the war and post-war periods and their restricted supply of imports was that domestic industry was often enabled to attain its optimum (New Zealand) output quickly without a difficult competitive struggle with imports.

Post-war Development—The pattern of New Zealand industry changed again from 1949–50 with the exemption from import control of many items. Factory expansion was sustained by a high level of internal demand, by a widening of the range of products, and to some extent by the restriction of imports for a short period of exchange control. In this period the volume of production in the food, footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods groups increased slowly in response to population growth, while leather industry production fell as a result of competition from imports and synthetics. Spectacular increases in production came from new developments in the pulp and paper and the rubber industries. However, as in past years it was the engineering factories that contributed most to the growth of manufacturing after 1949–50. The expansion in this field was stimulated especially by increasing mechanisation on farms, the high level of investment, the rising demand for consumer durables, and the increased imports of motor vehicle components for assembly in New Zealand.

Small factories continue to be typical of manufacturing in New Zealand. This is a reflection of the fact that, partly as a result of the geographical configuration of the country, many factories supply small local markets. Many of the smaller manufacturing units are involved in the production of machinery and wood products while the largest plants are engaged in the manufacture of food and paper. The trend is towards larger manufacturing units.

Some of the major industries are mentioned in this section. Others include wire drawing and galvanising; the production of copper tube, wire rope, aluminium cable, and telephone and underground power cable; and 11 kV switchgear, electric hoists, electric motor starters, and fractional horsepower electric motors, as well as telecommunications equipment and electronic controls for a variety of equipment. The manufacture of transport equipment and machinery has expanded to cover turboprop topdressing aircraft, bicycles, pneumatic and steel-tyred road rollers, self-propelled hydraulically operated excavators, post-hole diggers, hydraulic equipment and attachments, and cargo containers. Further items now made in New Zealand include oil-fired kilns, control valves, thermostats, press brakes, disc brake-pads, high-speed twist drills, and numerous others. In the chemical and allied industries, New Zealand factories process PVC compounds and dry blends, besides producing such PVC products as sheeting, flooring, roofing, and rainwater goods; a range of formaldehyde resins used in the manufacture of adhesives and related products; acrylic emulsions and compounds; many industrial and domestic materials including synthetic detergents; various weed killers and insecticides; and a range of drugs and cosmetics. The packaging industry makes moulded pulp products as well as several types of plastic film, the most recent projects involving cast polypropylene and the manufacture of irradiated polyethylene (“shrink film”). Textured synthetic yams, warp-knitted, transfer-printed, and foambacked fabrics have been added to the products of the textile industry in recent years. An oil refinery and sheet glassworks have been in operation for some years. Gin and whisky distilleries have been established.

MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS OF THE SEVENTIES—In general, major manufacturing activities through the seventies showed increased development and processing of indigenous resources as well as increasing experience in the manufacture of items involving considerable technological sophistication. Significant industrial developments of the last decade are briefly summarised in the following paragraphs.

Pulp and Paper—N.Z. Forest Products Limited opened a new kraft pulp mill at Kinleith early in February 1973. This mill, operating 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, doubled pulp output from 213360 tonnes to 426720 tonnes. The company's number 6 paper machine began operating about the end of the first quarter of 1973. The company's number 3 paperboard machine at Whakatane came into production in mid-1976. This doubled the capacity of the Whakatane paperboard mill and enabled the company to produce fully-coated paperboard. A new multi-wall paper bag plant at Penrose also commenced production in mid-1976, producing a new type of totally-sealed bag for foodstuff such as milk powder. The major increases in pulp and paper production are part of a 5-year expansion project which is the largest undertaken by an individual company in New Zealand's industrial history.

The expansion programme completed by Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Limited in 1975 increased the company's newsprint production capacity by 130000 tonnes per annum to 330000 tonnes per annum, of which 210000 tonnes is for export. At the same time, market pulp capacity was doubled to a level of 160000 tonnes per annum, of which 140000 tonnes is for export. Further developments by the company are envisaged in the 1980s.

The pulp mill constructed by Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Limited at Whirinaki near Napier commenced production in March 1973. Since then, capacity has been increased to 240000 tonnes of pulp. The entire output is exported.

Construction of a thermo-mechanical pulp mill at Tangiwai was completed in 1978. The mill, owned by Winstone-Samsung Ltd., a New Zealand-Korea joint venture, produces 70000 tonnes of pulp a year using wood from the adjacent Karioi III State Forest. Since March 1979 all output has been exported, primarily to the Republic of Korea and to a lesser extent to Japan.

Particle Board—New Zealand Particle Board Limited commenced production in October 1972. Since then, capacity at the Kumeu plant has been increased to 60000 cubic metres a year. In December 1979 plans were announced to convert half this capacity to the production of medium-density fibre board.

Fletcher Wood Panels Limited produces particle board at its Taupo plant. In 1974 the company introduced a new product to the market, Bison board, which is a thin particle board. Since 1977 exports of both particle board and Bison board have been built up to an annual value of approximately $5.5 million.

Canterbury Timber Products Limited has been producing medium density fibre board in Rangiora since July 1976. Annual sales are now worth more than $15 million of which 25 percent is in exports.

Plywood—N.Z. Forest Products Limited has established a new plywood plant at Kinleith. This plant, the largest of its kind in Australia or New Zealand, uses 56500 cubic metres a year of radiata pine from the Kaingaroa forest. Output is sold on both the local and export markets.

Mineral Fibre Products—N.Z. Forest Products Limited commissioned increased capacity at its mineral fibre plant in 1979. The 7000 tonnes of mineral rockwool now produced each year provide material for a variety of commercial and industrial fire-resistant wall coatings.

Steel—The 1970s have been a period of growth and consolidation for New Zealand Steel Limited. Items manufactured are galvanised products, pipe, rectangular hollow sections, and primary billets. The company has announced its future plans to expand its operations into cold- and hot-rolling facilities. This, together with an associated expansion in primary steel production, would mean a fully integrated steel industry for New Zealand.

Aluminium—New Zealand Aluminium Smelters Limited was formed following the signing of an agreement by the New Zealand Government, Comalco Industries Pty Limited of Australia, and Showa Denko KK and Sumitomo Chemical Company Limited of Japan.

The 2 Japanese partners have now transferred their shareholdings to Showa Aluminium KK and Sumitomo Aluminium Smelting Company Limited respectively. All the partners take their percentage of the smelter's output in proportion to their ownership.

Construction of the primary aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point, near Bluff, was completed early in 1971. The first furnace was commissioned in April 1971. Production is now 150000 tonnes a year rated annual capacity, with 2 full pot-lines in operation. Approximately four-fifths of the primary aluminium produced at the smelter is exported.

An aluminium semi-fabricating industry is well established, making a wide range of extrusions, rolling mill products, and fabricated items.

Aircraft Manufacture—In March 1973 rationalisation of the aviation manufacturing industry took effect with the amalgamation of separate industry units into a single company, Aerospace Industries Limited. Air New Zealand provides substantial financial and technical assistance. Up to 1976 the company produced about 100 military training aircraft; it is currently concentrating on agricultural aircraft to serve both local and overseas markets. Future development is expected to involve increased manufacture of aircraft components on a subcontract basis.

Electronics Manufacture—The New Zealand electronics industry has a well developed consumer sector, principally orientated towards the colour television market. Six companies are currently manufacturing colour television sets in New Zealand. Some exports have been achieved, mainly to the Asian market. The professional and industrial electronic sector, which covers a wide range of industrial, medical, and scientific applications, has shown sustained growth.

Motor Vehicles—The transmission and chassis component plant of the Ford Motor Co. (N.Z.) Ltd. at Wiri was officially opened in November 1973. Assisted by provisions of the New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement, this facility is intended to supply total New Zealand and Australian needs for several components used in Ford's production of light and medium passenger cars.

Todd Motors Ltd's plant at Porirua, currently the largest single vehicle assembly plant in New Zealand, was officially opened in October 1975.

In mid-1976 Government approval was given to General Motors (N.Z.) Ltd. to manufacture rear axle assembly units, principally for export to Australia. The annual value of exports is expected to total approximately $1.2 million.

Following a downturn in 1977, the demand for new cars increased markedly in 1978 as indicated by 65000 to 70000 new registrations. Production levels in the assembly industry began to rise in 1978, as stocks became depleted, and the rise was maintained in 1979. Over 70000 cars were assembled in 1979 compared with less than 52000 in 1978.

Carpet and Carpet Yarns—Carpet yarn production for the year ended June 1979 was up by 20 percent on last year's production. The overseas demand for woolyarn continues steady. Adequate spinning capacity now exists in New Zealand to meet any increased demand.

The domestic market for carpet has maintained buoyancy. Overseas markets other than Australia are being actively sought. Carpet production rose by 0.6 million square metres to 8.8 million square metres, of which 2.3 million (worth $27.2 million f.o.b.) was exported. Some 20 percent of the carpet exported went to countries other than Australia.

A recent feature of the New Zealand carpet industry is the installation of a third continuous carpet-dyeing and colour-patterning machine. This is in line with the world market trend towards tonal patterning created by the continuous dyeing process which became apparent 2 years ago.

Tanning—The New Zealand tanning industry has had a high growth rate in recent years and is strongly export-oriented. Although the majority of hides continue to be exported in the wet salted stage, the New Zealand tanning industry is increasing its production of semi-processed and finished leather. In 1978–79 a total of 35.4 million sheep and lambskins were exported, of which 4.4 million were converted in New Zealand by the tanning industry into finished leather, finished woolskins, and semi-finished leather prior to export. The total value of all sheepskin and lamb-skin exports in the year ended June 1979 was $129.9 million, of which finished and semi-finished leather contributed $35.3 million.

In the same period a total of $27.5 million worth of semi-processed and finished hide leather was produced for export by the New Zealand tanning industry. The total value of hide exports was $83.9 million.

TRENDS IN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: Indigenous Resources—Those trends in industrial development of which the above examples are illustrative appear certain to continue through the decade of the eighties. However, an increasing emphasis is now being placed on the development of new industries based on natural resources such as forests, fish stocks, and energy. The rapid development of the forest industries was a major turning point and these are now significant export earners, principally through export of pulp, paperboard, and newsprint but also through exports of logs, sawn timber, chips, and building boards. Intensive forest planting programmes since the early 1960s will result in a surplus for export about 3 to 4 times greater than current levels by the year 2000, and this will present opportunities for substantial future processing developments.

The declaration of a 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone in 1977 has stimulated the expansion of the fishing industry, particularly in the second half of the seventies. The levels of catching and processing should rise significantly in the short term with the introduction of more and larger vessels, substantial investment in processing equipment, and the establishment of joint ventures between local and foreign companies. The expansion will concentrate on hitherto under-utilised species.

Late in 1979 the Government made major decisions in the energy resource field which will result in important new industries in the 1980s. The natural gas utilisation programme involves the construction of a synthetic gasoline plant, an export methanol plant, and an ammonia urea plant as well as encouraging the use of compressed natural gas and liquid petroleum gas as fuels. These projects together should enable New Zealand to meet half its transport fuel requirements from indigenous sources by 1987. The production of petrochemicals such as polyethylene from natural gas is also being considered. In addition, investigations are being made into the production of liquid fuels from the large lignite resource in Southland and from energy farming as a supplement and an eventual replacement for gas-based fuels.

New Zealand has an excess electricity generating capacity in the South Island which will last at least to the end of the 1980s. To make use of this resource the Government has announced a concessional electricity pricing policy to encourage investment in electricity-based export industries.

Companies interested in ferro-silicon, silicon carbide, ferro-nickel, and aluminium smelting are currently negotiating power supply contracts. In the case of ferro-silicon and silicon carbide, development would be based on deposits of silicon quartz in Southland.

Activated carbon and montan wax production from South Island coals are two further resource-based projects under consideration. Some ironsand is also exported and it is proposed to start exports of coking coal in 1980.

Overseas Investment—In June 1979 the Government publicly stressed its welcoming attitude to overseas investment, in particular where such investment is allied to the introduction of new technology and increased net foreign exchange earnings. The full development of New Zealand's resources will require both technology and capital from overseas during the eighties. Procedures for evaluating projects involving overseas capital have been reconsidered and cases will continue to be assessed on their individual merits by the Overseas Investment Commission.

Resource Conservation—The Department of Trade and Industry provides support for existing reclamation industries and encouragement for the establishment of new resource management ventures.

Approval has been given to the setting up by Pacific Scrap Limited of a shredder plant in Auckland for the conversion of vehicle and whiteware hulks to ferrous scrap. The project includes a mobile compactor which will travel countrywide flattening stockpiled hulks to 20 cm thick blocks for freight to Auckland. About 17000 tonnes of ferrous scrap annually is expected to be produced by the shredding plant.

A detinning unit commenced operations during 1980. This reclaims tin stannate and scrap steel from cans retrieved from domestic refuse and factory offcuts.

Trials are continuing with source-separation schemes for materials recovery from domestic waste, especially glass, reusable bottles, textiles, paper, and metals. It is expected that during 1980 more cities will set up such schemes.

The Department of Trade and Industry will provide resource recovery support for the New Zealand Litter Control Council's comprehensive nationwide programme.

Interest in the recycling of waste paper has accelerated recently. N.Z. Forest Products Limited is seeking 30000 tonnes annually of waste kraft. In addition, this company plans to use increasing quantities of old newspapers in some of its production. In 1980 the company has a requirement for 15000 tonnes of waste newspapers which will be sought from the Auckland/Waikato region. Because of this development, less emphasis is being given to finding alternative outlets for waste paper, such as in pelletised fuel or ethanol production. Good printed white paper (bank, bond, sulphates) is sought by N.Z. Forest Products Limited during 1980 for reuse in underliner for bleached coated board. About 1000 tonnes a year is required.

The N.Z. Waste Materials Exchange, which indexes usable industrial wastes, has extended its coverage across the whole country from the Department of Trade and Industry's 4 offices.

Interest continues in the Department of Trade and Industry's conservation award which provides recognition of achievements by industry or commerce in the conservation, including recycling, of raw materials and of energy. By the end of 1979, 16 companies had received the award.

The Department of Trade and Industry is also associated with other departments, local authorities, and recycling industries in discussions and measures to increase economic use of resources.

Export Earnings—There has been a significant improvement in the rate of increase of exports of manufactured goods during 1979. Export receipts for all manufactured goods (excluding those from primary processing industries) during the year ended June 1979 totalled $725 million compared with $511.6 million the previous year. Export earnings increased by 41.7 percent between June 1978 and June 1979, which represents a substantial increase in the growth rate compared with the 4.2 percent increase recorded between June 1977 and June 1978. This increase represents the continuing overall high growth trend in manufactured exports.

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT—A programme of financial incentives aimed at stimulating development in regions with a slower-than-average growth rate was introduced in 1973. At that time 9 areas: Northland, King Country, East Coast, Taranaki, Wanganui, Wairarapa, West Coast, Otago, and Southland, were designated as regional development priority areas eligible to receive assistance. In 1975 Southern Canterbury and Marlborough were also created regional development areas. Each area has a regional development council which reports to the Minister of Regional Development on economic and social matters affecting their region as well as advising on applications for regional development assistance.

The main incentives for regional development are suspensory loans towards the capital costs of viable development projects. Two schemes now in operation are: the “pioneer status” suspensory loan scheme for projects involving the further processing of renewable resources, or introducing a technology new to the region; and the investigation and establishment grant scheme which provides assistance with the cost of feasibility studies and/or initial establishment exists. Both these schemes are available to projects in the fishing, forestry, tourism, mining, agriculture, and horticulture sectors as well as to manufacturing and processing projects, and together they effectively widen the range and coverage of regional development assistance available. The Department of Trade and Industry considers applications for assistance forwarded by the regional development councils and consults the Development Finance Corporation, the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation, and other departments where appropriate for comments and viability reports.

Seven councils (Northland, East Coast, Wairarapa, King Country, Otago, Marlborough, and Southern Canterbury) have completed surveys of the resources of their regions and other councils are preparing them. The West Coast R.D.C. will carry out several small surveys as required as an alternative to the major exercise. These surveys present comprehensive data on the regional resources (land, water, forests, manpower, etc.) and provide a basis for planning for further resource-based developments.

AIDS TO DEVELOPMENT—Described very briefly below are some of the programmes which provide assistance of various types to manufacturing industry.

Development Finance Corporation—A description of the Development Finance Corporation, which was established as an independent body in 1964, is included in the Banking and Currency section of this Yearbook. The Development Finance Corporation also operates the Government's Applied Technology Programme which provides incentives for industrial research and development and operates the Small Business Agency which was established by Act of Parliament in November 1977 with the aim of encouraging and promoting the efficient operation of small businesses.

Industries Development Commission—The Industries Development Commission operates under the Industries Development Commission Act 1961, and on 19 September 1975 superseded the Tariff and Development Board.

The commission's functions are to inquire into and report on matters relating to industrial development and to protection at the frontier when requested by the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry, or the Minister of Overseas Trade.

At present the emphasis is on the commission's developmental function.

During 1978–79 the major activity of the commission was an in-depth study of the textile industry. Discussions concerning industry studies took place with a number of industries, and 3 industry profiles were undertaken. These involved the shelf appliance, professional electronics, and footwear sectors.

High Priority Activities Scheme—The 1977 Budget included the announcement of a scheme under which a limited number of manufacturing activities which are judged, on the basis of a few quantitative criteria, to be making an outstanding contribution to growth and to the country's balance of payments, are granted “high priority” status. Such activities become eligible for benefits constituting forms of reduced administrative control, priority treatment, preferential access to finance, and taxation incentives.

The Investment Unit—In his 1979 Budget the Minister of Finance, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, announced the establishment of an Investment Unit within the Department of Trade and Industry. The functions of the Unit are to:

  1. Assist investors, whether local or overseas, in researching their projects;

  2. Ensure that applications for any consents necessary are processed by the central and local government agencies concerned with minimal delay;

  3. Develop proposals for streamlining consent procedures; and

  4. Increase the number of investment proposals being made, particularly in those areas of the economy where there is immediate scope for increased investment.

Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme—The Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme (PIIDS), introduced on 30 November 1976, provides financial assistance and incentives for New Zealand companies developing approved manufacturing operations in Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Kiribati, Tuvalu, and Nauru, with the objective of fostering economic development opportunities in those countries and furthering the growth of employment.

Standards Association of New Zealand—The Standards Association of New Zealand (SANZ) was established by the Standards Act 1965, to take over and expand the activities of the New Zealand Standards Institute. This move was strongly supported by industrial, commercial and professional organisations. The Standards Association is responsible for the formulation of national standards for processes, goods and services.

The Standards Association represents New Zealand in the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), the Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC), and on the Asian Standards Advisor; Committee (ASAC) of the United Nations.

Manufacturing Development Council—The council was established in 1969 as a sector council of the National Development Council.

The Holmes Task Force on Economic and Social Planning recommended that the functions of the council should be widened as far as practicable to include the whole industrial sector. Moreover, in addition to its prime function of acting as a link between the industrial private sector and the Government, the council should act as a planning body. The Manufacturing Development Council (MDC) and the Government both supported this recommendation and a comprehensive reorganisation of the council was undertaken in 1977–78. Broadened membership encompassing increased geographical spread, greater range of interests, and more diversity in size and type of industry are features of the new MDC.

In late 1978 the council directed to the Government a document which commented on the New Zealand Planning Council's statement Planning Perspectives 1978–1983. The MDC gave firm support to the views enunciated by the Planning Council and this has had an important bearing on official thinking. Since that time the MDC has continued to comment on, and to recommend for Government consideration, specific actions arising out of this general approach to the development of the manufacturing sector.

New Zealand Export/Import Corporation—Established early in 1974, the corporation has a responsibility for co-ordinating and expanding overseas trading opportunities. By providing assistance to small and medium-sized companies to go into the export field, the corporation aims at increasing and diversifying New Zealand's range of exports.

Other Bodies—A number of liaison committees have been established to promote development in particular fields of industry. These include the Advisory Committee on the Heavy Engineering Industry, the New Zealand Metal Casting Industry Association (previously the Foundry Industry Advisory Committee), and the National Electronics Development Association (NEDA). Several bodies exist principally to promote exports: ENEX (previously the Engineering Export Association of New Zealand Inc.) continues to be prominent in this field, while the Export Guarantee Office facilitates the export of manufactured goods by removing some of the financial uncertainties involved in export trade. The Industrial Design Council (IDC) exists to promote and encourage good design. There are also several bodies providing technical and advisory services for industry. Further details of these organisations are to be found under Section 7, Education, Science, and the Arts.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT—Engagement in research and development by manufacturing enterprises is shown in the following table.

Details published in all but the last column exclude single-establishment enterprises employing less than 10 persons and ancillary units servicing more than one industry.

Manufacturing Census (Year)Persons Engaged on Research and DevelopmentPercentage of Total Number Engaged in ManufacturingExpenditure on Research and DevelopmentPercentage to Total Value Added in Manufacturing
 No.%$(000)%
1974–7514490.5013,9490.65
1975–7614080.4715,4450.66
1976–7713440.4315,4030.54

SCOPE OF STATISTICS—Results of the first integrated economic census of manufacturing introduced by the Department of Statistics applied to the 1974–75 year. The census covers establishments (factories, workshops, etc.) in New Zealand, the predominant activity of which is manufacturing, processing, assembly, or repair, plus the activities of ancillary units (head offices, etc.) which service or predominantly service those establishments. Single establishment firms having an average of less than 2 persons engaged full time are, however, not included in the census.

All activities of the manufacturing operations, from the purchase of material and supplies to the point at which the products are sold, are within the scope of the census, which is for the year ended 31 March, or the last accounting year prior to the 31 March.

The integrated economic census classifies all the manufacturing industries according to the revised New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC), which is based on the 1968 United Nations International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities.

Because of the major changes introduced, there was an unavoidable break in the continuity of manufacturing statistics. To provide some link with the previous census series, a limited number of main aggregates were collected for the 1973–74 year on the same basis as those collected for 1974–75. This link information has been published in a series of industry bulletins.

In the statistical tables which follow, the results of the 1975–76 and 1976–77 manufacturing censuses are published. The 1976–77 manufacturing census will be the last of the annual series. Commencing with the 1978–79 year, the Department of Statistics will introduce a series of 5-yearly integrated economic censuses covering the 9 major divisions of NZSIC.

A series of quarterly sample surveys linked to each 5–yearly census has commenced. A description and some results of these surveys are given at the end of this section.

GENERAL SUMMARY—Changes introduced by the integrated census of manufacturing may be summarised as follows:

  • industries were reclassified to conform to the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification;

  • ancillary units, such as servicing units, laboratories, etc., were included in the census;

  • the basis of valuation was changed from cost of materials used and factory door value of production to purchase and sale prices;

  • the census year was changed from a year centred on 31 March to a year ended 31 March or the nearest prior balance date;• a number of new or changed definitions were introduced. A table of definitions follows:

Definitions

Establishments—Productive units, usually factories, engaged predominantly in manufacturing operations.

Ancillary Units—Servicing units, usually head offices, laboratories, workshops, etc., engaged in predominantly servicing establishments.

Persons Engaged—Numbers of people employed in the establishments and ancillary units at, or on the nearest pay day to, 15 April.

Salaries and Wages—Gross earnings during the accounting year, before taxation and other deductions, of all employees in the establishments or ancillary units included in the census. Included are such items as sick and holiday pay, bonuses, benefit allowances, payments under piece rate schemes, and capitalised salaries and wages. Excluded are contributions to superannuation funds by employer, reimbursement allowances, payments from superannuation funds, and drawings by working proprietors.

Depreciation—As charged in the books of account on fixed tangible assets owned by the establishments or ancillary units included in the census.

Purchases and Other Expenses—The sum of all operating expenses except interest, bad debts, and donations, and including value of capital work done by own employees but excluding salaries and wages and depreciation.

Turnover—The total of all sales and other income except interest, dividends, royalties, patent fees, and insurance claims received, plus the value of capital work done by own employees.

Value Added—The industry and sector contribution to Gross Domestic Product comprising the sum of salaries and wages paid, employer contributions to superannuation schemes, operating surplus, depreciation, and indirect taxes less subsidies.

Capital Expenditure Less Disposals—The sum of the amount spent by establishments and ancillary units in the census on the purchase, less the proceeds received from the sale, of the following types of fixed assets: land; buildings and other construction; road vehicles, ships and aircraft; plant, machinery and equipment; other, such as artefacts.

General Statistics

A general statistical summary of the results of the 1975–76 and 1976–77 Integrated Economic Censuses of Manufacturing is given in the following table.

Turnover of manufacturing establishments, including ancillary units, covered in the 1976–77 Census of Manufacturing totalled $8,987 million, a 23.7 percent increase on the total of $7,264 million recorded in 1975–76.

ItemUnitCensus of ManufacturingPercentage Change
1975–761976–77
EstablishmentsNo.85329019+5.7
Ancillary unitsNo.680719+5.7
Persons engaged at mid-April:
    MalesNo.215,810219,046+1.5
    FemalesNo.82,88287,131+5.1
            TotalNo.298,692306,177+2.5
Capital expenditure, less disposals$(million)349479+37.2
Salaries and wages paid:
    Males$(million)1,2771,445+13.2
    Females$(million)299357+19.4
            Total$(million)1,5761,802+14.3
Purchases and other expenses$(million)4,9936,381+27.8
    Turnover$(million)7,2648,987+23.7
    Value added$(million)2,3512,865+21.9

The 3 following tables give a more detailed comparison of the results of the 1975–76 and 1976–77 Censuses of Manufacturing. This is at industry division and major group level. The first table shows numbers of establishments and ancillary units, and persons engaged.

Division and Major GroupEstablishmentsAncillary UnitsPersons Engaged
1975–761976–771975–761976–771975–761976–77
Number
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco
    Food1046108411411666,23866,979
    Beverages118117253143594712
    Tobacco668813461330
              Total1170120714715571,94373,021
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather
    Textiles391408242519,11619,566
    Clothing (except footwear)739762323820,76621,989
    Leather1371425332843418
    Footwear1021068847955119
              Total13691418697447,96150,092
Wood and Wood Products
    Wood and cork products842875192216,45116,957
    Furniture445477161872327298
              Total12871352354023,68324,255
Paper and Paper Products, Printing and Publishing
    Paper and paper products97104911988910,436
    Printing and publishing540570515517,96818,077
              Total637674606627,85728,513
Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
    Industrial chemicals12012491156965962
    Other chemical products167172454569496875
    Petroleum1313352368
    Petroleum and coal products191854397373
    Rubber products8183363646114602
    Plastic products169198181749926222
              Total56960811311322,99724,402
Non-metallic Mineral Products n.e.c.
    Pottery, china, and earthen-ware171811001289
    Glass and glass products6767124782670
    Other non-metallic mineral products408411131675647311
              Total492496131711,14211,270
Number
Basic Metal Industries
    Iron and steel41442231153402
    Non-ferrous metals69712231463300
              Total1101154462616702
Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery, and Equipment
    Metal products11521253414922,97024,327
    Machinery (except electrical)780858222313,49814,378
    Electrical machinery277299354118,46917,502
    Transport equipment3824213620,57420,059
    Professional and scientific equipment43433510441107
              Total2634287410412476,55577,373
Other Manufacturing264275101144734430
    Ancillary units servicing more than one major group....12511558206119
              Total manufacturing85329019680719298,692306,177

The following tables give financial statistics derived from the 1975–76 and 1976–77 Censuses of Manufacturing. The first shows salaries and wages, purchases and other expenses, and total turnover.

Division and Major GroupSalaries and WagesPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnover
1975–761976–771975–761976–771975–761976–77
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco$(million)
    Food351.3393.71,417.61,812.11,934.02,367.0
    Beverages24.627.3103.7122.3152.7186.1
    Tobacco7.37.941.149.051.163.5
              Total383.2428.91,562.31,983.42,137.82,616.6
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather
    Textiles92.2100.0230.9305.8351.5439.9
    Clothing (except footwear)74.190.3122.0157.8213.9261.3
    Leather13.215.638.862.055.282.0
    Footwear20.824.235.246.261.074.2
              Total200.3230.1426.9571.8681.6857.4
Wood and Wood Products
    Wood and cork products87.1102.7250.5313.0377.6463.6
    Furniture33.138.679.094.2121.8143.7
              Total120.2141.3329.4407.2499.4607.3
$(million)
Paper and Paper Products, Printing and Publishing
    Paper and paper products69.681.4302.2417.9444.1594.6
    Printing and publishing95.9108.2138.6170.3276.0318.6
              Total165.4189.6440.8588.2720.1913.2
Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
    Industrial chemicals35.941.4178.3234.9242.4316.7
    Other chemical products37,741.1158.5187.9214.7256.3
    Petroleum2.52.932.639.438.153.1
    Petroleum and coal products2.42.210.010.714.514.9
    Rubber products28.331.662.481.1106.7131.3
    Plastic products25.734.863.199.2104.5151.1
              Total132.5154.0505.0653.2721.0923.4
Non-metallic Mineral Products, n.e.c.
    Pottery, china, and earthenware4.56.45.16.410.615.4
    Glass and glass products16.018.931.040.855.069.5
    Other non-metallic mineral products43.746.8160.4182.3239.8270.9
              Total64.272.1196.5229.5305.5355.8
Basic Metal Industries
    Iron and steel21.426.392.5147.1135.4199.6
    Non-ferrous metals20.223.978.1105.1107.3156.9
              Total41.750.2170.6252.2242.7356.5
Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery, and Equipment
    Metal products122.6145.8377.2490.8562.9707.5
    Machinery (except electrical)71.983.0220.8265.2322.0385.9
    Electrical machinery93.7102.7292.3334.5422.0458.0
    Transport equipment115.1126.9323.3411.6468.4569.3
    Professional and scientific equipment4.75.413.013.918.821.5
        Total408.1463.81,226.51,516.01,794.22,142.2
Other Manufacturing18.521.743.252.569.581.6
    Ancillary units servicing more than one major group42.249.891.1127.092.8132.9
              Total manufacturing1,576.31,801.74,992.56,381.37,264.48,987.2

The final table of comparative data from the 1975–76 and 1976–77 Censuses of Manufacturing shows Value Added and Net Capital Expenditure. Value Added, as shown in the table of definitions, comprises salaries and wages paid, any employer contributions to superannuation schemes, the operating surplus, depreciation, and indirect taxes less subsidies.

Capital Expenditure Less Disposals comprises gross capital expenditure less the proceeds of “trade-ins” and sales of second-hand capital goods.

Division and Major GroupValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
1975–761976–771975–761976–77
$(million)
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco
    Food497.4593.7104.7119.9
    Beverages58.269.69.116.1
    Tobacco15.117.64.01.4
              Total570.6680.9117.8137.4
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather
    Textiles130.2144.918.114.1
    Clothing (except footwear)94.0117.15.15.7
    Leather18.225.81.72.5
    Footwear25.833.21.81.7
              Total268.2321.026.724.0
Wood and Wood Products
    Wood and cork products138.2165.927.131.8
    Furniture46.053.33.33.8
              Total184.2219.230.335.6
Paper and Paper Products, Printing and Publishing
    Paper and paper products135.1155.929.968.4
    Printing and publishing139.3156.313.814.5
              Total274.4312.243.782.9
Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
    Industrial chemicals53.978.715.924.7
    Other chemical products57.170.74.97.4
    Petroleum9.114.11.14.5
    Petroleum and coal products4.24.20.50.5
    Rubber products43.254.76.67.6
    Plastic products39.556.06.07.0
              Total207.0278.435.051.7
Non-metallic Mineral Products, n.e.c.
    Pottery, china, and earthenware5.98.90.50.6
    Glass and glass products24.731.83.14.4
    Other non-metallic mineral products80.891.214.827.8
              Total111.4131.918.332.8
Basic Metal Industries
    Iron and steel44.861.73.53.3
    Non-ferrous metals31.860.25.732.4
              Total76.6121.99.235.7
Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery, and Equipment
    Metal products187.5241.415.822.7
    Machinery (except electrical)108.7129.98.79.9
    Electrical machinery138.5144.613.410.3
    Transport equipment143.9173.617.522.1
    Professional and scientific equipment6.98.71.00.9
              Total585.5698.256.665.9
Other Manufacturing27.535.50.63.0
    Ancillary units servicing more than one major group45.266.110.99.8
              Total manufacturing2,350.72,865.3349.0478.9

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1976–77—Statistics from the 1976–77 Census of Manufacturing have been given along with data from the 1975–76 Census in the previous tables at industry division and major group level. The following tables, which refer only to the 1976–77 Census of Manufacturing, show statistical data by industry major group and sub-group.

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1976–77
Industry Major Group and Sub-groupEstablishmentsAncillary UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

* Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential data.

Establishments and single-industry ancillary units.

Ancillary units servicing only this major group.

§ Data included in Food products n.e.c. Textiles, n.e.c., Manufacturing industries, n.e.c. and Transport equipment, n.e.c.

Food ManufacturingNo.No.No.$(000)
    Meat export works (incl. export-licensed abattoirs)44531,1551901189,7989,878
    Other abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses3021075318,181112
    Meat packers and canners22-3741152,549524
    Ham, bacon, and smallgoods501011875327,0052,126
    Poultry slaughterhouses24-3524881,6121,717
    Game packers5185233,2681,362
    Meat pies and puddings21-322207
    Casings of animal origin4147104
    Co-operative dairy factories10720571886548,1475,023
    Milk processing plants4339911687,994802
    Ice cream factories1924673202,8291,262
    Factories manufacturing dairy products including processed cheese (excluding co-operative dairy factories)44312145§§
Canning and preserving fruit and vegetables4353109203413,4526,417
Land-based fish, etc., factories57117104663,9241,897
Vegetable and animal oils and fats20528774,148364
Grain milling22371803,743732
Prepared grain breakfast foods6239166
Bread bakeries7817189360812,6402,028
Cake, pastry, and pie (not meat) factories5373173421,4841,026
Cake and pastry kitchens2651086011703,4493,324
Biscuit factories94848013,5733,193
Macaroni, vermicelli, spaghetti, and noodles3711§§
Sugar factories and refineries1230738§§
Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery34296112155,4735,172
Food products, n.e.c.6111144199213,9564,814
Prepared animal feeds5936641044,275379
Total food manufacturing108411653,97613,003341,50052,152
Beverages
    Distilling, rectifying and blending spirits47947**
    Wine6013631625**
    Breweries113171613914,361671
    Malting149310
    Soft drinks and cordials41118864865,0572,233
Total, beverages117313405130722,9784,300
Tobacco Manufactures686966345,0832,837
Textiles
    Wool scouring30994426,373165
    Woollen fibres, spinning and weaving3252744177717,4468,014
    Linen flax mills131§§
    Man-made fibres, spinning and weaving833301752,122780
    Dyeing, printing, and finishing yarns and textiles11220601,496236
    Canvas goods and similar articles of other fabrics775084902,5481,652
    Other made-up textile goods (except clothing)82135210051,8843,505
    Knitting mills1122226468112,76019,207
    Carpets and rugs28111878105811,3294,697
    Cordage, rope and twine6495149§§
    Textiles, n.e.c.2152301214,7841,021
Total, textiles4082510,008955860,74239,277
Wearing Apparel
    Leather gloves and clothing251893665581,324
    Fur clothing16215152182
    Clothing other than leather or fur72137302918,43318,72769,461
Total, wearing apparel76238313918,85019,33770,967
Fur and Leather
    Tanneries and leather finishing15210943865,8661,650
    Fellmongery5741415*
    Fur dressing and dyeing, fur and skin articles, n.e.c.22123203713*
    Leather and leather substitute products (except footwear and clothing)100153310042,7533,363
Total, fur and leather1423182415949,7475,820
Footwear (except rubber, plastic, or wooden)10682064305512,48111,713
Wood and Cork Products (except furniture)
    Sawmills2494621127439,4301,082
    Planing, preserving, and seasoning timber70190914811,900616
    Builders' carpentry and joinery3475347035120,1071,158
    Prefabricated and precut buildings551777745,390304
    Plywood, veneer, and board351179125912,5041,262
    Wooden containers233403342,226129
    Basket and cane wear5369*21
Cork products and wood products, n.e.c.917032673,672894
    Other ancillary units816972*401
Total, wood and cork products8752215,469148696,8735,867
Furniture
    Wooden furniture and upholstery441135040121529,2754,693
    Mattress making163792772,047971
    Window blinds (incl. Venetian and roller)2052121751,009593
Total furniture477185631166732,3316,257
Paper and Paper Products
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard11492030246,8061,838
    Corrugated board, paper board and corrugated board boxes, cases, and cartons523202364515,7733,943
    Paper bags and sacks5243150
    Wallpaper factories331779
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard articles, n.e.c.3379747439,0483,949
    Other ancillary units12713
                Total, pulp and paper products104118504193271,6279,730
Printing and Publishing
    Printing and publishing newspapers, periodicals, and books93396028307443,95713,561
    Job and general printing401165318264033,39011,362
    Service industries for the printing trade767672504,8641,109
                Total, printing and publishing5705512,113596482,21126,032
Industrial Chemicals
    Basic industrial chemicals (except fertilisers)2717251805,764822
    Chemical fertilisers1911334729,910332
    Pesticides114231373,139862
    Synthetic resins, plastic materials, and man-made fibres (except glass)679251457718,1302,453
                Total, industrial chemicals12411499696636,9434,469
Other Chemical Products
    Paints, varnishes, and lacquers382312483598,5651,659
    Drugs and medicines2137907265,3483,001
    Soap and detergents1225272803,8321,233
    Toilet and cosmetic goods3165276823,7003,110
    Cleaning preparations, n.e.c.92171631,598821
    Ink114366712,591375
    Chemical products, n.e.c.5076023174,1021,207
                Total, other chemical products172454277259829,73511,406
Petroleum Refineries13340282,744*
Petroleum and Coal Products
    Bituminous mixtures and products164264292,035176
    Petroleum and coal products, n.e.c.26317
                Total, petroleum and coal products184327462,035176
Rubber Products
    Tyres and tubes1032175816217,121841
    Tyre retreading and vulcanising3543422
    Rubber products, n.e.c.384142380310,3813,261
                Total, rubber products8336361598727,5024,102
Plastic Products, n.e.c.198173921230125,7249,100
Pottery, China, and Earthenware186736164,0172,403
Glass and Glass Products671220546516,7192,146
Other Non-metallic Mineral Products
    Structural clay products293842594,762222
    Cement works42832257,137129
    Lime kilns (not agricultural time)3321
    Cement, lime, and plaster, n.e.c.2362
    Precast concrete1303185910611,407412
    Concrete masonry70932656,217285
    Ready-mixed concrete916983596,683251
    Plaster and fibrous plaster products27425212,82878
    Monumental masonry and stone masonry4121892285746
    Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.c.14728935,090422
                Total, non-metallic mineral products41116685845344,9811,845
Iron and Steel
    Iron and steel basic products6188213715,776*
    Iron and steel forgings and castings38212571269,122*
                Total, iron and steel442313926324,8981,409
Non-ferrous Metal
    Non-ferrous basic metal products162222328917,9421,304
    Non-ferrous forgings, castings, extrusions, etc.556491394,149553
Total, non-ferrous metal712287242822,0911,857
Metal Products (except Machinery and Equipment)
    Cutlery and handtools244181222,486516
    Builders' and joiners' etc., hardware4919584985,8141,936
    Furniture and fixtures (primarily of metal)6039812865,6811,142
    Architectural metal structures and fixtures2144275844516,2011,631
    Sheet metal roofing and related products1484211220513,831871
    Structural steel fabricating, and plate metal and boilershop products23711440028931,9731,043
    Wireworking74214132218,806719
    Nails and fasteners10347652,341317
    Household and kitchen utensils1913021301,533548
    Servicing industries to the metal trades12110502196,249780
    Fabricated metal products, n.e.c.297215588147435,6545,778
    Other ancillary units23511
                Total, metal products12534920,3623965130,56915,281
Machinery (except Electrical)
    Manufacture and reconditioning of engines and turbines9318071024,033365
    Agricultural machinery and equipment1973262437914,6691,222
    Tool, die, and jig making6427081344,138444
    Metal and woodworking machinery, n.e.c.31660784,035337
    Specialised industrial machinery and equipment1263245021616,065751
    Office, computing, and accounting machinery302215371,433153
    Machinery and equipment (except electrical), n.e.c.31712527968930,8252,571
Total, machinery8582312,743163571,1985,843
Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies
    Electrical industrial machinery and apparatus987193075312,5533,225
    Radio, television, and communications equipment and apparatus81132376252215,57611,395
    Household electrical durables and ranges3283781138724,3437,490
    Other electrical appliances and housewares, n.e.c.2858206604,7022,823
    Electrical cables and wires68311735,828853
    Other electrical apparatus and supplies n.e.c.548141585410,1103,760
                Total, electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and sup-plies2994111,153634973,11229,546
Transport Equipment
    Ship building and repairing1691227516714,446553
    Railroad equipment9355647§§
    Motor vehicle assembly plants2125240132334,8607,468
    Motor vehicle body building, caravans, and trailers1102228736512,8401,303
    Motor vehicle parts, n.e.c.61112854957,7611,995
    Motor cycles and bicycles1288§§
    Aircraft (incl. repairs)33271113322,919580
    Transport equipment, n.e.c.171013821,799419
                Total, transport equipment421617,4832576114,62512,318
Measuring and Controlling Equipment, etc.
    Medical and surgical equipment and supplies, n.e.c.91712101,101846
    Laboratory and scientific equipment, measuring and controlling equipment, n.e.c.1541921421,198516
    Photographic and optical goods1911991931,077622
                Total, measuring and controlling equipment4355625453,3761,984
Other Manufacturing Industries
    Jewellery and related articles9125132672,869884
    Musical instruments315310§§
    Sporting and athletic goods443932022,026671
    Brushes and brooms103452132,331994
    Toys and games2923744402,2472,034
    Manufacturing industries, n.e.c.9866789424,1523,502
                Total, other manufacturing industries275112356207413,6258,085
                Total, all manufacturing establishments and ancillary units servicing single industries or major groups9019604214,71185,3471,404,805347,089
Ancillary units servicing only manufacturing56277097425,8695,303
Ancillary units predominantly servicing manufacturing59156581014,5384,113
            Grand total9019719219,04687,1311,445,212356,505

The following table shows additional statistics.

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1976–77
Industry Major Group and Sub-groupDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals

* Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

Establishments and single-industry ancillary units.

Ancillary units servicing only this major group.

§ Data included in Food products, n.e.c., Textiles, n.c.c., Manufacturing industries, n.e.c., and Transport equipment, n.c.c.

$(thousand)
Food Manufacturing
    Meat export works (incl. export-licensed abattoirs)21,886502,111753,878292,15542,740
    Other abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses45610,23420,6839,8581,151
Meat packers and canners28726,64830,6573,998431
Ham, bacon, and smallgoods1,02551,29062,38812,3781,508
    Poultry slaughterhouses50829,47838,9846,105687
Game packers1,14728,07534,3998,8372,322
Meat pies and puddings
Casings of animal origin
Co-operative dairy factories16,964525,490598,94374,94028,770
Milk processing plants1,59157,03970,097–3165,625
Ice cream factories66224,77430,2706,043–886
Factories manufacturing dairy products including processed cheese (excluding co-operative dairy factories)§§§§§
Canning and preserving fruit and vegetables3,45977,434108,32038,0102,964
Land-based fish, etc., factories1,53831,13342,52012,0324,117
Vegetable and animal oils and fats1,06328,27638,03310,5901,931
Grain milling75848,61857,0229,018671
Prepared grain breakfast foods
Bread bakeries1,90455,62677,72422,4172,732
Cake, pastry, and pie (not meat) factories1475,1898,3443,317189
Cake and pastry kitchens51615,32725,86510,907444
Biscuit factories65425,10840,03411,217314
Macaroni, vermicelli, spaghetti, and noodles§§§§§
Sugar factories and refineries§§§§§
Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery87038,13355,04716,073839
Food products, n.e.c.3,523175,780204,56234,35820,868
Prepared animal foods1,27556,36269,27011.7982,521
          Total, food manufacturing60,2331,812,1252,367,040593,735119,938
Beverages
Distilling, rectifying, and blending spirits*7,5849,6322,514*
Wine*17,76824,5559,398*
Breweries3,13870,901114,67545,56314,123
Malting
Soft drinks and cordials1,10626,09337,25112,1612,059
                  Total, beverages5,730122,346186,11369,63616,071
Tobacco Manufactures1,49948,99363,48017,5831,364
Textiles
    Wool scouring80422,55430,80610,0901,182
    Woollen fibres, spinning and weaving2,98065,81998,98134,6056,577
    Linen flax mills§§§§§
    Man-made fibres, spinning and weaving3917,31812,6325,263–147
    Dyeing, printing, and finishing yarns and textiles2454,5177,7233,116716
    Canvas goods, and similar articles of other fabrics24712,06518,6687,224363
    Other made up textile goods (except clothing)45021,66328,6457,491538
    Knitting mills2,83576,431119,04146,3524,739
    Carpets and rugs1,69270,90291,74923,730–648
    Cordage, rope, and twine§§§§§
    Textiles, n.e.c.67024,51231,6737,031745
                Total, textiles10,314305,781439,918144,90214,065
Wearing Apparel
    Leather gloves and clothing1374,6036,9892,929*
    Fur clothing55971,004406*
    Clothing other than leather or fur3,227152,624253,285113,7715,272
                Total wearing apparel3,369157,824261,278117,1065,735
Fur and Leather
    Tanneries and leather finishing87038,65149,33113,8211,647
    Fellmongery751,9902,710761*
    Fur dressing and dyeing, fur and skin articles, n.e.c.1896,3227,5312,502*
Leather and leather substitute products (except footwear and clothing)33715,08522,4778,718478
                Total, fur and leather1,47162,04882,04925,8022,477
Footwear (except rubber, plastic or wooden)1,19046,24574,24533,2181,746
Wood and Cork Products (except furniture)
    Sawmills5,762101,230157,80363,76913,761
    Planing, preserving, and seasoning timber1,46149,68170,56921,8461,950
    Builders' carpentry and joinery1,49562,53193,09032,3462,389
    Prefabricated and precut buildings42728,47237,0518,692982
    Plywood, veneer, and board2,15148,24770,77524,63810,496
    Wooden containers1279,03212,0723,389154
    Basket and cane ware4230404155*
    Cork products and wood products, n.e.c.37310,86017,9547,717887
    Other ancillary units5692,7393,8773,299*
                Total, wood and cork products12,369313,022463,595165,85131,845
Furniture
    Wooden furniture and upholstery1,81177,356119,42146,3603,518
    Mattress making12111,98216,9724,41562
    Window blinds (incl. Venetian and roller)1124,8937,3292,546174
                Total, furniture2,04494,231143,72253,3213,754
Paper and Paper Products
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard21,323263,043377,26497,56858,699
    Corrugated board, paper board and corrugated board boxes, cases, and cartons2,15393,674133,36132,8576,860
    Paper bags and sacks
    Wallpaper factories1,85061,16783,96725,5002,850
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard articles, n.e.c.
    Other ancillary units
Total, pulp and paper products25,326417,884594,592155,92568,409
Printing and Publishing
    Printing and publishing newspapers, periodicals, and books4,15777,836155,01184,3326,580
    Job and general printing4,51586,088148,95763,5207,077
    Service industries for the printing trade5886,40914,6788,479889
                Total, printing and publishing9,260170,333318,646156,33114,546
Industrial Chemicals
    Basic industrial chemicals (except fertilisers)2,40725,11339,04715,3853,149
    Chemical fertilisers3,59273,485101,83215,88012,606
    Pesticides59732,03639,3338,2372,814
    Synthetic resins, plastic materials, and man-made fibres (except glass)3,346104,272136,49539,1856,140
                Total, industrial chemicals9,942234,906316,70778,68724,709
Other Chemical Products
    Paints, varnishes, and lacquers78952,33670,81119,221727
    Drugs and medicines1,09037,12050,91813,6501,821
    Soap and detergents95630,30040,7787,7622,021
    Toilet and cosmetic goods51723,88132,43411,398834
    Cleaning preparations, n.e.c.1969,01711,9423,727246
    Ink2649,40313,5534,620493
    Chemical products, n.e.c.71425,81435,87010,3181,301
                Total, other chemical pro-ducts4,526187,871256,30670,6967,443
Petroleum Refineries1,22639,39753,10514,0664,485
Petroleum and Coal Products
    Bituminous mixtures and products29110,68914,9174,155474
    Petroleum and coal products, n.e.c.
                Total, petroleum and coal products29110,68914,9174,155474
Rubber Products
    Tyres and tubes2,35648,62681,72333,2675,248
    Tyre retreading and vulcanising
    Rubber products, n.e.c.82132,52149,62421,4482,339
                Total, rubber products3,17781,147131,34754,7157,587
Plastic Products, n.e.c4,68599,206151,12656,0287,015
Pottery, China, and Earthenware3816,43915,4338,900635
Glass and Glass Products2,39040,79269,54831,8444,370
Other Non-metallic Mineral Products     
    Structural clay products51011,95619,1077,9791,556
    Cement works4,19326,57844,98918,91716,833
    Lime kilns (not agricultural lime)
    Cement, lime, and plaster, n.e.c.
    Precast concrete1,87430,74151,81319,6633,733
    Concrete masonry95329,73441,74211,7531,127
    Readymixed concrete1,84548,14661,20813,5082,830
    Plaster and fibrous plaster products23615,76219,9454,798305
    Monumental masonry and stone masonry821,8893,5901,77367
    Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.c.80217,50028,49112,8561,362
                Total, non-metallic mineral products10,495182,306270,88591,24727,813
Iron and Steel
    Iron and steel basic products4,001124,735162,67645,6781,519
    Iron and steel forgings and castings99322,40936,94716,0461,767
                Total, iron and steel4,994147,144199,62361,7243,286
Non-ferrous Metal
    Non-ferrous basic metal products5,59290,081133,63651,91431,481
    Non-ferrous forgings, castings, extrusions, etc.57215,05323,2998,250968
                Total, non-ferrous metal6,164105,134156,93560,16432,449
Metal Products (except Machinery and Equipment)
    Cutlery and handtools2788,90113,3575,309753
    Builders' and joiners' etc., hardware67517,02128,65213,3241,759
    Furniture and fixtures (primarily of metal)43517,38226,52310,009935
    Architectural metal structures and fixtures1,13163,02385,64725,5522,042
    Sheet metal roofing and related products1,27177,513102,70629,8482,382
    Structural steel fabricating, and plate metal and boiler-shop products2,09482,643127,06047,6544,440
    Wireworking82263,43378,08518,2661,715
Nails and fasteners30615,33719,1425,020793
Household and kitchen utensils1504,6738,2373,688327
Servicing industries to the metal trades91629,69941,03212,0121,121
Fabricated metal products, n.e.c.3,699111,162177,03870,7056,426
Other ancillary units
                Total, metal products11,777490,787707,479241,38722,693
Machinery (except Electrical)
    Manufacture and conditioning of engines and turbines41710,55718,1577,673565
    Agricultural machinery and equipment1,28167,38192,97326,0151,035
    Tool, die, and jig making7137,44914,7937,896965
    Metal and woodworking machinery, n.e.c.33610,91316,5206,623838
    Specialised industrial machinery and equipment99560,55186,91426,1541,361
    Office, computing, and accounting machinery1283,1615,8572,874226
    Machinery and equipment, n.e.c.2,728105,210150,65852,6514,926
                Total, machinery6,598265,222385,872129,8869,916
Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies
    Electrical industrial machinery and apparatus81338,31360,35923,5911,033
    Radio, television, and communications equipment and apparatus1,613105,686132,71436,0142,432
    Household electrical durables and ranges2,013102,807140,16843,3013,983
    Other electrical appliances and housewares, n.e.c.43220,97228,5879,294–27
    Electrical cables and wires87631,97741,97611,3611,166
    Other electrical apparatus and supplies, n.e.c.1,13734,76654,20520,9991,669
                Total, electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies6,884334,521458,009144,56010,256
Transport Equipment
    Ship building and repairing87532,26151,49721,0021,792
    Railroad equipment§§§§§
    Motor vehicle assembly plants4,977254,621307,90460,8314,414
    Motor vehicle body building, caravans, and trailers72549,94669,59721,8922,095
    Motor vehicle parts, n.e.c.91020,25134,66615,8741,897
    Motor cycles and bicycles§§§§§
    Aircraft (incl. repairs)1,69925,39653,48829,7769,717
    Transport equipment, n.e.c.58629,11152,11624,2152,174
              Total, transport equipment9,772411,586569,268173,59022,089
Measuring and Controlling Equipment, etc.
    Medical and surgical equipment and supplies, n.e.c.1195,4348,6853,173167
    Laboratory and scientific equipment, measuring and controlling equipment, n.e.c.1052,9864,8212,383454
    Photographic and optical goods1315,4687,9823,132282
              Total, measuring and controlling equipment35513,88821,4888,688903
Other Manufacturing Industries
    Jewellery and related articles1929,58615,9266,926328
    Musical instruments§§§§§
    Sporting and athletic goods2799,24511,9616,099447
    Brushes and brooms2186,57510,0664,687634
    Toys and games34410,65215,9505,858656
    Manufacturing industries, n.e.c.51516,47227,66811,885955
              Total, other manufacturing industries1,54852,53081,57135,4553,020
              Total, all manufacturing establishments and ancillary units servicing single industries or major groups218,0106,254,3978,854,2972,799,202469,093
              Ancillary units servicing only manufacturing2,39674,54776,67646,3006,659
              Ancillary units predominantly servicing manufacturing2,26152,40356,26919,7763,134
              Grand total222,6676,381,3478,987,2422,865,278478,886

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY—The following tables show the distribution of the manufacturing industry by statistical area in 1976–77. The tables illustrate the high degree of concentration of industry in the four main centres and very noticeably in the Central Auckland and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty Statistical Areas.

Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemales
 No.No.No.$(00)
Northland204194620105134,923
Central Auckland311823072,62035,009647,145
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty11637526,2827662217,348
East Coast686208380113,929
Hawke's Bay3212710,516369075,107
Taranaki23686597174449,034
Wellington158316337,70516,651317,565
            Total, North Island6693528160,42366,6081,355,051
Marlborough81412114768,412
Nelson18583337127024,626
Westland70311902848,397
Canterbury132611132,65512,512253,401
Otago4335311,836465689,200
Southland231128394132562,631
            Total, South Island232619158,62320,523446,666
            Total, New Zealand9019719219,04687,1311,801,717

Figure 18.1. FACTORY PRODUCTION 1974–77DISTRIBUTION OF FACTORIES. PERSONS ENGAGED AND PRODUCTION BY STATISTICAL AREAS - NORTH ISLAND

FACTORY PRODUCTION 1974–77DISTRIBUTION OF FACTORIES. PERSONS ENGAGED AND PRODUCTION BY STATISTICAL AREAS - NORTH ISLAND

Figure 18.2. FACTORY PRODUCTION 1976–77DISTRIBUTION OF FACTORIES. PERSONS ENGAGED AND PRODUCTION BY STATISTICAL AREAS - SOUTH ISLAND

FACTORY PRODUCTION 1976–77DISTRIBUTION OF FACTORIES. PERSONS ENGAGED AND PRODUCTION BY STATISTICAL AREAS - SOUTH ISLAND

Additional financial statistics of manufacturing by statistical area during 1976–77 are shown in the following table.

Statistical AreaPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(000)
Northland134,240196,76459,5179,044
Central Auckland2,301,6533,219,0091,020,337116,716
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty911,1891,241,430347,97694,694
East Coast36,00558,08724,662917
Hawke's Bay269,255392,022135,90029,654
Taranaki266,613338,93677,17314,014
Wellington1,143,8141,562,675488,19268,474
                  Total, North Island5,062,7687,008,9222,153,757333,511
Marlborough28,27841,82914,4572,015
Nelson84,700122,04840,95020,263
Westland24,89937,58114,6511,544
Canterbury721,2491,080,106386,33355,200
Otago269,148397,557138,68719,101
Southland190,305299,199116,44447,254
                  Total, South Island1,318,5791,978,320711,521145,375
                  Total, New Zealand6,381,3478,987,2422,865,278478,886

A similar summary of manufacturing during 1976–77 is given by employment districts in the following tables.

Employment DistrictOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid AprilSalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 No.No.No.No.$(000)$(000)
Whangarei204194620105130,9293,994
Auckland311823072,62035,009498,516148,629
Hamilton6675012,701423780,73217,247
Tauranga21352728116615,7033,972
Rotorua2832010,850225689,7019,981
Gisborne686208380111,3682,561
Napier146123373139021,3934,691
Hastings150136835216538,8827,794
New Plymouth23085758169737,7966,642
Wanganui17564460158524,7115780
Palmerston North392208285354249,40613,348
Masterton12392602132715,8705,037
Lower Hutt4084413,995547297,37124,266
Wellington516869513491066,72722,005
                  Total, North Island6693528160,42366,6081,079,106275,945
Employment DistrictOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid AprilSalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 No.No.No.No.$(000)$(000)
Blenheim81412114766,8131,599
Nelson16072937111317,4654,046
Greymouth95415904419,9691,543
Christchurch112510727,90811,278175,44045,039
Ashburton56212364147,4181,735
Timaru1442350581920,8772,847
Oamaru42215734308,4431,796
Dunedin3925110,269422761,96217,043
Invercargill231128394132557,7194,912
                  Total, South Island232619158,62320,523366,10680,560
                  Total, New Zealand9019719219,04687,1311,445,212356,505

Additional financial statistics of manufacturing during 1976–77 are shown by employment districts in the following table.

Employment DistrictDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Whangarei6,482134,240196,76459,5179,044
Auckland65,4652,301,6533,219,0091,020,337116,716
Hamilton12,440430,972558,248141,93225,234
Tauranga2,97882,405116,42830,4586,511
Rotorua24,258397,769566,716175,54762,947
Gisborne1,87136,00558,08724,662917
Napier6,065120,690168,40354,12719,488
Hastings7,001137,009208,08477,9389,812
New Plymouth8,760254,344322,03571,67213,934
Wanganui2,79787,696128,00243,28411,478
Palmerston North7,216273,179363,61799,99514,467
Masterton2,87196,009124,37034,4896,294
Lower Hutt12,519459,600617,259190,37821,557
Wellington9,021251,197361,901129,42115,114
                  Total, North Island169,7455,062,7687,008,9222,153,757333,511
Blenheim1,07328,27841,82914,4572,015
Nelson2,88375,008103,48032,3454,200
Greymouth3,25834,59156,15023,25617,607
Christchurch19,396645,521953,308333,41136,018
Ashburton79515,29829,70613,6852,068
Timaru2,95160,07596,65939,16017,104
Oamaru99131,04146,72615,6512,930
Dunedin8,650238,462351,264123,11316,181
Invercargill12,934190,305299,199116,44447,254
                  Total, South Island52,9221,318,5791,978,320711,521145,375
                  Total, New Zealand222,6676,381,3478,987,2422,865,278478,886

PRODUCTION OF SELECTED GOODS—The following table shows the volume of production of selected goods. It should be noted that the figures refer to the calendar years (except where otherwise stated) and not to production years as in most tables in this section. This table is not based on the censuses of manufacturing from which the data in other tables in this section are derived.

Commodity197719781979

* Other than rubber or plastic.

See also section 14A Farming (General) and section 24 Consumption of Food.

Year ended May.

§ Provisional.

Year ended June.

Figures related only to operations of superphosphate manufacturing works.

** Gross production, including wastage.

Refrigerators and deep freezersNo. (000)177.9162.2196.6
Washing machinesNo. (000)65.753.567.3
Tumbler clothes dryersNo. (000)116.480.865.6
Electric ranges and rangettesNo. (000)74.645.551.7
Lawn mowersNo. (000)87.177.593.7
Radios and radiogramsNo. (000)168.5143.3200.3
Television setsNo. (000)119.190.0x118.3
RecordsNo. (000)560665136465
Cassette tapes (prerecorded)No. (000)125116742110
Textiles and Clothing
Woollen and worsted yarntonnes18,77617,68518,119
Piece goodssq metres (000)265524302724
Blanketsprs (000)200153138
Carpetssq metres (000)10,04285469203
Women's—
    Overcoats(000)220.1183.4209.3
    Skirts(000)699.9724.41163.0
    Slacks and jeans(000)1343.8755.9423.6
    Dresses(000)1151.21225.51614.2
    Blouses and shirts(000)1964.11606.31950.1
Men's—
    Suits(000)217.9167.0132.8
    Trousers (working)(000)929.21119.41168.6
    Trousers (other)(000)1571.81109.51131.4
    Shirts (men's and boys')(000)496947515018
Footwear
Men's footwear*prs (000)1570.11502.01697.5
Women's footwear*prs (000)2037.12186.92697.2
Children's footwear*prs (000)955.5897.5898.6
Slippersprs (000)1098.5963.81077.5
Rubber and plastic boots and shoesprs (000)1091.4983.11264.8
Gym or tennis footwearprs (000)1028.3595.5701.4
Foodstuffs
Liquid milklitres (million)6442.05892.06176.0
Creamery buttertonnes (000)277.1233.6251.8
Cheesetonnes (000)81.078.390.2
Skim-milk powdertonnes (000)205.7172.9174.4
Condensed and powdered whole milktonnes (000)77.978.777.3
Caseintonnes (000)57.057.063.5
Flourtonnes (000)220.1218.8214.0
Wheatmeal and wholemealtonnes (000)5.46.26.2
Refined sugartonnes (000)159.9134.1133.4
Breakfast foodstonnes (000)17.718.818.9
Biscuitstonnes (000)25.225.323.9
Ice creamlitres (million)54.557.953.5
Beer and stout**litres (million)390.3x405.9x375.3
Canned vegetablestonnes (000)20.618.016.3
Quick frozen vegetablestonnes (000)52.6x57.7x54.2
Canned fruittonnes (000)15.713.616.7
Transport
Passenger carsNo. (000)62.951.870.5
Trucks, vans, and busesNo. (000)12.611.113.8
TyresNo. (000)1805.01525.01649.0
Miscellaneous
Papertonnes (000)650.4x613.3x724.5
Wood pulptonnes (000)1095.0x1030.0x1203.0
Chemical fertiliserstonnes (000)2268.02404.02285.0
Cigarettes§million6512.06443.06406.0

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF MAIN INDICATORS—In 1974–75 the department introduced an enterprise-based economic census of manufacturing. Following completion of the first two annual censuses on the new basis a quarterly survey of the main indicators for the manufacturing sector was developed and this commenced with the June 1977 quarter.

The new survey replaced the previous short term survey of manufacturer's stocks (now discontinued) and was designed to provide rapidly more comprehensive economic indicators for the use of the Government, trade organisations, and business people, as well as providing data for use in the quarterly national accounts. With the co-operation of manufacturers, and because the survey is a sample one only, it is possible to publish results in a much more timely manner than is possible in the case of a full census.

It is also hoped that this survey will obviate the need for an annual Manufacturing Census. The move towards a less frequent Census of Manufacturing is being tested out by having a gap in 1978, and then a 2-year gap between 1979 and 1982. A firm decision will then be taken on the planned conversion to 5-yearly censuses.

The survey, which is a sample one, is based on 1400 firms selected from the 1974–75 Census of Manufacturing. All manufacturing divisions of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification are represented. Allowance is made in the survey for the opening of new factories and the closure of established ones.

A long term series covering earlier years has been derived using the values of the previous survey of manufacturer's stocks which were not conceptually the same as this survey.

The basic definitions of the headings are as follows:

Sales—This is the actual value of sales (whether in New Zealand or overseas) during the quarter. It includes sales of goods without processing or assembly, and also includes processing of other firms' materials.

Stocks—Stocks are as at the end of each quarter. They are grouped under two headings—

  1. stocks of materials include components, stores, fuels, containers, and other packaging materials.

  2. Stocks of finished goods include work in progress. This section also includes goods purchased for resale without further processing.

Gross Capital Expenditure—This includes the purchase of new and second hand fixed assets and the cost of work done by a firm's own employees, in producing, constructing and installing fixed assets for its own use.

Salaries and Wages—This is the gross salaries and wages of all employees (full time, part time, and casual) during the quarter. It does not include drawings of working partners.

Purchases—This figure includes the value of purchases of all materials, components, supplies, containers and other packaging materials, fuels, electricity, and water. It also includes payments for commission and contract services, and purchases for resale without processing or assembly.

Other Operating Expenses—These include all other expenses except interest, bad debts, and donations.

Hours Worked—Hours worked during the quarter relate to paid employees only and include overtime hours.

All-industry totals for a series of quarters are shown in the following table. Annual figures (where given) are for the year ended 31 March. Stocks are as at the end of each period.

PeriodSalesStocksGross Capital Expenditure
MaterialsFinished Goods x
$(million)
19789,905.71,063.21,051.1410.9
197911,393.91,116.01,120.1467.1
Quarter
1978—Mar2,406.11,063.21,051.1100.8
    Jun2,605.91,032.61,070.0109.4
    Sep2,749.7x1,027.0965.6116.8
    Dec3,054.6x1,030.9980.1116.9
1979—Mar2,983.81,116.01,120.1123.9
    Jun3,180.71,163.91,195.0119.9
    Sep3,275.71,231.51,165.8135.6
    Dec3,677.31,298.01,172.6153.5
PeriodSalaries and WagesPurchasesOther Operating ExpensesHours Worked
  $(million) (000)
19782,062.65,709.61,782.5532,887
19792,362.95,971.71,834.9538,028
Quarter
1978—Mar516.91,394.5443.0125,875
    Jun551.01,433.5445.2133,801
    Sep547.71,469.5x455.7132,897
    Dec630.41,680.8x486.5137,022
1979—Mar633.81,757.9447.5134,307
    Jun648.21,842.9512.6137,270
    Sep654.91,890.5517.6136,962
    Dec746.42,108.6566.5139,168

The following table shows the main indicators by industry divisions for the year ended 31 March 1979. The industry divisions are in accordance with the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification. Primary Food covers the processing of meat and dairy products.

Industry DivisionsNZSICSalesStocksGross Capital Expenditure
MaterialsFinished Goods
 $(000)
Primary food312,291,20366,347291,326132,080
Other food311,325,818139,597128,01457,175
Textiles, clothing321,025,637116,496123,03436,396
Wood and furniture33684,39958,53266,01610,852
Paper and printing341,136,452102,19171,38653,418
Chemicals351,277,524145,182119,55264,963
Non-metallic mineral36405,12433,76830,52515,891
Basic metal37479,02953,67327,51417,558
Fabricated metal382,667,247387,236251,30475,588
Other man industries39101,49012,94111,4593,205
        Total, all industries 11,393,9231,115,9631,120,129467,126
Industry DivisionsNZSICSalaries and WagesPurchasesOther Operating ExpensesHours Worked
  $(000)$(000)$(000)(000)
Primary food31479,3981,114,363258,14289,043
Other food31189,016758,335219,52545,597
Textiles, clothing32276,958539,799177,27176,327
Wood and furniture33155,420340,197113,61539,078
Paper and printing34252,739583,957192,87455,202
Chemicals35231,984643,527255,52251,738
Non-metallic mineral3684,228180,75093,70219,907
Basic metal3769,984258,04689,51812,476
Fabricated metal38598,8191,511,312415,363142,041
Other man, industries3924,31941,42419,3676619
        Total, all industries 2,362,8655,971,7101,834,899538,028

SOURCES OF INFORMATION—The results of recent censuses of manufacturing have been published in a series of bulletins covering individual statistical areas and individual industries. These are available from the Department of Statistics. Other information on manufacturing industries will be found in the following publications:

Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

Pocket Digest of Statistics.

The Department of Trade and Industry is responsible for a number of publications including Regional Development News, the Productivity and Technology Journal, and the monthly news brief, Productivity News.

Chapter 19. Section 19 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND HOUSING

Table of Contents

“Perhaps the most important lesson to be learned is the clear need for more sophistication in the management of the housing system to ensure that the limited resources are used in everyone's interest.

It is necessary to recognise that housing performs the following functions:

  1. It is a consumer item on which the average household spends a considerable portion of its income;

  2. It is an investment for the entrepreneur and the owner-occupier for whom it often represents the major accumulation of wealth;

  3. It is an economic sector in which the level of activity has a major impact or employment, transport, and manufacturing and a wide range of service industries;

  4. It is a social good the supply of which is an important element in the overall quality of life for most people and for which the community as a whole takes some responsibility through government action to help families whose needs cannot be met in the normal market situation.”

Housing New Zealand (National Housing Commission, 1978.)

The downturn of the economy in 1974 and the difficult economic climate in succeeding years have been reflected in conditions in the building and construction industry. The labour force in the industry has declined significantly since 1975, following a general slowdown in the annual rate of labour force growth that had been in evidence since late in 1974. This slowdown followed by actual decline came after a period of accelerating growth in the post-1971 period when the expansion was assisted by an improved liquidity situation and increased expenditure by the Government on capital works, including civil engineering projects, schools, and multi-rise buildings.

The building and construction industry has always been sensitive to fluctuations in the economy as a whole. In recent years the Government has endeavoured to cushion the effects of such fluctuations in order to provide more stability in the industry while, at the same time, allowing it to adjust to a level related to the resources available.

During 1978–79 the demand for new houses and flats continued to decrease. Only 19200 new houses and flats were completed during the year ended 31 March 1979 compared with 24100 during the previous March year and the high point of 34300 during the 1974–75 March year.

A number of factors have contributed to the decline in the demand for new dwellings: high emigration, a decreasing birth rate, unemployment, rapidly increasing building costs (about 10 percent annually), and rising interest rates. Although for the first time in many years, because of deliberate Government policies, lending institutions had more money available to invest in housing in 1978–79 the high cost of servicing loans was still a deterrent to many would-be borrowers. More than 85 percent of people who borrowed from the private sector in 1978–79 chose to buy an existing house. To build a house now costs substantially more than buying a similar existing house and there has been a growing desire by people seeking Housing Corporation finance to have a freer choice between building a home or buying an existing one. In its housing policy for the 1979–80 financial year the Government no longer laid down the proportion of Housing Corporation loans for new and existing houses, thereby allowing the corporation greater flexibility in meeting the desires of loan applicants.

In the “other buildings” sector of the industry, demand from the private sector remained depressed during 1978–79. While the reactivation of Government programmes maintained a fair degree of activity, the Government was not able to increase state-funded work to the extent desired by the construction industry.

The main emphasis in the state construction sector during 1978–79 continued to be on energy development, with lower levels of activity continuing in roading programmes involving State highways or local authority roads and streets.

Within the residential field the trend away from houses to flats appears to have passed its peak. New flat units, which comprised only 5.5 percent of all residential units for which permits were issued in 1960—61, reached a peak of 36.5 percent of dwelling units for which permits were issued in 1976–77. In 1977–78 they had declined to 32.3 percent of permits for dwellings, and in 1978–79 to 28.2 percent.

The modern tendency is for people to buy, rather than rent, flats. Another development in residential accommodation is the growing popularity of town houses, a type of construction which combines some of the advantages of both houses and flats and makes more economical use of space than does the traditional house on the 1/4-acre section.

BUILDING PERFORMANCE GUARANTEE CORPORATION—The Building Performance Guarantee Corporation was established early in 1978 to offer an insurance scheme designed to protect the buyers of new homes against the consequences of poor workmanship, the use of inferior building materials, the bankruptcy of the builder, or other failures to complete a house in accordance with the contract.

BUILDING INDUSTRY ADVISORY COUNCIL—The functions of the Building Industry Advisory Council are: (a) to give advice to Government through the Minister of Works and Development on matters affecting the building and construction industries; (b) to maintain an overall and continuing review of the industries and (c) to give advice to the industries on the likely effects of building trends. The membership of the council consists of nine representatives from sectors of the industries, namely building and civil engineering contractors, architects, professional engineers, workers, and suppliers, plus one representative each from Treasury and Ministry of Works and Development. Members have been appointed by the Minister of Works and Development on the recommendation of organisations within the building industry.

NATIONAL HOUSING COMMISSION—The National Housing Commission, established in 1974, is a body whose principal functions are to advise the Minister of Housing on all matters relating to housing in New Zealand and to inquire into and keep under review the housing needs of the population. In addition it is charged with assisting in the co-ordination of all persons, bodies, and agencies, both public and private, concerned with housing in New Zealand and to promote co-operation between them.

Currently there are six appointed members, comprising the chairman (a barrister and solicitor with local body housing background), the general manager of a lending institution, an architect, a builder, an accountant, and a professor of economics.

Early in 1978 the commission published Housing New Zealand, the first of its intended 5-yearly reports on the present and prospective position of housing in New Zealand.

Up to the end of 1979 the commission had issued 24 other publications based on a continuing programme of research into a variety of aspects of housing.

TRENDS IN AVERAGE COSTS—The following table illustrates trends in the cost of building activity over a period. (Source: Housing Corporation.)

Type of BuildingCost at End of Year
1950196019701976197719781979
* Area 102 sq metres. Cost comparability is affected by design changes from year to year.
 $    $    $    $    $    $    $    
State rental house (976 sq ft)4,3445,5287,45019,690*21,965*23,755*27,715*

CENSUS OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION—The third 5-yearly census of the activities of the building and construction industry shows that the total value of work done in the production year 1973–74 was $1,716 million compared with $814 million in 1968–69. If subcontracts and other identifiable transactions between firms within the industry are deducted, the value of work done becomes $1,405 million for 1973–74 and $697 million for 1968–69. The net values are a relatively large proportion of the gross national product of the 2 years at 16.3 percent and 16.0 percent respectively.

In 1973–74 expenditure by the industry on capital goods for its own use such as plant and machinery, motor vehicles, and land and buildings was $96 million compared with $43 million in 1968–69 representing 4.6 percent and 4.5 percent of the estimated gross capital formation (excluding stock changes) in the 2 respective years.

Of the total gross value of production for the year 1973–74 of $1,716 million, $1,308 million or 76 percent was represented by work on buildings (involving construction, alteration, repair, maintenance, or demolition); $140 million was for work on roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, wharves, aerodromes, and airstrips; $56 million was for land drainage, sewerage, river protection, irrigation schemes, water supply, and well drilling; $62 million was for earthmoving, reclamation, and land development; $6 million was for the removal of overburden for mines or quarries; $82 million was for power, telephone, and telegraph-line erection, cable laying, radio and television masts, and power development; $46 million was for other construction; and $16 million was for plant hire.

One of the main purposes of the 5-yearly Census of Building and Construction is to examine the structure of the industry. Of the total gross output of $1,716 million in 1973–74, private firms were responsible for output to the value of $1,364 million both as main and subcontractors, Government departments used their own staff for a value output of $147 million, while local authorities did work to the value of $104 million with their own staff. Private owner-builders not normally engaged in building and construction undertook $101 million of their own building work. In 1973–74 Government and local authorities gave more work to private firms, and correspondingly reduced their own activities.

Private Contractors—The business of private contractors in building and construction in 1973–74 is summarised in the following table.

Nature of BusinessUnitsPersons EngagedSalaries and WagesWorking ProprietorsMaterialsValue of Work Done
As Main ContractorAs SubcontractorTotal*
* Includes value of work done as labour-only contractors.
 No.No.$(m)No.$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)
Building contracting567427,672124.04070302.3761.047.9816.2
Civil engineering contracting324606933.86940.7112.221.6134.9
Shop and office fitting403671.7182.95.22.57.8
Electrical contracting991376316.545834.322.940.765.0
Plumbing and drainlaying1365438018.679144.033.948.883.3
Panfiting and paperhanging1231340514.510769.219.618.638.5
Plastering2137473.21342.02.05.98.0
Roofing contracting766553.72213.24.318.923.2
Bricklaying and/or blocklaying38510254.42978.14.413.818.5
Glazing895212.1235.32.57.29.7
Flooring contracting843061.3403.42.73.36.7
Earthmoving28715267.81153.132.35.037.5
Road sealing386193.085.612.31.313.8
Concrete contracting1156082.8604.15.44.410.0
Heating and air conditioning contracting8914546.81716.719.511.130.6
Demolition contracting221250.591.00.51.5
Scaffolding contracting111870.840.31.61.9
Other391349216.613319.625.031.656.9
                    Total11,42556,921262.27344514.81.066.6285.01,364.0

HOUSING—More than half of New Zealand's estimated 1056000 dwellings have been built during the past 25 years. The average house is about 102 square metres in area, is single-storeyed, and normally built of timber; fittings are of a reasonably high standard, especially in the kitchen.

Approximately 90 percent of the dwellings completed annually are built for private home ownership, with most of the balance being erected by Government agencies for rental purposes. There is relatively little housing built for private rental, but some rental flats are created by conversion of existing dwellings. Rapidly rising property costs have made it difficult for persons on modest incomes to finance their way into home ownership.

Since 1937 the State, using the services of private contractors, has been building rental dwellings. At March 1979, 85545 of these houses and flats had been built and since 1950, 28335 of them had been sold to the occupiers. Rental dwellings are let to applicants in difficult housing circumstances.

Under the Community and Housing Improvement Programme (CHIP), a new measure which came into effect on 1 September 1979, local authorities, builders, and private home owners are provided with a wide range of financial assistance for residential urban renewal projects. Activity in this field is becoming of increasing importance as the housing stock ages and the rate of new housing construction declines.

The Unit Titles Act 1972 made provision for a new type of ownership of units in a multi-unit development. Individual owners are entitled to a legal estate in their respective units and can sell or transfer a unit without requiring the consent of other owners as is the case where a block of shares in a flat-owning company provides the right to a flat.

GOVERNMENT CAPITAL ASSISTANCE FOR NEW HOUSING—The following table shows the bulk of the Government's capital expenditure on new housing during the latest available 3 years. It does not include expenditure on residential properties by the Departments of Maori Affairs or Lands and Survey, expenditure by the Housing Corporation for other departments, or advances under the scheme for the capitalisation of family benefits.

Expenditure1976–771977–781978–79
 $(thousand)
Land purchase and development, State house construction, etc.68,75562,09260,569
Advances for new urban houses140,900132,551185,272
Advances for new rural houses5,4568,1415,358
Loans to local authorities for rural housing, pensioners' housing, etc.17,10116,86917,087
Subsidies paid to local authorities, and religious or welfare organisations for housing of elderly8,3838,4777,089

HOUSES AND FLATS COMPLETED—Statistics of completions are given in the following table; they include flats created by conversion of existing dwellings. The statistics are dependent on the supply of information by local authorities and indications are that they have been understated.

Year Ended 31 MarchGovernmentPrivate and Local AuthorityTotal New Houses and FlatsFlats Created by ConversionTotal Housing Units
State RentalTenancies*

* Includes Education and Hospital Boards.

City, borough and county councils, etc., comprising pensioner units, staff housing, etc.

Additional dwelling units created by conversion of existing buildings, e.g., one house converted into two flats.

1975105640533,00034,30036034,600
1976188057030,50032,90025033,200
1977191359826,10028,60029028,900
1978142749122200x24100x20024300x
1979118050417,50019,20011019,300

DEMOLITIONS—According to notifications received, the totals of dwellings demolished in recent years have been: 1974–75, 2145; 1975–76, 2056; 1976–77, 2097; 1977–78, 1808; and 1978–79, 1625.

BUILDING STATISTICS—The principal official building statistics are the Department of Statistics monthly analyses of building permits and its quarterly analyses of the value of work put in place. Other building information is available from the 5-yearly Census of Building and Construction, the 5-yearly Census of Population and Dwellings, and inter-industry statistics.

The prime source of the following statistics is building permits issued by local authorities. To enable a complete picture of building activity to be shown, construction commenced by Government departments, hospitals, education and harbour boards are included, even though permits may not actually be taken out.

The permit value shown represents in the majority of instances the contract price or estimated cost of the building prior to the commencement of construction. The finished cost may be higher because of wage increases, the rising cost of materials, etc. This applies particularly to large buildings which usually take a considerable time to complete.

The values of building permits for the latest 5 years are analysed by types of building in the following table. Permits cover alterations and additions as well as new buildings. Government and other buildings not requiring building permits are included.

Type of BuildingYear Ended 31 March
197519761977x1978x1979

* Includes ancillary buildings.

Includes alterations and additions.

Dwellings$(million)
Houses400.3432.5454.4378.5390.3
Flats146.3160.9180.0125.2108.6
Alterations and additions75.891.8115.3116.7138.7
Other Buildings
Hostels, boardinghouses3.94.65.521.612.8
Hotels, motels, etc.16.916.119.119.515.3
Hospitals and nursing homes*32.291.516.050.331.8
Education buildings*75.777.678.169.054.4
Shops, restaurants, taverns28.818.034.231.634.2
Office and administrative110.284.291.4103.4127.1
Warehouses38.538.854.249.346.8
Factories, powerhouses, etc.97.186.8120.4124.5104.1
Social, cultural, and recreational24.724.226.531.645.4
Farm buildings16.619.730.332.334.5
Miscellaneous buildings14.411.76.44.05.4
    All buildings1,081.31,158.51,231.91,157.41,149.4

The following tables show the value, and a percentage analysis of the value, of building permits and authorisations during 1978–79 by type of building and sector of ownership. The high percentage of the total value of building permits represented by houses and fiats built by the private sector (“Households”) highlights the importance of private investment in residential buildings as a key to stability in the building industry.

Type of BuildingProducer EnterprisesFinancial IntermediariesGeneral GovernmentPrivate Non-profit OrganisationsHouseholdsRest of the WorldTotal

* Includes ancillary buildings.

Includes alterations and additions.

Value $(million)
Houses and flats54.4- -14.50.4568.4- -637.6
Hostels and boardinghouses1.3- -8.72.8- -- -12.8
Hotels, motels, etc15.1- -0.20.1- -- -15.3
Hospitals and nursing homes*1.0- -24.95.9- -- -31.8
Education buildings*- -- -51.62.7- -- -54.4
Shops, restaurants, taverns31.62.50.10.1- -- -34.2
Office and administrative64.319.441.22.1- -0.1127.1
Warehouses43.61.71.10.4- -- -46.8
Factories, powerhouses, etc91.60.212.10.1- -0.1104.1
Social, cultural, and recreational buildings3.4- -18.123.9- -- -45.4
Farm buildings34.3- -0.3- -- -- -34.5
Miscellaneous4.2- -0.90.3- -- -5.4
    All buildings344.623.9173.438.8568.40.21149.4
Type of BuildingProducer EnterprisesFinancial intermediariesGeneral GovernmentPrivate Non-profit OrganisationsHouseholdsRest of the WorldTotal
Percentage of Total Value
Houses and flats4.7- -1.3- -49.5- -55.5
Hostels and boardinghouses0.1- -0.80.2- -- -1.1
Hotels, motels, etc1.3- -- -- -- -- -1.3
Hospitals and nursing homes0.1- -2.20.5- -- -2.8
Education buildings- -- -4.50.2- -- -4.7
Shops, restaurants, taverns2.70.2--- -- -3.0
Office and administrative5.61.73.60.2- -- -11.1
Warehouses3.80.10.1-- -- -4.1
Factories, powerhouses, etc8.0- -1.1-- -- -9.1
Social, cultural, recreational0.3- -1.62.1- -- -3.9
Farm buildings3.0- -- -- -- -- -3.0
Miscellaneous0.4- -0.1- - - -- -0.5
    All buildings30.02.115.13.440.5- -100.0

The values of permits for alterations and additions are included for all types of buildings.

The total for houses and flats during 1978–79 includes 19050 permits or authorisations to a total value of $498.9 million for new dwellings. This included authorisations by the Central Government for 1689 new houses (value $45.5 million) and 247 new flats (value $6.2 million).

Compared with the previous year, in 1978–79 the value of permits and authorisations for houses and flats made up a lower percentage of the aggregate total (55.5 percent as compared with 56.4 percent).

Some categories of buildings used in this and other building-permit tables require additional explanation. Hostels and boardinghouses, for example, include barracks, orphanages, nurses' homes, and boarding school accommodations; hotels and motels include private and licensed hotels, but exclude taverns; education buildings include primary and secondary schools, teachers colleges, technical institutes, university buildings, kindergartens, and play centres; and the broad category—social, cultural, recreational—includes churches, halls, theatres, cinemas, clubrooms, community centres, and grandstands.

In the following table the numbers of permits for new houses and flats over a period of 5 years are shown along with permit values. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

Year Ended 31 MarchNew HousesNew FlatsTotal Dwelling Permits*Total Permits All Buildings*
Dwelling UnitsValueAreaDwelling UnitsValueNo. of Blocks
* Includes the value of permits for alterations and additions.
  $(m)sq metres (000) $(m) $(m)$(m)
197521,436400.32602.411,665146.34336622.41,081.3
197620,932432.52541.011,257160.94192685.21,158.5
1977x19,160454.42441.110,994180.04197749.71,231.9
1978x14,358378.51819.56847125.22815620.41,157.4
197913,670390.31732.95380108.62223637.71,149.4

The average permit value for houses and flats in 1978–79 was $26,190, compared with $23,754 in 1977–78, $21,039 in 1976–77, $18,434 in 1975–76, and $16,513 in 1974–75.

The following diagram illustrates building-permit figures for new houses and flats.

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS—The following table shows for urban areas and statistical divisions, building permit values and dwelling completions for the March year 1978–79. Where applicable the urban areas are included in the relevant statistical division.

AreaNew Houses and FlatsTotal (All Permits) ValueDwelling Completions*
NumberValue
* Figures for completions of dwellings are rounded to indicate that exact numbers are not always available and are dependent on notifications from local authorities.
  $(m)$(m) 
Whangarei U.A.3228.417.5280
Northern Auck. U.A.141838.157.31140
Western Auck. U.A.99022.939.0740
Central Auck. U.A.61017.977.6790
Southern Auck. U.A.184547.989.32180
Auckland Stat. Div.5391141.3286.55240
Hamilton U.A.75117.938.1650
Hamilton Stat. Div.124431.669.31060
Tauranga U.A.63015.726.3600
Rotorua U.A.3067.218.4310
Gisborne U.A.1604.510.1150
Napier U.A.3538.015.5300
Hastings U.A.3558.621.4360
Napier-Hastings Stat. Div.74317.840.0700
New Plymouth U.A.2536.715.2290
Palmerston Nth. U.A.3719.124.9380
Palmerston Nth. Stat. Div.53413.834.8550
Lower Hutt U.A.3589.027.6330
Upper Hutt U.A.1984.910.4300
Porirua Basin U.A.2566.819.1230
Wellington U.A.41410.462.1340
Wellington Stat. Div.147637.9129.61380
Wanganui U.A.2075.113.8310
Masterton U.A.772.04.1100
Nelson U.A.2757.121.0220
Christchurch U.A.124530.584.81660
Christchurch Stat. Div.143335.898.31880
Timaru U.A.1173.17.7150
Dunedin U.A.2888.243.4380
Dunedin Stat. Div.3209.245.5410
Invercargill U. A.3418.116.0260
Total, New Zealand19,050498.91,149.419,200

WORK PUT IN PLACE—The Department of Statistics makes a quarterly survey of building work put in place. In contrast to the statistics based on building permits, these figures show the gross value of actual work done. It should be noted that there are varying time lags between the issue of the building permit and the commencement of building. The actual work for which a permit is issued can be extended over a number of time periods. Also, the total value of this work may differ considerably from the value estimated on the building permit, especially in times of relatively rapid inflation.

Year Ended 31 MarchDwellings
New Houses and FlatsAlterations and AdditionsTotal
GovernmentOtherTotal
 $(million)
197533.1509.7542.875.6618.4
197661.7536.5598.294.7692.9
197749.5599.7649.1126.7775.9
197858.3523.6581.9128.8710.7
197953.1450.4503.5139.2642.7
Year Ended 31 MarchOther Buildings*Grand Total
Hotels, Boarding-housesHospitalsFactoriesCommercial BuildingsSchoolsMiscellaneousTotal

* Includes alterations and additions.

And ancillary buildings.

Includes churches and sports entertainment buildings.

$(million)
197523.423.099.1172.954.155.2427.71,046.1
197621.439.298.9165.175.667.6467.81,160.6
197722.251.2119.6189.963.075.1521.01,296.9
197825.455.0123.4204.171.275.8554.91,265.6
197933.862.7126.7210.456.474.3564.21,207.0

EMPLOYMENT—The following table of employment in the building and construction industry at 15 October 1977 by occupation and type of work covers all units in the industry which are surveyed by the Department of Labour and which employ 2 or more persons including working proprietors.

OccupationWorking Proprietors*Houses and FlatsGovernment and Local Authority BuildingsCommercial and Industrial Premises§Civil and Electrical EngineeringOthersTotal*

* Working proprietors not included in total by occupation.

Includes private, State, and local authority housing.

Includes hospitals, schools, administrative buildings, etc., but not houses or flats.

§ Not for Government or local authorities.

Includes both Government and other work.

Principally maintenance and small jobbing work.

Carpenters and joiners3807548932464480935167915,829
Plumbers and drainlayers109312026125751548493392
Bricklayers and plasterers480553206354301161259
Painters and paperhangers71711737165901185113108
Electricians8077334748083199753309
Roof tilers and fixers6013655101536333
Welders, riveters, etc.59341494206422811526
Concrete workers94101345829261546
Lorry and other machine drivers268349217297343718476147
Other skilled workers270403376256229112464572
Other semi-skilled workers9630925127715167993152
Labourers436238511104256819657111
    Sub-total779411,1057187932012,30710,36550284*
Surveyors and other professional86..........4481
Clerical, executive, etc.1497..........7157
              Total937711,1057187932012,30710,36561,922

In recent years the size of the “on-site” labour force in the building and construction industry has been affected by the tendency for a greater proportion of the work to be done by “off-site” supply industries in the form of prefabricated, preformed, or pre-assembled sections and units.

BUILDING MATERIALS—Production of some principal building materials during the three latest calendar years is shown in the following table.

ItemCalendar Year
197719781979
Ready-mixed concretecu metres (000)12501002922
Paint and varnish—
    Paints (not water) and enamels in liquid formlitres (000)12,74512,89313,076
    Water paints, emulsion typelitres (000)78418 474x9016
    Lacquers (clear), undercoats, and colourslitres (000)249723942526
Structural clay—
    Glazed pipesmetres (000)17741356789
    Field tilesmetres (000)296534396134
    Bricks and hollow blocksNo. (000)27,94020,22722,855
Fibrous plaster sheetssq metres (000)763548402
Fibrous plaster corniceslin. metres (000)247168163
Fibre boardtonnes (000)57.654.8x73.9
Sawn timbercu metres (000)20661902x1954
Particle boardcu metres121,024110263x144,189
Plywoodcu metres32,11438161x58,061
Cementtonnes (000)910798752

HOUSING FINANCE—The Housing Corporation, a wholly Government-owned institution described in detail in Section 30C, generally provides finance to first home seekers and some second and subsequent home seekers who demonstrate a special need. For the year ended 31 March 1979 the Housing Corporation authorised 8428 loans valued at $173 million for new urban dwellings. Of the total 17040 housing loans authorised, 5912 were authorised for the purchase of existing houses. Other important sources of housing finance are building societies, life insurance offices, trustee savings banks, and solicitors trust funds.

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 provides for payment in a lump sum of the social welfare family benefit. The capitalised benefit can be used either to build a family home, or for essential alterations, or to repay mortgages. The scheme became operative on 1 April 1959. Benefits in respect of any number of children may be capitalised provided the aggregate advance does not exceed $3,000. (The amount was increased from $2,000 to $3,000 in the 1978 Budget). Family benefit advances totalling $9.73 million were authorised during 1978–79 by the Housing Corporation to applicants holding elegibility certificates issued by the Department of Social Welfare.

The Housing Corporation operates a Housing Mortgage Guarantee Scheme in respect of housing loans on first or subsequent mortgage granted by approved lenders, including trustee lenders, where the amount advanced does not exceed 90 percent of value. Under the present scheme, amended in April 1977, the corporation guarantees the full amount of the loan advanced. The loans must be for the purpose of building, buying, altering, or refinancing a house or flat. There is no charge for this service. Home lay-by accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank and trustee and private savings banks qualify for subsidy, and Home Ownership accounts qualify for subsidy and preferential loan finance (see Section 29).

COST OF HOUSES AND SECTIONS—Freehold section and house costs in building proposals financed by the Corporation in the four areas of greatest housing demand in March 1978 and March 1979 are set out below. Section prices are likely to be conservative as some sections would have been purchased well in advance of offering as securities.

CentreMarchSectionsHouses
NumberAverage CostNumberAverage Contract Price
   $     $    
Auckland1978769,2706822,917
1979339,2893224,404
Hamilton197887,9751923,041
197919,170324,579
Wellington1978169,2811627,167
1979510,500530,820
Christchurch197889,3452223,093
197958,800327,740
New Zealand19782898,17030523,620
1979938,6579126,469

Statistics compiled by the Valuation Department illustrate the trend in residential prices in 38 urban areas throughout New Zealand. The following figures of average sale prices for sections, houses, and owner-occupier flats exclude family sales, sales of leasehold property, and other sales not subject to normal market forces.

ItemCalendar Years
19741975197619771978x1979
Average sale price of—$    $    $    $    $    $    
    Sections7,1798,94110,19510,84211,49511,985
    Houses23,29925,47127,47629,23930,18931,820
    Owner-occupier flats22,78723,65725,06426,99528,04629,578

URBAN RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY AND SECTION PRICE INDEX—This index is designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for residential properties and urban sections sold during each half-year. Variations in the average age of properties transferred, as an indicator of the average quality of such properties, are eliminated in the index methodology in order to arrive at a valid index of price level changes.

The following table shows index numbers for individual centres (Base: Each centre separately 1973 = 1000).

CentreResidential PropertiesSections
January-June 1979July-December 1979January-June 1979July-December 1979
Whangarei2085216228853122
Auckland1773180122192037
Hamilton1905197422932578
Tauranga1929191021982208
Rotorua1902196825832680
Gisborne2149225228123145
Napier-Hastings1821193023822406
New Plymouth1733172522731901
Wanganui2400244730202938
Palmerston North1794185121182035
Masterton1898188725972761
Wellington-Hutt1581160220001917
Nelson2126219125962491
Christchurch1657169019941973
Timaru2122227829083086
Dunedin2003205128122639
Invercargill2100215928892800
    All 17 centres combined1795183422412164

The following series is obtained by linking the current urban residential property price index (on base: weighted average 17 centres combined, 1973 = 1000) to the index which it superseded.

Six Months EndedResidential PropertiesSections
1972—Jun750729
        Dec806782
1973—Jun918905
        Dec10821095
1974—Jun13221456
        Dec14431642
1975—Jun14521800
        Dec15031939
1976—Jun15651981
        Dec16082069
1977—Jun16812110
        Dec16892245
1978—Jun17012306
        Dec17352212
1979—Jun17952241
        Dec18342164

HOUSE MORTGAGES—Most of the housing advances made by institutions are in the form of table mortgages, being made initially for terms of usually up to 30 years with the Housing Corporation, about 15 years with building societies, and about 10 years with the private savings banks. The general experience of these institutions is that most house mortgages are redeemed in 7 to 12 years. Interest rates and the methods of calculating them vary from one institution to another. Some institutions prefer to lend on new houses, others cater for the purchase of older dwellings. Information on mortgages is given in Section 30A—Mortgages and Section 30C—State Finance for Housing.

ROLE OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities through the Housing Corporation for pensioner, rural, and community housing, including urban renewal.

Housing of the Elderly—Since 1951 Government policies have encouraged local authorities to meet the housing needs of elderly persons. A low-interest $5,750 loan is available for up to 30 years on each pensioner unit built. All other costs can be met by Government subsidies. This combination of low-interest loans and generous subsidies is directed at keeping rents reasonable—at present, one-sixth of the income from National Superannuation.

The policy is administered by the Housing Corporation, which establishes the need for pensioner accommodation in a particular locality, provides technical services, and administers the loan and subsidy.

The amount of subsidy approved in 1978–79 was $7,089,536 to provide housing for 810 persons. Since the inception of the policy in 1951, subsidy assistance has totalled $59,715,259 for the accommodation of 11295 persons.

A new policy to assist the rehousing of elderly home owners in owner-occupier flats is proving popular with local authorities and religious and welfare organisations. A particular feature of this policy is the bridging finance which is made available, so that elderly home owners can sell their existing home, before contributing towards the cost of the new flat.

Rural Housing—The Rural Housing Act 1939 has as its object the provision of more houses on farm properties. Loans are made to county councils (and other local bodies within whose boundaries farmlands are situated) for readvancing to farmers for the erection of, or additions or alterations to, dwellings. The Housing Corporation is responsible for the supervision and general administration of the Act. Persons receiving loans (562 in 1978–79) are principally owners of economic farms.

Community Housing—The Housing Corporation has authority to grant loans for general housing purposes, i.e., for the benefit of the community in general. Proposals must involve a definite scheme for the erection of not less than three houses. The substantial proportion of assistance provided has been in the metropolitan areas (e.g., in Wellington a significant part of the city council's building programme has been financed from this source). The emphasis is on moderate-cost accommodation.

Urban renewal is also financed by the Housing Corporation through the Community and Housing Improvement Programme. Government assistance is available for a wide range of activities in Neighbourhood Improvement Areas selected by local authorities as areas in need of special renewal attention.

Since 1975 nearly $35 million has been authorised for community housing and urban renewal schemes.

Provision has been made by the Government for an annual amount of $7 million for urban renewal and allied works (including community housing undertaken by local authorities). This recognises the need to curb urban sprawl and to bring more people into inner city areas, close to employment, health services, and other amenities.

Local authorities are authorised under the Local Government Act to provide loans for housing purposes, to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; and to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes. Local authorities may also apply to the Local Authorities Loan Board for authorities to purchase land for subdivision for housing. Local authorities are encouraged to play a prominent part in the housing of their citizens.

MAORI HOUSING—In addition to the facilities of the Housing Corporation, financial assistance towards the building of houses, including the purchase of building sites, additions, repairs to existing dwellings, and for the purchase of houses, is available to Maoris and other Polynesians under the Maori Housing Act 1935.

The Maori Affairs Department also arranges for the construction of the houses in many cases and provides a free plan service. Finance through the department up to set loan limits, rebated interest rate, and capitalisation of family benefits, is similar to loans granted by the Housing Corporation. Where the applicant does not qualify for special interest concessions the finance is made available at an interest rate of 9 1/8 percent.

All applications for State tenancies are dealt with by the Housing Corporation, although assistance with applications is often given by the department's staff.

From the inception of the scheme to 31 March 1979, the department has provided finance to enable 21048 families to build new houses and 1721 to purchase existing houses. Also, 12989 advances have been made for additions and repairs to houses and other buildings.

The Government has also provided accommodation for single young Maori people in urban areas. It has built rental flats for girls in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Whangarei. It has provided hostels for boys at Auckland and Christchurch and by the provision of subsidy has encouraged church organisations to establish hostels in a number of cities. Through the agency of the Maori Trustee, hostel and flat accommodation for both boys and girls has been provided in many of the main centres. In these ways the accommodation needs of over 1000 young Maori people are now being met, many of whom are enrolled on the department's vocational training course operated in conjunction with the technical institutes.

Flats for elderly Maoris have also been provided in semi-rural areas in close association with local marae.

WELFARE ORGANISATIONS: Hostels for Young People—Since 1951, religious and welfare organisations have been assisted to establish hostels for young people by subsidies of establishment costs. Since November 1973, the subsidy has been 80 percent, with a limit of $5,000 per young person accommodated. The purpose is to assist young men and women who are working or studying away from their homes, and find it difficult to obtain suitable living accommodation. Subsidies of 50 percent may also be granted for authorised improvements to existing hostels and 75 percent for fire protection work required by the local authority.

Since the policy commenced, subsidies totalling $2,902,128 had been approved up to 31 March 1979, to assist in providing hostel accommodation for 1658 young people, and for upgrading purposes.

The Government also helps with substantial subsidies for university halls of residence established by religious and welfare agencies. Administration is handled by the University Grants Committee.

CORPORATION RENTAL HOUSE CONSTRUCTION—Housing Corporation rental houses and flats (formerly known as State rental houses and flats) have been built since March 1937. These are allocated to tenants on the basis of need. The Housing Corporation acquires and develops land to provide sites for houses and flats and arranges contracts for their construction. The “design-and-build” scheme, whereby the Housing Corporation arranges contracts with private builders or organisations for the construction of houses on land owned by the builders or organisations, was introduced during 1974–75. The scheme provides for the construction of the houses and the purchase of the land within the one contract, and has proved a successful means of achieving integration of rental accommodation in privately-owned and developed subdivisions.

The totals of rental units completed and handed over for occupation in the latest 6 years are shown in the following table. Up to 31 March 1979 there were 85545 units completed.

Year Ended 31 MarchRental Units
1974650
19751463
19763017
19772238
19781611
19791346

Current Policy—The Corporation is directing an increasing proportion of its rental programme away from peripheral development into renewal and redevelopment, particularly in the main centres, in order to encourage better utilisation of the existing housing stock and provide greater diversity in the type of accommodation offered. The emphasis on this and other developments remains with smaller schemes where the social and economic impact on the existing urban pattern is less marked. Also, in recognising the need for social diversification in corporation-developed areas, it has been the corporation's policy since the mid-70s to make 50 percent of the sections in new sub-divisions available for sale to the public for private housing.

State Services Housing—State Services houses are houses for Government departments and the armed forces. The total number of such houses erected by the Housing Corporation to 31 March 1979 was 15731. This includes houses built at the sites of major construction jobs, such as electric power schemes.

Finance—The cost of the corporation housing programme, including the acquisition and development of land, is financed from the Housing Corporation vote, i.e., out of national development loan moneys.

The following table shows the annual expenditure from the Housing Construction (later, Housing Corporation) vote.

Year Ended 31 MarchCorporation HousingLand Purchase and DevelopmentAdministration and GeneralTotal
 $(000)
197543,38023,2544,84171,475
197665,81530,6807,276103,771
197741,63616,89110,22868,755
197844,4506,31911,32362,092
197936,01712,12712,42560,569

The next table shows the annual total expenditure by the Housing Corporation on house construction in the latest 5 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchVote: Construction Land Purchase and Development, AdministrationOn Behalf of Other DepartmentsTotal
 $(000)
197571,4757,22278,697
1976103,77110,670114,441
197768,75510,88279,637
197862,09212,60074,692
197960,56917,63378,202

Land Acquisition and Development—During 1978–79 a total of 423 developed unit sites were purchased together with 8 hectares of undeveloped land estimated ultimately to yield 88 unit sites.

Corporation Rental Housing Tender Prices—The following table shows typical tender prices being accepted in the 4 main centres at the ends of a series of years for similar types of 3-bedroom corporation rental houses. In each case the house is a typical single unit on a flat section, built in weatherboards with a tiled roof. The price includes drainage, fencing, paths, toolshed, revolving clothes line, letterbox, and full insulation. There is no strict comparability year to year as new designs have modified floor areas and fittings. Examples of major changes in specifications are the inclusion of carports in 1973–74 and of insulation in 1974–75. The cost of the section is not included. The figures in parentheses represent the cost per square metre (1 square metre = 10.764 square ft).

Year Ended 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 $     $     $     $     $     $     $     $     
19656,726(69.00)6,888(70.61)6,104(62.54)6,632(68.03)
19707,184(74.63)7,675(78.58)6,759(69.21)7,661(78.47)
197517,987(184.32)19,081(195.51)17,415(178.40)18,658(191.21)
197722,099(216.23)24,385(238.60)19,193(187.80)24,056(235.40)
197826,268(257.03)26,259(256.94)21,260(208.02)26,326(257.59)
197929,313(286.82)29,041(284.16)24,595(240.66)33,645(329.21)

JOINT FAMILY HOMES—The Joint Family Homes Act 1964 is designed to encourage the stability of marriage and family life. It provides for a form of ownership in which a husband and wife enjoy equal rights of use, possession, and enjoyment of the family home. While a settlement subsists, neither party may deal separately with his or her interest in the property, but on the death of one of them the home becomes wholly the property of the survivor. There are considerable benefits arising from settlement under the Act. Settlements are exempt from gift and stamp duty, and on the death of one spouse an exemption from estate duty may be claimed. In the event of claims by creditors, or the Official Assignee in bankruptcy, the property is protected to the extent of $10,000. Own-your-own flats may be settled under the Act, and an amendment passed in 1974 enables the benefits of settlement to be transferred from one family home to another purchased for the same purpose.

In the latest years the numbers of joint family homes registered have declined sharply. It has been suggested that this is an effect of the Matrimonial Property Act 1976 and its social and legal ramifications.

Joint family homes under the Joint Family Homes Act registered during the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchHomes Settled
197420,710
197525,402
197631,415
197729,345
197818,143
197915,061

CENSUS INFORMATION: Type of Dwelling—The following table shows the type of dwellings in existence at the censuses of 1971 and 1976, together with total and average occupancy for each category.

Type of DwellingNumber of Dwellings1976 Number of Occupants
19711976xAggregateAverage

* Flats attached to shops, etc., were not classified separately for 1971 and will therefore be included in the figure shown for houses with shops.

This was included as a separate category under “Houses” for the first time at the 1976 Census of Population. Some of these would have been classified as flats at the 1971 census and building permits issued for this type of dwelling are classified as flats by the department.

Occupied dwellings—
    Permanent private dwellings—
    Detached house687237742,7682,570,4933.46
    Row, cluster, terrace, or town houses linked together3494580,2582.30
    House with separate flat attached14,37041,2952.57
    House and shop/business premises4736*467317,3563.71
            Total houses691,973796,7562,709,4023.40
    Flat (in single or multi-storey block)10545998,736203,0982.06
    Flat (in house)19,23437,5211.95
    Flat and shop/business premises*360594952.63
            Total flats105,459121,575250,1142.06
    Bach, crib, hut4254492693141.89
            Total permanent private dwellings801,686923,2572,968,8303.22
Temporary private dwellings—
    Mobile residence (caravan, etc.)994286961872.16
    Other (tent, shed, etc.)753588292.32
            Total temporary private dwellings1069322770162.17
Non-private dwellings—
    Hotel, motel, guesthouse2364241639,01316.15
    Boarding/rooming house1388778803010.32
    Private or public hospital53545429,05063.99
    Education institution38435022,28463.67
    Other2411277855,16019.86
            Total non-private dwellings70826776153,53722.66
            Total occupied dwellings809,837933,2603,129,3833.35
Unoccupied dwellings—
    Occupants temporarily away18,11623,945......
    Dwellings to let, for sale, etc.26,18427,518......
    Holiday residence32,44633,143......
            Total unoccupied dwellings76,74684,606......
Dwellings in course of erection918214,284......

Between the 1971 and 1976 censuses of population and dwellings the total number of dwellings occupied on the night of the census increased from 809837 in 1971 to 933 260 in 1976, a rise of 123423, or 15.2 percent. This rate of increase was considerably in excess of that for population. In addition, unoccupied dwellings increased from 76746 to 84606.

In 1976 the average number of occupants per permanent private dwelling was 3.22, compared with 3.38, 5 years earlier.

Unoccupied dwellings are restricted to buildings intended for human habitation, e.g., houses, flats, cottages, etc., and the category omits unoccupied caravans, tents, etc.; it also excludes unoccupied dwellings which are both deserted and dilapidated.

Tenure of Dwelling—The following table classifies the occupied permanent private dwellings according to tenure.

Tenure19711976
Permanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total SpecifiedPermanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total Specified
Owned without mortgage212,37426.7253,56727.6
Owned with mortgage329,73341.4387,07842.1
Rented or leased206,46525.9248,35627.0
Free with job34,6834.422,6782.5
Free not with job13,1711.786490.9
Not specified5260...2929...
                  Total801,686100.0923,257100.0

Amenities of Dwellings—The following tables present the various amenities, as at the 1976 Census, which were used by the occupants of permanent private dwellings.

AmenitiesHouseholdsPercentage of Households
Caravan48,7725.3
Deep freeze647,68770.2
Electric clothes dryer351,04238.0
Fully automatic washing machine354,71538.4
Garage or carport668,94372.5
Telephone829,78689.9
Television set—
    Black and white625,50067.7
    Colour159,69817.3
    Both40,2254.4
Means of CookingHouseholdsPercent
Electricity829,94089.9
Gas, including rock gas61,7376.7
Wood, coke, coal23,5622.6
Other12400.1
No means162
Not specified66160.7
            Total923,257100.0
Means of HeatingHouseholdsPercent
Electricity only288,47531.2
Electricity and coal, coke or wood334,94736.3
Electricity and gas17,9901.9
Electricity and oil and/or kerosene46,7665.1
Electricity and other combinations61,4286.7
Gas only, including rock gas14,5201.6
Oil or kerosene only24,8872.7
Wood, coke, coal only100,16710.8
Other21,4732.3
Not specified and no means12,6041.4
                  Total923,257100.0
Hot Water Service*HouseholdsPercent
* Principal means.
Electric848,94492.0
Gas25,8622.8
Wood, coke, or coal range24,9622.7
Wetback81870.9
Other74010.8
No hot water service17200.2
Not specified61810.7
                  Total923,257100.0

New questions asked at the 1976 population census revealed that 72.5 percent of households (668943) has a garage or carport, while 5.3 percent (48,772) owned a caravan. Colour television was present in 21.7 percent of households.

Materials of Outer Walls and Roofs—The following table analyses the composition of outer walls of permanent private dwellings in 1976 by their roofing material. Each unit of a block of flats constitutes a separate dwelling for census purposes. The roofing category “Not Applicable” comprises those dwellings (mainly flats) which had a second dwelling overhead.

NOTE: Changes to the census question on building materials for 1976 have meant that the categories given below are not directly comparable with classifications published for previous censuses.

Main Material of Outer WallsMaterial of RoofTotal
Galvanised IronTilesFibrolite*AluminiumOtherNot Applicable

* Or asbestos material.

Including two or more materials.

Including “not specified” roofing materials.

Wood374,79799,51711,597647346413242502,447
Brick64,56379,6351810141710471222150,576
Rough-cast54,48619,16035361968131185281,732
Concrete—including concrete block48,71337,039224716941243667398,644
Asbestos37,17717,27933371361139336761,154
Galvanised Iron3131129293735263414
Aluminium159012325018045143119
Other25732149837380705054
Three or more materials734245882352275489813,132
Not specified1111488123361391023985
            Total595,483261,21623,04713,46610,48212,666923,257

Easily the most popular type of house construction in New Zealand is wooden walls and a roof covered with galvanised iron. This description applied to 374797 permanent private dwellings in 1976, or 40.7 percent of those specifying both wall and roof type, but it should be noted that this was a relatively small increase on the equivalent figure of 365061 at the 1971 Census.

Numbers of Rooms and Occupants—The following table classifies inhabited permanent private dwellings in 1976 according to the number of rooms and number of occupants.

Number of RoomsNumber of OccupantsTotal DwellingsAverage Per Dwelling
12345678 and Over
Number of Dwellings
1376441980351864143271.19
214,1545818999322774010721,4271.44
323,92723,011646129009363671309557,8271.89
442,18065,34424,63215,3345746261811361075158,0652.34
534,44987,82756,62368,83642,72519,07072865738322,5543.37
615,60148,35636,34049,16031,59615,40863085855208,6243.67
7427815,14513,08819,32915,07478123328263080,6843.97
81531528553638331719741081644140034,8594.19
95551966204532752894175974962713,8704.30
102077897921297125284434235758804.47
11 and over14150752786480148927029238914.56
Not specified310933111513141084847827230811,2492.82
                  Total143,896257,778148,463171,093109,16452,99921,47918,385923,2573.22

Of the total cases where number of rooms was specified, 689243 dwellings or 75.6 percent had either 4, 5, or 6 rooms and of these 452452 were occupied by either 2, 3, or 4 persons.

The proportion of dwellings with between 1 and 5 occupants has increased in each case since 1971, ranging from a gain of 27.0 percent in 1-occupant dwellings to 8.7 percent for those with 5 occupants. On the other hand, corresponding declines since 1971 were recorded for almost every size of dwelling with over 5 occupants.

Insulation of Walls and Ceilings—The 1976 census included for the first time a question on the presence of heat-insulation materials in outer walls and ceilings of permanent private dwellings. An analysis of the data obtained follows. The inquiry was restricted to those materials specifically installed as insulation—in most cases, fibreglass pads or loose-fill, or aluminium foil.

Outer Wall InsulationCeiling InsulationTotal
PresentNot PresentNot KnownNot Specified
Houses
Present63,4748847695142474,440
Not present168,024398,54945721171572,316
Not known21,50013,71147,62767483,512
Not specified29,74114,831163620,28066,488
        Total282,739435,93854,53023,549796,756
Other Dwelling Types
Present52556052531196232
Not present586758,326293519167,319
Not known2866396737,18439944,416
Not specified16812363111033808534
        Total15,66965,26141,4824089126,501

A total of 298408 dwellings at census date had insulated ceilings and of these 68729 (25.7 percent) also specified insulated walls. In all, wall insulation was present in 80672 dwellings.

TENANCY—Under the Rent Appeal Act 1973, formerly administered by the Department of Labour, but now administered by the Housing Corporation, rent appeal boards have been appointed to determine on application by either a landlord or tenant the equitable rent for dwellinghouses. The amounts to be paid for rent in advance and as a bond are limited by the Act. The Tenancy Act 1955governs rents and conditions of possession of certain private tenancies in existence before 18 November 1961. All private tenancies since that date and all business premises without exception are no longer governed by the Act. Where the Act applies, a landlord or tenant may apply to a rents officer or the District Court to fix a fair rent, effect certain repairs, prevent oppressive conduct, or have the tenancy freed from controls under the Act. It is estimated that 8800 tenancies are protected by this Act.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Publications dealing with building construction and housing include the following.

Report of the Housing Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 13).

Report of the Building Performance Guarantee Corporation (Parl. paper B. 13A).

Department of Statistics publications

Building Activity Bulletin BC/MP/00*(Annual).

Building Activity Bulletin BC/QP/00*(Quarterly and annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics(Monthly).

Building Statistics(Annual).

Census of Population 1976Vol. 8 Maori Population and Dwellings.

Census of Population 1976Vol. 9 Dwellings.

Census of Population 1976 Bulletin 18Dwellings(5-yearly).

Census of Population 1976 Bulletin 17Maori Population and Dwellings(5-yearly).

Census of Building and Construction 1973–74(5-yearly).

National Housing Commission Publications

Housing in New Zealand (Report of Commission of Inquiry 1971).

Housing New Zealand (1978).

The Demand for Housing in New Zealand Vol. 1 and 2. (1979).

Housing Preferences in New Zealand (1979).

New Zealand's Housing Requirements, 1976–86 (1976).

Housing FinanceSeminar Proceedings (1979).

Ministry of Works and Development Statement (Parl. paper D. 1).

Housing Corporation of New Zealand Annual Accounts and Statistics.

Report of the Valuation Department (Parl. paper G. 26).

Urban Real Estate Market in New ZealandValuation Department.

* Available from Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.

National Housing Commission publications, which include a considerable number of other research papers and reports, are available from the National Housing Commission, P.O. Box 1789, Wellington.

Chapter 20. Section 20 ENERGY

20 A—ENERGY DEMAND AND SUPPLY

DEMAND AND SUPPLY TODAY—From the end of World War II until recent years the demand for energy in New Zealand grew on average by 4 percent annually. This was a result of the expansion and diversification of the economy, rising living standards, increasing population, and the falling price of energy in real terms. Energy policies were aimed principally at providing reliable and cheap supplies to keep up with the demand. From late 1973 the emerging energy crisis brought about a new emphasis on conservation.

The table below illustrates the trends in the consumption of primary energy since 1924. The term “primary energy” refers to energy as it is first obtained from natural resources. Broadly, this means that coal is accounted for as it is mined, oil products as they are imported in various degrees of refinement, and natural gas as it is taken from the wells at Kapuni and Maui. About 14 percent of our primary oil requirements were derived from Kapuni condensate in 1978, and in 1979, 10 percent came from Kapuni and the newly-commissioned Maui field.

Primary electricity is electricity generated from hydro and geothermal sources. For these, generation efficiencies are ignored, and the measure of the primary energy is the electricity generated. This is justifiable in the case of hydro-electricity, where the generation efficiency is high, but a large quantity of energy is wasted in producing electricity from geothermal heat. However, the wasted energy is low grade, and for the sake of simplicity is not shown in the table.

In a number of tables in this section, energy is measured in petajoules. The joule is the metric unit of energy and makes comparisons among the different forms of energy possible. For convenience, the petajoule (PJ) or 1015 joules is often used.

Calendar YearCoalOilNatural GasPrimary ElectricityTotalImported Oil as Percentage of Total
ImportedIndigenous

* Provisional.

Because of rounding, totals may differ slightly from sums of individual figures.

Petajoules
192475100.58611
1934561937824
19447230710928
195466591413942
1964661033420351
1974621938145533258
1975561878156433157
19765918422406036550
19775616831645737645
19784916626596036046
1979*4717518477035749

This table shows that New Zealand's dependence on imported oil increased up to the time of the large oil price increases in 1973–74 and subsequently declined. Imports of petroleum and petroleum products, at 3872000 tonnes in 1979, remain lower than they were in 1974. The principal reasons for this are virtually static demand and increased production of natural gas and condensate at Kapuni and, now, from Maui.

In 1979, some 17 percent of primary energy was converted into other forms of energy (mainly electricity), while smaller amounts were lost in processing (oil refining, gas treatment, etc.) or supplied to international transport.

The following table illustrates the trends in consumer energy consumption over the same period as in the previous table. Consumer energy is accounted for in the form and quantity in which it is distributed to the consumer. “Electricity” includes the electricity which is generated in thermal stations burning coal, oil, or natural gas, and “gas” includes the small quantity of gas manufactured from coal, naphtha, and natural gasoline.

Calendar YearCoalOilGasElectricityTotal
* Provisional.
Petajoules
19245952166
193449192373
1944623028102
19545559216132
19644890230170
197441151758257
1975401531062264
1976411531267273
1977421531368275
1978x361521268268
1979*401491167267

As this table shows, in the past 2 years there has been a slight decrease in the consumption of oil by final consumers. Only in transport has consumption been above 1975 levels. The use of oil for industrial, commercial, and domestic heating in 1978 dropped by 3 percent, 10 percent, and 24 percent respectively on 1977 levels. In 1979 consumer energy (267 petajoules) was used in the proportions: industry, 36 percent; transport, 39 percent (nearly all oil); households, 15 percent; and commerce, 10 percent.

The supply and demand of energy in 1979 is shown in detail in the following table.

Supply and Demand of EnergySource of EnergyTotal
Solid FuelOilGasElectricity
* Decreases in stock levels appear as negative stock changes. Such decreases in stocks have to be added to indigenous production (+ imports-exports) in order to obtain figures of energy consumed. Increases in stocks have to be deducted from production in order to obtain figures of energy consumed.
 Petajoules
Indigenous production46.3317.7747.1469.56180.80
Plus Imports4.20181.23185.43
Less Exports1.692.774.46
Stock changes*1.832.344.17
                  Primary energy consumed47.01193.8947.1469.56357.60
Less used in electricity generation5.430.9622.7929.18
Less used in synthetic fuel production3.200.511.485.19
Plus secondary production1.420.761.708.4012.28
                  Total energy available39.80193.1824.5777.96335.51
Less
    Used by international transport29.2529.25
    Consumption by energy sector and losses0.0910.8913.2110.6534.84
    Non-energy use4.084.08
                  Total consumer energy39.71148.9611.3667.31267.34
Energy demand—
    Industry25.8437.047.6126.0796.56
    Transport103.390.12103.51
    Domestic6.551.502.3928.7839.22
    Commercial and other uses7.327.031.3612.3428.05
                  Total energy demand39.71148.9611.3667.31267.34

Market shares of the various energy resources for 1979 are shown on a percentage basis in the following table.

SourceIndustry and CommerceTransport (Incl. International Transport)HouseholdsThermal Electricity Generation
Percent
Oil3610044
Coal261620
Gas (natural and manufactured)7676
Electricity3174
                  Total100100100100

OIL USAGE—Until the oil crisis in 1973 and the 4-fold increase in the price of oil, there had been a rapid growth in the use of oil in New Zealand. This had been a result of its declining cost in real terms, its versatility, its convenience, and the increasing affluence of the population.

In the year ended 31 December 1979, New Zealand used a total of 3443000 tonnes of petroleum products. This figure for the internal consumption of petroleum products in 1979 is broken down in the following table.

 tonnes(000)percent  
Light flash distillate naphtha6- -
Premium gasoline158846
Regular gasoline612
Aviation gasoline251
Aviation turbine kerosene1254
Kerosene311
Light diesel oil87325
Marine diesel11- -
Fuel oils (All types)52015
Bitumen863
Lubricants401
White spirits7- -
Paraffin waxes5- -
Petroleum coke652
                Total3443100

In 1979, two-thirds of New Zealand's imports of oil came in as crude and partly refined feedstocks for refining at the Marsden Point refinery while the remainder was imported as refined products because of a lack of refining capacity. Most of the latter came from Australia, Singapore, and Bahrain. The main sources of supply for crude petroleum are Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Indonesia, Iran, and Malaysia. (See Section 22 C Imports).

New Zealand exported 40705 tonnes of residual fuel oil in 1979. This oil was too waxy to be used in New Zealand except in power stations. This occurred because of the increased proportion of Kapuni condensate refined at Marsden Point refinery, and also because of reduced requirements for power station fuel oil.

In 1979, 42 percent of the Marsden Point refinery's annual output was petrol, 21 percent was diesel, 34 percent light and heavy fuel oils, and 3 percent was bitumen.

ENERGY PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE—Until late 1973 there seemed to be little difficulty in meeting the expanding demand for energy from a combination of indigenous resources and imported petroleum, although New Zealand had been steadily moving into a position of increased dependence on imported fuel. The oil supply embargo announced in October 1973 by the Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries sounded a clear warning of the danger this entailed. As well as dramatically illustrating the fact that oil was no longer a reliable form of energy in terms of supply, the fourfold price increases that followed the lifting of the embargo meant that oil was no longer a cheap commodity.

New Zealand's oil import bill rose from $114 million for the year ended December 1973 to $306 million for 1974; $374 million for 1975; $483 million for 1976; $525 million for 1977; $492 million for 1978; and approximately $725 million for 1979.

The rising cost of imported petroleum, coupled with uncertainty about the reliability of future supplies, has made it imperative for New Zealand to adopt policies aimed at reducing petroleum consumption and decreasing its dependence on imported energy. This is being achieved on two broad fronts; by accelerating the development of all indigenous energy resources, especially those that can substitute for petroleum, and by developing and promoting energy conservation programmes. Supporting these strategies is a research and development effort, which was spearheaded by the establishment of the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee (NZERDC) in 1974. In the international sphere, New Zealand, as a member of the International Energy Agency (IEA), is committed to a policy consistent with sound economic and social planning to reduce dependence on imported oil.

Ministry of Energy—Even before the outbreak of the oil crisis, concern had been felt about the lack of co-ordination in New Zealand's energy policy making. This concern led to the formation of the Ministry of Energy Resources in 1972.

A further development in the co-ordination of energy policy took place in May 1977 when the Government announced that the Ministry of Energy Resources, the New Zealand Electricity Department, and the Mines Department were to be merged into a single department responsible for all energy policy, planning, and operations. The new Ministry of Energy came into being on 1 April 1978.

The Ministry's principal function is the formulation, implementation, co-ordination, and continuing review of effective and efficient energy policies for New Zealand. It achieves this through an organisation consisting of a central planning/policy group and 2 operating divisions for electricity (Electricity Division) and coal production and supply (Mines Division).

Liquid Fuels Trust Board—Under the Liquid Fuels Trust Act 1978, the Liquid Fuels Trust Board was established.

The primary function of the board is to promote, encourage, finance, undertake, and co-operate in any activity that has as its purpose, or one of its purposes, the reduction of the use of imported fuels for transport purposes in New Zealand.

The board also has the following functions:

  1. To promote, encourage, finance, undertake, and co-operate in investigations, research, surveys, studies, and tests relating to:

    1. the efficient and economical supply, processing, distribution, storage, and use for transport purposes of petroleum, alternative indigenous fuels, and alternative means of propulsion; and

    2. social and environmental factors associated with alternative indigenous fuels and alternative means of propulsion.

  2. To promote, encourage, finance, undertake, and co-operate in the installation or improvement of plant and equipment in New Zealand for the efficient and economical supply, processing, distribution, storage, and use for transport purposes in New Zealand of petroleum, alternative indigenous fuels, and alternative means of propulsion.

Public Participation in Planning—In May 1978 Goals and Guidelines: An Energy Strategy for New ZealandPublic Discussion Draft was published by Hon. G. F. Gair, Minister of Energy Resources, setting out for public comment the goals and guidelines for an energy policy for New Zealand. This document was the starting point for public discussion and submissions were summarised in Digest of Public Debate. Subsequently, seminars were held on Transport Fuels, Energy Distribution, Environmental Perspectives, and Energy Forecasting. Together with the fourth New Zealand Energy Conference, this public discussion has contributed toward the development of a comprehensive Government energy policy statement published as Energy Strategy ′79, and an annual energy plan.

Annual Energy Plan—For the first time the Ministry of Energy has, in 1980, prepared an overall energy plan, It consists of an integration of coal, gas, oil, electricity, and conservation reports prepared by the respective ministry divisions. During formulation of the reports there have been full consultations with appropriate private sector, local body, and Government agency interests.

Indigenous Energy Resource Development Policies—Energy supply and use will be dominated by existing technologies in electricity, gas, coal, and oil for a considerable time to come. Hydro and geothermal power will continue to provide the bulk of electricity requirements. Natural gas will provide a major source for transport fuels and, along with coal, will provide an increasing proportion of industrial fuel.

Technical improvements, together with increasing costs of fossil fuels, will improve the economic viability of new technologies.

A recent NZERDC report states that it would be technically possible to meet all road transport fuel demand by about the year 2000 by producing ethanol from fermentable crops, methanol from cellulose material, and methane from biomass digestion.

Solar heating and cooling has good medium-term potential, but a significant resource contribution from wind or waves is unlikely for many years. Although the Government is keeping up to date on nuclear technology, nuclear power is not at present being considered as a possible energy source.

In the medium term the Government's objective of reducing New Zealand's dependence on imported oil will be achieved by further developing and utilising fossil fuel resources. In the long term, renewable energy resources will meet an increasing proportion of energy demand.

Oil Exploration—A comprehensive policy has been developed and will be published during 1980. It encourages exploration through taxation incentives, Government contribution to exploration costs through joint ventures, and definition of royalty rates and pricing for indigenous petroleum.

Organisations for Developing Gas/Condensate Resources—On 31 March 1978, the State-owned Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Petrocorp) was formed to take responsibility for the Government's interests in petroleum and natural gas. Present subsidiaries are: Natural Gas Corporation Ltd. (NGC), responsible for purchase, transport, and wholesale marketing of natural gas and liquified petroleum gas (LPG); Offshore Mining Co. Ltd. (OMC), responsible for the Government's participation in the Maui field through its 50 percent shareholding in Maui Development Ltd. (MDL), which manages the Maui project for extraction and onshore delivery of gas and condensate; Petrochemical Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Petrochem,) which will own the ammonia/urea plant and, jointly with Alberta Gas Chemicals Ltd., the chemical methanol plant; and Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand (Exploration) Ltd. (Petrocorp Exploration), which holds the Government's interests in offshore petroleum exploration and also conducts its own onshore exploration programme. A company named “Liqui-Gas” is to be formed to distribute LPG nationally to bulk installations. It will consist of the six participants in the Maui development and/or bulk distribution of Kapuni LPG.

Gas/Condensate Resource PoliciesMaui gas/condensate field—To enable the best use to be made of the Maui field, the Government has allocated the gas in the field as follows:

  1. 26 percent for reticulation to provide domestic and industrial natural gas and compressed natural gas (CNG).

  2. 16 percent for synthetic fuel production. The Government has chosen the Mobil process for synthetic fuel production, utilising 50–60 PJ per year of Maui gas.

  3. 9 percent for methanol production. Alberta Gas/Petrocorp has been awarded a gas supply contract, subject to negotiations being completed, to construct and operate a plant for the production of 1200 tons per day of chemical methanol for export.

  4. 9 percent will be reserved for electricity production.

  5. 11 percent, representing the ethane content, will be reserved for establishment of petrochemical industries.

  6. 10 percent, representing the LPG content, will be extracted primarily for transport and industrial fuels. Maui Development Ltd. will construct and operate LPG extraction facilities, and Liqui-Gas Ltd. will undertake distribution.

  7. Approximately 10 percent of the field will be reserved for future developments.

Energy Pricing—In addition to the conservation aspects of pricing policies, a primary objective of energy pricing is to guide future energy investment and use decisions. Relevant costs transmitted in prices will be costs incurred or saved in expanding or contracting supplies, rather than an average of past costs. Prices should cover cost of supply and yield a return for development of new resources.

POLICIES FOR ENERGY USES—Consumer energy is provided by oil (59 percent), electricity (23 percent), coal (14 percent), and gas (4 percent).

Transport Sector—Transport energy use takes 39 percent of total energy demand, and 69 percent of total oil supply. Policy is to encourage conservation, mode switching, and fuel switching, with due consideration given to effects in social and economic planning.

Industrial Sector—Industry accounts for 35 percent of total energy demand. Oil, gas, and coal are primarily boiler fuels, and electricity is used principally for motive power and lighting. Motive power for working the land uses more than 50 percent of diesel consumed in this sector. Policy encourages use of indigenous fuels and fuel use efficiency, with improved availability of gas and coal.

Commercial Sector—Commercial use accounts for 11 percent of total energy demand. Electricity is the chief fuel. Policies encourage conservation and substitution.

Household Sector—15 percent of total demand is in households. Fuel use is electricity (70 percent), solid fuels (18 percent) and gas and oil (12 percent). Policies encourage conservation and the use of gas.

Refining—Taking into account the planned liquid fuels development, N.Z. Refining Co. Ltd., has decided to expand its refinery and install a hydro-cracker. This will increase, in particular, the refinery's capability for producing diesel and aviation turbine fuel.

Electricity—With present load forecasts there is no need for additional generating capacity, beyond that already under construction, until the mid-1990s. However, substantial interest is being expressed in energy-intensive industries and this could substantially influence electricity use patterns.

Geothermal—Expanded use of geothermal heat is being investigated. Policies are that the Crown will generally develop and operate geothermal fields, and the pricing of geothermal energy will reflect the worth of the resource to the user, taking into account the costs of alternative energy resources and the costs to the user of utilising geothermal heat. Also refer to Energy Resources.

Coal—An exploration programme is under way to evaluate all New Zealand's coal resources to the “Indicated” category. Substantial deposits have been found but many years exploration work remains. Mining policies will ensure that underground workings are not made redundant prematurely, and will encourage customers to switch to coals of more appropriate quality to ensure the properties of special coals are fully exploited. In this regard, the Government has agreed that export markets for up to 500000 tonnes per year will be sought. The Government is committed to ensuring that the industry retains adequate capacity and skilled manpower as a base for future expansion.

Future Technologies—Technical improvements, together with increasing costs of fossil fuels, should improve the viability of renewable sources such as solar, wind, and biomass. These technologies are appropriate for small-scale energy schemes as well as larger schemes. However, economic, social, and environmental factors need careful assessment.

ENERGY RESOURCES—The following table sets out New Zealand's estimated recoverable fossil fuel resources including the re-determination by Shell, BP and Todd Oil Services Ltd. in December 1977 of the reserves of the Kapuni gas/condensate field. As can be seen, the major resources deficiency is in liquid petroleum fuels, and the country will continue to be a net petroleum importer. It will, however, become relatively less dependent on imports for a decade or so as natural gas is brought into greater use.

FuelProductionReserves
19781979
* Does not include Southland lignite reserves. Over 3000 million tonnes exist but recoverable reserves have not yet been calculated.
Coal49.6PJ46PJMeasured 5002PJ (210 million tonnes)
Indicated 7593PJ (347 million tonnes)
Inferred 13579PJ (621 million tonnes)
26174PJ* (1178 million tonnes)
Oil25.6PJ (0.564m tonnes)19PJProven and probable reserves with a 65% probability level: 580PJ (12.35 million tonnes)
Gas59.5PJ (2175m cubic metres)50PJProven and probable reserves with a 65% probability level: 5965PJ (259800 million m3)

The magnitude of New Zealand's geothermal resources is not yet known with any certainty but, according to a conservative estimate, the useful energy output (i.e., geothermal fluid above 70°C) of the total resource is 416 PJ per annum. Used wholly for electricity generation at a utilisation factor of 13 percent, this would produce about 15000 GWh (54 PJ) of electricity per annum; equivalent to 1700 MW at 100 percent load-factor. (Utilisation factor is the ratio of electrical energy generated, expressed in energy units, to the total heat energy above 70°C discharged from the field.) Another estimate has put the potential capacity at about 2500 MW (estimated) as follows:

Proven:480 MW(e)
Indicated:930 MW(e)
Inferred:1125 MW(e)
 2535 MW(e)

The geothermal resource as it is known at present is restricted geographically to the thermal belt which extends from Mt. Ruapehu to White Island, Tauranga, and Northland. This area is mainly rural, which limits the opportunities for the direct use of geothermal energy.

Geothermal energy is used for electricity generation; process heat in industry; for industrial, commercial, and domestic space heating; and hot water heating. For the year ended 31 March 1979, 54.41 PI (as heat) of geothermal energy was used producing 7.05 PJ of consumer energy.

 Geothermal Energy (PJ)Consumer Energy (PJ)
Electricity generation50.904.29
Industrial/Commercial3.492.75
Domestic0.020.01

The Geothermal Energy Amendment Act 1977 implemented 2 new policies relating to geothermal energy. In general, the Crown will develop and operate geothermal fields. A new pricing policy stated that the price is to reflect the worth of the resource to the user, taking account of the costs of alternative energy sources, and the costs of adapting geothermal energy to the user's requirements. When geothermal energy is supplied other than by the Crown, a rental is payable to the Crown based on the same principle.

By far the largest user of geothermal energy is the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy, which owns and operates the Wairakei geothermal power station, a baseload station supplying 1200 ± GWh of electricity per year. A second geothermal power station is planned for Ohaki with an initial capacity of 80 MW, possibly rising to 150 MW if proven feasible.

ENERGY CONSERVATION—Energy conservation, and the development of an awareness amongst the New Zealand public that oil was not an unlimited resource, came into prominence in 1973 with the first world oil crisis resulting from the Yom Kippur war. Emergency restrictions were implemented and lifted in quick succession, but the 80 km/h speed limit remained in force. Efforts were concentrated on reducing the use of imported petroleum and a conservation programme was undertaken to encourage the wise use of all forms of energy.

Pricing and taxation measures introduced during 1974 and 1975 included a graduated sales tax on cars, a 56,000 depreciation limit on company cars, petrol price increases including increased taxes, minimisation of petrol tax rebates, and a tax on fuel for private flying. Other measures included the introduction of daylight saving, electricity allocations, a publicity campaign, and an interest-free loan scheme for home insulation.

In 1976 the Government's energy pricing policy was introduced. This recognised that because certain energy prices had been held at artificially low levels, there was little incentive for the conservation and efficient use of indigenous energy resources. A feature of the new policy was the introduction from 1 January 1977 of an energy resources levy on coal and natural gas.

As at 31 March 1980, the price of natural gas to large industrial users was 56.6 percent of the price of fuel oil, providing a major competitive margin for gas. The price-relativity for coal, in effective energy terms after allowing for efficiency and cost differences, was 47.2 percent for large industrial users.

A tax incentive scheme was introduced in 1976 to encourage the wiser use of energy in the business sector. It provided for an immediate 100 percent tax write-off in the cost of expenditure on certain types of equipment. This scheme was extended in 1977 to include:

  1. New process control equipment.

  2. Equipment used in the evaluation of energy use.

  3. New plant, machinery, or equipment used in the production of an energy form from waste materials.

  4. New heat-exchange equipment other than heat pumps for comfort cooling.

  5. New plant, machinery, or equipment for the recovery of waste heat.

  6. Insulation of industrial and commercial buildings.

  7. Sealing of sources or means of energy leakage.

  8. New energy-using plant which uses indigenous energy resources (including solar and wind energy) but not oil or electricity.

  9. Conversions of existing energy-using plant from oil or electricity to indigenous resources.

  10. Plant and ancillary equipment which, in association with approved energy-using plant and equipment, mitigates pollution effects.

  11. Provision has also been made for:

    1. Refund of the 10 percent sales tax on plant and machinery listed in (a) to (j) above where the machinery qualifies for immediate write-off under taxation incentive.

    2. The Development Finance Corporation has available, subject to its normal lending criteria, finance for plant and equipment which qualifies for the immediate write-off.

    3. The major features of schemes to encourage the use of natural gas in the home are grants to the supplying authority of $200 for each new mains connection to new and existing houses where at least 2 of the 3 major gas uses (cooking, water heating, and space heating), are involved; a temporary reduction in the tariff on imported gas cookers for household use; and interest-free loans of up to $400, repayable over 4 years, available to assist in the purchase of gas appliances for cooking, water heating, and space heating.

In 1978 the scheme was further expanded to cover.

  1. New plant, machinery, or equipment for co-generating electricity.

  2. Conversion of business road vehicles to LPG.

  3. Refurbishing of existing lighting installations.

  4. Installation of new LPG storage spheres/tanks exceeding 100000 litres.

Other incentives to encourage the wiser or less wasteful use of energy include:

  1. Mandatory home insulation for new houses is required to a minimum insulation level (NZS 4215P:1977). Interest-free loans for new houses were discontinued after 1 March 1980, but loans for insulation of existing homes continue to be available.

  2. Late in 1978 the home insulation loan scheme was extended to offer assistance to purchasers of approved solar water heaters. Interest-free loans of $500 are available, with repayment spread over 4 years.

  3. From 22 July 1977 a sales tax of 1.5 cents a litre has been payable on a range of products including fuel oil, marine diesel, and kerosene.

  4. As from 2 June 1978, motor spirits duty was increased by 2 cents a litre. This was passed on to the consumer.

  5. Sales tax on energy-intensive appliances has been increased to 30 percent on household, industrial, and commercial air conditioners which incorporate refrigerating units, and 20 percent on household tumbler and cabinet clothes driers.

  6. The Government decided to support financially, to the extent of $70,000 in 1977–78, a car-pooling scheme developed by the local authorities for commuting between North Shore and Auckland.

  7. Cash grants, known as “gas development grants”, may be given by the Ministry of Energy to businesses which sell, use, or distribute LPG and CNG.

Political events in Iran early in 1979 caused a serious reduction in the supply of petroleum, resulting in unprecedented price rises on the spot market. In New Zealand the following measures were implemented in an effort to reduce oil consumption:

  1. A weekend ban on petrol sales from 12 noon on Saturday to 6 a.m. on Monday (and 9 p.m. closing preceding a public holiday to 6 a.m. on the first working day), was implemented in February 1979. The start of the ban was subsequently brought back to 7 p.m. on Friday.

  2. A carless day scheme requiring each car owner to select 1 day of the week as a carless day, recording the nominated carless day by displaying a sticker on the vehicle windscreen, was implemented in July 1979. Provision was made for exemptions in special circumstances. This was lifted on 12 May 1980.

  3. A system of allocations for the following products:

    1. Oil for comfort heating—70–80 percent of 1978 levels.

    2. Jet fuel—100 percent of 1978 levels.

    3. International marine bunkers—100 percent of 1978 levels.

    4. Petrol (bulk users)—100 percent of 1978 levels.

    5. Automotive gas oil (diesel)—90 percent of 1978 levels.

Although considerable administrative problems were initially encountered in the implementation of these demand restraint measures, particularly the carless day scheme and the diesel allocation system, worthwhile savings have been achieved.

Research and Development—New Zealand is able to obtain the results of much overseas energy research work through its international scientific contacts and its membership of the International Energy Agency (IEA). Many of this country's energy problems are, however, unique and can only be solved by our own efforts.

New Zealand has a varied energy research programme with work on a wide range of topics being conducted in Government departments, and by universities, private companies, and individuals. About $8.7 million was provided by the Government for energy research, development, and demonstration projects in 1979–80 (in addition $1.5 million was provided by private sources). Particular emphasis recently has been placed on research into alternative liquid fuels, but other programmes involve wind-energy research, research on opportunities for conservation, and conservation demonstrations on, for example, co-generation and heat pumps, geothermal energy utilisation, and coal utilisation.

New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee—The New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee (NZERDC), chaired by Dr C. Maiden, was formed in 1974 to promote energy research. It now lets research contracts to universities, research associations, and the private sector. The Government provides a grant to the NZERDC ($877,000 in 1979–80) to fund the committee's work. Some of its larger recent contracts include energy use in transport, biomass conversion, heat pumps, coal properties, and conservation demonstrations in industry.

Apart from funding energy research outside Government departments the committee advises the National Research Advisory Council and the Minister of Energy on overall energy research policy. It is also the administering body in New Zealand for energy research under the United States-New Zealand Joint Agreement for Scientific and Technological Co-operation.

Standards—In many circumstances, standards can provide an effective means of implementing energy conservation and substitution developments. For example, the mandatory home insulation requirement is based on a standard. With financial support from the Government the Standards Association of New Zealand is preparing, in close collaboration with the Ministry of Energy, a number of energy-related standards covering the following new areas: a standard motor vehicle driving cycle test; the labelling of vehicles with their fuel consumption; CNG and LPG conversions and refuelling facilities; solid fuel burning appliances; design requirements for non-residential buildings; energy labelling of household appliances; a lighting code of practice; thermal insulating materials for buildings; and horizontal water-heating cylinders. In most cases, useful progress has been made on the development of these standards.

Worthwhile energy savings could be made by upgrading the insulation of hot water cylinders. Thus, for the same thickness of insulation, replacement of the cotton flock which is generally used now with a foam plastic such as polyurethane would cut the heat losses in half. As a contribution to a review of the present insulation requirement in the domestic hot-water cylinder standard the Ministry of Energy commissioned the Ministry of Works and Development to carry out heat loss tests on cylinders with a wide range of insulation types and thicknesses. The results of the tests, which have been completed, will be available in the near future.

All IEA members are co-operating in an emergency oil-sharing scheme which is intended to provide protection against further embargoes in oil supplies. During an emergency, the arrangement calls for the sharing of any oil available to the group on an equitable basis. Countries have agreed to introduce oil demand measures in an emergency and to hold oil stocks at specified levels at all times.

At a ministerial meeting in December 1979, 1980 ceilings and 1985 import targets for individual member countries, totalling 24.5 and 26.2 MMBD (million barrels a day) respectively, were agreed to. New Zealand's 1980 ceiling for oil imports is 4.2 MMBD with a 1985 target of 4.4 MMBD (This compared with the 1979 consumption figure of 4.0 MMBD). The IEA has emphasised the necessity of attaining greater influence over oil stock levels and of encouraging further co-ordination in spot market activities. This is aimed at reducing pressures on the world oil market and at accelerating the longer-term transition to a world economy in which oil is recognised and treated as a relatively scarce commodity.

COMPARATIVE ENERGY-USE STATISTICS—Comparative statistics of per-head consumption of commercial energy in selected countries and geographical areas in 1978 are given in the following table. The figures, taken from the UN World Energy Supplies 1973–1978, are expressed in megajoules per capita. That publication should be consulted for fuller information including detailed notes and definitions. In addition to stages of economic and social development, climatic conditions in the various countries should also be borne in mind.

 Megajoules per Head

* Except Middle East.

Includes that part of Russia in Asia.

Customs Union of South Africa.

Africa
    Congo5124
    Egypt13,562
    Ethiopia573
    Ghana4826
    Nigeria3119
    South Africa93,130
America, North
    Canada291,029
    United States333,336
America, South
    Argentina54,882
    Brazil23,280
    Chile29,221
Middle East
    Bahrain301,932
    Iran52,977
    Israel69,214
    Turkey23,230
    Kuwait198,450
    Saudi Arabia38,273
Asia*
    Bangladesh1247
    Burma1865
    India5214
    Japan112,095
    Pakistan5042
    Singapore72,122
    China24,521
Europe
    Denmark158,932
    France128,010
    Germany, West176,281
    Netherlands156,126
    Sweden174,494
    United Kingdom152,754
    USSR161,933
Oceania
    Australia194,087
    New Zealand111089
World60779

FURTHER INFORMATION—Sources of further information on the electricity and gas industries will be found listed at the end of the appropriate sub-sections. Further information on energy demand and supply in general will be found in the following publications:

Report of the Ministry of Energy (Parl. paper D. 6).

Implications of New Energy Developments (New Zealand Planning Council, 1979).

Report of the Liquid Fuels Trust Board of New Zealand (Parl. paper D. 8).

Report to the New Zealand Government of the Fact Finding Group on Nuclear Power (Parl. paper D. 9 1977).

Nuclear Power Generation in New Zealand (Parl. paper H. 41978).

Goals and Guidelines: An Energy Strategy for New Zealand Public Discussion Draft (May 1978).

A Digest of Public Debate on Goals and Guidelines (May 1979).

Goals and Guidelines: Proceedings of Seminar on Energy Distribution (May 1979).

Energy Strategy ′79Ministry of Energy (1979).

Goals and Guidelines: Proceedings of Seminar on Transport Fuels (1978).

Monthly Abstract of StatisticsDepartment of Statistics.

World Energy Supplies 1973–78—United Nations.

1980 Energy Plan—Ministry of Energy (1980).

Other sections in this Yearbook which may be found useful are:

20 B—Electric Power.

20 C—Gas.

17—Minerals.

7 B—Science and Scientific Services.

20 B—ELECTRIC POWER

New Zealand's natural resources of lakes and fast-flowing rivers have been systematically harnessed for hydro-electric development, providing a relatively cheap source of energy which is continually replenished by nature. During the year ended 31 March 1979 hydro energy provided 75 percent of the national electricity supply, with 5 percent coming from geothermal energy and the balance from fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas.

At Wairakei, in New Zealand's thermal region, natural steam is being used to drive the turbines. Meremere, the steam station south of Auckland, uses coal as fuel, while at Marsden, near Whangarei, heavy oils are used. A large dual-fuel steam station at New Plymouth uses predominantly natural gas (with some oil). A second dual-fuel steam station is currently under construction at Huntly, to use natural gas and coal as fuels. Gas turbines operate at Otahuhu (oil and natural gas), Stratford (natural gas), and Whirinaki (oil).

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—Electricity supply in New Zealand was pioneered by local bodies and private enterprise. Reefton had hydro-electric supply as early as 1888, and Wellington in the following year opened a water-powered plant, using water from the city mains, but later switched to steam generation. Auckland and Christchurch, using steam-generating stations, and Dunedin, using hydro plant, all had supplies extensively developed before the advent of Government supply. Many smaller communities also had local supply, mostly produced from local steam stations, although in some cases hydro plant was installed to take advantage of local water resources.

The first Government station was opened at Lake Coleridge in 1914, and its capacity was increased in 4 stages up to 1930. In the North Island the Government purchased the Waihi Goldmining Company's station at Horahora on the Waikato River. This station was enlarged and by 1927 was supplying power as far north as Henderson and Takapuna. Mangahao station near Shannon was opened in 1924; one of the Waikaremoana stations (Tuai) and Arapuni both began operating in 1929. Between 1920 and 1930 the capacity of the State generating system grew by 135590 kW and the number of consumers in New Zealand increased from 58449 to 284235. In the early 1920s steam stations were still producing up to 60 percent of the total electricity but by the 1930s they produced as little as 1 percent in some years, as they were gradually relegated to standby stations.

In the 1930s the Waitaki hydro station was commissioned and the Government acquired 2 small hydro stations—Arnold from the Grey Electric Power Board and Monowai from the Southland Power Board. With the latter the Government also took over the responsibility for distribution in Southland, a situation still existing today.

Despite the difficulties, capacity was increased during the war years. Some existing stations were extended, and new ones opened at Piripaua (the second Waikaremoana station), at Cobb in north-west Nelson and, towards the end of the war, at Highbank in Canterbury. Gates were built 1941 to control the outflow from Lake Taupo.

After the war, plans were pushed ahead for the development of the potential of the principal power source in the North Island, the Waikato River. Work had proceeded on Karapiro, the second Waikato station, during the war and its first power was produced in 1947 (the old Horahora station was submerged in the lake formed behind the dam). In 1952 Maraetai, the largest station on the Waikato, began producing electricity, and in 1956 Whakamaru was completed, followed by Atiamuri in 1958. Both Ohakuri and Waipapa stations began operating in 1961 and Aratiatia Station in 1964.

Development in other areas included the commissioning of Kaitawa, the third Waikaremoana station, in 1948 and the installation of further machines at Waitaki. Control works were built at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo to ensure an adequate water supply to the Waitaki station in the winter. Incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo is a single-machine power station which was commissioned in 1951. Since the commissioning of the first station of the Upper Waitaki project (Tekapo “B”) this station has been known as Tekapo “A”. The largest station built up to that time in New Zealand began operating at Roxburgh on the Clutha River in 1956. Meanwhile work proceeded on the Benmore station, which was completed in 1966. Another station on the Waitaki, at Aviemore, located between the Waitaki and Benmore stations, began operating in 1968.

Matahina on the Rangitaiki River in the Bay of Plenty produced its first electricity in January 1967.

The Manapouri scheme uses the waters of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, taking advantage of the 177 m head between Manapouri and the sea. Intakes at the West Arm of Manapouri lead the water into vertical penstocks to the turbines 213 m underground and it is discharged into Deep Cove at Doubtful Sound through a tunnel almost 10 kilometres in length.

A large proportion of Manapouri's output supplies the Bluff aluminium smelter and the remainder is fed into the national grid. Four generators began operating in 1969 and the remaining 3 in 1971 to give a total installed capacity of 700 MW (name-plate rating).

The Manapouri scheme was the subject of an agreement between the Government and Comalco in 1960 but subsequent agreements were negotiated in 1963, 1966, 1969, and 1977. As the land concerned lies within Fiordland National Park the agreement required statutory authority which was conferred in the Te Anau - Manapouri Development Act 1963. Under the 1969 agreement the Government built the power station and the lake control works at Te Anau and Manapouri.

The actual formula devised for Comalco to pay for the electricity varied between agreements. The latest of these was a major renegotiation in late 1977 to reflect the changed circumstances in energy supply.

The 1966 agreement provided that Lake Manapouri be raised from its natural level of 178 m above sea level to an operating level of 185–190 m while the minimum lake level was set at 175.4 m. Consequent on a campaign by conservationists opposed to the raising of the lake level the Government appointed a commission in 1970 to inquire into the proposal. The dam at Mararoa to control Lake Manapouri has been built on a narrow base to control the lake within a normal range of levels. Lake Te Anau, which feeds Lake Manapouri through the Upper Waiau River, is controlled at natural levels between 199 m and 202 m by a dam near its outlet.

The purpose, planning, and the development of the Manapouri project were fully described in parliamentary paper D.7, 1967, as well as the Report of the Commission to Inquire into the Proposal to Raise the Level of Lake Manapouri for the Purpose of Generating Electricity (parliamentary paper D.8, 1970) and a report by the Institute of Economic Research on the Manapouri-Bluff Project commissioned by Comalco and published in October 1971.

The installed capacity of Maraetai power station on the Waikato River was doubled by the building of a second powerhouse for 5 additional machines which were commissioned in 1970–71. The yearly output from Maraetai has not been increased although useful peak-time capacity has been added.

A catchment area of nearly 260000 hectares in the central volcanic uplands of the North Island is being tapped for hydro-electric power development. Known as the Tongariro Scheme, this complex development involves drawing upon the headwaters of certain rivers and their tributaries and diverting part of their flow from one watershed to another.

The Western Diversions collect water from the headwaters of the Wanganui River and several of its tributaries and divert it into Lake Rotoaira. As part of this project, control equipment has been installed to close gates at the Whakapapa tunnel intake in the event of the passage of a lahar (volcanic mud flow) down the Whakapapa River. Water from Lake Rotoaira passes through a 6100-metre tunnel to the power station at Tokaanu, then into Lake Taupo. Tokaanu Power Station, which has four 50 MW generators, the first of the stations built as part of the Tongariro Scheme, was commissioned in 1974.

The Eastern Diversions collect water from the Moawhango River and the eastern slopes of Mount Ruapehu. The waters then feed through the Moawhango tunnel to join water from the Tongariro River before passing through Rangipo station into Lake Rotoaira.

Much restorative planting and landscaping work is being carried out through the whole development as well as special measures to protect and preserve fishing and fish spawning grounds in the area.

The most recently completed hydro power station, Tekapo B (160 MW), the first station completed as part of the Upper Waitaki Development, was commissioned in 1977.

Thermal Generation—The first thermal station built by New Zealand Electricity (a division of the Ministry of Energy) came into operation in 1958 at Meremere beside the Waikato River, 64 km south of Auckland. This station burns coal which is transported from the Maramarua opencast mines by aerial cableway, and from the Huntly mines by road and rail.

At Wairakei, a few kilometres north of Taupo, geothermal steam has been harnessed for the generation of electricity. The first machine began producing electricity in 1958 and the last machine (the thirteenth) was installed in 1963. Bores which are 102, 152, and 203 mm in diameter have been drilled to depths varying between 174 m and 1220 m.

Marsden power station was commissioned in 1967 using oil from the nearby refinery, and oil/natural gas-burning gas turbines went into service in 1968 at Otahuhu. Two further units were commissioned at Otahuhu in 1979. In 1976 a gas turbine station using natural gas was completed at Stratford.

The 600 MW thermal station at New Plymouth produced its first electricity in 1974 and the last machine was commissioned early in 1977. Until the Maui natural gas wells off the coast of Taranaki began production, the energy source was Kapuni natural gas, supplemented by some oil-firing. A chimney 198 m high has been built to disperse the hot exhaust gases.

A 216 MW oil-burning gas turbine station at Whirinaki, near Napier, was completed in mid-1977, but commercial operation of this station was not possible until late 1978 when an oil pipeline and oil storage facilities were completed.

Construction Projects: Hydro—A 120 MW underground station is currently being constructed at Rangipo as part of the Tongariro Scheme, and is scheduled for commissioning in 1982.

In July 1968 the Government approved in principle the total development of the Upper Waitaki Valley for hydro-electric use. The scheme involves controlling the outflows of Lakes Tekapo and Pukaki and to a limited extent Lake Ohau, and directing the stored waters through canals to 4 power stations named Tekapo B, Ohau A, Ohau B, and Ohau C; the diverted waters will eventually reach the Waitaki River at Lake Benmore. The total capacity of the new stations will be about 850 megawatts; also, the extra storage provided by the scheme will allow the output from existing Waitaki stations to be increased. Work began with the construction of a township at Twizel, and on the Tekapo B project, which was completed in 1977. The first 2 generators at Ohau A were commissioned in 1979. Work continues on the remaining 2. The Government has given approval for the construction of Ohau B and C which are scheduled for first generation in 1982 and 1984 respectively.

Upper Clutha Hydro-electric Development—In December 1976 the Government announced that scheme F had been chosen from a number of alternatives which had been drawn up. This scheme comprises 5 power stations estimated to cost $732 million (1977) with a potential plant capacity of 1300 MW, which may later be extended to 1500 MW. For comparison, Benmore produces 540 MW and Huntly will produce 1000 MW. Construction of the scheme will extend over 18 years and will comprise 3 power stations on the Clutha River (Clyde, Luggate, and Queensberry) and 2 on the Kawerau River (Gibbston and Kawerau). The maximum lake levels (height above sea level), generating capacity, and approximate commissioning dates of the power stations are as follows: Clyde, 195 m, 400 MW, 1991; Luggate, 273 m, 265 MW, 1991; with Queensberry, 232 m, 220 MW, Gibbston, 307 m, 180 MW, Kawerau, 256 m, 240 MW, to follow are required. Formal Government approval to construct Clyde power station has not been obtained because of a number of appeals over the issue of water-rights. These will not be resolved until well into 1980 at the earliest.

Thermal—Plans for a 1400 MW natural-gas-fired power station in the Auckland area have been dropped because of the decline in demand for electricity. As an alternative, work is in hand to find sites for more compact and more efficient combined cycle plant that can be located in industrial areas of Auckland.

The first unit (250 MW) of the 1000 MW station at Huntly was commissioned in June 1980. It is initially fired on Maui gas but the Mines Division of the Ministry of Energy has now opened up a large new underground mine nearby which will eventually supply most of the fuel for the station.

Construction of an oil-fired intermediate load station, Marsden E (250 MW), was approved in 1974 and was completed early in 1980. Because over-capacity of generating plant on the power system is expected for the next 10 years this station will be temporarily decommissioned, and fully commissioned later as circumstances require.

The contract for the development of the Maui gas field required a large guaranteed gas demand so that associated valuable condensate could be extracted. When the contract was made, virtually all the gas (which was to increase in demand to a maximum in the mid-1980s) was to be used in gas-fired power stations. In the interim this emphasis has changed, and now a high proportion of the gas will be used for petro-chemical industries, including the manufacture of synthetic petrol. The amount now allocated for electricity generation is not expected to be much above that required to supply existing stations and those under construction.

The Ohaki power station, which will be built on the Broadlands geothermal field, will have an initial output of some 80–100 MW, which may be increased to 165 MW at a later stage when more is known about the performance of the field. All the environmental clearances have been obtained, but Government approval cannot be requested until the negotiations to purchase the Maori-owned land have been completed. The first plant is scheduled for commissioning in 1986.

INTER-ISLAND TRANSMISSION—In 1965, at the same time as Benmore power station was commissioned, the transmission systems of the North and South Islands were linked by a high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission line and undersea cables. This new system enabled electricity to be transmitted from the South Island to the North Island where there is a greater demand for power.

This scheme not only involved the laying of submarine cables for 40 km in Cook Strait, but also the construction of a 570 km, 500 kV direct-current transmission line from Benmore to Fighting Bay on the southern side of Cook Strait, and from Oteranga Bay on the northern side to Haywards sub-station.Complex converting equipment had also to be installed at each end of the system. Considerable worldwide interest has been shown in this scheme, which was the largest of its type outside the USSR. The World Bank made a loan of $23.2 million to meet the overseas costs of this project.

Following modification to the HVDC link it has been possible to transmit power in both directions between the North and South Islands since April 1976.

The 1978 report of the Planning Committee on Electric Power Development in New Zealand proposed the construction of a further HVDC scheme connecting the 2 islands. The earliest date such a scheme could be completed is estimated as being mid-1985. However, at this stage, no decisions have been made regarding size, route, etc.

PLANNING FOR ELECTRICAL ENERGY—The formation of the Ministry of Energy has meant that the forecasting and forward planning of electricity can be incorporated more completely into an overall energy strategy than previously. To produce the 15-year forecast needed for planning, the Electrical Supply Authorities Association first prepares estimates for 5 years ahead based largely on local knowledge of industrial and housing development plans. These estimates, together with a wider judgment of long-term considerations, are used to produce a 15-year forecast. Advice on social and economic factors is received from other Government departments as required. Peak power forecasts are also derived from the basic energy forecasts.

These forecasts are co-ordinated with those of the other energy sectors and incorporated into the energy plan. This co-ordination eliminates the possibility of several energy forms planning on supplying the same market, and allows the effect of factors such as price changes and conservation measures to be carefully assessed.

Forecasting electricity demand is one of the longest-term planning processes in New Zealand. It is of critical importance to the electrical industry and the economy of the country. The long sequences of events in providing generating plants, spanning about 7 years, is today lengthening because of a more critical appraisal of their environmental impact. If demand estimates are low, or plant is not ready on time, a difficult supply situation could result. On the other hand, if estimates are high, a premature commitment of resources and capital can materially affect what is available for other national development and social programmes.

These forecasts are used in the production of a power development plan for the next 15 years. This contains recommendations on what projects should be proceeded with in order to meet estimated needs. Although plans are made for 15 years, only those for the 7-year construction period need be considered as fixed, the remainder being capable of adjustment as changing circumstances require. The forecasting and planning reports are included in the energy plan submitted to the Ministry of Energy, who tables it in the House of Representatives.

The 1979 Committee to Review Power Requirements, in its last report, provided 2 sets of estimates (based on different assumptions of population and economic growth) for the period 1979–80 to 1993–94 inclusive as follows (all figures in GWh or million kWh):

Upper—21600; 22150; 22700; 23250; 23800; 24400; 25400; 26400; 27400; 28500; 29600; 30700; 31800; 33000; 34200.

Lower—20600; 20850; 21100; 21350; 21600; 21800; 22400; 23000; 23600; 24300; 25000; 25700; 26400; 27200; 28000.

FINANCE FOR ELECTRICITY—Up to 1969 some $1,176 million had been expended in generation, transmission, and distribution, of which the Government share was $815 million. By 1979 the capital invested by the Government had risen to $2,493 million and, with the further expenditure by the electrical supply authorities on generation and distribution, the total capital expenditure has increased to $3,087 million. Continuing capital expenditure will be necessary for the strengthening and expansion of both New Zealand Electricity's generating and transmission network and electrical supply authorities distribution systems. From 1 May 1979 the bulk supply tariff and consequential retail tariffs will provide for up to 50 percent of the capital requirements to come from revenue, decreasing the electricity supply industry's loan requirements.

LEGISLATION—Under the Ministry of Energy Act 1977, the Ministry of Energy is responsible for preparing plans to meet the expected demand for electric power and for controlling the State generating and transmission systems. The Ministry also has certain responsibilities for promoting the conservation and efficient utilisation of electricity. In general, hydraulic investigation and civil engineering are carried out by the Ministry of Works and Development to the requirements of the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy. New Zealand Electricity is also responsible for the overall functional design of each station, detailed design and installation of all turbines, generators, and associated electrical and mechanical equipment, for the design and installation of equipment at substations, for the survey, design, and construction of transmission lines, and for the operation and maintenance of the network which supplies electricity in bulk to the distributing authorities.

ELECTRIC POWER BOARDS AND SUPPLY AUTHORITIES—Under the Electric Power Boards Act 1925, boards control constituted electric power districts. Of the 37 electric power boards actually functioning at 31 March 1979, 13 had generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 61574 kW. There were also 22 territorial electric supply authorities, 8 of them having generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 84362 kW. New Zealand Electricity acts as the distributing authority for Southland Electric Power Supply, while Rotorua is controlled by an area electric authority. The licensed areas under the control of the boards and other authorities cover almost all the inhabited parts of the country. More than 99 percent of New Zealand's population enjoy the benefits of electricity in the home; only a few thousand people in the more isolated and less accessible parts of the country lack this amenity.

The supply of electricity to the remote areas presents difficulties because of the high cost of reticulation in relation to the revenue from power sold. To assist consumers whose livelihood requires them to live in remote rural areas the Rural Electrical Reticulation Council can make a levy on the gross revenue from all electricity sales of all supply authorities and Government-owned electricity undertakings. This levy, at present set at 1/20 of 1 percent, is used to subsidise the capital cost of supply to these areas (line or private generating plant). Since the council was set up under the Electricity Act 1945, it has approved subsidies on 16452 route kilometres of line (6045 route km completed) assisting some 15812 consumers. During the year ended 31 March 1979, the council approved subsidies on 107 route kilometres of line, assisting 51 consumers, and paid out $319,521 on subsidies.

PUBLIC SUPPLY STATIONS—The following table covers all stations whose output is fully or partially available to the public supply system as at 31 March 1979, their installed capacity, static head where applicable, and annual electrical energy generation. Stations are State-owned unless otherwise indicated.

StationInstalled Capacity at 31 March 1979Static HeadAnnual Energy Generation Year Ended 31 March 1979Annual Load Factor Year Ended 31 March 1979
Number of UnitsMW§

* Owned by Dunedin City Council.

Owned by other supply authorities and industries.

Excludes capacity of generating plant owned and operated by industries.

§ Name-plate rating.

  Hydrometresmillion kWhpercent  
Arapuni8157.853676.949.21
Aratiatia390.034254.734.41
Atiamuri484.025230.733.21
Karapiro390.030439.854.21
Mangahao519.227393.651.86
Maraetai10360.061679.526.98
Matahina272.061248.837.17
Ohakuri4112.035313.131.32
Tokaanu4200.0208415.021.22
Waikaremoana—
    Kaitawa232.013592.536.42
    Piripaua240.0113133.9
    Tuai352.0206200.1
Waipapa351.016211.843.57
Whakamaru4100.038409.845.29
Arnold23.11323.578.31
Aviemore4220.037799.338.14
Benmore6540.0921919.038.30
Cobb632.0594149.550.49
Coleridge934.5149233.670.35
Highbank125.2101127.756.74
Manapouri7700.01774717.489.26
Monowai36.04729.456.97
Roxburgh8320.0461777.860.43
Tekapo ‘A’125.230162.868.34
Tekapo ‘B’2160.014.6988.067.66
Waipori671.2218173.826.49
   57; 51; 34  
Waitaki7105.021425.244.45
Auxiliary5964.1282.6
                  Sub-total..3766.3..16209.5..
  Thermal   
Marsden2240.0 74.33.63
Meremere7210.0 598.940.55
New Plymouth5600.0 3047.664.67
Otahuhu4180.0 8.00.76
Stratford4208.0 546.027.25
Wairakei13192.4 1185.992.92
Whirinaki4216.0 0.90.23
Auxiliary1210.6 21.8
                  Sub-total 1857.0 5483.4..
                              Total 5623.3 21692.8..

GENERAL STATISTICS—A summary of all supply authorities and New Zealand Electricity in 1978–79 is shown in the following table.

ItemUnit1978–79

* New Zealand Electricity only.

Excluding stocks and materials.

Includes starting oil.

§ Name-plate rating.

Generating stationsNo.81
Capacity of generators§kW(000)5623
Fuel used*
    Coaltonnes441,268
    Light oiltonnes4174
    Heavy oiltonnes35,324
    Natural gasterajoules40,360
Staff employedNo.15,029
Capital expenditure
    During year (net outlay)$(m)382
    To date$(m)3,087
Generation and sales—
    Generation per head of mean populationkWh6933
    Retail sales per head of mean populationkWh6060
    Domestic consumption per domestic consumerkWh7427
    Income from total retail sales of electricity per kWh sold to consumerscents2.558

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE—Financial operations during 1978–79 are summarised in the following table.

Item1978–79
* These figures represent transfers within the electrical supply industry and therefore do not represent additional income or expenditure to the industry.
Income—$(000)
    Gross income (including bulk sales and standby charges, excluding rates)804,974
    Income from bulk sales to supply authorities*287,246
    Net income (excluding rates, bulk sales, and standby charges)517,728
Expenditure—
    Operating (including cost of energy purchased in bulk)446,435
    Cost of energy purchased in bulk*287,246
    Operating (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)159,189
    Trading, administration and general82,519
    Loan interest and depreciation226,277
    Net annual expenditure (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)467,985
Surplus49,743

GENERATION—Means of generation of electrical energy for public supply is given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated by Means ofTotal
HydroSteamOil and Gas
  million kWh  
197514197.23992.4162.118351.7
197616873.23084.9113.120071.2
197714927.44968.21018.620914.2
197814591.95873.4803.221268.5
197916209.54928.3555.021692.8

The following table sets out generation and disposal by type of authority. The excess generation of certain local organisations, which is bought for public supply, is given in the column “other sources”.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated for Public Supply bySold RetailNonproductive
N.Z. ElectricitySupply AuthoritiesOther SourcesTotal
  million kWh   
197517,9533811818,35216,2722079
197619,6474071720,07117,6502421
197720,4654301920,91418,7122205
197820,7954542021,26818,9092360
197921,2154562221,69318,9632730

SALES—The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. “Domestic” includes domestic water-heating units.

Year Ended 31 MarchDomesticIndustrialCommercialFarmingPublic LightingRail and Bus TractionTotalNumber of Consumers
   million kWh    
19757554580424033701043716,2721,214,922
19768403612325783941133917,6501,248,909
19778398699927534101163618,7121,280,166
19788314710529074361153218,9091,309,958
19798181726329634051193218,9631,327,547

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power, and shows also the principal purposes for which the power was employed.

The distribution of the expenditure per kWh sold retail during 1978–79 was as follows: operating expenses 0.840 cents; trading, administration and general 0.435 cents; and loan interest and depreciation 1.193 cents giving a total expenditure of 2.468 cents per kWh sold retail.

The income per kWh sold in 1978–79 was, by categories; domestic 2.456 cents; commercial 4.271 cents; industrial 1.877 cents; farming 4.197 cents; public lighting 2.744 cents; railway traction 3.352 cents; urban traction 2.765 cents.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION—Additional information on electric power will be found in the following publications:

Report of the Ministry of Energy (Parl. paper D. 6).

Report of the Committee to Review Power Requirements (Parl. paper D. 6A).

Report of the Planning Committee on Electric Power Development in New Zealand (Parl. paper D. 6B).

Electric Power Development and Operation—New Zealand Electricity, Ministry of Energy (Annual).

The colour supplement in this Yearbook is entitled Power for New Zealand and features views of a number of power stations.

20 C—GAS

GENERAL—Gas was produced from coal as an early source of light and heating in New Zealand and by 1916 there were 56 undertakings engaged in the marketing of gas to the public. From that date the numbers of manufactured gas undertakings steadily declined because of the growth in the use of electricity as providing a cheaper source of energy. A Gas Council was established in 1958 to arrest the decline. Since 1970 the gas industry has been rejuvenated by the reticulation of natural gas in the North Island. There remains, however, a major difference between that part of the industry distributing natural gas and the remainder which is still manufacturing gas from coal and oil. The manufactured gas industry has, for many years, not been able to operate without financial assistance, and its problems intensified during 1974–75, largely because of the massive increases in the price of imported naphtha from which the lowest-cost gas had previously been produced.

The oil consortium, Shell B.P. and Todd Oil Services Ltd., discovered natural gas in Kapuni in 1959 In 1967, when further investigations had confirmed that the field was sufficiently large to justify exploitation, the Natural Gas Corporation was set up by the Government to develop this new energy resource. It is now operating the gas processing plant at Kapuni, and the pipeline to supply and sell gas along the pipeline routes to undertakings previously producing coal gas, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Hawera, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Levin, Hutt Valley, and Wellington. Natural gas supply to these centres took place in 1970 and 1971. The corporation also supplies gas to a limited number of industrial consumers adjacent to the pipeline route. A pipeline to supply untreated natural gas to the Stratford and New Plymouth electricity generating stations was completed in 1975. Supplies of untreated gas are also made available to a limited number of large industrial consumers. The corporation produces natural gasoline which is used by the Gisborne, Napier, and Hastings undertakings as a base feedstock for their gas supplies. An additional by-product extracted at Kapuni is commercial propane, which is purchased and distributed by the oil consortium. Gross trading profits of the Natural Gas Corporation were $62,144 in 1971–72, $719,966 in 1972–73, $1,826,000 in 1973–74, $1,894,000 in 1974–75, and $2,511,359 in 1975–76, but interest and depreciation charges resulted in net losses of $2.8 million, $2.2 million, $1.3 million, $1.3 million, and $982,885 in the respective years. In 1976–77 and 1977–78, however, pre-tax profits of $1,861,457 and $3,167,770 were achieved.

Those gasworks not receiving natural gas continue to receive financial incentives provided by the Government; in 1978–79 subsidies on coal prices and gas sales totalled $2,196,000 compared with $1,999,000 in the previous year. From 1 April 1980, subsidies on sales of gas manufactured from imported oil-based feedstock ceased. Subsidies on sales of gas manufactured from indigenous feedstocks will continue to 31 March 1981. Subsidies on coal used for gas manufacture will continue to 31 March 1982 and then be reduced in two annual steps to cease on 31 March 1984. The Government will increase the level of grants to gas undertakings to assist them, in approved cases, to compensate gas consumers.

GAS INDUSTRY—In 1975–76 the gas industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

  1. The manufacture and distribution of gas by gas works.

  2. The distribution of natural gas by gas undertakings.

This reclassification also introduced an integrated economic census of the industry, based on the year ended 31 March or the last accounting year prior to that date.

GAS CENSUS 1978–79—This census covered the activities of 11 gasworks (including one closed during the census year) manufacturing coal, oil, and water gas, and 9 undertakings distributing natural gas. Of the 11 gasworks, 3 are situated in the North Island and 8 (now 7) in the South Island. All the 9 natural gas undertakings are in the North Island.

Gas distributed by gasworks decreased 9.6 percent in 1978–79, to 1078.6 million megajoules. There was a decrease of 1.2 percent to 12056.7 million megajoules in natural gas distributed by gas undertakings. Total turnover of gasworks and gas undertakings in 1978–79 was $47,652,000, representing an increase of 11.4 percent over 1977–78. Value Added (the approximate contribution to gross domestic product) for the whole industry was $14,074,000 in 1978–79, 14.9 percent higher than in 1977–78.

The following table gives general statistics of the gas industry for the latest 3 years. Definitions of the terms used are similar to those for the Manufacturing Census (see section 18).

ItemUnit1976–771977–781978–79
EstablishmentsNo.212120
Ancillary unitsNo.888
Persons engaged at mid-April:
    MalesNo.916953971
    FemalesNo.145142138
Capital expenditure; less disposals$(000)3,0562,7373,578
Depreciation$(000)1,3751,4441,858
Salaries and wages paid:
    Males$(000)6,4237,3788,235
    Females$(000)706789814
Purchases and other expenses$(000)21,89529,43432,111
Turnover$(000)33,87342,78047,652
Value Added$(000)10,07012,25114,074

In the 3 tables which follow, the general statistics table has been extended to show the separate details of the 2 sub-groups of the gas industry which forms part of N.Z.S.I.C.—Major Division 4—“Fuel and Power”, viz:

Sub-group 41021—The manufacture and distribution of gas by 11 gasworks, covering 3 in the North Island and 8 in the South Island.

Sub-group 41022—The distribution of natural gas by 9 gas undertakings in the North Island.

The first table gives operating statistics.

ItemUnitGas WorksGas Undertakings
1976–771977–781978–791976–771977–781978–79
Enterprise units—
    EstablishmentsNo.121211999
    Ancillary unitsNo.666222
Paid employees at mid-April—
    Administration, sales, professional, office and related employees
—MaleNo.796967156174177
—FemaleNo.393637999692
    Production and all other employees
—MaleNo.272286277409424450
—FemaleNo.7107--2
                Total—MaleNo.351355344565598627
—FemaleNo.464644999694
  Paid part-time employees (included above)—
            Total—MaleNo.11106356
—FemaleNo.91011434
Hours worked by paid employees—
    Ordinary time—Malehrs (000)634659632107011841142
    —Femalehrs (000)827773173177149
    Paid overtime—Malehrs (000)706961586685
    —Femalehrs (000)---233
Paid employees, full-time equivalent—
    —MaleNo.394408388631700687
    —FemaleNo.4643419810185
Salaries and wages paid—
    Administration, etc.—Male$(000)5836316851,4501,6171,840
    —Female$(000)166185200510556569
    Production, etc.—Male$(000)1,9102,2062,3962,4812,9253,314
    —Female$(000)304945---
                Total—Male$(000)2,4932,8363,0813,9314,5425,154
—Female$(000)196233245510556569
Capital expenditure, less sales of fixed assets—
    Land and buildings$(000)1147313−38−36
    Other construction$(000)621841,8651,6491,365
    Vehicles, all types$(000)533329176257336
    Plant, machinery and equipment$(000)4103282233644831,655
                Total$(000)6393862592,4182,3513,319
Capital work done by own employees—
    Salaries and wages$(000)30106388348484
    Other costs$(000)3-8016751,077
                Total (included in capital expenditure)$(000)341061,1881,0231,562

The second table gives financial statistics.

ItemGas WorksGas Undertakings
1976–771977–781978–791976–771977–781978–79
Stocks of materials, etc., and finished goods—  $(thousand)  
    Value at start of year1,4271,5001,6613,0333,0362,998
    Value at end of year1,5011,6931,5793,0342,9983,307
                Increase+74+193−82+1−38+309
Purchase of materials—
    Fuel and power—Electricity108165158333672
                                  Fuel oil3918---
                                  Gas—natural127-435760
                                      —manufactured----
    Materials—Natural gas for distribution-3,9426056,66513,35313,450
                      Coal2,9193,497---
                      Oil2,3111,9531,161---
   $(thousand)  
Other materials and amounts paid for contract services4713127550-133
Goods for resale5345555382,7342,7573,226
          Total purchases of materials5,9346,7606,2519,52516,20316,940
Operating expenses, other—
    Contributions to superannuation, etc.524965125147223
    Rent—Land and buildings2935451221169
            —Plant, equipment vehicles137159177
    Insurance758379125131133
    Land tax, rates and licence fees87107129135172194
    Additional expenses1,3971,2301,2863,4573,6635,343
    Other costs of capital work done by own employees3--8016751,077
                Sub-total1,6441,5041,6044,7914,9677,316
Total purchases and other expenses7,5798,2647,85514,31621,17024,256
    Depreciation6647187697117261,089
    Salaries and wages (including those capitalised)2,6883,0703,3264,4415,0985,723
                Total operating expenses10,93112,05211,95019,46826,99431,068
Sales—
    Gas and by-products—
        Natural gas—Industrial users---13,00220,18020,413
                          Domestic users---3,9315,4717,809
        Manufactured gas—Industrial users4,7875,5525,334---
                          Domestic users2,1282,4343,023---
            Coke794971940---
            Tars192203183---
            Other manufactured goods and services236205222--187
    Goods for resale7507708073,5203,5334,094
                Total sales8,88610,13610,50820,45329,18432,503
Other—
    Rent313240183181182
    Subsidies2,3671,7202,130154174
    Other income504228667448518
    Capital work done by own employees341061,1881,0231,562
                Total other2,4811,8032,2032,0531,6562,436
                Total turnover11,36711,94012,71222,50630,84034,940

The third table shows the approximate contribution made by the gas industry as a whole to the Gross Domestic Product.

ItemGas WorksGas Undertakings
1976–771977–781978–791976–771977–781978–79
   $(thousand)  
Total turnover11,36711,94012,71222,50630,84034,940
    Stocks at end of year1,5011,6931,5793,0342,9983,307
                Total12,86813,63214,29125,54033,83838,246
                  Less stocks at start of year1,4271,5001,6613,0333,0362,998
                  Less total operating expenses10,93112,05211,95019,46826,99431,068
Operating surplus510816793,0393,8084,180
Salaries and wages2,6893,0703,3264,4415,0985,723
Superannuation, etc.524965125147223
Land tax, rates, etc.87107129135172194
Depreciation6647187697117261,089
                Total4,0024,0254,9688,4509,95111,409
                  Less Government grants and subsidies2,3671,7202,130154174
                  Equals value added totals for the two industries1,6352,3052,8398,4359,94611,235

PRODUCTION AND DISPOSAL STATISTICS—The following 2 tables compare production and disposal of manufactured and natural gas by the 20 enterprises in the 2 industries. The first shows gas manufactured and distributed by gas works.

Item1976–771977–78*1978–79
* Includes “natural gasoline” reformed by 3 gas works operating in the North Island.
 Megajoules (million)
Production—
    Quantity manufactured by gas works1298.31196.61080.4
      Less
        Internal consumption4.13.41.8
          Quantity available for distribution1294.21193.21078.6
Distribution—
    Losses210.9224.2187.3
    Sales—Domestic338.8293.6296.2
            —Industrial and commercial744.5675.4595.1
                      Total distribution by gas works1294.21193.21078.6

The second table shows gas purchased and distributed by gas undertakings.

Item1976–77*1977–78*1978–79*
* Includes “natural gas” reformed by 1 gas undertaking in the North Island.
 Megajoules (million)
Purchases—
    Quantity purchased by gas undertakings11944.512266.412112.8
      Less
        Internal consumption74.964.856.1
          Quantity available for distribution11869.612201.612056.7
Distribution—
    Losses1572.81523.71329.5
    Sales—Domestic1396.11498.02140.6
            —Industrial and commercial8900.79179.98586.6
                      Total distribution by gas undertakings11869.612201.612056.7

FURTHER INFORMATION—Results of the 1978–79 Gas Census were first published as a supplement to the September 1979 Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Other information on the gas industry will be found in the following reports.

Report of the Ministry of Energy (Parl. paper D. 6).

Report of the New Zealand Gas Council (Parl. paper D. 7).

Chapter 21. Section 21 MARKETING

21 A—MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

DEPENDENCE ON AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL EXPORTS—Despite the rise in the last decade in exports of timber, wood pulp, and paper and of manufactured products in general, products of animal origin still avenue annually over 65 percent of the total value of New Zealand exports, and agricultural exports of gross seed and fruit can be added to raise even higher the value of exports of farm produce. New Zealand remains one of the largest exporters in the world of butter and also (in some years) of meat, and is also one of the leading exporters of wool and cheese.

The following table of exports by value indicates the relative importance of farm products.

Year Ended 30 JuneDairy ProduceMeatWoolHides, Pelts, and SkinsTotal Exports*
ButterCheeseMilk and CreamCaseinTotal
* Of New Zealand produce.
    $(million)    
1975122.148.4106.014.7291.2442.2261.762.71,558.0
1976204.278.088.527.1397.8593.8456.477.42,255.6
1977253.984.9111.159.7509.6765.6648.2128.63,096.7
1978240.976.6132.860.5510.8765.2580.0144.03,141.0
1979277.275.5130.362.3545.31,094.0683.3181.83,946.0

The countries of destination for some of the main exports for 1978–79 are shown in the following table on a percentage basis. (Percentages are based on value of exports.)

Country of DestinationButterCheeseLambBeef and VealMuttonWool
United Kingdom72.4- -59.01.98.814.0
Japan1.139.06.92.832.213.0
United States0.629.56.571.2- -3.6
U.S.S.R4.834.911.1
Germany, Fed. Rep.0.11.62.80.3- -8.3
Netherlands- -0.3- -0.16.3
France1.0- -0.97.1
Italy- -- -1.7- -0.15.5
Others21.029.921.823.823.031.1
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The United Kingdom has always been New Zealand's main export market for farm products, especially butter and lamb. Until Britain joined the European Economic Community the British consumer had virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand supplies of butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of the mutually advantageous trading arrangements made between Britain and New Zealand over a long period, which reflected close political and economic connections between their people and governments.

GENERAL MARKETING SITUATION: Meat—Most meat produced in the world is supplied to domestic markets, and only about 8 percent of world output enters into international trade. Among the few countries with significant levels of exports are Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, the Netherlands, Denmark, and the Irish Republic. The principal importers are the countries of western Europe (in particular, the United Kingdom), the United States, Canada, and Japan. It is significant, however, that although the Common Market countries are substantial meat importers, much of the current trade now takes place between member countries of the Community as governed by the Common Agricultural Policy regulations.

The United Kingdom continues to be by far the largest market for lamb and, although there have been increasing sales to diversionary areas, New Zealand lamb exports remain heavily dependent on this market.

Currently, over 100 countries import New Zealand meat; of these, 3 may be regarded as major markets; they are the United Kingdom, which accounts for about 62 percent of New Zealand's lamb; Japan, which takes up to 50 percent of New Zealand's export mutton production; and North America (United States and Canada) which last season purchased around 90 percent of the country's export beef and veal production.

New Zealand's beef trade with North America developed in the late 1950s, as a result of a decline in the American dairy herd and a subsequent drop in output of manufacturing-type beef. The American beef herd is grain-fed and produces carcases with a greater amount of external fat than the consumer requires. This fat is trimmed when the carcases are being dressed. The trimmings which are used in the manufacture of processed meat products need to be supplemented with the lean type of beef that New Zealand (and Australia among others) can provide. Imports of beef into the United States are subject to “voluntary restraint” agreements under the meat import quota law. Under this system New Zealand, along with other suppliers, agrees to restrict the quantity of quota meat shipped for arrival in the U.S. during the calendar year to a negotiated tonnage. New Zealand's quota entitlement under the terms of the agreement was initially set at 150272 tonnes for the 1979 calendar year. However, owing to some countries being unable to supply their quota share, shortfall allocations have occurred and as a result the final allowable level of beef imports from New Zealand to the U.S.A. was 164065 tonnes.

Beef and veal imports into Canada have been controlled by quota since the last quarter of 1976. New Zealand's quota allocation for the calendar year 1979 was 29300 tonnes.

Imports of beef and sheepmeats into the United States are shown in the following table.

Country of ExportImports Subject to Meat Import Law*Lamb
19751976197719781975197619771978
* Includes beef, veal, mutton, and goat meat.
tonnes (000) product weight
New Zealand125118120150912813
Australia3082872973662324
Canada10363528----
Mexico13242728----
Nicaragua22222329----
Costa Rica27242631----
Other countries43483942-1--
                  Total imports54855956767411161017
United States production11271121661184511283186163.7154.7136.1

Shipments of beef and veal to Canada totalled 27254 tonnes in the year ended September 1979 while lamb shipments made up 8597 tonnes.

In Japan, imported mutton is used mainly for processing in sausage-type foods. Shipments of New Zealand mutton in the year ended September 1979, including those to South Korea where meat is processed and reshipped to Japan, totalled 49588 tonnes—a small increase of 110 tonnes over the 1977–78 season's figure. The U.S.S.R., which did not purchase any mutton from New Zealand during the 1977–78 season, re-entered the mutton market during the 1978–79 season and became the largest single buyer of the product, purchasing 54226 tonnes.

It has been the policy of the Meat Board to diversify exports of lamb. The original initiative for this was the likelihood of Britain joining the EEC and, with that, the possibility of more comprehensive regulations covering imports of sheepmeats from outside the Community than the present Common Customs Tariff of 20 percent. It was also considered that there was a need to reduce the continued dependence on one market.

In 1960 the Meat Export Development Company was established, an organisation charged with the responsibility for the orderly development of New Zealand lamb marketing in the United States and Canada. All New Zealand lamb sales to these countries are controlled by this company, the directorate of which is composed of nominees of the New Zealand Meat Producers Board and representatives of the freezing companies. The head office of the company is in Wellington, while the North American operations are controlled from Toronto.

The Market Development Committee, which consists of representatives of the Meat Board and the meat export trade, each year sets a percentage of lamb exports to be sold in markets other than the United Kingdom. It also establishes a levy payable per kilogram on any shortfall in sales below the target figure. The target for the 1979–80 season was set at 32 percent, the same level as for the 1978–79 season.

Japan provided the largest diversionary market for New Zealand lamb during the 1978–79 season, the 18243 tonnes shipped there being an increase of 19.4 percent over the previous season. Other principal markets for lamb were the U.S.A. (14187 tonnes), Canada (8597 tonnes), Greece (14267 tonnes), Iran (13111 tonnes), and Germany (7521 tonnes).

At the international level, New Zealand participated in the negotiation of the Arrangement on Bovine Meat in the “Tokyo Round” of GATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations. While the arrangement does not encompass prices it does establish an International Meat Council which will be a useful forum for exchanging information and endeavouring to further liberalise trade.

Wool—New Zealand is one of the world's leading producers and exporters of wool. It holds third place as a producer; only Australia and the Soviet Union grow more. It is second to Australia as an exporter, and is the world's largest supplier of medium-to-coarse crossbred for use in soft woollen clothing, upholstery, and carpets. About 90 percent of the total clip is exported. During the 1978–79 season, wool earned New Zealand $684 million (f.o.b.) overseas.

The most common way of selling wool is by open auction in New Zealand. About two-thirds of the clip is sold this way. The auction season runs from August to the following June. Sales are held at 8 centres around the country and they attract buyers representing all the main wool importing countries. Growers can also sell their wool to merchants privately in New Zealand, and the New Zealand Wool Board buys certain types of wool direct under its Extra Choice Scheme, Small quantities of wool are also shipped to Britain for sale at auction.

Prices fluctuate from season to season. The Wool Board operates a floor price scheme which assures growers of a minimum income each season. The board's market intervention and strata price control policies help to steady the market in times of uncertainty.

After a period of relative price stability dating back to the early 1950s, demand slackened in late 1966 and prices remained low for the next 5 years. Following a recovery which reached a peak toward the end of 1973, the market declined sharply although not to the levels of the late 1960s. After the devaluation of the New Zealand dollar in August 1975, the downward trend was reversed.

The market strengthened throughout 1975–76 and 1976–77, but declined again in 1977–78. In the 1978–79 season a marked recovery in the demand for wool was evident, particularly in the second half of the season, when prices rose strongly. This improvement in demand, and consequently in prices, enabled the Wool Board to reduce its stockpile of bought-in wool by 60 percent, from 201900 bales to 80900 hales.

The average auction price for greasy wool increased from 190.43 cents per kilogram for the 1977–78 season to 218.80 cents per kilogram for the 1978–79 season. It increased to 301.1 cents by the middle of October 1979, and then declined slightly. Since the intervention price was increased at the beginning of the 1979–80 season, the first half of the season saw very little intervention buying by the Wool Board, and considerable selling. To the end of December 1979 the Wool Board had bought in 13000 bales and sold 34000 bales.

World wool production increased steadily until 1968–69, particularly in Australia, New Zealand, and the Soviet Union. This growth reflected improvements, both in carrying capacity per acre (number of sheep) and in wool production per sheep. Of the increase, probably over two-thirds stemmed from the upward trend in sheep population and the remainder from improved output per head of sheep. After reaching a record level in 1968–69, world wool production showed a downward trend until 1973–74. Production increased next season, but dropped again in 1975–76 and 1976–77. After remaining static during 1977–78, world wool production rose in 1978–79 and 1979–80, mainly because of a return to higher levels of production in Australia and New Zealand. Since World War II there has been no significant change in the broad geographical distribution of production which remains concentrated in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa, and Uruguay—all of which export on a large scale—and in the United States and the Soviet Union. These countries account for 75 percent of world production; of the world total, Australia produces 27 percent, New Zealand 12 percent, Argentina 7 percent, and South Africa 4 percent.

Wool production does not, of course, coincide exactly with the distribution of the sheep population, since the production of wool or yield per sheep varies considerably according to differences in pastoral conditions and objectives in farming.

The International Wool Secretariat, founded by the woolgrowers of Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa in 1937 and now a partnership of the grower organisations of these countries plus Uruguay, is engaged in research, product innovation, and marketing, and the general promotion of wool. In recent years wool has had to met strong competition from synthetics but the secretariat's campaign, and particularly the use of the Woolmark identification, has contributed to establishing a clear price premium for wool.

Sheep numbers and wool production for selected countries are shown in the following table. (Sources: International Wool Textile Organisation, Commonwealth Secretariat, International Wool Study Group, I.W.S.)

CountryWoolled SheepWool Production
1975–761976–771977–78*1976–771977–781978–79x1979–80*
* Provisional.
 (million) Greasy (million kilograms)
Argentina34.934.034.8176172171168
Australia148.6135.4131.4703677706732
New Zealand56.459.162.2303311321353
South Africa23.0x23.5x23.510310610098
Soviet Union141.4139.8141.0436459x462466
United Kingdom28.328.129.648464947
United States13.4*12.812.353504645
Uruguay15.616.016.564x626468
World total925.7x916.5x924.525072508x25502611

The major importing countries of virgin wool are shown in the following table. (Source: International Wool Textile Organisation.)

Country of Import197319741975197619771978
   (million kilograms)  
Belgium53.043.145.363.046.751.6
France121.5125.5120.1165.2117.4114.2
Italy90.467.079.8108.9x87.692.5
Japan315.7163.1229.8269.8214.4201.9
Soviet Union96.0100.3108.8109.6111.6132.9
United Kingdom150.8121.0132.5162.0136.6148.7
United States34.515.319.426.0x22.4x26.0
West Germany58.947.174.399.376.477.0

The following table shows wool entered for export from New Zealand to major wool-consuming countries. (Sources: Department of Statistics.)

Country1974–751975–761976–77x1977–781978–79*

* Provisional.

Including exports to other countries.

   actual tonnes  
Japan16,62026,91317,24017,43631,425
Netherlands24,22525,24126,40622,97517,330
Soviet Union21,77227,62024,19922,45531,441
United Kingdom40,37538,49346,32145,09936,795
United States6721895110,02485309567
West Germany18,49722,76122,14819,79220,431
Total exports218,853272,794252,673242,782261,104

The following table shows the number of bales purchased by New Zealand mills during the past 6 seasons. (Sources: New Zealand Wool Board, Manufacturers' Monthly Levy Returns.)

 1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79
   bales  
Wool purchased175,76191,896175,354156,207121,492156,814

Dairy Produce—The international market for dairy products is characterised by its small size relative to the total world production of milk, with only around 3 percent to 4 percent of production entering international trade. As such, it is very vulnerable to fluctuations from external causes, whether these be climatic, commercial, or political. It only takes marginal production changes in the major producers, transferred via shortages or surpluses on to the international market, for severe shifts to occur in the international supply position and international prices.

There are only really 4 main dairy exporters, namely: the EEC; New Zealand; Australia; and Canada, in that order of magnitude, who provide about four-fifths of all exports. Relatively smaller quantities are exported by the Nordic countries, east Europeans, and the U.S.S.R.

The New Zealand Dairy Board exports annually over 500000 tonnes of manufactured dairy products, of which around half go to the affluent countries in Europe, North America, and Japan, and the other half to the developing countries, with a heavy emphasis on South-east Asia and Latin America. New Zealand now relies on the United Kingdom for only one-third of the value of its dairy export exchange earnings, although the United Kingdom still remains the principal market for butter.

Developed countries have a tendency to express social and political policies towards their farmers through price support mechanisms; high prices which are fixed with little regard to commercial reality encourage production but discourage consumption, thus creating surpluses. It is the disposal of these surpluses, by means of heavy Government export subsidies, which really undermines the stability of the international market.

New Zealand is almost the only country for which dairy exports are economically important. For most other countries, dairy exports are a question of surplus disposal, and therefore inconsequential to national economies. Consequently, New Zealand maintains strong and consistent pressure in international councils to achieve a stable balance between supply and demand in international trade. While success in GATT or other international organisations to negotiate improved access conditions in developed countries has been minimal, international arrangements covering consultative procedures and minimum prices have contributed to stabilising markets.

The “Tokyo Round” of GATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations (MTN) resulted in the negotiation of the International Dairy Arrangement to replace the OECD agreement on wholemilk powder and the GATT agreements on skim-milk powder and anhydrous milkfat. The new arrangement (signed by New Zealand in December 1979), as well as extending the product coverage and providing for an annual review of the minimum prices, established the International Dairy Products Council to evaluate the international market situation and provide a forum for seeking solutions to problems in international dairy trade.

The 1979 minimum prices per tonne established under the arrangement are:

 US$
Whole-milk powder725
Skim-milk powder425
Buttermilk powder425
Anhydrous milkfat (AMF)1,100
Butter925
Cheese (certain types only)800

GATT bilateral access negotiations have made some progress with the recent EEC agreement to allow the import of 9500 metric tonnes per annum of New Zealand cheese, commencing in 1980. Additionally, access for cheese into the United States was secured at a higher level, with New Zealand's quota rising from 7447 tonnes to 17442 tonnes per annum.

The following tables compare production and exports of butter, cheese, and skim-milk powder by selected countries. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

PRODUCTION
CountryButter*CheeseSkim-milk Powder
197619771978197619771978197619771978

* Includes butter equivalent of AMF.

Provisional.

Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

§Twelve months ended 31 May of following year.

 tonnes (000)
Australia118112101104116x141978375
Canada114113x102125133x141158159x131
EEC179318081951299131613250200119742156
    Denmark139131140157177183635364
    France553556x5719701015x1047715696676
    Ireland103102119505450164146169
    Netherlands202179211382417x426190161x223
    United Kingdom90135162204207x216170246272
    West Germany543535564650691713574559603
New Zealand§273240x2688181x93206172174
U.S.A.444493x45115131523x1596420502x417
EXPORTS
CountryButter*CheeseSkim-milk Powder
197619771978197619771978197619771978

* Includes butter equivalent of AMF.

Provisional.

Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

§ Excludes trade between member countries.

 tonnes (000)
Australia3432x345245x5111036x18
Canada62x32398166x123
EEC§116255274204209221167420418
New Zealand222183196797064158165120
U.S.A 42x24557103

Butter—World butter production in the period 1974 to 1977 averaged around 6.6 million tonnes. Excluding trade between the member states of the EEC, which does not enter international trade as such, international commercial trade in that period amounted to around 348000 tonnes for butter and 81000 tonnes of anhydrous milkfat (AMF). As well, 34000 tonnes of anhydrous milkfat was given as food aid. The relatively small size of trade compared to production illustrates the vulnerability of the international market to distortions introduced by disposal of relatively small surpluses in large producing countries via export subsidies.

In October 1977, after protracted negotiations with the EEC Commission, the c.i.f. price for New Zealand butter supplied to the United Kingdom was increased by 10 percent. This partially compensated for cost increases incurred since the previous price change in January 1976. Further price increases were applied for in June 1978 and in 1979 to compensate for continued cost escalation, but domestic Community politics have inhibited approval of any increases.

Access for New Zealand butter into the United Kingdom for the years 1978, 1979, and 1980 was agreed in June 1976 at 125000 tonnes, 120000 tonnes, and 115000 tonnes respectively. Negotiations on continued access for New Zealand butter after 1980 commenced in late 1978 and are still continuing. With lesser annual entitlements now applying, New Zealand is less able to cut butter arrivals in order to attract higher price rises.

Skim-milk Powder—World production of skim-milk powder has rapidly expanded over recent years, with 1977 world production at over 4.0 million tonnes, up 1.0 million tonnes from levels at the beginning of the 1970s. Up to 1975, international demand had been buoyant, stimulated by a growing number of milk recombining plants in Asia, South America, Africa, and the Caribbean. Economic recession and high support prices in certain producing countries dampened demand during 1975 and there was a corresponding decline in international prices in the face of surplus powder stocks. The surplus powder situation was eased in 1976 and 1977 through special disposal sales as stockfood, and of the main exporters in 1978 only the EEC continued to hold high stock levels. Because of a significant rundown in EEC stocks through animal feed sales, the 1979 market prices have gradually lifted, but returns are not likely to show lasting improvement until the EEC situation of persistent surplus production and high export subsidies is solved.

Casein—Casein, which is produced from skim milk, was originally chiefly used in industrial products such as the manufacture of coatings for high quality paper. In the past 10 years, however, the nutritional value of caseins and their derivatives has been realised, and it is now being put to an increasing range of edible uses. Caseins are used as high-grade protein in food manufacture, where their nutritional and functional properties make them desirable ingredients in bakery goods, specialty high protein foods, coffee creamers, snack foods, and other products.

New Zealand is the largest exporter of casein, with much of the production going to the United States of America, EEC, and Japan.

The major countries producing casein are shown in the following table.

Producing CountryCasein
1975197619771978*

* Provisional.

Twelve months ended 31 May following year.

Twelve months ended 30 June following year.

  tonnes (000) 
New Zealand52.758.056.769.0
Australia15.516.818.617.2
Poland24.028.035.030.0
France12.712.619.521.2
West Germany13.812.712.814.8
Netherlands12.013.014.015.0
Irish Republic1.94.07.511.0
Argentina8.08.05.03.3

Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.

DIVERSIFICATION OF MARKETS—The value of New Zealand's dairy exports to markets outside the United Kingdom has markedly increased over the last couple of decades. In 1955 only 13 percent of the value of New Zealand's total dairy exports went to markets outside the United Kingdom. In 1972, for the first time, more than half of the dairy exchange earnings came from these other markets. Since then, dairy exchange earnings from the United Kingdom market have settled at around one-third of the total.

The rate of diversification away from the United Kingdom in exchange earnings terms has now stabilised, reflecting the relatively higher returns for the milkfat export sector compared to the solids-non-fat (snf) sector. The United Kingdom continues to be the most important outlet for New Zealand milkfat products, taking still over 80 percent of total butter exports. Continued diversification successes are restricted by limited market opportunities for milkfat products. Sales of butter to the Soviet Union and Japan are conducted on an ad hoc basis when these countries have domestic shortages, and as such they do not represent long-term secure markets. The growth in cheese exports to Japan has slowed, while cheese exports to the United States—which had rapidly increased in recent years—are expected to be stabilised under new import quota provisions.

The following table shows the changing direction of New Zealand's dairy export earnings in the period since 1970.

Product197019751978
United KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll Markets
   $(million)  
Butter104.0113.2121.0146.8212.8241.5
Cheese35.747.920.273.717.2x87.6x
Casein3.233.50.419.42.581.0
Other dairy products8.847.8151.6218.2
All dairy products151.7242.5141.6391.5232.5x628.3x

The percentage of dairy export earnings obtained from the United Kingdom in recent years is shown in the following table.

ProductPercentage from United Kingdom
197019751978
Butter91.982.488.1
Cheese74.527.419.7
Casein9.62.13.1
Other dairy products18.4
All dairy products62.636.237.0

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY—The Rome Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) came into force on 1 January 1958. The member countries were Belgium, France, West Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, and the Netherlands. These countries entered into negotiations which resulted in the abolition of customs duties within the Common Market on 1 July 1968. On the same date the separate customs tariff of the 6 countries gave way to a single tariff—the common customs tariff of the Community. By that date also much of the Common Agricultural Policy was in operation, although some final negotiations had still to take place. The Common Agricultural Policy, with its high internal prices supported at the Community frontier by variable levies, and its export subsidies, has encouraged the production of surpluses, most notably of dairy products, while reducing consumption.

The danger facing New Zealand was that should Britain, in joining the EEC, accept the Common Agricultural Policy without special arrangements to protect the major items of New Zealand's agricultural trade with Britain, the pastoral industries in particular and the economy in general would be severely damaged.

Before the formal negotiations between Britain and the EEC commenced the New Zealand Government engaged in discussions with the British Government and listed the requirements which were regarded as necessary to safeguard New Zealand's vital interests. These requirements were as follows:

  1. That New Zealand should be able to continue to sell at remunerative prices the quantities of butter and cheese for which it currently received assured access to the British market.

  2. That guarantees of access should not terminate with the transitional period, but that there should be a continuing arrangement subject to periodic review.

  3. That, in the event of the Community adopting a common regulation for sheepmeats, New Zealand should continue to have access for lamb sales on a satisfactory basis.

When the formal negotiations opened in June 1970, the British Government accepted this “statement of claim” for dairy products as the basis for their submission to the Community. In respect of lamb, no negotiations with the EEC were scheduled because of the absence of a common Community regulation. The New Zealand Government accordingly sought from the United Kingdom an understanding that they would not agree to the introduction of a sheepmeats policy which would damage New Zealand's interests.

Negotiations between Britain and the Community formally opened on 21 July 1970. However it was not until a decisive negotiating session held in Luxembourg from 21–23 June 1971 that Britain succeeded in negotiating a special arrangement for New Zealand butter and cheese.

The special arrangement was subsequently incorporated in Protocol 18 to the Treaty of Accession of the applicant countries (United Kingdom, Denmark, and Ireland) to the EEC. It provided access to the British market for specified quantities of butter and cheese at fixed prices for an initial period of 5 years ending on 31 December 1977. Access for butter was to be continued after 1977 but no special provision was made for cheese.

New Zealand butter and cheese entered under Protocol 18 from 1 February 1973 onwards, was guaranteed a c.i.f. price of £361 per ton for butter, and £312 per ton for cheese. In 1973, monetary compensatory amounts became applicable to New Zealand's butter and cheese exported to the United Kingdom, and these went some way towards compensating for the decline in the sterling value of the c.i.f. prices. In November 1974 the EEC agreed to increase New Zealand's guaranteed c.i.f. prices for butter and cheese by 18 percent in recognition of New Zealand's claim that inflation and rising freight and production costs had severely eroded returns to our farmers.

A further increase of 18 percent was granted towards the end of 1975 applicable from 1 January 1976 and a third increase of 10 percent was granted with effect from 10 October 1977.

In March 1975, in the context of Britain's renegotiation of its terms of entry to the community, the Common Market Heads of Government set guidelines for the quantities of butter for which New Zealand would have access to the British market for the first 3 years after 1977. They also agreed to periodic adjustments to the Protocol 18 prices taking into account, among other things, prices paid to EEC farmers, production costs in New Zealand, and trends in freight charges. In addition, they left the way open for further access for New Zealand cheese after 1977.

In the Tokyo Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was concluded in 1979, New Zealand was successful in obtaining the Agreement of the European Community to an annual quota of 9500 tonnes of New Zealand cheese. Compared with the 70000 tonnes of cheese which New Zealand exported to the Community prior to Britain's accession, the new quota is not large, but nevertheless it will enable New Zealand to resume marketing its cheese throughout the European Community.

Improved access to the EEC was also negotiated for beef. The EEC's annual global tariff quota was increased from 38500 tonnes to 50000 tonnes, thus providing some additional access opportunity in which New Zealand might share.

In June 1976 the Community's Council of Agriculture Ministers agreed on the arrangements for the import of New Zealand butter into Britain in the years 1978–80. The quantities agreed for those years were 125000, 120000, and 115000 tonnes respectively.

The vital matter of how much butter New Zealand will be permitted to export to Europe in the period after 1980 has yet to be decided by the European Community. Despite the efforts made by the New Zealand Dairy Industry to diversify, market opportunities outside Europe remain very limited and therefore continued access to Britain for substantial quantities of butter remains essential.

The sheep and sheepmeat sector is currently one of the few not covered by the EEC Common Agricultural Policy. The question of including sheepmeat within a common policy has however received closer attention in recent years. In April 1978 the EEC Commission presented a draft regulation for the sheepmeat sector to the EEC Council of Ministers. Currently the commission's proposal is still under consideration by the council. Progress in reaching a final decision appears likely to be slow as the positions of the member states diverge widely. New Zealand has consistently made clear its position that if a regulation must be introduced it should not adversely affect consumption or New Zealand's trade in lamb with the Community.

New Zealand has received assurances at the highest level that New Zealand will continue to be consulted during the preparation of the sheepmeat regulation and that our vital trade interests in this product will be safeguarded.

UNITED KINGDOM MARKET: Butter—New Zealand continues to retain an important supply position in the United Kingdom butter market, as the following table illustrates. Domestic production of butter in the United Kingdom has dramatically increased in recent years and, with the decreasing level of consumption, is becoming a relatively larger influence on the market.

Country of OriginButter
1976197719781979*
* Provisional.
  tonnes (000) 
New Zealand (Protocol 18)120.1137.8125.0120.0
Belgium/Luxembourg2:80.91.20.2
Denmark71.559.459.543.5
West Germany42.327.413.69.1
France20.013.65.91.6
Ireland48.229.348.340.0
Netherlands86.353.237.724.9
Other countries0.10.10.1
                Total imports391.3321.7291.3239.3
United Kingdom production89.3133.1161.7157.7

(Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

The following table shows the comparative figures for consumption of butter and margarine per head in the United Kingdom in recent years.

Product19701975197619771978
  kilogram per head 
Butter8.88.48.37.87.7
Margarine5.45.05.86.56.3

(Source: Milk Marketing Board, U.K.)

Meat—The following table shows the imports of meat into the United Kingdom from the principal countries, by country of export. (Source: Meat and Livestock Commission.)

Country of ExportMutton and LambBeef and Veal
19751976197719781975197619771978
    tonnes (000)   
New Zealand23421321321461083
Australia8125121010613
Argentina28711
Denmark15202217
Ireland, Republic of19680129141
Botswana1117194
France20232319
West Germany14161820
Other countries11122302845
                Total imports244226219226196214258273
United Kingdom production259248223x2281222107410011027

The Meat and Livestock Commission estimated that in 1977 the inhabitants of the United Kingdom consumed per head 21 kilograms of beef and veal, 7 kilograms of mutton and lamb, 11 kilograms of pork, 4 kilograms of offal, 12 kilograms of poultry, and 9 kilograms of bacon and ham.

THE ORGANISATION OF MARKETING—In a country such as New Zealand, which is very dependent upon overseas trade, the efficient organisation of marketing of primary produce takes on a special importance.

Marketing Authorities—Since about 1950 the principle has been accepted that producers should be predominantly responsible for the marketing of their products. The major statutes under which specific marketing authorities operate are the Dairy Board Act 1961, the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 and the Amendment Acts 1956 and 1971 (for the Meat Producers Board), and the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, the Wool Industry Act 1977, the Milk Act 1967, the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953 (safeguards citrus fruit, honey, and eggs).

Dairy Produce—The New Zealand Dairy Board acquires and markets all dairy products intended for export and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand. The New Zealand Dairy Board is a statutory authority operating under the Dairy Board Act 1961 and acts as the administrative body for the industry and as its export marketing agency. Of the board's members 11 are elected by the co-operative companies and 2 are appointed by the Government. The board acquires all export dairy products from the manufacturing companies, sells the goods overseas, and returns the proceeds, less marketing costs, to the companies.

The board sells its products throughout the world, and is currently exporting to over 100 countries. Sales are made in the United Kingdom through the board's own sales organisations. In other markets, the board sells through its own local company, or through local agents, or in the case of some buyers it sells direct on a contract basis. Increasingly the board is posting its own personnel overseas in key markets as liaison representatives and, where warranted, subsidiary trading companies have been established.

Meat—The New Zealand Meat Producers Board was constituted in 1922 under the provisions of the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 to protect the national and producers' interests. The board obtains funds by the imposition of a levy on all meat exported (except canned meats and offals). The current levy is 0.77c per kilogram.

Funds from the levy totalled $5.1 million in the year ended September 1979. Expenditure exceeded income by $4.5 million, the balance being drawn from the Industry Reserve Account.

The board's main responsibilities are:

  1. Meat export licensing;

  2. The grading, storage, and shipment of meat;

  3. Market research;

  4. The promotion of New Zealand meat;

  5. Improvement in the quality of New Zealand meat.

The board has engaged in most activities in the export trade in the interests of the producer.

The board has had a major influence on meat marketing policy through the regulation of shipments, control over quality, and the development of markets through promotion, in which it is investing some $3 million a year.

In its market support activities the board is the only organisation in the world promoting the sale of meat on a genuinely international scale. To this end it has established in its major markets a network of market consultants assisting the board through its overseas offices, which are in London, New York, Tokyo, Brussels, and Tehran.

Prior to 1971 the board's power to participate in the purchase and sale of meat in any country outside New Zealand was limited under the terms of the Act to the establishment of markets in those countries where no substantial market for New Zealand meat previously existed and to the expansion and maintenance of those markets. An amendment to the Act passed in October 1971 extended the board's power to enable it to buy any meat derived from sheep and sell in or export to any country. These powers were further extended in 1974 by an Order in Council which enables the board to buy and sell beef. In the 1971–72 season the board purchased a sizeable proportion of lambs slaughtered for export, while, at one stage in the 1974–75 season, it was purchasing mutton, beef, and lamb. During the 1975–76 season and again in 1976–77 and 1977–78, the board intervened and purchased a significant proportion of the export mutton product.

While the trade has retained the role of direct marketing, the administrative and promotional work of the board has served to ensure that the long-term interests of the industry are not ignored. This function embraces all activities in moving meat from producer to consumer in the quickest and most efficient manner with due regard to the stability of prices and markets.

A Pork Industry Council functions under the Pork Industry Act 1974. Its principal functions are to promote and organise the orderly development of the pork industry; to assist in the marketing of pigs; to maintain and improve quality; to increase production; to promote efficiency; and to ensure a supply of foodstuffs for pigs.

Wool—The New Zealand Wool Board—an amalgamation of the old Wool Board and the Wool Marketing Corporation—was established on 7 February 1978 by the Wool Industry Act 1977. The board is a grower-controlled authority which has as its object to obtain, in the interest of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool. Currently the board is involved in a number of activities associated with the marketing of wool including the operation of a minimum prices scheme and a market intervention scheme aimed at reducing fluctuations in prices and cushioning declines in the market. It is also deeply involved in the research and promotion of New Zealand wool and is a partner in the International Wool Secretariat.

Apples and Pears—Apples and pears are purchased from growers by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board. This board was set up in 1948, in terms of the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971, to acquire and market the apple and pear crop. Under the Apple and Pear Marketing Amendment Act 1967 there has been set up an Apple and Pear Prices Authority whose function it is to determine each season the average price to be paid for apples and pears. This price is a New Zealand average, and within it prices to growers vary for the different varieties, grades, and sizes. Most apples and pears of standard grade are purchased by the board, with private sales by growers limited by regulations. Growers may sell direct to consumers in lots of not more than 2 cases, or with permission of the board, to retailers in specified localities. Manufacturers may be licensed by the board to purchase their requirements direct from growers (although in some cases the board itself purchases fruit and resells it to the factory). Growers may also be permitted by the board to sell at municipal markets established under the Local Government Act 1974.

The board decides what proportion of the fruit is to remain in New Zealand and what proportion is to be exported, and arranges for the storage and release of varieties according to their condition and keeping capacity, in order to make fruit available for as long a period as possible during the year. The board determines the wholesale prices at which fruit is sold in New Zealand by authorised wholesalers to retailers. If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the board exceed the amount which the board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus, after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the board, is apportioned between a reserve fund and the growers. The board may distribute up to 50 percent of the surplus among growers, or such greater proportions as the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries approves. The balance is added to the reserve fund. If sales in any season realise less than the amount the board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve fund. The reserve fund, which has been built up from profits derived almost solely from exports, has been invested in a chain of modern cool stores and mechanical equipment designed for the improved handling of fruit.

Financial results for recent seasons are shown in the following table.

SeasonProfit or LossBoard's ShareGrowers' ShareReserve Fund at End of Season
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1974–751,0181,018−2,179
1975–76−2,228−2,228−4,407
1976–7713,15610,2232,9335,816
1977–7812,3826,3226,06012,138
1978–799,9914,8565,13517,273

Potatoes—The New Zealand Potato Board was reconstituted by the Potato Industry Act 1977 as predominantly a producer organisation. It consists of 9 members—a nominee of the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries representing the interests of the consumer, 6 grower members (3 nominated by the New Zealand Potato Growers Federation and 3 by the New Zealand Vegetable and Produce Growers Federation), and 2 merchant members representing the New Zealand Agricultural Merchants Federation and the New Zealand Fruit and Produce Merchants and Auctioneers Federation.

The principal functions of the Potato Board are to promote and assist in the orderly development of the potato industry in New Zealand, and to ensure as far as practicable an adequate supply of potatoes. It maintains a register of potato plantings and charges a registration fee. The board has the power to administer a legal minimum quality standard scheme for potatoes; to specify standards for table and seed potatoes; to foster, arrange, or undertake the disposal of, surplus potatoes or sub-standard potatoes or the export or import of potatoes where necessary; to further sales by publicity or otherwise; to maintain statistics and disseminate information to growers; and to foster research and development in the industry.

Milk—The New Zealand Milk Board was set up in 1953. It operates the national milk scheme and engages in other activities for the purpose of ensuring an adequate supply and efficient distribution of milk. The legislation is contained in the Milk Act 1967.

The board may make a levy on milk to finance its operations but while a subsidy on milk is payable from the Consolidated Account the rate of levy requires the approval of the Minister of Agriculture.

Retail prices are fixed by Order in Council. The price for the milk to the producer is fixed by the Minister of Agriculture after consultation with the Milk Board. Intermediate margins, such as those for treating milk and to vendors for its delivery, are fixed by the Milk Prices Authority. The total cost at the present time exceeds the amount paid by the consumers, the balance being met by subsidy. It is the function of the Milk Board to administer the whole town milk scheme on behalf of the Government which, however, retains a direct interest by virtue of the substantial sum paid in subsidy.

Eggs—The Egg Marketing Authority, which was established in 1953, consists of 8 members—5 producer members of the New Zealand Poultry Board and 3 Government representatives. The principal function of the authority is to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg pulp in New Zealand and elsewhere in accordance with the regulations, to ensure as far as possible sufficient supplies of eggs, and their equitable distribution in the general interests of producers and consumers.

The New Zealand Egg Marketing Authority operates principally through licensed distributors in the various districts who, on commission, receive and resell eggs or, as directed by the authority, manufacture egg pulp for the use of bakers and pastrycooks. Eggs are subject to price control.

Imported Citrus Fruits, Bananas, Pineapples, and Grapes—The importation and marketing of imported citrus fruits, bananas, pineapples, and grapes are the responsibility of a public company, Fruit Distributors Ltd., representing trade interests. The operations of the company are defined and restricted by an agreement between it and the Government. There are 2 Government representatives on the company's board of directors.

New Zealand Lemons and Oranges—The Citrus Marketing Authority was established in 1953 to market fresh lemons, either directly or through agents throughout New Zealand, and to process unmarketable but otherwise sound fruit into by-products such as fruit juice and lemon peel. The authority has a membership of 6, 5 of whom are nominees of the New Zealand Citrus Council and represent the producers, and 1 appointed by the Minister of Agriculture as the Government member, who also protects the interests of consumers.

The Citrus Marketing Authority controls the assembly and distribution of New Zealand lemons, and also New Zealand-grown sweet oranges. The entire output of fruit, which comes under the jurisdiction of the authority, is sold at agreed prices to Fruit Distributors Ltd. The authority operates processing and packing facilities at Kerikeri, Tauranga, and Gisborne.

Honey—The Honey Marketing Authority, set up in 1953, undertakes the packing and marketing within New Zealand and for export, of all honey supplied to it. Beekeepers have the option of supplying the authority, selling to private packers, or packing and marketing their own honey.

A hive levy payable by all producers owning 50 or more hives is administered by the authority for the benefit of the honey producing industry generally.

The rate of hive levy is determined annually and is currently set at 15c per hive.

The authority comprises 4 members elected by beekeepers, and 1 member appointed as Government representative. One of the functions of the Government representative is to watch the interests of the consumer.

Prices and sales of honey by the Honey Marketing Authority are set out in the following table.

Item1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79
Payment to producerscents per kg54.8261.3475.0281.086.16
Average selling price—
    New Zealandcents per kg93.01101.20111.71127.40138.55
    Overseascents per kg74.2380.98116.88116.23120.50
Sales—
    New Zealandtonnes988889938789880
    Overseastonnes68720617017801850

TRANSPORT AND OVERSEAS MARKETS—Farm products form the bulk of New Zealand's exports. They come to hand for shipment in seasonal cycles. These are most pronounced for lamb, and apples and pears, but apply also to a marked extent to mutton, beef, wool, and related produce. Butter, cheese, and other dairy produce become available throughout the year, but production is considerably higher in the 6 months October to March than in the remainder of the year. The peak season for all the animal products is much the same, being roughly November to May, while there is a shorter concentrated season for fruit in March and April.

This seasonality presents shipping problems in the marketing process. In addition, the bulk of the commodities are perishable and require continuous refrigeration throughout the period of at least 2 to 3 months between production and consumption. The demand for shipping space lags a little behind the season, generally building up in January and declining in June. A realisation of the demands that increased production was making on transport, storage, handling, and shipping services led in 1964 to the setting up of an Exports and Shipping Council, an independent body whose main purpose is to improve the efficiency and economy of New Zealand export trade as it relates to transport services. Shipping receives special attention as shipping costs absorb a substantial portion of market realisations.

The council is representative of producer boards, freezing companies, transport interests, harbour boards, the New Zealand Chambers of Commerce, the Federation of Labour, and the Manufacturers' Federation. It has been successful in bringing into effect many of the recommendations of the streamlining report on ports, shipping, transport, and other services produced as a result of consultations between the producer boards and the main shipping lines, and it continues its efforts to improve the efficiency and economy of transporting New Zealand produce to its markets.

PRICES FOR FARM PRODUCTS: Wool—The New Zealand Wool Board and the Wool Marketing Corporation were amalgamated under the Wool Industry Act on 7 February 1978. One of the main activities of the new board is the continuance of the corporation's minimum or floor price plan, and its market intervention and strata price control schemes.

The floor price plan was introduced in 1952 by the corporation's predecessor, the New Zealand Wool Commission. It guarantees wool growers a minimum income from the wool they sell. The board prepares a table of minimum prices for all types of wool (there are almost 2000) before the start of a new selling season. The prices are fixed in agreement with the Minister of Agriculture, and are not altered during the season. If wool is sold either to commercial buyers or to the board, at a price below the appropriate minimum, the board makes a supplementary payment to the grower up to the floor level. Supplementary payments are made from the board's Wool Income Stabilisation Account. The account is funded by a 2 percent levy on the returns for wool sold for the first time at above minimum prices.

The minimum price per kilogram greasy weight for the 1979–80 season was 200 cents.

The floor price plan applies to all grower-owned scoured and greasy wool sold for the first time at auction in New Zealand and Britain. There are also procedures to protect greasy wool sold privately in New Zealand.

The board can buy wool at any price under its market intervention policy. It will do this to prevent lots being sold significantly below the market, and to cushion declines in the price. Intervention levels can be set above, at, or below, floor prices. Levels can be changed at any time by the board's directors, although their aim is to set levels which can be held for some time. The board will bid at auction if prices drop to intervention levels. If the commercial benches do not raise the price, the board buys. During the 1978–79 season the board purchased 25977 bales, and in the first 6 months of the 1979–80 season, 12000 bales.

When prices are above intervention levels, the board operates its “strata price control”. It bids when necessary to prevent prices falling more than a set percentage on the previous day's levels.

The following table shows weight, sale value, and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction. The last column shows the average minimum price to growers set by the New Zealand Wool Board.

Season Ended JuneGreasy Wool Sold at AuctionTotal Sale ValueSale Value per KilogramAverage Minimum Price per Kilogram
 Tonnes (000)$ (million)CC
1974195.13271.6139.1970.00
1975210.25192.991.7593.00
1976212.52333.9157.12124.00
1977200.93441.2219.58136.00
1978x198.61378.3190.43150.00
1979204.35447.3218.85170.00

The next table shows index numbers based on prices of new clip greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand adjusted to a clean f.o.b. New Zealand port basis. The All Wool and each group index is on its own base: average over all sales of 1974–75 season (= 1000).

SeasonAll WoolFine Wools*Medium WoolsCoarse Wools

* 28 microns and finer.

29 to 34 microns.

35 microns and higher.

1974–751000100010001000
1975–761669145616481716
1976–772363201923552379
1977–782066179220762066
1978–792363200323972367

Dairy Produce—Basic prices (then known as guaranteed prices) were introduced in 1936 for butter and cheese. The present legislative authority for the fixing of purchase prices for all dairy produce which the Dairy Board acquires for export is the Dairy Board Act 1961, as amended by the Dairy Board Amendment Acts of 1972 and 1975.

Since the 1975–76 season, the Dairy Products Prices Authority has established separate values for the milkfat and solids-non-fat (s.n.f.) components of milk on a farm gate basis at the beginning of each season. These values are established having regard to the stability and efficiency of the dairy industry, realisations and market prospects, and the state of the Dairy Industry Account. They may normally not increase by more than 10 percent nor decrease by more than 5 percent on the previous season's values.

Using the milkfat and s.n.f. prices established by the prices authority as a base, the board, in turn, fixes the export purchase prices for the major dairy products by using New Zealand average yields and costs. The board may apply differentials between products to enable the product mix to be more closely matched with expected market requirements, but in doing so must establish purchase prices for products in such a manner that the average payment for the fat and s.n.f. components is at the level set by the prices authority.

The results of the board's export trading each season are recorded in 2 separate accounts—one for the seasons' trading in milkfat products, and the other for trading in s.n.f. products. The differences between export sales prices less selling costs and the purchase prices paid, results in a surplus or deficit in both of these accounts at the end of the year.

The board may pay up to 50 percent of any surplus in either of the trading accounts as an end-of-season distribution, provided such distribution is not considered by the Government to affect adversely the national economy and the stability of the dairy industry. Any remaining surplus, and any deficit, is then transferred to the Dairy Industry Reserve Account.

This system of purchase prices, trading, and reserve accounts, ensures that severe fluctuations in overseas prices are smoothed out when translated into the price the farmer receives for his milk. In the short term, a surplus or deficit in the Reserve Account may occur, but in the longer term the account must be self-balancing from overseas revenue.

The following table gives the average value of milkfat and s.n.f. in wholemilk “at farm” as set by the Dairy Products Prices Authority plus the end-of-season distribution paid from the milkfat account.

Season Ended 31 MayMilkfat ValueS.N.F. ValueEnd of Season DistributionTotal Wholemilk Value
* Estimated interim.
 (cents per kilogram of milkfat)
1975–7674.4256.699.70140.81
1976–7781.8653.8617.02152.74
1977–7896.8053.8616.69167.35
1978–79111.8653.867.52173.24
1979–80*131.0054.00  

These values enabled the following average prices to be paid by the Dairy Board to companies for the main products acquired for export.

Season Ended 31 MayButterCheeseSpray Skim-milk PowderAcid Casein

* Period 1/6777–31/1/78.

Period 1/2/78–31/5/78.

Estimated Interim.

 (cents per kilogram of product) 
1975–7669.6973.2045.93118.90
1976–7778.5977.3146.31122.24
1977–78*94.7189.3950.38135.64
197894.7189.8350.13134.88
1978–79x107.7996.0552.91142.76
1979–80117.24101.8652.53143.3

Production of dairy factories is shown in Section 14A—Farming.

Town Milk Supply—The objects of the New Zealand Milk Board are the provision of an adequate supply of milk of good quality for human consumption and the organisation of the town milk industry on an economic basis. The board arranges supply contracts with milk producer companies for all districts, reports to Government on the adequacy of the town milk producer price, makes recommendations to Government or reports to the Milk Prices Authority, as the case may be, as to national margins for pasteurising, bottling, distribution, and other aspects of price fixation, fixes local allowances for cartage and such special distribution allowances as may be necessary, makes financial adjustments with all those in the industry to see that they get the prices or allowances to which they are entitled, and in doing so pays out subsidy on behalf of Government.

The total Government subsidy on town milk paid during recent 12–month periods ended 31 August has been as follows: 1974–75, $49,196,949; 1975–76, $44,582,480; 1976–77, $39,075,629; 1977–78, $51,068,392; and 1978–79, $44,131,913. These figures include deferred payments.

The following table shows production and sales of town milk under the control of the New Zealand Milk Board.

Year Ended 31 AugustProductionQuantity on Which Town Milk Price PaidVolume of Town SalesPrice per Litre Paid to Producers Finest GradeGovernment Subsidy per Litre of Town Milk Sales
  litres(m) CC
1975671.7517.1422.69.20911.641x
1976725.5536.8414.310.03710.758
1977739.3534.7399.510.8149.782x
1978706.5534.3395.412.564x12.916x
1979722.9535.2386.313.38711.424

Meat—The Imported Meat Trade Association in the United Kingdom compiles weekly London wholesale meat prices, the basis of quotation being “ex-hooks to retailers at Smithfield market”. The next table gives prices for New Zealand lamb and beef at the end of the last week in March. Approximately 35 percent of the value of all New Zealand exports of frozen and chilled meat is generally accounted for by lamb, and the 8–12.5 kg and 13–16 kg P grades quoted in the table usually account for approximately 20 percent and 35 to 40 percent respectively of all lamb carcasses exported.

End of Last Week in MarchLambBeef
Prime GradeY GradeBoneless Cartoned Ox Rumps
8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg16.5 to 25.5 kg8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg

* At end of last week in February. No March quotations.

No quotations because of no sales or no significant sales.

  New pence per kilogram equivalent  
197678.3–79.470.5–71.765.0–66.178.3–78.970.5–71.7134.5–138.9
197790.4–93.789.3–91.588.2–89.388.2–90.488.2–89.3163.1–167.6*
197899.2–100.397.0–98.194.8–95.598.8–99.997.0–98.1
1979105.8–106.9104.7–105.8100.3–101.4104.3–105.8103.6–104.7
1980116.8–119.0112.4–114.6105.8–106.9110.2–112.4108.0–109.1

Schedule Prices—A schedule of buying prices is issued each week by the meat operators in New Zealand. The producers have a choice on how to sell their export meat. They can sell on schedule, on owner's account, on a pool account system, on the basis of prices received from a nominated ship, on the hoof, or they can sell through a producer co-operative.

The New Zealand Meat Producers Board can, by use of its statutory powers, issue its own schedule of meat export prices. It has taken this course of action on occasions in the past when it has considered that exporters were unduly pessimistic in their assessment of future overseas market prices. Intervention of this type by the board involves not only the setting of the schedule but also the marketing overseas of the various products on its own account.

There was substantial improvement in mutton prices during the 1978–79 season, and as a result schedule payments exceeded the trigger price from April onwards and buffer account deductions were effected.

Although overseas prices for lamb were at depressed levels for most of the season, schedule prices remained above the minimum and supplementing was not required. On the other hand, overseas prices for beef continued at higher levels, resulting in high schedule prices to producers, with subsequent deductions to the price smoothing account.

In mid-April, the schedule price for manufacturing cow beef peaked at 144.5 cents/kg, requiring a buffer account deduction under the terms of the price smoothing scheme of 22.222 percent. However this level was later reduced in response to the weakening in overseas prices that occurred during the following few weeks.

The opening schedules for the latest 5 seasons are given below. The prices quoted are for dressed weights “on the hooks” at freezing works. The prices for lamb and mutton are for bare meat only with an additional payment being made for the wool and pelt.

OPENING NORTH ISLAND SCHEDULE PRICES
Class of Meat197576197677197778197879197980

* Includes early season premium of 9 cents per kilogram.

New Zealand Meat Producers Board Minimum Price.

   cents per kg 
Lamb—
    PL, 8.0–12.5 kg59.772.974.593.792.0*
    PM, 13.0–16.0 kg56.268.468.590.786.0
    YL, 8.0–12.5 kg52.759.570.589.090.0*
Mutton—
    ML, 22 kg and under24.021.542.031.040.0
    MM, 22.5–26.0 kg22.019.540.016.525.5
Beef—
    PI—Steer, 220.5–245 kg55.055.058.587.5125.5
    LI—Steer, 220.5–245 kg48.050.554.083.0123.5
    M—Cow, 145.5 kg-170 kg42.042.545.076.5106.5
    Bull, 220–245 kg50.050.053.092.0129.5

Minimum Prices for Export Meat—The scheme which had operated since 1955 has been replaced by a more comprehensive system with 2 principal aims: first, to establish floor prices at a more realistic level and, second, to provide a mechanism which will allow for the replenishment of the funds paid out during the periods of low prices by levying farmers' receipts when prices exceed certain “trigger” levels.

Minimum prices are based on the average of the actual price for the preceding season, the estimated price for the current season (towards the end of which the determinations are made), and a forecast for the following season during which the prices will operate. The Meat Export Prices Committee will have discretion to set the minima up to 10 percent above or below the average of the 3 seasons. The committee also determines the trigger prices for each of the 5 benchmark grades of meat. A meat income stabilisation levy is imposed when schedule prices exceed the appropriate trigger price the proceeds going into individual buffer accounts (sheep meats and beef) established at the Reserve Bank within the Meat Industry Stabilisation Account.

In general, the scheme aims at placing a floor under the prices the producers receive, financed by funds accumulated when returns are at higher levels. It is, in short, a price-smoothing scheme which, at the same time, pays necessary regard to changes in market demand. Because of the importance of meat in the national economy, it will also have the effect of softening the impact of any sharp movements in overseas prices.

The minimum and “trigger” prices for the 1979–80 meat season are shown in the following table.

Class of MeatMinimum PricesTrigger Prices
Lamb—cents per kilogram
    PM, 13.0 to 16.0 kg86120
Mutton—
    ML, 22 kg and under3550
Beef—
    Pi Steer, 245.5 to 270 kg112158
    M Cow, 145.5 to 170 kg100140
    Bull, 220.5 to 245 kg110160

These are known as the “benchmark” prices. They are the key grades for each category of meat. Other grades will be priced as appropriate differentials.

In addition to the above scheme the Government announced in the 1978 Budget the Supplementary Minimum Prices Scheme. This scheme differs from the Price Smoothing Scheme in that it offers direct price support to the producer. The minimum prices announced under this scheme for the 1979–80 season are as follows:

 Supplementary Minimum Price
Lamb PM (13.0–16.0 kg)86c/kg
Mutton ML (22 kg and over)40c/kg
Prime Beef PI Steer (220.5–270 kg)110c/kg
Manufacturing Beef M Cow (140 kg and over)100c/kg

In the possible event of the schedule price for a benchmark grade falling below the supplementary minimum price, the supplementary minimum price for all the other relevant non-benchmark grades of meat will be determined and the producers will be paid accordingly. Therefore, the prices received by farmers for benchmark grades in the announced schedule will never be below the announced supplementary minimum price. The scheme is to operate for a 2-year term.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES—Farm industry reserves were built up during the Second World War when, in furtherance of the Government's stabilisation policy, farmers agreed that increases in overseas realisations for meat and dairy produce be paid into special funds for later use for the benefit of the industry concerned. The wool reserve account (later the capital funds of the Wool Marketing Corporation) arose in the main from the profits derived from the sale of wartime surplus stocks, and in part from a contributory charge levied on wool sold at that time. Much of it was used to buy in wool in 1966–67 but this was all resold by 1972. About half the meat industry reserve was used to purchase lambs in 1971–72 to provide a higher price schedule, but was recovered from the ensuing marketing of the meat. The meat industry and wool reserve accounts were both drawn on again in 1974–75. Under a new stabilisation scheme for the wool industry, from the start of the 1976–77 selling season, wool growers paid a 3-percent levy on gross wool proceeds into a stabilisation fund. Where necessary, supplementary payments back from the fund will assure them of a minimum price.

The following table shows the balances in the various farm industry reserve and stabilisation accounts at given dates.

YearWool Board Capital and Reserves at 30 JuneWool Income Stabilisation Account at 30 JuneMeat Income Stabilisation Account at 30 SepMeat Industry Reserve Account at 30 SepDairy Produce Account at 31 May
* Wool Income Retention Account.
   $(000)  
197557,760200−3,20877,83417,785
197672,025450−14,41690,924−25,978
197778,93324,354−7,74295,888−2,925
197896,950−8,07697,978−2,091
1979105,34046*32,301102,204−27,247

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on the marketing of farm produce will be found in the annual reports of the various producer boards, including the New Zealand Dairy Board, the New Zealand Meat Producers Board, the New Zealand Wool Board, and the New Zealand Milk Board. Other useful publications include the external trade publications of the Department of Statistics and the following:

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

Export NewsDepartment of Trade and Industry (monthly).

White Paper on the GATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations (Parl. paper G. 14A, 1979).

New Zealand and the European CommunityNew Zealand Planning Council (1978).

The New Zealand Meat ProducerNew Zealand Meat Producers Board (monthly).

The New Zealand Dairy ExporterNew Zealand Dairy Board (monthly).

Monthly Abstract of StatisticsDepartment of Statistics.

21 B—DOMESTIC TRADE

Domestic trade embraces retail and wholesale trade and part of the service field. The trend of retail trade is one of the most perceptive barometers of economic activity as it constitutes a large proportion of personal expenditure on consumer goods and services.

The fifth of New Zealand's 5-yearly Censuses of Distribution, which provide the basis for the current monthly and quarterly surveys of retail and wholesale trade, was for the year ended 31 March 1973. It covered wholesale trade; retail trade; selected service trades; the hotels, motels, taverns, and restaurant group; motor vehicle trades including repairs and servicing; laundries and drycleaners; and cinemas.

The sixth Census of Distribution was taken for the year 1977–78, and was the first fully integrated economic census covering the activities of establishments and ancillary units predominantly engaged in wholesale or retail trade, hotels and restaurants, etc., and the supply of personal and household services.

All activities from the purchase of goods and supplies to the point at which the goods or services were sold were within the scope of the sixth census, which was for the year ended 31 March 1978 or the last accounting year prior to 31 March.

The census formed part of the department's five-yearly series of integrated economic censuses and for this reason any comparison with the censuses of distribution prior to 1977–78 should be treated with caution.

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1977–78

In 1977–78 the distribution industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

  1. Wholesale Trade;

  2. Retail Trade;

  3. Restaurants and Hotels;

  4. Personal and Household Services.

The statistical tables which follow give summaries of those four divisions. The definitions used in these tables are the same as listed for the Census of Manufacturing statistics (see section 18), with the following exceptions:

Establishments—Productive units, usually warehouses, shops, stores, hotels, repair-workshops, etc, engaged predominantly in selling goods and services.

Ancillary Units—Servicing units, usually head offices, engaged in predominantly servicing those establishments.

(The 5 oil companies, classified as wholesalers of “petroleum products”, were not required to advise separate details of establishment/ancillary unit activities.)

The following table gives a general summary of the results from the 4 divisions and of the 1977–78 Census of Distribution as a whole.

ItemWholesale TradeRetail TradeRestaurants and HotelsPersonal and Household ServicesTotal
* At mid-April 1978.
   Number  
Establishments618327,8787166656347,790
Ancillary units2722093630547
Persons engaged*
    Males56,39074,46722,99414,752168,603
    Females20,99568,38232,1929721131,290
                Total77,385142,84955,18624,473299,893
Salaries and wages paid—  $(million)  
    Males4223298862901
    Females1052219128446
                Total526550179901,347
Depreciation5849288143
Purchases and other expenses8,7255,62960827315,236
Sales and other income9,7766,54890444117,668
Value added1,2871,0323061722,797
Capital expenditure, less disposals89825315239

WHOLESALE TRADE—The following tables provide a summary of wholesale trade during 1977–78 as shown by the Census of Distribution. The first table is a summary of the division as a whole.

WHOLESALE TRADE 1977–78
 Number
Establishments6183
Ancillary units272
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978—
    Males56,390
    Females20,995
                Total77,385
 $(thousand)
Salaries and wages paid—
    Males421,874
    Females104,600
                Total526,474
Depreciation58,325
Purchases and other expenses8,725,066
Sales and other income9,775,811
Value added1,286,572
Capital expenditure, less disposals88,768

In the two following tables statistics of the wholesale trade division are given at industry major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-April 1978Salaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillary UnitsMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Unprocessed Primary ProductsNumberNumber$(thousand)
    Seedsmen5553921312,309426
    Wool, hides, and skins142410952978,8371,193
    Agricultural and other related products, n.e.c.303236671,725341
    Unprocessed primary products, n.e.c.401201791,846316
            Total26713192457414,7172,276
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco Products
    Grocery products25113642190725,1329,445
    Meat and meat products10388153467,3501,817
    Fish48113031491,810608
    Dairy products2314472654,763
    Food, n.e.c.6722671301,933550
    Fresh fruit and vegetables91514687818,2232,773
    Alcoholic beverages718072345,8291,267
    Tobacco products118739819
            Total665287836385154,36417,954
Textiles, Clothing, and Footwear
    Textiles (dress and furnishing)14747414166,1972,219
    Wearing apparel and haberdashery17539196857,3253,081
    Footwear372118101828478
    Leather goods and leather3212072916321
    Textiles (other than dress and furnishing)178445721224
    Clothing accessories and textiles n.e.c.3911511011,211425
            Total447102133142017,1986,749
Building Materials, Building Supplies, and Hardware
    Timber and other building materials50319564997541,7694,855
    Builders' hardware2326176962812,2562,967
    Plumbers' hardware161311363437,5011,398
    Paint and wallpaper3932951121,769514
    Domestic hardware, pottery, glassware, and china1134411973,184969
    Other hardware58280862,106358
            Total1106319570234168,58611,062
Household Appliances, Furniture, and Floor coverings
    Household appliances8277063855,6682,096
    Household furniture24682135163
    Furnishings and floor coverings9554472313,3261,129
            Total2011212216379,3453,288
Pulp, Paper and Paper Products
    Books, stationery, and other printed paper products24952236130211,2746,210
    Paper and paper products, n.e.c.6614762243,8421,118
            Total31562712152615,1177,327
Pharmaceuticals, Chemicals, Petroleum, and Related Products
    Drugs and medicines104109577657,9544,225
    Cosmetics, toiletries, and related goods3211621831,5491,004
    Chemicals and allied products1697121738110,2862,150
    Petroleum and petroleum products27283041026,4502,603
            Total332185166173946,2389,981
Metals, Machinery, and Equipment including Transport Equipment
    Metals1806149237412,5211,965
    Agricultural machinery and equipment2355194343012,4161,744
    Industrial machinery and equipment (including electrical machinery)48194701149436,4337,986
    Electrical equipment and fittings2277148155911,9392,872
    Commercial machinery and equipment2289206771519,9534,369
    Professional, scientific, and medical equipment4964352193,5931,171
    Motor vehicles and motor cycles1396130747410,1312,490
    Motor vehicle parts and accessories3327323686921,6854,312
    Transport equipment n.e.c.35233581,741315
            Total19065516,8955192130,41127,222
Wholesale Trade, n.e.c.
    Photographic goods43104163263,5271,821
    Watches, clocks, jewellery, and related articles6912251551,467666
    Music and musical instruments1819266714325
    Sporting goods493331692,542816
    Toys and novelties3912297847410
    General wholesalers127259835897,7843,279
    Stock and station agents487215371155437,3717,149
    Wholesale trade, n.e.c.1123661662,077724
            Total944587908312256,32915,191
Ancillary units servicing more than one major group4110255939,5693,550
            Total wholesale trade618327256,39020,995421,874104,600

The following table shows additional financial statistics of wholesale trade, also at industry major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
* Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential information.
Unprocessed Primary Products  $(thousand)  
    Seedsmen30449,92455,5856,441287
    Wool, hides, and skins1,167513,059507,60528,4952,743
    Agricultural and other related products, n.e.c.49936,47039,5944,0061,158
    Unprocessed primary products, n.e.c.278110,468119,7167,258337
            Total2,248709,922722,50046,2014,526
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco Products
    Grocery products3,030905,285971,09369,8606,289
    Meat and meat products759524,273555,94430,8411,756
    Fish42627,65332,5314,7321,670
    Dairy products370525,952572,86683,219*
    Food, n.e.c.348131,742149,20318,292705
    Fresh fruit and vegetables1,853171,049202,65534,5152,182
    Alcoholic beverages727160,151180,64321,627864
    Tobacco products2640,00441,8821,750*
            Total7,5392,486,1102,706,819264,83614,108
Textiles, Clothing and Footwear
    Textiles (dress and furnishing)54099,866115,04717,395832
    Wearing apparel and haberdashery816107,334123,62517,7931,333
    Footwear12514,44416,1152,197142
    Leather goods and leather8017,91220,1022,567106
    Textiles (other than dress and furnishing)8211,33112,6321,94068
    Clothing accessories and textiles, n.e.c.11719,97622,9254,139122
            Total1,760270,863310,44646,0322,603
Building Materials, Building Supplies, and Hardware
    Timber and other building materials3,971484,216573,67998,8006,012
    Builders' hardware914125,088150,11728,3891,015
    Plumbers' hardware523100,734119,24219,504774
    Paint and wallpaper15818,63222,7484,648363
    Domestic hardware, pottery, glassware, and china32545,55552,5618,642169
    Other hardware19331,33936,3895,602280
            Total6,084805,564954,737165,5858,613
Household Appliances, Furniture, and Floor Coverings
    Household appliances81275,65285,29411,6741,112
    Household furniture504,2254,878637102
    Furnishings and floor coverings38364,99673,02310,559917
            Total1,245144,874163,19522,8702,131
Pulp, Paper and Paper Products  $(thousand)  
    Books, stationery, and other printed paper products1,134110,147135,01130,3271,584
    Paper and paper products, n.e.c.413123,817134,18711,883399
            Total1,547233,963269,19842,2101,983
Pharmaceuticals, Chemicals, Petroleum, and Related Products
    Drugs and medicines1,065159,507178,38719,8742,354
    Cosmetics, toiletries, and related goods17518,36920,9944,828434
    Chemicals and allied products1,903307,596337,90532,9623,539
    Petroleum and petroleum products14,072914,7721,046,609124,11113,216
            Total17,2141,400,2451,583,896181,77519,542
Metals, Machinery, and Equipment including Transport Equipment
    Metals1,229463,475492,06233,8802,610
    Agricultural machinery and equipment1,145184,538200,30233,7292,519
    Industrial machinery and equipment (including electrical machinery)2,782289,327357,80182,5514,302
    Electrical equipment and fittings1,559138,528161,37627,3773,261
    Commercial machinery and equipment3,02391,732142,42550,0823,225
    Professional, scientific, and medical equipment30924,23830,9087,225312
    Motor vehicles and motor cycles1,171452,528462,09234,5582,257
    Motor vehicle parts and accessories1,617184,164241,93378,2392,609
    Transport equipment, n.e.c.14329,18931,7585,293215
            Total12,9801,857,7192,120,657352,93521,311
Wholesale Trade, n.e.c.
    Photographic goods64234,94143,9138,210308
    Watches, clocks, jewellery, and related articles14518,06921,4124,480274
    Music and musical instruments819,40911,2223,664163
    Sporting goods21428,78134,0355,994102
    Toys and novelties10310,51912,5652,03689
    General wholesalers686170,626189,88821,675213
    Stock and station agents3,807465,504540,17684,9586,335
    Wholesale trade, n.e.c.35733,25938,0935,389786
            Total6,035771,107891,305136,4068,268
Ancillary units servicing more than one major group1,67444,70053,05827,7225,685
            Total wholesale trade58,3258,725,0669,775,8111,286,57288,768

The two following tables show a regional summary of wholesale trade.

Wholesale Trade by Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillary UnitsMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 NumberNumber$(thousand)
Northland155511023807,3801,720
Central Auckland17976417,4197808131,21939,313
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty686165276155537,1297,428
East Coast8128133334,5421,190
Hawke's Bay26012220672315,6233,379
Taranaki193514295819,7932,692
Wellington12518314,4605280120,62228,332
                  Total, North Island442318742,70516,660326,30884,053
Marlborough563365892,451378
Nelson11637522174,901990
Westland305193621,309251
Canterbury953488034269857,08913,034
Otago37817274982418,9103,755
Southland2279159244510,9052,140
                  Total, South Island17608513,685433595,56520,547
                  Total, New Zealand618327256,39020,995421,874104,600
Wholesale Trade by Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
   $(thousand)  
Northland744100,709118,20618,8631,480
Central Auckland14,7342,436,0542,714,122365,06023,887
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty4,274577,304668,456104,0956,613
East Coast66069,89781,69013,5991,666
Hawke's Bay1,771285,662322,55942,0353,170
Taranaki921166,946183,76125,6471,448
Wellington25,4033,299,2433,660,236454,10333,787
                Total, North Island48,5086,935,8157,749,0301,023,40272,051
Marlborough27938,05441,7476,580659
Nelson66497,953109,37215,076725
Westland11717,58519,6452,883317
Canterbury5,7931,052,6801,196,904156,65110,060
Otago1,809375,682417,01752,4562,921
Southland1,156207,297242,09629,5242,036
                Total, South Island9,8181,789,2512,026,780263,17116,717
                Total, New Zealand58,3258,725,0669,775,8111,286,57288,768

RETAIL TRADE—The following tables provide a summary of retail trade during 1977–78 as shown by the Census of Distribution.

The first table is a summary of the division as a whole.

RETAIL TRADE 1977–78
 Number
Establishments27,878
Ancillary units209
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978—
    Males74,467
    Females68,382
                Total142,849
 $(thousand)
Salaries and wages paid—
    Males328,926
    Females221,374
                Total550,300
Depreciation48,600
Purchases and other expenses5,629,070
Sales and other income6,547,549
Value added1,032,333
Capital expenditure, less disposals82,344

In the two following tables statistics of the retail trade division are given at industry major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-April 1978Salaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillary UnitsMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 NumberNumber$(thousand)
Unprocessed Primary Products
    Seedsmen and gardening supplies30416506302,2541,727
    Florists2861145661161,222
    Pet shops837889103182
    Unprocessed primary products, n.e.c.321092346364
                Total705195113082,9353,195
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco Products
    Grocers17174262545756,37312,844
    Dairies2303254857741,3107,643
    Supermarkets31984305680218,87423,755
    Butchers161094669107722,8812,378
    Fish shops1151212181645361
    Delicatessen122132237207374
    Milk vendors115954188532,923648
    Food, n.e.c.162192358211817
    Greengrocers and fruiterers7771129913541,6602,310
    Wine and spirit merchants1278492605,3281,264
    Wine resellers25242584008961,231
    Tobacconists8997128108447
                Total87522822,50421,99961,41654,072
Textiles, Clothing, and Footwear
    Dress fabric shops29032319501,0163,214
    Combined textile and softgoods shops658148117671,6275,130
    Other textile, etc, shops, n.e.c.233815621781,736
    Wearing apparel (except infantwear)2557182849628314,48221,577
    Infantwear shops19113941993844
    Shoe shops703394119013,9346,334
    Clothing accessory shops, n.e.c.15521113464091,275
                Total478728473312,22821,73740,110
Paint, Wallpaper, and Hardware
    Paint and wallpaper shops312411136176,5972,342
    Household and kitchen hardware stores52110358843,7272,621
    Hardware shops, n.e.c.8118287648186
                Total91442330158810,9725,149
Household Appliances, Furniture, and Floor coverings
    Household appliances, radio, and television stores1311424176235725,17010,524
    Sewing machine dealers1571216305725886
    Furniture stores4631012817697,3193,087
    Floor covering stores and soft furnishings4391313748438,6343,495
    Sheepskin shops85151200160723
                Total2455677098447442,00618,715
Paper Products
    Booksellers746481416272,2735,215
    Newsagents, stationers, etc.4946898575361,515
                Total12404150324842,8146,739
Chemical Products and Petroleum
    Pharmaceutical supplies, cosmetics, and toiletries11841191038595,10914,859
    Petrol stations135317196181931,8314,932
                Total253729106567836,94019,790
Motor Vehicles and Other Transport Equipment
    Motor vehicle and motor cycle dealers17281115,090328696,00514,819
    Motor vehicle part and accessory shops478416643318,2941,043
    Other transport vehicles, n.e.c.3789343244,353740
                Total25841517,6883941108,65216,602
Retail Trade, n.e.c.
    Photographic and optical goods dealers12832701471,349451
    Watch and clock dealers and jewellers574377210612,5003,455
    Music stores9112461521,163525
    Sports goods dealers and camping equipment stores34027703702,989919
    Toy and novelty stores1512166270708852
    Gift, handcraft, and souvenir shops722646413721,4082,866
    Art dealers1073116145303390
    Secondhand dealers9069708532,0661,291
    Department stores372213671893623,97542,134
    General stores4215128407941,603
    Retail stores, n.e.c.921142109483272
                Total390442809914,25537,73654,758
Ancillary units servicing more than one major group184554273,7172,252
                Total retail trade27,87820974,46768,382328,926221,374

The following table shows additional financial statistics of retail trade, also at industry major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
Unprocessed Primary Products  $(thousand)  
    Seedsmen and gardening supplies33420,94527,6347,244883
    Florists1848,40211,6933,374229
    Pet shops753,5404,343845432
    Unprocessed primary products, n.e.c.843,8674,9031,10071
                Total67736,75448,57212,5631,615
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco Products
    Grocers2,526338,707375,38838,5683,595
    Dairies3,121276,758307,88332,6184,949
    Supermarkets3,289446,928501,40959,6665,655
    Butchers2,984165,026213,36249,0896,089
    Fish shops1838,95011,5742,616460
    Delicatessen1797,2888,9741,726394
    Milk vendors1,11539,38156,33916,9431,680
    Food, n.e.c.1338,84110,8242,129165
    Greengrocers and fruiterers87460,99474,57413,6421,499
    Wine and spirit merchants54486,059101,32315,103723
    Wine resellers30824,65431,8427,850476
    Tobacconists507,8449,1561,10430
                Total15,3041,471,4301,702,648241,05325,715
Textiles, Clothing, and Footwear
    Dress fabric shops26923,96630,7477,172312
    Combined textile and softgoods shops46953,09564,20213,105911
    Other textile, etc., shops, n.e.c.12313,81616,7163,758164
    Wearing apparel (except infantwear)2,501265,356320,57865,9173,434
    Infantwear shops768,6669,9511,934208
    Shoe shops54176,04892,70220,459675
    Clothing accessory shops, n.e.c.999,23011,7813,058421
                Total4,078450,177546,678115,4036,124
Paint, Wallpaper, and Hardware
    Paint and wallpaper shops51462,74976,97916,4791,163
    Household and kitchen hardware stores53950,94862,71212,639732
    Hardware shops, n.e.c.1089,55711,5812,433168
                Total1,161123,254151,27231,5502,063
Household Appliances, Furniture, and Floor coverings
    Household appliances, radio, and television stores6,587245,331307,70769,7799,669
    Sewing machine dealers24215,07319,3464,838398
    Furniture stores74582,779100,09917,9801,474
    Floor covering stores and soft furnishings78796,519117,67420,8041,063
    Sheepskin shops686,6158,1991,876277
                Total8,429446,316553,025115,27712,881
Paper Products
    Booksellers69363,63980,29818,752839
    Newsagents, stationers, etc.36232,63438,3536,539321
                Total1,05596,273118,65125,2911,160
Chemical Products and Petroleum
    Pharmaceutical supplies, cosmetics, and toiletries1,604165,247213,93951,7232,165
    Petrol stations2,926487,054546,20061,5775,629
                Total4,530652,300760,139113,3007,794
Motor Vehicles and other Transport Equipment
    Motor vehicle and motor cycle dealers4,5411,415,8601,576,810176,6955,801
    Motor vehicle part and accessory shops82469,75987,29119,7672,227
    Other transport vehicles, n.e.c.59084,06194,66912,0412,406
                Total5,9551,569,6801,758,771208,50310,434
Retail Trade, n.e.c.
    Photographic and optical goods dealers15615,25118,0413,620376
    Watch and clock dealers and jewellers54340,63852,47013,939477
    Music stores13716,40119,4333,519516
    Sports goods dealers and camping equipment stores44537,51844,8808,416746
    Toy and novelty stores15413,78616,4033,193173
    Gift, handcraft, and souvenir shops47640,42151,10810,3861,359
    Art dealers594,1805,6961,638129
    Secondhand dealers51929,85841,41412,5271,658
    Department stores3,855437,665519,12395,5314,755
    General stores49254,79361,2516,663890
    Retail stores, n.e.c.817,1238,9522,053−17
                Total6,917697,635838,770161,48311,062
Ancillary units servicing more than one major group49485,25169,0247,9103,497
                Total retail trade48,6005,629,0706,547,5491,032,33382,344

The two following tables show a regional summary of retail trade.

Retail Trade by Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 NumberNumber$(thousand)
Northland9692222120508,2766,031
Central Auckland74808020,12019,37390,18963,432
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty43182210,77910,03744,41730,875
East Coast3349227834,1342,614
Hawke's Bay124423368287114,0878,936
Taranaki9265231220349,0526,098
Wellington50285813,75613,01464,21144,444
                Total, North Island20,29916953,47850,162234,366162,431
Marlborough32717987523,1432,203
Nelson6642169313407,9354,215
Westland2505294052,2251,280
Canterbury37142610,636958848,11130,948
Otago169894664382121,11212,412
Southland92622669231412,0347,884
                Total, South Island75794020,98918,22094,56058,943
                Total, New Zealand27,87820974,46768,382328,926221,374
Retail Trade by Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
   $(thousand)  
Northland1,421163,731192,04630,5932,815
Central Auckland15,5171,555,0291,815,045282,51826,016
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty6,621844,226980,494145,68310,174
East Coast54365,40877,24612,339876
Hawke's Bay1,925230,239270,45043,1303,839
Taranaki1,237153,875182,35928,6631,952
Wellington9,1661,119,5931,280,821205,14014,622
                Total, North Island36,4304,132,1014,798,461748,06760,293
Marlborough49258,62467,74410,7501,570
Nelson983129,346149,76923,0381,805
Westland30739,00344,7176,331529
Canterbury6,056747,560872,907143,89910,340
Otago2,799321,738377,37162,0145,091
Southland1,533200,698236,58038,2342,716
                Total, South Island12,1701,496,9701,749,088284,26522,051
                Total, New Zealand48,6005,629,0706,547,5491,032,33382,344

RESTAURANTS AND HOTELS—The following tables provide a summary of the restaurants and hotels division during 1977–78 as shown by the Census of Distribution.

The first table is a summary of the division as a whole.

RESTAURANTS AND HOTELS 1977–78
 Number
Establishments7166
Ancillary units36
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978:
    Males22,994
    Females32,192
              Total55,186
 $(thousand)
Salaries and wages paid:
    Males88,259
    Females91,108
              Total179,367
Depreciation27,928
Purchases and other expenses608,368
Sales and other income904,065
Value added306,118
Capital expenditure, less disposals52,891

In the two following tables statistics of the restaurants and hotels division are given at industry major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-April 1978Salaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillary UnitsMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Restaurants, Cafes, and Other Eating and Drinking PlacesNumberNumber$(thousand)
    Takeaway food stores16678280139104,2176,239
    Tea-rooms, coffee-houses, cafeterias, and unlicensed restaurants16832224965343,65614,846
    Caterers147288519752,5104,031
    Licensed restaurants and cabarets2411165023358,3826,725
    Licensed taverns and chartered clubs7184816284721,9089,408
              Total44561312,40117,60140,67441,249
Motels, Hotels, Guesthouses, Hostels, Camps, and Other Accommodation
    Unlicensed motels1205122030931,0794,527
    Licensed hotels and motels82338266970342,49040,767
    Private hotels, boardinghouses, guesthouses38449612731,2003,290
    Motor-camps, caravan parks, cabins270-3953431,242
    Other accommodation, n.e.c.2891515
              Total2710310,38614,42745,60449,006
Ancillary units servicing more than one major group202071641,981853
              Total restaurants and hotels71663622,99432,19288,25991,108

The following table shows additional financial statistics of the restaurants and hotels division, also at industry major group and sub-group (industry) level.

IndustryDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
Restaurants, Cafes, and Other Eating and Drinking Places  $ (thousand)  
    Takeaway food stores2,53377,275107,27030,4236,437
    Tea-rooms, coffee-houses, cafeterias, and unlicensed restaurants3,16974,460109,29835,1236,044
    Caterers36115,00723,7058,758712
    Licensed restaurants and cabarets1,43330,34847,22517,7861,761
    Licensed taverns and chartered clubs4,161133,292182,65447,7718,576
              Total11,658330,382470,151139,86223,531
Motels, Hotels, Guesthouses, Hostels, Camps, and Other Accommodation
    Unlicensed motels4,50925,05648,56323,5668,375
    Licensed hotels and motels10,067232,692355,027127,74916,056
    Private hotels, boardinghouses, guesthouses1,00310,44417,1036,8303,239
    Motor-camps, caravan parks, cabins4994,9839,2554,3001,308
    Other accommodation, n.e.c.3017525570115
              Total16,109273,349430,202162,51429,093
Ancillary units servicing more than one major group1614,6373,7123,742267
              Total restaurants and hotels27,928608,368904,065306,11852,891

The two following tables show a regional summary of the restaurants and hotels division.

Restaurants and Hotels in Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-April 1978Salaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 NumberNumber$(thousand)
Northland34969210962,2632,951
Central Auckland1504125815698024,42320,319
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty12543240508411,20813,587
East Coast1132745329081,342
Hawke's Bay31885613682,8143,473
Taranaki2215179291,8112,469
Wellington1194144835624519,94517,985
                Total, North Island49532616,22922,23463,37362,125
Marlborough1473044619061,194
Nelson2424727471,4222,028
Westland1352594078761,245
Canterbury93933312464811,93813,586
Otago5174162325296,7107,226
Southland233379511663,0343,704
                Total, South Island2213106765995824,83628,982
                Total, New Zealand71663622,99432,19288,25991,108
Restaurants and Hotels in Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
   $(thousand)  
Northland1,28221,09331,7569,8882,516
Central Auckland6,032152,141220,94872,84212,127
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty4,62692,562137,92846,7527,205
East Coast4468,19812,2854,182525
Hawke's Bay1,07523,37234,97611,6711,420
Taranaki76316,30824,1968,0891,848
Wellington4,794115,295170,73360,0346,326
                Total, North Island19,018428,970632,821213,45831,966
Marlborough5108,59812,2873,784546
Nelson72213,67020,3656,7932,417
Westland4477,52211,7614,224488
Canterbury3,34885,440128,35042,1007,118
Otago2,54942,90066,70524,3636,236
Southland1,33521,26931,77711,3974,120
                Total, South Island8,910179,398271,24492,66020,925
                Total, New Zealand27,928608,368904,065306,11852,891

PERSONAL AND HOUSEHOLD SERVICES—The following tables provide a summary of the personal and household services division during 1977–78 as shown by the Census of Distribution. The first table is a summary of the division as a whole.

PERSONAL AND HOUSEHOLD SERVICES 1977–78
 Number
Establishments6563
Ancillary units30
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978:
    Males14,752
    Females9721
                Total24,473
Salaries and wages paid:$(thousand)
    Males61,954
    Females28,480
                Total90,434
Depreciation8,449
Purchases and other expenses273,180
Sales and other income440,868
Value added172,138
Capital expenditure, less disposals15,260

In the following tables statistics of the personal and household services division are given at industry major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-April 1978Salaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillary UnitsMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Repair Services, n.e.c.NumberNumber$(thousand)
    Repair of footwear and other leather goods761214026246
    Electrical repairs346312583637,3091,230
    Motor repairs1249386789515,1061,755
    Panelbeaters and spraypainters11821436458318,2941,037
    Auto electricians2036951813,173433
    Other motor-vehicle services23826891672,439323
    Watch, clock, and jewellery repairs6881297534
    Other repair shops, n.e.c.160127782833121
                Total3522711,352234047,4914,979
Laundries, Laundry Services, and Cleaning and Dyeing Plants52322126320247,6848,727
Miscellaneous Personal Services
    Hairdresser and beauty shops178290442601,61611,174
    Photographic studios, including commercial photography2544645791,7371,902
    Funeral directors8412951101,656311
    Saunas, massage parlours, health clinics951213852371,340
    Other personal services, n.e.c.303353231,53246
                Total25181213753576,77814,774
                Total personal and household services65633014,752972161,95428,480

The following table shows additional financial statistics of the personal and household services division, also at industry major group and sub-group or group level.

IndustryDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
* Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential information.
Repair Services n.e.c.  $(thousand)  
    Repair of footwear and other leather goods258291,72090127
    Electrical repairs60316,40029,31913,156408
    Motor repairs1,575109,537142,37533,8693,716
    Panelbeaters and spraypainters1,07749,43985,10136,1372,296
    Auto electricians24414,09120,7766,968666
    Other motor-vehicle services27210,46116,9576,653463
    Watch, clock, and jewellery repairs327791,37964328
    Other repair shops, n.e.c.1445,2047,5482,508280
                Total3,973206,740305,175100,8357,884
Laundries, Laundry Services, and Cleaning and Dyeing Plants1,93518,33944,13527,141*
Miscellaneous Personal Services
    Hairdresser and beauty shops1,10826,13252,01926,1571,914
    Photographic studios, including commercial photography78911,73619,2317,7121,565
    Funeral directors3667,08012,3915,479868
    Saunas, massage parlours, health clinics2221,7964,4862,697*
    Other personal services, n.e.c.561,3583,4302,116*
                Total2,54148,10291,55744,161*
                Total personal and household services8,449273,180440,868172,13815,260

The two following tables show a regional summary of the personal and household services division.

Personal and Household Services by Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at mid-AprilSalaries Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 NumberNumber$(thousand)
Northland26715663021,985743
Central Auckland1754234053274617,5138,536
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty10361222713128,2363,404
East Coast80177116701273
Hawke's Bay3046084322,5941,232
Taranaki2255253251,808801
Wellington115932552187511,1735,541
                Total, North Island48252810,708710844,01120,530
Marlborough70139100537233
Nelson15013662091,544575
Westland5314757567204
Canterbury8961201113829,0164,285
Otago3588715074,2881,540
Southland2115103581,9911,113
                Total, South Island173824044261317,9437,950
                Total, New Zealand65633014,752972161,95428,480
Personal and Household Services by Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesSales and Other IncomeValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
   $(thousand)  
Northland29410,68816,6886,0821,055
Central Auckland2,63572,375119,77549,3634,400
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1,12939,37262,65123,7221,852
East Coast883,1195,0111,955116
Hawke's Bay30911,66818,8947,258568
Taranaki2958,99414,0645,168541
Wellington1,65250,00881,72732,4312,766
                Total, North Island6,402196,226318,810125,97811,298
Marlborough643,2104,6041,434207
Nelson1577,70011,5303,965381
Westland793,0014,4401,452110
Canterbury1,04837,13559,72322,9931,271
Otago42415,76525,84010,4771,059
Southland27410,14315,9215,840935
                Total, South Island2,04776,955122,05846,1613,962
                Total, New Zealand8,449273,180440,868172,13815,260

SUMMARY OF CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1977–78—The following table shows a summary of the results of the Census of Distribution 1977–78 as a whole.

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1977–78
 Number
Establishments47,790
Ancillary units547
Persons engaged at mid-April 1978:
    Males168,603
    Females131,290
                Total299,893
Salaries and wages paid:$(thousand)
    Males901,012
    Females445,562
                Total1,346,574
Depreciation143,302
Purchases and other expenses15,235,685
Sales and other income17,668,292
Value added2,797,161
Capital expenditure, less disposals239,264

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADE—A quarterly sample survey of retail trade was made by the Department of Statistics until the December quarter 1969, but was replaced by a monthly sample survey in January 1970 and the results of this sample are aggregated to obtain quarterly figures.

The present sample survey was revised in January 1976, based on store-type groupings from the 1972–73 Census of Distribution. Some store types (hotels, chartered clubs, wine and spirit merchants, milk vendors, and the automotive group) are still excluded from the published figures. The collection of statistics for these store types commenced in April 1976 and the results are at present being used to establish a seasonal correction pattern for future surveys.

The following table gives quarterly sales and also stocks at 31 March for store-type groups.

Quarter EndedButcher, Poulterer, etc.Grocer and DiaryOther Food and DrinkFootwearApparelFurniture and Soft Furnishingshousehold Appliances, Electrical Goods, Radios, T.V., etc.hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.ChemistGeneral Department, and VarietyOtherAll Store Types
$(million)
Retail Sales
1976—
    Mar37.4228.667.916.578.854.965.970.637.9123.1227.71,009.3
    Jun39.9239.669.823.099.663.877.674.339.1148.9225.81,101.4
    Sep41.0258.573.418.188.468.285.476.742.3140.2234.91,127.1
    Dec46.4298.086.322.9102.975.790.091.752.8190.0309.51,366.1
1977—
    Mar39.4273.076.318.781.063.571.481.543.1130.5269.31,147.9
    Jun43.9284.878.226.0108.871.380.984.044.6162.9260.71,246.0
    Sep45.5298.682.520.499.880.082.484.849.8150.0262.51,256.1
    Dec49.1328.889.624.7112.579.383.595.661.9190.3323.11,438.5
1978—
    Mar41.5309.684.520.488.565.368.685.652.0133.4283.81,233.2
    Jun45.8309.487.029.5117.777.487.888.852.9172.6280.31,349.2
    Sep48.4326.190.822.8105.983.693.690.954.4160.5299.41,376.4
    Dec56.2368.9104.230.8132.993.9103.6111.468.0223.0379.01,672.0
1979—
    Mar52.3343.199.025.4105.782.487.6103.757.6156.4312.91,426.1
    Jun58.8361.7106.733.5132.292.8105.2108.258.7196.2322.01,576.1
    Sep60.3384.3113.727.4116.995.199.8108.760.7176.1340.41,583.3
    Dec69.1459.7134.735.1138.3106.2108.1129.376.3240.7464.71,962.1
Retail Stocks as at 31 March
19762.063.36.626.8109.559.047.751.826.1110.0178.2680.9
19772.970.48.532.6124.078.761.362.629.8129.8217.3817.9
19782.779.39.236.6133.582.464.270.433.4141.1226.6879.4
19793.687.410.136.6143.890.373.678.037.1144.0255.5959.9

Retail Trade Statistics Adjusted for Seasonal Fluctuations and for Price and Population Changes—To facilitate direct comparisons between quarterly figures, seasonally adjusted values of retail trade turnover have been prepared. To do this, seasonal adjustment factors were calculated representing, for each quarter, an average over several years of the ratio of sales in this quarter to the trend value for the quarter (the trend values being calculated as appropriately-centered moving averages).

A special price index has been prepared for the purpose of deflating the retail sales figures to give a series in dollars of constant purchasing power—i.e., the adjusted series shows the changes in the real volume of retail sales. The principal source of the prices used for this index are the commodity prices used in the Consumers Price Index. The prices have been appropriately weighted and the whole index expressed on the base: December quarter, 1974 (= 1000), so that application of the index to the original figures, both before and after seasonal correction, gives a series in constant December quarter, 1974 dollars.

The results of these calculations and adjustments are shown in the following table for all store types.

Quarter EndedIn Current $In Constant Dec qtr.1974 $
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*

* Base: Value December Quarter 1974 (=1000).

All data on turnover per head of population have been revised in the light of the 1976 Census of Population figures, revised intercensal estimates, and revised population figures from March 1976 onward.

Total Sales or Turnover
 $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) 
1976—Mar1,009.31,070.61169822.2872.2953
          Jun1,14.41,134.71239857.6883.5965
          Sep1,127.11,153.31260828.9848.2926
          Dec1,366.11,201.41312977.4859.5939
1977—Mar1,147.91,245.21360795.1862.6942
          Jun1,246.01,278.11396828.5849.8928
          Sep1,256.11,281.21399798.1814.1889
          Dec1,438.51,282.51401882.6786.9859
1978—Mar1,233.21,334.91458740.9802.0876
          Jun1,349.21,368.51495785.4796.6870
          Sep1,376.41,429.41561791.4821.9898
          Dec1,672.01,503.31642937.6843.0921
1979—Mar1,426.11,527.71668777.7833.1910
          Jun1,576.11,610.81759818.6836.5914
          Sep1,583.31,648.01800776.8808.5883
          Dec1,962.11,754.51916920.5824.8901
Sales per Head of Population
 $$ $$ 
1976—Mar322.84342.451143263.00278.98931
          Jun354.19364.891218275.78284.10948
          Sep363.46371.901242267.29273.50913
          Dec436.77384.091282312.50274.79917
1977—Mar365.06396.031322252.88274.33916
          Jun398.99409.271366265.30272.13909
          Sep403.87411.941375256.61261.74874
          Dec459.07409.311367281.68251.14838
1978—Mar391.68423.991416235.33254.74850
          Jun431.50437.691461251.19254.78851
          Sep442.55459.571534254.45264.25882
          Dec533.85479.991602299.37269.17899
1979—Mar453.0485.31620247.0264.6884
          Jun505.1516.21723262.3268.1895
          Sep510.6531.51774250.5260.8871
          Dec627.3560.91873294.3263.7880

Information on quarterly sales is presented graphically in the following diagrams.

Figure 21.1. RETAIL TRADE QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER (ALL STORES TYPES)

RETAIL TRADE QUARTERLY SALES OR TURNOVER (ALL STORES TYPES)

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF WHOLESALE TRADE—In this survey stores are classified by store-type group according to the predominant type of commodity sold. The store-type figures therefore do not cover only sales of goods normally associated with the type of store listed, as there are many wholesale stores which handle a wide variety of commodities.

This survey was revised in March 1977. The revised survey includes wholesalers with sales turnover in excess of $100,000 at the 1973 Census of Distribution and covers approximately 89 percent of all wholesale turnover and 87 percent of wholesale stocks at that census.

Several wholesale store-types which were included in the 1973 Census of Distribution for the first time have been introduced into the quarterly survey. The major additions are timber merchants, timber products, cement and concrete stores, indent agents, exporters, manufacturers' agents, and wool, hide, and skin dealers. They have each been allocated to an appropriate survey store-type group. The revised survey also features the addition and deletion of a number of stores which were reclassified at the 1973 Census to and from wholesale, respectively, owing to charges of the proportion of wholesale trade between the 1968 and 1973 Censuses of Distribution. In addition some existing wholesale stores have moved between survey store-types.

The following table shows wholesale turnover by store-type group during each quarter of the 3 latest years and wholesale stocks as at the end of each quarter of the 3 years.

PeriodFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicals
Quarter ended—$(million)
1977—Sales or Turnover
    31 Mar307.192.251.8132.6x178.884.9
    30 Jun315.390.953.5145.7x186.684.7
    30 Sep343.791.250.3144.3x189.892.0
    31 Dec388.381.445.9136.4x172.0103.0
1978—
    31 Mar335.782.036.1136.2x150.893.0
    30 Jun354.697.851.7168.3x177.1102.5
    30 Sep381.396.452.7178.7x185.8113.1
    31 Dec437.0108.356.9180.8x189.9118.7
1979—
    31 Mar379.199.950.8170.4179.6104.6
    30 Jun427.2113.958.7205.4197.1118.5
    30 Sep434.1119.264.9199.6205.6128.7
    31 Dec496.5121.863.3229.0217.1143.1
As at—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
1977—
    31 Mar103.964.346.3121.8x129.762.6
    30 Jun114.467.550.6134.9x139.962.7
    30 Sep122.167.150.4157.8x144.871.1
    31 Dec119.469.445.8176.2x142.874.6
1978—
    31 Mar120.475.245.6150.4x140.263.3
    30 Jun133.066.942.0156.8x137.967.2
    30 Sep134.162.045.4145.5x142.566.9
    31 Dec134.673.443.6125.5x143.064.9
1979—
    31 Mar139.374.744.4137.5150.765.0
    30 Jun150.679.741.7143.1150.472.6
    30 Sep145.287.947.7163.2160.980.7
    31 Dec144.597.450.1160.3168.487.3
PeriodGeneral MerchantsMachineryElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryMiscellaneousTotal
ActualSeasonally Corrected
Quarter ended—  $(million)   
1977—  Sales or Turnover   
    31 Mar93.278.231.731.0233.61,315.0x1,407.9x
    30 Jun104.274.036.032.4251.71,375.1x1,396.0x
    30 Sep100.076.537.935.4215.31,376.3x1,329.8x
    31 Dec107.068.032.538.5215.21,388.2x1,328.4x
1978—
    31 Mar90.570.330.033.4221.4l,279.3x1,369.7x
    30 Jun99.870.531.733.0267.21,454.1x1,476.2x
    30 Sep106.076.432.438.5232.01,493.3x1,442.8x
    31 Dec118.277.933.542.0266.21,629.4x1,559.3x
1979—
    31 Mar106.577.333.638.7277.51,518.21,625.4
    30 Jun118.181.337.747.9300.81,706.51,732.5
    30 Sep122.792.039.947.4288.81,742.81,683.8
    31 Dec139.497.338.049.5339.31,934.21,850.9
As at—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
1977—
    31 Mar52.174.030.522.4112.7820.1x815.2x
    30 Jun54.678.431.823.6112.8871.2x872.0x
    30 Sep58.985.433.324.1102.8917.8x912.3x
    31 Dec59.9102.833.323.5108.0955.7x967.3x
1978—
    31 Mar61.898.033.923.5116.7929.0x923.4x
    30 Jun59.7103.329.025.5134.6955.8x956.8x
    30 Sep61.597.029.226.0125.4935.4x929.8x
    31 Dec58.991.028.525.4123.1912.0x923.0x
1979—
    31 Mar61.596.831.029.2142.3972.4966.6
    30 Jun60.596.531.332.3151.31,010.21,011.2
    30 Sep70.4115.132.731.8152.21,087.91,081.4
    31 Dec69.6125.635.132.9174.41,145.61,159.5

INSTALMENT CREDIT TRADING—Instalment credit trading in New Zealand has been growing steadily in recent years in common with other developed countries. This growth generally is explained by common causes, including an increasing social acceptance and the development of borrowing facilities. There is an increasing tendency for consumer durables to be purchased on credit. Instalment credit allows high-priced goods to be acquired as opportunity or desire dictates, with less reference to the immediate cash position. Some people welcome the discipline of monthly credit repayments as a means of saving. Consumer credit is provided either by retailers or finance companies. A major activity of the finance companies is the financing of motor vehicles or hire-purchase; the Reserve Bank collects statistics in this field. A report by the Tariff and Development Board on instalment credit trading, published as parliamentary paper H.49, 1968, is a useful reference.

The Hire Purchase Act 1971 is the governing legislation in New Zealand.

Regulations to control hire-purchase trade have existed since 22 July 1955. Goods coming into the category “Other consumer goods” were exempted from hire-purchase restrictions from 29 October 1977, and, from 3 February 1978, new regulations covering hire-purchase sales of new cars were introduced. These allowed for a minimum deposit of 60 percent, with a maximum repayment period of 12 months. For used cars the repayment was extended once more to 18 months. With effect from 19 April 1978 hire-purchase sales and credit sales of colour television sets, together with the conditions applying to the hire of television sets, were no longer regulated. The maximum period of credit on new motor cycles was extended to 18 months, and on secondhand motor cycles to 24 months, while the minimum deposit for the latter was reduced to 33 1/3 percent.

A limited quarterly survey of hire-purchase trade is made by the Department of Statistics. It includes selected merchandising firms and finance corporations and for the 1967–68 March year surveyed business was estimated to cover 72 percent of hire-purchase sales recorded in the 1968 Census of Distribution. Only sales covered by the regulations governing hire-purchase are intended to be included in the survey but some types of lending by way of lease, and instrument by way of security, are also included. Credit sales, charge accounts, laybys, and other forms of instalment or credit selling covered by the Census of Distribution are not included in the quarterly figures. The following table shows the value of goods sold on hire-purchase as recorded by the businesses in the survey.

QuarterMotor VehiclesPlant and MachineryTelevision SetsOther Household and Personal GoodsTotal Sold on H.P.Total Owing Under H.P. Agreements*Percentage of Payments Overdue*
Sold on H.P.H.P. FinancedSold on H.P.H.P. FinancedSold on H.P.H.P. FinancedSold on H.P.H.P. Financed
* As at end of quarter.
1976—$(million)
    Mar58.426.516.011.32.92.014.411.691.7224.03.8
    Jun51.625.613.39.42.71.520.016.287.6226.62.8
    Sep56.028.721.616.32.91.619.215.499.7234.33.3
    Dec69.137.022.116.92.51.522.718.5116.4297.53.0
1977—
    Mar63.833.321.614.61.91.117.314.3104.6284.22.8
    Jun71.838.819.314.12.11.219.015.9112.2302.62.5
    Sep69.436.816.712.81.61.019.916.7107.6320.12.5
    Dec83.746.317.312.81.41.022.018.4124.4333.52.7
1978—
    Mar75.139.127.618.81.10.817.614.8121.4351.52.4
    Jun75.841.626.718.45.74.523.519.6131.8374.62.3
    Sep83.546.025.617.64.84.123.420.1137.4392.62.3
    Dec84.146.322.215.33.52.930.424.7140.2408.2x2.4
1979—
    Mar70.138.829.020.73.12.521.818.2124.0418.32.3
    Jun77.242.032.121.14.03.229.424.4142.8438.52.2
    Sep89.651.239.730.53.62.926.721.3159.6462.42.4
    Dec96.053.825.618.94.33.532.326.9158.3501.32.5

The average amount covered by hire-purchase agreements in the quarter ended 31 December 1979 was: motor vehicles $3,461; machinery, $10,466; television sets, $705; other household and personal goods, $197.

A form of short-term credit trading which has grown rapidly during the past 2 years is the use of credit cards as a substitute for cash. This has largely been the result of the introduction of bank credit cards by the 5 trading banks.

COMMERCIAL PRACTICES—Legislative provisions dealing with the control of prices and with consumer protection are briefly described in Section 23 Prices, Household Expenditure, and Consumer Affairs. Further Sections of the Commerce Act 1975 are described below.

TRADE PRACTICES—Part II of the Commerce Act 1975 is designed to stimulate competition through the alleviation of the harmful effects of various undesirable trade practices that are, or may be, considered contrary to the public interest as defined in section 21 of the Act. Some of these practices are prohibited, for example, profiteering and black marketing. Other types of practices are those that may be approved by the Commerce Commission if they are not considered harmful to the public interest. They include collective pricing agreements, individual resale price maintenance arrangements, and pyramid selling schemes. This commission may also make orders against a third category of practices which it considers contrary to the public interest. These include refusals to supply, and directed insurance.

MONOPOLIES, MERGERS, AND TAKEOVERS—Part III of the Commerce Act is designed to ensure that some control is maintained over aggregations of economic power in New Zealand. Aggregations which constitute a merger or takeover proposal under the Act are investigated and considered by the Examiner of Commercial Practices in terms of the effects on the public interest, which is defined in the Act. The examiner may consent to a proposal, or where he considers it is likely to be contrary to the public interest, it may be referred to the Commerce Commission which will hold a public hearing to decide in terms of public interest whether the merger or takeover should proceed.

Monopoly and oligopoly situations can be investigated by the examiner on complaint or on evidence of misuse of market power. If found to be contrary to the public interest, situations are made the subject of a hearing held by the Commerce Commission, which is empowered to take corrective action.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on domestic trade will be found in the following publications.

Census of Distribution 1973—Department of Statistics.

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

Additional information on the 1977–78 Census of Distribution is available from the Department of Statistics, Auckland.

Chapter 22. Section 22 EXTERNAL TRADE

22 A—GENERAL

New Zealand has always been heavily dependent on overseas trade for its development and progress. Today the value of New Zealand's overseas trade as a proportion of gross national product is among the highest in the world. In the early days of colonisation the infant farming industry found a ready market in Australia for basic foodstuffs such as potatoes, grain, butter, and cheese. Timber and gold temporarily constituted a sizeable proportion of exports, but the most consistent export was wool, which made up 22 percent of the value of exports in 1853, when statistics were first compiled. In the 1870s it accounted for over half the value; from 1880 to 1898 its share was from 40 percent to 50 percent. From 1899 to 1964 wool consistently earned one-third of New Zealand's export receipts; since then the proportion has declined, and in the year ended June 1979 wool made up only 17 percent of exports by value.

Real and lasting diversification of the exports of farm products was made possible by the introduction of refrigerated ships in 1882. This accentuated the development of New Zealand's economy as a complement to the British economy, to the benefit of both. The proportion of New Zealand's total exports going to Britain grew from 70 percent in 1860 to 77 percent in 1900, and reached 88 percent in 1940. At first, exports of frozen meat increased more rapidly than those of butter and cheese; the early emphasis was on frozen mutton and lamb, with beef and veal becoming more significant later. The great expansion of exports of dairy produce occurred after 1900, and was encouraged by the centralised factory production of butter. From 1913 until recent years, meat, dairy products, and wool accounted for over 60 percent of total exports of New Zealand goods. The proportion dropped to 57 percent for the year ended June 1979.

New Zealand's heavy dependence on the British market continued into the post-Second World War era. From about the beginning of the 1960s the increasing emphasis on diversification away from this dependence has been reflected in the growth of beef exports to the United States, of mutton and forest products exports to Japan, and of lamb exports to Greece, the United States, and Canada; the establishment of a rapidly growing trade in meat and dairy produce with the developing countries of South-east Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America; the expansion of trade with Australia under NAFTA and with other South Pacific countries; and the growth of manufacturing industries within New Zealand to supplement agriculture as a source of export earnings as well as to supply the domestic market.

Another development has been the participation of New Zealand in the recently concluded GATT-sponsored Multilateral Trade Negotiations. For New Zealand the outcome of these negotiations was only of limited value although New Zealand did manage to secure improved access for cheese exports into the EEC and United States of America and more secure access for dairy and meat exports into the export markets of major trading partners. Tariff concessions on a range of primary and manufactured products were also achieved. Both the access and tariff concessions were balanced by trade concessions made by New Zealand in return.

Britain's entry into the European Economic Community lent special importance to New Zealand's efforts in the field of economic diplomacy. New Zealand's diplomatic and trade posts in Europe were strengthened to handle this work and, over the years, a programme of visits to New Zealand was organised for Ministers, senior officials, and journalists directly concerned with developments in the Common Market.

New Zealand's relations with the enlarged European Economic Community, now its largest trading partner accounting for 28.0 percent of New Zealand exports and 26.4 percent of New Zealand's imports during the year ended June 1979, continue to demand close attention. The quantities of butter for which access will be provided after 1980, have yet to be decided. The steps towards the introduction of an EEC policy for the sheepmeats sector, and developments affecting trade with the community in other agricultural and horticultural products, are monitored very closely. New Zealand has sought to establish even closer relations with the EEC Commission and with the individual member states of the EEC.

Access into the North American market is vitally important. New Zealand's trade with the United States is circumscribed by various quantitative restrictions imposed on beef, mutton, veal, and dairy products. The quantitative restrictions on beef, veal, and mutton apply from time to time, although the situation is reviewed every quarter, as provided by law, but New Zealand's exports of dairy products are subject to a formidable array of quota controls. Dairy products exported to Canada are also subject to quantitative restrictions, and quotas were applied to beef entering Canada in 1975, and between October and December 1976.

New Zealand's economic and trade relations with Japan have become closer. Bilateral trade has increased, both in volume and value, and consultations between the two Governments, at Ministerial and official level, have been extended. Continued efforts have been made to improve access for New Zealand agricultural exports, particularly dairy products and beef. Beef sales recommenced on a limited scale in the latter half of 1975, following the establishment of several small quotas, and have progressed slowly under the 6-monthly import allocation system adopted by Japan in April 1976.

The newly-independent nations of the Pacific have attracted particular attention since the formation in 1971 of the South Pacific Forum. There is now much more awareness of the scope for closer trade relations with and between the islands, and New Zealand has taken several initiatives in this direction.

At the same time our diplomatic and trading links across the Pacific, with the countries of Latin America, have been extended and a significant volume of trade has developed. Credits have been made available to Peru to assist it to finance purchases of meat and dairy products from New Zealand.

New Zealand's trade relations with Australia, dealt with in more detail later in this section, have always been close. They are largely governed by the New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Agreement on Tariffs and Preferences, which came into effect on 1 January 1966 and 1 December 1977 respectively. Two-way trade is currently in excess of NZ$1,000 million per annum.

New Zealand's trade with the USSR and other socialist countries of eastern Europe has grown steadily over the past decade, although it declined significantly in the 1977–78 trade year relative to its peak in 1976–77. There was a marked recovery in 1978–79, but trade remained below the 1976–77 level. New Zealand exports to the region are dominated by wool, hides, skins, meat, and occasionally dairy products, while imports include a range of manufactured products, fertilisers, and foodstuffs.

The large rises in world oil prices have greatly increased the revenues of Middle East oil exporting countries and this has been reflected in the expansion of New Zealand exports to the region in recent years, although the political events in Iran during 1979 resulted in large reductions in New Zealand exports to that country during the 1978–79 June year. Exports of meat to the Middle East rose from NZ$1 million in the year ended 30 June 1973 to more than NZ$55 million in 1977–78, but declined to NZ$37 million in 1978–79. Similarly, exports of wool increased from approximately NZ$6 million in 1972–73 to over NZ$25 million in 1977–78, reducing to NZ$15 million in 1978–79. New Zealand dairy products exports to the region rose from less than NZ$1 million in 1972–73 to NZ$14 million and NZ$8 million in 1977–78 and 1978–79 respectively. The main markets for these commodities in the year to 30 June 1979 were Iran (meat, wool, and dairy products), Saudi Arabia (meat, dairy products, and manufactured wood products), Iraq (meat and dairy products), and the Arab Republic of Egypt (wool and meat).

The pattern of New Zealand's export commodities is changing. Whereas, in the year ended June 1970 meat, dairy products, and wool earned 76 percent of New Zealand's export income (Reserve Bank figures), in the year ended June 1979 they earned only 62 percent of the total export income. Over this 9-year period earnings from exports of manufactured goods, including forest products, rose from 12 percent to 25 percent of total export income.

The following table shows the changing pattern of external trade by countries of destination and origin. The percentages are based on value data, exports f.o.b. and imports c.d.v.

YearBritainAustraliaJapanUnited StatesOther CountriesYearBritainAustraliaJapanUnited StatesOther Countries
  Exports percent    Imports percent  
1920745 16519204817 1817
1930803 5121930478 1827
1940883 4519404716 1225
1950663 102119506012 721
1960534 133019604318 1029
June Year     June Year     
19703681016301970302181328
1975221212124219751920141334
1977201213114419771722151333
1978181313144219781822131433
1979171115164119791522141435

TRADE RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED KINGDOM—The preceding table shows that the United Kingdom has remained the predominant market for New Zealand's exports and the second biggest supplier of her imported goods. The British consumer for a long time enjoyed virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of trading arrangements reflecting traditional economic, political, and cultural bonds between the people and governments of the two countries.

In return for providing an assured market for this New Zealand produce, Britain obtained an assured source of reasonably priced food in war and peace, valuable preferences in the sale of manufactured goods in the New Zealand market, and considerable earnings from the provision of shipping, insurance, and other services related to the 2-way trade between the countries.

In recent years the United Kingdom's share of New Zealand's export trade has gradually declined. This decline was given impetus by New Zealand's increased efforts to diversify her export products and markets in view of British moves towards joining the EEC. Thus in 1950 the United Kingdom took 66 percent of New Zealand's exports, but by the year ended June 1979 its share had fallen to 17 percent. However, the United Kingdom is still New Zealand's main export market, taking the bulk of our lamb and butter exports (62 percent and 65 percent respectively in the 1978–79 year), and 14.5 percent of our wool.

Entry into the EEC, involving the assumption of obligations under the community's Common Agricultural Policy, required Britain to terminate the 1959 and 1966 trade agreements with New Zealand on 31 January 1973, and to begin to phase in the common customs tariff and other EEC policies affecting the import of goods from those countries. In consequence, New Zealand phased out by 1 July 1977 the tariff preferences previously given to imports from Britain.

DIVERSIFICATION—Britain's prospective entry into the EEC also caused an intensification of New Zealand's efforts to develop new markets for its exports and to broaden the range of its export commodities. Progress in diversification by the dairy industry is reflected in the fact that the volume of dairy exports to markets outside Britain rose to 63 percent of the total in the June year 1975,68 percent in 1976, 73 percent in 1977, 72.5 percent in 1978, and 73 percent in 1979. An important factor in the diversification effort is the greater exchange of views and co-operation between the principal dairy exporters.

Reference has been made earlier to the important structural changes taking place in New Zealand's export trade and, in particular, the growing importance of manufactured exports and of new markets, especially in the Pacific basin region.

North America—The United States is now New Zealand's third largest market and source of supply. It is our major market for beef and veal, which in 1978–79 accounted for 56 percent by value of total exports to the United States, compared with 45 percent in the previous year. However, this trade has been circumscribed since 1964 by the imposition of quantitative restrictions. A new Meat Import Act was passed late in 1979 (to be implemented from 1981 onwards) so that these import controls will now include a countercyclical formula under which the level of beef imports increases when United States domestic production is low and vice versa. As the New Zealand beef production cycle generally moves in accord with the United States beef cycle the new legislation is likely to have a destabilising effect on our beef industry and United States quotas will be lowest when our production is highest. Other main exports to the United States are lamb, wool, casein, and hides and skins. Since the 1950s, an array of import quota controls have been applied to dairy products, especially butter, cheese, and milk powder. These controls have severely limited New Zealand's ability to expand its sales of dairy products to the United States, although with the loss of the traditional British market it is in 1978–79 our second largest market for cheese.

New Zealand's exports to Canada have increased from $16.2 million in the year ended June 1969 to $100.9 million in the year ended June 1979. Beef and veal are again our main exports to Canada, followed by lamb and mutton, sausage casings, wool, machinery, and textile products, including yam and carpets. New Zealand's trading relationship with Canada is governed bilaterally by the terms of the Canada - New Zealand Trade Agreement of 1932 as amended. In July 1973 New Zealand and Canada agreed in an exchange of letters to continue tariff preferences on the same general basis as those derived from their trade agreements with Britain prior to the termination of these agreements following Britain's entry into the European Economic Community. The July 1973 agreement included undertakings against increasing duties against each other, and for maintenance of margins of preference. In August 1974Canada introduced import quotas on beef which have limited New Zealand's ability to expand sales to this market. New Zealand's main objectives in the trade policy field are to have the quotas removed and to obtain permanent access for dairy products.

South Pacific—The Pacific Islands have attracted particular attention in recent years and in 1971 New Zealand and Australia, with the Cook Islands, Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, and Western Samoa, formed the South Pacific Forum. Since then, Papua New Guinea, Kiribati, Niue, Solomon Islands, and Tuvalu, have become full members. The forum has initiated a regional shipping line, and studies into market expansion for Island products, and the rationalisation of agricultural production. New Zealand officials held talks on trade and economic matters with officials from both Fiji and Tonga in 1979.

Japan—Exports to Japan have increased from $25.5 million in 1963 to $600 million in the year ended June 1979. In that year the major exports were unwrought aluminium (23 percent of total exports), wool (15 percent), meat (14 percent), forest products (14 percent), dairy products (7 percent), iron ore and concentrates (4 percent), fish (3.5 percent), and fruit and vegetables (3.3 percent). Japanese imports of beef, butter, skim-milk powder, and some fish products are subject to global quotas.

ASEAN Countries—New Zealand is becoming increasingly aware of the long-term potential of the ASEAN countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand) as a major export market for agricultural, forestry, and manufactured products. Over the 6 years 1974 to 1979 New Zealand's exports to the ASEAN countries increased from $73 million to $170 million, and further substantial gains are foreseen as the region develops further, particularly for the export of an increasing range of manufactured products. In September 1978 a trade agreement was signed with Indonesia. A trade agreement is being negotiated with Thailand. Trade talks took place with Malaysia in November 1978. The second meeting of the ASEAN-New Zealand Joint Trade Study Group, established to review the development of trade between the ASEAN countries and New Zealand, was held in Wellington in September 1979. While ASEAN continues to develop as a regional entity, the trading emphasis is on bilateral relations with each of the individual member countries.

China—Since the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1972 and the signing of a trade agreement in 1973 trade with China has expanded significantly. Exports to China increased from $1.7 million in 1971–72 to $78.9 million in 1978–79. Wool and tallow remain the dominant items, although there has been some diversification in recent years, and forest products, dairy products, steel, leather, hides, aluminium and, most recently, sawn timber are also sold to China. The Deputy Prime Minister, accompanied by a group of leading businessmen, visited China in May 1979. It was concluded that there were good prospects for growth in the existing trade as well as for co-operation in a number of areas such as agriculture, steel industry, geothermal development, hotel construction, food processing, and light industry with further opportunities for sales of services and goods to China. A Joint Trade Committee annually reviews the development of trade between the two countries.

Korea—Exports to the Republic of Korea have increased from $1.6 million in 1971 to $68.8 million in the year ended June 1979. Tallow, mutton and lamb, hides and skins, wool, logs, and wood pulp are major export products. The tenth annual Ministerial Trade Talks were held in Seoul in May 1979. Joint ventures in fishing have recently been established with Korean companies and a joint-venture to produce wood pulp is also now in production.

Latin America—Peru, Venezuela, Ecuador and Mexico have become useful markets for New Zealand dairy products. Peru and Venezuela are our largest markets in the area, purchasing substantial quantities of milk powder and anhydrous milk fat. In 1979, Argentina also purchased substantial quantities of milk powder and butter.

Eastern Europe—New Zealand's exports to the socialist countries of Eastern Europe have more than doubled over the last decade in response to continuing efforts to expand trade within the region. In the 1978–79 trade year exports to Eastern Europe totalled nearly $174 million, compared with $17 million in 1968–69. While this latest figure maintained the long-term growth trend it represents a significant decline in real terms relative to the peak in export income of $210 million in 1976–77. The main factors which contributed to the decline were shortages of hard currency within the Eastern European countries and a desire for these countries to improve their balance of trade with New Zealand.

New Zealand's exports to the region reflect Eastern European requirements for manufacturing raw materials (wool, hides, and skins) and the need to meet occasional shortfalls in domestic production (beef, mutton, and dairy products). Wool's 66 percent contribution to exports to the area is particularly notable. Diversification of exports continues to be an important goal with new export opportunities developing for live sheep, cattle semen, milking equipment, eartags, and chemicals.

New Zealand's imports from Eastern Europe totalled $14 million in 1978–79, a decline of 25 percent over the previous year. A diversified range of products were imported, including chemicals, machinery, textiles, fertilisers, and motor vehicles.

Individual exporters have been supported by active representation at a government-to-government level, in particular through the New Zealand embassies in Moscow, Vienna, Rome, and Athens. Formal contacts have been expanded by the signing of a Trade and Technical Co-operation Agreement as well as by a Scientific and Technological Co-operation Agreement with Romania and by the Prime Minister's visit to Romania in October 1979. In addition to these new agreements, New Zealand has existing Trade Agreements with the USSR, Poland, the German Democratic Republic, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Hungary. The Inaugural Session of the New Zealand - Hungary Joint Trade Commission was held in Wellington from 25–28 June 1979.

Middle East—Over the decade of the 1970s the considerable potential of the markets of the Middle East has been increasingly developed by New Zealand. Exports to the area have risen from less than $1 million in 1968–69 to a figure of $87 million in 1978–79. This figure however represents a drop of about $17 million from 1977–78 as a result of the decrease in trade with Iran following the overthrow of the existing government and the establishment of an Islamic State in Iran, late in 1978. Iran previously has held the position of New Zealand's major market in the Middle East. Imports from the area, consisting mainly of crude oil and petroleum products, remained at around the same level, totalling just over $232 million in 1978–79 compared with $237 million the previous year.

New Zealand's major markets continue to be Iran and Iraq, taking over 50 percent of exports to the area, which have consisted largely of lamb, dairy products, and wool. New Zealand's position in these markets has been further advanced by the signing in October 1979 of a 4-year contract to supply lamb to Iran, worth around $400 million, and the renewal of the 5-year “evergreen” dairy products agreement with Iraq. Valuable markets are also being developed in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States; in particular, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Kuwait and Oman, for processed foodstuffs and a range of manufactured items.

Export initiatives have been supported by the New Zealand embassies in Rome, Baghdad, Tehran, and Athens, and by the New Zealand Consulate-General in Bahrain, and have been further reinforced by contacts at ministerial, official and business levels. In May 1979, continuing a regular exchange of visits, H. E. Mr Habib Kassim, Minister of Commerce and Agriculture for Bahrain, visited New Zealand. In October, the Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, during a visit to Bahrain and the United Arab Emirates attended the opening of the Bahrain and New Zealand (BANZ) coolstore facilities in Bahrain as well as the opening of a dairy recombining plant in Dubai, a joint-venture between New Zealand and private Dubai interests.

Australia—New Zealand's trade relations with Australia have always been close, but recent years have witnessed unprecedented growth in 2-way trade, particularly in manufactured goods. The 1965 New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has been an important factor in this expansion. A number of projects for co-operation in industrial development, including the motor vehicle industry, have been developed and there has been increased co-operation in implementing the Memorandum of Understanding on Defence Supply signed in 1970.

The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement was signed on 31 August 1965 and came into effect on 1 January 1966. The main aim of the agreement, which ran for an initial period of 10 years and was extended for a further 10 years, is “to further the development of the area and the use of the resources of the area by promoting a sustained and mutually beneficial expansion of trade”.

The central element of the agreement is its list of goods (Schedule A) on which duties are progressively reduced and bound at free in the tariffs of both countries. The agreement also contains general provisions governing the conduct of trade between Australia and New Zealand covering such matters; as dumping, the maintenance of import restrictions, the encouragement of industrial rationalisation between the two countries, and the holding of consultations on a regular basis and for specific purposes.

The original Schedule A contained some 990 items. Since then further items have been added. On inclusion in Schedule A, goods free of duty are bound at free; goods with duties not exceeding 5 percent become free; duties of between 5 and 10 percent are halved and eliminated 2 years later; and duties of more than 10 percent are reduced by one-fifth on inclusion and by a further fifth every 2 years. There is provision for either quicker or slower reduction of duties where agreed to by both countries. Schedule A trade represents about 66 percent of total trans-Tasman trade.

Complementary development of trade has been encouraged since 1967 by reciprocal concessions under trading arrangements between firms in New Zealand and Australia under Article 3:7 of NAFTA. Approvals for such inter-firm arrangements totalled about $68 million in the June year 1979. Special arrangements have also been negotiated under article 3:7 to facilitate continuing trade where both countries maintain quantitative restrictions against imports. The new partial free trade arrangements, while not replacing the old arrangements, will offer wider opportunities, will not be limited to specific firms, and should encourage co-operation on an industry-wide basis as well as co-operation between individual firms.

Continued development of the concept of reducing tariffs within the NAFTA area as a preferential free trade area was the aim of an agreement or, tariff rates and preferences, which came into effect on 1 December 1977. This replaced an interim agreement which had operated since 1973. The basic features are undertakings not to increase tariffs against each other, while maintaining agreed minimum margins of tariff preference over imports from non-preferential countries. In addition, the agreement makes clear the intention of both Australia and New Zealand to set tariffs against each other on manufactured goods at the lowest possible level consistent with protection of domestic production, while permitting reasonable competition from the NAFTA partner.

A number of special industry bodies have been established within the NAFTA framework to discuss trade in particular products. Among these is the Joint Consultative Council on Forest Industries, the Joint Committee on Dairy Products, the Joint Pea and Bean Industry Panel, and the Joint Industry Panel on Sawmilling Products.

Trans-Tasman trade statistics are given in the following table.

June YearN.Z. Imports*from Australia NZ$(million)N.Z. Exportsto Australia NZ$(million)Visible Balance of Trade with Australia NZ$(million)Ratio of Imbalance in Australia's Favour

* Current domestic value.

Including re-exports f.o.b.

1975502.6166.8−335.81:3.01
1976514.5263.7−250.81:1.95
1977653.6365.6−288.01:1.79
1978652.0387.8−264.21:1.68
1979797.1447.0−350.11:1.78

TRADE PER HEAD—Trade per head of population is affected, not only by the volume of trade but also by the value, i.e., the prices received for exports and the cost of imports.

The following table shows the value, per head of mean population, of New Zealand's trade over the last 5 years.

Year Ended JuneExports (f.o.b.)Imports (c.i.f.)Total Trade
 $     $     $     
1975529.71902.621,432.33
1976768.74953.851,722.58
19771,033.511,132.522,166.03
19781,058.691,046.922,105.61
19791,299.891,227.392,527.28

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE—In the following table the c.i.f. valuation of imports has been used to establish the visible balance of trade. Gold, specie, passengers' baggage, ships stores, and bunkering totals are excluded.

June YearVisible Excess of Exports
 $(000)
1973–74−274,223
1974–75−1,179,639
1975–76−632,850
1976–77−378,240
1977–78−29,297
1978–79144,695

NOTE: Minus signs indicate an excess of imports.

Visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries (see Section 25B). A statement of New Zealand's overseas exchange transactions is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TRADE STATISTICS—Provisional trade data are published in an appendix to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics fairly soon after the period to which they relate. A quarterly publication entitled New Zealand Country Analyses of External Trade is also published.

Annual volumes containing comprehensive surveys of final data are also published by the Department of Statistics.

New Zealand has used the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) as from 1 July 1962, for classifying external trade for statistical purposes; from the same date this classification was put into effect for recording the external trade of the Cook Islands and Niue. Since 1 July 1978 the classification has been in accordance with the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised 2).

Provisional values of imports and exports are set out in the following table.

Period1976–771977–781978–79
Experts (Including Reexports) f.o.b.ImportsExperts (Including Reexports) f.o.b.ImportsExperts (Including Reexports) f.o.b.Imports
c.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Value
 $(million)
Month of July175.6252.8277.2276.5260.1281.3264.1215.1232.5
2 months ended August435.1474.0518.7528.8566.0612.6542.9523.9564.5
3 months ended September663.8757.2824.6754.5844.6916.8803.4771.1828.7
4 months ended October882.9986.11,079.2986.11,091.71,188.81,122.21,140.41,219.2
5 months ended November1,132.21,315.91,432.11,195.91,329.81,448.51,476.51,434.31,536.1
6 months ended December1,407.51,566.61,704.41,486.01,571.01,708.61,780.31,678.51,798.4
7 months ended January1,691.41,791.91,951.21,737.71,772.01,935.92,099.41,969.12,111.7
8 months ended February1,977.32,057.72,244.12,037.92,002.42,185.52,472.12,250.52,415.9
9 months ended March2,243.42,346.02,563.62,346.92,251.92,453.92,881.92,522.62,711.7
10 months ended April2,562.12,592.72,832.02,681.22,468.82,686.63,242.92,817.23,026.2
11 months ended May2,869.82,871.93,135.42,925.42,706.12,945.53,660.63,174.53,411.7
12 months ended June3,216.33,168.33,459.83,309.13,001.53,269.54,068.63,561.03,826.9

Valuation of Exports—It has always been the practice to record exports at free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, except during the Second World War when wool exports were valued at appraisal prices. Most meat and dairy product exports are consigned for sale on overseas markets, and necessarily valued, on export, at the f.o.b. equivalent of the prices ruling at that time in the markets to which they are consigned. Price changes may occur in these markets before the actual sale of the produce.

The exports recorded relate to goods on vessels which have port of call in New Zealand during the period.

Valuation of Imports—From July 1962, with the introduction of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised), statistics on the c.i.f. basis (cost including freight and insurance) became available at item level.

Since 1 July 1978 figures are based on Standard International Trade Classification (Revised 2).

The proportional difference between the 2 figures of valuation now made available—viz, c.d.v. and c.i.f.—varies from period to period depending on: (1) the make-up of imports in the different periods, (2) differential charges in import prices and in freight rates, (3) differences between domestic and export prices in the exporting countries, and (4) price fluctuations between dates of purchases and of shipping. In all the tables, imports are now shown at c.d.v., unless otherwise specified in respect of particular tables.

The trade figures for imports are compiled from the imports entries passed by the Customs Department. Generally the imports entries are not passed until the goods are available for discharge from the wharf.

Annual Statistics—For trade statistics a June year has been adopted since 1 July 1962 and this accords fairly well with the farm production year.

The statistics of external trade given in this section (comprising the 4 subsections) do not include the trade of the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau; statistics for these territories are given separately.

The following table shows for the June year 1979 the values of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the countries trading with New Zealand.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDED JUNE 1979
CountryExports f.o.b.Imports c.d.v.
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of Origin
O.E.C.D. Countries
E.E.C Countries $(thousand) 
    Belgium44,47144,53320,279
    Denmark6,3286,45215,020
    Destination unknown—E.E.C.11,21411,214
    France94,36294,51344,866
    Germany, Federal Republic of101,683102,480231,044
    Greenland
    Ireland9,4359,4422,569
    Italy107,720107,97347,115
    Luxembourg11511586
    Monaco11- -
    Netherlands65,56365,74148,272
    San Marino55
    United Kingdom673,573676,733542,819
    Vatican City State4
                Total, E.E.C. Countries1,114,4701,119,202952,074
Other O.E.C.D. Countries
    Australia455,733501,190798,513
    Austria1,3781,3837,208
    Canada101,118101,35085,417
    Finland1,2511,2634,822
    Greece48,51248,5863,819
    Iceland446
    Japan599,624600,583495,154
    Liechtenstein111175
    New Zealand (reimports)......8,251
    Norway1,5841,5904,541
    Portugal4,5714,5712,083
    Spain17,94417,95111,668
    Sweden3,5763,72329,793
    Switzerland6,6246,74831,758
    Turkey536536244
    United States of America626,275632,176489,562
                Total, O.E.C.D. Countries2,983,2103,040,8692,924,990
China
    People's Republic of China78,84678,84921,130
    Province of Taiwan35,32135,37424,136
Asia
    Afghanistan9932
    Bangladesh1,0811,0833,156
    Bhutan- -- -
    Brunei285336
    Burma208208165
    Hong Kong50,28050,79252,313
    India10,75213,32920,043
    Indonesia30,57430,62929,881
    Kampuchea212212
    Korea, Republic of68,67568,67623,412
    Macau15
    Malaysia41,82543,90438,853
    Maldives- -- -
    Mongolia11
    Nepal36236319
    Pakistan8,1958,2381,050
    Philippines41,99442,2752,871
    Singapore41,39942,97867,753
    Sri Lanka4,9855,0115,161
    Thailand13,73213,8224,335
    Vietnam, Socialist Republic of788788703
Oceania   
    Fiji49,02855,01911,547
    French Polynesia14,35414,76961
    Kiribati (formerly the Gilbert Islands)1,3221,3871,517
    Nauru9621,01420,877
    New Caledonia10,44610.72227
    New Hebrides2,9283,18634
    Papua New Guinea21,83923,1755,501
    Pitcairn Islands3941
    Samoa15,03716,2715.009
    Solomon Islands2,7032,948227
    Tonga8,3058,9841,653
    Tuvalu62791
    Wallis and Futuna Islands105105
Latin America-Caribbean
    Argentina6,0396,039252
    Associated States in Eastern Caribbean5,9165,91657
    Bahamas867868515
    Belize1212- -
    Bermuda2,1902,19086
    Bolivia1831832
    Brazil1992017,985
    British Virgin Islands5252
    Cayman Islands2222
    Chile62362393
    Colombia19419470
    Costa Rica1,8841,884316
    Cuba6,059
    Dominican Republic1,9051,9052
    Ecuador1,6261,6264,573
    El Salvador3,8843,88410
    Falkland Islands33
    French Guiana170170
    Guatemala22722793
    Guyana168168114
    Haiti424231
    Honduras43431
    Jamaica3,0643,0651,791
    Mexico4,7764,7811,746
    Montserrat55
    Netherlands Antilles2,6162,6165,209
    Nicaragua58
    Panama2,3192,3191
    Paraguay- -- -4
    Peru15,38715,393213
    Surinam128128- -
    Trinidad and Tobago6,7466,75191
    Uruguay474713
    Venezuela8,9118,91310
Middle East—
    Bahrain4,5064,50746,735
    Egypt1,9231,92319
    Iran24,39624,44141,214
    Iraq25,27925,279639
    Israel2743592,994
    Jordan2,4642,4665
    Kuwait3,5623,56454,548
    Lebanon88881
    Libyan Arab Republic35888
    Oman2,6682,678
    Qatar565565
    Saudi Arabia12,67712,73486,239
    Syrian Arab Republic1,5901,590
    United Arab Emirates7,0887,110
    Yemen, Arab Republic1,0641,064
    Yemen, Democratic People's Republic1212- -
Eastern Europe
    Albania- -
    Bulgaria2,1562,15653
    Czechoslovakia9,1959,1983,859
    German Democratic Republic3,9353,9351,262
    Hungary728728590
    Poland16,73616,7361,421
    Romania2,6672,667794
    U.S.S.R129,134129,1345,346
    Yugoslavia9,2459,2461,346
Africa
    Afars and Issas- -- -
    Algeria225225
    Botswana- -1- -
    Cameroon7754
    Chad- -
    Comoros- -
    Congo61
    Ethiopia545426
    Gambia2020- -
    Ghana26426414,851
    Ivory Coast300300110
    Kenya1,0351,0361,422
    Liberia3131
    Madagascar126
    Malawi224225322
    Mauritania4444
    Mauritius7,4717,47310
    Morocco2242249
    Mozambique1,7831,78312
    Niger- -
    Nigeria1,8781,890- -
    Reunion239239- -
    Rhodesia- -
    St Helena1
    Senegal68
    Seychelles1819- -
    South Africa6,3876,56510,177
    Sudan32732717
    Swaziland- -- -
    Tanzania6246432,016
    Togo- -
    Tunisia3113112
    Uganda1,756
    Zaire23114
    Zambia6365
Other countries
    Antarctic stations (British)
    Antarctic stations (U.S.A.)1117
    Cyprus5,3645,36417
    Destination unknown—Other4,2774,313...
    Gibraltar90901
    Malta4,8034,80399
    St. Pierre and Miquelon7474
                Total, all countries3,908,2573,985,2013,574,139
    Passengers' goods99615,292
    Ships' stores402,306
    Bunkering, ships' and aircraft36,66864,579
                  Grand total3,945,9614,067,3783,574,139

VOLUME INDEX OF EXTERNAL TRADE—For the index of the volume of external trade, both the import and the export series are linked chain series with changing (price) weighting patterns, each year being calculated on base previous year and then linked on.

Exports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000) for each commodity or class of commodities.

June YearButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy Produce
1975853697811985764898881
19761079881937110795110511033
197711208731076117789110721088
1978x95578797810858619971013
19791012719953121492610831079
June YearFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods Other Than FoodCrude Materials Other Than FuelsAll Groups
19758911893827929
1976104223349731094
1977119129279631211
1978x109631559451170
19791175375410021275

Imports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000) for each commodity or class of commodities.

June YearPetroleum and ProductsTextile Yam, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery Other than ElectricElectric Machinery and ApparatusTransport Equipment
1975128912801538177620141458
197612001021926138416491429
1977116412521141138015911452
19781133105390512231306921
1979115113261015101615071212
June YearFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods Other Than FoodCrude Materials Other Than FuelsFuelsAll Groups
* Provisional.
197514151524121712851468
19761143121297711991193
197711061293110511581250
19789921085112011291092
1979*11141223121111461206

IMPORT LICENSING—The former import licensing incentive scheme based on exports was abolished in 1979. It has been succeeded by the Export Production Assistance Scheme (EPAS) which aims to ensure that the import licensing system does not inadvertently act as an impediment to efficient production for export. It does this by providing for New Zealand exporters to have access to imported raw materials and componentry whenever this is necessary to enable their own products to compete in foreign markets. EPAS licences are available for imported raw materials and components of the same kind and to the same value as those certified as used or as going to be used, in the production of goods for export. They cover raw materials and components not made in New Zealand, or made in New Zealand but where it can be shown that the use of raw materials or components of New Zealand origin would, for reasons of price quality or technology, prejudice export sales of the finished product concerned. The net foreign exchange benefit to New Zealand is relevant in such instances.

Import Selection—Before 1973 administration of import licensing policy was the joint responsibility of the Customs Department and the Department of Trade and Industry. On 2 April 1973 the Department of Trade and Industry assumed sole responsibility for licensing administration in terms of the Trade and Industry Amendment Act 1973.

The objectives of the import licensing policies are to ensure a stable market for industry, to utilise domestic resources to the fullest extent, to maintain full employment, to encourage investment and greater productivity, and to achieve exports and utilise New Zealand resources to the maximum extent.

Import provisions are published in an annual Import Licensing Schedule. Summaries of changes in the schedules and import policies in general up to the period 1977–78 are contained in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Up to this period the Import Licensing Schedule has provided generally for a level of licensed imports at 100 percent of the previous year's allocation. Devaluation of the New Zealand dollar and increases in the prices of imports has meant that the volume of imports has been progressively reduced.

This reduction in the quantity of imports was recognised by the Government and the 1978–79 Import Licensing Schedule made provision for basic allocations on the basis of 107 1/2 percent of the previous year's licence for consumer goods and 112 1/2 percent for other goods. This policy of increasing basic allocations to allow for an increase in import volumes and price increases was continued for the 1979–80 Import Licensing Schedule. Consumer goods licences were issued at 110 percent of the previous year's qualifying licence, and licences for other goods with a basic entitlement were issued at 115 percent of the previous allocation.

Chapters 1 to 49 of the 1979–80 Schedule were restructured to allow usage of the Customs computer facility which will be introduced in approximately 2 years. The remaining chapters 50 to 99 are being restructured for the 1980–81 Schedule.

The policy of increasing basic licence allocations to allow for current and anticipated rises in import prices was continued in the 1980–81 Import Licensing Schedule. Basic licence allocations were set at 125 percent of the 1979–80 levels. In releasing the schedule the Minister of Trade and Industry stated “Importers should thus be able to bring into the country at least as many goods as in the current year, an achievement which would be in line with the Government's policy of ensuring stability in the current difficult international economic situation. Parallel with this assurance of continuity in basic policies, the Government will, during 1980–81, pursue its commitment that the import licensing system be administered so as to cause the least possible obstruction of New Zealand's export potential. As well, every reasonable effort will continue to be made to deal with circumstances of manifestly excessive differentials between New Zealand products and reasonable foreign alternatives in terms of costs, quality, or technology.”

INDUSTRIES DEVELOPMENT COMMISSION—The Industries Development Commission operates under the Industries Development Commission Act 1961. This Act was assented to on 19 September 1975 and on that date the Industries Development Commission superseded the Tariff and Development Board. The Industries Development Commission Act 1961 differs only in minor respects from the Tariff and Development Board Act. This Act was amended in 1979 to allow for the appointment of associate members with expertise in those industries under study.

The commission's functions are as set out in section 7 of the Act and are to inquire into and report on matters relating to industrial development and protection at the frontier when requested by the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry or the Minister of Overseas Trade.

At present the emphasis is on the commission's development function. Its current commitments are studies of the plastics, packaging, and wine industries.

The commission completed a study of the textile industry and a development study of the painting of metal strip and sheet during 1979.

EMERGENCY PROTECTION AUTHORITY—The Emergency Protection Authority operates under section 10A to 10E of the Industries Development Commission Act 1961 and Section 4 of the 1979 Industries Development Commission Amendment Act. It was set up under an amendment to the Tariff Development Board Act 1961 of 22 November 1967. Its function is to advise, when requested by the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry, or Minister of Overseas Trade, whether urgent action is necessary to protect New Zealand industry in relation to the importation of any goods and if so the nature of such action.

From 1968 to end of 1979 the authority had undertaken 175 inquiries.

TRADE COMMISSIONER SERVICE—Facilities for the promotion of overseas trade are provided by the Department of Trade and Industry through the service of Trade Commissioner posts at Athens, Baghdad, Bahrain, Bangkok, Bonn, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Djakarta, The Hague, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Moscow, New York, Paris, Peking, Perth, Port Moresby, Rome, San Francisco, Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, Tokyo, Toronto, Trinidad, Vancouver, Vienna, and Washington. This representation reflects New Zealand's interest in expanding and diversifying export markets. In addition the Air New Zealand overseas managers in Tahiti, American Samoa, and Hawaii act as Trade Correspondents of the Department of Trade and Industry. Trade Commissioners have appropriate diplomatic or consular status in the countries to which they are accredited.

Trade Commissioners can be of considerable help to New Zealand exporters by reporting on market prospects for particular products. They can supply information on access conditions (customs duty, quotas, sales tax, etc.) and on other market requirements such as packaging, labelling, or testing requirements. Trade Commissioner market reports can describe the market situation, recommend marketing methods, and identify imports. The Trade Commissioner may also assist New Zealand importers to locate new sources of supply of essential commodities. New Zealand businessmen travelling overseas may be saved much time and trouble by enlisting in advance the services of the Trade Commissioner, whose knowledge of local conditions and whose connections with businessmen and Government officials in the territory enable valuable advice to be given. The task is made easier if adequate notice of the visit is given.

The Trade Commissioner keeps a careful watch on the pattern of New Zealand trade with the territory and reports on significant changes. Where imports from New Zealand are affected, for example by a new interpretation of an agricultural inspection regulation, or by the imposition of import restrictions, the Trade Commissioner is often called upon to make official representations to the government concerned.

Trade Commissioners are also engaged in numerous other activities, some of which are representing New Zealand at international conferences, reporting on economic and industrial developments in their territories, acting on behalf of Government departments in the procurement of stores, payment of accounts, etc.

Business people may write for information direct to the New Zealand Trade Commissioner in the country concerned. However, where convenient, it is preferred that requests be made through the Department of Trade and Industry in New Zealand, which is often able to give preliminary advice and assistance.

The addresses of overseas representatives are listed in Section 39, Official.

TRADE PROMOTION—The Trade Promotion Council was established in 1962, under terms of the Trade and Industry Act 1956, as an advisory body to the Minister of Overseas Trade on measures required to assist the further development of New Zealand's export trade. The 17 members are drawn from leaders of industry and commerce in New Zealand and are widely representative of agriculture, manufacturing, professional and technical services, labour, financial, and regional interests. The council, which meets quarterly under the chairmanship of the Minister of Overseas Trade, makes recommendations to the Government concerning the expansion of New Zealand's trade in such areas as the provision of export incentives and financial facilities; increasing the public awareness of the importance of exporting; the improvement of facilities in New Zealand and overseas to assist exporters; the co-ordination of promotional schemes, trade fairs, and publicity in overseas markets; and the exploration of new markets by trade surveys and missions.

The council's Export Award affords recognition to individuals, companies, and organisations who have made significant contributions to the expansion of New Zealand's export trade. There is also the Governor-General's Award for exceptional export performance, which is open only to winners of the Export Award who have had at least a further 5 years' exporting with exceptional sustained export performance.

Since the Export Awards Scheme was introduced in 1965, 114 New Zealand exporters have been granted an export award. Seven companies have been granted the Governor-General's Award since its inception in 1974.

The Export Guarantee Office (EXGO) operates in accordance with the Export Guarantee Act 1964. The office's function is to promote export trade by providing insurance against commercial and political risks arising from the export of goods or services. It also provides guarantees to lending institutions for amounts advanced to exporters of goods or services which are covered by a contract of insurance issued by EXGO. The Export Guarantee Office can provide a wide range of policies sufficient to meet most requirements.

NEW ZEALAND EXPORT-IMPORT CORPORATION—The New Zealand Export-Import Corporation was established under the New Zealand Export-Import Corporation Act 1974 to engage in overseas trade and act on behalf of any manufacturers, producers, exporters, and importers who request it to do so, including the Government. The corporation offers a range of services varying from documentation and costing to complete marketing overseas. Among its prime activities the corporation has been concerned with assisting small and medium size firms producing goods with export potential. The corporation operates Trade Centres in Sydney, Los Angeles, and Singapore which assist member New Zealand exporters selling to Australia, North America, and South-east Asia respectively. The corporation also has a representative based in Caracas, Venezuela. The corporation holds the New Zealand interest in the Bahrain - New Zealand Trading and Storage Company (BANZ) which has been established to operate a port and storage facility in Bahrain.

22 B—EXPORTS

The growth and diversification of the New Zealand economy are heavily dependent on increasing exports to pay for rising imports of goods needed by industry and a growing population, as well as to provide for large payments for “invisibles” in the form of services. Overseas trade is the lifeblood of the economy. New Zealand's export trade has become more diversified in recent years, as regards both products and markets. While the traditional export commodities, dairy products, meat, and wool, remain the backbone of the export trade, new commodities such as wood pulp, paper, and other products of our forest industries, and manufactured goods, are of growing importance.

In New Zealand copies of export entries are forwarded to the Department of Statistics for processing and analysis and the regular publication of export statistics. Exports are valued in New Zealand currency “free on board at the port of shipment”. Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. Meat and dairy produce exports are valued like other commodities, on the basis of overseas realisation, not on the basis of the prices payable to producers under the internal purchasing procedures.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. A distinction is made between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

Since July 1962, the Standard International Trade Classification has been used in classifying export trade. Currently, goods are classified according to the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised 2).

MAIN EXPORTS—The following table gives total exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports (excluding gold and current coin) for the latest 5 June years by the main commodity groups.

Year Ended JuneMeat and Meat PreparationsDairy ProductsHides, Skins, and PeltsWool
Milk, CreamButterCheeseCasein
 f.o.b. value $(million)
1975442.2106.0122.148.414.762.7261.7
1976593.888.5204.278.027.177.4456.4
1977765.6111.1253.984.959.7128.6648.2
1978765.2132.8240.976.660.5144.0580.0
19791,094.0130.3277.275.562.3181.8683.3
Year Ended JuneSausage CasingsTallowFruit and VegetablesPulp, Paper, and Paper-boardTotal*Re-exportsTotal Exports
* Including commodities not listed.
 f.o.b. value $(million)
197518.816.441.280.21,558.063.51,621.5
197623.525.850.5120.92,255.6131.22,386.9
197725.833.064.8150.53,096.7132.03,228.7
197827.032.476.8148.13,141.0172.33,313.5
197930.242.4103.8179.33,946.0121.44,067.4

The commodity groups shown above account for more than 70 percent of the total value of merchandise exports. In recent years, however, manufactured goods have come to play an increasingly important part in New Zealand's export trade.

The relative importance of dairy produce, meat, and wool as the main individual constituents of New Zealand's export trade have varied considerably, as is seen from the figures in the preceding table. The preceding subsection includes a table of volume index numbers for these commodities and for manufactured goods and other commodities. A table showing the export price index numbers and terms of trade is given in Section 23, Prices, Household Expenditure, and Consumer Affairs.

For many years, exports of wool, meat, and dairy produce averaged over 70 percent (by value) of New Zealand's export trade. Despite the growing importance of manufactured goods, they still make up over 50 percent by value. During the June years 1978 and 1979, exports of these products made up 59 percent and 54 percent respectively of the total value of exports.

Other principal exports of economic significance during the June years 1978 and 1979 were (in millions of dollars); fresh, chilled, or frozen fish, including crayfish ($50.4 and $57.9); apples ($26.1 and $29.8); lamb and sheep pelts ($77.3 and $97.6); sawlogs and veneer logs ($36.7 and $46.1); wood pulp ($69.9 and $86.2); inedible tallow ($32.3 and $41.1); casein ($60.5 and $62.3); and newsprint ($51.6 and $55.7).

The volume of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce during the 3 latest years are shown in the following table. The Statistical Summary, towards the end of this Yearbook, shows the figures for some of the more important commodities over a period of 50 years.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)UnitYear Ended June
197719781979
RacehorsesNo.212920252100
Meat, fresh, chilled or frozen—
    Beef—
        Bone intonne17,84295268081
        Bonelesstonne234,339206,336226,998
    Vealtonne845899149549
    Lamb—
        Carcasses(000)18,47220,04219,855
        Boneless or cutstonne50,12651,89765,805
    Muttontonne105,35362,583139,911
    Other meat and edible offalstonne53,56346,39346,704
Milk and cream—
    Condensed and evaporatedtonne179014971152
    Skimmed milk powdertonne158,547164,892119,970
    Other driedtonne80,08675,65275,656
    Other kindslitre (000)471862835927
Buttertonne212,929177,265192,200
Cheesetonne79,04670,15463,369
Fish, fresh, chilled or frozentonne23,96727,51432,926
Crayfish, fresh and simply preservedtonne178818092012
Barley, unmilledtonne52,61049,97112,245
Maize, unmilledtonne46,30320,83258,037
Fruit and vegetables—
    Apples, fresh, whole fruittonne59,46780,53983,860
    Kiwifruit, freshtonne610765849882
    Potatoes, freshtonne24,13111,41912,230
    Peas—
        Dry, including splittonne27,32122,92924,113
        For sowingtonne10,953905812,269
        Frozentonne9366698111,204
    Onions, freshtonne41,11926,63543,359
    Vegetables, frozen, excluding peastonne439076408436
Chocolate and preparationstonne569172814908
Feeding stuff for animals—
    Lucerne meal and pelletstonne28,54920,09027,017
    Meals of meat, fish, etc.tonne69,08357,17775,236
    Poultry mash and pelletstonne21,66357844496
    Other kindstonne162,65161,18337,298
Margarine and shorteningtonne626355377343
Hides, skins, and furskins, undressed—
    Cattle hides(000)186218111455
    Calf and kip skins(000)102912051165
    Sheep and lamb skins in fleece(000)266130493123
    Lamb pelts(000)19,39919,22518,502
    Sheep pelts(000)719860599506
    Opossum skins(000)165927242617
Sawlogs and veneer logs, conifercu metre1,081,5891,031,8371,095,192
Timber, sawn, sliced, or peeled—
    Douglas fircu metre30,06529,27539,610
    Pinus radiatacu metre193,155241,352219,144
Wood pulp—
    Mechanicaltonne208,665232,904217,681
    Sulphate, not dissolving gradestonne211,731197,985238,474
Wool—
    Greasytonne124,625111,346117,612
    Slipetonne26,26925,18019,965
    Scouredtonne103,005106,385121,198
Iron ore and concentratestonne (000)222330793002
Sausage casings, naturalhank (000)652763266988
Clover and grass seedstonne12,39693209044
Petroleum products—
    Distillate fuellitre (000)157,846155,439138,864
    Residual fuel oillitre (000)227,986202,319213,676
Tallow, inedibletonne93,48685,17787,011
Caseintonne62,38459,94052,372
Caseinatestonne4150686711,061
Newsprinttonne175,999190,351202,597
Kraft paper and kraft cardboardtonne72,39866,32791,003
Yarn of wool or hairtonne380935804603
Carpets, carpeting, and rugssq m (000)301529862329
Iron or steel—
    Bars, rods, angles, etc.tonne16,14134,79738,460
    Universals, plates, and sheetstonne27,58741,57458,151
Aluminium, unwroughttonne127,486114,658143,258
Finished structural parts and structures, n.e.s., of metaltonne156717202686
Domestic electric refrigerators and freezersNo.86,85381,89481,875

The values of the principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)Year Ended June
197719781979
* Includes parts.
 $(thousand) 
Race horses14,70114,96217,216
Meat, fresh, chilled or frozen—
    Beef—
        Bone in18,68211,50019,352
        Boneless279,011285,624447,170
    Veal14,44415,82820,625
    Lamb—
        Carcasses259,699270,804311,135
        Boneless or cuts60,04171,574107,412
    Mutton67,77147,286109,987
    Other meat and edible offals56,80454,13571,539
Milk and cream—
    Condensed and evaporated912862720
    Skimmed milk powder56,73871,59460,685
    Other dried50,89757,02662,813
    Other kinds2,5653,3124,702
Butter253,890240,941277,212
Cheese84,88176,56575,472
Fish, fresh, chilled or frozen19,89828,55835,067
Crayfish, fresh and simply preserved21,58221,86522,812
Barley, unmilled6,9465,9141,415
Maize, unmilled5,4712,2426,115
Fruit and vegetables—
    Apples, fresh, whole fruit16,20326,08629,848
    Kiwifruit, fresh9,96011,55722,394
    Potatoes, fresh3,2751,4231,765
    Peas—
        Dry, including split8,00110,38610,487
        For sowing3,3922,8773,810
        Frozen4,1693,2385,239
    Onions, fresh8,6344,3698,887
    Vegetables, frozen, excluding peas2,3054,3585,171
Chocolate and preparations6,1439,3466,804
Feeding stuff for animals—
    Lucerne meal and pellets3,2836,0983,347
    Meals of meat, fish, etc.15,89212,57615,274
    Poultry mash and pellets2,9931,044865
    Other kinds29,94313,46811,888
Margarine and shortening7,9817,0518,980
Hides, skins, and furskins, undressed—
    Cattle hides36,33135,91543,738
    Calf and kip skins7,9138,02613,551
    Sheep and lamb skins in fleece7,6278,23111,749
    Lamb pelts45,53254,91362,902
    Sheep pelts23,52322,41634,668
    Opossum skins6,63212,55813,533
Sawlogs and veneer logs, conifer30,46136,68346,119
Timber, sawn, sliced, or peeled—
    Douglas fir2,6832,8714,058
    Pinus radiata11,39015,84316,708
Wood pulp—
    Mechanical22,64527,80128,458
    Sulphate, not dissolving grades47,38242,13357,759
Wool—
    Greasy283,296228,737271,268
    Slipe60,25153,34447,038
    Scoured304,605297,899365,015
Iron ore and concentrates14,38424,09424,960
Sausage casings, natural25,84427,01530,181
Clover and grass seeds10,8359,8879,813
Petroleum products—
    Distillate fuel18,11018,41218,537
    Residual fuel oil19,09516,42620,108
Tallow, inedible32,29932,28341,132
Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins4,2505,9198,735
Casein59,71860,53362,269
Caseinates4,9198,97616,553
Leather—
    Bovine and equine, including calf8,20811,10327,337
    Lamb skin14,31816,63321,139
Furs, dressed or dressed and dyed3,5054,6265,440
Woodchips, softwood7,9097,4796,245
Newsprint paper51,79651,59455,745
Kraft paper and kraft cardboard21,66318,44926,833
Articles of pulp, paper or paperboard5,9327,2529,237
Yarn of wool or hair18,27718,18124,111
Carpets, carpeting and rugs28,52132,99927,085
Iron or steel—
    Bars, rods, angles, etc.3,5366,3679,342
    Universals, plates, and sheets9,38014,42522,280
Aluminium, unwrought112,976105,124149,025
Finished structural parts and structures, n.e.s., of metal2,4572,9064,208
Tools for use in the hand or in machines3,1484,0162,406
Agricultural machinery and implements*10,08112,64314,125
Textile and leather machinery7,3496,3431,838
Electric power machinery and switchgear4,8827,1599,417
Domestic electric equipment—
    Refrigerators and freezers16,39116,60917,687
    Other*4,9625,11311,900
Road motor vehicles*10,32314,30821,004
Aircraft*1,5541,5142,911
Ships and boats*2,1673,9965,026
Clothing, excluding fur clothing25,80723,39822,063
Printed matter5,2048,2819,615
Prams, toys, games, sporting goods3,8384,6784,223

In the following table exports (excluding re-exports) are summarised according to the Sections and Divisions of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised 2).

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE
Section and Division June 1979Year Ended
0 Food and Live Animals Chiefly for Food$(thousand)
    00 Live animals chiefly for food26,430
    01 Meat and meat preparations1,094,018
    02 Dairy products and birds' eggs485,258
    03 Fish, crustaceans, and molluscs, etc.73,627
    04 Cereals and cereal preparations12,935
    05 Vegetables and fruit103,790
    06 Sugar, sugar preparations, and honey9,792
    07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures10,474
    08 Feeding stuff for animals31,374
    09 Miscellaneous food preparations, etc.11,773
                Total, section 01,859,472
1 Beverages and Tobacco
    11 Beverages2,308
    12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures2,976
                Total, section 15,284
2 Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels
    21 Hides, skins, and furskins, raw181,803
    22 Oil seeds and oleaginous fruit866
    23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed3
    24 Cork and wood78,370
    25 Pulp and waste paper86,637
    26 Textile fibres, etc.685,886
    27 Crude fertilisers and minerals other than coal, etc.1,360
    28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap28,572
    29 Crude animal and vegetable materials, not elsewhere specified58,953
                Total, section 21,122,451
3 Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials
    32 Coal, coke, and briquettes937
    33 Petroleum and petroleum products, etc.40,710
    34 Gas, natural and manufactured1
                Total, section 341,648
4 Animal and Vegetable Oils, Fats, and Waxes
    41 Animal oils and fats43,500
    42 Fixed vegetable oils and fats345
    43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, and waxes of animal and vegetable origin740
                Total, section 444,585
5 Chemicals and Related Products, N.E.S.
    51 Organic chemicals2,677
    52 Inorganic chemicals891
    53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials5,362
    54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products6,359
    55 Essential oils and perfumes, etc.7,725
    56 Fertilisers, manufactured1,042
    57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products171
    58 Artificial resins and plastic materials, etc.8,735
    59 Chemical materials and products, not elsewhere specified90,889
                Total, section 5123,851
6 Manufactured Goods Classified by Material
    61 Leather, etc., not elsewhere specified, and dressed furskins55,184
    62 Rubber manufactures, not elsewhere specified3,773
    63 Cork and wood manufactures excluding furniture29,902
    64 Paper, paperboard, and articles of paper pulp, paper or paperboard101,855
    65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, etc.66,121
    66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, not elsewhere specified15,192
    67 Iron and steel41,790
    68 Non-ferrous metals157,353
    69 Manufactures of metal, not elsewhere specified43,746
                Total, section 6514,916
7 Machinery and Transport Equipment
    71 Power generating machinery and equipment3,134
    72 Machinery specialised for particular industries24,793
    73 Metal working machinery2,790
    74 General industrial machinery, etc.23,588
    75 Office machines and automatic data processing equipment63
    76 Telecommunications, sound recording and reproducing apparatus and equipment4,828
    77 Electrical machinery, apparatus and appliances, not elsewhere specified, etc.48,348
    78 Road vehicles, etc.22,241
    79 Other transport equipment7,953
                Total, section 7137,740
8 Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles
    81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, etc., fixtures and fitting761
    82 Furniture and parts thereof15,822
    83 Travel goods, handbags, etc.2,144
    84 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories27,561
    85 Footwear3,934
    87 Professional, scientific, and controlling instruments and apparatus, n.e.s.4,783
    88 Photographic apparatus, optical goods, watches and clocks1,825
    89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, not elsewhere specified38,353
                Total, section 895,182
9 Commodities and Transactions Not Classified Elsewhere
    94 Live animals not elsewhere specified137
    95 Arms of war and ammunition, etc.11
    96 Coins (other than gold coins) not being legal tender in New Zealand5
    97 Gold, non-monetary678
                Total, section 9831
                Total New Zealand produce exports3,945,961
                Re-exports121,417
                Grand total merchandise exports4,067,378

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) are given in the table below. It should be noted that Australia includes Cocos and Norfolk Islands, and the United States includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Islands Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

CountryYear Ended June
197419751976197719781979
* Including ships' stores, passengers' duty free purchases, and destination optional.
   $(million)  
Australia171.9188.4292.3382.3412.6501.2
Canada52.445.159.865.973.5101.4
France37.743.366.078.272.694.5
Germany, Fed. Rep.42.342.362.596.090.6102.5
Japan248.7187.1325.9403.5435.6600.6
Netherlands46.936.556.584.173.965.7
United Kingdom368.7351.7450.8642.3595.2676.7
United States300.2190.9278.2353.2439.0632.2
U.S.S.R.37.945.462.1144.181.0129.1
Other countries*480.6490.9732.7979.01,039.51,163.5
    Total merchandise exports1,787.31,621.52,386.93,228.73,313.54,067.4

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded on the Customs documents. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and in normal times subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export, the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics.

It will be realised, therefore, that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

ASEAN and ESCAP—Since the 1950s there has been a growth in New Zealand's relations with the countries of the Asian-Pacific area. This country enjoys a close relationship with the countries which make up the Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP).

The following table shows the total value of merchandise exported to and imported from these two regions. These figures are based on the ESCAP countries, with the ASEAN member countries indicated.

CountryYear Ended June 1978Year Ended June 1979
Exports*F.O.B.Imports C.D.V.Imports C.I.F.Exports*F.O.B.Imports C.B.V.Imports C.I.F.

* Includes re-exports.

ASEAN member countries.

   $(thousand)  
Afghanistan106768793235
Australia412,642655,274674,489501,190798,513817,455
Bangladesh2,0402,8223,8191,0833,1563,941
Bhutan10- -
Brunei175- -- -336
Burma4559208165189
China, People's Rep. of43,24320,34022,98378,84921,13024,150
Fiji42,42922,89125,23855,01911,54712,730
Hong Kong41,76240,65344,95750,79252,31357,671
India4,60419,29121,97713,32920,04322,190
Indonesia24,8274,7815,47230,62929,88132,196
Iran69,99277,11383,62924,44141,21444,376
Japan435,558390,276435,585600,583495,154549,634
Kampuchea1212
Korea, Democratic People's Rep. of
Korea, Republic of43,73713,18014,91368,67623,41226,195
Malaysia47,89826,13028,93343,90438,85342,046
Mongolia561112
Nauru66816,31125,0491,01420,87731,868
Nepal44424313631923
New Zealand (Re-imports)...6,5156,888...8,2518,648
Pakistan2,1188479468,2381,0501,135
Papua New Guinea17,9935,1435,45623,1755,5015,923
Philippines40,1563,3093,92542,2752,8713,328
Samoa13,1753,1033,49616,2715,0095,666
Singapore95,48860,64965,84042,97867,75375,012
Solomon Islands1,9724316232,948227267
Sri Lanka4,5617,2649,8225,0115,1618,829
Thailand12,3963,8334,53313,8224,3355,032
Tonga7,5441,5082,0038,9841,6532,280
Vietnam, Socialist Rep. of313- -- -788703781
        Total1,365,8961,381,7761,490,7091,635,1281,658,8321,781,610

Oceania—Exports to the countries of Oceania have increased in the past years. In 1975 the total was $54.0 million compared with $137.7 million in 1979. Fiji is the principal importer of New Zealand's exports to Oceania, taking over 39 percent of the total each year.

The following table shows the increase in value of total exports over the past 5 years.

CountryYear Ended June
19751976197719781979
* Included with Kiribati before 1977.
   $(thousand)  
Canton and Enderbury Islands1
Fiji23,38930,92239,94642,42955,019
French Polynesia6,7808,27911,50811,81014,769
Kiribati3407057501,0261,387
Nauru2412944916681,014
New Caledonia4,1475,6767,87311,82410,722
New Hebrides1,6631,3222,0512,5443,186
Papua New Guinea3,9006,13311,06917,99323,175
Pitcairn Island1622357541
Samoa7,9607,4519,55313,17516,271
Solomon Islands6531,1561,3801,9722,948
Tonga4,8494,9616,8097,5448,984
Tuvalu*113379
Wake Island
Wallis and Futuna Islands84178129136105
          Total54,02267,09991,604111,229137,699

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS—The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the latest available June years. Note: Australia includes Cocos and Norfolk Islands; United States includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Islands Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

Country to Which ExportedJune Year 1977June Year 1978June Year 1979
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

* Excludes Province of Taiwan.

* Excludes Province of Taiwan.

* Excludes Province of Taiwan.

* Excludes Province of Taiwan.

Wool (Greasy, Slipe, and Scoured)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia769123,023825824,285802124,816
Belgium10,50225,922995322,275917823,405
Canada18425,45617874,99018225,617
China*28997,333730116,21010,64824,915
Czechoslovakia536812,59643998,80041779,192
France19,73945,07417,26437,66119,44648,382
Germany, Democratic Republic of14543,42923334,54917183,736
Germany, Federal Republic of22,82961,27719,81250,88420,61456,690
Greece10,72133,25211,12432,834895828,086
Hong Kong388011,54823326,746326310,130
Iran759022,369753320,646386311,093
Ireland24256,58026746,38220355,836
Italy788321,589926523,66213,49937,667
Japan17,29645,59317,45545,49631,19688,983
Netherlands26,43361,58822,97549,86317,18543,248
Poland821518,20948569,531713116,162
Portugal20544,93822464,95610872,596
South Africa3058412767165401,747
Spain18394,23228705,96412552,978
U.S.S.R.24,19958,91322,45447,65731,38975,962
United Kingdom47,106116,59645,124104,29637,69995,471
United States of America10,16425,910855820,540938124,378
Yugoslavia21965,47135097,55734158,555
Other countries926726,414855423,47911,25133,671
            Total253,899648,152242,910579,980258,771683,316
Beef and Veal (Fresh, Chilled, or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean19332,00717292,1336811,393
Australia12401,85411341,7119311,871
Belgium451612164213293593
Bermuda9731,5429441,6965411,220
Canada25,66630,30427,19736,69330,01260,757
China, Province of Taiwan206698150364273780
Cyprus30163,07120172,54119013,005
Fiji597592435505306514
France315473107191111148
French Polynesia25164,64721614,35922695,894
Germany, Federal Republic of572817150274110158
Greece44783,2751136
Hong Kong29886,22320875,46723326,717
Iraq48225,578
Jamaica790753393468221532
Japan51958,515778812,706568613,653
Malaysia5151,0933969693161,023
Malta23052,92216892,52111642,453
Netherlands Antilles14381,97016802,5638681,611
New Caledonia2656143508993471,147
Philippines11312,2194481,1447761,905
Singapore19554,69019745,13622626,423
Sweden4021,3314681,178212716
Trinidad and Tobago43964,79827263,58911252,020
U.S.S.R.46,47439,51018,58720,044
United Kingdom11,85912,52149927,38038819,314
United States of America111,433141,774136,305185,315178,993348,185
Other countries22,71027,734970512,889900615,079
            Total260,639312,137225,776312,952244,628487,147
Lamb (Fresh, Chilled or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean13781,46111031,15613642,022
Belgium11861,38713291,79015812,937
Canada882211,626795913,088961318,118
Cyprus12501,25275475213651,625
Denmark17772,61420122,89616052,817
Fiji29472,06627582,12630392,406
France7631,00915122,08922844,357
French Polynesia4326654697235351,019
Germany, Federal Republic of36434,17472708,473765011,792
Greece34193,54713,93915,88414,29418,690
Hong Kong631664680759592827
Iran18,11618,23943,22644,87773857,335
Iraq12,20511,94067180411,04614,443
Italy11061,15537824,38350596,917
Japan12,91313,78712,58614,20221,25228,824
Jordan13521,78943151616672,029
Netherlands12651,55810511,1868551,372
Singapore92094610391,23310651,618
Switzerland12561,83516042,67412942,430
Trinidad and Tobago238293319399200275
United Kingdom201,847215,482185,298193,347199,676246,768
United States of America994013,53311,79519,25214,46627,434
Other countries97408,72010,7189,77012,71312,492
            Total297,148319,740312,305342,378320,589418,547
Mutton (Fresh, Chilled or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean1571041641214232
Belgium144143163195128216
Cyprus64404329185153
Fiji268153181120251199
France15214123225512031,044
Germany, Federal Republic of1136561535048
Iran15234583
Italy6650325233231155
Jamaica14158651096781855641
Japan21,59814,09723,17017,16445,20735,440
Korea, Republic of10,7636,52713,1479,24228,52119,714
Malaysia180140262273137161
Papua New Guinea471166252104343166
Singapore1513525285100
Trinidad and Tobago876092726867
United Kingdom88445,14759234,48711,1309,641
U.S.S.R.58,88938,40916,56413,20447,46038,352
Other countries21121,62880982040153,858
            Total105,35367,77162,58347,286139,911109,987
Other Frozen Meat
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Belgium172260126155141182
Canada16411,491675618178293
France39706,64433546,192452711,229
Germany, Federal Republic of25919,97124768,93115135,792
Hong Kong166317146421127296
Italy367414261300489423
Jamaica341203139956643
Japan47115,33834344,36841326,332
Netherlands9251,7927851,44712592,150
Sweden268643149190418308
Trinidad and Tobago576419691603734740
United Kingdom29,88122,40829,50926,08827,52737,726
United States of America36803,5359961,205324771
Other countries42743,36736523,52352705,254
            Total53,56356,80446,39354,13546,70471,539
Butter
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
China22052,42630003,148
China, Province of Taiwan5716197169009631,273
Fiji18992,09522632,80125053,089
French Polynesia8491,1738181,2289581,533
Hong Kong15711,51012781,50313671,666
Indonesia34543,88944115,62534394,222
Iran20222,02646014,332
Iraq44533,76125002,16847854,569
Jamaica29513,67816481,911446462
Japan68077,47750061822633,000
Malaysia53296,04625913,35019732,408
Malta330324807785351407
Mexico51945,40717582,20818392,359
Mozambique760902339432140173
Nigeria2502509321,154460568
Oman3214407311,087397661
Peru894110,40138224,78757866,947
Philippines45635,16731284,02021732,692
Singapore31533,49618572,29318502,115
Thailand12641,36053568710451,305
Trinidad and Tobago9879047737201321
United Kingdom135,535171,576130,094184,532125,149200,627
United States of America13511,97515022,36017062,677
Venezuela26602,43322631,90828452,409
Other countries19,73519,00677729,41422,14624,549
            Total212,929253,890177,265240,941192,200277,212
Cheese
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean723663800804408519
Australia28713,63841505,01649426,802
Bermuda140173169203102132
Cyprus141121146140186233
Egypt19171,27319991,475- -- -
Fiji6986719086117
French Polynesia153217181262207352
Germany, Federal Republic of62241414921,01012581,231
Guyana724801448474
Hong Kong173147110106188232
Iraq90883123262,13044134,414
Jamaica23442,87218062,0829211,256
Japan18,14318,34123,39823,67526,39129,466
Malta329266430354629733
Philippines20431,91926832,58619072,022
Singapore167195247309300430
Trinidad and Tobago21952,04419881,8682736
United Kingdom27,65828,78659787,5276791
United States of America15,22119,98617,73522,45917,16522,392
Other countries25072,10939963,99641725,014
            Total79,04684,88170,15476,56563,36975,472
Milk (Dried, Condensed, etc.)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Bangladesh118650428841,3261310979
China, Province of Taiwan98436,75812,2319,41295038,450
Colombia18021,15437502,9231826
Costa Rica40732,72222921,63421151,109
El Salvador23042,59428112,40335983,707
Fiji17961,23118201,29614791,335
Ghana210980121001,218
Hong Kong110165316081,0631265789
Indonesia16,0236,16320,7909,65124,94414,122
Iraq21914214526801583910
Jamaica90583,38442871,8082434
Japan18,8927,39916,2397,01215,3038,419
Malaysia31,46514,34244,05123,57730,52017,713
Mauritius25221,68927962,01634472,643
Mozambique21087502146963508228
Nigeria41921,52856042,33622441,081
Peru20,9508,12015,8606,72516,4927,930
Philippines36,68113,73941,15418,81029,04915,967
Singapore11,0074,99310,3725,74964483,526
Sri Lanka45202,36757564,35357264,576
Thailand99914,63798514,99979345,142
Trinidad and Tobago48012,98750923,26727052,068
United States of America9914471706904538378
Venezuela10,3426,06995735,76273945,161
Other countries32,44713,37415,8149,59426,37519,347
            Total240,423108,548242,041129,482200,522125,640
Casein
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Canada19318850956711191,564
France380373200208150175
Germany, Federal Republic of66486,47235473,39243294,120
Italy12981,268337344159200
Japan12,28612,18911,47112,04010,50511,098
Mexico11281,2036556887211,027
Netherlands24432,40116871,62112721,586
United Kingdom13581,3915446258541,174
United States of America34,21531,79239,14339,00731,17538,293
Other countries24352,43918462,04120883,032
            Total62,38459,71859,94060,53352,37262,269
Inedible Tallow
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Bangladesh236164859852
China*30,84411,11224,88510,14236,21117,618
China, Province of Taiwan15,7465,24091413,30169383,305
India2011799189466667163,274
Japan11,3223,5552131738975369
Kenya29771,19436471,375939438
Korea, Republic of10,5533,66123,7588,47621,7199,994
Malawi7542602021819
Mozambique2635916195174923841,026
Netherlands237173522483998400
Nigeria29991,168
Singapore133353126381,13840871,990
Thailand990359129751234078
United Kingdom42371,4561192444
Other countries76902,47657512,07456992,638
            Total93,48632,29985,17732,28387,01141,132
Cattle Hides (Undressed)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
China*62257320772,255187311
France8446819174465642
Greece11961,09513001,187138135
Italy15,38615,23211,73311,36712,46720,605
Japan71107,15787129,399726213,100
Korea, Republic of23852,18645244,41826093,677
Netherlands500427216185261338
Poland32313,213738816534574
Spain6925662382207074
Sweden7666872892241736
Yugoslavia15541,29823911,927132152
Other countries34903,21543553,84332334,094
            Total37,77736,33136,66535,91527,37543,738
Sheep and Lamb Pelts
 doz(000)$(000)doz(000)$(000)No.(000)$(000)
Belgium1857,5001878,930323612,813
France38910,76534511,860399714,719
Italy2306,3611424,82524387,863
Netherlands2158,5831255,85815566,017
Spain2024,8062487,24726066,602
United Kingdom38411,40631811,716509818,432
United States of America58618,95869225,183867829,978
Other countries25675501,7103991,145
            Total221669,055210777,32928,00897,569
Sausage Casings
 hanks hanks hanks 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Canada12345,42612705,98812966,307
Germany, Federal Republic of5172,4114952,5216593,315
Japan6222,2285452,1307963,173
Netherlands1597741498362291,279
United Kingdom18106,33015085,83917206,645
United States of America18097,21015566,50115836,495
Other countries3751,4648033,1997053,167
            Total652725,844632627,015698830,181
Apples (Fresh Whole Fruit)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Canada62591,72555981,864579197
Destination unknown—EEC53217730,45610,777
Destination unknown—non-EEC21,2156,73711,6894,152
Hong Kong247768255071,73651761,830
Singapore251268960151,82949371,728
United Kingdom25,9006,81932,64810,68015,4885,555
United States of America45901,27838541,28990013,116
Other countries17,7285,01051701,77365342,493
            Total59,46716,20380,53926,08683,86029,848
Kraft Paper and Cardboard
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia24,51410,17820,1788,04322,1158,873
China*85711,93910,1421,95210,3312,272
Hong Kong90152,07274281,55814,1253,147
Indonesia51471,17765291,37014,9554,658
Pakistan73992,01543288903257908
Philippines42359671877556880343
Other countries13,5163,31515,8464,08025,3406,632
            Total72,39821,66366,32718,44991,00326,833
Feeding Stuff for Animals
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
China, Province of Taiwan25,1145,46894332,26295051,773
Japan128,47321,53681,19717,85479,78914,757
Malaysia38081,18035781,49748912,025
Philippines20,4414,72422,3804,61019,8434,238
Singapore49421,51077841,94480452,567
Spain66,33410,41034079
United States of America20581,141112661439591,232
Other countries30,7766,14218,7364,40517,6744,703
            Total281,94652,111144,23433,185144,04631,374
Wood Pulp
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia145,09129,558141,18130,123142,80733,489
China*11,8862,46014,7272,75526,7375,591
Japan218,57926,286236,00628,952220,74730,385
Korea, Republic of11,4342,87314,5362,56918,5114,426
Philippines20,3065,42819,5334,53437,3309,686
Thailand46451,1138041621367375
Other countries84572,309410283886562,265
            Total420,39870,027430,88969,934456,15586,217
Timber (Sawn Conifer)
 cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)
Australia969,188879,48110913,444
Japan1487,32020011,81018011,950
New Caledonia973676397623
Tonga432843652173
Other countries8782131,360283,527
            Total26418,35531123,65532629,717
Sawlogs and Veneer Logs (Conifer)
 cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)
China*371,0201336819693
Japan94626,65289531,91594740,344
Korea, Republic of982,7281234,3601244,730
Other countries261- -405352
            Total108230,461103236,683109546,119
Fish (Fresh, Chilled or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia50135,78358867,79873879,782
Japan40534,84375047,60763357,280
Netherlands6408155698808501,720
United States of America10,4275,44483707,60493707,652
Other countries38333,01551854,66989848,633
            Total2319,89827,51428,55832,92635,067
 Newsprint    
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia146,26145,379115,99834,975116,86833,683
Hong Kong38771,08854901,60667741,848
Indonesia11,6592,45821,4314,36713,6753,329
Singapore199933329065574274963
Other countries12,2042,53744,52610,08961,00615,922
            Total175,99951,796190,35151,594202,59755,745

EXPORTS BY PORTS—The following table shows for the latest available June years the value of total exports, including re-exports, according to the ports at which goods were loaded for export.

PortYear Ended June
197419751976197719781979
   $(million)  
Whangarei35.830.538.256.048.858.4
Auckland487.3451.5634.1874.5992.71,259.9
Hamilton9.77.27.48.815.116.3
Tauranga187.9187.8284.1355.6379.6433.0
Gisborne13.910.314.613.77.88.7
Napier176.7161.1202.9269.2176.8175.3
New Plymouth84.577.8125.9133.0138.969.6
Wanganui3.44.45.86.710.18.9
Wellington262.7228.1367.3537.7595.8853.9
Blenheim5.65.25.96.66.61.8
Nelson17.718.836.027.731.661.9
Greymouth0.10.2- -- -0.9
Christchurch138.0116.4191.4257.8293.1327.3
Timaru88.993.4134.0186.0106.583.3
Dunedin98.974.5130.3178.2290.7461.7
Invercargill176.1154.4208.9317.1218.3247.4
                Total1,787.31,621.52,386.93,228.73,313.54067.4

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, since over a quarter of all exports are dispatched from that port. Wellington occupies second place, with approximately fifth of the trade. As will be seen from the above table, the order of the other ports varies from year to year. The general rise in recent years in the value of exports through Tauranga is attributed to the pulp, paper, and timber industries of the district.

RE-EXPORTS—The forwarding trade of New Zealand is made up principally of miscellaneous stores sent to the Pacific Islands and goods returned or re-sold to Australia and the United States of America. Particulars of re-exports are contained in the next table. Specie is not included in the figures.

Year Ended JuneRe-exports
 $(000)
197441,086
197563,522
1976131,226
1977131,974
1978172,453
1979121,417

The destinations of this re-export trade for the latest available June years are shown in the following table.

CountryJune Year
1976197719781979
  $(thousand) 
Australia24,00415,09118,62745,457
Canada170601279233
Fiji4,1125,7924,3875,992
French Polynesia429566689415
Germany, Federal Republic of754553774797
Hong Kong5192,5252,764512
Indonesia28114231356
Japan17,5927105,363959
Malaysia1071,7948,7112,079
Netherlands4183574,589178
Papua New Guinea1694721,0201,336
Philippines9,6124989281
Samoa7127841,0001,234
Singapore26,24133,36861,5121,578
Sweden907,48376147
Tonga475762441678
United Kingdom3,3533,0805,6523,160
United States of America9,12713,35118,0075,900
Other countries5,00314,28523,10433,863
Ships' stores13,99417,3841,4612,265
Passengers' goods14,06112,82513,59614,296
    Total (excluding gold and current coin)131,226131,974172,453121,417

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS, NIUE, AND TOKELAU—Trade with the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau is not included in external trade statistics. The values of exports (including re-exports) to the islands are summarised below.

Year Ended JuneExports
 $(000)
19746,800
19757,885
197610,898
197712,126
197815,299
197915,662

22 C—IMPORTS

Statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed to the Customs and are usually quoted on the valuation basis c.d.v. (current domestic value in the country of export at the time of shipment). However, in certain tables the value c.i.f. (cost including insurance and freight) is also given. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and import totals do not include gold and current coin, except where expressly stated.

Reference should be made to Section 22A for details of the systems of valuation of imports as now used in these tables. Section 22A also gives a summary of import totals for recent years and index numbers of the volume of import trade, and also includes a sub-section on Import Control.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS—The following table classifies imports by sections of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) for years prior to 1978–79. From 1 July 1978 figures are based on S.I.T.C. (Revised 2).

Year Ended JuneImports (c.d.v.)
Food and Live AnimalsBeverages and TobaccoCrude Materials, Inedible, Except FuelsMineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related MaterialsAnimal and Vegetable Oils and FatsChemicals
 $(thousand)
1975125,49721,58794,797317,67810,855288,275
1976140,54025,146100,305396,6319,470307,254
1977148,76328,629122,816468,97013,707423,861
1978152,30229,547119,538466,25714,925417,492
1979155,36431,283184,510502,22816,900453,451
Year Ended JuneImports (c.d.v.)
Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by MaterialMachinery and Transport EquipmentMiscellaneous Manufactured ArticlesCommodities and Transactions not Classified According to KindTotal Merchandise Imports
 $(thousand)
1975618,412821,590171,87421,4032,491,967
1976558,355993,772177,23621,3712,730,080
1977723,1431,091,036203,49819,9343,244,356
1978618,327952,747215,49331,5293,018,158
1979785,4681,155,206264,09325,6383,574,139

The next table gives fuller details of imports according to sections and divisions of S.I.T.C. (Revised 2) for the latest available June year.

Section and DivisionJune Year 1979
C.D.V.C.I.F.
0 Food and Live Animals Chiefly for Food$(thousand)
    00 Live animals chiefly for food5,4926,303
    01 Meat and meat preparations3,2233,568
    02 Dairy products and birds' eggs685792
    03 Fish, crustaceans and molluscs, etc.13,79014,849
    04 Cereals and cereal preparations8,12810,366
    05 Vegetables and fruit37,94747,823
    06 Sugar, sugar preparations and honey37,18140,651
    07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices and manufactures thereof45,31151,829
    08 Feeding stuff for animals1,1441,278
    09 Miscellaneous food preparations2,4622,894
                    Total, section 0155,364180,353
1 Beverages and Tobacco
    11 Beverages20,67322,984
    12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures10,61012,084
                    Total, section 131,28335,068
2 Crude Materials, Inedible (Except Fuels)
    21 Hides, skins and furskins, raw4,4604,950
    22 Oil seeds and oleaginous fruit6,6757,395
    23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed21,41123,889
    24 Cork and wood5,6657,367
    25 Pulp and waste paper2,2092,735
    26 Textile fibres and their wastes14,26916,688
    27 Crude fertilisers and minerals other than coal, etc.66,865100,758
    28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap51,34856,126
    29 Crude animal and vegetable materials, not elsewhere specified11,60812,533
                    Total, section 2184,510232,442
3 Mineral Fuels, Lubricants and Related Materials
    32 Coal, coke and briquettes6801,061
    33 Petroleum and petroleum products501,482542,395
    34 Gas, natural and manufactured6675
                    Total, section 3502,228543,531
4 Animal and Vegetable Oils, Fats and Waxes
    41 Animal oils and fats98125
    42 Fixed vegetable oils and fats14,26913,211
    43 Animal and vegetable oils, fats and waxes processed2,5332,943
                    Total, section 416,90018,279
5 Chemical and Related Products, N.E.S.
    51 Organic chemicals76,59480,225
    52 Inorganic chemicals47,64657,751
    53 Dyeing, tanning and colouring materials24,97425,642
    54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products90,16976,188
    55 Essential oils and perfumes, etc.17,85918,448
    56 Fertilisers, manufactured28,69436,423
    57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products2,2582,114
    58 Artificial resins and plastic materials, etc.125,206129,382
    59 Chemical materials and products, not elsewhere specified40,05043,268
                    Total, section 5453,451469,441
6 Manufactured Goods Classified by Material$(thousand)
    61 Leather, etc., not elsewhere specified, and dressed furskins4,7365,099
    62 Rubber manufactures, not elsewhere specified26,28328,102
    63 Cork and wood manufactures excluding furniture7,2498,452
    64 Paper, paperboard, and articles of paper pulp, paper or paperboard46,66751,833
    65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, etc.260,166283,117
    66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures not elsewhere specified43,62650,191
    67 Iron and steel231,790245,285
    68 Non-ferrous metals68,53771,595
    69 Manufactures of metal, not elsewhere specified96,414100,052
                    Total, section 6785,468843,726
7 Machinery and Transport Equipment
    71 Power generating machinery and equipment125,723129,675
    72 Machinery specialised for particular industries140,418151,231
    73 Metalworking machinery20,40421,792
    74 General industrial machinery, etc.157,554165,055
    75 Office machines and automatic data processing equipment72,52769,448
    76 Telecommunications, sound recording and reproducing apparatus and equipment45,99449,867
    77 Electrical machinery, apparatus, and appliances, not elsewhere specified, etc.124,015126,458
    78 Road vehicles310,535346,445
    79 Other transport equipment158,034160,176
                    Total, section 71,155,2061,220,147
8 Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles
    81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, etc., fixtures and fittings3,2393,808
    82 Furniture and parts thereof2,7673,227
    83 Travel goods, handbags, etc.1,0171,032
    84 Articles of apparel and clothing accessories8,7029,339
    85 Footwear6,9657,785
    87 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments and apparatus56,43558,317
    88 Photographic apparatus, optical goods, watches, and clocks59,99354,380
    89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles not elsewhere specified124,976133,180
                    Total, section 8264,093271,069
9 Commodities and Transactions Not Classified Elsewhere
    94 Live animals not elsewhere specified129153
    95 Arms of war and ammunition, etc.22,83523,578
    96 Coins (other than gold coins) not being legal tender in New Zealand1,5511,668
    97 Gold non-monetary1,1241,052
                    Total, section 925,63826,452
                    Grand total, merchandise imports3,574,1393,840,507

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE—From the eighties of the last century until the early seventies of this century, the chief source of supply of New Zealand's imports was the United Kingdom. Prior to that the main source of supply was Australia, and in the latest years, as the United Kingdom has become more involved in Europe, Australia has once more moved into first place. During the year ended June 1979, imports from the United Kingdom were valued at $542.8 million and imports from Australia at $798.5 million.

In the years following the Second World War, the proportion of the import trade received from the United Kingdom rose from 47.8 percent in 1946 to a maximum of 60.1 percent in 1950. Since 1950 there has been an overall decline, and for the June years 1978 and 1979 only 17.6 and 15.2 percent of imports came from that source. The trade with Australia from 1950 to 1956 was between 10 and 15 percent of the total. In 1957 and 1958, however, it rose to 17 percent, and in 1959 and 1960 to 18 percent. In the years ended June 1978 and 1979, 21.7 percent and 22.4 percent, respectively, of imports came from Australia. Japan is becoming an important trading partner; in the years ended June 1978 and 1979, 12.9 percent and 13.8 percent, respectively, of imports came from that source.

The principal changes in the direction of the import trade are illustrated in the table in Section 22A giving the percentage received from the various geographic areas.

The table which follows show imports (valuation c.d.v.) during the latest 5 years from the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States, and Japan. It should be noted that, from 1975, Australia includes Cocos and Norfolk Islands, and that the U.S.A. includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Island Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific Islands.

Year Ended JuneCountry Where PurchasedCountry of OriginTotal Merchandise Imports
United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.JapanUnited KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.Japan
     $(million)    
19755755743693314795053333372,492
19765935674453994815193944022,730
19776267735134625437114264743,244
19786237144463815326554213903,018
19795508964354825437994904953,574

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS—The table which follows shows details of principal commodity imports by country of origin for years ended June 1978 and 1979. C.d.v. basis of valuation is used. Because of the change in classification to SITC (Revised 2) from 1 July 1978, figures for 1977–78 and 1978–79 are not always comparable.

Commodity and Countries of OriginValue of Imports
1977–781978–79
* Does not include statistics for the Province of Taiwan.
Sugar (not refined)$(thousand)
    Australia19,57519,258
    Fiji21,59810,305
    All countries41,20535,369
Coffee, raw
    Brazil35934
    Indonesia3,1355,192
    Kenya1,079835
    Uganda2,5341,756
    All countries14,54916,035
Rubber (crude and synthetic)
    Australia1,6133,489
    Japan3,9813,193
    Malaysia7,0127,601
    U.S.A1,2851,611
    All countries17,89921,411
Crude petroleum
    Iran62,17432,955
    Kuwait5,84333,490
    Saudi Arabia80,89376,488
    All countries155,378177,012
Partly refined petroleum$(thousand)
    Australia21,47139,732
    Bahrain16,21214,114
    Saudi Arabia13,1889,751
    Singapore12,1909,184
    All countries80,378109,320
Alcoholic beverages
    Australia1,2171,883
    France2,1943,260
    Germany, Fed. Rep.645831
    Italy696718
    Jamaica1,0411,705
    United Kingdom5,2597,137
    All countries14,43920,589
Tobacco (Unmanufactured)
    Korea, Rep. of1,165971
    U.S.A8,2505,539
    All countries13,8749,357
Natural calcium phosphate
    Australia20,17121.085
    Nauru16,31120,875
    All countries39,98345,238
Medicinal and pharmaceutical products
    Australia25,78724,810
    Germany, Fed. Rep.6,2845,111
    Switzerland4,5944,693
    United Kingdom23,22126,767
    U.S.A.4,2673,481
    All countries73,24490,169
Manufactured fertilisers
    Japan4,0294,474
    U.S.S.R2,856970
    U.S.A10,65215,126
    All countries26,12828,694
Motor spirit
    Australia27,72332,709
    Bahrain12,71620,221
    Iran3,163477
    All countries87,09579,451
Kerosene and white spirit
    Australia36,88527,517
    Bahrain1,941502
    Singapore10,81915,450
    All countries52,86946,888
Distillate fuels
    Australia33,41932,143
    Bahrain13,77111,895
    Singapore10,17210,610
    All countries61,76654,707
Organic chemicals
    Australia10,07315,181
    Germany, Fed. Rep.4,9365,682
    Japan9,6887,833
    United Kingdom9,95112,050
    U.S.A13,49820,063
    All countries56,82276,594
Inorganic chemicals
    Australia59,3118,949
    Germany, Fed. Rep.2,4183,892
    Japan7,6665,092
    United Kingdom9,67910,994
    U.S.A5,9688,235
    All countries92,26546,995
Woven fabrics of synthetic fibres
    Australia2,1014,799
    Hong Kong2,0242,928
    Japan16,06124,184
    U.S.A3,9658,656
    All countries43,34580,360
Other woven textile fabrics
    Hong Kong5,6125,505
    India3,0191,966
    United Kingdom8,2356,084
    U.S.A.2,9062,818
    All countries33,14927,279
Glass and glassware
    Japan2,0681,259
    United Kingdom4,6984,736
    U.S.A.1,9642,593
    All countries15,59517,243
Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose and artificial resins
    Australia22,2734,753
    Germany, Fed. Rep.6,0965,280
    Japan16,1614,055
    United Kingdom15,49910,645
    U.S.A24,1108,398
    All countries95,69640,777
Articles of rubber
    Japan2,9643,689
    United Kingdom3,9024,164
    U.S.A.3,7204,042
    All countries17,07718,605
Paper and paperboard
    Australia4,9425,725
    Japan5,9658,310
    United Kingdom5,7388,669
    U.S.A3,4524,108
    All countries27,34839,441
Textile yarn and thread
    Australia4,0596,058
    Hong Kong4,6775,522
    Japan5,9438,720
    United Kingdom5,4506,949
    All countries30,32441,889
Cotton fabrics suitable for manufacture of apparel
    China*2,8103,520
    Hong Kong7,12610,169
    Japan3,4363,593
    Malaysia3,2132,729
    United Kingdom9721,218
    U.S.A1,2051,233
    All countries24,16229,128
Copper and copper alloys
    Australia17,02224,107
    Japan1,204811
    United Kingdom2,3703,060
    All countries21,50229,578
Unwrought zinc
    Australia10,84212,320
    Canada335227
    All countries11,21012,558
Bars and rods of iron or steel
    Australia4,3705,685
    Japan6,5547,019
    United Kingdom1,3751,738
    All countries13,86416,653
Angles, shapes and sections of iron or steel
    Australia6,95010,687
    Japan3,0581,879
    United Kingdom1,1092,083
    All countries11,78715,702
Universals, plates and sheets of iron or steel
    Australia25,36238,153
    Japan70,59788,793
    United Kingdom5,12110,411
    All countries108,450142,043
Iron and steel wire
    Australia3,5853,926
    Japan2,9113,282
    United Kingdom2,0842,842
    All countries9,16611,226
Tubes, pipes and fittings of iron or steel
    Australia4,6244,533
    Japan5,9508,021
    U.S.A3,3802,070
    All countries18,33020,239
Automatic data processing machines and accessories
    Italy1,8241,857
    United Kingdom3,3206,870
    U.S.A20,94020,923
    All countries30,28437,673
Metalworking machinery
    Australia1,2982,331
    Germany, Fed. Rep.1,3502,253
    Japan2,6532,044
    United Kingdom3,8503,736
    U.S.A.9673,387
    All countries13,90120,404
Textile and leather machinery
    Germany, Fed. Rep.4,9785,695
    Japan3,8184,920
    United Kingdom4,9913,225
    All countries23,78225,250
Tools for hand use or in machines
    Australia5,0355,470
    Japan3,0694,460
    United Kingdom5,6646,211
    U.S.A.4,7506,512
    All countries25,11130,649
Miscellaneous manufactures of metal—
    Australia7,9399,657
    United Kingdom8,0557,463
    U.S.A.2,3752,562
    All countries25,03128,240
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)
    Australia3,0681,932
    Japan1,5531,422
    United Kingdom5,0284,109
    U.S.A.10,31110,318
    All countries23,03920,308
Other non-electric power generating machinery
    Canada14,029102
    United Kingdom29,9104,547
    U.S.A.39,59830,420
    All countries91,70738,926
Tractors
    Germany, Fed. Rep.3,6952,088
    Italy3,7565,081
    United Kingdom18,32110,050
    U.S.A3,8522,524
    All countries35,68031,634
Agricultural machinery and implements (excl. tractors)
    Germany, Fed. Rep.3,2791,382
    United Kingdom4,6762,408
    U.S.A3,1162,281
    All countries22,04912,444
Electric power machinery
    Australia7,8184,724
    United Kingdom5,5105,341
    U.S.A.6,1188,138
    All countries27,79026,871
Electric switchgear, etc.
    Australia3,8854,140
    United Kingdom8,6768,703
    U.S.A.3,6713,893
    All countries27,61330,622
Excavating, levelling, boring, etc., machinery
    Japan4,0934,484
    U.S.A9,9958,183
    All countries20,27720,870
Other machinery for special industries
    Australia3,8726,040
    Germany, Fed. Rep.5,8008,210
    United Kingdom5,3817,472
    U.S.A5,90311,692
    All countries29,91550,220
Pumps and centrifuges
    Australia6,4941,975
    United Kingdom7,5333,521
    U.S.A.7,2343,378
    All countries35,87614,571
Mechanical handling equipment
    Australia6,7495,208
    United Kingdom5,2237,315
    U.S.A.8,2825,865
    All countries27,25224,439
Other non-electric machinery and appliances
    Australia16,21814,035
    United Kingdom20,46617,773
    U.S.A23,52222,466
    All countries96,97490,135
Parts, accessories of, tractors and motor vehicles (not motor cycles)
    Australia8,50711,048
    Germany, Fed. Rep.3,6048,145
    United Kingdom15,46519,054
    U.S.A5,5625,217
    All countries39,26150,829
Telecommunications equipment
    Japan12,87526,316
    United Kingdom2,9785,264
    U.S.A.3,4824,911
    All countries25,02245,994
Thermionic, etc., valves and tubes
    France664576
    Japan5,79711,768
    Netherlands1,3441,650
    U.S.A2,2233,721
    All countries13,10723,084
Other electrical machinery and apparatus
    Australia6,4545,855
    Japan9,82511,222
    United Kingdom14,9919,072
    U.S.A.10,8677,674
    All countries51,17541,559
Railway vehicles
    Australia5,02014,281
    Japan9551,392
    United Kingdom2,009204
    U.S.A3,581810
    All countries11,91430,592
Motorcars
    Australia25,27240,127
    Germany, Fed. Rep.2,8483,902
    Japan40,67958,119
    United Kingdom55,34357,468
    All countries130,987167,141
Buses, trucks, and vans
    Australia14,32817,803
    Japan13,97013,581
    United Kingdom42,07729,126
    All countries77,49264,599
Scientific, medical, optical, etc., instruments and apparatus
    Australia7,8228,731
    Japan9,83610,407
    United Kingdom0,14514,598
    U.S.A13,99022,601
    All countries58,78573,789
Aircraft  
    United Kingdom2,8123,119
    U.S.A.9,50218,970
    All countries15,28123,881
Ships and boats  
    Australia738237
    Germany, Fed. Rep.985,964
    Norway5,6303
    Singapore2,500
    United Kingdom45112,616
    All countries14,651103,561
Photographic and cinematographic supplies  
    Australia7,0028,799
    Germany, Fed. Rep.3,5295,139
    United Kingdom2,7422,514
    U.S.A.5,2157,272
    All countries23,20030,146
Printed books and pamphlets  
    Australia7,96716,934
    United Kingdom16,26426,916
    U.S.A.6,93815,720
    All countries36,04467,609

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the quantities imported during June years of a number of principal items.

ItemUnit of QuantityYear Ended 30 June
1976197719781979
* Excludes hardboards, softboards, wallpaper, lincrusta, and window transparencies.
Sugar, not refinedtonne173,510184,490166,359171,925
Coffee, rawtonne5839550740116084
Wine of fresh grapeslitre (000)2024176316111706
Spirits, liqueurs, and other spirituous beverages over 40 percent proof p.litre (000)5553647651956491
Tobacco, unmanufacturedtonne3654350943712750
Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimedtonne24,38928,76922,27923,817
Natural calcium phosphatetonne (000)936105011371349
Sulphur, other than sublimed, precipitatedtonne (000)196230235258
Crude petroleumtonne (000)1863216616821836
Partly refined petroleumtonne (000)899844662796
Motor spiritlitre (000)694,053434,550674,788603,802
Kerosene and white spiritlitre (000)376,718371,619451,367406,598
Distillate fuelslitre (000)408,987375,990559,832488,678
Aluminium oxidetonne294,125250,846326,387320,599
Potassium chloride (fertiliser)tonne194,988226,088230,502220,463
Polymerisation, copolymerisation products in bulk formstonne56,09477,65264,15589,094
Other plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins, excl. floor coveringstonne16,83923,15622,15020,458
Rubber tyres and tubes excl. bicycletonne2880156533242784
Paper and paperboard*tonne18,86839,11827,13042,609
Textile yam and threadtonne8122999773459177
Cotton fabrics, woven—
    Suitable for manufacture of apparelm2 (000)31,67031,73424,99629,702
    For furnishing and household usem2 (000)11,11816,50016,25419,105
Woven textile fabrics of synthetic fibres excl. tyrecordm2 (000)32,20446,93040,75968,299
Iron and steel—     
    Bars and rodstonne22,60245,81029,93431,478
    Angles, shapes and sectionstonne39,81863,72740,13046,119
    Universals, plates and sheetstonne256,637378,227318,040359,050
    Wiretonne12,64132,67513,75515,009
    Tubes, pipes and fittingstonne62,64723,33022,82923,287
Copper and copper alloys excl. foil, powders and flakestonne12,35714,79612,30214,166
Unwrought zinctonne15,49823,34517,31120,255
Internal combustion engines (hot aircraft)no.118,911131,621117,95293,752
Tractorsno.4718555445263712
Metal working machinerytonne3951467740622782
Excavating, levelling and tamping machineryno.369667577438
Lifting, handling, loading machinery, telphers and conveyorstonne6115386040712483
Electric motorsno.519,064543,083424,346444,160
Thermionic, cold cathode, photocathode valves and tubes(000)10251036829634
Railway vehicles excl. containers and partsno.18093321624
Motorcars—assembledno.4355413831884564
                  —unassembledno.69,92964,95452,26160,073
Buses, trucks, vans—assembledno.10888011022873
                  —unassembledno.17,39515,94016,70415,593
Aircraft, excl. parts, balloons, airshipsno.83123144201
Ships and boats excl. those for breaking up (including buoys)no.1359106810916614

VALUE OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the values imported during June years of a number of principal items.

ItemYear Ended June
1976197719781979
 $(thousand) c.d.v.
Sugar, not refined56,07344,77941,20535,639
Coffee, raw7,28718,49614,54916,035
Alcoholic beverages13,71015,77614,43920,589
Tobacco, unmanufactured10,15311,80313,8749,357
Crude rubber, including synthetic, reclaimed14,62222,07517,89921,411
Natural calcium phosphate37,72439,54139,98345,238
Sulphur, other than sublimed, precipitated8,5799,8988,3309,453
Crude petroleum139,490193,485155,378177,012
Partly refined petroleum91,103103,30180,378109,320
Motor spirit69,51354,71887,09579,451
Kerosene and white spirit34,27441,68852,86946,888
Distillate fuels33,59942,36761,76654,707
Organic chemicals42,06167,44456,82276,594
Aluminium oxide35,33739,53051,27250,075
Inorganic chemicals (excl. aluminium oxide)34,86438,14540,99446,995
Medicaments, including veterinary43,76260,70461,80876,069
Potassium chloride (fertiliser)11,79812,83112,06111,779
Polymerisation, copolymerisation products in bulk forms36,47655,94948,82068,882
Other plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins32,18749,46346,87656,324
Articles of rubber, n.e.s.12,87518,85117,07718,605
Paper and paperboard17,39831,98827,34839,441
Textile yam and thread27,13738,73830,32441,889
Cotton fabrics, woven—
    Suitable for manufacture of apparel26,43530,67724,16229,128
    For furnishing and household use7,65313,92513,64615,631
Woven textile fabrics of synthetic fibres30,00447,48843,34580,360
Other woven textile fabrics28,51937,63133,14927,279
Special textile fabrics and related products15,13919,25418,68824,520
Glass and glassware12,25216,87815,59517,243
Iron and steel—
    Bars and rods9,15719,10513,86416,653
    Angles, shapes and sections9,66017,87411,78715,702
    Universals, plates and sheets67,897129,910108,450142,043
    Wire6,82717,4409,16611,226
    Tubes, pipes and fittings48,89122,63318,33020,239
Copper and copper alloys19,98729,93321,50229,578
Unwrought zinc11,30818,61511,21012,558
Tools for hand use or in machines21,89526,85925,11130,649
Manufactures of metal, n.e.s.20,42624,25025,03128,240
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)21,16324,70623,03920,308
Other non-electric power generating machinery32,25674,96691,70783,551
Tractors28,39040,52835,68031,634
Agricultural machinery and implements (not tractors)11,41520,34122,04912,444
Automatic data processing machines and accessories36,74130,92430,28437,673
Metal working machinery11,20918,10013,90120,404
Textile and leather machinery24,25324,18423,78225,250
Excavating, levelling, boring, extracting machinery, etc.21,66418,99920,27720,870
Other machines for special industries27,24326,25829,91550,220
Pumps and centrifuges, filtering, etc., machinery, incl. parts31,90735,93235,87614,571
Mechanical handling equipment25,16425,17327,25224,439
Other non-electric machinery and appliances, incl. parts98,831103,27696,97490,135
Electric power machinery51,41238,63127,79026,871
Electric switchgear, etc.,26,36030,56127,61330,622
Telecommunications apparatus33,66132,73625,02245,994
Thermionic, etc., valves and tubes, etc.20,97026,65713,10713,130
Other electric machinery and apparatus, n.e.s.42,31751,42651,17541,559
Railway vehicles45,51715,04811,91430,592
Motor care—unassembled110,397113,081118,535145,453
—assembled11,31615,21412,45221,688
Buses, trucks and vans—unassembled47,15859,28372,30659,792
                                      —assembled5,5043,7975,1864,807
Parts, accessories of tractors and motor vehicles (not motor cycles)33,33138,00039,26150,829
Aircraft26,51922,14915,28123,881
Ships and boats105,513134,09514,651103,561
Scientific, medical, optical, etc., instruments and apparatus42,81749,60358,78573,789
Photographic and cinematographic supplies18,44224,07423,20030,146
Printed books and pamphlets (including maps, etc.)31,21932,52536,04467,609
n.e.s.—not elsewhere specified.    

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS BY END-USE—In the following table imports are classified by end-use in the form of economic categories. The classification involves some arbitrary decisions but it is adapted to practical purposes and the comparability of the time series has useful economic applications. Basis of valuation is c.i.f.

Class of Goods Imported*Year Ended 30 June
19751976197719781979
* For more detailed list of items included under each heading see relevant table in Monthly Abstract of Statistics.
$(million)
Finished Capital Goods435.2454.4524.3433.8445.2
    Agricultural machinery and plant36.941.060.556.140.9
    Industrial machinery and plant131.0127.5158.5135.7122.4
    Construction machinery and plant17.715.214.211.615.7
    Transport and communications items83.9111.3114.154.366.4
    Other complete items165.8159.4177.0176.0199.7
Components and Materials for Capital Goods320.2395.3371.4375.1398.4
    For agricultural machinery and plant12.311.216.415.113.1
    For industrial machinery and plant41.442.865.669.563.8
    For construction machinery and plant3.93.63.93.55.6
    For transport and communications items89.7109.9122.3144.7116.5
    For building, construction, roads22.467.824.323.527.2
    For other capital items150.5159.9138.8118.9172.2
Finished Goods and Components (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)324.8412.1434.2369.9565.0
    Complete transport items58.7118.2100.739.4137.6
    Parts for transport items158.9180.3202.3202.6249.7
    Other complete items43.740.648.849.187.9
    Parts of other items63.472.982.578.889.9
Consumer Goods631.6658.9812.8796.2879.9
    Finished consumer goods311.0319.8391.4420.2436.3
    Components for consumer goods320.7339.0421.5376.0443.6
Class of Goods Imported*Year Ended 30 June
19751976197719781979
* For more detailed list of items included under each heading see relevant table in Monthly Abstract of Statistics.
 $(million)
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere1,030.71,021.91,373.01,269.31,528.8
Stores Used Only for Defence20.519.022.232.423.0
                Total2,763.12,961.63,538.03,276.63,840.5
 Percent
Finished Capital Goods15.715.314.813.311.6
    Agricultural machinery and plant1.31.41.71.71.1
    Industrial machinery and plant4.74.34.54.13.2
    Construction machinery and plant0.70.50.40.40.4
    Transport and communications items3.03.83.21.71.7
    Other complete items6.05.45.05.45.2
Components and Materials for Capital Goods11.613.410.511.410.4
    For agricultural machinery plant0.40.40.50.50.3
    For industrial machinery and plant1.51.41.82.11.7
    For construction machinery and plant0.20.10.10.10.2
    For transport and communications items3.23.73.54.43.0
    For building, construction, roads0.82.30.70.70.7
    For other capital items5.55.43.93.64.5
Finished Goods and Components (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)11.813.912.311.314.7
    Complete transport items2.14.02.91.23.6
    Parts for transport items5.86.15.76.26.5
    Other complete items1.61.41.41.52.3
    Parts for other items2.32.52.32.42.3
Consumer Goods22.922.323.024.322.9
    Finished consumer goods11.310.811.112.811.4
    Components for consumer goods11.611.411.911.511.5
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere37.334.538.838.739.8
Stores Used Only for Defence0.70.60.61.00.6
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

IMPORTS BY PORTS—In 1979 New Zealand had 17 ports of entry for Customs purposes—ten in the North Island and seven in the South Island. The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry. The value of overseas cargo landed at other ports is included with the appropriate port of entry. Basis of valuation is c.d.v.

PortYear Ended June
19751976197719781979
 $(thousand)
Whangarei252,025259,111328,742249,159313,774
Auckland1,097,6261,120,3551,484,4541,410,4971,685,638
Hamilton15,72925,78824,90022,10927,930
Tauranga36,08429,73243,20945,63347,762
Gisborne4,2592,8122,2711,1951,880
Napier46,72762,12454,66855,21958,896
New Plymouth73,477198,331124,86047,69444,407
Wanganui3,0962,9685,1075,5296,616
Palmerston North13,60416,99526,19627,67530,325
Wellington546,380562,025636,519636,602813,299
Blenheim3,5567951,037556598
Nelson25,84315,44524,20822,70316,735
Greymouth3,4751,0501,0481,042298
Christchurch262,027284,449325,122306,156329,571
Timaru5,1136,9264,7028,6159,709
Dunedin59,98959,22979,46885,23195,126
Invercargill42,95781,94577,84692,54491,576
                  Total2,491,9672,730,0803,244,3563,018,1583,574,139

Between 60 and 70 percent of the total imports usually come in by way of Auckland or Wellington. With the advent of the oil refinery plant at Whangarei this port has now reached fourth place in importance. Christchurch occupies third place.

Imports by air have been credited to the port in whose district the overseas airport is located. Thus goods which came in through Mangere Airport were included in the Auckland figures, imports through Wellington Airport and Ohakea in the Wellington figures, and through Christchurch Airport in the Christchurch figures. The value of imports by air, the commodities and their countries of origin are listed in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Some figures of imports and exports by air are given by main commodity groups in Section 12 E of this Yearbook.

GOODS SHIPPED FROM COOK ISLANDS, NIUE, AND TOKELAU—Trade with the Cook Islands, Tokelau, and Niue is not included in the export and import totals for New Zealand. The following table shows the movement of goods from these islands to New Zealand.

June YearValue of Goods
 $(000)
19743,322
19753,897
19762,918
19773,464
19783,719
19794,333

The c.i.f. values of principal goods brought to New Zealand from the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau during the latest available June year were as follows:

ItemYear Ended June 1979
Cook IslandsNiueTokelau
n.e.s.—not elsewhere specified.
 $     $     $     
Tangerines, mandarins and similar48,625
Other citrus fruit5,4195,834
Bananas and plantains122,708
Coconuts15,22056
Other fresh whole fruit225,517
Fruit juices1,287,77879,104
Fruit preserved by freezing144,726
Fruit prepared or preserved477,948546
Vegetables (fresh, frozen or preserved)347,360786
Natural honey17,834
Copra404,99126,84013,156
Wood manufactures, n.e.s.18,662140
Clothing of textile fabric727,863
Footwear74,444
Postage, revenue and similar stamps11,9756,958
Manufactured articles, n.e.s.9,945408
Other miscellaneous items239,91417,851200
              Total4,008,424310,48013,904

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on New Zealand's external trade and external economic relations in general will be found in the following publications and sections of this Yearbook.

Department of Statistics publications:

Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Pocket Digest of Statistics (annual).

Exports: Final Statistics (annual).

Imports: Final Statistics (annual).

Report and Analysis of External Trade (annual).

External Trade, Country Analysis (quarterly).

Shipping and Cargo Statistics (annual bulletin).

Report of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Parl. paper A. 1).

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

White Paper on the GATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations (Parl. paper G. 14A 1979).

New Zealand Standard Classifications—Dept. of Statistics:

N.Z. Statistical Classification of Exports.

N.Z. Statistical Classification of Imports.

N.Z. Standard Country Code (NZSCC).

A number of trade agreements, conventions, exchanges of letters, etc., are published in the “A” series of parliamentary papers.

Export NewsDepartment of Trade and Industry.

How to ExportDepartment of Trade and Industry.

Other Yearbook sections:

2. History, Government, and International Relations.

18. Manufacturing.

21A. Marketing of Farm Produce.

22 D—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

The New Zealand Customs Tariff dates back to June 1841 when the first Customs Regulation Ordinance was passed. In the latter half of the nineteenth century and the first two decades of the present century tariff policies were unsophisticated and tended to reflect the prevailing economic philosophy, the development of the country's agricultural base, and the British preferential system. From 1921, however, tariff policies directed at encouraging and protecting manufacturing industries were given greater importance. This policy evolution received a temporary check following the Ottawa Agreement of 1932 whereby, in return for concessions from the United Kingdom related to New Zealand's agricultural products, further preferences were accorded to British goods and some constraint placed on the use of the Tariff for purely protective purposes. Subsequent tariff reviews have placed increasing weight on the objectives of encouraging and protecting manufacturing industries.

The structure of the Tariff was changed from 1 July 1962 when the Standard International Trade Classification was adopted. Since 1 July 1967, however, the Tariff has been based on the Customs Cooperation Council Nomenclature (C.C.C.N.).

Consequential to the United Kingdom's decision to enter the European Economic Community, preferences on goods of United Kingdom origin were phased out, the process having been completed on 1 July 1977 with the exception of certain automotive products. Commonwealth Preferential Country rates were discontinued from 1 July 1978 but the former recipients of these preferences benefited in Lieu from New Zealand's extended Generalised System of Preferences favouring developing countries.

On 1 July 1978 a fully revised Customs Tariff was introduced based on the recommendation of a Tariff Review Committee which had been given a 2-year period to put forward proposals to make the Tariff compatible with modern trading conditions, industrial development requirements, and administrative facility. Tariff rates were set consistent with the committee's terms of reference which required, inter alia, an assessment to be made of rates necessary to accord domestic industry a reasonable level of protection against competing imports disregarding the existence of other forms of protection.

The new Tariff reduced the number of individual tariff items from approximately 4700 to some 2500 but also provided for the collection of statistics on a more detailed basis.

The rates of customs and excise duty enforced in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled The Customs Tariff of New Zealand available from the Government Printer, Wellington.

OBJECTS OF THE TARIFF—The objects of the Customs Tariff can be summarised as:

  1. The collection of revenue.

  2. The development of New Zealand industries.

  3. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand's exports.

  4. The implementation of New Zealand's tariff commitments in multilateral and bilateral trade agreements.

  5. Harmonisation with New Zealand's external political objectives including the provision of assistance to developing countries.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)—New Zealand was one of the original members of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade reached in Geneva in 1947 and has since taken an active part in the work of the GATT in attaining its general objective of reducing barriers to trade and providing a forum for the discussion and settlement of international trade problems and disputes.

The majority of the world's trading nations have now become contracting parties to the GATT and entitled to most-favoured-nation treatment. The non-discriminatory provisions within the GATT assist New Zealand to at least some degree in promoting its objective in seeking the right to trade on a multilateral basis.

The results of the tariff negotiations which took place in 1947 and on subsequent occasions are embodied in schedules to the General Agreement and are applied multilaterally so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants and, conversely, accords reciprocal concessions to all other contracting parties. These concessions are of two kinds—actual reductions in duty rates and bindings on duties against increase.

Developments have, however, tended to whittle away most of the trading advantages which countries relying heavily on agricultural exports might reasonably expect to get from GATT membership. There has been a growing disparity between the benefits accruing under GATT to the industrialised nations and the far less tangible advantages it provides for primary producing countries such as New Zealand. This has been due principally to the maintenance of quantitative restrictions on agricultural products by most of the large industrialised countries as an aspect of their policies of agricultural protectionism.

The Kennedy Round of negotiations which was concluded in June 1967 did not correct this imbalance although New Zealand did obtain improved access and some tariff concessions on a limited range of products exported to some GATT countries in compensation for a reduction in rates of duty of up to 50 percent on a number of items. A new round of multilateral trade negotiations was initiated in Tokyo in September 1973. New Zealand took an active part in these negotiations whilst making it clear that the extent of its contribution to a successful outcome was dependent upon improvements in conditions of trade relating to products of principal export interest. New Zealand's global tariff offer represented a “binding” of certain tariff rates provided for by the revised Tariff introduced from 1 July 1978, and covered items with a trade value of around $579 million. In addition, New Zealand made offers in the context of bilateral negotiations whereby participants exchanged requests for and offers of trading concessions on both tariff and non-tariff barriers affecting agricultural and industrial products. New Zealand also participated in a series of multilateral negotiations aimed at the formulation of codes of conduct, elaborating on or in addition to the existing GATT rules on international trade.

Useful concessions were obtained by New Zealand on tariffs and access for our major export products, particularly as the result of bilateral negotiations with the United States, the EEC, and Canada. Some benefit is also expected to derive from the multilateral arrangements negotiated on dairy and meat products, as well as the extensive tariff reductions which will be made by participating countries over the next few years on manufactured goods. A major disappointment for New Zealand was that the negotiations failed to grapple with the basic problems of agricultural protectionism and access, leaving relatively untouched the differences in rules and attitudes which exist between trade in industrial and agricultural products.

PREFERENCES AND OTHER BILATERAL TRADE AGREEMENTS: United Kingdom—A radical change in New Zealand's trade and tariff policy was necessitated by the United Kingdom's decision to enter into the European Economic Community on 1 January 1973 and the effect of this action on New Zealand's exports to that country. Consequently the New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade agreement was abrogated on 31 January 1973. The tariff preferences accorded to British goods in the New Zealand market were accordingly phased out in four steps which began on 1 July 1974 and were completed by 30 June 1977, except in the case of a range of automotive products.

Australia—The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement which came into force on 1 January 1966 provides for periodic reduction and ultimate elimination of duties on the goods listed in a schedule to the agreement when such goods qualify for admission into either country as the produce or manufacture of the other country. This agreement modifies or supersedes some of the provisions of the earlier trade agreement between New Zealand and Australia in 1933.

The goods listed in Schedule A to the agreement cover some two-thirds of the imports from Australia and include forest products (timber, pulp, packaging materials, plywood and veneers), petroleum products, meat, fish, cheese, lead, zinc, and other metals, copper rods and bars, wool, and some machinery and chemicals. As a result of subsequent reviews a limited number of other items have been added to Schedule A each year.

The agreement provides for reviews of trade between the two countries with a view to progressive inclusion of additional items within the agreement. The original agreement was for 10 years and thereafter would remain in force unless terminated on 180 days' notice being given. However, in September 1976, the two countries agreed to extend the agreement for a further period of 10 years on the same terms and conditions.

On 1 December 1977 an exchange of letters took place between the New Zealand and Australian Governments. These replaced an interim agreement made in 1973 and provided a general undertaking, subject to certain qualifications and consultative provisions, to avoid increases in rates of duty other than in exceptional circumstances and to maintain margins of preferences on trade between the two countries. It was also provided that when changes were being made to the respective tariffs each country would, subject to certain conditions, endeavour to preserve a minimum margin of preference of 15 percent on goods in the protected area or a lesser margin if operative at 31 January 1973 or 30 November 1977. A 5-percent margin (or lesser provision if operative at base dates) is to be maintained for goods in the non-protected area where the other State has a substantial or important trade interest. The agreement is for an initial period of 3 years.

Canada—Reciprocal trade arrangements between Canada and New Zealand are governed by an agreement negotiated in 1932, and this agreement remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the terms of the agreement, sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri gum, and phormium fibre are amongst the New Zealand product? admitted free of duty. Certain other items such as butter, cheese, mutton, and lamb are admitted at preferential rates of duty.

On 26 July 1973 an exchange of letters took place between the New Zealand and Canadian Governments. Among the mutual agreements reached was a general undertaking subject to certain qualifications and consultative provisions, not to increase the duties and to maintain margins of preference on each other's goods based on the position existing at 31 January 1973.

Malaysia—A trade agreement between Malaysia and New Zealand was signed in February 1961 by which each country accords preferential rates of duty to the other. Both countries agreed to guarantee minimum margins of tariff preference which apply to certain important items in each other's trade.

Developing Countries—New Zealand responded to the recommendation of the United Nations Committee on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) that developed countries introduce Generalised Systems of Preference in favour of developing nations, and special developing country rates were incorporated in the Customs Tariff as from 1 January 1972.

When New Zealand introduced a revised Generalised System of Preference (GSP) on 1 July 1976 the new scheme was based on the negative-list concept and significantly increased the GSP coverage granted previously. Every effort was made to keep the list of exceptions to the minimum to give the greatest possible coverage to the scheme. Based on figures for the year ended 30 June 1979, total value of imports from GSP beneficiaries was $648 million, compared with $550 million for the year ended 30 June 1978. Of this trade, only $63 million was subject to duty, with $48 million thereof being admitted at Developing Country Preferential rates of duty.

The revised GSP was based on an intention to maintain, in terms of GSP criteria, specified margins of preference for developing countries up to a level of 20 percent. For the year ended June 1979 less than 2 percent of trade from developing countries was excluded from duty free and/or preferential treatment. Since 17 December 1976 special provisions have been made for the duty-free importation of specified handicraft products.

OTHER TRADE OBLIGATIONS—New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, and arrangements with countries outside the Commonwealth resulting from direct negotiations with the countries concerned. In practice, some of the earlier arrangements (which generally provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment) became superseded by New Zealand's accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Trade agreements which are still operative include those with Switzerland (1938 and since extended to Liechtenstein in 1956); the Federal Republic of Germany (1959, amended 1977); Japan (1958, amended 1962); the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1963, protocol 1973); the Polish People's Republic (1965); Republic of Korea (1967, amended 1976); People's Republic of Bulgaria (1968); Republic of Philippines (1968, amended 1976); Hungarian People's Republic (1970, revised and superseded 1978); The People's Republic of China (1973); Iran (1974); Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1975); Arab Republic of Egypt (1977); German Democratic Republic (1978); Indonesia (1978); and the Socialist Republic of Romania (1979).

ELIGIBILITY OF GOODS FOR TARIFF PREFERENTIAL RATES—In order to qualify for entry at preferential rates imported goods must meet certain origin requirements before they can be deemed to be the produce or manufacture of the countries entitled to the preferences. The provisions are contained in the Customs Regulations 1968 as amended. In general, with minor variations, they include the following:

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries.

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw materials and/or (in some instances) from one or more of the imported partly manufactured materials which are enumerated in the regulations.

  3. Goods “wholly obtained”. (This provision applies only to Developing Country Preferences and is instead of provisions (a) and (b).)

  4. Goods partly manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or other items of factory or works cost incurred in such countries in respect of each article is not less than half of the factory or works cost of the article in its finished state.

CUSTOMS DUTIES—The 1978 Tariff (effective from 1 July 1978) has only two duty columns, viz: normal and preferential.

EXCISE DUTIES—Excise duty is a tax on certain commodities manufactured in New Zealand. Duties on major commodities were as follows at the dates given.

Beer—Rates of Beer Duty which became effective on 1 April 1978 are as follows:

DescriptionRate of Duty
Not exceeding 4.35 percent alcohol by volume15.94 cents per litre
Exceeding 4.35 percent, but not exceeding 5.00 percent alcohol by volume19.93 cents per litre
Exceeding 5.00 percent alcohol by volume25.10 cents per litre

Tobacco—Rates of excise duty on tobacco products, which became effective on 22 July 1977, are as follows:

DescriptionRate of Duty
 $     
Cigarettes—
    Exceeding in weight 1.134 kg per 100013.70 per kg
    Not exceeding in weight 1.134 kg per 100015.54 per 1000
Cigars and snuff8.58 per kg
Other manufactured tobacco10.26 per kg

Distilleries—Excise duty on gin, geneva, schnapps, vodka, and other spirituous mixtures approved by the Minister of Customs, which ate produced by two rectifying and compounding distilleries, is at the rate of $3.85 per proof litre.

The excise duty on whisky distilled or made in New Zealand is $3.70 per proof litre.

CUSTOMS REVENUE—Revenue from Customs and Excise Duties is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchExcise DutiesOther DutiesTotal Duties
BeerSpiritsTobacco
$(000)
197546,23311,20375,197142,685275,318
197648,37412,12980,265124,630265,398
197746,45714,28491,201147,406299,343
197858,69316,787105,727150,311331,518
197958,85318,014102,519165,566344,952

Motor spirits duty paid into the National Roads Fund has been excluded from Customs duties.

Customs revenue as a proportion of taxation is discussed in the section on Central Government Finance.

INTERNATIONAL COMMODITY AGREEMENTS: Sugar—New Zealand's annual requirement for sugar is approximately 160000 tonnes. From 1973 the bulk of this was imported from Australia and Fiji under long-term contracts. Additional cargoes were purchased from Cuba and the Philippines. The long-term contracts expired in 1978 and discussions have been held regarding extension. A further long-term contract is now in place with Fiji. No special arrangements, however, exist in relation to Australia.

In an effort to exert a greater control over market forces, producers and consumers have repeatedly made efforts over the past 20 years to encourage market stability through the implementation of a number of International Sugar Agreements. These agreements incorporate mechanisms that regulate the supply and price of sugar on world markets. Under the agreements exporters undertake to regulate their sales on the free market according to agreed quotas, while importers are to restrict their purchases from non-members during times when sugar prices remain within the range specified in the agreement. New Zealand has been a member of the International Sugar Agreements of 1958, 1968, and 1978.

Coffee—New Zealand is a party to the International Coffee Agreement 1976, which came into force in October 1976, for a period of 6 years. New Zealand was previously a party to the International Coffee Agreement of 1968 which finally expired in 1976, having been extended from 1973 as a purely administrative agreement.

Under the 1976 agreement provisions have been incorporated for adjusting basic quotas, regulating imports whenever quotas are in effect, and recording international coffee trade. New Zealand has joined this agreement as part of a wider support for commodity agreements.

Cocoa—New Zealand was a member of the original Cocoa Agreement in 1973 which expired in 1976. New Zealand became party to the International Cocoa Agreement 1976, which came into force in October 1976 for a period of 3 years.

The International Cocoa Agreement incorporates features common to other commodity agreements, but depends largely for the stabilising of prices on the operation of a buffer stock. Cocoa beans would be bought into the buffer stock at times of low prices and sold when prices pass an agreed maximum level. The provisions of this agreement have not come into effect and there has been considerable pressure from member countries to renegotiate a more workable base for the agreement. A further agreement, or an extension of the 1976 Agreement, is currently being negotiated. It is hoped that by mid-1980 a further arrangement will have been concluded.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on Customs tariff and revenue and on trade agreements will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Customs Department (Parl. paper B. 24).

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

While Paper on the GATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations (Parl. paper G. 14A 1979).

International Sugar Agreement, 1977 (Parl. paper A. 50 1979).

International Coffee Agreement, 1976 (Parl. paper A. 17 1979).

International Cocoa Agreement, 1976 (Parl. paper A. 18 1979).

Trade agreements with individual countries are published as parliamentary papers in the “A” series.

Chapter 23. Section 23 PRICES, HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE, AND CONSUMER AFFAIRS

Table of Contents

CONTROL AND STABILISATION OF PRICES—The principal enactments affecting the control of prices of goods and services are the Commerce Act 1975 and the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948.

Under the former statute a Positive List of Controlled Goods and Services is published by the Minister of Trade and Industry. Increases in the prices of goods and services included in this list are subject to the approval of the Secretary of Trade and Industry or, in the case of specified energy products, the Secretary of Energy. Applicants for price increases who are subject to this form of control may appeal to the Commerce Commission if they are dissatisfied with the Secretary's decision. Goods and services at present on the Positive List include cement, pharmaceuticals, fertilisers, canned foods, soaps, beer, and freight forwarding charges.

Many domestic transport services are subject to price control in terms of the Transport Act 1962, and air transport charges are subject to approval by the Air Services Licensing Authority in accordance with the provisions of the Air Services Licensing Act 1951. The prices of certain other goods such as motor spirits, automotive and diesel oil, and milk and cream prices are fixed by Order in Council.

Regulations have been made from time to time under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948 for the purpose of restraining and monitoring increases in the prices of most other goods and services which are not controlled by the direct supervision of a statutory pricing authority. The current regulations in force are the Price Surveillance Regulations 1979.

The Commerce Act 1975—Part IV of the Commerce Act provides for goods and services to be placed under price control, and allows regulations to be made placing goods and services under price restraint. Decisions take the form of price orders or special approvals, and the Secretary of Trade and Industry is required on request to give the reasons for a decision to the applicant. The Commerce Commission sits as an independent judicial authority for the determination of appeals from decisions of the Secretary of Trade and Industry.

Decisions of the Secretary of Trade and Industry are made following investigations upon receipt of an application in accordance with procedures set out in the Act. Provision is also made for the Secretary to review prices on his own motion with the consent of the Minister of Trade and Industry. Before making a determination in respect of an application or following a review on his own motion, the Secretary is required by the Act to take certain criteria into account.

Criteria considered by the Secretary of Trade and Industry or the Commerce Commission in dealing with pricing matters include the costs of production and distribution of the goods concerned; the ability of the applicant to absorb costs; profit margins and the return on capital employed by the applicant; improvements in productivity and efficiency; and market competition.

The Ministry of Energy Act 1977 transferred to the Secretary of Energy all the functions, powers and duties conferred on the Secretary of Trade and Industry by Part IV of the Commerce Act 1975 with respect to energy products included in the Positive List.

The Price Surveillance Regulations 1979—These regulations came into force on 6 April 1979 and replaced the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1974. The Price Surveillance Regulations require every trader to retain records of price increases and allow the Secretary to investigate the prices of any goods or services. If the Secretary is of the opinion that the price being charged is excessive he may invite the trader to reduce the price or to make refunds, and may recommend to the Minister of Trade and Industry that the goods or services be made subject to price control or that a public inquiry be held before the Commerce Commission.

The Price Surveillance Regulations also require manufacturers with an annual turnover of $7.5 million or more and suppliers of services with an annual turnover of $2 million or more to notify the Secretary of Trade and Industry of price increases and to supply the Secretary with their financial accounts and half-yearly reports indicating the net pre-tax profit earned during that period. Professional bodies are also required to notify the Secretary of Trade and Industry of increases in any scale of charges recommended to their members.

Importers, wholesalers, and retailers whose annual turnover is $5 million or more are required to supply half-yearly returns to the Secretary of Trade and Industry providing details of the turnover and gross profit earned in that period.

CONSUMER AFFAIRS—The responsibility for administering New Zealand's consumer legislation is shared by several Government departments, including the Departments of Trade and Industry, Health, Justice, and Labour.

Some examples are:
    Department of Health—
        Food and Drug Act
        Poisons and Medicines Acts
    Department of Justice—
        Sale of Goods Act
        Layby Sales Act
        Hire Purchase Act
        Motor Vehicle Dealers Act
    Department of Labour—
        Weights and Measures Act
    Department of Trade and Industry—
        Consumer Information Act
        Wool Labelling Act
        Merchandise Marks Act
        Door to Door Sales Act
        Safety of Childrens Night Clothes Act
        Commerce Act

Under some legislation the departments concerned may be able to assist complainants but in most cases the legislation provides the avenue for action through the courts. Some problems can now be resolved through small claims tribunals. Following the passing of the Small Claims Tribunals Act 1976, small claims tribunals were set up in June 1977 in Christchurch, New Plymouth, and Rotorua. Recently they have been established in Gisborne and Invercargill. The extension of this system to other centres will be considered.

The Consumers Institute runs a consumer complaints service and citizens advice bureaus are also established in some main centres and will assist complainants. Some of these bureaus have legal assistance sections for those with legal problems who may not be able to afford to seek private legal advice.

CONSUMER COUNCIL.—The Consumer Council's functions are to protect and promote the interests of consumers of goods and services and by so doing to encourage the improvement and development of industry and commerce. The council was established in 1959 and reconstituted an independent body under the Consumer Council Act 1966. The council consists of 12 members appointed solely on the basis of personal qualifications by a representative Appointments Committee. The Secretary of Trade and Industry, the Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Director-General of Health are also represented on the council.

The council has appointed District Consumer Committees in Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and sponsors the formation of local consumer associations. The Council lays down the policies to be followed by the staff of the Consumers' Institute. The institute's work includes comparative tests and surveys of consumer goods and services; research into and advise on legal, financial, and welfare matters; representations to parliamentary committees and public inquiries; consumer education; complaints advisory service; and liaison with business, trade, and safety associations.

Citizens are encouraged to become members of Consumers' Institute at an annual subscription of $9.50. At the end of 1979, over 115000 members received the monthly magazine Consumer. Members are entitled to purchase other Institute publications. Teaching Notes are made available to schools, and radio, television, and newspaper reports are made.

Membership subscriptions and sales of publications provide about 55 percent of the Institute's finance. The remainder comes from Government grants and selected non-commercial sources. While the Institute liaises and co-operates with others, it maintains complete independence and impartiality.

The Consumer Council is a council member of the International Organisation of Consumers Unions, and co-operates with and assists other consumer organisations throughout the world.

PRICE STATISTICS—Actual prices of many goods and services at various levels are collected periodically by the Department of Statistics. The fields covered are retail prices, wholesale prices, farm input prices, export prices, import prices, share prices, and wool prices. In the case of retail, wholesale, and farm input prices, direct inquiry is made; export and import prices (or strictly, unit values) are mainly derived from trade statistics, share prices from records of the stock exchanges, and wool prices from the New Zealand Wool Board. In addition, average prices of many materials and products of manufacture are available from the statistics of industrial production. Some retail prices are shown later in this Section, and a wider coverage is published in the annual Report, Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics (Part A: Prices), published by the Department of Statistics. The chief use made of the prices collected is in the compilation of price index numbers. These are, fundamentally, weighted averages of price ratios, the weighting being so arranged that the index numbers give a general indication of price movements in the field covered. The usual technique employs fixed weights with, however, provision for revision of the weighting pattern at suitable intervals.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—The Consumers Price Index (CPI) measures changes in the general level of the prices of the goods and services which households purchase; it thus provides the best available measure of the effect of changes in retail prices on the average household budget. Index series of retail prices have a long history in New Zealand, starting with a food and rent index for the 4 chief centres back to 1891, and increasing in comprehensiveness both as to commodity and geographical coverage over successive series since that time. The most recent revisions to the Consumers Price Index were made in 1965, 1974, and 1977.

The 1977 revision of the Index was a limited one. It was concerned with updating the expenditure pattern on which the Index is based, incorporating up-to-date population weights to be assigned to the market centres from which prices are collected, and in reviewing the items which are priced and the pricing outlets from which such prices are obtained. No changes were made to the concepts of, and definitions used in, the Consumers Price Index nor to the areas of expenditure, market centres, or households covered by the Index. The reference period or base period in the case of this revision is the year ended 31 March 1977, adjusted to reflect December quarter 1977 price levels. The main basis for establishing the expenditure pattern for the Index was the Household Expenditure Survey conducted throughout the year ended 31 March 1977.

The salient features of this index may be summarised as follows:

  1. The basic formula used is that of Laspeyres in its aggregative form.

  2. The index relates to the expenditures of all New Zealand residents living in private households.

  3. The number of items regularly priced is 565.

  4. The base expenditures are quantities for 12 months ended 31 March 1977 at prices for the quarter ended December 1977.

  5. The sources of group and commodity weights are the average expenditure per household from the Household Expenditure Survey of the year ended March 1977 supplemented by crosschecks from other statistical sources. Where considered appropriate, the base weight assigned to selected items represent expenditure on kindred items not selected for pricing.

  6. Prices for most items are collected by field officers in 25 centres, including 3 combined areas. A few are obtained by mail.

  7. Rent movements are determined by means of a quarterly survey of a sample of rented houses and flats.

  8. Special techniques are employed for costs of owner-occupier housing, for prices of seasonal fruits and vegetables, and for transport charges.

  9. Index numbers are compiled for all food and its sub-groups at monthly intervals, and for all other groups and sub-groups at quarterly intervals.

  10. Index numbers are published for 7 chief market centres and 10 larger market centres individually. Combined index numbers are also published for each of these two groupings and for all centres combined. Each centre and grouping of centres is shown on its own base and on a common, all-centres, base.

  11. To provide continuous series, the pre-revision all-groups index and food index series were converted to a base of December quarter 1977.

  12. Expenditures on the following items are, for various reasons, excluded: direct taxation; purchases of shares, bonds or debentures; payments to superannuation funds and the like; savings; collectors' items; gifts; gambling; court fines; legal expenses for traffic cases, criminal and civil cases, estates, family settlements, divorces, adoptions, etc; charitable and church donations; wages of domestic servants, home aids, home nurses, jobbing gardeners, etc.; catering and other service charges for private receptions; training, racing and stabling fees for race or trotting horses; purchase, boarding and breeding charges for animals; pet requisites (other than pet food); and grazing fees and fees for pony clubs.

The basic objective of the Consumers Price Index is to provide a multi-purpose indicator of retail price changes of those goods and services which are purchased by New Zealand residents living in New Zealand.

The weights in the Consumers Price Index are based on the pattern of expenditure of the population covered by the index rather man on what is consumed by them.

Data to revise and update the Consumers Price Index are obtained mainly from continuing household expenditure surveys. These are to be supplemented and tested by additional data on housing, national consumption, production, and expenditure.

The selection of goods and services to be priced—inevitably only a small percentage of goods and services can be priced—has been widened to include more fields of expenditure and more pricing outlets than were used in the previous index. This reflects more adequately both the expenditure patterns of New Zealand residents living in New Zealand and the movement in prices of consumer goods and services.

Consumers Price Index (1977 Revision)—The tables which follow relate to the Consumers Price Index (1977 Revision) only.

The first table supplies all-groups index numbers and index numbers of individual groups and subgroups for 25 centres combined. The group and sub-group weights are also shown as percentages of the base expenditure.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—(ALL GROUPS)—TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES COMBINED
Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres, December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Groups—
    Percentages of base expenditure19.1223.5317.047.9513.8418.52100.00
Calendar year—
    1977948956934928956948947
    19781049104310531069107810821060
    19791231112712061190124412561206
Quarter ended—
    1978—31 Dec1089107410911119112511281101
    1979—31 Mar1117108811151133115611691126
            30 Jun1224111111641177121111981177
            30 Sep1265113312521195128313061236
            31 Dec1317117712921257132713531283
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold Operation
Fruit and vegetables Meat, Fish, and PoultryOther FoodsRentalsHome OwnershipFuel and LightHousehold FurnishingsHousehold Supplies and Services
Subgroups—
    Percentage of base expenditure2.955.1211.054.0219.502.779.334.94
Calendar year—
    1977942966942954956936948908
    197810331062104810461042103710641041
    197911461370118811211129131012121137
Quarter ended—
    1978—31 Dec10211163107210701075105211151069
    1979—31 Mar10451209109410851089105211471088
            30 Jun11521361117911021113119811851107
            30 Sep11651412122311341133148912341153
            31 Dec12221499125811631180150012801199
PeriodApparelTransportationMiscellaneous
ClothingFootwearPublic TransportPrivate TransportTobacco and AlcoholOther SuppliesOther ServicesAll Croups
Subgroups—
    Percentage of base expenditure6.441.521.2212.627.885.944.70100.00
Calendar year—
    1977929921957956950954937947
    197810691068112410741080109110741060
    197911821227130412381264125312471206
Quarter ended—
    1978—31 Dec11161133119111191125114411141101
    1979—31 Mar11301146122411501149118711791126
            30 Jun11721197126912061157122012391177
            30 Sep11861231133012781357126912681236
            31 Dec12391335139413201394133713031283

The average level of consumer prices rose by 13.8 percent in 1979, compared with a rise of 11.9 percent during the preceding year. Although price increases were recorded in all main groups of the index the major contributions to the overall result came from the following subgroups: private transport, home ownership, the meat, fish, and poultry subgroup, other foods, tobacco and alcohol, and household furnishing.

The following diagram shows the movement in consumers price index numbers.

The following tables distinguish individual centres and groupings of centres, but the subgroup indexes are omitted. Attention is called, however, to the two-fold method of presentation: in the first table current prices in each centre are compared with prices in the same centre during the base period; in the second, current prices in each centre are compared with average prices over all the 25 centres in the base period.

Where the base is the individual centre, the index numbers are specially designed to show price movements in each centre. Vertical comparisons can also be made but they will show the relative amount of price movements in respective centres, not relative current price levels. In the second table, where the base is average prices over the 25 centres, horizontal or vertical comparisons may be made to compare relative price levels. However, these index numbers do not indicate how much dearer or cheaper it is to live in one centre or another, but only how much higher or lower retail price levels are in one centre than another. The construction of the index assumes the same consumption habits in all centres, regardless of size, climate, etc.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—ANNUAL GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES
Base: Weighted average each centre and grouping, separately, December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
Fourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar Year
197719781979197719781979197719781979197719781979
* Includes 8 smaller market centres, viz Tokoroa, Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, and Gore.
Auckland100010491227100010491128100010501200100010611183
Hamilton100010481227100010451130100010481186100010731184
Napier-Hastings100010501247100010441124100010501188100010781200
Palmerston North100010651254100010611148100010601223100010771202
Wellington-Hutt100010401230100010291104100010491203100010761198
Christchurch10001051122810001041112010000571218100010641188
Dunedin100010521234100010401138100010521195100010741184
Seven chief market centres100010491231100010441124100010521202100010681189
Whangarei100010581236100010351119100010711252100010551179
Tauranga100010551245100010401138100010411172100010541155
Rotorua100010481234100010461113100010661220100010681179
Gisborne100010551250100010551198100010451192100010541183
New Plymouth100010431219100010301115100010491207100010861223
Wanganui100010451234100010391126100010491226100010621188
Masterton100010521224100010341124100010911260100010691202
Nelson100010451218100010541143100010491206100010861220
Timaru100010431203100010421116100010541217100010771195
Invercargill100010481224100010431158100010641227100010711209
Ten larger market centres100010501229100010411133100010571217100010681192
Twenty-five market centres combined*100010491231100010431127100010531206100010691190
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Fourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar Year
197719781979197719781979197719781979
* Includes 8 smaller market centres, viz Tokoroa, Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, and Gore.
Auckland100010961261100010801255100010621205
Hamilton100010681229100010821254100010591199
Napier-Hastings100010701238100010871263100010611207
Palmerston North100010591219100010831249100010671214
Wellington-Hutt100010711236100010901274100010551201
Christchurch100010681236100010801246100010591203
Dunedin100010871266100010801256100010611210
Seven chief market centres100010801246100010831257100010601204
Whangarei100010911257100010791242100010631211
Tauranga100010721240100010741259100010541201
Rotorua100010731246100010831262100010621206
Gisborne100010671238100010811243100010601220
New Plymouth100010571222100010841256100010541201
Wanganui100010601227100010741267100010531210
Masterton100010671230100010851253100010641212
Nelson100010661222100010871260100010621206
Timaru100010671231100010941268100010601200
Invercargill100011011281100010751252100010641222
Ten larger market centres100010741242100010811256100010601208
Twenty-five market centres combined*100010781244100010821256100010601206
CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
Fourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar Year
197719781979197719781979197719781979197719781979
* Includes eight smaller market centres, viz. Tokoroa, Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, and Gore.
Auckland9761032120710531081116310011046119498410491170
Hamilton1011105612361006102511081004103611729419981101
Napier-Hastings999104412409359851061101210631202101210981222
Palmerston North10101074126596710241108102510911258103311091238
Wellington-Hutt10101054124610611091117199910561212102710981223
Christchurch1008105512339741021109998410361195105011191250
Dunedin10091053123491010011095103810831230103111291245
Seven chief market centres99610471228101410521134100410521202100610761198
Whangarei10001056123398110271112997106412448779141021
Tauranga10011063125410581093119710091051118396710291128
Rotorua100110501235967101010749831072122695910251132
Gisborne10361085128690798911229961064121398010481176
New Plymouth1008105412329479851067101710671228100510871224
Wanganui101110581250907983106596010241197102510621187
Masterton10291073124993998910759991093126297010251152
Nelson10081044121710231065115410141061122098010751209
Timaru983102511829371012108498110481211105111421268
Invercargill101510581235925997110696310391198105711161260
Ten larger market centres100710551235964102011109911056121698610491171
Twenty-five market centres combined*100010491231100010431127100010531206100010691190
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Fourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar Year
197719781979197719781979197719781979
* Includes eight smaller market centres, viz. Tokoroa, Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, and Gore.
Auckland102011111278103411121292101710731217
Hamilton976104312009891079125199410431182
Napier-Hastings1027110112739911087126298810531198
Palmerston North969104111999771063122699110611208
Wellington-Hutt9871056122099510831265101610721220
Christchurch100610731242102010931260100110581203
Dunedin1000109212719821066124098410601208
Seven chief market centres100410831249101110931269100610651210
Whangarei1004110612749831065122598110481194
Tauranga9751044120898410471228100610601208
Rotorua974104812169791059123497810441185
Gisborne1026110012769771061122098110541214
New Plymouth993104212049751052122098510411186
Wanganui9761039120310131084127997310371192
Masterton979104712069751077124497910501196
Nelson10011071122896110421208100110581202
Timaru997106812329541058122797410471186
Invercargill1008111412979861072124898210551212
Ten large market centres994107112389791061123298410501197
Twenty-five market centres combined*100010781244100010821256100010601206

AVERAGE RETAIL PRICES—New Zealand retail prices (weighted average prices over 25 centres) at 15 November 1979 of a number of the commodities which enter into the Consumers Price Index are shown hereunder.

CommodityUnitPrice
  Cents
Apples, eatingkg117.56
Orangeskg90.55
Cabbagekg38.35
Carrotskg100.77
Onionskg47.28
Potatoeskg40.27
Peaches, canned425 g tin61.17
Peas, green frozen1 kg pkt129.54
Beef, blade steakkg362.86
Beef, corned silversidekg368.73
Beef, porterhouse steakkg500.60
Beef, prime rib rolledkg333.38
Beef, rump steakkg464.00
Hogget, chops, middle loinkg294.39
Hogget, cut leg, knuckle endkg278.94
Hogget, forequarterkg180.68
Lamb, leg, wholekg296.85
Pork, cut leg, knuckle endkg418.34
Pork, loin chopskg432.87
Bacon, middle rasherskg668.96
Ham, cooked, pressed, slicedkg809.29
Mince, beefkg280.61
Sausages, beefkg176.68
Sole or flounder, wetkg269.59
Fish, fresh, filleted—e.g. tarakihikg422.38
Salmon, canned220 g116.39
Chicken, deep frozenMedium298.32
Eggs, min. 636g/dozenDozen115.12
Milk, delivered600 ml15.02
Butter500 g62.07
Cheese, tastykg259.18
Milk powder, full cream1 kg tin277.74
Bread, sliced, wrapped750 g44.10
Biscuits, chocolate wheaten225 g67.74
Cake, block, light fruit500 g150.64
Breakfast flake biscuits750 g81.81
Flour, white1.5 kg70.08
Oatmeal, packaged1.4 kg120.87
Rice, short grain500 g51.05
Honey500 g tin96.42
Jam, apricot400 g tin79.60
Coffee, instant100 g224.04
Coffee, ground, packaged200 g203.25
Tea250 g91.19
Margarine, table500 g91.21
Salt, iodised2 kg bag58.62
Soup, tomato450 g tin52.51
Spaghetti in tomato sauce450 g tin54.61
Sugar, white3 kg pkt162.13
Vegetable cooking oil500 ml109.38
Aerated waters740 ml bot48.19
Ice cream, vanilla2 litre135.19
Chocolate, block250 g144.65
Meals, coffee and 2 sandwichesEach90.33
Meals, grill, steak and eggsEach460.92
Takeaways, chicken, hotEach349.09
Takeaways, hamburger, hotEach74.88
Timber, dressed, 150 mm x 25 mm finishing tanalised radiata pinePer 100 lineal metres115.79
Concrete blocks, 400 mm x 200 mm x 150 mm water proofPer 10068.09
Paint, house, waterbased, high-gloss4 litre tin21.54
Wallpaper, N.Z. plain sunproofPer roll7.19
Local body ratesAnn. Demand257.20
Coal, delivered255 kg23.86
Electricity with water heating5040 MI per 2 months50.57
Gas1050 MI per month8.64
Electric blanket, single, thermostat controlEach33.52
Clothes drier, tumblerEach263.32
Home-freezer 0.31 cumEach403.37
Electric radiator, 4 elementsEach98.76
Radio, transistorised, 8 transistors 6VEach68.07
Electric range, 4 elementEach547.47
Electric razor, triple header (in travel case)Each74.19
Refrigerator 0.32 cu m dual temperature, freezer-fridgeEach539.01
Modular stereo, turntable, 3 speed, single playEach679.09
Television set, colour, 66 cmEach1,307.18
Vacuum cleanerEach160.89
Washing machine, spin dry, fully automaticEach609.80
Bedroom suite, 135 cm including dressing table, tallboyEach631.24
Motor mower, rotaryEach368.26
Tallboy, 4 drawer, rimuEach109.15
Dining room suiteEach376.63
Lounge suite, 3 pieceEach784.18
Mattress, (inner spring, with spring base and divan feet) 135 cmEach305.51
Blinds, Venetian, 175 cm wide, 130 cm dropEach92.33
Cot, wooden, painted, dropsideEach76.95
Piano, upright, iron frameEach2,043.08
Carpet, embossed, broadloomPer metre79.04
Carpet, 80/20 broadloomPer metre95.82
Blankets, all wool, singlePair55.21
Sheets, singlePair17.34
Towel, turkish, 61 cm x 122 cmEach6.07
Casserole dish, 1.7 litre pyrexEach11.84
Clock, alarmEach24.10
Mixing bowl, stainless steel 20 cmEach5.58
Saucepan, 20 cm aluminiumEach22.89
Cup, saucer, plateSet10.41
Forks, table, stainless steel1/2 dozen4.35
Hammer, 568 gEach16.94
PlaneEach31.32
Spade, gardenEach22.15
Bulb, electric light, 100WEach0.94
Cat food, tinned425 g0.52
Detergent, liquid, plastic container900 ml1.14
Disinfectant560 ml0.85
Flyspray, aerosol310 g1.78
Soap powder1.10 kg1.10
Washing powder900 g1.42
Postage, surface letters, 10 gEach0.14
Telegrams, 15 wordsEach1.90
Telephone rental, privatePer year144.00
Dry cleaning, men's 2 piece suitEach3.85
Television licence, colourPer year45.00
Television licence, black and whitePer year27.50
Man's cardigan, all wool, fully fashionedEach41.78
            HandkerchiefEach0.90
            Jeans, navyPair22.22
            Raincoat, fabricEach76.53
            Shirt, businessEach22.55
            Singlet, athleticEach4.21
            Socks, half-hose, wool/nylonPair3.63
            Suit, ready-made two-pieceEach173.27
            Swimming trunks, brinylonPair8.81
            Trousers, sports, terylene or woolPair44.10
Woman's brassiereEach8.51
            Cardigan, lightweightEach23.00
            Coat, winterweightEach106.11
            Frock, lightweightEach26.80
            Nightdress, nylonEach13.80
            Nightdress, dacron/cot-tonEach12.37
Woman's panties, nylonPair2.04
            Panty hosePair1.88
            Slacks, lightweightPair21.60
            Skirt, winterweightEach33.47
            Blouse, winterweightEach24.92
            Swimsuit, nylonEach26.10
            Underslip, nylonEach10.11
            Vest, at least 50 percent woolEach6.77
Boy's shortsPair7.79
Girl's pantiesPair1.93
          Pyjamas, heavyweightPair7.97
          Socks, ankle, nylonPair2.19
Infant's nursery squares, 76 cm x 76 cmDozen16.77
Infant's vest, eyelet meshEach2.01
Fabric kettlecloth, plain, 115 cmPer metre3.58
          Synthetic, dress, lightweight, 115 cmPer metre3.76
          Woollen/cotton mixture, 90 cmPer metre6.67
Paper pattern, dressmakingEach1.59
Knitting wool 4 plyPer 25 g ball0.73
                double knitPer 50 g ball1.43
Men's boots, heavyweight, commando solePair45.54
          Sand shoesPair7.49
          Shoes, lightweightPair46.78
Women's fashion shoes (summer)Pair37.44
            Fashion shoes (winter)Pair38.40
            SlippersPair10.40
Boy's shoes, schoolPair19.77
Girl's shoes, schoolPair15.87
Car, new basic without extras, 1051–1350 ccEach7,625.35
Bicycle, 53 cm frameEach207.46
Petrol, 96 octanePer 10 litres4.07
Car repairs, overhaul of brakesPer job88.92
                    Overhaul of gearbox, (new seals, bearings, and gaskets only)Per job165.58
Cigarettes, filter tippedPkt 200.80
Cigarette tobacco50 g pkt1.37
Beer, in a public bar200 ml glass0.27
Wine, N.Z. sherry, medium dryPer 750 ml bot2.35
Aspirinpkt of 240.67
Make-up, foundation (tinted)32 g3.58
Lipstick, 12 mm, popular colourEach3.70
Baby talc110 g0.89
Razor blades, stainless steelpkt of 51.35
Toilet paperPer 4 rolls1.37
Toilet soap, bath size tabletEach0.30
Toothpaste, family sizePer tube0.66
Ring, diamond, engagementEach966.51
Watch, wrist, man'sEach102.53
Pad, writing, 23 cm, x 18 cm 40 leaves ruledEach0.53
Long playing recordEach8.85
Construction set, child's toyEach17.65
Teddy bear, 33 cmEach16.43
Tricycle, child'sEach71.70
Bowls, outdoorSet of 4107.52
Golf club, no. 5 ironEach32.86
Rifle, 243 calibreEach398.11
Tennis ballsPer pair2.49
Tennis racquet, juniorEach29.52
Newspaper, dailyEach0.15
Optician's fee, full examination and spectacles with caseEach55.27
Dental fillingsEach7.32
DenturesPer set255.47
Medical, general practitioner's fee (in excess of G.M.S. benefit)Per service4.04
Specialist consultation, (in excess of specialist benefit)Per service10.07
Private general hospital, medical wardPer day40.96
Cinema admission, adult, eveningEach2.13
Rugby admissionEach0.78
Golf club subscription, adult, male netPer annum154.42
Rugby club subscriptionPer annum16.05
Tennis club subscriptionPer annum34.63
Motel tariff, 3 star, 2 personsPer night22.42
Funeral, burialEach724.94
Funeral, cremationEach636.03
Haircut, man'sEach2.47
Haircut, woman'sEach3.91
Hairset, woman'sEach5.61

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS—The facing tables provide a comparison of retail and wholesale prices between New Zealand and certain other countries. All the prices have been converted into New Zealand currency and the metric liquid and dry measures have been adopted as the basis for common units of quantity.

Comparisons in annual movement of Consumer Price Indexes of selected countries are given in the following table. (The base is December Quarter 1977 = 1000.)

YearNew ZealandAustraliaCanadaFrance (Paris)JapanUnited KingdomUnited States
1973556573679634598499718
1974618660753721742578798
1975708759834805831719870
1976828862896884911838920
1977947968968968987971979
19781060104510551057102910521055
19791206113911511169106511931175
INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL PRICES OF BASIC FOODSTUFFS (At December 1979 in New Zealand currency)
ItemUnitNew Zealand (Average 25 Centres)Australia (Sydney)Great Britain (200 Areas)Japan (Tokyo)

* Milk loaf sliced.

Green tea, loose.

Processed cheese.

§ Sirloin.

  centscentscentscents
Bread750 g41.271.9*72.190.4
Flour1.5 kg70.669.182.0100.2
Tea500 g181.9166.2227.1942.9
Coffee (instant)100 g227.3207.4220.1286.2
Sugar1 kg54.647.874.699.5
Milk (fresh)600 m15.030.937.270.6
Cheesekg264.2247.1438.8479.7
Butter500 g62.3110.1186.1321.1
Margarine500 g89.489.978.0181.1
Baconkg696.0718.9510.5..
Beef—rib roastkg336.6396.51015.1§1386.6
Lamb—legkg287.6352.7603.4..
Pork—legkg428.7480.8462.6592.2
Pork chopskg440.8479.6....

Sources: Australia: Australian Statistician. Great Britain: Department of Employment Gazette. Japan: Bureau of Statistics.

COMPARISON OF WHOLESALE PRICES OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES
(In 4th quarter 1979 or month in that quarter, in New Zealand currency)
ItemUnitNew Zealand*FranceGreat BritainUnited Stalest

* Fourth quarter.

October 1979.

November 1979.

  $     $     $     $     
Wheattonne..254.363218.841172.968
Oatstonne145.000..214.004118.322
Flourtonne219.180....244.353
Sugar50 kg24.714....26.687
Butter500g0.5602.3821.4081.542
Cheesekg..3.1182.9023.300
Motor spiritlitre0.1840.6540.360..

GENERAL PRICE INDEX—The General Price Index replaced and considerably extended the Wholesale Prices Index, which was discontinued from the March quarter 1978. This new series measures quarterly price level changes commencing with the December quarter 1977. It is intended to provide a measure of average price changes over all industrial and government sectors of the economy.

Price indexes for inputs and outputs at both all-industry and group levels are contained in this index. The all-groups level of the General Price Index reflects price level movements as these affect the inputs and sales of business and government. Industry groups for which separate index series are available correspond with the New Zealand System of National Accounts production groups. It is conceptually impossible to calculate an output index for the non-market oriented groups of Central Government Services, Local Government Services, and Private Non-profit Services to Households. Their activities differ substantially in character from market-oriented industries in that their output is produced for free distribution or at prices which bear no relationship to the cost of production.

The use of identical industry classification in the national accounts and in the General Price Index is part of the Department of Statistics long-term policy to integrate all economic statistics. With price deflation of the current value of each industry's input of goods and services and its output, it is possible to calculate the industry's real net output and contribution to the Gross Domestic Product. This will be in constant prices or, effectively, in volume terms.

The list of goods and services priced was selected on the basis of input-output commodity flows contained in the department's Inter-Industry Study for 1971–72. These were updated by comparison with data collected for other statistical series including the Farm Costs and the Wholesale Prices Index regimens, Import and Export lists, and other economic censuses recently undertaken. In selecting the goods and services to be priced careful consideration was given to the coverage and representativeness of various commodity groups. In particular, their absolute importance to the producing industry and the whole economy was taken into account. Specifications for the commodities and services were obtained in collaboration with suppliers of the price data to ensure representativeness of priced commodities and adherence to these specifications over time.

The weight assigned to an industry to obtain the all-industry group index is based on the New Zealand System of National Accounts Production Accounts for 1975–76. Commodity weightings within each industry index are based on data from the 1971–72 Inter-Industry Study. Adjustments have been made for significant variations in relative commodity weightings occurring between the date of the study and the index expression base.

Prices for inputs are producer prices (i.e., factory door prices including commodity taxes). Separate indexes are prepared for transport and distribution charges. Where reliable unit-values are available, these have been incorporated in the relevant input indexes. It is not intended to produce separate sub-indexes for the imported components of each industry's input.

Industry outputs are priced at approximate basic values (i.e., before the addition of commodity taxes or deduction of subsidies). These correspond to factory door prices or as close to this level as the firm's pricing policy allows. Down stream commodity taxes are excluded. In cases where price differentiation occurs between items both consumed locally and exported, separate pricing is usually obtained.

The following table shows price indexes of inputs (i.e., current purchases of commodities and services) and of outputs by industry groups. As already stated, input prices are producers' prices and include commodity taxes paid by, and subsidies received by, the producer.

GENERAL PRICE INDEX
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
Industry GroupQuarter Ended
31 Dec 197731 Mar 197930 Jun 1979
InputsOutputsInputsOutputsInputsOutputs
Agriculture100010001262130314011504
Fishing and hunting100010001127101611501044
Forestry and logging100010001105112211511193
Mining and quarrying100010001134109111701167
Manufacture of food, beverages and tobacco100010001249121214061294
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries100010001148111911961164
Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture100010001162118512001212
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing100010001157116012141192
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products100010001055109711361123
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal100010001130116011821197
Basic metal industries100010001109117612061244
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment100010001147116711691211
Other manufacturing industries100010001156114612081190
Electricity, gas, and water100010001090105915561443
Construction100010001172..1203..
Trade, restaurants and hotels100010001126115311721146
Transport and storage100010001094117411281210
Communications100010001145100011971000
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services100010001144..1193..
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings100010001188105912031072
Community, social, and personal services100010001110113011571186
Central Government services1000...1134...1185...
Local Government services1000...1136...1176...
Private non-profit services to households1000...1132...1184...
                All industry100010001158..1231..
GENERAL PRICE INDEX
Base: December Quarter 1977 (=1000)
Industry CroupQuarter Ended
30 Sep 197931 Dec 1979
InputsOutputsInputsOutputs
Agriculture1416144914971542
Fishing and hunting1205108912801172
Forestry and logging1179134912821631
Mining and quarrying1209120312531281
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco1386138514601421
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries1245119512901254
Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture1292122913761325
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing1250123513141287
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products;1369123915031373
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1233124612951281
Basic metal industries1254127313121340
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment1245125313031311
Other manufacturing industries1268127913701359
Electricity, gas, and water1576154616191548
Construction1248..1325..
Trade, restaurants and hotels1260..1316..
Transport and storage1247125013901314
Communications1261110013541240
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services1233...1304...
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings1260110313291127
Community, social, and personal services1224122112781260
Central Government services1228...1303...
Local Government services1230...1326...
Private non-profit services to households1282...1349...
                All industry1291..1367..

FARMING COSTS PRICE INDEXES—Three farming costs price indexes are calculated. These cover sheep farming, dairy farming, and all farming. There is also a farming capital expenditure price index. These indexes are designed to measure price movements only as they would affect a fixed quantity and pattern of materials and services used by the farmers in each category.

It is emphasised that these indexes are not cost of production indexes, i.e. they do not purport to measure the actual total costs of running a farm, but only measure the movements in prices paid for commodities and services used by farmers.

Full descriptions of these indexes were published in supplements to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics; the sheep farming index in the September 1973 issue; the dairy farming index in the October 1973 issue; and the all farming index in the March 1974 issue. All these indexes are published regularly in the Monthly Abstract.

The index values for the all-farming index for the latest available 4 years are set out below. The base is the year ended June 1971 (= 1000).

ItemPercentage of Base ExpenditureYear Ended June
19711976197719781979
* Excludes depreciation 9.63 percent.
Wages and rations13.7110001840208023182713
Sharemilkers5.4310001448161117632036
Animal health and breeding expenses3.2110001527177820132188
Electricity1.3210001309207426613019
Feed8.5710001666191921722353
Freight2.8810001703191721922454
Fertiliser and lime11.1910001320180919721948
Seeds1.3210001387184521792315
Shearing expenses3.6310001714196223402671
Weed and pest control1.2810001943218623522503
Other farm working expenses2.8110001837221925122641
Repairs and maintenance8.7310001779207624262756
Vehicle expenses7.5710001794208724232727
Administrative expenses2.8710001656186822112498
Insurance1.0710001077109510951111
Rates3.0810001806223525802976
Interest10.0110001206125713191430
Rent1.6910001137124313621377
All groups90.37*10001593186521052330

The table following shows a capital expenditure price index for farming. Some expenditure on topdressing comes into both indexes. Capital expenditure on land development includes topdressing and it is also included as a normal part of farm maintenance in the all-farming costs price index.

ItemPercentages of Base ExpenditureYear Ended June
19711976197719781979*
* Provisional.
Farm buildings17.5210001831214425292911
Transport vehicles19.7610001979236025882953
Tractors and farm machinery24.6910001948253629263193
Land development38.0310001635195722342436
              Total100.0010001815221225262808

PRICE AND VOLUME INDEXES OF EXTERNAL TRADE—The aims of these index series are to analyse the changes in the values of imports and exports from period to period (annually and moving 3-monthly) in order to isolate the relative price, or more correctly “unit value”, and volume components.

All these index series are of the Fisher Ideal type, which involves the calculation of two indexes (for both price and volume) for each current period on the previous year as base, one index using the weighting pattern of the base year and the other using the weighting pattern of the current period. The averaging method known as the “geometric mean” applied to these two indexes produces the index for the current period on the previous year's base which is then linked on to the index for the earlier year to provide a continuous series. The 3-monthly moving indexes (as published in the Monthly Abstract) are provisional until the calculation of the annual definitive index for the year in which they fall. The indexes for calendar quarters are then aligned to the annual indexes. Revision is also necessary on occasion as a result of corrections made by the Customs Department to provisional external trade data on which the indexes are based. The annual indexes for years ended 31 December and 31 March are calculated from the figures for component quarters.

The indexes use the whole range of data available on external trade and involve imputing trends in prices and quantities of some items to other items where it is impracticable to obtain meaningful quantity and price series. The items for which quantity data are not available and those unsuitable for pricing have imputed to them the average price and volume movements of the remainder of the division in which they are classified, or, in some cases the price and volume movement at the next higher level of index aggregation. This means that the weighting system takes account of the value of unpriced items even though these items cannot be used as explicit price or volume indicators. The imputation of movements to the unpriced items is done primarily at the S.I.T.C. (Revised) division level. However, in some cases the values of a whole division are adjusted by imputing to them the price and volume movements obtained by amalgamating the movements of several divisions.

The methodology of the indexes makes the import and export indexes consistent in approach and content with each other, and the adopted internal classifications of commodity groupings of exports facilitates the construction of export index series for industry groupings. The classification is also consistent with the United Nations recommended classification groupings for both exports and imports.

The year ended 30 June 1971 is the standard expression base for price and volume indexes for exports and imports and the tables in which they are published have been standardised in content and constituent components in line with the standardisation of the index methodology.

Although the price and volume indexes are produced as complementary series, only the price indicators are published here. The volume indexes are presented in the section on External Trade.

Export Indexes—The export items explicitly dealt with in the index represent, approximately, 95 percent of the total value of exports. The proportion of manufactured exports so treated is higher than this overall average. To qualify for inclusion as an explicit indicator of price or volume movement in the index a commodity must have an aggregate value of at least $20,000 in the base year and a minimum of $16,000 in the current 3-monthly period. This represents some 525 different items as well as subdivisions of these items. The 5 percent by value of exports that do not have a statistical unit are included in the index by imputation.

The annual indexes on the previous year as base are chain-linked to give longer-term valid comparisons. Provision is made for alignment of individual quarters in both price and volume series once annual indexes are constructed. Because of the varying quantities of particular commodities sold each quarter, the mean price or unit-value, and consequently the index number of any year, is not necessarily equal to the arithmetic mean of the quarterly figures.

Re-exports are not included in the export indexes. The items covered are defined as goods and materials grown or produced in New Zealand, and articles manufactured in New Zealand from imported materials (but not including imported goods which are exported in an essentially unchanged condition).

The following table gives export prices index numbers for years ended 30 June.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year ended June 1971 (= 1000)
Year Ended 30 JuneButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsAll Groups
197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
197512771448173011471808138314711378139017261512
197616881843200313702533173717981625173622131857
197720212024212316603837235222871862206131832301
197822482026234217993555241523932038214831502415
197924392186257222973900289628052421238035502784

The next table shows export prices index numbers for all pastoral and dairy produce groups and for all groups combined on a long time series. Separate series are prepared for calendar years and years ended June, the latter relating more closely to the farming year.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
YearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll Groups
* Provisional.
Calendar Year
1928374367
1929358353
1930278277
1931210213
1932191194
1933189194
1934236239
1935228233
1936264266
1937311311
1938286288
1939279282
1940324325
1941331334
1942341342
1943356357
1944374376
1945405406
1946443444
1947561557
1948624619
1949605599
1950860846
19511009992
1952806798
1953900888
1954915905
1955939929
1956917906
1957906893
1958767761
1959879868
1960851843
1961802797
1962818813
1963903890
1964987970
1965950937
1966942927
1967854846
1968914911
1969972966
1970974971
197110711052
197212941266
197317151623
197416271596
197515071582
197620402085
197723802394x
19782537*2542*
June Year
1929373367
1930308305
1931227229
1932202204
1933183188
1934235237
1935217221
1936254257
1937303304
1938296297
1939281282
1940317320
1941327330
1942342342
1943351352
1944366368
1945398399
1946416417
1947517513
1948623618
1949599594
1950694685
195110841062
1952809803
1953871859
1954921909
1955912903
1956934922
1957934923
1958781773
1959814805
1960900889
1961813807
1962797791
1963859850
1964976960
1965957944
1966952938
1967897887
1968867862
1969957953
1970974973
197110001000
197211721160
197315551477
197417291653
197514711512
197617981857
197722872301
197823932415
197928052784

IMPORT INDEXES—The import prices index has, since 1959, reflected changes in the c.i.f. valuation of imports. Price changes at item level are measured at the current domestic valuation in the country of origin and are adjusted by the c.d.v.: c.i.f. valuation ratio at division level.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
Year Ended JunePetroleum and ProductsTextile Yam, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery other than ElectricElectric Machinery and ApparatusTransport EquipmentFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsFuelsAll Groups
197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
197532391442171513571252135915181496171932481627
19764337174221201772179019711989x1967219743492143
197752822007233421551897203822892215250053012445
1978534020752276242718972442x26032372x242053592589
197956182133263329831994267223692562246856382747

The following table shows a longer time series of all groups import prices index numbers on the same expression base for years ended March, June, and December.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
YearYear Ended
31 March30 June31 Dec (Calendar Year)
1954698694689
1955690692703
1956706715721
1957729735745
1958746743742
1959740734724
1960725732734
1961734732738
1962735733721
1963716718721
1964724727732
1965734730732
1966733734734
1967734733745
1968776808878
1969887898912
1970920935967
197198310001027
1972103310441068
1973108410951125
1974115412301428
1975154216271881
1976200021432318
1977239824452547x
1978255625892685*
197926812747 

TERMS OF TRADE—The terms of trade is the expression of the ratio of export prices to import prices, i.e., an index of the purchasing power (in units of imports) of a fixed quantity of experts. In the table that follows terms of trade are expressed on base 1957 (= 100). However, an index above or below 100 means only that terms of trade are more or less favourable than in 1957. The choice of base year was arbitrarily made and is not intended to indicate that 1957 was a normal or standard year. For the purposes of this table both import prices and export prices indexes have necessarily been converted to a 1957 base.

The table below shows index numbers of import prices, export prices, and terms of trade.

IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE—ALL COUNTRIES
Base: Calendar Year 1957 (= 100)
Year Ended JuneImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of Trade

* Provisional.

Calendar year (base).

1957100100100
19679899101
19681089789
196912110788
197012610987
197113411283
197214013093
1973147165113
1974165185112
197521816978
197628820872
197732825879
197834727078
1979*36931285
Quarter—
    1976–30 Sep31623775
            31 Dec32024978
    1977–31 Mar34027380
            30 Jun33726880x
            30 Sep342x26477x
            31 Dec349x267x77x
    1978–31 Mar34527078
            30 Jun35528079
            30 Sep*35928680
            31 Dec*362x304x84
    1979–31 Mar*362x311x86
            30 Jun*38734188
            30 Sep*41835384
            31 Dec*44837784
    1980–31 Mar*47538681

SHARE PRICES INDEX—This index is designed to reflect changes in the aggregate value of holdings of parcels of ordinary shares in representative selections of companies listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges and trading in New Zealand. In selecting the companies, the frequency with which shares are traded was used as a criterion as well as the value of the New Zealand shareholding. The weights of the different companies are determined by the New Zealand shareholding, and appropriate methods take account of capital changes in the companies concerned.

Weights for representative groups are fixed and are based on the aggregate value for the month of November 1978 of the total value of shareholdings in all the exchange-listed companies which qualified for representation in the index.

SHARE PRICES AND DIVIDEND YIELDS—ALL GROUPS INDEX NUMBERS
Base: Month of November 1978 (= 1000)
Calendar YearShare PricesDividend Yields
1975928915
19761008846
1977919992
1978998994
197910831010

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY—The Household Survey arose from the acceptance of the Consumers Price Index Revision Advisory Committee's recommendation in 1971 that an essential feature of the revision of the Consumers Price Index should be the establishment of average expenditures of private households and that this information should be a major source for determining the relative importance (or weights, in the statistical sense) of the many items of goods and services to be included in the new index. The first year of collection of the Household Survey designed to provide this basic information ran from 1 July 1973 to 30 June 1974. In 1975–76 the collection year was changed from July–June to April–March.

The tables following refer to the year ended 31 March 1979, unless otherwise stated.

Sample surveys are an internationally accepted activity when the collection of information from the total population is either administratively impracticable or would be prohibitive in cost. To meet the needs of the Consumers Price Index revision, the Household Survey was designed to produce data on a national basis, representative of the average New Zealand private household.

A full description of the Survey, together with the concepts, definitions, and collection methods involved, is included in the annual report, New Zealand Household Survey, available from the Government Printer.

The number of responding households in the 1978–79 survey was 3320, containing a total of 10232 persons, an average of 3.1 persons per household. Persons aged 15 or over and earning $20 or more per week totalled 5774, an average of 1.8 earners per household. The following table shows households by income of household.

Weekly Income of Responding HouseholdsNumber of Responding Households
$
Under 3858
    38–76636
    77–114441
  115–153619
  154–172322
  173–191268
  192–239447
  240–287252
  288–384174
  385 and over103
          Total3320

The system used was similar to that in use in many similar surveys overseas. This involved collecting data on the more frequently purchased items by asking respondents to keep a daily record of their spending for a short period (in the New Zealand survey a fortnight of diary-keeping was sought) and at an interview conducted in the household asking respondents to recall their expenditure on major items in the preceding 12 months. The recall action usually concerned expenses of $100 or more, and therefore related to the acquisition of such things as housing units, major household appliances, motor vehicles, etc. Again for practical reasons, the diary-keeping requirement was restricted to those household members aged 15 years and over, expenditures by younger members being recorded in the diaries of adult members.

For the purpose of the Consumers Price Index revision private household expenditure was processed in considerable detail, as is shown in the full report of the Household Survey available from the Government Printer. However, for summary purposes, average expenditure was treated under eight main headings.

In early 1977 a decision was made to discontinue the collection of data on property and vehicles as from 1 April because of insufficient sample size in non-CPI revision years. When the results of the 1977–78 year were received, it was apparent that the non-inclusion of the property and vehicle sales had had a marked distorting effect on the housing and transportation groups expenditure. Similarly the total expenditure and the relative percentage expenditure figures for all groups were affected. It was therefore decided to withhold publication of some data relating to the housing and transportation groups for 1977–78, and also for 1978–79, which is similarly affected.

The collection of property and vehicle sales has been reintroduced from 1 Apr 11979 and these data will now be collected each year irrespective of sample size, although the accuracy 1evels achieved for this type of data will be rather low.

Expenditure group coverage for 1978–79—

Food—Purchases, including meals away from home where separately recorded by respondents.

Housing—Rent only. See explanation above.

Household Operation—Fuel, light, and power; household equipment and appliances; furniture; domestic supplies and services.

Apparel—Clothing and footwear.

Transportation—Public transport and overseas travel costs only. See explanation above.

Tobacco and Alcohol—Purchases.

Other Supplies—Medical, health, and personal goods; recreational, educational, and cultural goods.

Other Services—Medical and health services; entertainment charges; education fees; accommodation charges; personal services; licence fees; life insurance premiums.

In each group the expenditures comprised the total cost of particular goods or services, including credit costs, hire and repair charges.

All expenditures were expressed as average weekly expenditure per household in the particular category. Households were categorised according to their total income, number of occupants, the family types of the members (census definition), and the age of the head of the household.

In all cases information as reported by households was given without adjustment, although overseas experience has shown that expenditure on tobacco and alcohol, meals away from home, and food items such as ice cream and confectionery tend to be understated in household surveys. There is reason to believe that this Household Survey collection contained similar features.

Income, as defined in the Household Survey, related to current gross income from all sources (including Social Welfare and other benefits) for each income recipient in the household.

From 1 April 1978 a change in concept was made in the collection of income. A new questionnaire was introduced which collected details of the respondents income, occupation, industry, weekly hours worked, and employment status.

For respondents who received a wage or salary, details of their last pay were requested and the amount was rated up to an annual equivalent. Respondents with business income were asked to state the net income, before tax, received from the business and the period to which it related. If the period was less than 12 months it was also rated up to an annual equivalent.

Details were also collected on benefits or pensions received, as well as interest, dividends, rent, trust income, maintenance, and any other irregular and/or lump sum income.

Although all the additional details were collected, only that information which was necessary to ensure that the current Household Survey EDP system can function was used.

As a result of the decision to withhold some of the housing and transportation figures, the data available for publication have been considerably reduced.

The following tables show average weekly household expenditure by family types based on the 1978–79 survey, and a comparison of the results obtained from the latest 3 surveys.

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY 1978–79
AVERAGE WEEKLY HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE BY SELECTED FAMILY TYPES
Expenditure GroupCoupleCouple With 1 ChildCouple With 2 ChildrenCouple With 3 ChildrenCouple With 4 or More ChildrenOne Adult*With ChildrenExtended FamiliesNon-Family Household

* Single, separated, divorced, or widowed man or woman with children.

Rent only. See explanation above in text.

The category “1 Adult with Children With Spouse Temporarily Absent” has been omitted as the figures relate to only 1 of the 3320 households surveyed and cannot be regarded as representative.

§ Public transport and overseas travel costs only. See explanation in text.

    Average Weekly Expenditure ($)
Food26.1034.1837.8840.9652.4828.7746.2019.42
Housing5.646.254.172.763.609.097.2611.63
Household operation28.0633.3435.5232.0134.9925.2932.0718.24
Apparel11.9315.5217.4717.9621.8412.2724.779.26
Transportation§4.844.564.744.165.224.387.764.53
Tobacco and alcohol7.9810.119.298.2311.586.7213.897.69
Other goods9.1813.2114.2415.8217.8910.3017.057.56
Other services14.7117.5121.8523.5025.9712.1819.099.69
        Total households763373563252232236180720

For comparison with the 1976 results weekly average expenditures on all groups except other housing costs, and total housing, private transportation and total transportation (all households) are shown.

Expenditure on each group and subgroup is expressed as a percentage of total expenditure excluding that on other housing costs, total housing, private transportation, and total transportation.

Commodity or Service197577197778197879
$Percent$Percent$Percent
Food—
    Fruit and vegetables4.234.24.684.15.024.0
    Meat5.585.55.765.06.315.1
    Poultry and fish1.131.11.321.11.521.2
    Dairy products3.493.53.893.44.183.4
    Other food11.7211.613.4411.714.7912.0
          Total food26.1425.929.0925.331.8225.8
Housing—
    Rent5.775.75.554.86.805.5
    Other housing costs      
          Total housing      
Household Operation—
    Fuel, light and power3.543.54.543.94.473.6
    Household furnishings14.8114.716.4114.316.0813.0
    Household supplies and services5.595.66.675.87.476.0
          Total household operation23.9423.827.6224.028.0122.7
Apparel—
    Clothing9.439.411.189.711.879.6
    Footwear2.132.12.562.22.652.1
          Total apparel11.5611.513.7411.914.5311.8
Transportation—
    Public1.781.81.791.62.131.7
    Private      
    Overseas2.192.22.462.12.742.2
          Total transportation      
Tobacco and alcohol—
    Tobacco2.492.52.662.32.792.3
    Alcohol4.164.15.064.46.115.0
          Total tobacco and alcohol6.656.67.726.78.907.2
Other goods and services—
    Other goods9.129.111.109.711.769.5
    Other services13.5613.515.9513.916.6513.5
          Total other goods and services22.6822.527.0523.528.4123.0
          Total all expenditure groups (For which information is available)100.71100.0115.02100.0123.34100.0

.. Indicates that expenditures are not comparable. Expenditure on each group and subgroup is expressed as a percentage of total expenditure excluding that on “Other Housing Costs”, “Total Housing”, “Private Transportation”, and “Total Transportation”.

NOTE: It is to be stressed that the percentages shown above are for comparative purposes only and are not to be taken as indicative of true percentage weekly expenditure on the groups and subgroups shown.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on legislation affecting prices and the consumer, price levels, the CPI, household expenditure, and other matters touched on in this section will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Trade and Industry (Parl. paper G. 14).

Prices, Wages and Labour. Pt. A, PricesDepartment of Statistics (Annual).

Household Survey ReportDepartment of Statistics (Annual).

Monthly Abstract of StatisticsDepartment of Statistics (Monthly).

Consumer Council (Parl. paper G. 29).

Reports of the Consumers Price Index Advisory Committees (Parl. paper G. 28A, 1978, and Parl. paper H. 40, 1971).

Report of the Government Statistician (Parl. paper G. 28).

Report on Consumers Price Index Revision 1974Department of Statistics, 1976.

Chapter 24. Section 24 CONSUMPTION OF FOOD

Table of Contents

FOOD AVAILABLE FOR CONSUMPTION—Each year the Department of Statistics prepares statistics of the amount of food available for consumption in New Zealand, from data supplied by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and from other sources. These statistics are estimates of the total amounts of basic foodstuffs available in New Zealand for human consumption during the calendar year, making allowances for estimated quantities which are produced by households for their own consumption, including the households of commercial producers. The estimates are not of the amounts actually consumed, nor of the actual average intake of nourishment. Nor can these figures be reconciled with the figures for the average per household expenditure on food for the year recorded by the Household Survey, as the latter figures are of the expenditure on food in the form it is actually bought, often in a much more highly processed form.

Dairy Products—New Zealanders are the world's largest consumers of butter per head, but are fairly moderate consumers of cheese. The annual amounts available of the main items of dairy produce, eggs, and ice cream, estimated per head of mean population, are shown in the following table.

Food CommodityUnit19381974197519761977

* Includes condensed milk, evaporated milk and cream, milk powders, and sugar of milk.

Provisional.

Includes the whole-milk equivalent of cream consumed as such.

Fresh milk and cream (whole milk equivalent)litre129181183172167
Processed milk*kg27577
Cheesekg25558
Ice creamlitre218171617
Butterkg1915151414
EggsNo.240320273301270

Meat, Poultry, and Fish—Gradual changes are taking place in consumption patterns for meat, poultry, and fish, of which the most notable is the increase in the consumption of poultry. New Zealanders remain among the world's largest consumers of meat, judging from the amount available per head.

Estimates of the amounts of meat available per head are expressed on a bone-in dressed carcass basis.

Allowances have been made for non-commercial catches of fish, and for home production of poultry.

Catches of fish in the Exclusive Economic Zone which are not landed in New Zealand are not taken into account as they do not contribute to the amount of fish available for consumption in New Zealand.

Food CommodityUnit19381974197519761977*

* Provisional.

Year ended 30 September for 1938 figures. Later figures refer to December years.

Beefkg5257485457
Vealkg44443
Mutton and lambkg3138373330
Pigmeatskg1211121113
Edible offalkg45665
Poultrykg21091010
Fish—
    Fresh, frozen, smokedkg53221
    Shellfishkg11111
    Cannedkg12111

Vegetables and Fruits—The estimates in the following table are based on commercial production plus allowances for production in home gardens and orchards. The estimates include, at fresh weights, the fruits and vegetables grown in New Zealand and either quick-frozen or canned for local consumption.

There are considerable variations from year to year for many of the commodities and these are often a reflection of a poor growing season or a bountiful one, fluctuations in the supply of imported fruit, or a change in consumption pattern.

Availability per head of mean population for individual items is estimated as follows.

Food CommodityUnit19381974197519761977§

* Includes asparagus, beans, brussels sprouts, cucumber, leeks, parsnips, pumpkin, spinach, swedes, sweetcorn, etc.

Includes grapefruit, lemons, mandarins, tangelos, etc.

Includes nectarines, plums, grapes, pineapples, tamarillos, kiwi fruit, passionfruit, etc.

§ Provisional.

Fresh vegetables
    Potatoeskg5454525657
    Kumaraskg43222
    Cabbageskg147875
    Carrotskg51015108
    Cauliflowerkg 4654
    Lettucekg 5553
    Onionskg 914119
    Tomatoeskg99111110
    Other vegetables*kg 41067
Canned and other processed vegetableskg116211319
Quick-frozen and dried vegetableskg 15161214
Fresh fruit
    Orangeskg76766
    Other citrus fruitkg35554
    Bananaskg914121012
    Appleskg2030272727
    Pears and quinceskg34543
    Berryfruitskg 2212
    Apricotskg 3212
    Peacheskg 10777
Other fruitkg 111089
Dried fruitkg 3333

Other Foodstuffs—Most of the foodstuffs in the following table show relatively slight fluctuations in the amounts available per head in different years.

Food CommodityUnit19381974197519761977

* Includes dried peas, beans, and lentils.

Includes barley, and corn used for cornflour and maize used for com flakes only.

Provisional.

Sugar, syrups, and honeykg4446433937
Pulses*kg11111
Nutskg 3222
Cocoakg12111
Cereals—
    Wheatkg8172746972
    Oatskg42211
    Ricekg22122
    Otherkg 111
Lard, tallow, animal fatskg 3422
Vegetable oils and other fatskg 4455
Non-alcoholic Beverages and Tobacco
 Unit1938195119611971197519761977
Teakg3333223
Coffeekg  12222
Tobaccokg2222332

Alcoholic Beverages—The following table shows the estimated consumption of alcoholic beverages.

Year Ended 31 DecemberTotal ConsumptionConsumption per Head of Mean Population
BeerWineSpiritsBeerWineSpirits

* Years ended June.

Litres, not proof litres.

 litres (m)litres (m)Proof litres (m)litreslitresproof litres
194083.31.52.050.90.91.2
1970329.215.95.4116.85.61.9
1975389.826.3*9.6126.38.6*3.1
1977383.329.4*10.9122.59.4*3.5
1978398.736.1*10.0x127.411.5*3.5
1979370.835.4*12.4118.711.3*4.0

PROPORTION OF FOODSTUFFS EXPORTED—New Zealand is a major exporter of dairy produce and meat, and has a growing export trade in fruit and vegetables. The following table shows for these commodities the percentage of the New Zealand production that is exported.

Product19681974197519761977*
* Provisional.
 Percentages exported
Dairy products
    Processed milk7375516583
    Cheese8494798763
    Butter8084737775
Meat, poultry, fish
    Beef6165707167
    Veal5857656166
    Pig meat32214
    Mutton6156545760
    Lamb92898890
    Offal7673637172
    Other meat2312959595
    Poultry   11
    Fresh, smoked, or frozen fish2546597183
    Shellfish5256434146
Fruit and vegetables
    Apples4035444637
    Pears1714101111
    Berryfruits521212921
    Potatoes24579
    Onions3533173756
    Canned vegetables94354
    Quick-frozen vegetables302192427
Other foodstuffs
    Barley22513
    Honey46272716
    Pulses5583596363
    Eggs258511
    Tallow and animal fats7769788586

FOOD AVAILABLE PER DAY—The following table shows by commodity group the food available for consumption in New Zealand per day, per head of mean population.

Food CommodityGrams Per DayCalories Per DayProtein Per Day (Grams)Fat Per Day (Grams)
19761977*19761977*19761977*19761977*
* Provisional.
Cereals200207727755212322
Potatoes and other starchy foods15716111211533- -- -
Sugar, syrups, and honey105102399386
Pulses and nuts141356572222
Vegetables226242566424- -- -
Fruits198204110112- -- -- -- -
Meat (incl. poultry)32032466668139425456
Eggs474067585454
Fish128151221- -- -
Milk and cheese54354052654425282829
Oils and fats (incl. butter)5857448441- -- -3636
            Total188018983182322599107127129

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS—The table which follows, which is taken from the FAO report, The State of Food and Agriculture 1975, shows for selected groups of developed and developing countries the annual rates of growth of population and food production (exponential trend, 1961–74), and the dietary energy supplies per head (average, 1969–71). In terms of food availability, New Zealand is one of the most-favoured nations.

CountryAnnual Rates of GrowthPer Head Daily
PopulationFood Production*Domestic Demand For FoodDietary Energy SupplyProtein Supply
Kilo-caloriesRequirement

* Food component of crop and livestock production only (i.e., excluding fish production).

Supply as a percentage of physiological requirements plus 10 percent for waste at household level.

Total food, including fish.

  percent  percentgrams
Developed Countries
    Australia1.83.32.43280123108
    Canada1.61.62.53180129101
    Denmark0.70.01.3324012093
    France1.02.32.03210127105
    Germany (West)0.81.91.9322012189
    Japan1.02.13.7251010779
    Netherlands1.23.41.7332012387
    New Zealand1.72.22.03200121109
    Sweden0.61.01.0281010486
    U.S.S.R1.13.13.03280131101
    United Kingdom0.52.30.7319012692
    United States1.12.31.63330126106
Developing Countries
    Afghanistan2.41.52.219708158
    Bangladesh3.51.8 18408040
    Ethiopia2.11.73.021609372
    Ghana3.13.43.2232010149
    India2.22.23.020709452
    Indonesia2.83.22.617908338
    Nigeria2.60.63.122709663
    Pakistan3.14.64.221609356
    Rwanda2.93.61.919608458
    Somalia2.33.31.518307956

SUBSIDIES—Government subsidies on food items and on services have been sharply reduced in recent years. The following table shows the total cost of subsidies paid under the Stabilisation vote. Other subsidies, involving farm incentives, etc., are included in other Government expenditure.

Subsidy ItemsYear Ended 31 March
19761977197819791980
* Includes $5,321,000 in advance for 1980–81.
 $(thousand)
Bread5,60372
Eggs1,696227
Milk50,31136,21541,53556,68837,023
Subsidy on transport of LPG.........5259
Coal gas2,0562,7761,9992,1962,496
Subsidy on shipping services2,8592,9203,038534
Industrial coal (rail transport)458111
Subsidy to meet losses on—
    Post Office operations38,000
    Railways operations68,50016,00058,50061,000119,040*
    Electric supply13,070
                  Total182,55358,321105,072120,470158,618

Higher postal charges, rail fares, and electricity charges from early 1976 resulted in sharp cuts in the level of subsidies designed to meet losses in these areas. Milk and bread prices were increased at the same time, and at the end of March 1976 the subsidy on bread and flour was abolished. The egg subsidy was abolished at the end of April 1976. The average subsidy on milk for the year ended 31 August 1979 was 11.424c per litre. In the 1978 Budget a subsidy at the rate of 5c per litre was introduced on the transport of liquid petroleum gas (LPG) to the South Island.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Fuller information on food available for consumption in New Zealand is published as an annual supplement in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. For the international food situation the publications of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) should be consulted. Expenditure on economic stabilisation is given in the Estimates (Parl. paper B. 7 Pt. I).

Chapter 25. Section 25 ECONOMIC AGGREGATES

25 A—NATIONAL ACCOUNTS

The aim of national accounting statistics is to provide a consistent and systematic summary of the transactions taking place in the economy within a specified time period. Information on the production and use of goods and services, on the generation and redistribution of incomes, and on capital transactions is required for planning purposes, social and economic analysis, economic policy formation, and decision-making both inside and outside of government.

During the last 30 years both compilers and users of national accounts have become aware of the need to develop a comprehensive system which fulfils the above needs and which is also internationally comparable. This culminated in 1968 with the publication by the United Nations of a standard system of national accounting. The New Zealand System of National Accounts (NZSNA) is based on these United Nations guidelines and their adoption placed New Zealand's national accounts on a similar conceptual basis to most other market economies.

The New Zealand System of National Accounts replaced the National Income and Expenditure Accounts which had been produced since 1948 and last appeared for the 1976–77 financial year ending March.

The new system greatly expanded the coverage of the existing accounts and provided a general framework for the collection and presentation of all macro-economic statistics. In recent years the Department of Statistics has adopted common classifications and concepts throughout its major statistical collections and, as a result, such statistics are now fully integrated with the NZSNA.

Inter-industry studies of the New Zealand economy and the Balance of Payments Accounts (see Sections 25B and 25C) use the same concepts and classifications as the NZSNA. The industrial groupings of NZSNA are the same as those of the 25 industry format of the latest inter-industry studies. All 3 series are therefore statistically reconcilable.

Unlike the old series, which was concerned with the economic use of resources supplied by New Zealand residents regardless of where these were applied, the NZSNA concentrates on the economic activity occurring in New Zealand irrespective of whether the income generated accrues to New Zealand or overseas residents.

The first stage in the release of the NZSNA comprised the Consolidated Accounts of the Nation broken down into 4 parts, the Production Accounts of 25 industry groups, and detailed tables relating to Gross Capital Formation.

The principal tables in this section refer to the 5 years ended March 1974 to 1978.

Revised Figures

The release of the 1977–78 accounts included major revisions to the accounts for earlier years. These were released too late for inclusion in this section in the 1979 Yearbook, although the 4 Consolidated Accounts were included in the Latest Statistical Information section. It should be noted, therefore, that the accounts published here for the years 1973–74 to 1976–77 differ substantially in some areas from the accounts for these years published in this section in the 1979 Yearbook.

The major revisions in the estimates for the years prior to 1977–78 arise from the following changes:

  1. Production Group 1: Agriculture. The timing difference between the receipt and payment of stabilisation account subsidies has been removed, and consequently the subsidy and operating surplus figures for 1974–75 and 1975–76 have been changed.

  2. Production Group 3: Forestry and Logging. The method of valuing stocks of growing timber has been revised. For each year Opening and Closing Stocks are now valued at the average price prevailing during that year, thereby removing from the stock change valuations any effect due solely to movements in prices.

  3. Production Groups 5–13: Manufacturing. These have now been adjusted to a consistent 31 March balance date basis in line with data now being collected from the Department of Statistics quarterly survey of manufacturing. The previous figures were based on the department's annual manufacturing census, which collected data from firms for the year ending 31 March or the last balance date prior to 31 March.

  4. Gross Fixed Capital Formation

    1. Transfer costs associated with the purchase and sale of land and buildings have been redefined.

    2. “Plant, machinery and other equipment” has been redefined to include floating vessels, the navigability of which is subsidiary to their main function, e.g., floating cranes and derrick ships. These were previously included in Transport Equipment.

    3. Capital formation associated with forest plantations which is surveyed in the department's Census of Agriculture and was previously included in Agriculture has now been included in Forestry and Logging.

Other detailed statistics have been revised as later, more accurate, information has become available.

CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNTS OF THE NATION—The Consolidated Accounts of the Nation comprise 4 accounts:

  1. Gross Domestic Product and Expenditure—Gross Domestic Product is a measure of the value added from all economic activity in New Zealand. The account shows the various forms of income generated by the economy and the categories of the final expenditure on the domestic product.

  2. National Disposable Income and its Appropriation—National Disposable Income is the value of income available to New Zealanders. Consisting mainly of the incomes generated in production in New Zealand, adjustments are made for the income paid to and received from the rest of the world. The account also shows that part of disposable income which was spent by New Zealanders on current consumption and the portion of income which was saved.

  3. Capital Finance—Capital expenditure is recorded in this account. The difference between the accumulation of capital assets and the sources of funds (mainly savings and the income set aside for the use of assets) gives a residual to be borrowed from (or lent to) the rest of the world.

  4. External Transactions—This account brings together all transactions with the rest of the world. The residual “Surplus of Nation on Current Transactions” records New Zealand's net borrowing from the rest of the world.

Terms Used in this Section

Accounting Period—Generally financial years ending 31 March or the last accounting year prior to 31 March.

Gross Domestic Product—The total market value of goods and services produced in New Zealand after deducting the cost of goods and services utilised in the process of production, but before deducting allowances for the consumption of fixed capital.

Compensation of Employees—Payments of salaries and wages whether in cash or in kind to employees. Includes contributions paid on employees' behalf to superannuation funds, private pension schemes, the Accident Compensation Commission, casualty and life assurance schemes, etc.

Consumption of Fixed Capital—The value of depreciation at ordinary rates allowed for taxation purposes, plus an estimate for the normal rate of accidental damage, based on the insurance claims by each industry group.

Indirect Taxes—Taxes which are assessed on producers in respect of the production, sale, purchase, and use of goods and services, and which add to the market prices of these goods and services. Includes sales tax, local authority rates, and import and excise duties, and also registration fees such as motor vehicle registration which are paid by producers.

Subsidies—Grants made by Government to market-oriented producers who regard the transfers as an addition to income from current production. These grants include payments to ensure a guaranteed price or to enable market prices of goods and services to be held below the cost of production. Transfers made by local authorities out of rates receipts to finance the losses of their trading departments and deliberately incurred losses of government trading organisations are also included.

Intermediate Consumption—The value of non-durable goods and services used in production. Valuation is at purchaser's values.

Gross Output at Producer's Values—

  1. Market Production Groups: The total market value including commodity taxes of all goods and services produced during the year including stocks of work-in-progress. Included is output produced for both sale in the market and capital formation on own account.

  2. Non-market Production Groups: These producers may sell a proportion of their output in the market and such receipts are included in total output. However, most of the services produced represent unmarketed output and are valued at cost price. This assumption is necessary because there is no other basis for valuation.

Operating Surplus—This is a residual item, being gross output at producer's values less the sum of intermediate consumption, compensation of employees, consumption of fixed capital, and indirect taxes net of subsidies. It is approximately equal to accounting profit before the deduction of direct taxes, dividends, and bad debts and before the deduction of interest paid or the addition of interest received.

Final Consumption Expenditure—

  1. Resident Households: All outlays on consumer goods and services including expenditure on consumer durables such as motor vehicles and furniture; included are payments made by Government on behalf of households and the imputed rent of owner-occupied dwellings.

  2. Producers of Government services and private non-profit services to households: Total current expenditure by these producers less the value of any sales or own account capital formation (i.e. the total net current costs incurred in providing the services).

Increase in Stocks—The change in value, between the beginning and the end of the year, of stocks of raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished goods.

Gross Fixed Capital Formation—The outlays of producers on durable real assets, such as buildings, motor vehicles, plant and machinery, hydro-electric construction, roading, and improvements to land. In measuring the outlays, sales of similar goods are deducted. Land is excluded from gross fixed capital formation. Included is the value of construction work done by a firm's own employees. The term “gross” indicates that consumption of fixed capital has not been deducted from the value of the outlays.

Statistical Discrepancy—In these accounts, the items making up Gross Domestic Product and Expenditure on Gross Domestic Product are estimated independently. Including the statistical discrepancy on the expenditure side of some of these Consolidated Accounts Tables is simply a convention. It does not imply that one side of this account is more accurate than the other.

PRINCIPAL AGGREGATES—The following table gives the principal aggregates of the national accounts over a 6-year period.

AggregatesYear Ended March
19731974197519761977*1978*
* Provisional.
  $(million)
Gross domestic product7,9329,18410,08611,62714,03015,316
    Plus net factor receipts from rest of world−54−26−81−165−263−337
Gross national product7,8789,15810,00511,46213,76714,979
    Less consumption of fixed capital−630−715−819−958−1,077−1,196
National income at market prices7,2488,4439,18610,50412,69113,783
    Plus net current transfers from rest of world313411−15−7
National disposable income7,2798,4779,18710,50512,67613.776

CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNTS—The first of the 4 consolidated accounts of the nation follows.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT AND EXPENDITURE
ItemYear Ended March
1973197519761977*1978*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Compensation of employees4,6945,6396,5207,3658,465
Operating surplus3,0882,9493,4374,5294,450
Consumption of fixed capital7158199581,0771,196
Indirect taxes8509171,1031,3011,479
Less subsidies−163−238−391−240−274
Gross Domestic Product9,18410,08611,62714,03015,316
Final consumption expenditure—
    General government1,1751,4501,7321,9472,339
    Private5,4966,2437,1728,3439,392
Increase in stocks354951356688571
Gross fixed capital formation2,0642,5733,1283,4483,393
Statistical discrepancy1011303334−105
Gross national expenditure9,19011,34612,42014,46115,589
Exports of goods and services2,2542,1422,6923,8184,194
Less imports of goods and services−2,260−3,403−3,486−4,248−4,467
Expenditure on Gross Domestic Product9,18410,08611,62714,03015,316

The second of the consolidated accounts shows national disposable income, that is, the income available to New Zealanders, how it is spent, and how much is saved.

NATIONAL DISPOSABLE INCOME
ItemYear Ended March
1974197519761977*1978*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
Compensation of employees4,6945,6396,5207,3658,465
Compensation of employees from the rest of the world, net.     
Operating surplus3,0882,9493,4374,5294,450
Property and entrepreneurial income from the rest of the world, net.−26−81−165−263−337
Indirect taxes8509171,1031,3011,479
Less subsidies−163−238−391−240−274
National income8,4439,18610,50412,69113,783
Current transfers from the rest of the world, net.3411−15−7
National Disposable Income8,4779,18710,50512,67613,776
Final consumption expenditure
    Government—Central1,0391,2641,5191,7332,089
    Government—Local137186213214250
    Private—Households5,4296,1637,0858,2399,276
    Private—Non-profit organisations serving households678088104116
    Savings1,8061,4951,6012,3862,045
Appropriation of National Disposable Income8,4779,18710,50512,67613,776

The third of the consolidated accounts shows capital expenditure and how it is financed.

CAPITAL FINANCE
ItemYear Ended March
1974197519761977*1978*

* Provisional.

Includes all Government-owned producer enterprises.

 $(million)
Increase in stocks354951356688571
Gross fixed capital formation—
    Private1,4561,7121,9042,2442,017
    Central Government4356589629421,080
    Local Government173203261262296
Purchase of intangible assets from the rest of the world, net.     
Net lending to the rest of the world2−1,340−957−708−618
Gross Accumulation2,4192,1842,5263,4283,346
Savings1,8061,4951,6012,3862,045
Consumption of fixed capital7158199581,0771,196
Capital transfers from the rest of the world, net.     
Statistical discrepancy−101−130−33−34105
Finance of Gross Accumulation2,4192,1842,5263,4283,346

The fourth and last of the 4 consolidated accounts of the nation records all transactions with the rest of the world.

EXTERNAL TRANSACTIONS
ItemYear Ended March
1974197519761977*1978*
* Provisional.
 $(million) Current
Exports of goods and services2,2542,1422,6923,8184,194
Compensation of employees from the rest of the world     
Property and entrepreneurial income from the rest of the world8673727086
Other current transfers from the rest of the world123123143142163
Current receipts2,4632,3382,9074,0304,442
Imports of goods and services2,2603,4033,4864,2484,467
Compensation of employees to the rest of the world     
Property and entrepreneurial income to the rest of the world113154237333423
Other current transfers to the rest of the world89122142157170
Surplus of nation on current transactions2−1,340−957−708−618
Current disbursements2,4632,3382,9074,0304,442
Capital
Surplus of nation on current transactions2−1,340−957−708−618
Capital transfers from the rest of the world     
Net incurrence of foreign liabilities598711,001590617
Capital receipts61−46944−118−1
Purchase of intangible assets from the rest of the world     
Net acquisition of foreign financial assets32−27911220258
Statistical discrepancy30−190−69−138−259
Capital disbursements61−46944−118−1

PRODUCTION ACCOUNTS—The Production Accounts show the production of goods and services in New Zealand in each year, analysed according to economic activity. Each account measures the gross output of goods and services and the costs incurred. The classification used in establishing these groups firstly distinguishes between those producers that are market-oriented and those that produce goods and services that are not normally marketed.

Market-oriented producers are those who either produce goods or services for sale on the market at prices that are designed to cover the costs of production, or produce similar kinds of goods and services and use similar kinds of inputs and production processes (with the exception of social and community services provided by government or private non-profit organisations serving households) although this production may not be intended to make a profit and may not be disposed of in the market.

Market producers are then classified according to industry into 21 production groups which correspond with major divisions, divisions, major groups, or sub-groups in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

Groups not normally producing for the market are sub-divided into those owned by Central Government, local government, and private non-profit organisations which provide services for households.

The revised system explicitly recognises the Government as a producer when it carries out its conventional role of administrator, provider of health services, education, defence services, etc. Similarly, the large number of organisations which provide services on a non-profit basis—religious orders, schools, hospitals, sporting clubs, etc.—are now included in the national accounts. Also included among the non-market production groups is an account recording the wages paid by households employing domestic labour.

An additional table is provided which distinguishes market production groups according to the sector of ownership.

Two points require further clarification. Firstly, the item ‘imputed bank service charge’. Financial enterprises whose expenditure is largely financed out of net receipts of interest (such as trading banks and finance companies) require special treatment in the national accounts. The interest that they receive is viewed as consisting of a pure interest component and a ‘service charge’ which is paid by the users of banking services. However, this imputed service charge has not been allocated to customers and therefore the convention is adopted that all is paid by a nominal industry which accordingly has a negative operating surplus equal to the value of the service charge. Total output is therefore zero and the effect in aggregate is that a correct operating surplus figure is recorded for all market producers.

Secondly, no figure is given for consumption of fixed capital by the producers of central and local government services. This omission is entirely due to the present inability to obtain an indication of the correct value from the cash accounts maintained by these 2 producers. The feasibility of deriving estimates from other sources is currently under investigation.

GDP by Production Group—The following table shows gross domestic product (GDP) by the kind of economic activity, i.e. by production group.

Production CroupsYear Ended March
1974197519761977*1978*

* Provisional.

For imputed bank service charge.

Market production groups—$(million)
Agriculture1,1298521,1131,4991,363
Fishing and hunting1614172632
Forestry and logging8587100134137
Mining and quarrying40493266137
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco458582704842879
Textiles, wearing apparel and leather industries227245284323337
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture159181196226208
Manufacture of paper and paper products; printing and publishing223276312373414
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products176203180288311
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal94104125136150
Basic metal industries649179128122
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment517626664800819
Other manufacturing industries2727333942
Electricity, gas, water177169201288400
Construction565681783832872
Trade, restaurants, hotels2,0622,2832,6223,0983,405
Transport, storage558623655855912
Communication176197210308375
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services8949591,1031,2871,505
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings280325440498581
Community, social and personal services312382470526602
Nominal industry−185−204−245−276−304
    Total market production groups8,0538,75210,07712,29513,301
Non-market production groups—
Central Government services8259801,1741,3241,567
Local government services85103127122140
Private non-profit services to households718397109125
Domestic services of households767811
    Total non-market production groups9891,1721,4061,5631,843
    Total, all production groups9,0429,92411,48313,85815,143
Plus: import duties120142124147150
Plus: other indirect taxes not allocated to production groups2319192522
Gross Domestic Product9,18410,08611,62714,03015,316

The contribution of each production group to gross domestic product is shown as a percentage of the total GDP in the following table.

Production GroupsYear Ended March
1974197519761977*1978*
* Provisional.
 Percentage
Agriculture12.38.49.610.78.9
Fishing and hunting0.20.10.10.20.2
Forestry and logging0.90.90.91.00.9
Mining and quarrying0.40.50.30.50.9
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco5.05.86.16.05.7
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries2.52.42.42.32.2
Manufacture of wood and wood products incl. furniture1.71.81.71.61.4
Manufacture of paper and paper products; printing and publishing2.42.72.72.72.7
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products1.92.01.52.12.0
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1.01.01.11.01.0
Basic metal industries0.70.90.70.90.8
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment5.66.25.75.75.3
Other manufacturing industries0.30.30.30.30.3
Electricity, gas, water1.91.71.72.12.6
Construction6.16.86.75.95.7
Trade, restaurants, hotels22.422.622.622.122.2
Transport, storage6.16.25.66.16.0
Communications1.92.01.82.22.4
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services9.79.59.59.29.8
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings3.03.23.83.53.8
Community, social and personal services3.43.84.03.73.9
Central government services9.09.710.19.410.2
Local government services0.91.01.10.90.9
Private non-profit services to households0.80.80.80.80.8
Domestic services of households0.10.10.10.10.1
Not allocated−0.5−0.4−0.9−0.7−0.9
Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The following table shows the components of gross domestic product and the components of each industry's output by each of the 25 production groups for the latest available 5 years. The figures for 1976–77 and 1977–78 are provisional throughout.

YearComponents of Gross Domestic ProductComponents of Industry Input
Compensation of EmployeesOperating SurplusConsumption of Fixed CapitalIndirect TaxesLess SubsidiesContribution to Gross Domestic ProductIntermediate ConsumptionTotal Industry Output
* Includes Stabilisation Subsidies ($52 million in 1975–76 and $7 million in 1976–77) not included in Agriculture Production Account.
$(million) at Producers' Values MARKET PRODUCTION GROUPS
Agriculture
1973–741907771383161,1299092,038
1974–7519449114433108527371,588
1975–76*22375017440731,1139572,070
1976–77*2541,02120848331,4991,1752,674
1977–7827980824555231,3631,2502,613
Fishing and Hunting
1973–74754- -161228
1974–75733- -141327
1975–76854- -171532
1976–7711114- -- -262348
1977–78131541- -322861
Forestry and Logging
1973–74334471- -8555139
1974–7539398118758145
1975–76494192110066166
1976–7757691025134101234
1977–786863925137108245
Mining and Quarrying
1973–74239811404282
1974–75261310114952101
1975–7630−712143276108
1976–773317135266124190
1977–7838481834- -137172309
Manufacture of Food, Beverages, and Tobacco
1973–742848244103544581,2731,732
1974–7536112851102605821,3571,939
1975–7643314862119587041,6182,322
1976–7746120878136418421,9362,778
1977–7856411186166478792,2443.123
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather Industries
1973–741587513322227340567
1974–75195351522245415660
1975–7621253172- -284436720
1976–7724655202- -323564887
1977–7826647223- -337633971
Manufacture of Wood and Wood Products incl. Furniture
1973–749948102159227386
1974–7511949121- -181272454
1975–7613246172- -196310506
1976–7715253192- -226373599
1977–7815434182- -208393601
Manufacture of Paper and Paper Products; Printing and Publishing
1973–7412964228223266488
1974–7515683297- -276338614
1975–7617794339- -312433745
1976–772011224010- -373567940
1977–782391224211- -4146591,073
Manufacture of Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
1973–741016617715176396572
1974–751297821833203659861
1975–7614665231265180799979
1976–771681442812642881,0541,342
1977–782081143214573111,1611,473
Manufacture of Non-Metallic Mineral Products except Products of Petroleum and Coal
1973–7451339194112206
1974–756132101- -104143247
1975–766843131- -125175299
1976–777743151- -136215350
1977–788450151150213363
Basic Metal Industries
1973–7430259- -64144208
1974–75443710- -- -91178269
1975–76462211- -- -79199279
1976–775757131- -128261389
1977–786642131122283405
Manufacture of Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery and Equipment
1973–7433113326265177301,247
1974–75411159302616269331,559
1975–764591383731- -6641,1571,821
1976–77510216393518001,3742,174
1977–78586148493948191,5582,377
Other Manufacturing Industries
1973–7416911272754
1974–7517711273259
1975–76201022- -333972
1976–77241122- -394888
1977–78241323425092
Electricity, Gas, Water
1973–7468733622177169346
1974–75797039120169197366
1975–76947745216201218419
1976–771031375024288329617
1977–781192255633400433832
Construction
1973–743671603355651,1361,701
1974–754391954166811,4992,180
1975–764972314877831,8492,632
1976–7754124047848322,1713,003
1977–78595233431098722,2153,087
Trade, Restaurants, Hotels
1973–74799825110355282,0621,5443,606
1974–75965820123394202,2831,6403,922
1975–761,108878144526342,6222,0224,644
1976–771,2921,081141608243,0982,5065,604
1977–781,4781,134157661243,4052,6576,062
Transport, Storage
1973–7438283892420558417975
1974–754669710123636235091,133
1975–765199511224956556441,299
1976–7759015312832488557721,627
1977–7866317012244879129261,838
Communication
1973–7414618164717636212
1974–75180191722119742239
1975–76207202023921063272
1976–7723451232130868376
1977–7827572253137574449
Financing, Insurance, Real Estate and Business Services
1973–74353443524818943431,237
1974–75407435635419593861,346
1975–76492468747011,1034401,544
1976–77566556828971,2875201,807
1977–786516599710471,5056212,125
Ownership of Owner-Occupied Dwellings
1973–74...1755054...280166446
1974–75...2046457...325195520
1975–76...2977568...440222662
1976–77...3298683...498269767
1977–78...3839999...581287868
Community, Social and Personal Services
1973–7415312515257312236548
1974–7518315817286382273655
1975–7621220920345470330800
1976–772422292239652638–7913
1977–78277263274166024491,052
Nominal Industry (for imputed bank service charge)
1973–74−185−185185
1974–75−204−204204
1975–76−245−245245
1976–77−276−276276
1977–78−304−304304
Total Market Production Groups
1973–743,7183,0887077021638,0538,76616,819
1974–754,4822,9498107492388,75210,73318,885
1975–765,1313,43794995239110,07712,51322,390
1976–775,8204,5291,0661,12024012,29515,11227,407
1977–786,6464,4501,1831,29627413,30116,71830,019
NON-MARKET PRODUCTION GROUPS
Central Government Services
1973–74824..28252671,092
1974–75978..29803401,320
1975–761,172..21,1744161,590
1976–771,321..31,3244941,818
1977–781,561..51,5676172,183
$(million) at Producers' Values
Local Government Services
1973–7484..285126212
1974–75101..2103163267
1975–76124..2127189316
1976–77120..2122197319
1977–78138..2140237377
Private Non-Profit Services to Households
1973–7461827164135
1974–7572928376159
1975–7685939784181
1976–779610310997206
1977–78108134125104229
Domestic Services of Households
1973–74777
1974–75666
1975–76777
1976–77888
1977–78111111
Total Non-Market Production Groups
1973–74976859894571,446
1974–751,157971,1725791,751
1975–761,389971,4066892,094
1976–771,5441091,5637872,356
1977–781,81913111,8439582,801
All Production Groups—Total
1973–744,6943,0887157071639,0429,22318,265
1974–755,6392,9498197552389,92410,71220,637
1975–766,5203,43795895939111,48313,00224,485
1976–777,3654,5291,0771,12824013,85815,89929,757
1977–788,4654,4501,1961,30727415,14317,67632,820

In the following table the components of GDP and of industry output for the total market production groups are shown by sector of ownership. As in other tables, the 1976–77 and 1977–78 figures are provisional.

Year Ended MarchComponents of Gross Domestic ProductComponents of Industry InputTotal Industry Output
Compensation of EmployeesOperating SurplusConsumption of Fixed CapitalIndirect TaxesLess SubsidiesContribution to Gross Domestic ProductIntermediate Consumption
$(million) at Producers' Values
Private Sector
1973–743,0863,0656156791297,3157,87715,193
1974–753,7102,9757027281297,9868,99216,977
1975–764,2103,4968259262359,22110,84120,063
1976–774,8034,4369211,08717511,07213,33524,406
1977–785,4334,2481,0371,25416111,81114,59226,403
YearComponent of Gross Domestic ProductComponents of Industry InputTotal Industry Output
Compensation of EmployeesOperating SurplusConsumption of Fixed CapitalIndirect TaxesLess SubsidiesContribution to Cross Domestic ProductIntermediate Consumption
$(million) at Producers' Values
Central Government Sector
1973–745131596818217384581,196
1974–756341278216947656491,415
1975–7675613394201378668881,754
1976–7783826911225461,1981,0692,268
1977–781,00436110734911,4141,2532,667
Local Government Sector
1973–741184924512185246431
1974–751395126515205288493
1975–761665330619235339574
1976–7717910134719301431733
1977–7820914540822380570949
Nominal Industry (for imputed bank service charge)
1973–74−185−185185
1974–75−204−204204
1975–76−245−245245
1976–77−276−276276
1977–78−304−304304
Total Market Production Groups
1973–743,7183,0887077021638,0538,76616,819
1974–754,4822,9498107492388,75210,13318,885
1975–765,1313,43794995239110,07712,31322,390
1976–775,8204,5291,0661,12024012,29515,11227,407
1977–786,6464,4501,1831,29627413,30116,71830,019

GROSS FIXED CAPITAL FORMATION—Gross fixed capital formation tables record purchases of capital assets, reduced by the value of sales, plus the value of construction work done by an establishment's own employees; no deduction has been made for assets used up during the period of account. Land purchases and sales, other than land improvements, are excluded by definition.

The following table shows gross fixed capital formation by production group within each sector of ownership.

Production CroupYear Ended March
1974197519761977*1978*
* Provisional.
$(million)
Market production group—Private Sector
Agriculture184151199262272
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging99111010
Mining and quarrying949668078
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco76119125143129
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries1626272427
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture1625313313
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing7781498444
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products3130405252
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1319203311
Basic metal industries5893717
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment4857516264
Other manufacturing industries32133
Electricity, gas, and water1- -221
Construction49678511921
Trade, restaurants, hotels186206221255272
Transport and storage8989143111129
Communication
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services129156143155178
Community, social and personal services
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings478579633737661
Total market production groups1,4221,6741,8562,2021,985
Non-market production groups—
Central Government services
Local government services
Private non-profit services to households3438484232
Domestic services of households
              Total non-market production groups3438484232
              Total private gross fixed capital formation1,4561,7121,9042,2442,017
Market production groups—Central Government
Agriculture6913912
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging58101014
Mining and quarrying3207910725
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries−1- -- -- -- -
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture11111
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing11111
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products- -- -- -- -- -
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal
Basic metal industries
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment43976
Other manufacturing industries
Electricity, gas, and water99156224247285
Construction288594
Trade, restaurants, hotels33354
Transport and storage6910211610181
Communication4356786768
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services23551178887
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings
Community, social and personal services613191024
              Total market production groups261435678658702
Central government services174223284284378
Local government services
Private non-profit services to households
Domestic services of households
              Total non-market production groups174223284284378
              Total Central Government gross fixed capital formation4356589629421,080
Market production groups—Local Government
Agriculture- -- -- -- -- -
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging- -- -- -11
Mining and quarrying- -- -- -- -- -
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco- -1211
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing- -- -- -- -- -
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products- -- -- -- -- -
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal- -- -- -- -- -
Basic metal industries
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment
Other manufacturing industries
Electricity, gas, and water4560817391
Construction2- -111
Trade, restaurants, hotels55325
Transport and storage2426375263
Communication
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services1217202024
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings...............
Community, social and personal services- -- -- -- -- -
              Total market production groups89110143150186
Non-market production groups—
Central Government services...............
Local government services8393118112110
Private non-profit services to households
Domestic services of households
              Total non-market production groups8393118112110
              Total local government gross fixed capital formation173203261262296
$(million)
Market production groups—Total
Agriculture190161212271284
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging1417222025
Mining and quarrying1269145187104
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco77120127144130
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries1526272427
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture1726333416
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing7883508545
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products3130405252
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1319203311
Basic metal industries5893717
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment5260607071
Other manufacturing industries32133
Electricity, gas, and water145216306321377
Construction527594124115
Trade, restaurants, hotels194213226262281
Transport and storage182218296264274
Communication4356786768
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services170240299273312
Community, social and personal services
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings478579633737661
              Total market production groups1,7722,2192,6773,0102,873
Non-market production groups—
Central Government services174223284284378
Local government services8393118112110
Private non-profit services to households3438484232
Domestic services of households
              Total non-market production groups291354450439520
              Total gross fixed capital formation2,0642,5733,1283,4483,393

In the following table the composition of gross fixed capital formation is shown by type of capital good. The 1976–77 and 1977–78 figures are provisional.

YearType of Capital GoodTotal
Residential BuildingsNon-Residential BuildingsOther ConstructionLand ImprovementsTransport EquipmentPlant, Machinery, and Other Equipment
$(million)
Private Sector
1973–7451725624512263821,456
1974–7560832827372374751,712
1975–7665431779403334811,904
1976–7775336698513176592,244
1977–7869236693452665552,017
$(million)
Central Government
1973–7416148102457108435
1974–75482101507103140658
1975–76892842209116246962
1976–77633042071082276942
1977–786033027113783291,080
Local Government
1973–7492410512914173
1974–751332115121418203
1975–761432148131935261
1976–771530145162038262
1977–781730160172645296
Total
1973–74542427231662935042,064
1974–75669570292563536342,573
1975–76757632446624697613,128
1976–77831701450764189723,448
1977–78768726524753709293,393

The next stage in the development of the new system of national accounts will be in the preparation of quarterly estimates in dollar values current in each period; such information will considerably increase the usefulness of the national accounts particularly for economic policy purposes. Following the completion of this project, work will concentrate on expressing both Production Accounts and the Consolidated Accounts of the Nation in terms of constant dollars to eliminate the effect of price changes and thereby obtain measures of the real contribution of industry groups to changes in Real Gross Domestic Product. Better information on structural changes in the economy and industry productivity can also be derived from such statistical series.

The introduction of the new series of national accounts from 1971–72 onwards produced a definite and clear hiatus between the previous and present series of statistics of which users should be aware. A full and detailed report explaining classifications, definitions, working methods, and concepts is in course of preparation.

25 B—BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

A country's balance of payments statement is a comprehensive account of its economic transactions with the rest of the world. The New Zealand balance of payments estimates are based on the principles set out in the Balance of Payments Manual (Fourth Edition), published by the International Monetary Fund and are in conformity with the methods used by other countries.

Annual and quarterly estimates of the New Zealand balance of payments are shown in more detail in an annual volume, Balance of Payments, published by the Department of Statistics. Quarterly data and annual summaries are also published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

MAJOR PRINCIPLES—The major principles used in preparing a balance of payments statement are:

  1. Goods sold from one country to another are recorded at the time ownership changes, and other transactions are recorded at the time they occur.

  2. Exports and imports of merchandise are valued at f.o.b. (free on board) of the exporting country.

  3. As far as possible, all transactions are shown on a gross, rather than on a net, settlement basis.

  4. Wherever possible, all transactions are valued at market prices.

  5. All transactions are recorded in New Zealand dollars. Where another currency was used for the transaction the currency exchange rates ruling at the time the transaction occurred have been used to convert the transaction to New Zealand dollars.

COMPONENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND BALANCE OF PAYMENTS—The following description refers to the summary table on a following page.

Exports/Imports (as Published in External Trade Statistics)—These are for March years and are otherwise identical with the figures published in Section 22, External Trade. Exports are valued f.o.b.; imports are valued c.i.f. (cost, insurance, and freight).

Adjustments to Balance of Payments Concepts—There are some imports and exports which are included in the balance of payments but not in external trade statistics. These include ships and aircraft purchased by New Zealand residents for use in international trade.

A considerable portion of New Zealand's exports are sold on consignment in the United Kingdom. The change of ownership occurs well after the goods have been recorded in New Zealand external trade statistics. Also, the valuation in external trade statistics is an estimate of future realisations. Adjustments to bring trade statistics to balance of payments concepts show mainly as a credit entry.

The debit entry contains the adjustment of imports from c.i.f. value to f.o.b. value.

Some items, such as ships' stores and passengers' baggage, are removed from merchandise trade and shown elsewhere in the balance of payments statement.

Exports/Imports (f.o.b. Exporting Country)—New Zealand's exports and imports of merchandise on a balance of payments basis.

Balance on Merchandise Trade—The surplus of exports f.o.b. over imports f.o.b.

Transportation, Travel, Insurance, Other Miscellaneous Services, and Government Transactions—The exports of services from, and imports of services to, New Zealand. The balance on services is the difference between the sum of the credit entries and the sum of the debit entries for these items.

International Investment Income—The credit entries show the income accruing to New Zealand residents from overseas investments while the debit entries show the income accruing to overseas residents from their investments in New Zealand.

Balance on Invisibles—The balance on services plus international investment income credits minus international investment income debits.

Transfers—This item provides the counter-entries for gifts of goods, services, and financial assets to and from New Zealand. Examples are immigrants' transfers, gifts and donations, foreign aid payments, and relief supplies.

Balance on Current Account—The balance on merchandise trade plus the balance on invisibles plus transfer credits minus transfer debits. It is a measure of the surplus of outflows of goods, services, and transfers from New Zealand over the inflows of goods, services, and transfers into New Zealand.

Overseas Direct Investment in New Zealand, New Zealand Direct Investment Overseas, and Other Private Long-Term Capital Movements—These items show the changes in long-term claims on the rest of the world and long-term liabilities to the rest of the world of the private sector.

Government Capital Movements—Includes all Government capital movements except movements in Government-held reserve assets and Government borrowing to maintain New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves.

Capital Movements by Monetary Institutions—This item includes those capital movements by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand and the five trading banks which are not movements in reserve assets or borrowing to maintain reserves.

Residual—This is the balancing item. It is the difference between the sum of the credit column and the sum of the debit column. It covers any errors in the balance of payments estimates and all omissions. Included in the omissions are short-term private capital movements.

Balance Before Compensatory Financing—The sum of all transactions, other than reserve transactions and transactions undertaken to maintain reserves.

Compensatory Financing—Borrowing undertaken by the Government or the Reserve Bank to compensate for imbalances in New Zealand's transactions with the rest of the world.

Balance after Compensatory Financing—The sum of all transactions other than reserve transactions. The change in New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves due to transactions is the same in direction and magnitude as this balance.

Reserve Transactions—The movements in New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves during the year. Reserves measured in New Zealand dollars may change because transactions have occurred or because the value of the New Zealand dollar has changed relative to the currency in which the reserve asset is denominated. The presentation shows the total change in reserves and, separately, a counterpart to changes in reserves caused by exchange rate changes. The difference of these two items is equal to the change in reserves caused by transactions in reserve assets.

New Zealand's reserves may change because of an allocation of Special Drawing Rights by the International Monetary Fund. This is not regarded as a transaction and there is a counterpart item for such an allocation.

For a more detailed description of the concepts and methods used in preparing balance of payments estimates and the contents of items in the estimates refer to the latest edition of the Department of Statistics annual publication Balance of Payments obtainable from the Government Printer.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND EXCHANGE RECORD—There are several very important differences between a balance of payments statement and the statistics of overseas receipts and payments which are included in an exchange record, such as is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency. The main differences are:

  1. The balance of payments attempts to show all economic transactions between residents of one country and residents of other countries, whereas the exchange record shows only transactions involving remittances.

  2. The import and export figures in the balance of payments are based on trade statistics, which enable goods to be valued at a definite and uniform valuation boundary—viz, f.o.b., country of export. The exchange record, on the other hand, records remittances for imports and exports whenever these are made and without adhering to any valuation basis (f.o.b. or c.i.f.). The result is a difference both in timing and valuation between the two statements.

  3. Whereas exchange statistics record net settlements resulting from a number of possible contra-entries or offsets, the balance of payments shows these transactions as far as possible on a gross basis.

Other differences arise from the fact that the balance of payments is constructed on a basis of country of purchase for imports and country of destination for exports, country of residence of remittor or remittee, and nationality in the case of shipping companies, whereas the record of exchange transactions is based on the country of monetary settlement.

In essence, the exchange record is a statement of cash flows, or using the terminology of commercial accounting it is the “cash book” of the nation's transactions with other countries; the balance of payments statement on the other hand approaches an “income and expenditure” account.

GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION—The regional break-up of the balance of payments is on a geographical (as distinct from a currency) basis. This means that it is not the currency in which any economic transaction is settled but the residence of New Zealand's immediate partner in the transaction which determines in which regional column the transaction is recorded. Any exception to this rule is due to statistical necessity—insufficiency of basic data, etc., rather than choice.

United Kingdom (including Channel Islands).

Australia (including Norfolk Island, but excluding Papua New Guinea).

USA—United States of America, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, and other American islands in the Pacific.

Canada, Japan.

EEC Countries—The 6 members of the European Economic Community which formed a common market in 1958; Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and the Federal German Republic, together with their associated and dependent overseas territories. From and including 1973–74 Denmark and Ireland were included with EEC. The United Kingdom has also become a member of the EEC but it is being shown separately.

Other OECD—Austria, Finland, Greece, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey.

Asia-Oceania—All Asian and Pacific countries except Australia, Japan, and New Zealand. Afghanistan is the most western country in this group.

Latin America-Caribbean—All the Americas except Canada and the USA.

Other Countries—All countries not included in any other group.

International Organisations—Transactions with the United Nations and its agencies, the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Finance Corporation, the Asian Development Bank, South Pacific Air Transport Council, and other international organisations.

ACCOUNTING PERIOD—All estimates are for financial years ended 31 March.

RESIDENTS AND NON-RESIDENTS—The balance of payments is a record of economic transactions between residents and non-residents.

Residents are all people living permanently in New Zealand (and who have their “centre of interest” in New Zealand). Subsidiaries and branches of overseas companies are treated as residents, while subsidiaries and branches of New Zealand companies operating overseas are regarded as residents of the country in which they operate.

In order to simplify the rather complex operations of overseas shipping companies, the shipping transactions of their branches in New Zealand (such as their receipt of freights, port disbursements administrative expenses in New Zealand, etc.), are regarded as transactions of non-residents, by way oil exception to the general rule stated above; on the other hand, their investment activity is included in the data on New Zealand branches of overseas companies and conforms to the general rule.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND THE EXTERNAL TRANSACTIONS ACCOUNT OF THE NATIONAL ACCOUNTS—As far as possible, the balance of payments account and the external transactions account are prepared using the same principles and definitions. However, they have different uses and there are some major differences in content. The most important of these is the inclusion of the undistributed earnings of direct investment enterprises in the balance of payments. This is the reason why the surplus of the nation on current account in the external transactions account is more favourable than the balance on current account as shown in the balance of payments accounts.

SUMMARY TABLE—The following table presents a summary of New Zealand's transactions with other countries during the four latest available financial years.

Item1975–761976–771977–781978–79*
CreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebit
* Provisional.
NZ$(million)
Exports/imports (as published in external trade statistics)2,016.92,772.73,070.83,327.33,319.83,396.33,844.23,529.6
Adjustments to balance of payments concepts21.3−196.3−53.2−183.7−0.9−185.6−2.0−257.8
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)2,038.22,576.43,017.63,143.63,318.93,210.73,842.23,271.6
      Balance on merchandise trade−538.2−126.0108.3570.9
Transportation349.0418.9410.7475.3513.6525.7557.7518.4
Travel143.1193.4160.8245.1160.7300.0165.9388.3
Insurance−0.92.60.63.92.28.2−0.67.2
Other miscellaneous services72.7164.978.2178.695.0259.9103.5285.5
Government transactions41.959.249.364.338.584.848.0109.7
      Balance on services−233.2−267.6−368.6−434.7
International investment income87.3332.7103.7526.7122.8571.0108.6684.9
      Balance on invisibles−478.6−690.6−816.8−1,011.0
Transfers142.7141.5141.7156.6162.8170.1165.8208.2
      Balance on current account−1,015.6−831.5−715.8−482.5
Overseas direct investment in N.Z. (net)114.7278.9159.2263.9
N.Z. direct investment overseas (net)17.735.832.935.9
Other long-term private capital movements—
    Increases in assets (net)−11.9−26.5−0.1−6.3
    Increases in liabilities (net)147.525.0109.7−76.5
Government capital movements (excluding movements in Government-held reserve assets)—
    Increases in assets (net)21.928.622.7142.1
    Increases in liabilities (net)198.7168.1−10.1247.6
Capital movements by monetary institutions (excluding movements in reserve assets)—
    Increases in assets (net)8.46.21.3
    Increases in liabilities (net)3.4
Residual (includes short-term private capital movements and errors and omissions)47.7101.4239.2−299.0
Balance before compensatory financing−543.1−302.2−269.9−519.5
Government borrowing (net)371.6178.4463.0337.01
Reserve bank borrowing (net)70.715.953.4
I.M.F. drawings (net)192.1117.8−6.4−57.0
Total compensatory financing (net)634.4312.1510.0280.0
Balance after compensatory financing91.3 9.9 240.1 −239.5 
Monetary gold0.9−0.9
Special drawing rights—
    Total change in holdings4.911.527.10.1
    Counterpart to allocation/cancellation29.3
    Counterpart to valuation changes1.92.9
    Change due to transactions4.99.624.2−29.2
Reserve position at the I.M.F.—
    Total change in holdings13.829.7
    Counterpart to valuation changes
    Change due to transactions13.829.7
Assets of the N.Z. banking system—
    Total change in holdings92.516.581.0−60.5
    Counterpart to valuation changes26.49.7
    Change due to transactions66.16.881.0−60.5
Treasury and other Government-held securities—
    Total change in holdings41.410.6144.2−172.8
    Counterpart to valuation changes21.117.124.05.8
    Change due to transactions20.3−6.5120.2−178.5
Summary of reserve transactions—
    Total change in reserves138.838.6267.0−204.4
    Counterpart to valuation changes47.528.726.935.1
    Changes in reserves due to transactions91.39.9240.1−239.5
Total reserves at 31 March (as shown in Reserve Bank Bulletin)684.8 720.6 983.6 803.9 

A summary of New Zealand's balance of payments transactions by regions during the years 1977–78 and 1978–79 is shown in the table on the following 2 pages.

REGIONAL SUMMARY 1977–78 AND 1978–79
ItemUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States of AmericaCanadaJapanE.E.C.Other O.E.C.D.Asia-OceaniaLatin America-CaribbeanOther CountriesInternational OrganisationsTotal
CreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebit
* Provisional
NZ$(million)
1977–78x
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)673.4636.6420.2724.7404.1514.267.890.7445.1466.3364.0258.889.559.6462.8285.778.414.3313.5159.73,318.93,210.7
      Balance on merchandise trade36.8−304.5−110.2−22,9−21.2105.229.9177.264.0153.8108.3
Services229.6376.0303.5309.6142.2179.16.113.736.746.536.780.49.749.931.991.80.67.313.024.2- -810.01,178.6
International investment income15.8146.161.384.410.1127.02.59.13.715.79.962.34.661.19.26.03.51.22.058.10.1122.8571.0
        Balance on invisibles−276.6−29.2−153.8−14.2−22.0−96.1−96.7−56.7−4.4−67.30.2−816.8
Transfers66.133.845.841.315.79.05.13.71.00.513.74.02.61.910.157.10.30.92.45.312.4162.8170.1
        Balance on current account−207.8−329.3−257.3−35.8−42.518.9−66.273.459.083.8−12.3−715.8
Overseas direct investment in New Zealand97.8...75.4...−14.5...0.9...−2.7...−5.5...5.8...5.4...−3.4............159.2...
New Zealand direct investment overseas...−4.4...26.0...9.3...−1.9............2.1...1.4...0.4.......32.9
Other long-term private capital movements32.62.9−13.0−3.669.50.71.90.21.20.40.712.13.9−1.01.8- -−0.71.4109.7−0.1
Government capital movements13.22.8−22.817.0−11.4−2.222.7−3.9−2.0−0.8−10.022.7
Capital movements by monetary institutions3.43.4
Residual208.3...271.0...4.6...10.5......18.2153.5......151.0...82.6...59.4...154.056.5...239.2...
        Balance before compensatory financing145.9−15.5−230.5−3.8−73.6143.1−203.2−3.0−72.743.4−269.9
Compensatory financing−24.0...4.2...88.9......106.3...81.4...203.2...3.0......53.4...−6.4...902.0392.0
      Balance after compensatory financing121.9−11.3−141.6−3.832.7224.5−19.337.0240.1
Total change in reserves...132.8...−11.3...−131.8...−3.8...36.0...224.5............−19.3...39.9...267.0
Counterpart to valuation, etc., changes...10.9...9.8......3.3 ..................2.9...26.9
Change due to transactions...121.9-11.3141.63.8...32.7...224.5............−19.3...37....240.1
1978–79*
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)714.0471.2444.2701.1596.9502.395.080.1533.5460.1427.0357.387.079.9613.2348.765.132.5266.4238.23,842.23,271.8
      Balance on merchandise trade242.8−256.994.614.973.469.77.1264.532.628.2-570.9
Services262.4375.8293.4368.0160.6235.110.315.743.949.040.090.310.235.842.9117.50.68.610.113.3- -874.41,309.0
International investment income18.3151.741.2103.211.8176.11.09.31.929.74.675.27.070.514.53.83.83.34.562.1108.6684.9
          Balance on invisibles−246.8−136.6−238.8−13.7−32.9−120.9−89.1−63.9−7.5−60.8- -−1,011.0
Transfers63.245.749.662.818.19.33.74.20.90.414.34.02.62.111.260.10.21.31.910.08.2165.8208.1
        Balance on current account13.5−406.7−135.40.741.0−40.9−81.5151.724.0−40.7−8.2−482.5
Overseas direct investment in New Zealand203.4...27.1...37.4...0.1...−9.4...2.0...−6.5...2.5...6.9...0.4......263.9...
New Zealand direct investment overseas...1.4...18.4...7.3...1.9...- -.........5.6...0.4...0.9......35.9
Other long-term private capital movements−80.5−4.139.83.8−74.8−4.85.60.1−8.40.3−0.317.0−0.425.5−0.50.1−0.1−1.1−76.5−6.3
Government capital movements13.815.77.40.5183.528.214.10.68.825.2 44.55.3 13.318.0    1.49.4247.6142.1
Capital movements by monetary institutions                 1.3     1.3
Residual 298.1351.3 46.9  13.4 70.8 190.9 114.1 169.9 29.474.0 114.7  299.0
        Balance before compensatory financing−160.9−3.926.94.5−64.0−273.7−179.473.357.8−519.5
Compensatory financing−12.8 * −64.9 *  239.6 179.4 *  −4.4  57.0558.6278.6
      Balance after compensatory financing−173.7−3.9−38.04.5−64.0−34.168.90.8−239.5
Total change in reserves−173.6−3.9−38.34.5−62.8−29.268.930.0−204.4
Counterpart to valuation, etc., changes0.1−0.31.24.929.235.1
Change due to transactions−173.7−3.9−38.04.5−64.0−34.168.90.8−239.5

Commentary—New Zealand is a small economy dependent on overseas trade. Export of merchandise over the period 1973–74 to 1978–79 averaged 19.8 percent of GDP and imports of merchandise averaged 21.1 percent. Current account receipts (credits) averaged 26.5 percent of GDP and current account payments (debits) averaged 32.6 percent.

Exports f.o.b. averaged 74.4 percent of total current account credits between 1973–74 and 1978–79 while imports f.o.b. averaged 64.5 percent of current account debits. Thus movements of aggregates in New Zealand's balance of payments are dominated by movements in the balance on merchandise trade.

The balance on merchandise trade is strongly influenced by changes in New Zealand's terms of trade (see Section 23) as well as by changes in the volume of exports and imports (export and import volume indexes, Section 22A).

The balance on current account for the year ended March 1974 showed a deficit of $92 million. During 1974 the import volume index rose steadily, reaching a peak of 1716 in the December quarter. During the same period New Zealand's terms of trade fell by 32.8 percent. By March 1975 New Zealand had a current account deficit of $1364 million.

In March 1975 the import volume index fell to 1272. Over the next 2 years it fluctuated around the 1200 level. Export volumes and the terms of trade rose slowly and by March 1977 the balance on current account was a deficit of $832 million.

During 1977 import volumes dropped by 20 percent. They stayed at this level for most of 1978, while at the same time the terms of trade improved. By March 1979 the deficit on current account had fallen to $483 million.

During 1974–75, because of the massive current account deficit, the Government borrowed $508 million as compensatory financing and used $297 million of New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves. In every year since then the Government has borrowed for compensatory financing. Some of this financing has been used to replenish foreign exchange reserves.

In 1978–79 the balance before compensatory financing showed a larger deficit than the balance on current account. This can probably be attributed to the ease with which companies could borrow within New Zealand during 1978. This allowed them to pay back overseas borrowings earlier than would otherwise have been the case.

The Government borrowed $280 million as compensatory financing during 1978–79, and used $240 million of foreign exchange reserves.

There has been a long-term trend towards a more diversified pattern of trade for New Zealand. During 1959–60, 54.9 percent of New Zealand's exports were sold to the United Kingdom and 46.8 percent of her imports were purchased from the United Kingdom. By 1978–79 the United Kingdom took only 18.6 percent of exports and was the source of only 14.4 percent of imports.

The table below shows New Zealand's merchandise trade with various regions during 1978–79 expressed as percentages of the total merchandise trade.

CountryExports f.o.b.Imports f.o.b.
 percentage 
U.K18.614.4
Australia11.621.4
U.S.A15.515.4
Canada2.52.4
Japan13.911.1
Other E.E.C.14.110.9
Other O.E.C.D.2.32.4
Asia-Oceania16.010.7
Latin America-Caribbean1.71.0
Other6.97.3
        Total100.0100.0

SURVEY OF DIRECT INVESTMENT BY COMPANIES—The picture of international capital movements would be incomplete without the consideration of investment flows originating with private commercial firms. While such investment takes place in response to usual economic motivation, its effect on a country's balance of payments differs in no respect from other capital movements, such as Government lending or borrowing abroad, investment or repatriation of assets from abroad by private individuals, etc.

The type of investment referred to here is that defined as direct private investment. Subsidiaries (i.e., New Zealand companies under control of an overseas company), branches of overseas companies, companies where many of the shareholders reside overseas, or any other companies where overseas shareholders exercise a controlling interest, fall in this category. The question of control is decided in some cases on the strength of the parent company's holdings (a 25 percent holding of the subsidiary's ordinary share capital is deemed as the qualifying minimum), in others on the actual circumstances of the case. The same criteria apply for direct investment by New Zealand companies and residents overseas.

Direct investment flows assume various forms; they may be by remittances of cash, the provision of plant, machinery, or goods without corresponding payments, charging up of services rendered by the parent company, the re-investment in New Zealand of undistributed profits, or the partial remittance only of declared dividends and branch earnings. The inclusion of undistributed profits may require some explanation: the non-remittance abroad of the whole of the current year's earnings, or any portion of them involves, where no statutory constraints exist on remittances of current profits, a decision to invest which is in every respect equal to a decision to bring additional investment capital into the country. By treating, as mentioned previously, total earnings of subsidiaries and branches of overseas firms in New Zealand as a current account debit or payment to the rest of the world, the unremitted portions of such earnings are treated as an inflow of investment capital which, together with other forms of investment capital (cash, goods, services), make up the total of the private direct investment item in the capital account.

The information tabulated in the following tables is based on an annual survey of companies with overseas affiliations in which the companies report on the distribution of paid-up capital and its changes, dividends and dividend remittances, intercompany accounts with the parent company or affiliated company, and head office accounts in the case of branches.

It should be noted that investment figures given in the following 4 tables are in terms of annual changes at current prices. The total worth of direct investments assets is extremely difficult to establish in view of the fact that book values may bear little relationship to what such investments would realise on sale; annual changes on the other hand are capable of precise expression, and define exactly their relationship to other capital movements.

Overseas Private Direct Investment in New Zealand—Data on overall private investment in New Zealand are shown in the following table. The figures are totals reflecting investment changes in firms resident in New Zealand and controlled from overseas irrespective of their legal organisation. They include therefore subsidiaries incorporated in New Zealand, companies incorporated in New Zealand which have a majority of shareholders resident overseas or are controlled by overseas residents, and New Zealand branches of overseas companies.

The figures shown in the country or regional area columns refer to the country of incorporation of the New Zealand firm's parent company, head office, or other subsidiary of the parent associate company from which the investment flows, or to which the New Zealand company owes or is owed on outstanding accounts, or the country of residence of individual shareholders who collectively hold a controlling interest (as defined above) in the New Zealand company.

March YearUnited KingdomAustraliaU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
* Provisional
NZ$(million)
1974–7554.757.345.40.721.6179.7
1975–7629.238.727.56.712.6114.7
1976–77100.692.163.64.518.1x278.9
1977–78*97.875.4−13.6−5.55.1159.2
1978–79*203.427.137.52.0−6.1263.9

The following graph shows changes in overseas direct investment in New Zealand.

Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table provides a subdivision of total direct investment income derived by all enterprises controlled from overseas and operating in New Zealand. The investment income is given net (after payment of New Zealand taxation). The regional totals as well as the “All Countries” total correspond to the “Income from Direct Investment” debits shown in the regional current accounts.

March YearUnited KingdomAustraliaU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
NZ$(million)
Dividends
1974–7512.110.87.10.22.532.7
1975–7613.49.56.20.43.232.7
1976–7731.011.98.80.33.054.9
1977–7832.512.913.40.44.663.8
1978–7926.911.511.80.43.854.4
Undistributed Earnings
1974–7528.522.312.5−0.40.363.2
1975–7641.822.913.8−1.12.680.1
1976–7756.643.157.32.7x11.1170.8
1977–7869.638.115.1−0.710.4132.6
1978–7978.350.640.02.14.7175.8
Net Earnings of Branches
1974–751.913.82.71.00.820.1
1975–7612.17.24.2-−0.622.8
1976–7716.512.02.60.21.432.8
1977–786.418.52.90.71.429.9
1978–7911.015.32.8-1.931.2
Total Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand
1974–7542.4x46.922.30.83.6115.9
1975–7667.339.524.2−0.75.3135.6
1976–77104.267.068.73.215.5258.4
1977–78108.669.531.40.516.4226.3
1978–79116.377.45452.710.4261.4

Industrial Classification of Overseas Private Direct Investment and Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table shows details of overseas direct investment and income from overseas direct investment classified by major industry groupings.

Industry1975–761976–771977–781978–79
 NZ$(million)
Direct Investment
Farming, hunting, and fishing−2.80.3101.2
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying4.4−0.30.4
Manufacturing—    
    Food, drink, and tobacco−7.819.418.1−9.4
    Meat and dairy products19.120.24.93.6
    Textiles, clothing, and footwear0.32.42.31.8
    Wood, cork, and furniture production0.6- -1.60.6
    Pulp, paper, and printing8.85.94.7−1.9
    Leather and rubber products0.15.0−1.21.1
    Chemical and mineral products21.035.81.348.6
    Metalworking9.519.913.03.0
    Engineering and transport equipment1.119.610.85.0
    Miscellaneous manufacturing4.116.59.710.0
Building and construction- -1.02.87.5
Electricity, gas, water
Wholesale and retail trade29.696.322.426.4
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property26.135.871.0161.7
Transport and communications−5.80.7−2.21.3
Services6.30.5−1.33.5
                Total114.7278.9159.2263.9
Income from Direct Investment
Farming, hunting, and fishing−0.40.31.01.6
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying6.11.11.30.6
Manufacturing—    
    Food, drink, and tobacco5.212.89.815.8
    Meat and dairy products17.016.4−1.66.8
    Textiles, clothing, and footwear0.63.02.82.4
    Wood, cork, and furniture production0.4- -0.60.8
    Pulp, paper, and printing7.37.76.45.8
    Leather and rubber products2.12.81.82.8
    Chemical and mineral products9.326.721.035.6
    Metalworking7.916.27.59.5
    Engineering and transport equipment17.922.917.122.4
    Miscellaneous manufacturing7.718.211.217.0
Building and construction1.51.93.22.7
Electricity, gas, water.........
Wholesale and retail trade30.787.769.752.4
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property22.436.669.771.8
Transport and communications−2.30.83.912.1
Services2.23.31.11.2
                Total135.6258.4226.3261.4

Investment by New Zealand Companies Overseas—The following table presents the converse picture of those immediately preceding viz, direct investment and income for direct investment by New Zealand companies in their overseas subsidiaries and branches.

March YearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States and CanadaOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
NZ$(million)
Direct Investment
1974–754.31.52.17.1x15.0
1975–764.05.08.40.3x17.7
1976–774.85.621.04.435.9
1977–78−4.426.07.43.932.9
1978–791.418.49.26.935.9
Income from Direct Investment
1974–755.98.01.15.720.6
1975–763.314.81.05.324.4
1976–774.122.62.39.738.7
1977–782.837.43.27.250.6
1978–792.511.52.89.126.0

25 C—INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES

Input-output analysis, a most important economic tool, was devised by Professor Leontief, an American economist, in the 1930s to define and measure the interdependence of the different industries within the economy. It provided a tool with which, for example, it was possible to measure the effects of a stated increase or decrease in the demand for houses on the timber industry, the cement industry, and the industries producing glass, steel, paint, bricks, tiles, concrete blocks, nails, plumbing requisites, and all the hundreds of other items that go into houses, as well as on the demand for imports.

An inter-industry study involves three distinct tasks. They are:

  1. The systematic collection, evaluation, and arrangement of a vast body of statistical information on production and consumption covering, as far as possible, every facet of the economy. This is the basic data on which the worth of the whole study depends.

  2. The formulation of an appropriate theoretical scheme.

  3. The application of theoretical methods and devices to the analysis of empirical data.

In a sense, input-output analysis brings together those who in economic research have always tended to drift apart—the producers of elegant theories, and those engaged in empirical research and the accumulation of data. Input-output analysis gives scope to the theorist but at the same time keeps him anchored firmly to the basic data, to the figures of goods poured out by factories, transported by ships, trucks, and trains, and sold over shop counters.

The term “Inter-Industry Study” refers to the whole task of investigation, compilation, and preliminary calculations as well as the mass of input-output tables and derived tables that forms the end product.

THE BASIC INPUT-OUTPUT TABLE—In the basic input-output table the entire economic activities of a country are divided into industry groups, which may number some hundreds. In New Zealand they range from 12 in the earlier studies to 130 in the latest study. A great deal of investigation and research is necessary in order to discover what each industry consumes, both in the form of the products of other industries and in the form of primary inputs such as labour; and what it produces, what it supplies to other industries in the form of raw materials, components, and semi-finished products, and what it supplies to final consumers such as households.

Each industry appears twice in an input-output table—in a row as a producer and in a column as a consumer. The rows and columns intersect, so that what appears in a row as part of industry A's output sold to industry B can also be read down the industry B column as part of industry B's input purchased from industry A.

DERIVED TABLES—If the straightforward monetary transactions table is subjected to a mathematical process, known as inversion of the matrix, a derived table or model is produced. This derived table will show on a unit basis (that is per $ or per $ million, etc.) what will be required in additional output from every industry in the economy to support an increase of one unit in the final output of a selected industry. Such an account is often known as a table of total requirements (direct and indirect) per unit of final demand. The words “direct and indirect” are used to indicate that the table includes not only the direct requirements of the selected industry, but also the additional requirements of industries supplying that industry with raw materials, components, and services, and the additional requirements of industries supplying those industries, and so on through an ever-widening circle of the economy until the economic reverberations die away.

UPDATING OF INPUT-OUTPUT STATISTICS—It is a common criticism of inter-industry studies (and not only in New Zealand) that they are invariably years out of date and therefore stale and of historical interest only. A considerable delay is inevitable with a full-scale study because of the enormous amount of preparatory investigation necessary and the fact that sometimes the detailed information required for input-output purposes is not available until a considerable time after the close of the year or other period that is the subject of the study.

The essential value of input-output tables lies not so much in the actual transactions portrayed as in the structural relationships revealed, which are found by experience in developed countries to remain reasonably stable for periods of several years. Nevertheless the Department has recently updated the 1971–72 basic transactions table to 1976–77. It was obtained using information from the 1971–72 Inter-Industry Study and the provisional National Accounts for 1976–77. Derived tables have also been recalculated for 1976–77 and have been published together with a description of the updating methodology in a statistical bulletin.

NEW ZEALAND INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES—The Department of Statistics has published three major inter-industry studies of the New Zealand economy. The Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1959–60 was published in four parts, the Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1965–66 in two parts, and the Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1971–72 in one part. The 1971–72 Inter-Industry Study updated to 1976–77 has been published as a statistical bulletin. The 1959–60 and 1965–66 Studies used similar methodology. The 1971–72 Study, however, adopted concepts used in the United Nations System of National Accounts (1968) and formed the basis for the Department of Statistics's revised National Accounts. The few differences between the 1971–72 Study and the revised National Accounts will be reduced further in the full 1976–77 Inter-Industry Study now in preparation. The 1959–60 and 1965–66 Studies are comparable, and the 1971–72 and 1976–77 Studies will be, but comparison between the 1965–66 and 1971–72 Studies should be made with considerable caution.

The table on the following pages provides the Inter-Industry transactions for the year 1976–77 (obtained by updating the 1971–72 Study) on a basis of twenty-five industry groups. These groups match those used in the revised National Accounts. The table is provisional. A full set of provisional tables for 1976–77, together with notes on methodology, will be found in Miscellaneous Series Bulletin No. 14 Provisional New Zealand Input-Output Tables 1976–77, available from the Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.

INTER-INDUSTRY TRANSACTIONS 1976–77 (UPDATED FROM 1971–72)
In $(million) at approximate basic values
For the disposition of output of an industry read the row for that industry. For the origin of input into an industry read the column for that industry.AgricultureFishing and HuntingForestry and LoggingMining and QuarryingFood, Beverages, and TobaccoTextile, Apparel, and Leather ProductsWood and Wood ProductsPaper, Printing and PublishingChemical, Petroleum, and Plastic ProductsNon-Metallic Mineral ProductsBasic Metal IndustriesMetal Products and MachineryOther ManufacturingElectricity, Gas, and WaterConstructionWholesale and Retail Trade, Restaurants and HotelsTransport and StorageCommunicationsInsurance, Real Estate, and FinanceOwnership of DwellingsSocial, Personal and Community ServicesCentral GovernmentLocal GovernmentPrivate Non-profit Services to HouseholdsDomestic ServicesSub-totalHousehold ConsumptionGovernment Services and Private Non-profit ServicesGross Fixed Capital FormationStock ChangeExportsStatistical DiscrepancySub-totalGrand Total
 12345678910111213141516171819202122232425 262728293031  
1 Agriculture47300090420200000002372100013011,78211319−877938392,621
2 Fishing and Hunting00140000000030000001820222543
3 Forestry and Logging03000076250000001100000000014200582584226
4 Mining and Quarrying2001810104153231018481000503101644111520184
5 Food, Beverages and Tobacco181002541503140010013313000290365583552001,0442,0842,739
6 Textile, Apparel and Leather Products16000131943161162021524120371141635662374458874
7 Wood and Wood Products11001921131421014102201120318250143311037129177610
8 Paper, Printing and Publishing9000841362053510123343114710644682241268488413132238922
9 Chemical, Petroleum and Plastic Products2161556029275120110210353175694839382927531,125176157392381,363
10 Non-metallic Mineral Products90112602153605011984101611012989971237336
11 Basic Metal Industries140013042211311382133151016110035828101635393
12 Metal Products and Machinery388576061915481321311263228010679241925411,15732848342869392,096
13 Other Manufacturing100024111003204300141101322821465081
14 Electricity, Gas and Water2801528772012710171205135262111361357475136401142617
15 Construction1305362556101071191114595210431993793118131,10971,887001,8943,003
16 Wholesale and Retail Trade, Restaurants and Hotels64110912353396781192016351122621975638303931891,3462,77624455742−1633,6535,000
17 Transport and Storage5111622140222242412211502960981042515413293180617869195468111,617
18 Communications110111043762113031074150440151927251113706125376
19 Insurance, Real Estate, Finance7925556221529268549329883733942461373338581,30539029034211,726
20 Ownership of Dwellings792792792
21 Social, Personal, Community Services4114518445541120320132402300503455425426108436861
22 Central Government100010000001001445010110032161,74520231,7861,818
23 Local Government100011011001010388303021170889215700230319
24 Private Non-profit Services to Households100010002001022210201051114256108000164206
25 Domestic Services888
                  Sub-total1,09616871151,843404350503514173210930293191,9762,202569614803862423701828713,1436,9582,0672,8393633,623−16315,68728,830
26 Compensation of Employees2541055334772441481991707653522231015371,2265852345632351,3211209687,2917,291
27 Operating Surplus94396016141535911689474814113130235960148515062392154,2164,216
28 Commodity Indirect Taxes20121121226821381121129231822286333148196250602933
29 Non-commodity Indirect Taxes480211712221150286919266817323343232548391
30 Commodity Subsidies−69−1000000000−72−36−200−38−109
31 Non-commodity Subsidies−33−1−2−30−2−15−42−10−6−106−106
32 Consumption of Fixed Capital2085111373202038291715442504719111323806822 101,0991,099
33 Imports153311718014028585521965415141717923920262317125117972,584992425811611,6594,244
                  Sub-total1,52527139698964702604198491621831,166522991,0262,7981,0483161,2474076191,448137119815,6871,4595441061612,27117,959
                  Grand total2,621432261842,7398746109221,3633363932,096816173,0035,0001,6173761,7267928611,818319206828,8308,4182,0673,3834693,784−16317,95946,789

25 D—REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT

The Gross Domestic Product is the total value of all goods and services produced in New Zealand during a financial year (ended 31 March). The “Real” Gross Domestic Products for a number of years are estimates of the total production of goods and services in each of those years, all valued at the prices prevailing in one particular year; so that the totals for each year indicate the relative volumes of production, and the differences in these volumes in the respective years are apparent.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT—The index of Real Gross Domestic Product measures the relative levels of the volume of production in each year, with each sector of the economy represented in proportion to its contribution to gross domestic product at factor cost in 1965–66; the basis for these analyses being the input-output tables for 1965–66. The economy has been divided into 11 industry groupings representing the major divisions of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (N.Z.S.I.C), but with major division 1 “Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry, and Fishing”, split into 3 groups, namely: Agriculture, Hunting and Fishing, Forestry and Logging.

The industry groupings, and the contribution made by each to the gross domestic product in the base year 1965–66, are shown below.

Industrial GroupsPercentage of Base Year Cross Domestic Product
Agriculture15.0
Hunting and fishing0.2
Forestry and logging0.6
Mining and quarrying0.7
Manufacturing21.7
Electricity, gas, and water2.6
Construction7.3
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels18.8
Transport, storage, and communication8.2
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services12.0
Community, social and personal services12.9
 100.0

The Index of Real Gross Domestic Product is presented in the following table, analysed by the industry groupings.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
Base for each Industrial Group and for All Industrial Groups combined: 1965–66 (= 1000).
Industrial Groups1965–661972–731973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78
Agriculture100010159661103117211751119
Hunting and fishing1000128012441268123213331389
Forestry and logging1000139914941491149817321659
Mining and quarrying1000123514061427131717662157
Manufacturing1000138415661639164316831578
Electricity, gas, and Water1000166617691838204621802214
Construction1000115612131296136311791186
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels1000120913191349132712981226
Transport, storage, and communication1000123314071363135113381334
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services1000124013061319134213741386
Community, social, and personal services1000115611891223126312701284
All industrial groups combined1000122613141367139013921354
Annual percentage increase—All industrial groups combined 4.47.24.01.70.1−2.7

INDEX OF EMPLOYMENT—The Index of Employment is based on the numbers of persons in the total labour force as estimated by the Department of Labour. The total labour force includes all persons actively engaged for 20 or more hours per week and excludes the unemployed.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT PER LABOUR FORCE MEMBER—Increases in real production are due partly to increases in the numbers of persons engaged, and in part to other factors (additions of productive fixed capital assets, improvements in management, organisational measures) as well as to greater labour effort or improved skills of the labour force. While the elements pertaining to labour input are relatively easy to quantify, the measurement of the other factors is exceedingly difficult.

The 3 indexes are compared in the following table. All 3 indexes are on base 1965–66 = 1000.

YearReal G.D.P.EmploymentReal G.D.P. per Labour Force Member
IndexAnnual Percentage Increase*IndexAnnual Percentage IncreaseIndexAnnual Percentage Increase*
* Minus sign signifies a decrease.
1972–7312264.411181.410973.1
1973–7413147.211593.711343.4
1974–7513674.011892.611501.4
1975–7613901.711990.811590.8
1976–7713920.112080.81152−0.6
1977–78x1354−2.71205−0.21124−2.4

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION—Additional information on economic aggregates will be found in the following Department of Statistics publications.

Balance of Payments (annual report).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics (The N.Z. System of National Accounts 1971–72 to 1977–78 was issued as a supplement to the September 1979 Monthly Abstract. Main aggregates and summary tables are published in each edition, as are annual and quarterly balance of payments data).

Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy (1959–60, 4 parts), (1965–66, 2 parts), (1971–72, 1 part).

Chapter 26. Section 26 CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

26 A—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

GENERAL—The Central Government is concerned with the future of the nation and therefore with the economic, social, and cultural development of the people as a whole and the quality of their environment. In New Zealand the State is fairly broadly concerned in national development and social welfare. The Central Government budgets for and controls expenditure on capital works such as electricity supply, land settlement, housing, public buildings, forest development, railway and road construction, telecommunications, and on other functions such as social welfare, health, education, defence, and paying interest on the public debt.

Taxing, charging, and borrowing are the three alternative avenues of raising revenue to meet Government expenditure. The problem of choice between these avenues can be described as the choice of the most efficient and equitable way of paying for publicly-provided services. However, the problems of finance and of raising revenue cannot be considered in isolation. In the first place some Government expenditures, such as subsidies and transfer payments (for example, pensions and child benefits), can and do alter the equity of the tax system. For instance, subsidies and monetary benefits can be regarded as refunds of tax. In the second place, it is now generally accepted that a system of raising revenue must be in accord with the general objectives of Government economic policy. In the final analysis, any system of Government finance, embracing both expenditure and the raising of revenue, must be designed to achieve the economic objectives of growth, full employment, price stability, and external balance of payments in an efficient manner, tempered by the prevailing views about freedom and the equitable distribution of income.

The Central Government, by budgeting for a surplus (revenue exceeding expenditure) or a deficit, or by varying the impact of taxation or the level of Government expenditure on certain sectors of the economy, now uses these powers to regulate internal economic activity.

STRUCTURE OF THE PUBLIC ACCOUNTS—The general structure of the 1978–79 public accounts is in the form established by the Public Finance Act 1977, effective from 1 April 1978. The public accounts comprise 6 accounts in place of the 7 which formerly appeared. These 6 are as follows:

Consolidated Account and National Roads Fund—Before the coming into force of the Public Finance Act 1977 there were 3 general accounts, the Consolidated Revenue Account, the National Roads Fund (non-trading account), and the Works and Trading Account.

All taxation was credited to either the Consolidated Revenue Account or the National Roads Fund. The Consolidated Revenue Account also received most miscellaneous revenues, and ordinary Government expenditure was debited to it. The Works and Trading Account received all the trading revenues of the trading enterprises within the Public Account, met their operating costs and capital expenditure, and also met the expenditure by administrative departments on capital works such as water and soil conservation, the development of natural resources, airports, some roading, and public buildings. The funds available in the Works and Trading Account for works were supplemented by transfers from the National Development Loans Account, capital equipment credit arrangements, and contributions from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

Under the Public Finance Act 1977 the basic form of the public accounts was changed by the abolition of the Works and Trading Account. This was accomplished by providing separate bank accounts outside the Public Account for the Ministry of Energy (in respect of the trading activities of the Electricity Division and the State Coal Mines) and the Railways Department, and transferring the remaining activities to the renamed Consolidated Account.

The National Roads Fund is retained unchanged under the restructuring. Highways taxation is credited to the National Roads Fund, which meets both capital and maintenance expenditure on roading, but a proportion of the motor spirits duty and the mileage tax are credited to the Consolidated Account.

Loan Accounts—There are 2 loan accounts, the Loans Account and the Loans Redemption Account. The Loans Account, which prior to 1 April 1978 was known as the National Development Loans Account, receives loan money raised for works and development. A proportion of this is transferred to the Consolidated Account, and most of the balance is advanced by way of capital to the Housing Corporation, the Post Office, New Zealand Railways, the Ministry of Energy, and other State enterprises outside the public account.

Money received into the Loans Redemption account includes an annual contribution from the Consolidated Account towards the repayment of the public debt, the proceeds of every issue of Treasury bills, and money borrowed for the purpose of repaying or converting loans to the Crown. The main purpose of the account is the repayment or conversion of loans, but money not required for these purposes may be transferred to the Loans Account.

Reserve Account and Trust Account—Any money in the Consolidated Account regarded as surplus to the immediate requirements of the account may be transferred to the Reserve Account (previously, the Reserve Fund) and invested in New Zealand or overseas. The Minister of Finance has authority to realise these investments and re-transfer the proceeds to the Consolidated Account at his discretion.

Money held in trust or awaiting disposal is paid into the Trust Account. Funds in the Trust Account may be invested in Government or other approved securities.

Financial Year—The financial year commences on 1 April and ends on 31 March. The expenditure of public money is authorised by an annual Appropriation Act, which lapses at the end of the financial year. However, the Minister of Finance is authorised to pay money for services for a period of 3 months from the commencement of the next financial year, pending the granting of supplies by Parliament.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—The following table shows gross Government expenditure and the net amount of expenditure which requires financing from the Public Account. The functional classification is intended to focus attention on the broad areas in the economy in which there is substantial Government activity. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook.

It is to be remembered that the Public Account as shown in this section is prepared on a receipts and payments (cash) basis, and consequently the accounts of the operations of various departments (prepared on an accrual basis) shown in other sections will differ to some extent from those appearing here.

The functional classification of Government expenditure is shown in the following table.

Item1977–781978–79
GrossNet*GrossNet*
* Net expenditure is generally arrived at by deducting trading and departmental receipts from gross expenditure.
Administration—$(million)
    General administration191.4160.8230.5199.5
    Law and order136.4107.5172.7139.3
    Government services113.089.2152.5121.7
    Miscellaneous services29.36.933.57.3
    Stabilisation116.0114.8135.6135.6
 586.1479.2724.8603.4
Foreign relations—    
    Defence252.2248.2299.5293.2
    Foreign Affairs83.180.893.991.5
 335.3329.0393.4384.7
Development of industry—    
    Land use424.3253.9561.3371.9
    Fuel and power458.4261.4485.9286.6
    Other industrial services120.7114.5206.0199.5
 1,003.5629.81,253.2858.0
Education—    
    Education813.9807.5936.7929.3
Social services—    
    Social Welfare1,491.51,479.21,804.21,790.4
    Other social services135.690.1121.863.1
 1,627.11,569.31,926.01,853.5
Health—    
    Health809.8808.5981.2980.1
Transport and communications—    
    Transport579.3223.6666.7281.0
    Communications429.124.0502.0−1.9
 1,008.4247.61,168.7279.1
Debt services and miscellaneous—    
    Debt services471.3471.3595.8595.8
    Miscellaneous investment transactions133.445.524.0−3.5
    Miscellaneous financing transactions284.0281.0368.0368.0
 888.7797.8987.8960.3
                Total7,072.85,668.78,371.86,848.4

The following table shows financing of Government expenditure.

Item1976–771977–781978–79

* Includes the sale of Government securities to the Reserve Bank of $330.3 million in 1976–77 and the purchase of $540.0 million of Government securities in 1977–78, and $54.4 million of Government securities in 1978–79.

Excludes supplier's credit and currency realignment adjustments.

Expenditure$(million)
    Administration388.3479.2603.4
    Foreign relations288.7329.0384.7
    Development of industry504.9629.8858.0
    Education699.4807.5929.3
    Social services1,158.91,569.31,853.5
    Health689.1808.5980.1
    Transport and communications230.6247.6279.1
    Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions409.5516.8592.3
Sub-total4,369.45,387.76,480.4
    Miscellaneous financing transactions208.8281.0368.0
Total expenditure4,578.25,668.76,848.4
Financed from   
    Taxation—   
        Income tax2,828.53,482.83,655.2
        Customs, sales tax, and beer duty652.6703.0794.6
        Highways tax107.4126.2159.1
        Motor spirits tax100.4102.2154.2
        Other taxation156.0212.1226.4
Total taxation3,844.94,626.34,989.5
    Interest, profits, and miscellaneous receipts227.2348.0413.0
Total taxation, interest, etc.4,072.14,974.35,402.5
Amount to be financed from borrowing506.1694.41,445.9
Borrowing in New Zealand*629.4799.41,214.9
    Less repayments in New Zealand238.6230.4369.9
 390.8569.0845.0
    Plus sales (less purchases) of investments−12.8−134.6+152.6
    Net borrowing in New Zealand+378.0+434.4+997.6
    Internal surplus (+) deficit (-)−128.1−260.0−448.3
Borrowing overseas421.4832.6554.4
    Less repayment overseas278.9424.6267.6
 142.5408.0286.8
    Plus sales (less purchases) of overseas investments−12.7−142.2+157.2
    Net borrowing overseas129.8265.9444.0
    Cash surplus (+) deficit (-)+1.7+5.8−4.3

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—By including the receipts of both the Consolidated Account and the National Roads Fund the following table shows the total receipts of direct and indirect taxation during the latest five years. The term “taxation” throughout this section refers to Public Account Taxation. It should be noted that, because of changes introduced through the restructuring of the public account, “other” receipts for the 2 latest years are not directly comparable with those for earlier years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19751976197719781979

* Includes amounts previously recorded in the Works and Trading Account.

Includes transfer from Reserve Fund ($115 million) and temporary transfer from National Development Loans Account ($55 million).

Includes transfers of $730 million from Loans Account, $90 million from Reserve Account, and $20 million from Trust Account.

Direct taxation—$(million)
    Income tax2,136.02,295.82,828.53,482.83,655.2
    Estate and gift duty41.154.254.748.753.1
    Land tax3.43.46.68.49.5
    Property speculation tax0.30.20.30.20.1
Total—Direct taxation2,180.82,353.62,890.13,540.13,717.8
Indirect taxation—     
    Motor vehicle fees and charges20.623.920.642.645.7
    Customs duty229.1217.0252.9272.8286.1
    Beer duty46.248.446.558.758.9
    Sales tax234.7311.4353.3371.5449.7
    Racing duty21.926.729.933.838.5
    Other stamp duties25.926.233.730.833.6
    Motor spirits tax76.3100.4102.2154.2
    Foreign travel tax......4.913.715.9
    Energy resources levy......4.032.528.9
    Payroll tax0.8- -- -- -- -
    Other taxation0.60.51.11.41.0
Total—Indirect taxation579.7730.4847.4960.01,112.5
Total—Taxation receipts, Consolidated Account2,760.53,084.03,737.54,500.04,830.4
Highway taxation104.8101.3107.4126.3159.1
Total—Taxation2,865.33,185.33,844.94,626.34,989.5
Interest—     
    On capital liability—     
      Electric supply50.959.575.3119.6154.9
      Post Office18.019.928.733.237.1
      Housing Corporation20.527.652.664.381.0
      Rural Banking and Finance Corporation13.318.328.538.654.2
    Other26.734.064.583.4102.8
    On other public moneys16.325.628.325.620.3
Total—Interest145.6184.9278.0364.6450.3
Profits from trading undertakings25.711.811.820.627.8
Departmental receipts88.9104.9137.6302.0x*343.7
Special and miscellaneous receipts25.3299.9166.0299.9x*865.81
Total—Other285.5601.5493.4987.1x*1,687.6
Total—Receipts3,150.83,786.84,338.45,613.5x6,677.1
Total taxation as percentage of national disposable income31.2%30.3%30.3%33.6% 

The following table shows expenditure from the Consolidated Account.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1976197719781979

* Includes Reserve Bank indemnity for depreciation of bank's investments because of devaluation of currency.

Reclassified under Development of Industry.

Reclassified under Social Services.

§ Includes amounts previously recorded under Works and Trading Account

|| From 1978 expenditure in respect of superannuation is combined.

Permanent appropriations—$(thousand)
    Under Special Acts of Legislature—    
    Civil List1,7301,8432,2432,906
Debt services—    
    Interest270,013367,037464,524590,111
    Transfer to Loans Redemption Account50,00060,00065,00075,000
    Administration and management2,7484,2606,7915,108
              Total—Debt services322,761431,297536,314670,219
Special Acts—    
    Superannuation Act 195625,33232,369||||
    N.Z. Superannuation refunds (recoverable)...31,442||||
    Superannuation....49,38260,448
    Miscellaneous7,26922,14149,251x§73,699
                Total—Special Acts32,60185,95298,633x§134,147
                Total—Permanent appropriations357,092519,092637,190x807,272
Annual appropriations—    
      General Administration—    
            Vote—    
              Accident Compensation25243040
              Audit2,0402,1762,5413,054
              Broadcasting7384103121
                    Building Performance Guarantee Corporation.........12
              Commission for the Environment...383456556
              Customs7,7859,00910,97413,939
              Inland Revenue22,50724,89927,88033,227
              Internal Affairs27,59432,27035,00639,308
              Legislative2,8363,7594,6285,472
              Prime Minister's Department6396408351,086
              Rural Banking and Finance Corporation13
    Housing Corporation18
    State Services Commission23,78830,00337,886x§44,075
    Statistics5,91010,1347,8739,503
    Treasury4,6015,02316,3487,700
    Valuation5,2585,3486,3437,514
Total—General administration103,087123,752150,904x§165,607
    Law and order—    
        Vote—    
            Crown Law574581680818
            Justice37,69840,72558,384x§72,835
            Police49,43454,71373,983x§94,169
            Security Intelligence Service8029051,2101,674
            Total—Law and order88,50896,924134,257x§169,496
Government services—    
        Vote—    
            Government Printing Office18,59416,91521,59824,773
            Works and Development40,15640,29491,447x§127,697
            Total—Government services58,75057,209113,045x§152,470
Stabilisation—    
        Vote—    
            Stabilisation182,55358,321105,072120,470
            Total—Administration432,898336,206503,278x608,043
Foreign relations—    
    Defence—    
        Defence193,465214,831252,172299,506
    Foreign Affairs—    
             Foreign Affairs81,39380,41583,014x§93,819
            Total—Foreign relations274,858295,246335,186x393,325
    Development of industry—    
        Land use—    
                Agriculture and Fisheries205,106171,686179,560x§288,608
                Forest Service8,4598,839119,692x§133,301
                Lands and Survey16,00519,41469,513x§80,472
                Maori Affairs  43,179§45,491
                Rural Banking and Finance Corporation...6,0367,0358,571
                Total—Land use229,570205,975418,979556,443
            Fuel and power—    
                Energy3,9413,5352,56217,993
            Other industrial services—    
                Trade and Industry17,76517,73021,76526,635
                Labour23,48436,24648,804117,985
                Scientific and Industrial Research27,22029,90637,736x§47,179
                Tourist and Publicity9,48610,58812,28313,635
                Total—Other industrial services77,95594,470120,588x205,434
                Total—Development of industry311,466303,980542,129x779,870
    Education—    
        Education631,751586,145813,887x§936,671
    Social services—    
        Housing Corporation...47,13354,25466,369
        Social Welfare884,6631,077,8861,491,5281,804,230
        Maori Affairs6,7157,13510,10312,364
        Internal Affairs5,3777,0137,5958,723
            Total—Social services896,7551,139,1671,563,4801,891,686
    Health—    
        Health602,546685,785809,731x§981,050
    Transport and communications—    
        Transport—    
            Roads, etc.16,35021,00012,120x§16,743
            Transport58,49262,18683,860x§95,917
                Total—Transport74,84283,18695,980x112,660
                Total—Annual appropriations3,225,1163,429,7154,663,6715,703,305
Unauthorised expenditure21,24111,9624,5371,822
Defence credits and other entries80,642*54,347
Additional contribution to Loans Redemption Account100,000100,000
Transfer to Loans Account10,000
Transfer to Reserve Account100,00080,000
Transfer to Trust Account404
                Total payments3,684,0914,225,1175,485,398x6,512,803

LOANS ACCOUNT—Particulars of receipts and payments of the Loans Account were as follows.

Item19781979

* Includes Inflation Adjusted Savings Bonds of $6,265,000 in 1978 and $8,061,000 in 1979.

Includes capital equipment credit arrangements.

Receipts$(thousand)
New Zealand Loans Act 1953—  
Securities issued for Government purposes—  
    In New Zealand*561,098618,577
    Overseas744,357400,601
    Advance subscriptions17,330
International Finance Agreements Act 1961—  
    Non-negotiable, non-interest-bearing stock and notes issued to international financial institutions37,00338,289
Transfer from Loans Redemption Account450,000
                Total receipts:1,359,7881,507,467
                Excess of payments over receipts121,645
 1,359,7881,629,112
Payments  
Transfer to Consolidated Account277,900730,000
Capital equipment purchased under credit arrangements59,18745,115
Appropriations outside the public account—  
    Electricity Supply262,200275,525
    State Coal Mines22,80021,276
    Housing Corporation197,500219,483
    New Zealand Railways31,80063,000
    Post Office24,0006,000
    New Zealand Export-Import Corporation1,512185
    Petroleum Corporation of N.Z. Ltd116,04712,109
    Shipping Corporation of N.Z. Ltd4,639
    Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd3,251
    Tourist Hotel Corporation4,9411,775
    Rural Banking and Finance Corporation150,000182,705
    International Bank of Reconstruction and Development5353
    Asian Development Bank912
Subscriptions under International Finance Agreements Act 1961:  
    Non-negotiable, non-interest bearing notes4781,842
    Encashment of securities837835
Charges and expenses of raising and repaying loans15,3396,630
Security in favour of IMF36,52536,447
Advance subscriptions allocated22,94217,330
              Total Payments:1,224,0611,629,112
Excess of receipts over payments:135,727
 1,359,7881,629,112

WORKS AND TRADING ACCOUNT—The Works and Trading Account was abolished as from 1 April 1978. Balances at the beginning of the 1978–79 year amounted to $5,743,000. These were disposed of as follows: transferred to Energy Account, $402,000; to Railways Account, $1,311,000; and to Consolidated Account, $4,030,000.

Works Programme—Details of the works programme are shown in the following table.

ItemYear ended 31 March
1976197719781979

* From 1 April 1978 included under Petroleum Corporation of N.Z. Ltd., which is not part of the Works Programme.

Provision mainly for Clutha Valley development for hydro-electric purposes.

Administration—$(million)
    Works—    
        National water and soil conservation14.114.919.625.5
        Development of natural resources1.96.610.7
    Public buildings—    
        Government services15.017.716.715.7
        Law and order7.98.410.013.8
    Miscellaneous7.69.710.510.4
            Total44.652.663.476.1
Foreign relations—    
    Defence5.95.55.38.7
    Public buildings-overseas posts4.81.11.51.3
            Total10.76.66.810.0
Development of industry—    
    Energy219.7222.8264.6295.9
    Forestry7.68.111.110.4
    Land utilisation8.25.58.39.3
    Tourism2.52.83.02.3
    Natural gas*6.03.21.4 
    Miscellaneous2.22.32.04.0
                Total246.2244.7290.4321.9
Education—    
    Primary, secondary, and special education—    
        Buildings72.868.278.178.7
    Tertiary education—    
        University buildings26.428.528.824.7
        Technical institutes13.615.211.610.5
    Teachers' colleges7.36.65.93.8
            Total120.0118.5124.4117.7
Social services—    
    Housing construction89.158.058.349.4
    Public building—social welfare1.81.91.72.7
            Total90.959.960.052.1
Health—    
    Health and hospital buildings3.94.73.46.4
Transport and communications—    
    Railways20.119.220.419.8
    Roading128.3129.4147.3168.9
    Transport5.92.08.51.8
    Post Office56.757.651.656.9
    Broadcasting2.21.00.90.9
            Total213.2209.2228.7248.3
            Grand total729.5696.2777.1832.5

NATIONAL ROADS FUND—The National Roads Act 1953 established a National Roads Fund within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Consolidated Account. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modem standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Receipts and payments of the National Roads Fund were as follows.

Item1975–761976–771977–781978–79
Receipts$(thousand)
Motor spirits duty (less refunds)80,82985,936106,696109,674
Road user charges.........48,302
Other taxation, etc.20,42221,48119,5601,158
Contribution from Consolidated Account16,35021,00010,00014,000
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account2,0004,000
Miscellaneous3,0033,1563,0483,438
Interest415261104
                Total122,645131,625143,365176,676
Payments    
State highways maintenance25,90929,26537,19143,691
State highways construction41,68135,88137,24041,647
Subsidies to Local authorities47,44548,27856,85866,619
Administration and general expenses10,52713,94013,88914,204
Repayment of temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account...2,0004,000
Unauthorised expenditure8226
                Total125,570129,366145,180170,167
                Balance at end of year562,3155007,009

SUMMARY OF BALANCES—A summary of the balances in the Public Accounts is given in the following table.

AccountBalance at 31 March
19751976197719781979

* Cash received but not yet allocated.

Represents the: pan of the balance of the Works and Trading Account attributable to the activities of Electric Supply, Railways and State Coal Mines.

 $(thousand)
Consolidated Account59,54357,95760,62466,857x68,010
Works and Trading Account3,3753,8895,6181,713
Loans Redemption Account109,555232,756176,288238,795152,192
Loans Account61,30653,66741,275177,00255,357
National Roads Fund2,981562,3155007,009
Reserve Account105,6142,588102,654184,42798,787
Suspense Account*296803142711207
Trust Account34,50438,13731,40041,30919,752
                Total377,174389,852420,315711,314401,314

The composition of the total balances is shown in the following table.

NatureAt 31 March
19751976197719781979
 $(thousand)
Cash85,85073,38875,13280,98276,622
Imprests45,04746,40449,66358,02762,186
Investments in New Zealand26,80211,15223,974158,5775,970
Investments overseas219,474258,908271,546413,728256,536
                Total377,174389,852420,315711,314401,314

26 B—PUBLIC ACCOUNT TAXATION

TOTAL PUBLIC ACCOUNT TAXATION—A summary of public account taxation revenue during 5 recent March years is given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchIncome TaxTotal Public Account Taxation
AmountAmount
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationxPercentage of Total Taxation (All Sources)TotalPer Head of Mean Population
 $(million)$      $(million)$     
19752,136.0701.0174.52,865.3940.37
19762,295.8741.19x72.13,185.31,028.34
19772,828.5906.38x73.63,844.91,232.07x
19783,482.81,113.10x75.375.31,478.57
19793,655.21,168.0973.34,989.51,594.50

The following table shows receipts, under the various heads, of taxation during 5 recent years. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook.

ItemRevenue for Year Ended 31 March
19751976197719781979

* Included in National Roads Fund.

Additional to portions paid into National Roads Fund.

Consolidated Account—$(million)
    Customs revenue229.1217.0252.9272.8286.1
    Beer duty46.248.446.558.758.9
    Motor spirits tax-75.498.899.7153.91
    Motor vehicles fees and charges20.623.920.642.645.7
    Sales tax234.7311.4353.3371.5449.7
    Film-hire tax0.60.50.60.61.0
    Mileage tax*0.91.62.50.3
    Estate and gift duties41.154.254.748.753.1
    Racing taxation21.926.729.933.738.5
    Payroll tax0.8
    Land tax3.43.46.68.49.5
    Income tax2,136.02,295.82,828.53,482.83655.2
    Foreign fishing vessel entry tax......0.50.8
    Foreign travel tax......4.913.715.9
    Energy resources levy......4.032.528.9
    Property speculation tax0.30.20.30.20.1
    Stamp duties—     
        On instruments22.022.128.825.326.2
        On cheques, etc.2.62.93.43.43.5
    Lottery duty1.21.21.52.13.9
National Roads Fund—     
    Highways revenue (less rebate)104.8101.3107.4126.3159.1
                Total public account taxation2,865.33,185.33,844.94,626.34,989.5

The sources of revenue are shown in the following diagrams.

A comparison of public account taxation revenue and national disposable income is afforded by the following table, which also shows taxation as a percentage of national disposable income.

YearNational Disposable IncomePublic Account Taxation
Total RevenuePercentage of National Disposable Income
* Provisional.
 $ (million)percent  
1974–759,1872,865.331.2
1975–7610,5053,185.330.3
1976–7712,6763,844.930.3
1977–78*13,7764,626.333.6
1978–79*..4,989.5..

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION—Revenue under the heading of Customs does not include receipts from motor spirits tax paid into the National Roads Fund. The following table shows customs and excise revenue, for ordinary revenue purposes, for the latest available 5 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCustoms and Excise Duties*Beer DutyTotal Customs and Excise DutiesProportion of Total Taxation
* Including Foreign Fishing Vessel Entry Tax but excluding Beer Duty.
  $(thousand) percent  
1975229,08546,233275,3189.6
1976217,02448,374265,3988.3
1977253,39646,457299,8537.8
1978273,67458,693332,3677.2
1979286,12958,853344,9826.9

Information in regard to Customs and excise duties generally is contained in Section 22D—Customs Tariff and Revenue.

ROADS TAXATION—Prior to 31 March 1978 the National Roads Fund derived its revenues from a tax on motor spirits, heavy traffic licence fees, and a mileage tax on vehicles not using motor spirits. From 1 April 1978 Road User Charges replaced Heavy Traffic Licence Fees and Mileage Tax. Other revenues of the fund, which are not classed as taxation, consist of a Government contribution, interest earned, and miscellaneous receipts—e.g., from the sale of materials, etc. For 1968–69, tax on petrol paid to the fund was 14.8c per gallon. From 1 April 1969 the rate was increased to 17.1c per gallon by the transfer to the fund of 2.3c per gallon previously credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account, and from 1 April 1971 to 18.1c per gallon by the transfer of a further 1c a gallon. From 1 April 1978 tax paid to the fund was reduced to 4.25c per litre.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities in 21 tax areas covering the country to levy a local authorities petroleum tax at the rate of 1, 2, or 3 cents a gallon on motor spirits and 0.5, 1, or 1.5 cents a gallon on diesel fuel delivered in a tax area. All tax areas decided to make the levies at maximum rates from February or March 1971. The proceeds of any tax imposed may be applied to projects for the benefit of the region or distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenues. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden of taxpayers.

Taxation receipts for roads purposes paid into the National Roads Fund have been as follows during the latest five years. Refunds have been deducted.

Year Ended 31 MarchMotor Spirits DutyMileage TaxHeavy-traffic and other FeesRoad User ChargesTotal
$(000)
197585,3336,91512,532...104,781
197680,8297,38313,038...101,250
197785,9367,77213,709...107,417
1978106,6969,11210,448...126,256
1979109,4411,126...48,301158,874

SYSTEM OF TAXATION—The following precis of the New Zealand tax system takes into account all relevant amending legislation effective up to the year ended 31 March 1980.

Income tax is levied under the Income Tax Act 1976.

Tax Year—The New Zealand tax year is from 1 April to 31 March.

Income Tax—Income tax is chargeable on most forms of income received by individuals, companies, and estates.

Income, because of its many forms, is not exhaustively defined, but includes income from the following: property; labour or effort; pensions, estates, and trusts (pensions paid by countries with which New Zealand has a double tax agreement, are generally exempt from tax in the country of origin and subject to tax in New Zealand. If a pension is taxed in the country of origin, credit is allowed in a New Zealand income tax assessment for the overseas tax paid); value of benefit allowances received in cash or kind; wages or income (earnings-related compensation) paid by the Accident Compensation Commission where a taxpayer is unable to work because of personal injury or incapacity.

Capital Gains—There is no capital gains tax but certain “gains” are deemed to be income.

These are profits on sale of patent rights, and profits on sale of property (land and buildings). Generally profits from ordinary sales of a person's private residence, business, or farm property, are exempt from tax.

Apart from ordinary sales of a person's residence, business, or farm property, profits on sale of property are subject to income tax where the owner:

—acquires the property for the purpose or intention of resale,

—deals in property,

—is a builder,

—makes a profit which is primarily due to rezoning or likely rezoning,

—subdivides the property within 10 years of purchase,

—subdivides the property more than 10 years after purchase and carries out extensive subdivisional work before selling. (Only the “development profit” is taxable in this case.)

Exempt Income—Income is exempt from tax in New Zealand only if provisions are made in the New Zealand Income Tax Act.

Some of the more common items exempt from tax are the following: maintenance or alimony payments; the first $200 of interest and dividends from all sources; Social Welfare benefits except the National Superannuation Benefit); war pensions and service disability pensions paid by any Government; interest on National Development Bonds and New Zealand Savings Certificates (not exceeding $500 in any one year); income derived by charitable and certain non-profit organisations; proceeds of certain insurance policies; and lottery and raffle prizes.

“Pay as You Earn” System—A “Pay as You Earn” (PAYE) system of collecting income tax is used for individuals and for companies.

How the PAYE System Works—Income for PAYE purposes falls into two general classes—

Salaries and wages and all diner forms of remuneration. With these, PAYE tax is deducted at time of payment.

Business, farming, investment, and professional incomes. With these incomes, tax is not deducted at time of receipt but the taxpayer pays “provisional tax”, usually based on the income tax paid for the previous year.

In both cases an adjustment or “square-up” is made when the return of income for the particular year is furnished.

Tax, which is called “Terminal tax”, is assessed on the basis of the annual return, and credit is allowed for the tax deductions or provisional tax paid during the year.

If there is an overpayment the taxpayer will receive a refund or credit against future tax—if insufficient tax was paid there will be further tax to pay.

Income Tax and the Individual: Residents of New Zealand—New Zealand residents are liable to New Zealand tax on all income including income from outside New Zealand. Credit is allowed for any overseas tax paid, but this is limited to the New Zealand tax payable on that income or the overseas tax paid whichever is the smaller.

Who is a Resident?—A New Zealand resident, for New Zealand tax purposes, is a person whose home is in New Zealand. As a general rule a person is regarded as having a home in New Zealand if he lives in New Zealand for longer than 15 months, or if leaving New Zealand is away for less than 15 months.

Generally this means persons who come to New Zealand with the intention of residing permanently, or to stay more than 15 months, are taxed on their total income from all sources, both inside and outside New Zealand, as from the date of arrival.

How the Wage Earner is Taxed—At the beginning of the year, or when a new job is started, the wage earner fills in a Tax Code Declaration. This form fixes the tax code used to work out tax deductions. The codes are—

  • “S” for a single taxpayer, or for a married taxpayer whose spouse receives income in excess of $520.

  • “M” for a married taxpayer with a dependent spouse.

  • “SEC” for a secondary job in addition to the person's regular job. Tax is deducted from these earnings at a rate of 35c in each dollar.

  • “S & F” For those taxpayers who are entitled to claim the young family rebate.

  • “M & F”

Employers Take Off Tax—The employer, when working out the tax, uses a tax table divided into “tax codes”. The tax payable is taken off the employee's earnings and paid to the Inland Revenue Deparment.

The Tax Code Declaration also incorporates a Tax Deduction Certificate. This is returned to the employee on termination of employment or at the end of the financial year.

The certificate shows the following: income earned; tax deducted; back pay relating to earlier years; overtime hours worked; shifts worked; extra pays; superannuation deducted; and the period of employment.

This information is used when the employee fills out a tax return at the end of the tax year.

Annual Returns of Income—Most salary and wage earners file tax returns each year and the majority of these receive refunds of overpaid tax. Refunds can arise as a result of exemptions and rebates being claimed which are not allowed for in the Tax Code Declaration, or of the wage earner having been employed for part of the year only.

Most salary and wage earners use the return form IR 5. It is required to be completed and sent to the Inland Revenue Department by 7 June. Salary and wage earners are assessed on their total taxable income, less any deduction for expenses and special exemptions. Rebates and the taxes previously paid are deducted from the tax assessed to give either a refund or further tax to pay. For more about exemptions and rebates see later pages.

All Other Individuals—Individuals who are self-employed, in partnership, or who receive income from investments pay provisional tax. Provisional tax is generally payable in two instalments, one in September and the other in the following March. Provisional tax is calculated using as a base the income received during the previous year.

Provisional taxpayers use form IR 3 which is required to be furnished by 7 September. Expenses are deducted from the gross business or investment income and tax is calculated on the net income less any special exemptions. Credit is given for the provisional tax already paid and for any rebates. If there is an overpayment the taxpayer will receive a refund or credit against future tax. If insufficient tax was paid there will be further tax to pay.

Deductions for Expenses: Persons in Business—Expenses which are incurred in producing income, and relevant and incidental to deriving that income, may be claimed as a deduction from income. Expenses of a private, domestic, or capital nature are not deductible.

Salary and Wage Earners may claim 2 percent of salary or wages up to a maximum claim of $52 without receipts, or actual and reasonable income-related expenses supported by receipts or other appropriate evidence.

Special Exemptions—Special exemptions are deducted from the income before tax is calculated.

The following special exemption is available for the year ended 31 March 1980.

ExemptionAmount
Life insurance, personal accident and sickness premiums paid for self, wife, or children, and superannuation.The amount paid or contributed up to a maximum exemption of—
 $800 if a member of an employer-subsidised superannuation fund for the whole year with proportionate increases if a member for only part of the year.
 $1,000 in other cases.

Rebates—Rebates are deducted from the total tax payable. Rebates for the year ended 31 March 1980 are shown in the following table.

RebateAmount
Children'sChildren under 15 or still at school and who derive income may personally claim a rebate of $78.
Wife/husband$156, decreases by 20 cents for each dollar by which spouse's income exceeds $520. Where spouse's income exceeds $1,300—no rebate allowable.
Single income familyAllowable to the principal income earner of a single income family with a child under 12 years of age. Also available to widows and solo parents with a child under 12. The rebate is $260 a year. It decreases by 20 cents for each dollar of a claimant's spouse's income in excess of $1,300 a year and is extinguished when the spouse's income exceeds $2,600.
Housekeeper (under certain circumstances)Limited to the smaller of 40 cents for each complete dollar of payments made; or $156.
Dependent relativeLimited to the smaller of 40 cents for each complete dollar contributed to the support of a relative; or $60.
Back pay6 cents per $1 of back pay received which relates to a previous income year.
Overtime10 cents per hour for every hour of qualifying overtime worked.
Shift40 cents for each qualifying shift worked.
Young familyAllowable to principal income earner in a family with at least 1 child under 5 years of age. The rebate is $468 where the sole or principal income earner derives less than $7,800 per annum. Rebates decrease by 10 cents for each dollar of income over $9,360 per annum and is extinguished when the income reaches $14,040.
Special Home, Farm, or Fishing Vessel Ownership Account45 cents for each $1 of annual savings increase in Special Home, Farm, or Fishing Vessel Ownership account. Maximum rebatable savings are:
 Home ownership-$2,000 per year (rebate $900).
 Farm ownership—$4,000 per year (rebate $1,800).
 Fishing vessel ownership—$4,000 per year (rebate $1,800).
Home vendor mortgage interest20 cents for each $1 of net interest received in respect of a “Home Vendor Mortgage”, subject to a maximum rebate of $500. This rebate is in substitution for, and not additional to, the relevant interest exemption which would otherwise be available.
School fees and charitable donations50 cents for each dollar of payments made up to $350. Maximum rebate $175.
Rates or Chatham Islands DuesUp to $25 in respect of rates paid to a local authority or dues paid to the local council on an owner-occupied residence.

Rates of Tax—The following table shows the rates of income tax payable for the year ended 31 March 1980 on each dollar of taxable income. “Taxable income” is the income after deducting exemptions and expenses.

Income RangeRate per Dollar
$c
Up to 4,50014.5
4,501–10,00036.5
10,001–11,00041.5
11,001–16,00048.0
16,001–22,00055.0
Over 22,00060.0

Taxes for Visitors: Who is a Visitor?—Generally a person who comes to New Zealand and intends to stay less than 15 months is taxed as a visitor or non-resident. If he stays for a longer period he is normally deemed to be a resident for tax purposes. A person not resident in New Zealand is liable to New Zealand tax on income from New Zealand but not on income from outside New Zealand.

How the Visitor is Taxed—A visitor to New Zealand is taxed on income from a New Zealand employer for personal services while in New Zealand; income from an overseas employer for personal services in New Zealand (there are certain exemption periods which are outlined in the following paragraphs); and any other income from New Zealand sources.

Income From a New Zealand Employer—The employer deducts the tax from the salary or wages of a visitor in the same way as for a resident.

Special Exemptions and Rebates Allowable in an Annual Assessment—In an assessment the visitor is allowed a proportion of the rebates allowable to the New Zealand resident. The proportion is based on the amount of time spent working in New Zealand, e.g., present in New Zealand for 30 weeks of which 20 were spent working for wages, the proportion of the spouse rebate, where applicable, is 20/52 of $156 = $60. Visitors are not entitled to claim any special exemptions in respect of life insurance, or superannuation payments.

Income from an Overseas Resident—A visitor (other than a public entertainer) who performs personal (including professional) services in New Zealand for an overseas resident is exempt from New Zealand tax if the length of the visit is not more than 92 days whether or not the period of the visit falls into one or more income years; the period in New Zealand in any one income year is 92 days or less, whether in one visit or several visits in the same income year; and the income is chargeable with tax in the country where the visitor normally resides.

Public Entertainers—Public entertainers are subject to a withholding tax of 20 percent on the gross income derived by them. This is a final tax unless the entertainer considers that the true rate will be lower. To be taxed at a lower rate a return of the income received and expenses incurred in New Zealand must be furnished.

Visitors from “Double Tax” Countries—Agreements to avoid double taxation have been entered into between New Zealand and Australia, Canada, Fiji, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.

A visitor from one of these countries who gets income for personal services in New Zealand from an overseas employer should refer to the relevant Agreement. Depending on the circumstances and the terms of the particular Agreement, the exemption period of 92 days could be extended.

Non-Residents: Who is an Absentee?—An absentee is a person whose home has not been in New Zealand during the income year but who derives income from a New Zealand source. An absentee is not entitled to any exemptions or rebates.

Withholding Tax on Non-residents—The Tax Act imposes a withholding tax on the following classes of income derived from New Zealand by non-residents—dividends, interest, royalties, and “know how” payments.

The rate of tax is 15 percent on the gross payments except for interest payments to Australian and Fijian residents (10 percent), and royalties paid to United Kingdom residents (10 percent).

It is a final tax on dividends, cultural royalties, and on interest except where the borrower and the lender are associated persons. On other royalties, “know how” payments, and interest where the payer and payee are associated persons, it is a minimum tax. A later assessment may be made if the rate of income tax on the income is greater than the withholding tax.

These provisions may be varied by the double tax agreements and the relevant agreement should be referred to.

Taxation of Companies—Companies in New Zealand are taxed in a different way to individual taxpayers.

The main differences are that—

  1. A company does not get any of the special exemptions or rebates which the individual taxpayer may claim.

  2. A company does not get the interest exemptions.

  3. Dividends received by a company incorporated in New Zealand are exempt from income tax.

  4. The rate of income tax is different.

New Zealand Companies: Income Tax—Resident companies pay tax on their income at the flat rate of 45 cents in the dollar.

Bonus Issue Tax—A special tax of 17 1/2 cents in the dollar on the bonus issues made from income sources is levied on the company. Shareholders receive these issues tax-free.

Excess Retention Tax—Privately controlled New Zealand investment companies are liable for an “excess retention tax”.

Excess retention tax is payable if the investment company does not pay a dividend equal to at least 40 percent of its tax-paid profits and 100 percent of its dividends from other companies.

The rate of excess retention tax is 35 cents in the dollar on any “insufficient distribution”.

A refund of excess retention tax paid will be made if, in a later year, the investment company declares a dividend greater than the amount needed for that year.

Special Types of Companies—Differing methods of assessment apply to overseas shipping companies, life insurance companies, and certain types of mining companies.

Non-Resident Companies—Non-resident companies are taxed in the same way as resident companies except that they pay an additional tax of 5 percent of their income on top of the 45 percent rate payable by a resident company; income received from dividends, interest, royalties, and “know how” is liable to a withholding tax of 15 percent (10 percent in the case of interest received by Australian and Fijian companies and royalties received by United Kingdom companies). This is the final liability except for interest paid between associated persons, royalties (other than “cultural” royalties), and “know how” payments, when there may be an end-of-year assessment.

These provisions may be varied by a double taxation agreement and the relevant agreement should be referred to. Special concessions apply to non-resident investment companies receiving dividends or interest from approved “development investments”, and processers of minerals to the primary metal stage under a “special development project”.

Incentive Legislation—There are tax incentives to help New Zealand's export drive and to encourage agricultural development, mining, fishing, winemaking, and other industries. Full details of these are obtainable from the Inland Revenue Department.

Property Speculation Tax—This was abolished from 22 June 1979.

Land Tax—Land Tax is assessed on the total “land value” of land owned at 31 March each year after allowing any special exemption. Both companies and individual taxpayers are liable to land tax which is due and payable on 7 October each year. The last day for payment is 7 November.

Various types of land, including land used solely or principally for farming or agricultural activities, and various land owners are exempt from land tax.

Special Exemption—The exemption is $175,000 reduced by $1 for every $1 by which the “land value” of the land exceeds $175,000. Thus no exemption is allowable when the “land value” exceeds $350,000.

Rates of Land Tax—Land tax is charged at a graduated rate according to the amount of the taxable balance after deducting any allowable special exemptions. These rates are as follows: 0.2 cents in the dollar up to $20,000; 0.4 cents in the dollar on excess over $20,000 up to $30,000; 0.6 cents in the dollar on excess over $30,000 up to $40,000; and 0.7 cents in the dollar on excess over $40,000.

Special Adjustments—There are special adjustments for absentee owners and in addition companies and estates can be subject to a special basis of assessment.

Estate Duty—Generally estate duty is a tax on the total net wealth of a deceased person.

The new scale of Estate Duty which follows, applies to the estates of all persons dying on or after 21 June 1979. The schedule includes rates of duty which will come into force at future dates. Part A applied in respect of deaths on or after 21 June 1979, and continued until 31 March 1980. For deaths on or after 1 April 1980 Part B applied. Part C will apply for deaths on or after 1 April 1981, and Part D for all deaths on or after 1 April 1982.

The following reliefs have been abolished: widows; widowers; infant children; orphan infant children; and lineal ancestors or lineal descendants in the estates of deceased servicemen.

Scale of Rates of Estate Duty
Final Balance of EstateRate (Note: “Excess” means excess of the final balance in complete dollars)
Part A: For Deaths from 21 June 1979 to 31 March 1980
                    $ 
Not exceeding 100,000Nil
100,001–250,00035 percent of excess over $100,000
Exceeding 250,000$52,500 plus 40 percent of excess over $250,000
Part B: For Deaths from 1 April 1980 to 31 March 1981
Not exceeding 150,000Nil
150,001–250,00035 percent of excess over $150,000
Exceeding 250,000$35,000 plus 40 percent of excess over $250,000
Part C: For Deaths from 1 April 1981 to 31 March 1982
Not exceeding 200,000Nil
200,001–250,00035 percent of excess over $200,000
Exceeding 250,000$17,500 plus 40 percent of excess over $250,000
Part D: For Deaths on or after 1 April 1982
Not exceeding 250,000Nil
Exceeding 250,00040 percent of excess over $250,000

Special Exemptions from Estate Duty: Joint Family Homes—A home registered under the Joint Family Homes Act 1964 is excluded from the dutiable estate of the first spouse to die.

Matrimonial Home Allowance—Where the deceased had an interest in a matrimonial home (other than a joint family home) that interest is excluded if the home or other property of equivalent value passes to the surviving spouse.

Pensions from Superannuation Funds—These are excluded from the estate up to $2,000 per annum if payable to the deceased's spouse for the rest of his or her life or until remarriage.

Personal Chattels—The value of any furniture and personal effects passing to the surviving spouse is excluded from the dutiable estate. In addition, the first $6,000 of personal chattels passing to any other person is also excluded from the estate.

Charitable Bequests—Bequests to charities of up to $25,000 are exempt from duty.

The leaflet Estate Duty, available from the Inland Revenue Department, supplies more information.

Stamp Duty—Stamp Duty is payable on documents, executed in New Zealand or elsewhere, affecting property situated, or to be situated, in New Zealand.

The rates of duty are shown in the chart below—

Type of DocumentRate of Duty
Transfer of— 
    Mortgage, debenture, shares, share rights, mining rights40 cents for each $100 or part of $100 of the value of the property.
    All other property, including land$1 for each $100 or part of $100 of the value of the property. (Transfers involving people purchasing their first home or first farm, and transfers involving the sale of larger family houses by sole occupants or older persons to growing families and the subsequent purchase of suitable smaller accommodation, are only liable to duty of $1 as Deeds.)
Leases— 
    Rentals40 cents for each $100 or part of $100 of 1 year's rent.
    Premiums, fines, consideration other than rent$1 for each $100 or part of $100 of the consideration.
Deed$1.
Duplicate or counterpart40 cents.
Cheques2 cents for each form or 5 cents for 3.

Gift Duty—A new scale of rates of gift duty is set out below. It applied to all dutiable gifts made on or after 22 June 1979.

The effect of the new scale is to increase the non-liability level from $8,000 to $15,000 and to reduce the number of steps in the scale.

In those cases where gifts made before 22 June 1979 aggregated with gifts made on or after that date, the duty on the gifts made prior to 22 June did not change unless the aggregated figure exceeded $15,000.

The level at which gift statements are required to be filed has been raised to $8,000.

The exemption in section 71 of the Act for small gifts made by a donor in good faith as part of the normal expenditure has increased from $400 to $1,000. The exemption applied to all qualifying gifts made on or after 1 January 1979.

For estate duty purposes, however, the $1,000 limit applied to gifts made at any time by any person who died on or after 21 June 1979.

Value of Item “b” in section 62Rate (Note: “Excess” means excess of the value in complete dollars)
               $ 
Not exceeding 15,000Nil
15,001–20,0005 percent on excess over $15,000
20,001–30,000$250 plus 10 percent of excess over $20,000
30,001–40,000$1,250 plus 20 percent of excess over $30,000
Exceeding 40,000$3,250 plus 25 percent of excess over $40,000

The net revenue received from estate duty and gift duty during each of the latest 5 years is given below.

Year Ended 31 MarchEstate DutyGift DutyTotal Estate and Gift Duties
$(thousand)
197538,3602,75141,111
197650,5243,64454,168
197751,6972,99054,687
197845,6683,04548,713
197949,3203,74753,067

Taxation Review Authority—The Inland Revenue Department Act provides for the establishment of one or more authorities. There is at present only one authority. Every authority shall consist of one person who is a barrister or solicitor of the High Court of not less than 7 years practice and is appointed by the Governor-General. The functions of the authority are to sit as a judicial authority for hearing and determining such objections to assessments of tax or duty or the decisions or determinations of the Commissioner as are authorised by the relevant legislation. A determination of an authority is subject to an appeal to the High Court as to any question of fact where the tax or duty exceeds $1,000 and to any question of law.

ESTATES PASSED FOR DEATH DUTY—Statistics relating to deceased persons estates certified for duty during the year ended 31 March 1978 are given in the following tables. Estates of Maoris are included, but not hereditary interests in Maori land. Summary figures are included for the year ended 31 March 1977.

The following table analyses the estates certified by size of estate valve.

Net Value of EstateEstates of MalesEstates of FemalesTotal EstatesAggregate Set Value of EstatesEstate Duties Assessed
$(000)$(000) Number $(000)$(000)
Under 2 1891893784577
2 and under43823767582,303- -
4 and under63713767473,699
6 and under83973877845,521- -
8 and under104273818087,2591
10 and under124583508088,822- -
12 and under1444336280510,4582
14 and under1641333674911,2286
16 and under1835328663910,8523
18 and under2035028163111,97024
20 and under2237026863813,3876
22 and under2426723750411,5829
24 and under30772591136336,725228
30 and under40901629153052,668981
40 and under5048835384137,6101,218
50 and under6036021957931,6181,499
60 and under7024714339025,2551,627
70 and under8017310127420,5261,818
80 and under901406820817,7101,716
90 and under1001066016615,7461,759
100 and under1201925825027,1173,287
120 and under1401253616120,8442,984
140 and under16074169013,3842,196
160 and under18061107112,0782,161
180 and under20054167013,3152,459
200 and over1933723070,18717,650
Total, 1977–788306616614,472492,32341,642
Total, 1976–778510624014,750487,09951,633

The average net value per estate certified during 1977–78 was $34,019. Estates of males averaged $39,145 in value and estates of females $27,112. Duty assessed on estates of males amounted to $30.2 million and on estates of females $11.5 million.

The average amount of duty assessed within each of the various estate groups is now shown. The ratios of average duty to average estate value are also given.

Net Value of EstateAverage Duty AssessedAverage Duty as Percentage of Average Value of Estate
Estates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined AverageEstates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined Average
$(000)$(000)$     $     $     percent  percent  percent  
Under 10 40203.31.6
10 and under12
12 and under1432
14 and under168880.10.10.1
16 and under18364
18 and under20645380.30.2
20 and under2231790.1
22 and under241617170.10.10.1
24 and under301881391670.70.50.6
30 and under405298006411.52.31.9
40 and under501,1391,8751,4482.54.23.2
50 and under601,9143,6972,5893.56.84.7
60 and under703,2615,7444,1725.08.96.4
70 and under805,7788,1046,6367.710.88.9
80 and under906,96710,8868,2488.212.79.7
90 and under1009,14913,14610,5949.613.911.2
100 and under12012,01416,90813,14911.115.612.1
120 and under14017,63121,66818,53413.616.714.3
140 and under16023,56728,22924,39615.918.816.4
160 and under18029,43136,59330,43917.321.217.9
180 and under20033,28741,32435,12417.521.818.5
200 and over75,87481,25576,74024.826.825.1
All estates, 1977–783,6301,8632,8779.36.98.5
All estates, 1976–774,3632,3233,50011.48.910.6

A summary showing gross assets, notional estate, and debts and charges, classified in broad groups according to size of estate, is now given. The figures refer to estates certified for duty during the year ended 31 March 1978.

ItemNet Value of Estate (Net Value)All Estates
Under $6,000$6,000 and under $10,000$10,000 and under $20,000$20,000 and under $24,000$24,000 and under $40,000$40,000 and under $100,000$100,000 and under $200,000$200,000 and over

* Excludes any interests in Joint Family Homes.

Only debts allowable under the Estate and Gift Duties Act are included.

No allowance is made for the Matrimonial Home Allowances.

$(000), except average per estate $
Gross Assets—
    Cash3,7805,13213,5955,31718,23726,34510,3295,59988,334
        Average per estate2,0073,2233,7434,6556,30310,71816,08824,3446,103
    Furniture, effects, etc.4307122,1867722,7573,9541,80597613,592
        Average per estate2284476016759521,6082,8124,244939
    Farm stock, implements, etc.935142932591,0493,2083,2338,028
        Average per estate4213981894264,99614,056554
    Private business interests31582191878094,0284,0623,67913,072
        Average per estate1636601642791,6386,32715,995903
    Assurance policies8551,0044,2872,0575,4558,6914,4922,26529,106
        Average per estate4536301,1801,8011,8553,5356,9969,8482,011
    Loans5021,2075,3062,15610,16825,22217,89114,08776,539
        Average per estate2667581,4601,8873,51410,26127,86761,2485,288
    Shares, stocks, etc.5088553,4891,7066,99720,95212,75812,68259,947
        Average per estate2695379601,4932,4188,52319,87355,1374,142
    Real property*1,5103,81121,26711,28337,88545,11726,91621.460169,249
        Average per estate8012,3945,8559,88013,09518,35541,92493,30211,694
    Other property2994871,7787302,8905,9663,2322,86618,247
        Average per estate1583054896399982,4275,03312,4591,260
    Notional estate4541,0404,9822,0987,65711,7855,2314,29737,544
        Average per estate2416521,3711,8362,6464,7948,14818,6842,594
    Foreign property49804101298102,5482,0293,1039,158
        Average per estate26501121122801,0363,15913,490632
Debts—
    Unsecured1,2101,0532,8598932,8454,4973,0811,93918,377
    Secured7575871,4726661,6842,6952,1332,12012,114
        Total1,9671,6404,3301,5594,5307,1925,2144,05930,491
    Net value—Average per estate, 1977–783,4308,02714,68321,86430,89960,400135,106305,16334,019
    Net value—Average per estate, 1976–773,4078,03714,87721,91430,70360,212136,016316,26633,023

Realty comprised 32.4 percent of gross New Zealand assets in 1977–78 while the proportion of cash was 16.9 percent. The 1976–77 figures were 33.8 percent and 16.5 percent.

In the following table deceased persons estates are analysed by occupations. These figures refer to the year ended 31 March 1978.

Occupational GroupUnder $6,000$ 6,000 to 9,999$ 10,000 to 19,999$ 20,000 to 23,999$ 24,000 to 39,999$ 40,000 to 99,999$ 100,000 and OverTotal
Number of Estates
Physical life scientists, technicians, etc.535516539
Architects, engineers, technicians, aircraft and ships officers24185117696114254
Medical, dental, and related workers128349204018141
Teachers, clergy and jurists24245421977531326
Artists, authors, athletes, sportsmen and related workers761531110- -54
Administrative and managerial workers37441255413823593724
Clerical and related workers6782180701811016687
Transport and communication workers715335281199
Sales workers59281484113311037556
Protective service workers, armed forces, etc.171751143418- -151
Housekeepers, cooks, waiters, maids, etc.1513255221292
Caretakers, launderers, hairdressers, and related service workers13925915475
Farmers and farm managers5974184692684694161539
Agriculture, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters3032672544188224
Miners, quarrymen, well drillers, etc.181931489- -91
Metal and chemical processers461437337
Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers, etc.9916- -11- --48
Food, beverage, and tobacco processers5424562234326223
Tailors, dressmakers, etc.581138- -- -39
Shoemakers and leather goods makers- -510- -6730
Machinery fitters, assemblers, instrument makers, electrical fitters and related electrical and electronic workers57451215279325385
Glass formers, potters, printers and related workers188201022166100
Painters, bricklayers, carpenters and other related construction workers8071195631487016643
Stationary engine operators, material and freight handlers, transport equipment operators111992666014557- -740
Labourers, and occupations not stated or not in employment11519251895583136010522117175
Total18831592363211422893245887214,472

NOTE: In this table for the separate occupation classes, estates in any value group numbering less than three have been included with the number for the value group below; where this was not possible no net estate distribution has been shown. As the full distribution for each occupation or value group has been given in the totals, this procedure means that in some cases the sum of individual groups will not agree with the totals.

RACING TAXATION—The Government taxation on totalisator turnover from 1 September 1976 is at the rate of 8.5 percent on gross on-course investments and 9.0 percent on gross off-course investments, subject to a rebate of 2 1/2 percent on the first $100,000 of gross investments received by a club in any one year. Total deductions from gross on-course investments are as follows: (a) totalisator duty, 8.5 percent; (b) club or Totalisator Agency Board's commission, 7.5 percent in respect of win and place dividends and 10.18 percent on doubles, quinellas, and trebles investments; (c) 0.5 percent levy for the purposes of the Stakes Subsidy Account; and (d) 0.5 percent levy for the purposes of the Amenities Account. In the case of special races, win and place investments, a commission of 8 percent is deducted and on special doubles, quinellas, and trebles, a commission of 10.68 percent is deducted, and in these cases the 0.5 percent levy for the Amenities Account is waived.

The Racing Act 1971 came into operation on 1 August 1972. Under this Act the 1/2 percent levy on gross turnover for racecourse improvements, and an additional 1/2 percent levy for supplementary stakes paid by clubs on specified races, are paid to the New Zealand Racing Authority for distribution to totalisator clubs. The Totalisator Agency Board pays its profits to the authority which determines its distribution to totalisator clubs.

The Racing Amendment Act 1977 came into force on 1 August 1978. It included provision for the issue of restricted totalisator licences to registered non-totalisator racing, trotting, and greyhound racing clubs. The Act also lowered the legal minimum betting age from 20 to 18 years.

The Minister of Internal Affairs granted totalisator licences for 489 days in the racing year 1977–78. Of these 489 days, 307 were allocated to racing and hunt clubs and 182 to trotting clubs.

The following table gives figures of totalisator duty, and the amount of turnover retained by clubs or the Totalisator Agency Board.

ItemYear Ended 31 July
19751976197719781979
* Retained by clubs and T.A.B.
$ (thousand)
Totalisator duty23,18027,93232,10335,29040,821
Amount of totalisator turnover retained by clubs or T.A.B.23,02328,03532,99236,14241,261
Unpaid fractions*1,1351,2301,3091,4501,638
Amenities Account1,3271,4621,5851,7442,013
Stakes Subsidy Account1,3331,6031,8322,0112,322

The following figures relate to the racing year, which ends on 31 July.

ItemGallopingTrotting
197719781979197719781979
Racing daysNo.296307307162182182
RacesNo.264727622993145616381762
Stakes$(000)7,0258,0708,9203,4704,3335,143
    Average per race$2,6542,9222,9802,3832,6452,919
Totalisator turnover—       
$(million)
    On course 70.774.483.835.439.344.9
    With T.A.B 184.0199.3232.276.389.2103.7
              Total 254.7273.6316.0111.7128.5148.6
Amount paid in dividends 206.2221.5255.890.4104.0120.2

Totalisator turnover for the year ended 31 July 1979 rose by 15.5 percent, from $402.2 million in the previous year to $464.6 million.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information will be found in the following publications:

The Public Accounts (Parl. paper B. 1 [Pt. I and II])

Financial Statement (“Budget”) (Parl. paper B. 6)

Report of the Inland Revenue Department (Parl. paper B. 23)

The Information Service of the Inland Revenue Department has available a range of tax guides, pamphlets, leaflets, etc., giving up-to-date information on the rights and obligations of taxpayers.

26 C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS

GENERAL—Following the repeal of the New Zealand Loans Act 1953, the principal legislative measure which is concerned with public indebtedness is the Public Finance Act 1977.

The money comprising the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of New Zealand. No portion of the public estate is pledged for either principal or interest.

Whereas in 1934, 56 percent of the public debt was owing to overseas investors, the percentage has in recent years dropped as low as 12.5 percent, and at 31 March 1979 was slightly over 33 percent. Some 28 percent of the public debt is held by Government-departments or institutions such as the Post Office, the Government Superannuation Board, and the Earthquake and War Damage Commission

Most of the present public debt was borrowed for national development. A National Development Loans Account was established within the Public Account, as from 1 April 1942, into which moneys for national development are paid. Money from this account, now renamed the Loans Account, is transferred as required to the Consolidated Fund or to accounts now outside the Public Account such as Electricity Supply or the Housing Corporation. Transfers and appropriations during the latest 2 years are given in section 26A.

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT—The total public debt outstanding at 31 March of the two latest available years is shown in the following table.

Type and CurrencyOutstanding 31 MarchIncrease or Decrease
19781979
External debt—$(thousand)
    Pounds sterling174,415164,490−9,925
    Deutschemarks665,036838,903+ 173,867
    Netherlands guilders119,681244,424+ 124,743
    Japanese yen203,746227,365+23,619
    Swiss francs657,988887,827+ 229,839
    French francs18,33518,338+ 3
    United States dollars517,021442,758−74,263
    IBRD47,66240,953−6,709
    Other42,84655,058+ 12,212
Internal debt—   
    Long-term4,885,4195,416,578+ 531,159
    Floating debt151,650482,825+ 331,175
                Total7,483,7998,819,519+ 1,335,720

The table below retains for the sake of comparability the analysis of the overseas debt by domicile into 2 geographic categories and 1 source category. The auditor-general has pointed out that, with the ever-increasing diversity of sources of loan money, this type of analysis has become less and less informative. For example, included under “London, Europe, etc,” are loans raised in, and in the currency of, Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, and Japan. Loans shown under “U.S.A.” include loans raised and repayable in Europe and one in South Korea. The only common factor is that all are in U.S. dollars. A more relevant analysis, especially in times of fluctuating currency values, is by the currencies in which the loans are denominated, as in the previous table. World Bank (IBRD) loans are an exception, since each may be in a number of currencies but they are not repayable in these currencies on any fixed pattern.

A detailed summary of movements in the total public debt during 1978–79 follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchAmounts Outstanding InTotal Overseas Debit
London Europe, Etc.*IBRDU.S.A.

* Excludes debt transferred to New Zealand register.

IBRD loans are in various currencies.

Includes amounts drawn under credit arrangements and currency realignments.

$(million)
19743525658465
197568355125863
19761,158592461,463
19771,309564611,827
19781,882485172,447
19792,436414432,920

The net increase in the public debt during the year ended 31 March 1979 of $1,335.7 million amounted 17.8 percent, compared with increases of 19 percent in 1977–78, 13.2 percent in 1976–77, and 32.3 percent in 1975–76. In 1978–79, external debt rose by 19.3 percent and internal debt by 17.1 percent. Of the total debt outstanding at 31 March 1979 of $8,819.5 million, external debt represented 33.1 percent. This compares with 32.7 percent for 1978, 29 percent for 1977, and 26.3 percent for 1976.

ItemAmount
External Debt
Loans raised (gross value)—NZ$(million)
    For general purposes—
        Deutschemark loans (2)152.8
        Netherlands guilder loan32.7
        Swiss franc loan66.9
        United States dollars103.1
 355.5
    Capital equipment credit arrangements— 
        Australian dollars7.4
        Canadian dollars9.6
        Japanese yen6.1
        Singapore dollars1.1
        Pounds sterling11.9
        United States dollars9.0
 45.1
For repayment of loans— 
    Swiss franc loan112.6
    Netherlands guilder loan94.9
 207.5
        Total value of loans raised608.1
Increase in debt due to changes in currency values125.9
            Gross increase in external debt734.0
    Loans repaid—    NZ$(million)
        Deutschemark loans27.0
        French franc loans0.5
        Netherlands guilder loans13.3
        Sterling loan12.8
        United States dollar loans168.0
    Capital equipment credit arrangements— 
        Australian dollars0.4
        French francs1.1
        Hong Kong dollars1.2
        Japanese yen5.7
        Singapore dollars0.3
        Pounds sterling12.2
        United States dollars9.0
    Export-Import Bank of Japan8.2
    World Bank7.7
                  Total loans repaid267.4
    Net increase during year466.6
    Plus Post Office and New Zealand Government Property Corporation debt6.8
    External debt at 31 March 19782,446.7
    External debt at 31 March 19792,920.1
ItemAmount
Internal Debt
 NZ$(million)
Loans raised (gross value)— 
    For general purposes— 
        Public issues— 
            Cash loans97.2
            Government savings stock293.7
            Inflation-adjusted savings bonds8.1
        Special issues— 
            Private savings banks18.0
            Reserve Bank201.5
 618.5
    Treasury bills1,156.0
    For repayment of loans— 
            Special issues— 
                Government agencies,282.5
    Conversion of loans— 
        Public issues190.9
        Special issues—
            Government agencies,66.0
            Private savings banks33.6
            Reserve Bank148.5
 439.0
                Gross increase in internal debt2,496.0
Loans repaid— 
    Public issues93.0
    Special issues— 
        Government agencies, etc.34.8
        Private savings banks41.2
            Reserve Bank200.9
 369.9
Treasury bills824.8
Loans converted— 
    Public issues190.9
    Special issues— 
        Government agencies66.0
        Private savings banks33.6
        Reserve Bank148.5
 439.0
Internal debt repaid or converted1,633.7
Net increase in internal debt during year862.3
Internal debt at 31 March 19785,037.1
Internal debt 31 March 19795,899.4

A detailed allocation of the public debt as at 31 March 1979 is now given.

AllocationLoan CapitalEquity CapitalTotal Allocations
 $(thousand)
(a) Loans and investments in corporation and Government agencies—   
    Air New Zealand Ltd5,00054,00059,000
    Bank of New Zealand 12,65612,656
    Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand 38,90038,900
    Development Finance Corporation of N.Z.30,16714,82544,992
    Energy: Electricity Division1,905,671  
        IBRD projects20,455  
        Capital equipment credit arrangements133,706 2,059,832
    Energy: Mines Division99,383  
    Capital equipment credit arrangements1,080 100,463
    Housing Corporation1,240,000 1,240,000
    Housing Account (Housing Corporation)688,250 688,250
    IBRD Harbour projects3,949 3,949
    Natural Gas Corporation of N.Z. Ltd17,300 17,300
    New Zealand Export-Import Corporation1,6972,0003,697
    New Zealand Steel Ltd.6,9175,86912,786
    Offshore Mining Co. Ltd18,813 18,813
    Petroleum Corporation of N.Z. Ltd12,10945,00057,109
    Post Office508,953  
        Capital equipment credit arrangements5,555 514,508
    Railways253,550206,283 
        IBRD projects16,548  
    Capital equipment credit arrangements48,856 525,237
    Rural Banking and Finance Corporation849,500 849,500
    Shipping Corporation of N.Z. Ltd. 22,21022.210
    Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.4,40017,17121,571
    Tourist Hotel Corporation of New Zealand11,75211,44823,200
   6,313,973
(b) Other debt formerly allocated to Works and Trading Account—   
    Airport development  45,435
    Forest (State)  233,943
    General public works  627,690
    Land settlement  290,930
(c) Non-productive debt—   
    Consolidated Account—   
        Transfer from Loans Account  730,000
        Capital equipment credit arrangements—   
            Defence  21,839
            Foreign Affairs  3,573
            Health  3,719
            State Services Commission  3,766
            Transport  191
    Currency adjustments  341,096
    International finance organisations—   
        Cash portion of subscriptions  10,004
    Loans Account  45,357
    Loans Redemption Account  148,003
    Total public debt  8,819,519

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS—The gross indebtedness of the Central Government and the amount of indebtedness per head of population are given in the following table. Figures for previous years are shown in a table in the Statistical Summary.

As at 31 MarchAmountPer Head of Population
 $(m)$     
19743,7351,232.07
19754,2001,359.17
19765,5581,778.82
19776,2892,002.69
19787,4842,378.91
19798,8202,849.14

INTEREST—The following table shows the payments of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchInterestInterest on Overseas Debt as Percentage of Export IncomeRecovery of Interest from Government Enterprises and InvestmentsNet Interest CostNet Cost as a Percentage of Total Taxation
OverseasNew ZealandTotal
 $(thousand)
197541,309179,721221,0302.5145,62175,4092.6
197668,817201,196270,0133.1184,91385,1002.7
1977110,359256,678367,0373.5277,96389,0742.3
1978133,204331,320464,5243.9364,57799,9472.2
1979174,243415,868590,1114.5450,295139,8162.8

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT—The maturity years of the debt outstanding at 31 March 1979 are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between overseas and internal debt.

Loans Maturing in Financial Year Ending 31 March*DueTotal Debt (Nominal Amount)
OverseasNew Zealand
PublicDepartmental and Other
* In respect of many of the loans the Government has the option to redeem the securities at an earlier date.
$(thousand)
1980150,672292,42961,353504,454
1981285,68583,019242,859611,563
1982222,143443,23192,737758,111
1983271,812492,029135,170899,011
1984332,721429,990117,587880,298
1985396,132109,57727,315533,024
1986344,20360,733391,099796,035
1987286,129158,440219,500664,069
1988183,666356,749272,902813,317
1989108,954111,328320,292540,574
199037,78792,82858,303188,918
199134,147167,25990,219291,625
199245,530153,297141,432340,259
1993152,24124,903150,202327,346
199468,29427,15978,438173,891
Treasury Bills 408,50574,320482,825
Inflation Adjusted Savings Bonds 14,19914,199
                  Totals2,920,1163,425,6752,473,7288,819,519

OWNERSHIP OF PUBLIC DEBT—As shown in the preceding table, a large proportion of the public debt outstanding is held by various Government departments and quasi-Government organisations. A summary of these investments for the latest three years is as follows.

StockholderAt 31 March
197719781979
$(thousand)
Investments held by accounts within the Public Account5,9715,9715,971
Earthquake and War Damage Commission242,244281,344324,844
Government Life Insurance82,12784,34791,305
Government Superannuation Board388,187445,487519,949
Maori Trustee2,2511,7031,967
National Provident Fund27,10944,50064,350
Post Office953,7281,053,7281,053,728
Post Office National Savings200200200
Public Trustee2,8331,9882,238
Reserve Bank884,632344,596290,208
Housing Corporation51,18558,16674,173
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation23,31531,91544,495
State Insurance Office8,385400300
Meat Industry Account57,28657,286
              Total2,729,4532,411,6312,473,728

Chapter 27. Section 27 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The constitution and franchise of local authorities are described in Section 2, History, Government, and International Relations.

Local government is concerned with the provision of facilities for the population of a limited area, with finances levied from that area. The major authorities are city, borough, and county councils. These authorities raise money mainly by rates on property and by loans. They expend it on the provision of roads, water supply, sewerage, transport, recreational, and other services. Electric power boards and harbour boards, among the larger of the other local authorities, collect revenue from consumers or users in payment for the facilities or services provided. Hospital boards, which supply their returns to the Department of Health, are omitted from most of the statistics contained in this section. A special note is made where they are included, while summarised data relating to hospital boards will be found in Section 5B.

In general, the local authority year ends on 31 March. Exceptions are harbour boards (other than Greymouth) where the year ends on the preceding 30 September, the Hurt Valley Drainage Board and the Wellington Regional Water Board where the year ends on the last day of February, the Marlborough Forestry Corporation where the year ends on the last day of November, and the Marlborough Nassella Tussock Board where the year ends on the last day of December.

RATING—Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are, except where the assets purchased provide revenue to meet the loan charges, ultimately liquidated by rate revenues—known then as special rates. The law relating to the making and levying of rates is contained in the Rating Act 1967. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:

  1. General, for general purposes.

  2. Special rates imposed to secure the repayment of loan money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be; and

  3. Separate rates levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land and buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

There are three main systems of rating: (a) by capital (land and improvements) value; (b) by annual value; and (c) by unimproved value or land value (as values are revised, the unimproved values system is being phased out in favour of land valuation).

For rating on either the capital value or the land value, the rating roll is based on the district valuation roll prepared by the Valuation Department. Where the rating is on the annual value, the local authority generally prepares its valuation roll on the basis of the valuations made by its own valuers. Separate rates require to be struck on the annual value, and when the annual value has not been entered in the valuation roll, the annual value is required to be taken as 6 percent of the capital value. Provision is made for the Valuer-General to act as a local authority valuer where an annual roll is to be prepared.

For Chatham Islands county, import and export dues are charged in lieu of rates on land. In the case of pest destruction boards the system normally used is by rating on an acreage basis, through occasionally some boards rate according to the number of sheep and/or cattle carried.

The system of rating normally attributed to a local authority is that applicable to the general rate, but it is stressed that, in many instances, subsidiary rates of the local authority are levied in accordance with other systems.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities in 21 tax areas covering the country to levy a local authorities petroleum tax at the rate of 1, 2, or 3 cents a gallon on motor spirits and 0.5, 1 or 1.5 cents a gallon on diesel fuel delivered in a tax area. All tax areas voted to levy the tax at the maximum rate, mostly from 1 February 1971. The proceeds of any tax imposed may be applied to projects for the benefit of the region or distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenue. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden on ratepayers.

With harbour boards, 2 types of rates are applicable, namely: (a) harbour improvement rates, based on so much per ton of cargo by weight or measurement; and (b) harbour rates on rateable property, which are levied according to the system of rating in force by each of the local authorities within the harbour boards' rating areas. However, the Rating Act 1967 gives to harbour boards the power to have a system of rating different from that in force in all or some of its constituent local authority districts.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The sources of revenue of all local authorities, including electric power boards, are shown by broad classes in the following table. The figures from 1976–77 exclude fire boards, which were taken over by the Fire Service Commission on 1 April 1976.

Year Ended 31 MarchRates, Levies, Fines, etc.*Grants from Central and Local GovernmentSales of Commodities and Services incl. Water RatesOther ReceiptsTotal Receipts
* Includes rates other than water rates, $241,376,000, and other taxes, fines, etc., $31,169,000 in 1977 and water rates, $279,433,000 and other taxes, fines, etc., $33,856,439 in 1978.
$(thousand)
1974167,69176,738383,98233,240661,651
1975195,056100,928429,00739,023764,014
1976236,213115,206488,44341,728881,590
1977272,54597,322627,03749,2331,046,139
1978313,288116,652798,61857,2861,285,848

Rates were equivalent to $75.60 per head of population in 1975–76, $88.55 per head during 1976–77, and $98.92 per head during 1977–78.

A fairly large proportion of the receipts of urban local authorities result from the sales of commodities or services, for instance, sales of electric power and gas, and- fares collected for public transport.

The payments of all local authorities during each of the latest available 5 years has been as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchLabour and Related CostsPurchases of Commodities and ServicesAll InterestOther PaymentsTotal Payments
$(thousand)
1974202,090301,49942,48238,172584,244
1975237,014367,44446,28656,529707,274
1976285,899415,62552,00759,355812,886
1977295,983513,95659,21066,325935,475
1978346,971664,07871,00884,6541,166,710

Receipts and payments of various classes of local authorities for the year ended 31 March 1978 are shown below.

Receipts
Local AuthorityRates Levies, Fines, etc.Grants from Central and Local GovernmentSales of Commodities and ServicesOther ReceiptsTotal Receipts
$(thousand)
City and borough councils219,10728,220229,61927,840504,787
County councils65,13537,01821,9685,943130,064
District councils5,4483,2143,48071412,857
Electric power boards5323342,9584,158347,445
Harbour boards81317083,1528,75492,889
Regional authority1,64621,02427,7335,26255,666
Urban drainage boards8,9682,87577771013,331
Catchment boards5,56812,0103,6681,79523,042
Pest destruction boards2,8455,1501351858,314
Urban transport boards2,340973,1073505,894
Other local authorities1,4136,55182,0211,57591,559
              Total313,288116,652798,61857,2861,285,848
Payments
Local AuthorityLabour and Related CostsInterestPurchases of Commodities and ServicesOther PaymentsTotal Payments
$(thousand)
City and borough councils148,74827,061233,76433,784443,357
County councils39,5175,54868,8975,137119,099
District councils3,9665106,40528111,162
Electric power boards54,8938,790246,95021,427332,060
Harbour boards37,72912,37230,67410,39391,168
Regional authority22,7478,66412,6941,79045,895
Urban drainage boards4,2212,8842,6061759,887
Catchment boards7,6895084,37779213,366
Pest destruction boards4,229623,0482367,574
Urban transport boards3,8952711,0933125,572
Other local authorities19,3374,33853,57010,32787,569
              Total346,97171,008664,07884,6541,166,710

TERRITORIAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The following table shows total receipts and payments of territorial local authorities for the years ended 31 March 1977 and 1978. The local authorities petroleum tax introduced in February 1971 produced $18.1 million in 1976–77 and $18.2 million in 1977–78 for the general purposes of territorial authorities.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19771978
 Receipts $(million)
Rates and grants in lieu223.5258.5
Other taxes and fines30.633.1
Grants and contributions from Central Government57.066.4
Grants and contributions from local authorities17.823.2
Sales of main product130.8171.4
Other commodities and Services98.9111.5
Interest10.013.6
Miscellaneous current receipts26.226.2
            Total594.8703.9
 Payments $(million)
Labour and related costs182.8215.1
Interest paid35.741.8
Levies and grants to Central Government and local authorities21.226.4
Bulk purchase for resale64.585.5
Other commodities and services190.1236.6
Other current payments12.410.8
            Sub-total506.7616.2
            Less capitalised payments24.930.5
            Total481.8585.7

A wide variety of public utilities and amenities are provided by territorial local government, the main activities being electricity supply, water supply, roading, sewerage, drainage, and refuse collection. The table below shows the current receipts and payments for a number of selected activities for the years ended 31 March 1977 and 1978.

Excluded from the figures are sales and purchases of fixed assets and repayments of loan monies.

Activity197677197778
ReceiptsPaymentsReceiptsPayments
 $(million)
Electricity supply80.472.0109.990.7
Passenger transport29.127.632.931.9
Water supply47.643.255.445.1
Road construction and maintenance106.196.7127.0109.0
Refuse, sewerage, and drainage48.042.160.957.4
Abattoirs8.88.310.610.2
Libraries12.411.715.014.0
Parks and domains33.027.938.634.5

Many of the services provided are also trading undertakings. Generally speaking, territorial local authorities are restrained from operating trading undertakings that are particularly profitable. Public transport undertakings, which are usually a substantial burden upon ratepayers, are particularly unprofitable. The only major exception is electricity distribution, from which a few territorial local authorities make surpluses.

Grants and Subsidies—A substantial portion of local authority revenues is derived from grants and subsidies, especially those from the National Roads Board. Notes on some of these grants and subsidies are given below.

National Roads Board—The finance available from the National Roads Fund represents an important source of revenue for territorial local authorities (See section 12D.)

Forest Service Fifths—The New Zealand Forest Service distributes to territorial local authorities grants equal to one-fifth of net revenue received from the sale of timber, and in the case of national endowment land, one-tenth of net revenue from the sale of timber.

Water and Sewerage Subsidies—From 1960 until 1969 a sewage treatment subsidy was available to local authorities with populations of less than 20000. In 1969 this scheme was replaced by a more comprehensive water and sewerage subsidy scheme administered by the Department of Health, which provided assistance towards certain loan repayments on existing works and towards the capital costs of new works. There was a subsidy limit of $100,000 for any one project. Up to 31 March 1972 $5.9 million had been approved in respect of this and the earlier scheme. In 1972 the subsidy limit was abolished. In 1977–78 water and sewerage subsidies totalled $16.6 million compared with $13.3 million the previous year.

Rural Water Supply Scheme—The Rural Water Supply Scheme is administered by the Ministry of Works and Development and provides for subsidies towards the cost of piped water supply to rural areas. As from December 1974 the Government subsidy rate has been $1 for $1.

Housing for the Elderly—Since 1950 this form of housing has been recognised as being, in the main, the responsibility of local authorities, with the Government providing the necessary finance through subsidies and long-term concessional loans. The cost of flats for the elderly is met by a minimum loan or cash contribution of $3,500 per unit with the balance of the approved cost provided by subsidy. During the year ended 31 March 1979 some 752 flats were completed and the subsidy totalled $7.08 million. During the 5 years 1975 to 1979 the total subsidy was $35.7 million.

Urban Renewal—Grants for urban renewal have been available for local authorities since 1945. Expenditure on these schemes was fixed at $7 million per annum for 5 years from 1 April 1974. For the year ended 31 March 1979 payments totalled $6.64 million, $0.06 million less than for the previous year.

Civil Defence—A dollar-for-dollar subsidy towards some items of civil defence costs is paid by the Ministry of Civil Defence.

Rural Electricity Distribution—The Rural Electricity Reticulation Council has since 1947 provided subsidies towards the cost of rural electricity distribution lines. The chief beneficiaries have been power boards, but small amounts have been paid to territorial local authorities.

Noxious Weeds Eradication—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates the subsidy scheme on the cost of noxious weeds eradication.

Urban Passenger Transport—Municipal and private urban passenger transport operators receive capital assistance from the New Zealand Urban Public Passenger Transport Council. This amounted to $0.5 million for 1978–79, the same amount as for the previous year. The Auckland Regional Authority, Wellington City Council, Christchurch Transport Board, and Dunedin City Council no longer receive assistance from the Council, following the introduction by the Government in 1977 of the bus replacement programme amounting to $50 million over 5 years.

Local Authorities Petroleum Tax—Local authorities receive a tax of 3c per gallon on petrol and 1.5c on diesel fuel. For 1977–78 this tax produced $18.2 million, compared with $18.1 million in 1976–77 and $17.9 million in 1975–76.

BORROWING—Under the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Authorities Loans Board.

As a general rule, local authorities may raise a loan by special order and without a poll of ratepayers, but in the case of a local authority that is a rating body, a poll of ratepayers is to be taken if—

  1. The Local Authorities Loans Board requires a poll to be taken; or

  2. Before the date fixed for the meeting of the local authority to confirm the resolution to raise the loan not less than 5 percent of the ratepayers demand a poll; or

  3. The local authority itself decides to take a poll.

A poll cannot be required in cases such as renewal loans, loans raised for emergency expenditure by reason of flood, storm, earthquake, etc., or loans for work of national and local importance and carried out by an agreement between the Government and a local authority.

Where a poll is required it shall be deemed to be carried if a bare majority of the valid votes recorded is in favour of the proposal. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospitals Act 1957 a hospital board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow. Harbour boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour works from special empowering legislation and similar authority is given for the capital works of certain other local authorities.

The Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 places the determination of rates of interest in the hands of the Local Authorities Loans Board, subject to the approval of the Minister of Finance of the maximum rate.

The interest rates current on and from April 1979 are as follows: 1 and 2 years, 11.5 percent; 3 years, 4 years, and 5 years, 12.5 percent; 6 years, 13.5 percent; 7 years, 8 years, and 9 years, 12.0 percent; 10 years and over, 11.25 percent.

Loans Sanctioned, Authorised, Raised, and Uplifted—The following summary of the operations of the Local Authorities Loans Board during 5 recent years shows concisely the trend of local authority borrowing during that period. Hospital boards and the Fire Service Commission are included.

YearValue of Total ApplicationsSanctioned
New WorksRedemption Loans
 $(million)
1974–75358.9285.129.3
1975–76441.7297.021.2
1976–77259.7168.120.2
1977–78308.2213.317.5
1978–79391.1279.124.7

The following table shows loans authorised during year ended March 1979, with amounts raised and uplifted to 31 March 1979 on these authorisations.

Local AuthorityAmounts Authorised Year Ended 31 March 1979Amounts Raised to 31 March 1979Balance Sot Raised at 31 March 1979Amounts Uplifted to 31 March 1979
 $(thousand)
Territorial
    Cities and boroughs92,20422,98069,22421,566
    County councils27,6397,45620,1836,677
    District councils2,3946611,733661
    Regional authority6,7742,1704,6042,170
    Town districts474733
Other
    Catchment districts8,1882917,897291
    Electric power and gas boards65,3988,04957,3497,985
    Harbour boards25,11110,60414,50710,449
    Harbour bridge authority
    Pest destruction boards12110417104
    Urban drainage boards3,8452,6051,2402,605
    Urban transport boards
    Valley authority490486436
            Total232,21155,453176,75852,577

The following table shows comparative debt figures. Hospital boards are included.

Year Ended 31 MarchAmounts Sanctioned by Loans BoardGross Indebtedness at Beginning of YearAmount UpliftedPrincipal RepaidGross Indebtedness At End of Year
$(thousand)
1974199,700864,312132,70179,211917,802
1975314,400917,802161,70592,439987,067
1976318,200987,067196,31277,3341,106,045
1977188,3001,106,045239,66266,1961,279,511
1978230,8001,279,511219,36276,6731,422,200

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross public debt of local authorities, and the annual charge thereon for the latest 5 years. This does not include hospital board debt.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross Public DebtAnnual Loan Charge
AmountRate Per HeadAmountRate Per Head
 $(000)$$(000)$
1974787,397258.7793,70830.77
1975840,843271.19107,61334.71
1976933,671298.36103,98333.23
19771,053,974335.94108,00734.43
19781,138,550356.40127,90640.04

In the following table gross public debt is classified by types of local authority. It should be noted that the debt of electric power districts shown in the following table does not represent the complete local authority debt on account of electric power activities, since a considerable portion of the city and borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose.

Year Ended 31 MarchCities, Boroughs and Town DistrictsCountiesElectric Power DistrictsHarbour DistrictsUrban Drainage DistrictsUrban Transport DistrictsOther DistrictsTotal
$(thousand)
1974321,07770,57395,113136,89335,9132,134125,694787,397
1975355,66867,983101,941140,48636,9862,171135,608840,843
1976397,45878,295116,271148,49839,6372,345151,167933,671
1977435,20184,934134,189189,87542,8923,398163,4851,053,974
1978459,65993,275151,982201,09846,2513,642182,6431,138,550

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on local government, especially the financial aspects, will be found in the following publications.

Local Authority StatisticsDepartment of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of StatisticsDepartment of Statistics.

Report of the Local Authorities Loans Board(Parl. paper B. 17).

Report of the Local Government Commission (Parl. paper G. 9).

Report of the Valuation Department (Parl. paper G. 26).

Local Authority Finance in New ZealandReport of the Local Authority Finance Committee (1973).

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

The Local Government Act 1974: A Guide to its OperationDepartment of Internal Affairs (1974).

Chapter 28. Section 28 INCOMES AND INCOME TAX

Table of Contents

Particularly in times of relatively rapid inflation, comparisons between money incomes in different years should be made with caution. To be meaningful, comparisons should be made in terms of effective or real income, i.e., money in relation to the costs of goods and services. However, it is not easy to measure these changes as there is no one index that adequately gives a measure of the changing purchasing power in all circumstances. This is because the purchasing power of money is conditional to a large extent on the patterns of expenditure out of income, and these may and do differ substantially from person to person.

The elements of individual and company income and the taxation requirements of a modern welfare state are closely related. Statistics of incomes and income tax are compiled annually by the Department of Statistics. Complete details and methods of compilations are given in the annual statistical report on Incomes and Income Tax.

INCOME TRENDS: INDIVIDUALS—The data required for the statistical compilation of incomes do not become available for a lengthy period after the end of the income year. This, coupled with the necessary time taken by the statistical processing, means a long time lag before final results of the compilation are available. To meet this situation, provisional estimates are made on the basis of a restricted sample. The tables in the first part of this section are presented on this basis.

The following table gives data for the principal sources of incomes of self-employed persons.

Source of Total IncomeIncome Years
197677x197778197879
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
Self-employed persons— $(m) $(m) $(m)
    Agriculture and livestock production—
    Dairy farming26,000162.526,000174.226,000214.5
    Sheep farming23,100258.723,000235.823,000278.3
    Other farming17,000114.817,100125.717,200151.4
            Total, farming66,100536.066,100535.766,200644.2
Manufacturing420027.9430031.0430034.2
Construction15,850122.615,450121.715,150123.9
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels14,25096.214,250105.514,200120.0
Transport and storage495033.5505039.2515045.9
Business, community, social, and personal services20,400259.120,850284.621,200338.9
All other industries435032.5440034.1460037.1
            Total, self-employed persons130,1001,107.8130,4001,151.8130,8001,344.2

The estimates for 1976–77 showed an increase of $118.9 million in the incomes of all farmers, with the incomes of sheep farmers showing an increase of $73.6 million, while the incomes of dairy farmers and other farmers increased by $24.8 million and $20.6 million respectively. In 1977–78 the estimated incomes of sheep farmers decreased by $22.9 million while the incomes of dairy farmers and other farmers increased by $11.7 million and $10.9 million respectively.

In 1978–79 the estimated incomes of sheep farmers increased by $42.5 million and the incomes of dairy farmers and other farmers increased by $40.3 million and $25.7 million respectively.

It has not been possible to make estimates for salary and wage earners and investment income earners. Because of the computerisation of tax records, information on the incomes of these is received only for tax payers who furnish returns of income. It is therefore also not possible to publish income distribution tables as was done in the previous series.

Average and Median Incomes—Average and median incomes have been estimated from a restricted sample on a provisional basis. The averages are based on total income derived from all sources and not on income from self employment alone. Incomes of self-employed persons include an element of interest return on capital investment as well as a reward for the person's own efforts.

The following table gives estimates of average and median incomes of self-employed persons in selected industries.

Type of Self EmploymentIncome YearIncome Year
197677x197778197879197677197778197879
* Arithmetic mean.
 Averages* $Medians $
Agriculture and livestock production—
    Dairy farming6,2506,7008,2505,6005,9007,250
    Sheep farming11,20010,25012,1009,1008,6009,700
    Other farming6,7507,3508,8005,5005,9006,850
Manufacturing6,6507,2007,9504,3504,8005,400
Construction7,7507,9008,2006,5506,8507,100
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels6,7507,4008,4505,0505,5506,150
Transport and storage6,7507,8008,9005,9506,7007,900
Business, community, social, and personal services—
    Legal practitioners21,10020,55027,80018,55018,50024,500
    Chartered accountants18,75019,85022,70017,75018,55022,300
    Medical practitioners (including surgeons, specialists, and physicians)23,70026,60030,50020,65023,10028,600
    Dental practitioners18,35019,50022,30016,05017,00019,100
Other services8,1508,95010,1005,4506,1006,900

COMPANIES—The provisional estimates of assessable income for companies are given in the next table. They are calculations based on the income trends revealed by a small sample of returns. The sample is confined to those income returns which are available at an early date. Companies with balance dates later than 30 June would be almost completely unrepresented in the sample.

The estimates are given with the warning that the figures are subject to a possible considerable margin of error and should therefore be used with caution.

Industry Division1976–77*1977–781978–79
Number of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income
* Final figures.
  $(m) $(m) $(m)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing743025.2757018.5769021.3
Mining and quarrying3033.63105.23207.0
Manufacturing10,328443.710,650323.311,090426.7
Electricity, gas, and water261.0301.7301.6
Building and construction801258.1805039.8810032.2
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels23,741362.023,860266.924,200335.5
Transport, storage, and communication273232.9281031.0287031.0
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services23,717287.924,130322.324,650382.4
Community, social, and personal services442319.0468019.7501022.4
            Total80,7121,233.482,0901,028.483,9601,260.1

FINAL DATA ON INCOMES—As stated at the beginning of this section, final data on incomes do not become available until a considerable time after the end of the income year. The previous tables in this section are all provisional estimates based on restricted samples of tax returns. The summary tables following show final figures, with 1975–76 as the latest year. Final figures are published in detail in the annual report Incomes and Income Tax, published by the Department of Statistics. For individuals, the statistics are in normal years substantially based on a 5 percent sample for all incomes of less than $16,000; there is a complete enumeration of all incomes of $16,000 and over. The data for companies are derived from a complete enumeration.

The broad principle adopted in calculating the assessable income is that any expenditure or loss exclusively incurred in the production of assessable income for any year may be deducted from the total income from any assessable source for that year. Depreciation is allowed, varying rates for different classes of assets being fixed. The assessable income is approximately equivalent to the net profit as determined by the normal commercial accounting systems after the deduction of special taxation incentive allowances. Before the deduction of these allowances it is, on the whole, rather higher than the commercial net profit, since certain types of expenditure which are regarded as a revenue charge in commercial accounts are not permissible deductions for income tax purposes.

Capital profits are not assessable and capital losses are not deductible.

Classification of Source of Income—The New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification was adopted for 1975–76 for both companies and self-employed persons and details of companies and persons by industry are therefore not strictly comparable with the previous series.

Classes of Taxpayers—“Individuals” comprise all assessments for individual persons. Partnership returns are ignored in the compilation, as the individual shares of partnership income are included in the individual tax assessments. The incomes of deceased persons' estates are not included, as the greater part of these are transferred to assessments of the beneficiaries.

The term “companies” not only covers companies incorporated under the Companies Act and other Acts relating to the formulation of companies, but also includes associations (incorporated or unincorporated), and aggregations of individuals (other than partnerships) which form separate and distinct entities for income tax purposes. Government departments which are liable to pay income tax are included, but most local and public authorities are not taxable even in respect of their trading operations, and consequently are not included in these statistics.

Summary—The following tables summarise the main items of information for income years.

INDIVIDUALS
YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersTotal IncomeExemptions*Taxable Income*Income Tax Assessed
* From 1969–70 exemptions and taxable income were estimated where incomes and tax data were derived from tax deduction certificates. The special exemption of $135 for each child was reduced to $35 for 1972–73 and repealed as from 1 April 1973.
   $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1969–701,414,3501,296,9503,273,720781,9202,470,480524,330
1970–711,460,8201,359,6403,805,600842,4202,944,670689,290
1971–721,517,4901,420,4904,457,350892,9503,551,250873,810
1972–731,574,4601,487,1805,124,480830,3304,279,1201,021,900
1973–741,650,3701,566,0306,087,800834,8305,236,0001,295,890

Because of revised processing methods, returns of incomes of individuals for 1974–75 and 1976–77 were not processed. A revised table will be prepared for future issues of the Yearbook.

COMPANIES
YearNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income*Ordinary Dividends ReceivedIncome Tax Assessed

* In ascertaining assessable income any expenditure exclusively incurred in the production of the income for the year may be deducted.

Estimate. Returns for 1974–75 were not processed.

Ordinary dividends received are exempt from tax in the hands of the receiving company and are therefore not included in “Assessable income”

§ Includes non-resident withholding tax.

$(thousand)
1971–7268,639672,95565,636271,100
1972–7371,304861,55381,300352,996
1973–7474,3201,032,68799,434423,695
1974–7576950988,900....
1975–7678,9521,032,277100,068418,639
1976–7780,7121,233,410130,952511,501§

A strict comparison of the figures for any year with those of another is not possible, as changes in compilation practice and numerous amendments in income tax law have affected the comparability of the figures.

The next two tables show some additional data concerning companies. The data relate to the income years 1975–76 and 1976–77. The first table relates to 1975–76.

Industry DivisionStocks at End of PeriodIncomeExpenditureGross Profit
Sales and ServicesInterest and RentsPurchasesSalaries and WagesInterest and RentsDepreciation
$(million)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing99.8441.07.588.0110.634.336.4284.8
Mining and quarrying3.896.90.9..20.43.65.5..
Manufacturing1,579.28,911.737.94,934.31,521.7220.9285.42,292.1
Electricity, gas, and water1.912.90.15.21.70.50.72.6
Building and construction222.71,622.410.7796.3354.827.950.9446.0
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels1,570.511,128.756.48,605.3987.7212.6106.42,137.2
Transport, storage, and communication7.5964.16.237.5236.938.082.4..
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services78.01,212.3837.789.2348.9383.564.9..
Community, social and personal services19.6335.76.498.6125.814.211.586.1
Total 1975–763,582.924,725.6963.714,654.43,708.3935.3644.15,248.8
1973–742,541.918,913.4685.311,623.02,811.7593.3385.13,798.8
1972–732,064.815,853.3554.59,720.72,382.7494.9323.43,229.5

The second table shows similar data relating to the income year 1976–77.

Industry DivisionStocks at End of PeriodIncomeExpenditureGross Profit
Sales and ServicesInterest and RentsPurchasesSalaries and WagesInterest and RentsDepreciation
 $(million)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing109.4528.18.9102.3130.138.532.0318.6
Mining and quarrying3.9184.50.8..21.84.85.0..
Manufacturing1,923.010,664.746.86,064.41,750.6244.5269.12,651.7
Electricity, gas, and water1.721.90.37.93.21.01.010.3
Building and construction273.11,775.417.6881.9381.732.538.9460.0
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels1,977.913,810.471.910,886.71,161.4262.0109.32,419.3
Transport, storage, and communication14.11,242.48.456.6277.645.8102.8..
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services68.01,355.31,011.690.2397.4516.960.9..
Community, social, and personal services22.3431.87.2108.4165.020.612.791.8
Total 1976–774,393.430,014.51,173.418,198.54,288.91,166.5631.65,951.6
1975–763,582.924,725.6963.714,654.43,708.3935.3644.15,248.8
1973–742,541.918,913.4685.311,623.02,811.7593.3385.13,798.8

One point which should be noted is that the purchases figures for the Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry, and Fishing Industry Division and the Mining and quarrying Industry Division do not include purchases for forestry companies or for mining and quarrying companies. It was found that there was a considerable lack of uniformity in such data for that type of company. This was probably connected with differing treatments of royalty and equivalent payments.

The amount of gross profit shown in the accounts is used in these statistics, despite the wide variations in the conceptions of gross profit. No attempt has been made to secure uniformity of calculation for individual companies, but of course the total gross profit for each industry should correspond with that industry's average conception of gross profit. In some industries, such as the transport industry, it is not normal practice to calculate gross profit, and in some cases the gross profit is recorded in these statistics as nil. Estimates of the amount of gross profit were, however, made when any company did not calculate the gross profit, and it was the custom of the industry concerned to show this figure.

The abridged version of the full industry classification for which data are given in this publication does not reveal the individual industries where the gross profit is not generally calculated. Apart from “Mining and quarrying”, and “Transport, storage, and communication”, there are a number of industries included in “Community, social, and personal services” which do not show a gross profit.

Companies with Overseas Affiliations—Two types of companies operating in New Zealand but subject to some degree of overseas control have been identified. The 2 types are:

  1. branches of overseas organisations operating in New Zealand;

  2. New Zealand-registered companies with 25 percent or more of their equity shareholding subject to overseas control.

The second category includes not only companies in which overseas residents have a 25 percent or greater shareholding, but also companies which are subject to this degree of control without themselves having any overseas owners. For instance, if a New Zealand company was 50 percent owned by another New Zealand company, which itself was 50 percent overseas owned, the company would qualify as having 25 percent overseas control. These are generally termed “second generation” companies.

Overseas companies whose only New Zealand income is from investments, patent rights, royalties, copyrights, and the like, are not included in the 1458 companies selected, as they are not considered to be active in the New Zealand economy. Also excluded are those overseas companies such as air and shipping lines, which enjoy exemption from New Zealand income tax under the terms of double taxation agreements with their own countries.

The 25 percent minimum equity criterion used to classify objectively a New Zealand company as subject to some degree of overseas control, approximates the definition of international private direct investment used by such organisations as the International Monetary Fund. Although the measure of overseas control of New Zealand firms varies according to a great number of circumstances, a minimum holding of 25 percent does provide a consistent and practical criterion for determining its presence.

In the following table, 4 significant values for the 1458 overseas controlled companies are shown in industry groups both as absolute values, and as percentages of the totals for all companies assessed for income tax in the 1975–76 income year. The figures for assessable income indicate that overseas-affiliated companies are, on average, larger units than are wholly New Zealand controlled companies. On the other hand it must be remembered that the New Zealand companies include Government trading departments which may follow profit policies different from private sector companies and for which capital values are not included in shareholders' funds. The figures would also suggest that there is some concentration of branches and subsidiaries of overseas companies in the nine manufacturing groups and mining and quarrying; these industries offer scope to large concerns with access to capital and technical expertise.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeIncome Tax AssessedSalaries and WagesDividends Paid

* Companies with overseas affiliations.

All New Zealand companies including those with overseas affiliations.

Percentage of companies with overseas affiliations to all New Zealand companies.

 $(thousand)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishingOverseas*324411994,21738
All N.Z.730722,4168,510110,5993,721
Percent0.42.02.33.81.0
Mining and quarryingOverseas*395221862,489225
All N.Z.3022,7311,08420,3962,768
Percent12.919.117.212.28.1
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobaccoOverseas*5416,1677,38475,7051,826
    All N.Z.96973,03532,459402,87828,213
    Percent5.622.122.718.86.5
    Textile, wearing apparel and leather goodsOverseas*324,4211,97627,9452,190
    All N.Z.121329,70112,942204,1528,184
    Percent2.614.915.313.726.8
    Wood and wood products including furnitureOverseas*109964462,08620
    All N.Z.125621,1929,103143,17013,184
    Percent0.84.74.91.50.2
    Paper and paper productsOverseas*477,0053,12813,0252,006
    All N.Z.96330,94413,564153,24812,474
    Percent4.922.623.18.516.1
    Chemicals and chemical petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic productsOverseas*12327,19612,19360,0367,248
    All N.Z.72644,86919,961124,95013,282
    Percent16.960.661.148.054.6
    Non-metallic mineral products, except products of petroleum and coalOverseas*189,2474,12713,9403,506
    All N.Z.44718,4138,01253,5226,710
    Percent4.050.251.526.052.3
    Basic metal industriesOverseas*101,7918033,9041,056
    All N.Z.1597,7463,40934,1792,020
    Percent6.323.123.611.452.3
    Fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipmentOverseas*17351,39323,143115,53511,282
    All N.Z.3612115,07550,669383,02723,029
    Percent4.844.745.730.249.0
    Other manufacturing industriesOverseas*301,6607383,167400
    All N.Z.7614,2731,78922,536778
    Percent3.938.841.314.151.4
Electricity, gas, and waterOverseas*
All N.Z.234131841,703119
Percent
ConstructionOverseas*251,6267579,69975
All N.Z.797255,60523,071354,8368,975
Percent0.32.93.32.70.8
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotelsOverseas*35550,41322,293111,96810,632
All N.Z.23,339314,250135,078987,65759,584
Percent1.516.016.511.317.8
Transport, storage, and communicationOverseas*482,6461,13329,3956
All N.Z.264823,1229,694236,8759,856
Percent1.811.411.712.40.1
 $(thousand)
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business servicesOverseas*42994,56429,767147,46614,304
All N.Z.23,057253,01682,971348,85881,063
Percent1.937.435.942.317.6
Community, social, and personal servicesOverseas*311,1505171,35977
All N.Z.419815,4766,139125,7592,070
Percent0.77.48.41.13.7
All industriesOverseas*1458271,240108,790621,93654,890
All N.Z.78,9521,032,277418,6393,708,345276,029
Percent1.826.326.016.819.9

CENSUS OF POPULATION AND DWELLINGS 1976: Incomes of Individuals—The following statistics on incomes were compiled from the Census of Population and Dwellings taken on 23 March 1976.

The table below divides into income groups the persons actively engaged in the labour force and also the total population.

The question asked for income for the year ended 31 March 1976 from all sources, without deduction of taxes, superannuation, life insurance, rates, etc. Social welfare benefits (age, family, etc.) and war pensions were not included.

Income GroupPersons Actively Engaged*Total Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

* Working 20 hours or more per week.

Includes pan-time workers working less than 20 hours per week.

               $ 
Nil—5624788513,509576,456905,8771,482,333
    1–99918,93833,17452,11284,263187,268271,531
    1,000–2,99972,831120,453193,284106,768196,993303,761
    3,000–3,99984,76182,384167,14593,36194,338187,699
    4,000–4,999129,45866,129195,587135,04372,521207,564
    5,000–5,999158,40747,781206,188162,08051,431213,511
    6,000–6,999110,88419,956130,840113,00521,744134,749
    7,000–7,99981,399998691,38582,70310,95593,658
    8,000–8,99957,909452862,43758,938527164,209
    9,000–9,99935,005236437,36935,730288638,616
    10,000–12,49948,594258151,17549,718342453,142
    12,500–14,99918,16977218,94118,667117519,842
    15,000–19,99914,10452214,62614,45185815,309
    20,000 and over14,38749114,87814,79279515,587
    Not specified14,628822922,85716,06711,80527,872
                  Total865,098407,2351,272,3331,562,0421,567,3413,129,383

Persons actively engaged but with relatively small incomes would include considerable numbers of school leavers who began work late in 1975 or in early 1976 as well as persons unemployed but seeking work, and those assisting relatives without pay.

The following table provides 1976 Census incomes data by age of recipient, for persons 15 years and over.

Age Group (Years)Income GroupTotal Inc. Not Specified
Under $1,000$1,000–$2,999$3,000–$5,999$6,000–$8,999$9,000–$14,999$15,000 and over
Males
15–1974,78335,64738,630166613416153,335
20–24872816,37178,46022,9812477292131,644
25–34628410,75688,16084,79527,5185360226,515
35–443606628456,98859,41330,0198556167,616
45–6425,98916,784108,93179,74940,71813,617289,798
65 and over67,60920,64719,247602832471402118,992
                Total186,999106,489390,416254,632104,11329,2431,087,900
Females
15–1983,37333,89927,706152255147,402
20–2450,23116,10155,230451220040127,931
25–34134,03332,29739,76111,8141567284222,123
35–4478,62937,18533,71285031783364162,112
45–64167,75054,18253,31811,4883082677293,195
65 and over125,42223,08785111491828283160,515
                Total639,438196,751218,23837,960748516531,113,278

Income Earners in Each Household—An analysis of income earners in each household was made from the information collected at the Census of Population in 1976. For this analysis an income earner was defined as one who received $500 or more a year, excluding social welfare benefits and war pensions. A summary of the analysis is given in the following table.

Number of Household MembersNumber of Private Households WithTotal Households
No Income Earners*1 Income Earner2 Income Earners3 Income Earners4 Income Earners5 or More Income Earners
* Includes a number of households where income of members was not specified.
155,31988,577143,896
244,59986,787126,392257,778
3947259,15952,33827,494148,463
4525777,89858,41519,6179906171,093
5284146,62337,46413,54863022386109,164
6151320,53117,20979293852196552,999
77287554649436281950112521,479
839031702697166610046679594
9 or more422232822211731104210478791
                Total120,541392,627303,23075,61324,0567190923,257

Household Income—In the following table private households consisting of one complete family only (that is, consisting of husband and wife with or without unmarried children of any age living at home) are shown by total household income and by composition. The total income figure is the estimated income before tax, excluding Social Welfare benefits, for the year ended 31 March 1976.

Total Income of HouseholdNumber of Households ComprisingTotal
Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife With
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
$      
Nil—21,962102242022514813723,914
    1–49941772631286348404719
    500–99910,227448235116724111,139
    1,000–1,499432338625111568635206
    1,500–1,999352939128514468634480
    2,000–2,49928725914362831361084426
    2,500–2,999459712029896623042498003
    3,000–3,9999516413640682462112284622,150
    4,000–4,99911,8287706868149192386151537,035
    5,000–599913,83311,05315,23883653445198053,914
    6,000–6,99911,034962914,99782883453171449,115
    7,000–7,99911,014889114,98285653424164548,521
    8,000–8,99910,792766512,70675343016150743,220
    9,000–9,99911,913707810,76366412723131240,430
    10,000–12,49930,29814,33619,40812,0305077255383,702
    12,500–14,99911,885763610,78873063102163242,349
    15,000–19,99982036182965567263268175035,784
    20,000 and over36013196542045572268130420,346
    Not specified20341584202815609188949018
                Total187,63893,395131,47880,56135,04619,353547,471

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on income tax will be found in Section 26B Public Account Taxation. Other publications containing information and data on incomes and income tax include the following:

Incomes and Income Tax—Department of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Inland Revenue Department (Parl. paper B. 23).

Census of Population and Dwellings 1976

Vol. 5 Incomes and Social Security Benefits.

Bulletin No. 21 Incomes.

Chapter 29. Section 29 BANKING AND CURRENCY

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The core of the New Zealand banking system comprises a central bank (the Reserve Bank of New Zealand) and 5 commercial or trading banks. There are also 12 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank, while each trading bank has a private savings bank subsidiary. In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, etc., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits (short-term and long-term) to clients. In some instances deposits are repayable to the client's order at call—virtually a system of cheque issuing. Particularly during the 1960s, an expansion in the size and scope of near-banks (or non-banking financial institutions) was a feature in New Zealand as in many other countries, but this trend has been reversed to some extent in recent years, largely because of the removal of most interest rate controls. The Reserve Bank's publication Monetary Policy and the New Zealand Financial System (February 1979) provides a general oversight of the financial system and the implementation of monetary policy in New Zealand.

RESERVE BANK—The Reserve Bank was originally established in 1933 as a privately-owned institution, but became a fully State-owned institution in 1936. A brief survey of its historical development was included in this section in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks. The 1933 Act establishing the bank was the culmination of proposals ranging back to 1886 that a central bank or a State trading bank should be set up in New Zealand. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 and amendments provided the Reserve Bank with powers in line with modern central banking practice and monetary policy. It provided the Government and the Reserve Bank with flexible authority to take such monetary action as might be appropriate to the times with respect to any financial institution.

Functions of the Bank—Section 8 of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act, as amended in 1973, states the primary functions of the bank, its basic relationships with Parliament, the Government, and the Minister of Finance, and lays down the criteria for Government monetary policy. The section reads:

  1. The primary functions of the bank shall be—

    1. To act as the central bank for New Zealand; and

    2. To ensure the availability and conditions of credit provided by financial institutions are not inconsistent with the sovereign right of the Crown to control money and credit in the public interest; and

    3. To advise the Government on matters relating to monetary policy, banking, credit, and overseas exchange; and

    4. Within the limits of its powers, to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government as communicated in writing to the bank under subsection (2) of this section, and to any resolution of Parliament in relation to that monetary policy.

  2. For the purposes of this Act, the Minister may from time to time communicate to the bank the monetary policy of the Government, which shall be directed to the maintenance and promotion of economic and social welfare in New Zealand, having regard to the desirability of promoting the highest level of production and trade and full employment, and of maintaining a stable internal price level.

  3. The bank shall, as directed by the Minister, regulate and control on behalf of the Government—

    1. Money, banking, banking transactions, any class of transactions of financial institutions, credit, currency and the borrowing and lending of money;

    2. Rates of interest in respect of such classes of transactions as may from time to time be prescribed;

    3. Overseas exchange and overseas exchange transactions.

  4. The bank shall make such loans to the Government and on such conditions as the Minister decides from time to time, in order to ensure the continuing full employment of labour and other resources of any kind.

The bank also has a number of subsidiary functions including:

  1. Banking functions for the Government, Government trading organisations, and the primary produce marketing authorities as well as for the trading banks.

  2. Management of the note and coin issue.

  3. Management of public and local authority debt.

  4. Management of foreign exchange reserves.

  5. The administration of various acts including the Overseas Investment Act 1973, the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948, and the Private Savings Bank Act 1964.

  6. The administration of various regulations including the Financial Services Regulations 1979 (surveillance of prices) as well as regulations concerning the trustee and private savings banks and the public sector securities requirements of other financial institutions.

  7. Maintaining relations with international organisations such as IMF, IBRD and OECD.

  8. Economic research.

Whilst the bank must give effect to Government monetary policy, or to resolutions of Parliament related thereto, the directors are given a fair degree of independence and responsibility in the carrying out of the policy laid down, and in the management of the bank and the conduct of its business.

The exercise of the Reserve Bank's powers is at the discretion of the directors, but the consent of the Minister of Finance is required in certain special cases. The consent of the Governor-General in Council is required before the bank can engage in trade or have a direct interest in any commercial, industrial, or financial institution, or purchase, or lend against, the shares of a trading bank or financial institution. The Government is required to entrust to the bank, and the bank to undertake, free of charge to the Government, all Government banking transactions.

The Reserve Bank has 10 directors, comprising the Governor, the Deputy Governor, the Secretary to the Treasury, and seven other directors appointed by the Governor-General in Council.

Bank Notes—The bank retains the sole right of issue, and has authority for the calling in, with the consent of the Minister, of any note or series of notes issued by the bank. Notes called in cease to be legal tender, but remain a liability of the bank. Provisions covering the defacing of bank notes and their reproduction or imitation without the prior consent of the bank are in the Reserve Bank Act.

Overseas Exchange—Part IV of the Reserve Bank Act 1964 deals with overseas exchange and other transactions affecting the overseas resources of New Zealand. The bank has the authority to fix the actual exchange rates used in its operations, and may also prescribe or approve rites of exchange to be used by other persons in foreign exchange transactions. These rates are fixed by the bank in accordance with directives given to the bank by the Minister of Finance. The Governor, with the prior consent of the Minister, may temporarily suspend dealings in foreign exchange.

Since the holding of external reserves is dependent on aspects of economic policy and conditions beyond the control of the Reserve Bank, the bank's duty is described as “to endeavour, within the limits of its powers, to maintain, in addition to any holdings of gold, an adequate level of overseas reserves”. The bank keeps the Minister of Finance informed of the overseas exchange position and prospects. To assist it in carrying out this duty to hold reserves, the bank has a statutory power to require trading banks to sell to it their foreign exchange holdings in excess of maximum amounts prescribed by the Reserve Bank.

Comprehensive provisions for exchange control regulations are set out in Part IV of the Act, as are provisions for regulations covering dealings in gold. This part of the Act also provides for an indemnity under which changes in the New Zealand currency value of the bank's overseas assets (less offsetting changes in the New Zealand currency value of its overseas liabilities) are settled between the bank and the Government.

Regulation of Banking and Credit—In Part V of the 1964 Act, trading banks are required to make monthly returns to the Reserve Bank detailing their principal liabilities and assets. Statutory authority has been provided for obtaining such subsidiary returns and other information from trading banks as the Reserve Bank may require.

This section authorises the application of reserve ratios. Subject to the approval of the Minister, the trading banks may be required to hold balances at the Reserve Bank or to hold assets of specified kinds, including balances at the Reserve Bank. The minimum requirements may be laid down as a percentage of deposit liabilities or of assets, as a percentage of parts of such deposit liabilities or assets, or as percentages of both, or in any other manner. Different percentages may be laid down for different classes of deposit liabilities or assets.

The Reserve Bank is authorised to give directions to trading banks as to the policy to be followed in relation to advances, discounts, and investments and in relation to rates of interest or discount.

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act 1973 extended the controls previously exercised over the trading banks to include all financial institutions. The Amendment Act provided the monetary authorities with forms of control over non-bank financial institutions including the power to make recommendations or give directives, to specify rates of interest, to require the holding of specified assets, and to inspect books and request information. Apart from these direct controls over financial institutions, the Reserve Bank may influence the financial system by buying and selling Government securities. Fuller information on instruments of monetary control and their operation is given later in this section.

Statistics collected from trading banks, finance companies, building societies, the short-term money market, the commercial bill market, life assurance companies, stock and station agents, and all savings banks appear regularly in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Liabilities and Assets—Details of the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank at the end of June for the latest 4 years, and weekly averages for calendar years are shown in the following tables.

LIABILITIES OF RESERVE BANK
YearBank NotesDemand DepositsOther LiabilitiesTotal Liabilities
StateMarketingBanksOther
$(million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
1976382.8145.022.412.4466.7357.01,386.3
1977414.9164.933.411.4538.1455.61,618.4
1978447.4198.713.84.6507.1529.21,700.8
1979492.5219.646.72.4438.3576.41,775.8
At End of June
1976367.5110.419.10.1472.1320.91,290.1
1977405.2155.037.015.2542.5438.31,593.1
1978432.9163.010.311.3494.0516.51,628.0
1979481.8167.452.8414.7554.71,671.4
ASSETS OF THE RESERVE BANK
YearGoldOverseas AssetsInvestments in Sew ZealandAdvances in New ZealandAll Other Assets in New Zealand
Short-term*InvestmentsSpecial Drawing RightsStateMarketing OrganisationsOther Advances and Discounts
* Current account balances and short-term bills.
$(million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
19760.7178.853.49.9583.393.9369.636.460.3
19770.7166.755.725.8796.9113.3377.134.547.8
19780.7242.953.351.2496.8256.5428.7123.447.3
19790.7213.49.338.3668.4129.5525.3121.969.1
At End of June
19760.7148.437.16.5564.011.8416.226.878.5
19770.7201.468.324.7780.047.9407.129.733.3
19780.7352.057.954.7466.5158.7462.736.838.1
19790.7167.88.939.8776.517.7549.342.668.1

TRADING BANKS—There have been trading banks in New Zealand since the early days of settlement and they have conducted their business according to the general principles which have long been traditional in British banking institutions. With the exception of the Bank of New Zealand, which became a fully State-owned bank with the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act 1945, the banks are owned by private shareholders. New Zealand has a branch banking system with nearly 1050 branches and agencies in New Zealand and a world-wide network of agents and correspondents. The general business of banking is governed by the Banking Act 1908. Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act 1908 and the Cheques Act 1960 are the laws relating to cheques drawn on a bank.

Banks accept deposits from the public for either a fixed term or on an “on demand” basis. Fixed term or time deposits bear interest, but unlike demand deposits cannot be operated on by cheque. Cheques drawn on current accounts are efficient and widely used instruments for the settlement of commercial and private debts. The fundamental principle of bank advances policy is to confine advances as far as possible to financing customers' current trade or seasonal requirements. The major form of bank lending to customers is still by way of overdraft but term lending, mainly for medium terms of from 2–5 years, has grown rapidly from approximately 3 percent of total bank lending in December 1971 to 35 percent in December 1979.

With the enactment of the Private Savings Banks Act 1964 the trading banks established savings banks from 1 October 1964 on a similar basis to that of the Post Office Savings Bank, offering ordinary, investment, thrift club, home lay-by, and special purpose accounts.

There are 5 trading banks in New Zealand, 3 of these institutions—the Bank of New Zealand, the ANZ Banking Group (New Zealand) Ltd., and the National Bank of New Zealand Limited—being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of New Zealand. The New Zealand activities of the ANZ Banking Group were incorporated as a subsidiary in 1979, and an offer of shares to the public has been made in 1980. The other two banks—the Bank of New South Wales, and the Commercial Bank of Australia Limited—are incorporated in Australia. The 5 trading banks jointly own a computer company, Databank Systems Ltd. Databank had a national network of computer centres operating by the end of 1969. This network handles the daily operations of the banks, including the clearing of cheques.

Bank of New Zealand—The Bank of New Zealand became a wholly State-owned trading bank on the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act in 1945. At 31 March 1979 it had 231 branches and 149 agencies in New Zealand, a branch and a sub-branch in London, 4 branches in Australia, and 6 branches, 1 sub-branch, and 15 agencies in Fiji. It also has representative offices in Japan, Singapore, and New York. The bank owns 50 percent of the shareholding of the Bank of Western Samoa and holds 20 percent of the capital of the Bank of Tonga. In addition, in common with other trading banks, it operates a savings bank. The bank holds a 40 percent shareholding in BNZ Finance Company Limited.

Trading income (including income from investments) of the Bank of New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1979 was $114.2 million compared with $88.6 million the previous year and $78.9 million in 1976–77. Of this total of $114.2 million, operating expenses took $87.7 million and provision for taxation $14.5 million, leaving a net profit of $12.0 million compared with $7.5 million in the previous two years and $5.9 million in 1975–76.

The total assets of the bank and its subsidiaries as at 31 March 1979 amounted to $2,852.5 million. Among the main items were advances, bills discounted and sundry debts ($1,890.4 million). Government and local body securities ($654.6 million), and cash on hand, items in transit, and deposits with bankers ($166.6 million). Bank properties and equipment were valued at $85.3 million. The principal item of liabilities was deposits at $2,428.3 million.

Liabilities and Assets of Trading Banks—Since the Reserve Bank commenced operations the trading banks have been required to submit at monthly intervals a return of certain liabilities and assets in respect of New Zealand business. Monthly averages for the latest 4 calendar years and figures as at the last Wednesday in June are given in the next table.

SELECTED LIABILITIES OF TRADING BANKS*
YearLiabilities in New ZealandLiabilities Outside New ZealandTotal Liabilities
DepositsOther Liabilities
DemandTime

* Trading bank business only, excludes liabilities of savings bank subsidiaries, shareholders' funds, capital liabilities to overseas head offices, contingencies, interbank accounts, and transit items within New Zealand.

Compensatory deposits included.

$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19761,305.81,329.160.484.52,779.8
19771,340.01,772.971.2107.83,291.9
19781,471.52,360.073.1x112.94,017.5x
19791,652.02,966.978.0129.64,826.5
At End of June
19761,353.91,329.375.584.92,843.6
19771,357.21,775.343.1112.13,287.7
19781,451.82,278.444.7118.43,893.3
19791,667.22,737.695.5122.44,622.7
SELECTED ASSETS OF TRADING BANKS
YearCoinReserve Bank NotesDemand Deposits Held in Reserve BankOverseas AssetsInvestmentsLoans*Other AssetsTotal Selected Assets

* Includes advances, discounts and term lending but excludes interbank lending.

Includes interbank lending, land and buildings.

$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19765.568.914.1183.7666.31,814.5141.32,894.3
19775.770.111.0x213.8x638.82,352.8x160.43,452.6x
19786.568.44.3272.2x1,091.8x2,631.5x162.74,237.4
19797.066.9326.41,180.53,321.8180.35,082.7
At End of June
19765.062.3199.1736.01,780.6140.72,923.7
19775.262.915.2233.2x639.62,360.4x141.43,457.9
19785.762.110.4284.4x1,025.62,528.7x166.84,083.7
19796.463.0390.8995.43,288.7159.94,904.2

Deposits and Advances of Trading Banks—The averages of total deposits (together with the amount per head of mean population), and of total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits for each of the latest 4 calendar years, are given in the following table.

YearDepositsAdvances
Not Bearing Interest*Bearing InterestTotal*Per Head of Mean PopulationTotal AmountRatio to Deposits

* Including Government deposits.

Provisional.

  $(m) $     $(m)percent
19761,193.01,420.72,613.7838.751,808769.2
19771,338.81,762.73,101.5991.622,352.8x75.9x
19781,464.02,297.03,761.01,201.872,631.5x70.0x
19791,638.32,945.84,584.21,467.883,321.872.5

The following diagram illustrates the movements that have occurred in deposits and advances, the figures used, as in the previous table, being the weekly averages for calendar years.

Interest rates on trading banks overdrafts are given in the following table.

Rate Charged PercentPercentage of Total Overdrafts at Each Rate at 31 March
1976197719781979
Less than 639.05.64.64.2
6 and less than 725.27.40.40.2
7 and less than 835.841.49.54.3
8 and less than 919.323.921.4
9 and less than 1026.423.025.3
10 and less than 1115.014.2
11 and less than 129.210.5
12 and less than 1314.611.9
13 and less than 14   4.9
Over 14%   3.1

The following table gives interest rates on trading bank term loans.

Rate Charged PercentPercentage of Total Term Loans at Each Rate at 31 March
1976197719781979
Less than 60.80.1
6 and less than 76.37.72.70.9
7 and less than 816.322.77.71.5
8 and less than 949.830.012.52.6
9 and less than 1027.123.716.314.3
10 and less than 128.719.219.6
12 and less than 136.322.933.0
Over 1318.628.0
 100.0100.0100.0100.0

The maximum permitted average interest rate on bank overdrafts was 6 percent from 31 August 1965 until 3 March 1976, when the restrictions on overdraft rates were abolished. This control had been in operation since early in World War II.

An analysis of overdrafts and term lending by the New Zealand trading banks is given in the following table.

Group10 March 19768 March 19779 March 197814 March 197912 March 1980
1. Farming, forestry, hunting, and fishing—$(million)
    (a) Mainly dairy farming45.751.958.270.787.4
    (b) Mainly sheep farming50.454.470.096.9114.5
    (c) Other farming57.574.790.3124.1146.4
    (d) Farm services13.517.420.224.631.6
    (e) Forestry, hunting, and fishing9.113.520.025.630.6
            Sub-total176.1211.8258.8341.8410.5
2. Mining and quarrying3.64.94.511.08.9
3. Manufacturing—
    (a) Dairy companies, factories, etc.21.928.131.338.750.0
    (b) Freezing works, meat companies, etc.206.2266.4273.6367.7392.7
    (c) Other food, beverages, and tobacco50.557.364.274.095.4
    (d) Textiles, footwear, and clothing40.064.858.976.992.8
    (e) Pulp and paper and paper products32.125.837.050.559.3
    (f) Metal products, machinery, and engineering80.3112.6142.2169.6199.4
    (g) Transport equipment23.127.765.437.257.8
    (h) Other manufacturing91.6128.7147.5179.7229.0
            Sub-total545.7711.5820.2994.31,176.2
4. Construction82.6113.9117.7142.9153.1
5. Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services8.64.74.04.06.0
6. Transport, storage, and communication38.645.059.486.789.6
7. Commerce, trade, and finance—$(million)
    (a) Wholesalers, mainly importers101.371.982.5103.5154.6
    (b) Wholesalers, other33.146.258.565.580.8
    (c) Retailers97.8141.8154.1174.3217.2
    (d) Woolbuyers84.6104.798.7122.2180.4
    (e) Stock and station agents26.653.961.458.882.9
    (f) Finance companies (mainly hire-purchase)5.822.113.316.321.6
    (g) Other financial institutions54.362.170.080.587.4
            Sub-total403.6502.7538.5621.0824.7
8. Local bodies, n.e.i.7.39.98.813.17.7
9. Services111.0157.3160.1214.2235.5
10. Personal—
    (a) For housing purposes125.7196.3207.1324.1349.5
    (b) Other120.5174.4170.0279.0322.2
            Sub-total246.1370.7377.1603.1671.6
            Total1,623.22,132.32,349.13,032.33,583.9

The following diagram illustrates the level of trading bank advances in March of the last 3 years.

Trading Bank Credit Authorities—The following table shows calendar-year averages and end of June figures for unexercised overdraft and term-loan authorities, total credit limits, and the percentage utilisation of credit limits.

YearUnexercised Overdraft and Term Loan AuthoritiesTotal Credit LimitsUtilisation of Credit Limits
 $(million)$(million)Percentage
Average for Calendar Year
1976787.42,601.969.8
1977821.23,174.0x74.1x
19781,016.23,647.7x72.1x
19791,177.24,499.173.8
At End of June
1976750.82,531.470.3
1977785.33,145.6x75.0
19781,020.33,549.0x71.3x
19791,187.44,476.173.5

MONEY AND CREDIT AGGREGATES—The money supply and selected liquid assets of the public, and claims of monetary institutions by sector, as at 31 March of each of the latest 4 years are shown in the following tables. The table showing the money supply and selected liquid assets of the public sets out the deposit liabilities of the major financial institutions accepting deposits from the public. Institutions included in the table are the trading banks, the Reserve Bank (currency in circulation), the private and trustee savings banks, the P.O.S.B., finance companies, stock and station agents, and the official money market dealers. The table showing the claims of monetary institutions by sector deals with the asset side of those institutions' balance sheets. The domestic breakdown of assets is according to investments with the Government (predominantly holdings of Government securities), and with the private sector (loans, etc.), plus the Reserve Bank's net advances to the marketing and stabilisation sector. The sum of these 3 classifications provides a “domestic credit” aggregate which, when adjusted for institutions' net overseas assets and a residual item, can be reconciled to the money supply and selected liquid assets of the public aggregate.

After reaching a peak of 19.5 percent for the first quarter of 1976–77, the annual rate of increase in the money supply and selected liquid assets flattened out at around 13 percent during 1977–78. But from June 1978 the rate of increase commenced to rise once more to reach 22.5 percent over the year to March 1979. Subsequently the rate of growth has eased.

Expansion in domestic credit fell during 1977 but began to rise again in 1978, largely reflecting the strong growth in credit to the private sector. Growth in both the domestic credit and private sector credit aggregates declined moderately in the second half of 1979. (See subsection Recent Monetary Conditions and Policies.)

Money Supply and Selected Liquid Assets of the PublicAs at 31 March
1976197719781979

* Notes and coin on issue from Reserve Bank minus till money of trading banks.

Trading bank demand deposits minus Government deposits and trading bank deposits held by financial institutions included in table.

Net of deposits of included institutions with each other.

Money supply (Ml)$(million)
  Notes and coins*342.3367.6403.5454.8
  Demand deposits1,243.91,303.91,290.11,539.7
  Savings bank cheque accounts9.818.126.840.9
            Total1,596.01,689.61,720.42,035.4
  Annual rate of increase19.8%5.9%1.8%18.3%
Other demand deposits$(million)
    Private savings banks423.0446.9462.8536.2
    Trustee savings banks637.5673.7674.0778.4
    P.O. savings bank819.9837.4887.7970.1
    Stock and station agents69.687.567.269.6
    Finance companies23.343.648.896.2
    Money market26.623.920.431.8
            Total1,999.92,113.02,160.92,482.3
Total demand deposits and money supply (M2)3,595.93,802.63,881.34,517.7
Annual rate of increase13.2%5.7%2.1%16.4%
Time and fixed deposits
    Trading banks1,046.61,443.31,844.22,395.8
    Private savings banks133.9175.1209.2317.0
    Trustee savings banks220.5271.9419.2593.8
    P.O.S.B444.0494.2550.9637.8
    Stock and station agents22.922.923.246.4
    Finance companies348.8512.3686.8826.7
    Money market5.23.26.21.2
            Total2,221.92,922.93,739.74,818.7
Money supply and selected liquid assets of the public (M3)5,817.86,725.57,621.09,336.4
Annual rate of increase17.0%15.6%13.3%22.5%
Claims of Monetary Institutions by SectorAt at 31 March
1976197719781979
$(million) (annual % changes in brackets)
Government2,814.0(28.5)3,076.5(9.3)3,330.1(8.2)3,841.6(15.4)
Marketing and stabilisation367.6(3.5)398.3(8.4)431.2(8.3)536.4(24.4)
Private sector2,965.1(12.2)3,816.5(28.7)4,353.7(14.1)5,441.1(25.0)
Domestic credit6,146.7(18.5)7,291.3(18.6)8,115.0(11.3)9,819.1(21.0)
Overseas−224.8−314.9−209.4−181.9
Residual−104.2−250.9−284.6−300.8
                Total5,817.8(17.0)6,725.5(15.6)7,621.0(13.3)9,336.4(22.5)

RECENT MONETARY CONDITIONS AND POLICY—The tight liquidity situation of 1974 eased during 1975, primarily as a result of the Government's budgetary deficit which more than offset the balance of payments deficit, but also because of demand factors. A policy package announced in March 1976 had important implications for monetary policy in New Zealand. Most interest rate controls were removed and Government security rates were brought more into line with market rates.

In the latter part of 1976 and the beginning of 1977 a tighter Government budgetary stance was more than offset by the growth in lending to the private sector. However, the rate of credit expansion to the private sector eased substantially from mid-1977. In the July 1977 Budget provision was made for savings banks to largely set their own fixed deposit rates, Government security yields were adjusted upwards, and savings bank government security ratio reductions were announced. To maintain business confidence a series of monetary measures were intimated in October 1977 aimed at easing the liquidity situation.

Nevertheless, a sharp downturn in activity occurred towards the end of 1977, which saw trading bank lending grow by only 1.9 percent (in seasonally adjusted terms) in the second half of 1977–78 and the growth in the broad monetary aggregate (M3) flatten off at around 13 percent, prompting a further easing of monetary policy in February 1978. In order to ensure that monetary policy did not act as a restraint on the recovery of economic activity mat official policy was seeking to achieve, and to ensure that balanced recovery in the public and private sectors occurred, reserve requirements for trading banks, savings banks, and finance companies were eased. These measures, coupled with expansionary fiscal measures, saw a pickup in the rates of growth of monetary aggregates from the March quarter of 1978.

In March 1978 the Reserve Bank operated a scheme, known as the Compensatory Deposits Scheme, designed to smooth out the loss of reserve assets by the banking system at the peak tax-flow periods (March and September). The usual March loss of approximately 60 percent of reserve assets was smoothed out through to May 1978 by a return flow of deposits by the Reserve Bank with the trading banks. The scheme was operated again in September 1978.

The expansionary monetary policy measures taken earlier in the year, and the injection from the stimulatory fiscal stance adopted during 1978, resulted in M3 growing at 21.3 percent over the year to December 1978. (This compares with an annual growth rate of 12.5 percent for the previous December year.)

On 14 August 1978 the Minister of Finance announced the introduction of a guideline for the growth of private sector credit from the main deposit-taking institutions of 10 to 15 percent for the year ended March 1979. The announcement of this guideline reflected the Government's views on what would be an appropriate growth rate of private sector credit given the economic recovery desired by the authorities.

In order to finance the budget deficit in a non-inflationary fashion, and also to increase the holding of Government debt by the private sector, interest rates on Government securities were increased in August 1978 (having also been increased in February 1978). A further move in this direction was made in October 1978 when the New Zealand Government Savings Stock issue was opened. The increase in interest rates, combined with the attractiveness of the instrument because of its security and liquidity, made the issue very popular. When the loan closed on 15 December 1978 subscriptions totalled $293.6 million from 73700 applicants.

Notwithstanding the success of the savings stock loan, liquidity in the economy at the end of 1978 remained very high, with increased trading bank credit limits presaging further increases in the growth of private sector credit. Consequently it was announced in late January 1979 that the policy level of trading bank free reserves was to be reduced from $100 million to $50 million in March 1979, and that the Government security ratio applicable to finance companies was to be increased from 15 percent to 20 percent effective from 1 April 1979. Subsequently, in April 1979 a guideline of 8 to 12 percent for private sector credit growth over the March 1980 year was announced.

In response to the liquidity situation, and as part of the Government's policy to finance its budgetary deficit in a non-inflationary manner, the 5-year Government security yield was increased to 13 percent per annum for the April-May 1979 cash loan. This successful Government loan raised $428 million, and was immediately followed by the second savings stock loan which received subscriptions totalling $47.3 million. In spite of the strong support of these loans, monetary and credit aggregates continued to exhibit strong growth necessitating additional monetary measures. In July 1979 a zero margin for trading bank free reserve assets was introduced and the Government security ratio for finance companies raised to 22 1/2 percent in October.

During the December 1979 quarter there were signs of a slowdown in the growth of money and credit aggregates. There were also indications of a slowdown in economic activity during 1980, partly as a result of external influences. As a result, ratio policy applied to trading banks and private and trustee savings banks was eased slightly early in 1980.

MONETARY INSTRUMENTS: Trading Banks—In June 1973, a new system of controlling trading bank operations was introduced. The reserve assets ratio scheme consists of a conventional liquidity requirement with the minimum ratios expressed as percentages of trading bank demand and time deposits. The ratios are varied on two grounds. First, to take account of seasonal and random influences on bank liquidity and, secondly, to put into effect a change in credit policy, A bank unable to meet its reserve requirement has to borrow the shortfall from the Reserve Bank on conditions determined by the Reserve Bank. The percentage requirements, which are usually set monthly, are normally less for time deposits than for demand deposits, in order to continue to give the banks an incentive to compete for term deposits. Reserve assets consist of trading banks' holdings of notes and Government securities and of the time and demand balances of the trading banks at the Reserve Bank. Details of the reserve ratios are published in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Savings Banks—All Post Office Savings Bank deposits are invested in Government and public corporation securities apart from cash requirements and loans to the private sector (introduced in 1973 and subsequently extended).

The trustee and private savings banks have been required to invest a proportion of their deposits, after allowing for statutory cash requirements, in Government securities. The savings banks ratios have been high compared with other financial institutions. Since March 1968 the ratios have been reduced in stages, primarily to increase investment in housing mortgages.

Finance Companies—Capital issues control on finance companies was abolished in 1962 and “voluntary” agreements on investments existed until capital issues control was reintroduced in February 1967. These controls were abolished again in June 1969. The finance companies were then required to invest a prescribed percentage of their “borrowings” in Government securities. The initial ratio of 10 percent which was to be attained by July 1970 was phased in over 4 quarters. This ratio has been varied since as a tool of monetary policy. In October 1975 it was increased from 10 percent to 15 percent; in February 1978 it was reduced to 12 1/2 percent; in October 1978 it was raised to 15 percent; in April 1979 it was increased to 20 percent; and in October 1979 it was further increased to 22 1/2 percent.

Life Insurance Companies—Between 1965 and 1969 there were several “voluntary” agreements with the insurance companies regarding investment in Government securities. In October 1969 the bases of the present controls were introduced. The insurance companies “voluntarily” agreed to invest 30 percent of their “assets” in public sector (Government and local authority) securities with a minimum of 22 1/2 percent in Government securities. By October 1973, when this arrangement was formalised, the minimum Government securities ratio had been reduced to 22 percent and it has since been reduced to 19 percent with an overall ratio of 29 percent.

Building Societies—From November 1970 the building societies were required over a 5–year transitional period to reach and maintain 5 percent of their “assets” in public sector securities (with a minimum of 3 percent in Government securities). The 1976 Budget announced the phasing-in, over a 10 year period, of a 15 percent public sector securities requirement, with a minimum of 11 percent in Government securities. The savings banks operations of authorised building societies are also required to invest a proportion of their deposits in Government securities.

Private Superannuation Funds—In June 1970 the private superannuation funds were given a 5-year transitional period in which to place 30 percent of their assets in public sector securities in order to qualify for tax exemptions. This agreement was formalised in August 1975 and provision was made for the ratio to increase by 2 percent annually to 40 percent by April 1980. Up to 10 percent of the increased requirements could be met by authorised “housing” investments.

Official Money Market Dealers—From the time of their official recognition late in 1962, dealers have been subject to deposit limits and controls on assets they can hold. Currently, dealers must hold at least 60 percent of their funds in Government Securities.

Discount Rate—In effect, the Reserve Bank's discount rate is the minimum rate at which trading banks may borrow from the bank if they need to do so in order to maintain the statutory minimum ratio requirements. The discount rate does not apply to advances to the State or marketing organisations.

The rate was increased from 10 percent to 12 percent from 1 May to 10 November 1977, but then reverted to 10 percent in order to reduce trading bank competition for short-term deposits and thus put downward pressure on interest rates in line with general economic policy at the time. In November 1978 the discount rate was raised to 12 percent and in January 1979 to 13 percent in order to maintain relationship with market rates, which had risen, and to reinforce the restraints on credit growth.

Interest Rate Controls—As part of its stabilisation policy, the Government introduced the Interest on Deposits Regulations in March 1972. These regulations prescribed maximum rates of interest payable by non-bank financial institutions. After being amended in 1974 and 1975, the regulations were revoked in March 1976.

Until March 1976, when the fixed rates were changed to maximum rates, the interest payable on deposits at trustee and private savings banks was, like the POSB, absolutely controlled. While there have been no changes in the rate of interest on “other” accounts, the interest rates on investment accounts have increased several times in recent years, making them more competitive with other deposit instruments. In 1977 the restrictions on savings bank investment accounts were largely removed.

Directives—The Reserve Bank can also issue directives to supplement the other instruments. For instance, for many years the trading banks have been subject to qualitative lending directives which specify high and low priority lending categories. At present, farming, exporting, and housing are high priority sectors while personal (excluding housing), importing, and lending to financial institutions are low priority. Finance for stockholding was given higher priority from October 1976. The savings banks have also been issued with directives concerning the investment of funds released by reductions in the Government securities ratios in housing mortgages.

Public Debt Policy—On 14 August 1978 the Minister of Finance announced measures designed to develop public debt policy as an active monetary policy instrument. He also made public the intention to use open market operations as a monetary policy instrument. These policy instruments are used to change the rate of growth of the money supply by making an alternative asset in the form of Government securities, relatively more or less attractive in the eyes of the private sector.

In line with this aim, interest rates on Government securities have been adjusted in line with market conditions so that a deeper and wider market in Government securities can be developed.

INTEREST RATES ON DEPOSITS: Savings Banks—The interest rate paid on ordinary, thrift club, special purpose, and home lay-by accounts at the Post Office, trustee savings banks, and private savings banks is set at 3 percent. The Post Office Savings Bank (POSB) and trustee savings banks also offer school, home ownership, fishing vessel ownership, and farm ownership accounts with the same rate of interest. In addition, qualifying home lay-by, home ownership, and farm ownership account holders are eligible for grants and subsidies of various sorts aimed at encouraging saving for home and farm purchase.

Deposits can earn 3 1/2 percent interest in National Savings Accounts with the POSB and some trustee savings banks after a qualifying period.

No interest is paid on personal cheque accounts but non-profit institutions may receive 3 percent interest on accounts with cheque facilities.

Housing bonds, which were introduced in September 1976 by the POSB and trustee savings banks, can earn 9 percent interest for a 5-year term.

As from August 1977 the savings banks were given the freedom to set the structure of, and the interest rates on, investment and other term deposit accounts, and the deposit limits were removed. The Trustee Savings Banks and the POSB require the concurrence of the Reserve Bank and the Secretary to the Treasury respectively regarding changes in rates. Prior to August 1977 the structure and maximum interest rates of savings bank investment accounts were fixed by Order in Council.

Trading Banks—On deposits up to $12,000 individual trading banks can offer up to the maximum rates of interest payable by their savings bank subsidiaries on investment accounts. Interest is not payable on cheque accounts. All other interest rates are free from control.

Other Deposit-taking Institutions—The Interest on Deposits Regulations were revoked in March 1976 and deposit rates with non-banks are now free from control.

Other Deposits and Interest Rates—References to rates of interest on mortgages will be found in Section 30A (Mortgages), while interest on Government debt is referred to in Section 26C (State Indebtedness), and interest on local authority debt in Section 27 (Local Government Finance).

SAVINGS BANKS—Savings banks include the Post Office Savings Bank, the trustee savings banks, and the savings banks operated by the trading banks. In recent years there have been major changes in savings bank operations. Following an amendment to the Trustee Savings Bank Act passed in 1957, the 5 trustee savings banks that had survived from the middle of the last century were joined by 8 new trustee savings banks between 1959 and 1964. In 1972, 2 of these banks merged and there are now 12 trustee savings banks. Another major change was the formation of private savings banks by the 5 trading banks, following the passing of the Private Savings Bank Act in 1964.

As from April 1973 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been able to advance personal loans. In March 1973 the responsibilities for the administration of the trustee savings banks and the private savings banks was transferred from the Treasury to the Reserve Bank. Trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been allowed to offer cheque facilities since 1974.

The following table shows the total amounts of transactions in savings bank accounts, including accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, private savings banks, National Savings accounts, and school savings bank accounts, but excluding National Savings bonds.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestAmount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March
* Includes interest paid out on Investment accounts.
$(million)
19753,337.071.93,290.3118.62,420.7
19764,155.877.93,964.9268.72,689.4
19774,853.488.04,713.8227.62,917.1
19785,712.9104.75,502.7314.83,231.9
19797,561.4150.77,070.0642.13,874.0

In the following table the accounts in the 3 types of savings banks are classified by amount groups. Balances in the Post Office Savings Bank and the trustee savings banks are as at 31 March 1979. In the private savings banks, balance dates range between 31 March and 31 October. National Savings and school savings accounts are included.

BalancePost Office Savings BankTrustee Savings BanksPrivate Savings Banks
Number of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of Total
$      
Under 2791,74725.4328,03414.3131,7139.9
2–1991,583,39850.91,077,64746.9654,17249.0
200–999391,55812.6503,23921.9320,24524.0
1,000–1,999148,9844.8192,8878.4108,2828.1
2,000–3,999113,6943.6122,8895.372,5455.4
4,000 and over83,8122.775,0033.348,2943.6
                All accounts3,113,193100.02,299,699100.01,335,251100.0

The following graph shows number of accounts, amount to credit of depositors, and average amount per account for all savings banks.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK: Operation—The business of the Post Office Savings Bank started on 3 February 1867, when branches were established at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Hokitika. At 31 March 1979 there were 1176 branches of the bank throughout New Zealand. Deposits may be made at any of these branches. A full demand withdrawal service is provided at 180 branches which have ledgers, and a limited service is provided at the remaining non-ledger offices.

Budget service accounts were introduced on 24 October 1978 to enable recipients of national superannuation to make provision for the payment of telephone accounts and television licence fees by having regular deductions made from their national superannuation.

Conversion of Post Office Savings Bank accounts to computer operation was completed during 1978. At the end of March 1979 some 2.73 million accounts were operating through 670 terminals situated at 309 offices located in the 22 postal districts throughout New Zealand.

Bonus Bonds continue to attract investors, and savings held in this way totalled $196.4 million at 31 March 1979. The monthly prize fund then exceeded $942,000.

The following table covers the activities of the Post Office Savings Bank.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestTotal Amount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits, Plus Interest, Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

* Includes interest paid on investment accounts.

Includes Ordinary National Savings and School Saving Accounts.

Excludes National Savings Bonds and coupons.

 (000)  $(thousand)  
19752954976,64934,138963,69847,0901,186,917
197629371,175,69435,3071,132,13478,8661,265,783
197730761,328,13338,5491,296,60170,0811,335,864
197831571,558,73945,8741,495,343109,2701,445,134
197930161,977,44853,9061,858,667172,6871,617,821

The Post Office Savings Bank assets as at 31 March 1979 included investments in the name of the Postmaster-General totalling $1,558.8 million, made up as follows:

 $(000)
Government Stock1,155,927
Housing Corporation of New Zealand Stock217,408
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation of New Zealand Stock122,700
Personal loans62,801
 1,558,836

Depositors and bondholders balances held at 31 March 1978 and 1979 are set out in the following table.

Accounts19781979
 $(thousand)
Ordinary819,813892,448
6 months investment7,8078,742
1 year investment91,53086,904
2 year investment92,98887,512
3 year investment131,506181,316
National Savings14,36212,656
Thrift club35,34338,761
Home ownership9,97410,690
School8,2389,946
Home lay-by285269
Farm ownership366460
Fishing vessel ownership Cheque27,468135,208
Budget service Bonus bonds156,84374196,413
National Development Bonds22,18519,195
New Zealand Savings Certificates10,26514,213
Housing Bonds7,5947,614
Special farm ownership1,5833,684
Special home ownership3,3637,785
Special fishing vessel ownership114
New Zealand Savings Bonds and coupons209206
Adverse Event Bonds6
Balance in transit3,6083,904
          Total1,445,3371,618,015

PRIVATE SAVINGS BANKS—The Private Savings Bank Act 1964 came into force on 1 October 1964. Under this Act the 5 trading banks all formed private savings banks. These banks may transact business only in premises ordinarily occupied and used by the parent bank. In addition to ordinary deposits, these banks may accept investments similar to the trustee savings banks, by way of deposits in Home Lay-by, Investment accounts, Thrift Club, and Special Purpose accounts.

The following table relates to private savings banks.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearInterest CreditedExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 (000)$(thousands)
19751075860,612857,51914,61917,712468,354
197611121,100,8781,029,04116,65788,494556,848
197712431,260,6661,214,82419,30465,146621,995
197813171,394,9351,365,55821,48750,863672,858
197913351,805,6291,667,81342,565180,381853,238

Private savings banks assets at 31 March 1979 included $450.5 million invested in Government securities, $28.2 million in local authority securities, $391.2 million in mortgages and other loans. Government securities must be held for amounts equal to 58 percent of deposits in ordinary and investment accounts.

TRUSTEE SAVINGS BANKS—The trustee savings bank movement is generally regarded as having originated in Scotland in 1810. The movement spread quickly, and the first such New Zealand bank was established in Wellington in 1846, 20 years before the New Zealand Post Office Savings Bank commenced business. By 1870 nine trustee banks were in existence but four, namely Lyttelton, Wellington, Napier, and Nelson, did not survive the turn of the century. The five remaining banks, Auckland (1847), New Plymouth (1850), Dunedin (1864), Southland (1864), and Hokitika (1866), grew in strength and their activities became an important factor in New Zealand's economic structure. Since 1957 a number of new trustee savings banks have been established, and the total is now 12. The legislation dealing with trustee savings banks is contained chiefly in the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948. In February 1980 the Government Stock requirement of the trustee savings banks was reduced from 39 percent to 38 percent of investments in order to provide greater funds for new housing. A proportion of depositors' balances must be kept as cash in hand or on current account, namely 5 percent up to $20 million, and 2 1/2 percent of the amount in excess of $20 million. Repayment of deposits is guaranteed by the State.

In addition to ordinary deposits, trustee savings banks may accept investments similarly to the Post Office Savings Bank, by way of deposits in Investment accounts.

The following tables relate only to trustee savings banks.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest CreditedTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 No.$(thousand)
19751,750,5181,499,73223,1011,469,03753,796765,427
19761,857,2821,379,22825,9301,803,769101,390866,816
19771,962,5222,264,57730,1952,202,37492,398959,215
19782,126,4412,759,21837,3452,641,858154,7051,113,920
19792,299,6993,778,30754,7313,544,013289,0251,402,945

NOTE—This statement includes national savings accounts.

The following table shows the results of the transactions, inclusive of National Savings accounts, of each of the trustee savings banks during 12 months ended 31 March 1979.

BankNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest CreditedTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 No.$(thousand)
Auckland932,7721,186,48721,8001,122,35985,928547,118
Waikato173,189371,4603,696351,80023,35697,728
Bay of Plenty108,905310,8672,998295,45018,41573,490
Taranaki96,207174,1382,557166,35710,33861,576
Eastern and Central140,891312,4232,574300,51914,47873,083
Wanganui63,19899,4141,30193,0117,70432,417
Wellington District114,741168,6921,970157,97212,69052,541
Westland26,82236,62679033,4533,96318,803
Canterbury339,863581,1908,824526,38763,627224,956
South Canterbury40,07977,3791,10771,8736,61327,625
Otago170,729207,2924,424186,05025,666109,966
Southland92,303252,3392,690238,78216,24783,632
                Total2,299,6993,778,30754,7313,544,013289,0251,402,935

Following is a summary of trustee savings banks' assets at 31 March 1979. The total assets include an amount of $567,000 securing National Savings deposits, all of which is invested in New Zealand Government securities. Under the Trustee Savings Banks Act, however, National Savings deposits are not regarded as assets of the Trustee Savings Banks, and for this reason are shown separately.

BankMortgagesNew Zealand Government SecuritiesLocal Authority DebenturesCash in Hand and on Call at BankTotal Assets*(Includes Other Assets but not National Savings Deposits)National Savings DepositsTotal Held Including National Savings Deposits
* Total assets include $112 million in fixed deposits and money at call.
$(thousand)
Auckland261,850206,11332,3446,867562,359405562,764
Waikato50,26136,7022,4353,99198,32598,325
Bay of Plenty38,09728,9921,0963,60374,12874,128
Taranaki30,26023,04324246262,6223062,652
Eastern and Central39,18727,1922201,07773,29873,298
Wanganui17,08111,56338167232,55432,554
Wellington District25,72420,8855675,97058,20358,203
Westland10,3356,80927474219,00519,005
Canterbury111,93286,2759,5624,079226,304226,304
South Canterbury12,10010,3501,9501,35228,37928,379
Otago55,33140,9756,992507112,044105112,149
Southland34,74133,1386,9404,61185,3272785,354
                Total686,899532,03763,00333,9331,432,5485671,433,115

STOCK AND STATION AGENTS—Many of the existing stock and station agents first commenced business as general merchants or retailers in the early days of the country's settlement. However, during the greater part of their history, the main financial operations have been in the supply of merchandise, machinery and implements, and the provision of finance to the farming community. The companies have developed a specialised banking business involving the maintenance of current accounts for farmers, the acceptance of time deposits, and the granting of secured and unsecured advances. It is a widespread practice for farmers to have current accounts with their stock and station agents to which the proceeds of the sale of livestock and produce are placed and farm and personal expenses charged. Any surplus may be left on current account or placed with the agents on fixed deposit. Stock and station agents have top-tier borrowing priority with the trading banks in order to obtain additional funds to lend for seasonal and farming development needs.

Financial data as at 30 June are given for the stock and station agents operating in New Zealand. The statistics refer to the whole of the companies' trading operations including, in some cases, activities additional to normal stock and station transactions, such as retail trading in consumer goods.

The deposit figures include only moneys received for an agreed term and rate of interest and exclude amounts secured by mortgage or debenture, and amounts in credit on current account. Secured advances to customers include those made on mortgage or chattel security. The figure for merchandise and commodity stocks includes all types of trading stock which are regarded as current assets, but excludes livestock, goods held on consignment, or motor vehicles used by the company.

The following table summarises the financial statements of 22 stock and station agents. Quarterly information, including details of interest rates, is published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ItemAt 30 June
19751976197719781979
* 7 percent and over.
 $(thousand)
Deposits held36,24138,78637,87240,12952,769
Customers' credit balances on current account47,47779,97486,79169,11888,732
Advances to customers—
    (a) On current account (unsecured)86,90881,128108,166107,319129,232
    (b) Other advances (secured)56,64942,69049,31153,07152,009
Investments—
    (a) Government securities1,6171,4431,4981,1181,123
    (b) Fixed deposits5,65312,8898,1326,6639,470
    (c) Other investments12,48825,91332,57536,79036,892
Cash balances (in hand and at bank)1,1686073,9665,0947,562
Bank overdrafts outstanding36,94024,05565,86649,35642,964
Merchandise and commodity stocks60,56169,25994,341100,101108,755
Interest rates paid on deposit—Percentage of Deposits
    Under 5 percent23.414.711.35.02.0
    5 percent and under 6 percent20.820.819.18.16.8
    6 percent and under 7 percent33.729.221.514.312.9
    7 percent and under 8 percent22.1*21.521.913.110.7
    8 percent and under 9 percent 11.018.014.98.0
    9 percent and under 10 percent 2.84.37.19.7
    10 percent and under 11 percent 2.919.921.1
    11 percent and under 12 percent 0.27.112.6
    12 percent and over 0.810.516.2

FINANCE COMPANIES—In 1971 there were 27 finance companies designated “large” by the Reserve Bank for statistical purposes. Their assets amounted to 90 percent of the total assets of 526 surveyed finance companies. There has been rapid growth of these large companies in recent years as people have responded to higher interest rates on deposits and debentures and to the improved services offered. The large finance companies have developed simple and easily operated means of accepting money. Furthermore, many companies offer flexible deposit plans to depositors with large sums. In April 1977 the statistical coverage was expanded, and since then 30 “large” finance companies (i.e., those with outstanding advances at that time in excess of $1 million) have been providing regular data.

Although the finance companies have faced increasing competition from trading banks, savings banks, and other financial institutions for deposits over the last 2 years, total deposits (including debentures and notes) of large finance companies have continued to grow steadily, increasing by 27 percent during the year ended 31 March 1979 to reach a total of $877.4 million.

Outstanding loans, advances, leasing, and factoring rose by $165 million or 20.2 percent, somewhat slower in 1978–79 than in the previous year. The slowdown in lending which was apparent in early 1978 continued through the year, reflecting the decline in demand for funds. Although growth of advances was generally evenly spread over the various sectors, outstanding personal loans rose by nearly $45 million or 68 percent.

Finance companies' interest rates, which had reached relatively high levels in 1977, gradually fell during the first half of 1978. Rates rose again in October, mostly in response to the Government's savings stock issue, and for the remainder of the 1978–79 year they remained fairly steady at these higher levels. Advertised maximum rates had reached 14.25 percent by the end of March 1979.

In October 1978 Government decided that some of the ratios eased earlier in the year should be returned to a neutral position. Accordingly, the public sector security ratio, which had been reduced to 12.5 percent for finance companies in March 1978, was returned to 15 percent.

Though the rate of growth in finance company lending had in fact been falling during the year, it had remained in excess of the Government Private Sector Credit guideline and when further monetary policy steps were taken in January 1979, the finance company ratio was again increased, from 15 percent to 20 percent with effect from 1 April 1979.

In April 1978 hire-purchase restrictions for the purchase of colour television sets were removed, while the terms and conditions for the purchase of new and used motor cycles were eased. The maximum credit period for new motor cycles was extended from 12 to 18 months, while the minimum deposit for used motor cycles was lowered from 60 percent to 33 1/3 percent and the maximum period of credit extended from 12 to 24 months.

Statistics of deposits, debentures, and notes held by the large companies for which the Reserve Bank collects statistics are shown in the following table.

TermAt 31 March
1975197619771978*1979*
* Owing to changes in coverage, the figures for 1978 and 1979 are not directly comparable with those for earlier years.
 $(million)
At Call27.320.034.140.583.7
Under 3 months16.919.644.594.0119.3
3–5 months16.615.331.766.377.2
6–11 months13.513.229.2126.1146.4
12–23 months25.316.0102.6151.7191.8
2 years and over99.7216.9203.9214.3259.0
        Total199.3301.1446.0692.9877.4

Gross loans and advances of these finance companies outstanding at 31 March 1978 and 1979 are shown in the following table.

Sectoral Analysis19781979
* Includes advances to dairy and meat processing companies.
Agricultural—$(million)
    Farming/fishing51.550.9
    Forestry9.613.0
            Sub-total61.163.9
Industrial—
    Manufacturing*46.666.3
    Heavy construction, engineering, mining, and quarrying73.967.4
    Residential construction, property development58.261.5
            Sub-total178.7195.2
Distribution/Transport—
    Transport, storage90.7115.7
    Motorcars—retail, H.P.84.0128.7
    Motorcars—wholesale, floor-plan42.541.7
    Sub-total217.2286.1
Mercantile—$(million)
    Wholesalers, importers11.715.3
    Exporters3.39.6
    Retailers35.739.2
            Sub-total50.764.1
Service industries n.e.i.26.750.2
Personal—
    Housing—
        New houses and flats58.449.1
        Existing houses and flats46.353.8
    Other personal65.6109.1
            Sub-total170.3212.1
    Other, n.e.i.28.911.5
            Total..733.6883.1

A common feature of finance company lending is the regular repayment required on most loans and the short turnover period of assets, often averaging less than a year. This enables finance companies to switch their lending rapidly from one purpose to another. Interest rates in March 1979 ranged from 18 percent to 21 percent for most instalment loans.

MERCHANT BANKS—The major expansion of merchant banking in New Zealand occurred in 1971, when the Government allowed overseas companies to participate in their establishment. The merchant banks offer a wide range of financial services to industrial clients and also manage investment portfolios and deal in and accept commercial bills. The merchant banks engage in underwriting new share issues by companies, advise on and finance mergers and takeovers, and lend money for expansion to growing companies. The merchant banks played an important role in the expansion of the commercial bill market.

STRUCTURE OF FINANCIAL SYSTEM—The changing structure of the New Zealand financial system is shown by movements in the money supply and other major liquid assets of the public; a comparative table of selected liquid assets is now given. (Source: Reserve Bank Bulletin.)

Deposits, etc.At 31 MarchPercentage at 31 March
1978197919781979
(a) On an institutional basis$(m)$(m)  
Trading banks3,134.33,935.541.142.2
Private savings banks672.0853.28.89.1
Sub-total3,806.34,788.749.951.3
Post Office Savings Bank1,445.31,618.119.017.3
Trustee savings banks1,113.31,402.914.615.0
Stock and station agents90.4116.01.21.2
Finance companies735.6922.99.79.9
Official money market26.633.00.30.4
Notes and coins403.5454.85.34.9
                    Total selected liquid assets7,621.09,336.4100.0100.0
(b) On a functional basis 
Money supply1,720.42,035.422.621.8
Other demand deposits2,160.92,482.328.326.6
                    Sub-total3,881.34,517.750.948.4
Time and fixed deposits3,739.74,818.749.151.6
                    Total selected liquid assets7,621.09,336.4100.0100.0

COINAGE AND CURRENCY: Decimal Currency—Under the Decimal Currency Act 1964 a system of decimal currency was introduced in New Zealand on 10 July 1967 with the dollar as the monetary unit. The dollar is equivalent to the previous 10 shillings. The equivalent in decimal currency of the shilling is 10c. There are coins for $1 (not in general circulation), 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c, and Reserve Bank notes for 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 100 dollars. The coins are cupro-nickel, except for the one and two cent pieces which are bronze. Notes and coins have distinctive New Zealand designs.

Issue of Notes and Coin—Since 1 August 1934 the Reserve Bank has had the sole right to issue bank notes in New Zealand. Coin is the responsibility of the Treasury but is distributed by the Reserve Bank. Notes and coin are issued solely in response to the demands of the public. In assessing likely requirements there are seasonal factors to be considered, as well as basic economic conditions such as national income, the levels of salaries and wages, changes in price levels generally, and the total volume of money. In addition, methods and frequency of payments affect the amount to be issued.

Legal Tender—Under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 notes issued by the Reserve Bank are constituted legal tender for any amount. In terms of the Decimal Currency Act 1964, dollar coins are legal tender for any amount, coins of 5, 10, 20, and 50c for any amount not exceeding five dollars, and coins of 1 and 2c for any amount not exceeding 20c.

Restrictions on Export of Currency—Under the Exchange Control Regulations 1978 the taking or sending of money from New Zealand is forbidden except with the consent of the Reserve Bank. The Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1978 (Amendment No. 1) permits travellers to take out up to $100 of New Zealand money in notes or coin of any denomination. The export of any other New Zealand notes or coin or the currency of any other country requires specific consent.

NEW ZEALAND EXCHANGE RATES—The relationship between the New Zealand pound and sterling previous to the 1960s was described in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

In 1961, New Zealand became a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), an institution established in 1948 at a United Nations conference at Bretton Woods, U.S.A. In accordance with one of the principal objectives of the Fund—the promotion of a stable international monetary system based on fixed exchange rates—each member country was required to establish a par value for its currency, expressed in gold. New Zealand adopted the relationship NZ£1 = 2.47130 grammes of fine gold (the equivalent of US$2.7809). Par values could be altered with the consent of the IMF to correct a fundamental disequilibrium in a member's balance of payments; although if the proposed change, together with all previous changes, did not exceed 10 percent of the initial par value, the Fund's concurrence was automatic.

Until 1971 members were required to confine buying and selling rates for foreign exchange transactions for immediate delivery within a margin of one percent either side of its par value and in the case of other than spot transactions, buying and selling rates could not differ from parity by more than a margin that the Fund considered “reasonable.”

Following the United Kingdom devaluation by 14.3 percent on 18 November 1967, New Zealand devalued its dollar by 19.45 percent to move to parity with Australian currency. The new par value for the New Zealand dollar was NZ$1 = 0.99531 grammes of fine gold. This was equivalent to US$1.12 and the sterling relationship on par values was NZ$2.1429 = £1 sterling. New Zealand continued to maintain sterling as its intervention currency and the fixed public telegraphic rates for sterling were established at equal margins either side of the revised sterling rate, at NZ$2.1492 (selling) and NZ$2.1367 (buying).

World Currency Realignment—During 1971 the value of the United States dollar underwent severe pressure on overseas currency markets. The United States Government reacted by suspending the gold convertibility of the dollar in August 1971. The U.S. dollar was then floated against all other currencies, against which it rapidly depreciated.

The consequent breakdown of the Bretton Woods international monetary system and the introduction of widespread floating necessitated a re-establishment by the International Monetary Fund of a system which, while being more flexible, would promote an orderly basis for conducting foreign exchange transactions. The Smithsonian Agreement of December 1971 introduced a temporary regime intended to facilitate the resumption of fixed par values and stable exchange rates on a more liberal basis. The United States dollar was devalued at this time by a change in the official price for fine gold from US$35 to US$38 per troy ounce and, at the same time, there was a general realignment of several other important currencies.

As part of the arrangements, member countries had the choice of maintaining their existing par values against gold as the basis for their exchange rates, or of establishing a “central rate” against another currency as its “official” exchange rate. To retain an existing par value resulted in a currency revaluation against the United States dollar (after the change in gold price to US$38 per ounce); New Zealand along with the United Kingdom and Australia opted for this arrangement. At the same time New Zealand, like Australia, nominated the United States dollar as its intervention currency instead of sterling as previously. This enabled New Zealand to quote fixed rates upon the United States dollar while the rates for sterling fluctuated from time to time according to the relationship between the U.S. dollar and sterling in free overseas currency markets.

In addition, the Smithsonian arrangements established wider margins within which spot exchange rates were permitted to move and New Zealand availed itself of this facility. The revised margins were 2 1/4 percent either side of parity or central rate (previously 1 percent) and, where an intervention currency was used to establish rates for other currencies, twice this margin for currencies other than the intervention currency. New Zealand established its fixed United States dollar selling irate (US$1.1887) at the maximum permissible level below the United States dollar (US$1.2160).

It was evident soon after the Smithsonian agreement was introduced that the arrangements made to promote exchange stability were not flexible enough to accommodate the rapidly changing economic circumstances between nations. A further breakdown occurred in 1972 when 18 currencies including sterling were floated, and the United States dollar again came under severe pressure. In February 1973 the United States dollar was devalued by 10 percent to US$42,222 per fine ounce of gold (from US$38). New Zealand maintained its gold parity, thus appreciating against the United States dollar to an equivalent par value of US$1.35111 = NZ$1. The fixed telegraphic selling and buying rates NZ/USA became US$1.3207 and US$1.3337, respectively.

New Zealand's Currency Basket and Recent Exchange Changes—With the continuation of widespread floating through 1973, the New Zealand dollar, tied to the United States dollar, was experiencing a gradual depreciation against most other currencies, since most were strengthening against the United States dollar on the overseas currency markets. This depreciation was not warranted as far as New Zealand's balance of payments was concerned, and as it was inducing inflationary pressures, it was decided to terminate the fixed relationship between the New Zealand and the United States dollar.

On 9 July 1973, the New Zealand dollar was adjusted upwards by 3.24 percent relative to the United States dollar, the amount needed to restore the relationship existing in mid-February, immediately following the devaluation of the United States dollar. From that date, New Zealand's exchange rates have been calculated daily in a manner which preserves unchanged the average value of the New Zealand dollar against a “basket” comprising the currencies of New Zealand's main trading partners. Thus, from 9 July 1973 until the revaluation in September 1973, the average value of the New Zealand dollar was held at the level that existed on 15 February 1973. The average is a trade weighted one, and thus movements in the overseas value of the currencies in the basket are reflected in alterations in their value against the New Zealand dollar according to their relative importance in New Zealand's international trade and other current overseas payments. This method of calculating New Zealand's exchange rates obviates some of the fluctuations that would occur in some rates if its currency were pegged to one particular currency. At that time New Zealand advised the IMF that it would no longer maintain a fixed relationship relative to the United States dollar.

On 9 September 1973, the New Zealand dollar was revalued by a further 10 percent against the basket of currencies in view of a very strong balance of payments and in an effort to reduce domestic inflation.

A devaluation of the New Zealand dollar by approximately 6.2 percent against the basket of currencies was made on 24 September 1974. At the same time the Australian dollar was devalued by 12 percent. This was a time of reversal in New Zealand's terms of trade and a heavy drain on overseas reserves following rapid domestic expansion.

In view of a continuing deterioration in the terms of trade and weaknesses in the balance of payments, the New Zealand dollar was again devalued on 14 August 1975, this time by 15 percent against the basket of currencies. It had become evident that the anticipated increase in export receipts expected to follow from a recovery from the world recession of 1974 was not eventuating. The objective of the devaluation was to restore the income of farmers and to stem New Zealand's rising import bill.

Following the devaluation of the Australian dollar by 17.5 percent on 29 November 1976 the New Zealand dollar was devalued by 2.73 percent against the basket of currencies, with effect from 30 November 1976. After a number of minor revaluations of the Australian dollar during December 1976, the New Zealand dollar was revalued by 2 percent on 20 December 1976.

On 21 June 1979 the New Zealand dollar was devalued by 5 percent against the basket of currencies to assist exporters to retain their profitability overseas.

From this time onward, it was decided to make small adjustments to the exchange rate (each of less than half of 1 percent) reflecting the rate of cost increases in New Zealand relative to the increases in the costs of its trading partners.

Following on from the devaluation of 21 June 1979, an Exchange Rate Index was introduced. This index, which measures the value of the New Zealand dollar against the basket of currencies, stood at 97.4 on 22 January 1980. The index has a base of 100.0 at the end of June 1979.

New Zealand's exchange rates are still calculated daily employing the basket of currencies of New Zealand's main trading partners as discussed in the above paragraphs. The currency composition of the basket is updated regularly in accordance with changing trade patterns.

A New International Exchange Rates System—During the period since the Smithsonian Agreement, extensive international discussions have taken place on aspects of international monetary reform, including the question of an agreed set of principles to replace that Agreement. These discussions resulted, inter alia, in a quite wide-ranging amendment to the International Monetary Fund's Articles of Agreement. The amendment was formally implemented on 1 April 1978. The amended Articles introduced a revised code of conduct for exchange rate policies and practices of member countries, intended as a permanent international frame-work. Although the amended Articles allow for the reintroduction of a par value system (i.e., a fixed rate system) along the lines of the one in existence prior to 1971, it is now understood and widely accepted that a more flexible framework is required in present circumstances. Under the amended Articles, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has adopted a set of principles for the guidance of members, which call for countries to collaborate with the IMF and with each other in order to assure orderly exchange arrangements and to promote a stable system of exchange rates. These objectives are similar to those sought in the past, but attention is now focused more on surveillance of economic policies which have a bearing on exchange rates, rather than on the rates themselves. Thus, members are now permitted greater flexibility in altering their exchange rates consistent with the Articles, and have greater freedom to alter their exchange rate practices than existed formerly. IMF surveillance of exchange rate policies in the current international environment will be largely a judgmental matter, in which due consideration is to be paid to the social and economic circumstances of the individual countries.

The “currency basket” method used in New Zealand to determine exchange rates is in line with the amended IMF framework, and thus the introduction of the amended Articles had no implications for New Zealand's exchange rate practices.

OVERSEAS RESERVES—The trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly intervals showing among other things overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on account of New Zealand business.

Statistics of New Zealand's official overseas reserves are shown in the following table and, over a longer period, in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook. The figures are as at the last Wednesday of the month. (Source: Reserve Bank of New Zealand).

As atAssets of N.Z. Banking System*Treasury-held Overseas SecuritiesGovernment-held Overseas SecuritiesGoldReserve Position at I.M.F.Special Drawing Rights§Total

* Comprises foreign exchange and overseas investment of the Reserve Bank and the trading banks in respect of New Zealand business. A small item “Liabilities in Other Currencies” has been deducted from the Reserve Bank's overseas assets while gross foreign liabilities on account of New Zealand business have been deducted from the trading banks' overseas foreign assets.

Gold holdings of the Reserve Bank at cost.

Equal to the gold subscription less any drawings of the gold tranche.

§ Allocations less exchange transactions.

NZ$(million)
End of June
1976299.1239.326.30.76.5571.9
1977399.3286.723.90.72.524.7737.8
1978554.4287.323.90.713.954.7934.8
1979386.1428.933.20.743.539.7932.2
End of December
1976359.3285.323.90.79.8679.0
1977257.6258.523.91.62.540.5584.6
1978292.3175.230.82.527.856.2584.7
1979394.5371.438.60.713.1818.4

The following diagram shows the overseas reserves.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS—For the year ended December 1979 a current account deficit of $537 million was recorded, an increase of $145 million on the deficit recorded in the previous year. The deficit for the December year comprised a surplus on trade transactions of $711 million and a deficit of $1,247 million on “invisible” (non-merchandise) transactions.

Export receipts, at $4,551 million, were 24 percent higher than the $3,671 million recorded in 1978 Most categories of exports contributed to the increase of $880 million, with meat, wool, other primary products, forest products, and miscellaneous exports showing the greatest growth in receipts in 1979. Declines in export receipts occurred in cheese and butter exports during 1979.

Total import payments at $3,840 million for the calendar year 1979 increased by 25 percent from the level of $3,065 million recorded in 1978.

The “invisibles” transactions balance continued to deteriorate during 1979, moving from the deficit of $999 million registered in 1978 to one of $1,247 million. Large increases in payments for travel, freight on exports, emigrants' transfers, overseas expenses of New Zealand firms, official debt interest, and miscellaneous Government payments accounted for the major share ($330 million) in the increase of $399 million which occurred. Payments at $2,171 million were up 23 percent while receipts increased by 20 percent to $923 million.

Capital transactions for the year resulted in a net capital inflow of $636 million. This inflow comprised net official receipts of $552 million and a private capital inflow of $84 million. In the preceding year the net official inflow was $398 million and private capital inflow totalled $26 million. The totals given for these loans are the New Zealand dollar equivalents received at various times during the year by the New Zealand banking system and do not take into account exchange rate changes since the date of receipt which will affect the amount repayable in New Zealand currency terms when the loans fall due.

At the end of December 1979 official overseas reserves amounted to $818 million, compared with $585 million recorded in December 1978.

A full classification of overseas exchange transactions for the 5 latest calendar years is given in the following table.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS: YEARS ENDED DECEMBER
Item19751976197719781979
 NZ$(million)
 Receipts
Exports—
    Meat513.7783.6892.8977.11,295.5
    Wool318.9610.7663.2667.4850.6
    Butter146.8199.0178.0241.5230.6
    Cheese73.771.289.687.777.2
    Other dairy products171.0241.2297.7299.2325.3
    Other animal products132.6206.8284.2321.7402.2
    Forest products153.7243.0282.4292.5389.2
    Other primary products85.5120.3163.7178.9219.9
    Manufactured exports266.8435.8503.0582.4715.6
    Miscellaneous13.116.625.622.644.7
                Total export receipts1,875.82,928.33,380.13,671.14,550.8
Other current receipts—
    Cook Islands exports- -0.20.91.40.8
    Transport145.4182.2222.4235.4291.3
    Insurance19.614.923.823.828.1
    Travel (excluding fares)130.4157.1162.4161.8186.4
International investment income—
    Interest and dividends47.542.345.447.1x45.8
    Other investment income6.88.913.612.4x15.7
New Zealand Government receipts and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand21.430.040.839.745.3
Miscellaneous—
    Commissions, royalties20.420.226.422.429.6
    Expenses of business firms10.513.817.327.435.9
    Personal receipts, legacies, and immigrants transfers135.0137.7155.8166.4200.6
    Other current transactions23.725.334.235.044.0
            Total current receipts2,436.43,561.04,122.04,443.85,474.1
Capital transfer—
    Government borrowing511.4430.9496.9644.7926.3
    Other official receipts166.798.055.995.852.0
    Private360.7435.8409.7392.6372.2
            Total capital receipts1,038.6964.7962.51,133.11,350.5
I.M.F.—
    Drawings161.1170.863.9
    Allocations of SDRs29.4
            Total receipts3,636.44,696.55,084.55,577.06,918.0
 Payments
Imports—
    Private2,286.02,784.12,999.22,876.53,652.1
    Government189.6153.7159.7188.1188.1
            Total import payments2,475.62,937.83,159.03,064.63,840.2
    Cook Islands imports0.20.50.30.4
    Transport243.5334.0426.4420.3535.3
    Insurance—
    Premiums6.69.710.918.227.8
    Claims1.01.43.13.04.0
    Other transfers18.219.722.921.414.1
Travel (excluding fares)186.5235.4294.6365.3488.0
International investment income—
    Private103.8147.1169.8222.2200.1
Government interest89.6156.9196.1217.8268.9
Government expenditure overseas76.278.0116.3134.9189.3
Miscellaneous—
    Commissions, royalties, and rebates30.146.553.556.862.5
    Expenses of business firms77.990.0117.5128.6150.5
    Film hire and entertainment5.45.34.96.98.8
    Religious and charitable17.917.716.516.720.4
    Personal remittances, legacies, and emigrants transfers56.870.390.0112.8142.8
    Transfers by temporary residents20.824.213.59.87.3
    Other current transactions11.69.730.036.450.8
            Total current payments3,421.94,184.04,725.44,836.26,010.9
Capital transfers—
    Government debt repayments136.4234.8304.9283.4332.7
    Other official payments80.1104.024.270.7
    Private157.4179.7185.2366.3287.8
    Local authorities debt repayment0.8
            Total capital374.6518.4490.1673.9691.2
            IMF repurchases34.9116.9
            Total payments3,796.54,702.55,215.55,545.06,819.0
            Surplus of receipts over payments−160.1−6.0−131.0+32.0+98.9

NOTE—Minus sign (-) denotes a deficit.

The next table gives overseas exchange transactions in summary form for a number of June years, which fit more closely to the farm-production export season than do calendar years.

ItemYear Ended 30 June
19751976197719781979
NZ$(million)
Receipts
Exports—
    Meat484.8674.5874.1896.81,196.4
    Wool286.1512.1687.8619.2729.5
    Butter113.2185.9211.8233.0208.1
    Milk powders116.4116.7149.7157.8154.9
    Other dairy products86.7171.0221.5228.9236.6
    Forest products145.8197.6267.1288.2320.6
    Manufactured exports208.1343.6491.0511.6652.8
    Other216.9289.2427.5483.1604.6
        Total exports1,658.02,490.53,330.43,418.74,103.5
Other current receipts493.1616.9698.5752.3836.2
        Total current receipts2,15.13,107.44,028.94,171.04,939.7
Capital receipts—
    Government borrowing497.6393.5457.3761.7760.0
    Other official receipts92.7190.675.355.596.4
    Private378.5381.3383.6509.8236.1
        Total capital receipts968.8965.4916.21,327.01,092.5
I.M.F.—
    Drawings100.5250.259.7
    Allocation of SDRs29.4
        Total receipts3,220.44,323.15,004.85,498.06,061.6
Imports—Payments
    Government147.1172.7158.2172.9193.0
    Private2,227.62,554.22,988.42,823.63,203.5
        Total imports2,374.72,727.03,146.72,996.53,396.5
Other current payments—
    Government147.1203.1277.7339.9439.6
    Private696.1881.71,135.01,323.61,557.0
        Total current payments3,217.93,811.84,559.44,660.05,393.0
Capital payments—
    Government debt repayments32.5237.4264.5394.4200.9
    Other official repayments4.9181.094.9
    Private103.0198.517.1.1227.3383.7
        Total capital payments140.4617.0435.7621.8679.5
I.M.F. repurchases14.667.2
        Total payments3,358.34,428.94,995.05,296.46,139.7
Balance on trade transactions−716.7−236.5+183.7+422.2+707.1
Balance on current account “Invisible” transactions−350.1−468.0−714.2−911.1−1,160.4
Balance on current account−1,066.8−704.4−530.5−488.9−453.3
Balance on capital account+ 828.4+348.4+480.5+ 705.2+ 413.0
I.M.F. transactions (incl. SDRs)+ 100.5+ 250.2+ 59.7−14.6−37.8
Change in official overseas reserves−29.4+7.7+ 165.9+ 197.0−2.6

Overseas Travel Allowances—Since 1938, there have been restrictions on the amount of overseas travel funds made available. From June 1973 trading banks have been able to sell overseas exchange to travellers up to $1,000 a month with a maximum of $4,000 a year. Requests for higher amounts need to be referred to the Reserve Bank, which is prepared to approve all reasonable requests.

Exchange Control—Transactions affecting overseas exchange are governed by the Exchange Control Regulations 1978, made under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964. An exemption in respect of dealings in foreign currencies and securities in the hands of New Zealand residents is contained in the Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1978.

Certain measures in exchange control and related fields were introduced by the Minister of Finance in the Budget of 16 June 1966, and are set out in paragraphs (a) to (d).

  1. Overseas Securities and Currencies: The facility previously available to New Zealand residents to sell overseas sterling area securities for New Zealand currency or other assets in New Zealand was withdrawn. These securities could then be sold only for other sterling area securities or for sterling area currencies. Therefore, if a New Zealand resident sought cash in New Zealand for his sterling area securities the only avenue available at law was to sell overseas and transfer the proceeds to New Zealand through the banking system.

    This measure, in effect, closed the market in sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency. A limited market was re-opened in October 1966 (see (f) below).

    In June 1972 the United Kingdom made changes in its exchange control system. As a result the sterling area and the non-sterling area were redefined. For New Zealand exchange control purposes the sterling area incorporated the United Kingdom (including the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, and Gibraltar) and the Republic of Ireland. The non-sterling area covered all other countries outside New Zealand except Rhodesia. Exchange control transactions with Rhodesia were strictly limited because of the United Nations sanctions against that country. In 1979 the Bank of England abandoned all exchange controls but retained the concept of a sterling area as defined above. Also, in December 1979 the former sanctions against Rhodesia were revoked. The result of these 2 changes is that all currencies and securities domiciled outside New Zealand may now be dealt with freely, i.e., in the same manner as sterling area currencies and securities were previously (see also paragraph (f)).

  2. Export and Import of New Zealand Notes: A limit was set in June 1966 on the export of notes at $10 for all travellers, regardless of destination.

    The importation of New Zealand money (including postal notes, money orders, cheques, and promissory notes, but excluding travellers' cheques) was also prohibited, except that travellers to New Zealand could bring in with them up to $10 in New Zealand notes.

    From June 1971 travellers from New Zealand were able to take out up to $50 (of which not more than $4 could be in coin and the denominations of the notes could not exceed $5). For travellers to New Zealand there was no restriction on bringing in notes of $1 or $2 or $5 or coin of any denomination.

    In October 1979 an amendment to the Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1978 permitted travellers from New Zealand to take up to $100 in New Zealand currency which may comprise banknotes or coin of any denomination. A traveller may now bring into the country New Zealand banknotes or coin of any denomination.

  3. Supervision of Non-Residents' Accounts in New Zealand: The Reserve Bank was given power to exercise supervision over specific accounts in New Zealand of non-residents, with banks or elsewhere.

    The following accounts were initially declared to be controlled accounts:

    1. Those of non-resident banks;

    2. Those of non-resident travel agents;

    3. A group of seven individual accounts connected with international currency dealers.

      A subsequent notice to banks had the effect of bringing under control any accounts for the credit to which New Zealand money was received from overseas without the consent of the Reserve Bank. No change of policy was involved, this being a technical measure to ensure that transfers of funds outside the banking system were not facilitated by the operation of New Zealand accounts.

  4. London-domiciled New Zealand Government Stock: In 1920 provision was made for New Zealand residents to transfer holdings of London-domiciled New Zealand stock to the New Zealand register, a facility which provided a means of transferring funds to New Zealand outside the banking system. The volume of such transactions in subsequent years became excessive, and the following conditions were therefore applied to transfers to the New Zealand register on 16 June 1966:

    1. Stock must have been registered in the applicant's name for at least 6 months;

    2. After stock has been transferred to the New Zealand register it may not be sold for 6 months.

    Since 5 September 1969 the transfer to the New Zealand register has been limited to stock held on or prior to that date. Stock purchased subsequently may not be transferred to the New Zealand register.

  5. Overseas Investment in New Zealand: In 1973 the Overseas Investment Act was passed to make better provision for the supervision and control of overseas investment in New Zealand. The Overseas Investment Commission established under that Act administers the Overseas Investment Regulations1974 which came into force on 28 May 1974 to give administrative effect to the Act. The secretariat for the Overseas Investment Commission is at the Reserve Bank.

    The new legislation consolidated and repeated the provisions of the Capital Issues (Overseas) Regulations 1965 and the Overseas Takeovers Regulations 1964 which formerly governed overseas investment in New Zealand.

    The Overseas Investment Regulations cover such transactions as borrowing overseas by any New Zealand incorporated company; borrowing in New Zealand or overseas, or the issue of any shares by any New Zealand incorporated company which is 25 percent or more overseas owned; borrowing in New Zealand by a New Zealand branch of an overseas company; and the issue of shares to overseas residents by a New Zealand incorporated company.

    Consent under these regulations is also required to the acquisition by any overseas resident individual or organisation of:

    1. 25 percent or more of any class of shares of, or the exercise of 25 percent or more of the voting power of, a New Zealand incorporated company.

    2. all, or substantially all, of the property in New Zealand used in carrying on a business in New Zealand where the value of the property is more than NZ$100,000.

    Any New Zealand incorporated company also requires the prior consent of the Reserve Bank before it borrows overseas or issues shares to overseas residents.

  6. Market in Overseas Securities: Trading in overseas securities in exchange for New Zealand currency is confined to New Zealand residents, and to securities which were registered in the names of New Zealand residents on 16 June 1966 or which devolve from such securities. All dealings must be effected through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, and both seller and purchaser must supply details of the transaction to an approved depository, with whom the scrip must be lodged. Securities so purchased may be sold for New Zealand currency under the same conditions, or sold for overseas currency through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, provided the proceeds are either remitted to New Zealand or re-invested in similar securities within three months. The new scrip must also be lodged with an approved depository. The approved depositories are the Reserve Bank in Wellington and its branches in Auckland and Christchurch.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION—New Zealand became a member of these three organisations on 31 August 1961 under the International Finance Agreements Act 1961. Their objectives and the implications of New Zealand membership were set out in parliamentary paper A. 12, 1961. One of the purposes of the International Monetary Fund is to give confidence to members by making the fund's resources available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity. The bulk of a member's subscription, or quota, is paid in its own currency. The balance is paid in gold, foreign exchange, or Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) and constitutes the member's reserve tranche which may be drawn against automatically. Increasing conditionality applies to successive drawings under the 4 credit tranches, each equal to 25 percent of quota. In addition, drawings may be made under the fund's compensatory financing facility and the various special funding arrangements which are set up from time to time, such as the oil facilities of 1974 and 1975 and the supplementary financing (Witteveen) facility which came into operation during 1979. The level of quotas is periodically reviewed as the value of world trade increases. AN increase of 50 percent was agreed on in December 1978 to be paid in by November 1980. To supplement international reserve assets, SDRs are allocated to members from time to time in proportion to their quotas. New Zealand is being allocated SDR 24.1 million ($29.4 million) at the beginning of each of the years 1979 to 1981.

New Zealand's position with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as at the end of a number of recent years is shown in the following table.

As at End of YearQuotaDrawing Outstanding*General Account Position*Special Drawing Rights (SDRs)SDR Value
GoldN.Z. Currency SubscriptionGold TrancheCredit TranchesOil FacilitiesCompensatory FinancingIMF Holdings of N.Z. CurrencyHoldings as % of QuotaN.Z.'s AllocationHoldings by N.Z.

* Drawings are made by obtaining usable foreign exchange from the Fund in return for New Zealand currency which the Fund the holds in its General Account until drawings are repaid.

From time to time the IMF allocates SDRs to members with the objective of increasing international liquidity and promoting world trade. Holdings alter when SDRs are sold or purchased in exchange for foreign currency, or when payments in SDRs are made to the IMF in settlement of interest or other charges.

From 1 July 1974 the previous exchange rate of SDRs 1.12 = NZ$1 was replaced by a system of fluctuating rates determined by the IMF in consultation with participating nations.

SDR(million)NZ$
197550.5151.550.5191.750.5444.222069.40.80.8916
197650.5151.550.5238.7151.5592.229369.48.40.8177
197750.5151.548.4238.7151.5590.129269.434.20.8394
197849.0183.0x26.0209.7151.5570.224669.446.10.8187
197947.5184.549.1153.0115.5502.021693.58.90.7481

INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION—The purpose of the International Development Association (IDA) is to promote economic development in developing countries too poor to meet the costs of IBRD or other loans. Its highly concessional credits are financed by contributions from its developed country members. The IDA shares the same staff as the IBRD (and to some extent the IFC) and the three organisations are collectively known as the World Bank.

New Zealand joined the IDA in 1975, having earlier made a voluntary contribution of $5 million payable in instalments from 1970–71. As a member of the IDA, New Zealand has contributed to the fourth replenishment of its funds ($7.9 million in instalments from 1974–75) and more recently to the fifth replenishment ($8.0 million from 1977–78).

The principal purpose of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) is to promote the economic development of its member countries, by providing loans to governments (or loans guaranteed by governments) for development projects, and related technical assistance. The International Finance Corporation (IFC) promotes the growth of the private sector by lending or investing in business enterprises that are not guaranteed by governments. Both organisations now concentrate their efforts in the developing countries.

New Zealand has subscribed to 1807 shares in the IBRD, with a par value of SDR 180.7 ($219.9) million. Of this sum 90 percent has not been called up, but, together with the uncalled subscriptions of other member countries, acts as a guarantee for the IBRD's major source of funds, namely borrowing in the financial markets. The balance has been paid in US dollars ($2.1 million) and New Zealand currency and promissory notes ($14.6 million). New Zealand has subscribed to 923 shares in the IFC, with a fully paid-up value of $0.9 million.

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK—New Zealand is participating in the Asian Development Bank, whose main objective is to accelerate the economic development of the ESCAP region. New Zealand's initial contribution to the capital stock of the bank is US$22.56 million, half of which is callable. Of the paid-in portion, 50 percent is paid in convertible currency, a total of US$5.64 million, while the balance is paid in New Zealand currency. In 1971 the capital subscription was increased 150 percent, increasing New Zealand's contribution from US$22.56 million to US$56.4 million. Of the increase 20 percent is paid in and 80 percent is callable, with a total of US$3.24 million to be paid in convertible currency. In 1977 the bank's capital was increased by a further 135 percent. New Zealand's contribution increased from US$56.4 million to US$148.3 million. Of this second capital increase, 10 percent is paid in and 90 percent is callable, with a total of US$3.7 million to be paid in convertible currency.

New Zealand also makes contributions to 2 special funds—the Technical Assistance Special Fund to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$975,000 and the Asian Development Fund (ADF) to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$8.15 million.

Two-thirds of the contributions to ADF I were tied to the procurement of goods and services from New Zealand, but all of the contributions to ADF II are fully convertible. The multi-purpose Special Fund, to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$822,370, has been consolidated with the Asian Development Fund. All New Zealand's contributions to the Technical Assistance Special Fund, along with the New Zealand currency portion of the equity capital of the bank, are non-convertible.

DEVELOPMENT FINANCE CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND (DFC)—This corporation is a development bank established by Act of Parliament for the purpose of encouraging investment in industry, and providing financial assistance and advisory services to industry. The share capital of the Development Finance Corporation is owned by the Crown and is vested in the Minister of Trade and Industry, who appoints a board of directors to control the corporation's business. The board consists of 2 Government officials and 6 others drawn from the private sector.

The corporation's principal activity is the provision of term loan finance to manufacturing, processing, construction, transport, and service industries for the purchase of plant and equipment. Development of tourist facilities is also increasingly receiving the corporation's assistance. Other forms of financial assistance including equity participation, hire purchase and leasing finance, commercial bill and mortgage money, sub-underwriting, and the provision of a contract bonding facility. In addition it offers guarantee schemes to other institutions for the provision of mortgage and overdraft facilities. It also administers two suspensory loan schemes on behalf of the Government for the specific encouragement of export industries and regional development.

The Development Finance Corporation is concerned primarily with the support of projects which will advance the economic growth of New Zealand, make better use of the country's natural resources, and provide employment opportunities.

The corporation's Act requires it to “evaluate each proposal having regard to the economic worth of the industry concerned, its usefulness to the New Zealand economy, the extent to which it will be owned or effectively controlled by persons domiciled in New Zealand, and the prospects of it becoming profitable within a reasonable time”.

During the 9 months ended March 1979 the corporation approved assistance, mainly in the form of loans, to a total value of $82.6 million.

In 1976 the Government appointed the Development Finance Corporation to administer the applied technology programme which is designed to provide incentives for industrial research and development projects which will have specific commercial application.

In November 1977 an Act of Parliament established the Small Business Agency which is operated as a division of the Development Finance Corporation. The Small Business Agency provides a nationwide advisory and referral service for small businesses, and limited financial support by way of guarantees.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on banking and currency will be found in the books listed in the Bibliography section near the back of this Yearbook and also in the following publications.

Reserve Bank of New Zealand Annual Report (Parl. paper B. 16).

Report of the Bank of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 15).

Report of the Development Finance Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 26).

Annual Report of the Small Business Agency (Parl. paper B. 26A).

Financial Statement (“Budget”, Parl. paper B. 6).

Reserve Bank of New Zealand BulletinReserve Bank (monthly).

Monetary Policy and the New Zealand Financial SystemReserve Bank (1979).

Economic Trends and PoliciesEconomic Monitoring Group to Planning Council (periodically).

Monthly Abstract of StatisticsDepartment of Statistics.

InflationN.Z. Monetary and Economic Council (1977).

Report of the Post Office (Parl. paper F. 1).

New Zealand News ReviewReserve Bank (fortnightly).

Daily News SummaryReserve Bank (daily).

Chapter 30. Section 30 INVESTMENT AND FINANCE

Chapter 30. Section 30 INVESTMENT AND FINANCE

MORTGAGE LAW—The borrowing of money on mortgage is a principal means of financing the erection or purchase of houses and commercial buildings, and the purchase of farms. Under the Land Transfer Act 1952 “mortgage” means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing:

The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt.

The repayment of future advances, or payment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise.

The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable, or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge.

The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, see Section 10E, the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act; they take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property registered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

SUMMARY OF MORTGAGES REGISTERED—A table is given showing the number of registrations and amounts involved.

Year Ended 31 MarchMortgage RegistrationsTotal AreaAmount Secured
Under 2 Hectares2 Hectares and OverTotalUnder 2 Hectares2 Hectares and OverTotal
  No. ha(000)$(m)$(m)$(m)
1976126,03021,620147,65033441,213.9398.61,612.4
1977137,94722,474160,42128371,375.7494.41,870.1
1978121,04822,501143,54931231,263.6546.11,809.7
1979141,81027,539169,34944491,500.7663.42,164.1

NOTE—These figures exclude certain miscellaneous registrations, but may include minor duplications.

The 169349 mortgages in 1978–79 were in the following categories: first table 50953; first flat, 46475; subsequent table, 26988; subsequent flat, 34126; increases in amount, 10807.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED: Value by Districts—The total amount for which mortgages were registered under the Land Transfer Act, together with the number of mortgages and the area of properties involved, is shown by registration districts in the following table.

Auckland urban area, the largest centre of population in New Zealand, is in the North Auckland district.

Land Registration District1977–781978–79
NumberAmountAreaNumberAmountArea
  $(m)hectares (000) $(m)hectares (000)
North Auckland44,985541.631554,944696.9414
South Auckland20,969288.147225,007346.4583
Gisborne169625.9200238234.7328
Hawke's Bay609079.42567839107.1301
Taranaki433561.6169469665.3186
Wellington25,416301.654029,872339.9670
Marlborough168521.1105196725.3137
Nelson393044.998392942.2102
Westland8137.1239048.933
Canterbury20,516267.843721,931283.0592
Otago8382103.12639984126.0696
Southland473267.7244589488.3407
        Total143,5491,809.73123169,3492,164.14449

Classification by Amounts—The following table shows mortgages by amount groups for 1977–78 and 1978–79.

Amount Group1977–781978–79
NumberAmountPercentage of TotalNumberAmountPercentage of Total
$      $(000)  $(000) 
Under 3,99919,30044,7922.519,05145,3902.2
4,000– 5,99916,37076,9674.315,87974,8883.5
6,000– 7,999924161,1283.410,55170,2983.2
8,000– 9,999742563,3983.5742763,5012.9
10,000– 14,99922,917279,06215.419,692232,58110.7
15,000– 19,99918,096304,24116.820,482348,09416.1
20,000– 49,99919,223503,36527.828,513723,11733.4
50,000–149,9994283317,97017.65410407,07218.8
150,000–199,99928847,5982.633254,4652.5
200,000 and over302111,1616.1357144,7206.7
Unspecified26,10441,655
        Total143,5491,809,682100.0169,3492,164,126100.0

Rates of Interest—The average rate of interest on new mortgages over the last 50 years is given in a table in the Statistical Summary at the end of this Yearbook.

The average rate of interest for 1978–79 was 10.86 percent. The comparable rate for 1977–78 was 10.30 percent.

An analysis showing amounts classified by interest rate groups is given below. It should be noted that some mortgages, notably those of trading banks, do not specify the rate of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchNot Exceeding 5%Over 5% to 7 1/2%Over to 8 1/2%Over 8 1/2% to 9 1/2%Over to 10%Over 10% to 11%Over 11% to 12%Over 12% to 15%Over 15%
$(million)
197546.3401.3342.3233.7205.428.839.720.110.9
197664.1443.8217.6183.8294.870.8105.349.120.4
197753.4338.9165.3227.8280.7173.1243.1108.372.1
197853.5251.9151.3187.3219.6134.2296.1221.865.5
197950.578.7407.5107.3178.0242.9299.0405.184.2

Mortgages by Class—In this section mortgages are tabulated by class, i.e., as first flat, subsequent flat, first table, subsequent table, and as increases on existing mortgages. The majority of housing mortgages, especially those from Government agencies, are table (or instalment) mortgages. At the 1976 Census, out of a total of 939340 inhabited permanent private dwellings, 391860 were owned with mortgage, 260590 dwellings were owned without mortgage, 253340 were rented or leased, and the balance of the dwellings were free with job, loaned without payment, or the tenure was unspecified.

The following table shows the amounts advanced and average interest rates of mortgages by class. Mortgages for which the interest rates are not specified are excluded from the calculations of average rates.

Year Ended 31 MarchClass of Mortgage
First FlatSubsequent FlatFirst TableSubsequent TableIncrease of MortgageTotal
Amount Advanced $(m)
1975592.2162.4551.994.576.11,477.2
1976585.2209.7603.3125.588.71,612.4
1977719.6249.9664.0164.472.21,870.1
1978667.3273.2630.7172.665.91,809.7
1979672.8287.1883.5223.896.92,164.1
Average Interest Rate (percent)
19759.079.257.237.958.368.29
19769.789.857.128.468.878.61
197710.6910.788.629.919.379.85
1978     10.30
197911.8611.789.8511.189.7610.86

From 12 February 1958 the State Advances Corporation and its successor, the Housing Corporation, have made housing loans with provision for rebate of interest to 3 percent where the income of applicants does not exceed prescribed limits. If mortgages at 3 percent interest are excluded from the calculations, the average rate of interest on all mortgages during recent years becomes 8.34 percent in 1974–75, 8.70 percent in 1975–76, 9.91 percent in 1976–77, 10.38 percent in 1977–78, and 10.92 percent in 1978–79.

SOURCES OF MORTGAGE FINANCE—The following table indicates the sources of finance for mortgages registered. Of the new mortgages registered in 1978–79, 25.49 percent of the aggregate advances were obtained from Government agencies (of which the principal one is the Housing Corporation) compared with 20.5 percent in 1977–78.

Year Ended 31 MarchProducer EnterprisesCentral Govt.Local Govt.Trading Banks*Trustee Savings BanksBuilding SocietiesInsurance and Pension FundsHouseholdsOtherTotal

* Includes related savings banks.

Includes solicitors nominee companies.

$(million)
Under 2 Hectares
1976228.6268.42.832.880.573.192.7241.1193.91,213.9
1977280.7202.12.424.3106.6113.8122.1275.6248.11,375.7
1978264.0209.62.128.6109.9104.2105.7253.0186.61,263.6
1979306.7322.42.261.5209.9113.0127.9219.2137.91,500.7
2 Hectares and Over
197647.7102.50.73.05.17.227.0143.262.2398.5
197771.8125.10.23.28.911.830.4187.255.7494.4
197867.5162.20.42.78.98.138.0211.446.9546.1
197990.8229.30.66.229.710.638.6214.343.4663.4

Points to note in considering statistics of mortgages by source of finance are that most trading bank mortgages specify neither interest rates nor the amounts involved; and that, from 1976, the Government Life Insurance Office and the State Insurance Office have been included among Insurance and Pension Funds.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Monthly statistics of mortgages and an annual supplement are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

30 B—STATE FINANCE FOR FARMS AND OTHER PRIMARY INDUSTRY

The Government first entered the field of mortgage finance in 1894 with the passing of the Government Advances to Settlers Act—the objective being to provide loans at economic interest rates and on stable terms and conditions to farmers for land development purposes. The functions of the office, later known as the State Advances Department, were subsequently enlarged to allow loans for the erection and purchase of houses and to local authorities for the provision of public facilities. A public corporation was established with the passing of the Mortgage Corporation Act 1934–35—the share capital of $2,000,000 being subscribed equally by Government and public. In terms of the State Advances Corporation Act 1936, the Government acquired the privately-owned share of the Mortgage Corporation, extended its functions and changed its name to the State Advances Corporation of New Zealand. Under the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation Act 1974 the rural lending activities of the State Advances Corporation passed to the newly-established Rural Banking and Finance Corporation from 1 April 1974.

RURAL BANKING AND FINANCE CORPORATION—The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation provides loans to individuals or organisations engaged in any farming, to the fishing industry, or to support industries in these areas. The Rural Bank consultation a chairman and 4 other directors appointed by the Minister of Finance. Two of the directors are appointed after consultation with the Federated Farmers of New Zealand (Inc).

The principal functions of the Rural Bank are to carry on the business of making loans and providing other assistance in its discretion for farming, other primary industries, and related service industries. Its powers include the acquisition of land and other property by purchase or lease and the management, development, sale, or lease of such property. The Rural Bank also has powers to give guarantees and indemnities to other lenders. In the execution of its functions and powers it is required to give effect to Government policy.

Farm Purchase—Loan finance is granted by the Rural Bank for the purchase of farm properties. Present policy is directed toward assisting young farmers and farm workers who can demonstrate a need for finance from the Rural Bank, and who have not previously owned an economic property. Loans may be granted for the purchase of land and improvements and for stock and plant.

The policy of average amounts for particular types of loans, which allows a higher sum to be granted in appropriate cases, has been continued. These lending guidelines now run at $70,000 for dairy farms and $95,000 for sheep farms under standard settlement policies.

A special settlement scheme has also been introduced under which a limited number of above-average farmers can be settled each year with loans of up to 85 percent of the available security. Lending guidelines are $110,000 for dairy farms and $200,000 for sheep farms.

Farm Vendor Finance Scheme—The purpose of this scheme is to assist suitably qualified and experienced farmers to purchase their first farm by encouraging retiring farmers to invest in their industry.

Retiring farmers who leave money in farms sold to approved purchasers will be exempt from taxation on half the interest earned by that money.

Vendors have the option of: a Farm Vendor Finance Bond, or a Farm Vendor Mortgage Guarantee.

Farm Vendor Bonds—Under this option the vendor receives a bond (which can be redeemed at the end of 7 years or on earlier death of the bond holder) for at least 50 percent of the sale price of the land and buildings, on which he receives interest at the rate of 9 percent per annum for the term of the bond. During the 1978–79 year, 43 farmers were settled under this scheme and bonds amounting to $4.17 million were issued.

Farm Vendor Mortgage Guarantees—The guarantee option is more suited to the vendor who is unable to invest the full 50 percent of the sale price as required under the bond option.

The vendor takes a mortgage from the purchaser in the normal way, and is guaranteed by the Rural Bank against loss of capital should the purchaser fail to meet his obligations under the mortgage. As with the vendor bond, the vendor receives a 50 percent tax rebate on interest earned on the mortgage.

During the 1978–79 year 104 mortgages were guaranteed under this scheme for a total of $5.83 million.

Farm Development—Loan policy in the area of farm development is to stimulate increased production and the intensification of small holdings, strengthen marginal farms, and provide buildings and other essential development. In appropriate cases, loans may be advanced on second or subsequent mortgages.

To encourage the development of unproductive land, Land Development Encouragement Loans have also been introduced. These provide up to $250 per hectare for development to the grassing-down stage of undeveloped or reverted country. If the conditions of the loan are complied with, all interest and half the principal may be written off over a period of 15 years.

Suspensory loans of up to 50 percent of eligible expenditure may be provided for approved irrigation and West Coast drainage schemes.

Refinance—The Rural Bank has limited funds for refinancing onerous farm debts but will normally not provide assistance to repay existing mortgages unless the mortgagor is facing serious hardship through inability to obtain a renewal.

Loans on Stock and Plant—Loans which are essentially for the purchase of stock and plant, e.g., sharemilking propositions, are available on the security of the stock and chattels being purchased.

Sharemilkers' Suspensory Loans—A sharemilker or other short-term lessee, purchasing his first farm, who faces a tax liability through having to reduce stock may qualify for a suspensory loan if the carrying capacity of the farm he is purchasing is less than that of the property he has been farming and the stock reduction is more than 20 head. The loan is calculated on $30 cow reduction with a maximum of $7,000 and is interest free. Subject to the borrower owning and farming the property for 10 years the suspensory loan may be written off.

Co-operative Rural intermediate Credit Associations—Loans may be granted by the Rural Bank to cooperative rural intermediate credit associations operating in terms of the Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927 and amendments. At 31 March 1979, there were 4 co-operative rural intermediate credit associations in operation. The loans authorised through this channel during the 1978–79 year amounted to $1.23 million.

Farm Mortgage Guarantees—In recognition of the need for farmers to have access to more capital for future reorganisation and reconstruction than the Rural Bank can make available by direct loans, the Rural Bank operates a Farm Mortgage Guarantee Scheme. Under this scheme the Rural Bank protects prudent lenders with soundly administered mortgage against loss of capital.

Forestry—Where it is considered that tree planting is the best use of the land, the Rural Bank will lend to farmers for forestry projects and associated development works.

Climatic Relief—In adverse conditions, such as drought, flooding, or damage to crops from gales, the Rural Bank may provide, by way of loan, emergency funds to enable a disaster victim to resume or continue operations. The criterion is need—whether or not adequate security is available—and the motive is relief, not compensation for loss.

Farm Ownership Savings—The Farm Ownership Savings Scheme, administered by the Rural Bank, allows farm workers, sharemilkers, others associated with farming, and also students the opportunity of opening savings accounts for the purpose of buying a first farm or for the purchase of stock and plant to go sharemilking or share farming for the first time. These accounts can be opened with the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, and some building pieties. Depositors have the option of operating one or other of the following types of accounts under the scheme:

  1. Ordinary Farm Ownership Accounts which provide for tax free purchase grants; or,

  2. Special Farm Ownership Accounts which allow depositors tax benefits on their savings.

Fishing Vessel Ownership Savings—This scheme is administered by the Rural Bank and is similar to the Farm Ownership Savings Scheme. It gives fishermen, students, and other persons connected with fishing, the opportunity of opening savings accounts to purchase their first vessel of 9 m or more, or to acquire an interest in a vessel of this size.

The accounts can be opened with the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, and some building societies. Like the Farm Ownership Accounts, depositors have the option of operating one or other of the following types of accounts under the scheme:

  1. Ordinary Farm Ownership Accounts which provide for tax free grants.

  2. Special Farm Ownership Accounts which allow depositors tax benefits on their savings.

Industrial Lending—Loans are available to those industries in the rural sector which have export potential, which will assist regional development, or which service the primary industries. Examples include veterinary clinics, packing sheds, cool stores, grain dryers, and milk treatment plants as well as agricultural contractors. The bank assists farmers and agricultural contractors with loans for the purchase of plant and machinery.

Export Suspensory Loans—To promote the export of non-traditional agricultural, horticultural and fish products, the Rural Bank will grant to exporters suspensory loans of up to 40 percent of qualifying expenditure on plant and equipment, including fishing vessels. Upon achievement of an export target, each loan is converted to a grant and written off.

Fishing Industry—It is the policy of the Rural Bank to encourage the development of the fishing industry on a sound basis, and, to this end, it will provide loans for the purchase, building, or refinance of larger or more efficient vessels. Loans are also available for carrying out improvements, including re-engineering, to already owned vessels. Similar loans are offered for the acquisition of replacements or additional fishing gear. The Rural Bank also helps with the purchase of modern equipment and buildings for the handling, storage, freezing, and discharge of fish. Rock oyster and mussel farmers are eligible for loans assistance for development work provided they hold a lease or licence and themselves contribute a minimum of 50 percent of the risk capital.

Special Fishing Boat Loans—These are available to experienced fishermen of proven ability and who only have modest means to obtain a loan of up to 80 percent for the purchase of a new or used vessel including gear and equipment.

Fishing Vessel Construction Suspensory Loans—These are intended to encourage the building of larger fishing vessels in New Zealand shipyards for the development of fishing for less traditional fish species. Suspensory loans of up to 40 percent of the total cost of the vessel are provided by the bank and will be written off if the catch targets set by the bank are met.

The bank also provides special suspensory loans for fishermen excluded from controlled fisheries to assist them to diversify into alternative forms of fishing.

LOAN AUTHORISATIONS—A summary of loans authorised by the Rural Bank during the years ended 31 March 1978 and 1979 is given in the following table.

Loans1977–78x1978–79
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
Standard settlement97550.4897463.19
Special settlement10512.1410012.78
Workers holding (“stepping stone” units)741.961304.17
Additional land (strengthening existing farms)32511.0032912.13
Sharemilkers' suspensory (farm purchase)1420.381410.32
Development402562.47494380.38
Irrigation1553.211624.40
Irrigation suspensory190.23400.49
Stock and plant loans (share farmers)92510.34101112.60
Advances to RIC associations2061.731161.27
Refinance120122.2265210.46
Climatic relief890.714922.80
Estate duty491.36361.36
Department of Lands and Survey settlement271.33371.80
Livestock Incentive Scheme (loan option)314728.43258420.96
Land development encouragement......166129.59
Fishing industry1047.9511413.46
Rural industrial lending14011.9625320.73
 11,708227.9013,775292.89
Livestock Incentive Scheme, tax option3246.00961.91

A breakdown of the items, Rural industrial lending and Fishing industry in the above table is given below.

Item1977–781978–79
NumberAmountNumberAmount
Rural industrial lending $(m) $(m)
    Rural industries474.24586.58
    Producer boards43.9257.97
    Co-operatives71.80
Cool stores and packhouses131.97
Agricultural plant and machinery871.87
    Special plant130.4080.14
    Agricultural contractors561.12651.43
    Rural export suspensory loans130.48170.77
                Total14011.9625320.73
Fishing industry
    Loans for catching887.049410.60
    Loans for processing150.75182.56
    Rural export suspensory loans10.1620.30
                Total1047.9511413.46

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION—Additional information will be found in the following official publications:

Report of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. Paper B.25).

Report of the New Zealand Fishing Industry Board (Parl. Paper C.6).

30 C—STATE FINANCE FOR HOUSING

HOUSING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—Under the Housing Corporation Act 1974 the functions of the State Advances Corporation in housing were amalgamated with those previously performed by the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works and Development to constitute the Housing Corporation of New Zealand, responsible to the Minister of Housing.

Housing Loans—The Housing Corporation continues to concentrate the bulk of its residential lending on the provision of loans for the erection of houses or the acquisition of houses not previously occupied. Loans to assist home seekers to purchase previously occupied houses, reinstated in 1964, are available to the extent of available funds and to applicants within strictly defined priority categories.

All loans are made on security of a first mortgage of land. Each case is considered on its merits, taking into account the financial position of the applicant and the cost of the proposition. Each applicant is expected to make the maximum possible contribution from available resources.

There are no fixed loan limits but an average loan concept is applied which provides loans of a greater amount in areas where housing costs are highest. The maximum loan available for either erection or purchase will, however, generally not exceed 90 percent of the corporation's assessed value of the security offered.

The prime interest rate since 15 March 1979 is 9 percent. This rate is subject to review at 3–yearly intervals. Rebated interest rates of 3 percent, 5 percent, and 6 1/2 percent are also available. To qualify for a rebated interest loan, borrowers must not have owned a property within 5 years prior to the date of the loan application and the breadwinner's gross income (including overtime, bonus payments, and secondary employment) must not exceed certain limits—for 3 percent $85 per week increased by $10 for each dependent child, for 5 percent between $85 and $120, and for 6 1/2 percent between $120 and $160, with both similarly increased by $10 for each dependent child. Loans now being granted with an interest rebate provide for an automatic increase to the next higher rate at 3-yearly intervals.

Since February 1978 anyone granted a loan at the prime interest rate has been able to choose between:

  1. a standard table mortgage for 30 years;

  2. interest payments only for 3 years, then a standard table mortgage for 30 years;

  3. or, if the loan exceeds $15,000, repayments as follows for 3 years, then a 27–year table mortgage.

Net Loan $Weekly Repayments for first 3 years
15,000–17,00025
17,001–18,50028
18,501–20,00031

From 15 March 1979 the weekly repayments for the first 3 years for the 3 amount groups were increased to $28, $31, and $33.

Of the 14340 housing loans for erection or purchase approved during the year ended 31 March 1979 (involving $275.3 million), 5575 loans (involving $109.83 million) carried interest rebates.

Loans are also granted for essential alterations and alterations to corporation securities as where the housing of an elderly or dependent relative is involved. Loans, together with any prior mortgage debt, must be within 90 percent of the value and where housing of an elderly relative is involved may be by way of second or subsequent mortgage security.

Housing improvement loans, introduced in 1972, were extended in 1975 to all localities, but with particular emphasis continuing to be placed on the inner areas of the 4 main centres. Loans are entertained for owner-occupier or tenanted properties on subsequent mortgage for the purposes of upgrading older housing stock. During 1978–79 a total of 1846 loans for $10.46 million were approved.

Loans to refinance existing mortgages on a residential property where family income is under undue strain caused by high interest rates and/or onerous terms of repayment, were introduced in the 1973 Budget. This policy was extended in August 1977 to provide for refinance where a mortgage had fallen due and could not be renewed or replaced within the private sector. For the year ended 31 March 1979 a total of 443 loans for $4.41 million were advanced. Security may be on first and subsequent mortgage.

Family Benefit Capitalisation—Applications for advances under the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 are received only from applicants who have already been declared eligible by the Department of Social Welfare. In the 1978 Budget the capitalisation maximum was raised from $2,000 to $3,000 and the amount of benefit capitalised from $1.50 to $3 per week. For the year ended 31 March 1979, 4384 advances totalling $9.73 million were authorised by the corporation under this agency, compared with 2361 advances totalling $3.02 million in 1977–78.

Mortgage Guarantee Scheme for Housing—The corporation has statutory authority to guarantee mortgages and operates a scheme whereby an approved lender may be guaranteed repayment of a housing loan granted by the institution. In 1978–79 there were 7683 guarantees involving $71.32 million.

Loan Authorisations—A summary of loans authorised by the corporation for the latest 2 financial years ended 31 March is given in the following table.

Class of Loan1977–781978–1979
NumberAmountNumberAmount
Housing loans—
  $(m) $(m)
Erection7063124.588428173.00
Purchase304845.515912102.28
Other purposes16057.30226713.44
Refinance4404.174334.41
                Total housing12,156181.5617,040293.13
Loans to industry91.51171.23
                Grand total12,165183.0717,057294.36

The above figures include rehabilitation loans to ex-servicemen for housing purposes. They do not include loans to local authorities.

A summary of the number of housing loans under administration as at 31 March 1979 is as follows:

Loans on Mortgages*No.
* These figures do not include loans administered by the Housing Corporation on an agency basis (e.g., hotel investment account, gas companies) or industrial loans.
Urban155,858
Local authority234
Urban housing1213
Rural housing804
Approved securities12
              Total158,121

HOUSING ACT 1955—In addition to its lending activities the Housing Corporation has the function of administering the Housing Act 1955 on behalf of the Crown. The following are the main operations:

  1. Letting and administration of corporation rental houses and flats.

  2. Sale of Corporation rental houses to tenants desiring to purchase.

  3. Loans to local authorities for the erection of rental accommodation.

Corporation Rental Housing—The number of additional dwelling units taken over by the corporation during the year ended 31 March 1979 totalled 1346. The number of tenancies administered on 31 March 1979 was 60009.

Rental accounts in arrears at 31 March 1979 were 6.66 percent of the total compared with 8.43 percent a year earlier.

Rents received from tenancies amounted to $56,145,706 compared with $47,811,428 for 1977–78. Apart from interest, the largest single item of expenditure charged against rentals was the provision for maintenance of rental houses. For the year ended 31 March 1979 this amounted to $22.5 million against $18.5 million for the previous year. Rates payable to local authorities showed an increase for the year ended 31 March 1979 totalling $10,139,822 compared with the previous year's figure of $8,304,800.

References to corporation housing construction are contained in Section 19, Building Construction and Housing.

Sale of Rental Houses—The Government reintroduced the sale of rental houses to tenants in March 1976. The terms of sale are:

  1. Sale price to be the current market value of the property or its cost, whichever is the higher.

  2. The minimum deposit to be 20 percent of the purchase price.

  3. The balance of the purchase price together with interest payable over a term of up to 30 years on an instalment table basis.

  4. Interest at 9 percent reducible to 6 1/2, 5 1/2, or 3 percent reviewable 3-yearly while conditions of sale are complied with in the case of purchasers who would qualify for these rates for a corporation housing loan.

From the inception of the sale of rental houses up to 31 March 1979 the number of sales finalised amounted to 28335 dwellings (excluding pensioner units transferred to local authorities) for a total consideration of approximately $197.40 million.

FURTHER DEFORMATION—Further information will be found in the annual publication, Report of the Housing Corporation of New Zealand (Parl. paper B. 13). See also section 19, Building Construction and Housing.

30 D—BUILDING SOCIETIES

GENERAL—Building societies are a relatively popular means of saving and investment in New Zealand and have about 480000 members. At 31 March 1979 there were 55 building societies with total assets approaching $700 million. They provided finance for home ownership to the extent of some $118 million in 1978–79. Building societies have assisted the national economy by attracting and encouraging savings. They are encouraged by legislation, as in other countries, and are exempt from income tax except for income derived from the letting of property. The relevant legislation is the Building Societies Act 1965, the Building Societies Savings Bank Regulations 1966, and the Building Societies Regulations 1967. The Building Societies Investment Order 1977 requires building societies to hold 15 percent of their assets in qualifying public securities.

TERMINATING SOCIETIES—These societies accept deposits but most of their funds are obtained from periodical subscriptions paid by members on their shares. In general members contract to subscribe for a minimum period of 10 years. Subscriptions cannot be withdrawn within 10 years of membership without penalty. Field staffs are employed to recruit by direct canvassing of new members who take up subscription shares, each share entitling a member to compete for a loan of a specified amount. As funds allow, ballots are held for interest-free loans. A member winning an interest-free loan may use it to finance a home, but the popular feature of these societies is that they offer to ballot winners, as an alternative to an interest-free loan, a tax-free lump sum payment which is accepted by the great majority of ballot winners in preference to the interest-free loan.

Members may also compete for interest-bearing loans by a process of tendering or by application. The majority of loans are in fact made on an interest-bearing basis and generally if a member receives an interest-bearing loan he is then excluded from ballots. Terminating societies do not pay an annual dividend or interest on subscription shares but shareholders who maintain their subscriptions for 10 or more years receive their subscriptions back in full plus a proportion of the group's profit. Shares are segregated into groups which terminate after some 30 years. At 31 March 1979 there were 12 terminating societies with 392794 shareholders.

During 1978, 1473 interest-free loans won by ballot were taken up, while in 5401 cases members elected to receive payments for rights won by ballot: 1146 advances were made through tender or auction process, and 2742 other interest-bearing advances were made on mortgage to members.

PERMANENT SOCIETIES—Whilst encouraging systematic savings these societies rely more substantially for their funds on single investment deposits and fully paid shares. Some of these societies are authorised to conduct savings banks in a manner substantially similar to the Post Office and other savings banks. A number of permanent societies maintain financial ratios which have enabled them to qualify for designation as societies with which trustees may invest trust funds by way of deposit.

Permanent societies do not conduct ballots but make loans available to members on application. The structures of permanent societies differ, some being purely co-operative, others being partly proprietary, and others being fully proprietary with all fixed capital. Permanent societies are now providing offices in most central city areas, the types of investment they offer are becoming more widely known, and share subscriptions are rising substantially. At 31 March 1979 there were 43 permanent societies with 89091 shareholders.

ACTIVITIES OF SOCIETIES—Societies do not have a common balance date. The following tables have been prepared from the annual returns of societies as at their various balance dates during the 1978 calendar year. The first of these tables gives a summary of results for the latest 3 available years.

Item197619771978
Permanent Societies
Number of societies 444243
Paid-up capital$(000)113,290137,055153,292
Number of shareholders 59,04374,93389,091
Terminating Societies
Number of societies 151512
Paid-up capital$(000)294,828316,742336,669
Number of shareholders 405,627403,773392,794

A summary of receipts and payments during 1978 is given in the following table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
* Ten societies are authorised by the Act to accept deposits on conditions substantially similar to the conditions pertaining to the Post Office, trustee, and private savings banks.
Receipts
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Share subscriptions (excluding subscriptions on borrowing shares)112,57466,859179,433
Deposits received—
    Savings bank*6,5365237,059
    Other120,86950,880171,749
Interest and principal repaid—
    Advances on mortgage (including subscriptions on borrowing shares)41,04471,013112,057
    Advances on shares31012,70713,017
Investments realised49,72645,50395,229
Payments
Share moneys withdrawn99,93843,368143,306
Deposits and interest withdrawn—
    Savings bank*6,0403726,412
    Other101,81940,239142,058
    Advanced on mortgage40,59364,128104,721
    Advanced on shares22313,47813,701
    Investments made70,82461,394132,218

A summary of income and expenditure for the financial year ended in 1978 is given in the following table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

* Mainly levies on members as provisions against losses on mortgage.

Mainly agency commissions.

Income
Interest earned on—$(000)$(000)$(000)
    Advances17,01925,94942,968
    Investments3,6614,1037,764
Fees, commissions and fines3651,5521,917
Income from properties74826900
Net credit from shares forfeited or withdrawn at a discount...3,1703,170
Mortgagors' contributions to reserves6435441
Other*3291,3441,673
              Total income21,45437,37958,833
Expenditure
Interest incurred on borrowings5,1044,2759,379
Directors' emoluments191180371
Auditors' fees79118197
Salaries1,2974,8836,180
Other administrative expenses1,2633,6294,892
Selling and establishment expenses—written off234,8834,906
Payments for ballot loan rights—written off...4,8074,807
Expenses on properties, including depreciation871,1571,244
Discount on shares paid in advance—written off...4242
Other1921,3121,504
                Total expenditure8,23625,28633,522
                Excess of income over expenditure13,21812,09325,311

The purposes of advances on mortgage in the 3 latest available years are shown in the following table.

Purpose of LoanPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
197619771978197619771978197619771978
 $(m)$(m)$(m)
Dwellings—
    Erections4.95.74.98.39.06.813.214.711.7
    Purchases24.129.522.926.533.325.550.662.848.5
Other purposes3.48.610.322.428.228.725.936.739.1
Business and other properties1.91.62.53.43.03.15.34.65.5
                Total34.345.440.660.773.564.194.9118.9104.7

The following table summarises balance sheets for the financial year ended during 1978.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

* Most terminating societies bring the principal outstanding on interest-free loans into their balance sheets at its face value.

For definition and analysis see Parliamentary paper B. 14 Report of the Registrar of Building Societies.

Assets
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Land and buildings1,81224,73026,542
Other fixed assets3554,3634,718
Advances on security of mortgage (less credits on borrowing shares)*186,759336,980523,739
Advances on security of shares33517,35417,689
Investments55,58159,287114,868
Cash and bank1,2721841,456
Appropriations in trust debit balances...1,6491,649
Other2691,6611,930
                Total Assets246,383446,208692,591
Liabilities
Paid-up capital (excluding borrowing shares)153,292336,669489,961
Reserves10,03239,63349,665
Retained profits1,10330,37931,482
 164,427406,681571,108
    Less fictitious assets11722,23122,348
 164,310384,450548,760
Deposits—
    Savings bank2,6452842,929
    Other74,80850,536125,344
Appropriations in trust credit balances...2,2862,286
Provisions3,2451,0964,341
Bank overdraft8594,5185,377
Other5163,0383,554
                Total liabilities246,383446,208692,591

30 E—COMPANIES

GENERAL—The method of carrying on business by companies is now a proved system, a system for the incorporation of persons into a separate entity for trading purposes and providing a convenient method for the investment of capital and for the limitation of liability of the people associated in the company. The incorporation of a company with limited liability provides the framework of commercial and industrial life; private companies have become a usual form of business organisation for the smaller trader.

LEGISLATION—Comprehensive legislation relating to companies is contained in the Companies Act 1955, which came into force on 1 January 1957. An important principle in the legislation is the protection of shareholders, creditors, and the general public by the requirement that there must be the fullest practicable disclosure of information concerning the activities of companies. The annual financial statements must exhibit a true and complete account of a company's affairs and transactions. A prescribed form of presentation is required, and comparative figures for the previous year must be shown. A prospectus must be deposited with the Registrar of Companies before it is issued.

Any number of persons from 2 to 25 may form a private company; a public company must have at least 7 members. A private company of not less than 7 members may, under certain conditions, be reregistered as a public company.

The Companies Amendment Act 1963 restricts company takeovers. The Companies Amendment Act 1966 deals with deposits and debentures, and came into force on 1 January 1967.

COMPANY REGISTRATIONS—The following table shows, for the latest available years, the number of new companies registered, deleted from the company register, placed under receivership, and liquidated. In comparing company registration figures for one year with another, it should not be overlooked that registrations on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons, are included.

YearNew Companies RegisteredCompanies Dissolved or Struck OffCompanies Placed Under ReceivershipCompany LiquidationsTotal Number of Companies
Court OrderVoluntary
1973881431711687323494,233
19747,73635891917831398,399
197580804878207148319101,666
197663662083282121288106,106
197752922104254201469109,305
197854734298305239487110,484
197957784254310485423112,224

ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC COMPANY FINANCIAL STATEMENTS—Since 1953 the Reserve Bank of New Zealand has undertaken an analysis of the annual financial statements of a sample of public companies in New Zealand to obtain information concerning company finance and the capital market. Almost all companies whose shares are listed on the Stock Exchange are included, together with a few others. Results of these analyses are published in an annual supplement to the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

In 1977 the coverage was extended to include non-listed and overseas companies. Overseas companies are those with 25 percent or more of their voting share capital controlled by overseas interests, and include any branch of an overseas incorporated company. Only companies operating in New Zealand whose income is wholly or mainly from New Zealand sources are included.

The 1978 survey covers the analysis of the annual accounts of 969 companies received during the calendar year 1978. Of these annual accounts, 68 percent related to balance dates in 1978, and the remaining 32 percent to dates in 1977.

The percentage distribution of sources and use of funds for the latest 2 years are shown in the following table.

 19771978
Source of funds—percent
    Retained profits and depreciation38.547.9
    Other long-term sources27.831.8
    All long-term sources66.379.7
    Short-term sources33.720.3
                Total100.0100.0
Use of funds—
    Property and plant28.941.8
    Long-term investment8.716.3
    All long-term uses37.658.3
    Stocks25.217.4
    Debtors29.311.3
    Other short-term7.913.0
                Total100.0100.0

The aggregate appropriation of income for 969 New Zealand public companies in the latest 2 years is shown in the following table.

Annual Accounts19771978
Income for year—$(thousand)
    Trading1,118,0171,029,560
    Investment61,11683,991
    Other non-trading38,51255,868
                Total income1,217,6451,169,426
Less—
    Depreciation256,059288,193
    Interest on fixed liabilities136,603160,965
    Directors' fees4,8205,890
    Tax on current year income279,610189,089
    Minority interests14,45016,967
                Total deductions691,542661,104
                Net profit after tax526,103508,322
Previous year's adjustments—
    Tax5,6916,747
    Other23,64619,800
                Available for appropriation560,440534,869
Appropriations—
    Goodwill, etc., written off13,1731,443
    Ordinary dividends160,103189,320
    Preference dividends5,01810,736
    Retained in reserves382,146333,370
                Total560,440534,869

Net Profits and Net Profit Ratios—Net profits (after tax) and net profit ratios are shown in the following table. This analysis includes annual accounts of companies balancing between June 1977 and October 1978, and mainly reflects trading conditions from January 1977 to August 1978. Of the 20 Industry Groups surveyed, 11 experienced a decrease in net profits and 9 experienced gains in net profits, The most significant decline occurred in the transport sector, where net profits fell by 57 percent to $19.9 million for the 44 companies surveyed. The new road user charges and widespread industrial disputes were two main factors contributing to this severe drop in profitability.

The return on shareholders' funds declined in all but 3 of the 20 sectors. The other manufacturing sector maintained its rate while the rates of return for the other food and property investors sectors rose. This however must be interpreted with some care since there is no consistent basis for the valuation of assets among the companies covered by the survey. There was a recovery in trading conditions during the second half of 1978, as Government moves to stimulate the economy took effect, but this improvement was not reflected substantially in these figures.

Manufacturing, wholesalers, and retail companies received considerable tax relief from the stock valuation tax allowance,

Continued wage and price increases, coupled with rising interest rates and a depressed economy, meant that net profits for the 969 companies surveyed tell by 3.4 percent from $526 million in 1977 to $508 million in 1978.

The relatively high rates of inflation during the survey period combined with the conventional accounting procedures used for profit calculation mean that the recorded rate of increase or decrease in profits cannot be said to reflect the “real” changes taking place.

Type of Company*Number of CompaniesNet ProfitReturn
TotalChange From Previous YearOn Shareholders FundsOn Total Resources

* For note on balance dates see opening paragraphs of this sub-section.

The return on shareholders' funds is net tax-paid profit expressed as a percentage of shareholders' funds. This ratio demonstrates the earning power of the funds invested in the business by the shareholders.

The return on total resources is an expression of the percentage of net tax-paid profit to total tangible assets. This ratio is an indicator of the earning power of the business.

Manufacturing $(thousand)percent
    Meat processing2724,140− 3,4508.03.6
    Beverages1020,580+ 7,3006.53.8
    Other food4026,340+ 1,85011.46.8
        All food7771,060+ 5,7008.44.4
    Woollen mills711,060− 3,8407.63.8
    Clothing manufactures227,160+ 48012.16.9
    Forestry and wood2249,820+ 2609.44.6
    Printing and publishing4211,610+ 18010.76.6
    Drugs and chemicals4560,280+ 6,01016.55.9
    Non-metallic minerals3517,990− 2,5908.46.1
    Metals and machinery7356,420+ 45013.26.6
    Electric machinery and appliances4112,140− 3,5708.84.4
    Other manufacturing6533,930+ 5,34013.07.4
        Manufacturing other than food352260,410+ 2,72011.65.7
        All manufacturing429331,470+ 8,42010.75.4
Other (excluding financial)
    Construction2619,430− 16010.34.7
    Gas7980− 1208.24.0
    Mainly wholesale14257,090− 5,54011.14.6
    Mainly retail9928,370+ 68010.55.2
    Stock and station agents2522,180− 3.4307.12.7
    Transport4419,850−15,2308.02.9
    Property investors934,330+ 6004.61.8
        Total other (excluding financial)437152,230−23,2009.33.8
        Total (excluding financial)866483,690− 14,78010.24.8
Financial10324,630− 2,98012.32.5
        Grand Total969508,320− 17,76010.34.6

Chapter 31. Section 31 INSURANCE

31 A—LIFE ASSURANCE

The development of life assurance has gone beyond its original function of providing for old age and for dependants in case of death. In particular, it has become increasingly important as the basis of many private superannuation schemes, which provide a protection not previously available to the labour force. Whole-life assurance has been widely supplemented by endowment assurance. Under this category there are policies with titles such as “family-income”, “education”, “mortgage-protection”, or “retirement”, and persons taking out policies regard them as a means of systematic saving. Government encouragement is given by way of income-tax concessions on premiums paid, this approach being common to the governments of many countries.

The steady flow of funds to insurance companies by the payment of premiums are in the form of contractual saving., and the investment of these funds has become a major influence on the financial market. Life-assurance companies are leading lenders of long-term funds to the private sector and important investors in Government and local authority securities. Life assurance assets in 1978–79 totalled $2,989 million, of which 28.1 percent was invested in mortgages on property, 27.4 percent in Central Government and local authority securities, and 16.4 percent in company stocks, shares and debentures.

In the year 1978–79 there were 214,919 new policies issued for a total sum assured of $4,044.3 million, or approximately $1,292 per head of population. The total number of policies in force at the end of the year was 2785073 for a total life assurance of $22,346 million. (These totals exclude annuities.)

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON—On the basis of the ratio of the value of life assurance in force to the national income, New Zealand is fourth to Japan. United States and Canada, as shown in the following table of selected countries. (Source: Life Insurance Fact Book, 1979, and Department of Statistics.)

Country19721977
 percent
Canada155157
United States153153
Sweden141131
New Zealand129149*
Japan148230
Australia110102
Netherlands111126
United Kingdom100100

In Sweden the introduction in 1963 of a large national group life plan sponsored by the Government but underwritten by private life companies helped to increase the ratio markedly. Term life cover is believed to constitute a higher proportion of the total coverage in Canada and the United States than in New Zealand, where permanent life cover is relatively high. (Purchase of assurance for a set term provides maximum immediate cover at the lowest cost and can be used to cover mortgage repayments on a house; insurance for a short term for travel purposes is also popular in the United States and Canada.) Group life plans are negotiated by groups of workers in other countries and typically provide for a death benefit equal to one or two times annual earnings.

GENERAL—The statutory provisions affecting life assurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act 1908, the Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910, and the Government Life insurance Act 1953.

There are 35 life-assurance offices conducting business in New Zealand at the present time. Of these, 15 are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, Capital Life Assurance Ltd., Cuna Mutual Insurance Society, New Zealand Insurance (Life and General) Co. Ltd., Metropolitan Life Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd., the South British Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Superannuation and Mutual Savings Ltd., Primary Industries Insurance Co. Ltd., A.A. Mutual, Tasman Mutual Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Fidelity Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Marac Fire and General Insurance Co. Ltd., Equitable Life and General Insurance Co. Ltd., Invincible Life Assurance, and the Medical Life Assurance Society Ltd., and the Property Life Insurance Co. Ltd., whilst three, the Provident Life Assurance Co., Commercial Union Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd. and the Monarch Life Insurance Co. of New Zealand, are registered in this country. The balance dates of the offices vary between July and June of the following year, the financial year of the majority ending in December. The statistics given here relate exclusively to business transacted in New Zealand.

LIFE ASSURANCE: Ordinary and Industrial—The progress of life assurance in New Zealand is illustrated by the following diagram, which shows the amount of new business transacted.

A summary of annual life-assurance business is given in the following table.

YearValue of Policies IssuedValue of Policies DiscontinuedValue of Policies Existing at End of YearAnnual Premiums on Existing PoliciesNumber of Policies in Force
$(million) (000)
1974–752,535.1792.412,858.9248.92637
1975–763,392.01,109.315,150.2284.12673
1976–773,514.11,298.417,371.9312.92723
1977–783,865.21,428.919,808.2338.62756
1978–794,044.31,508.522,346.0368.62788

While the upward trend shown in the figures has been influenced both by the rate of monetary depreciation and the normal growth of population, the course of life-assurance business, particularly during the past decade, has been one of steady progress. In the last 12 years the face value of new business underwritten annually and the amount of cover in force has increased approximately fourfold.

Total discontinuances include surrenders and lapses, as well as policies maturing or terminated by death.

A prominent feature of new insurances of recent years has been the increase in the average amount of the sum assured per policy.

YearAverage Amount*
* Excludes annuities and Industrial policies.
 $     
1973–749,916
1974–7511,210
1975–7615,242
1976–7715,358
1977–7817,233
1978–7918,927

Reasons for the growth in the average amount of the sum assured per policy shown in the above table include the changing types of policies being issued, and the increasing numbers of such policies which have a high cover (for example, cover for staff superannuation purposes by business concerns, temporary insurance with a high death-risk cover, multiple death benefit and family benefit policies having a high initial cover, and “unit” policies whereby a single premium provides a high initial death cover). A further reason is the relatively high rate of inflation in recent years.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS—The principal items in the balance sheets of life-assurance companies are summarised below for the 3 latest years. As in the previous tables the figures relate to New Zealand business only. In the case of some companies other branches of insurance business are included.

Liabilities1975–761976–771977–78
 $(thousand)
Paid-up share capital5,6206,2976,467
Life-assurance and annuity funds2,398,4722,617,9402,874,933
Depreciation, reserves, and other special funds27,91036,96840,039
Claims admitted, but not paid16,38418,07218,265
Other liabilities36,56146,12549,107
        Total2,484,9472,725,4022,988,813

The assets of companies conducting business in New Zealand at the end of each of the 3 latest years were as follows.

AssetsAmountPercentage of Total
1976–771977–781978–791976–771977–781978–79
 $(million)percent
Mortgages on houses, etc.744.1804.7840.429.929.528.1
Loans on policies133.2150.4156.75.45.55.2
Central Government securities482.4496.8541.319.418.218.1
Local authority securities208.1249.9278.28.49.29.3
Real estate431.9489.5560.217.418.018.7
Company shares and debentures395.3421.7488.815.915.516.4
Outstanding premiums24.728.128.61.01.01.0
Interest accrued, etc.28.633.839.31.21.21.3
Cash15.626.230.90.61.01.0
Other assets20.924.324.40.80.90.9
                Total2,484.92,725.42,988.8100.0100.0100.0

The Government has made agreements with life-insurance companies regarding the proportion of their new funds invested in Government and local authority securities. By September 1976 the proportion to be held in Government Securities was lowered from 21 to 20 percent, of which up to 10 percent could be in local authority securities. In addition, Life offices were required to hold 20 percent of their assets in housing and farming investments.

For 1978–79 the average rate of interest earned on the life funds of insurance companies was $8.96 percent, compared with $8.41 percent during 1977–78.

The following diagram illustrates the expansion that has taken place in recent years in the assets of the New Zealand branches of life-assurance companies and the manner of their investment. In composite-insurance offices, receipts of life assurance and annuity business must be treated as a separate fund, and the interests of the policyholders are safeguarded by the fact that these funds are available only for liabilities arising from such business.

31 B—ACCIDENT INSURANCE

Until 1974 there were three principal classes of accident insurance transacted in New Zealand. These were: (a) personal, covering accidents, sickness, etc.; (b) employers' liability under statutory or common law; and (c) motor vehicle insurance. Other classes of accident insurance include the insurance of plate glass, television sets, luggage, and livestock.

The Accident Compensation Act 1972, effective from 1 April 1974, provides continuous cover against accidents of all persons in regular employment, whether at work or not, through an earners' scheme financed by levies averaging 1 percent of incomes payable by employers on behalf of employees: the levies replace employers' liability premiums under the Workers Compensation Act. (See Section 35 A—Accident Prevention, Rehabilitation, and Compensation.)

Previous to 1974 there were two classes of motor vehicle insurance—comprehensive coverage, and compulsory third-party risks cover. Owners of motor vehicles were compelled to insure against their liability to pay damages on account of the death or bodily injury of another person caused through the car-owners' negligence. However, this compulsory scheme was replaced from 1 July 1974 by a new scheme under the Accident Compensation Act 1972. The new scheme provides financial compensation for personal injuries suffered in motor vehicle accidents irrespective of blame. It is financed by levies similar to the previous insurance premiums paid by motor vehicle owners.

The number of accident insurance offices represented in the statistics for 1978–79 was 54. The head offices of the companies concerned were in the following countries: Great Britain, 8; Australia, 9; United States of America, 4; Hong Kong, 1; and New Zealand, 32.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The following table shows the principal items of revenue and expenditure. Premiums and claims are net, i.e., after deductions for acceptances of reinsurance, whether effected locally or overseas, have been taken into account.

YearNumber of OfficesRevenueExpenditure
PremiumsOther RevenueTotal*ClaimsCommissionSalariesOther ExpensesTotal*
* Excluding reserve provisions.
$(million)
1974–7562121.912.1134.0103.48.713.815.8141.7
1975–7664120.810.1130.997.59.415.311.0133.2
1976–7759141.111.5152.6108.211.216.914.9151.2
1977–7859164.913.7178.7119.211.617.720.7169.3
1978–7954176.914.1191.0123.312.919.522.8178.5

Premium receipts in 1978–79 were 7.2 percent above the 1977–78 figure, while claims had risen by 3.4 percent.

A review of the expenses incurred in transacting all accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of 5 years are shown in the form of percentages of revenue to expenditure under various heads. The percentages do not take into account reserve provisions.

YearClaims to PremiumsCommission to PremiumsSalaries to PremiumsOther Expenses to PremiumsTotal Expenses (other than Claims) to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to Total Revenue
percent
1974–7584.87.111.313.031.4116.2105.8
1975–7680.77.812.79.129.5110.2101.7
1976–7776.77.912.010.630.5107.299.1
1977–7872.37.010.712.630.4102.794.7
1978–7969.77.311.012.931.2100.993.5

Working expenses (excluding taxation) amounted to $40,477,000 in 1976–77, $43,635,000 in 1977–78, and $47,971,000 in 1978–79. The ratios of working expenses to premium income for each of the 3 years were respectively 28.7, 26.4, and 27.1 percent.

31 C—FIRE INSURANCE

Fire is still the main cause of property damage, but today many property owners seek protection not only against fire damage, but also against a wide range of other dangers including water damage, windstorm, explosion, breakages, theft, damage from aircraft, and impact by motor vehicles. Under houseowners' and householders' comprehensive policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, many thousands of additional claims are now dealt with each year. Increasing numbers of commercial property owners, too, are extending their fire policies to include damage from other causes.

In 1979 there were 40 fire-insurance companies conducting business in New Zealand. Of these, the head offices of 25 were in New Zealand, 7 were in Great Britain, 4 in Australia, 3 in the United States of America, and 1 in Hong Kong. The statistics in this section relate to the calendar year for about two-thirds of these companies; for the remaining companies the financial year nearest to the calendar year is used.

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS—The statistics in the following summary relate to the business conducted with the insuring public. Reinsurance transactions are not taken into account.

YearPolicies at 31 DecemberGross Cover at 31 DecemberPremium IncomeGross lossPercentage of Claims to Premium Income
 No.$(m)$(000)$(000)percent
1974–752,259,37732,842.577,90233,14542.5
1975–762,274,69541,131.997,91545,59646.6
1976–772,328,66248,767.5111,18748,53043.6
1977–782,313,98459,172.3121,84762,63251.4
1978–792,248,46660,317.4126,24870,35755.7

LIABILITIES—The following table shows whole-world liabilities of fire-insurance offices. The figures refer to all departments of business underwritten. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act 1908 life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available for other classes of insurance transacted. Of the 40 fire offices, 3 also engage in life-assurance business in New Zealand.

Item1976–77 Total1977–78 Total1978–79
Overseas CompaniesLocal CompaniesTotal
$(million)
Paid-up capital535.3466.3477.270.9548.1
Reserves3,997.12,071.13,080.6143.33,223.9
Other liabilities8,327.46,370.36,847.6540.27,387.8
                Total12,859.88,907.710,405.4754.411,159.8
Life funds9,453.68,662.58,369.0174.68,543.6
                Total liabilities22,313.417,570.218,774.4929.019,703.4

ASSETS—The following table gives the amount of assets in New Zealand as at the end of each of the latest 5 years classified under various heads. The figures given include all investments in New Zealand securities and do not relate merely to the assets held by the New Zealand branches of the companies concerned. The assets of other departments— accident, life, marine, etc.—are also included.

Assets in New Zealand1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79
$(million)
Real estate56.062.778.686.787.8
Central Government securities35.832.941.136.531.4
Local authority securities34.328.826.632.128.9
Company shares and debentures104.5109.7143.0157.7160.3
Mortgages, etc.49.548.463.673.570.6
Outstanding premiums39.746.249.659.564.1
Cash and other assets in New Zealand67.952.665.576.464.6
                Total New Zealand assets387.6381.3468.0522.4507.7

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—A statement of the total revenue and expenditure, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross figures include reinsurance business accepted, while the net figures comprise insurances with the public, plus re-insurances accepted, and less amounts reinsured with other offices.

It should be noted that at the closing date of the accounts it is customary to transfer to a reserve a proportion of the income received during the year. If the amount transferred to reserve in the latest year is greater than that transferred at the end of the previous year the net effect is equivalent to an increase in the latest year's expenditure and appears in the statement of net expenditure. Similarly, if the amount transferred in the latest year is less than in the previous year, the net effect appears in the statement of net revenue.

Item1977–781978–79
GrossNetGrossNet
Revenue$(thousand)
Change in reserve provisions 488 1,693
Amount of fire premiums received during year171,113112,908175,572120,475
Interest and dividends 9,252 10,176
Rents 1,750 1,216
Other revenue 2,910 2,952
                Total171,113127,307175,572136,513
Expenditure 
Change in reserve provisions11,6767,7267,5455,646
Amount of fire claims paid during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage73,82248,84880,66960,364
Fire authority levies16,95212,71019,02115,290
Central Government taxes6,4906,1996,1706,236
Rents1,3791,3811,3421,301
Depreciation9749681,1751,182
Allowance and commissions on premiums to agents, subagents, and others19,3059,20219,34810,258
Salaries and wages, including commissions, on profits or bonuses18,21118,20418,14617,861
Other expenses of management11,58611,74211,79311,629
                Total160,395116,978165,211129,764

31 D—STATE INSURANCE

LIFE ASSURANCE—The New Zealand Government Life Insurance Office was founded in 1869 at a time when New Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities in regard to life assurance. The payment of all policies has always been guaranteed by the Government.

From a total of 59 policies, assuring a sum of $60,005, issued during 1869–70, the business of the office has grown to a stage when, at the end of 1978, policies numbered 466063 and the total sum assured reached $2,563 million. Among life assurance companies, the Government Life Insurance handles the second largest volume of business in New Zealand.

Income and expenditure figures of the Government Life Insurance Office for the latest 5 years are shown in the following table.

YearPremium Income (Including Purchase of Annuities)Total IncomeManagement Expenses and CommissionsTotal ExpenditureRatio of Management Expenses in Total IncomeRatio of Management Expenses to Premium Income
  $(thousand) percent
197433,01555,6586,08626,26910.9318.43
197541,25866,5957,18235,65410.7917.41
197645,72574,4368,80839,89611.8319.26
197743,22176,1139,28039,74212.1923.47
197852,12490,07110,87049,70412.0720.85

During the year ended December 1978, 7609 policies became claims by death of the life assured or by maturity. The amount paid in respect of these claims was $17,663,497. A further sum of $726,493 was paid to annuitants, and $16,436,400 was paid to policyholders who cashed bonuses or surrendered policies.

Figures showing the progress of the office during the latest 5 years are contained in the next table. Annuities are included, but bonuses are excluded.

YearNew BusinessPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies in Force at End of Year
Number of PoliciesSum AssuredAnnual*PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
* Excludes single premiums.
  $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m)
197428,251267.34.021,19081.91.7453,3131,643.929.7
197529,390340.23.723,803118.72.7458,9001,865.430.8
197630,191373.34.425,132124.32.4463,9592,114.532.8
197727,723367.94.324,479135.52.5467,2032,346.834.6
197827,148398.74.328,288182.92.6466,0632,562.636.1

The following table shows the progress of business of the Government Life Insurance Office from the date of establishment until 31 December 1978.

 PoliciesAnnuities
NumberSum AssuredReversionary BonusesAnnual Premiums
  $(million)$(000)
Total issued1,085,3373,989.6313.467,16631,419
Total void619,2741,427.0107.730,84821,440
Total in force at 31 Dec 1978466,0632,562.6205.736,3189,979

The office's total assets at 31 December are shown by class of investment in the following table.

Class of InvestmentAmountPercentages
197619771978197619771978
* Mainly premiums and interest due and accrued interest.
  $(million) percent
Mortgages on property161.3173.0180.038.7338.1536.40
Loans on policies25.528.027.66.136.185.57
Government securities82.984.189.519.9018.5418.10
Local authority securities37.043.246.88.879.539.45
Real estate46.956.673.811.2612.4814.93
Company shares and debentures50.855.255.612.2112.1811.25
Miscellaneous assets*12.013.321.22.902.944.30
                  Total416.4453.5494.6100.00100.00100.00

FIRE, ACCIDENT, AND OTHER INSURANCE—The State Insurance Office is empowered to carry on any class of insurance business other than life assurance. As the State Fire Office it commenced business in 1905. In 1925 accident business was transferred to it from the Government Life Insurance Office and since 1947 it has undertaken marine insurance.

Its growth is indicated in the following table.

YearNet PremiumsClaimsWorking Expenses
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
197433,83129,4765,545
197542,25934,5695,912
197654,39238,4947,440
197765,78342,5527,054
197873,62147,6488,269

As was the case with private accident insurance companies the main classes of accident insurance transacted by the State Insurance Office prior to 1974 were motor vehicle (comprehensive and third-party risk), employer's liability, personal accident, public risk, and plate glass. With the implementation of the Accident Compensation Act on 1 April 1974, all classes of business involving the insurance of liability for personal injury by accident ceased to be risks insured by the office. The major classes of business affected were employer's liability insurance and Transport Act insurance.

The total assets of the State Insurance Office at 31 December 1978 amounted to $97.3 million which included $59.5 million in the form of investments ($8.3 million in Government securities, $14.6 million in local body securities), and $27.3 million in fixed assets, mainly land, buildings, and plant. Of the total liabilities, reserves amounted to $37.6 million, unexpired risks to $31.7 million, and unadjusted claims to $10.0 million.

EARTHQUAKE AND WAR DAMAGE INSURANCE—The Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944 is administered by a Commission, of which the Minister of Finance is chairman. All property insured against fire is deemed to be insured to the extent of the indemnity value against earthquake and war damage. Premiums at the rate of 5c for each $100 of insurance cover are collected by the insurance companies and paid into the Earthquake and War Damage Fund (less commission of 2 1/2 percent).

Advances may be made from the Consolidated Revenue Account if at any time the amount in the Earthquake and War Damage Fund is not sufficient to meet the claims thereon.

“Earthquake damage” is defined as damage occurring as the direct result of earthquake or of fire occasioned by or in consequence of earthquake. In 1950 an extension of the scheme was instituted to provide some measure of protection to the insured against storm and flood of an abnormal or widespread nature. In 1954 the definition of disaster damage was extended to include volcanic eruption, and authority was given to the commission to accept insurance against landslip. This latter type of cover does not apply automatically. Finance is provided by crediting 10 percent of the premiums compulsorily collected under the Act to a special Disaster Fund.

Since 1 June 1967 the commission has had power to underwrite the geothermal activity insurance on a voluntary basis.

The following is a comparative statement for the latest 5 years of the financial operations under the Earthquake and War Damage Act.

Item1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79

* At end of each period.

Includes adjustment of the cost price of investments to nominal value.

Income—
 $(thousand)
    Premiums—
    Earthquake and war damage13,62317,24720,34123,17526,786
    Disaster1,5141,9162,2602,5752,977
    Interest11,41413,34215,43618,60023,380
                  Total26,55132,50538,03744,35053,143
Outgo—
Claims—
    Earthquake and war damage4201823378021
    Disaster1,2635,2114,4142662,844
    Salaries and expenses of management709498105111
    Discount to insurance offices378479563639746
                  Total2,1315,9665,4121,0903,722
Surplus24,42126,54032,62443,26049,421
Earthquake and War Damage Fund*208,270239,968267,773310,535360,157
Disaster Fund*3,6774993,2555,7066,109

For the year ended 31 March 1979 a total of 2174 claims were received, compared with 1916 for the previous year. The breakdown of claims was as follows: earthquake, 270; extraordinary disaster, 1754; landslip, 150. Respective figures for the previous year were 853; 845; and 218.

Earthquake Claims—As a result of minor seismic activity during the year only 270 claims amounting to $21,021 were registered. This is the lowest number of earthquakes recorded since 1970–71.

Disaster claims—There was a significant increase in the number of claims recorded this year. Of the 1754 recorded, 398 claims arose from the Otago - Southland floods on 14–16 October 1978. The payments in this case amounted to $2,231,331. The storm of 29–30 July 1978 resulted in 761 claims amounting to $366,909 from the Te Aroha - Coromandel area.

Landslip claims—A total of 150 claims for this year resulted in payments of $186,735.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on insurance statistics will be found in the following publications.

Insurance StatisticsDepartment of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of StatisticsDepartment of Statistics.

Annual Report of the Government Insurance Commissioner (Parl. paper B. 22).

Report of the State Insurance Office (Parl. paper B. 21).

Report of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission (Parl. paper B. 11).

Chapter 32. Section 32 EMPLOYMENT

Table of Contents

LABOUR FORCE—Important factors affecting the proportional size of the labour force to population include the age structure of the population, the usual age of completion of full-time education, the percentage of married women engaged in full-time paid employment, and net migration flow. The fluctuations in the growth of the labour force follow those of births some 15 to 20 years earlier. There is a relatively greater importance of the 15–24 year age groups in the labour force as the majority of women and girls are actively engaged in the labour force at this period of their lives. At the time of the 1976 Census, 18.5 percent of the female labour force was below 20 years of age, compared with 10.0 percent of the male labour force.

The estimated annual growth of the labour force in recent years is shown in the following table.

As at AprilMalesFemalesTotalLabour Force as a Percentage of Total Population
NumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual Increase
 (000)percent(000)percent(000)percentpercent
1973814.72.2335.52.91150.22.438.7
1974834.22.4357.16.41191.33.639.2
1975843.21.1364.52.11207.71.438.9
1976849.50.7372.52.21222.01.239.1
1977841.7−0.9388.44.31230.10.739.2

The following table shows the male and female members of the labour force by age groups at 5 censuses.

Age Croup (Years)19561961196619711976
* Includes Not Specified ages at 1956 census.
Under 20(m)53,84862,39678,66975,97386,341
(f)48,88958,22474,35872,59875,295
20–24(m)66,40775,68291,155108,686120,029
(f)33,63438,88449,32163,36775,206
25–34(m)155,628153,128159,117175,557221,787
(f)32,65830,58636,87551,68779,497
35–44(m)138,820149,691164,492158,185165,006
(f)32,55838,31746,54557,20675,002
45–64(m)184,497209,456229,693244,476252,684
(f)42,34654,93868,60884,09897,816
65 and over(m)22,93520,15322,46922,09219,251
(f)37933908473749104419
Total*(m)622,758670,506745,595784,969865,098
(f)194,094224,857280,444333,866407,235

Though year-to-year fluctuations in the migration flow were considerable during the 10 years to 1967, the average migration gain to the population was about 10000 a year, representing approximately one-fifth of the annual increase in the population as a whole. As immigrants as a body have a higher proportion in the working-age group than the normal cross-section of population, a period of high net immigration adds rapidly to the percentage of the population in the labour force and is particularly valuable where vacancies requiring particular skills are filled by migrants. In 1968 and 1969 there was a migration loss with a loss of some workers to Australia and a consequent slowing down of the labour force growth. During the years ended March 1970 to 1974 the net annual inflow from migration rose from only 800 in 1969–70 to 33576 in 1973–74. There was a slight decline to 29643 in 1974–75, followed by a sharp decline to 6567 in 1975–76.

During the 4 latest March years, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1978–79, and 1979–80 there has been a substantial population loss from net migration. In 1978–79 figures for permanent and long-term migrants showed 40808 arrivals and 81008 departures, a net loss of 40200 compared with 26708 the previous year. Of this net loss, 28332 (70.5 percent) were in the labour force. The net loss from the labour force included 10108 craftsmen, production process workers, transport workers, and labourers, 5796 clerical workers, and 5816 professional, technical and related workers (teachers and nurses were included in this group). A table showing long-term migrants during 1978–79 by occupation is included in the Population section of this Yearbook. The greatest proportion of movements of permanent and long-term migrants continued to occur in the age group 20 to 29 years. For the year ended March 1979, this group accounted for 43.6 percent of permanent and long-term arrivals, compared with 41.5 percent in 1978, and for 44.5 percent of permanent and long-term departures as against 46.6 percent the preceding year.

Figures of permanent and long-term migrants during the year ended March 1980 showed 41607 arrivals and 76024 departures, a net loss of 34417, of whom 24904 were in the labour force. More detailed figures of migration during the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE—The growth of population has been accompanied by a changing emphasis in employment. In the nineteenth century the major activities of farming, mining, and lumbering gave rise to manufacturing industries and to commercial and professional occupations. In 1881, 11.2 percent of the total population was engaged in agriculture, 13.1 percent in industries, which included mining, and 6.6 percent in commercial and professional occupations. By 1901 the proportion in tertiary activities and farming had increased, while that in secondary industries had remained constant, and mining had declined relatively in importance. The proportions were then 14.5 percent in farming, 13.1 percent in secondary industry, and 11 percent in services.

The more recent rapid development of larger urban centres has been associated with a trend away from primary into secondary industries, a trend which developed noticeably after the depression of the 1930s and which was given marked impetus by the war. The broad changes in the economy are indicated by the following table. Decreases in the proportions engaged in primary production are typical of advanced economies, although it has to be noted that the farming community makes greater use of the services sector in the development of farm productivity.

Production Group1966 Census1971 Census1976 Census
Persons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour Force
Primary production140,93613.7134,15912.0133,95910.5
Secondary industry381,58937.2388,07134.7433,19034.1
Services503,51449.1596,60553.3705,18455.4

The following figures show the estimated size and distribution of the labour force in April 1977.

Industrial Group N.Z.S.I.C.April 1977
MalesFemalesTotal
 (000)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing117.423.5140.9
Mining and quarrying4.40.24.6
Manufacturing industry—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco60.414.474.8
    Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather17.332.149.4
    Wood and wood products21.92.624.5
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing21.68.129.7
    Chemicals, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastics16.56.322.8
    Non-metallic mineral products10.41.411.8
    Basic metals, metal products, machinery and equipment, and other manufacturing industries76.718.795.4
        Total, manufacturing industries224.833.6308.4
Electricity, gas, and water14.01.615.6
Construction87.53.791.2
Wholesale and retail trade110.482.5192.9
Transport, storage, and communication89.021.8110.8
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.44.235.179.3
Community, social, and personal services—
    Public administration, etc.37.916.954.8
    Sanitary and similar services4.52.36.8
    Social and related community services54.297.4151.6
    Recreational services7.44.311.7
    Personal and household services33.912.546.4
        Total, community and personal services137.8133.4271.3
        Total in industry829.6385.41215.0
Armed forces in New Zealand10.20.811.0
Registered unemployed1.92.24.1
        Total labour force841.7388.41230.1

LABOUR FORCE PROJECTIONS—The alternative labour force projections for the period 1979–2011, shown in the table which follows, are integrated with the 31 March 1978 base-population projections, included in the population section, and the same mortality, fertility, and net migration assumptions apply. The definition of “labour force” used in deriving these projections includes those “unemployed but seeking work” and consequently they should be regarded as indicating the future potential supply of labour in terms of the stated assumptions. The “changing” labour force participation assumption employed in these projections implies an increasing participation by women in most economically active age groups, a declining level of male participation in most age groups and a declining participation by both sexes at the older economically active age groups.

At 31 MarchProjected Total New Zealand Labour Force* Assuming “Changing” Age-Specific Labour Force Participation Rates and Net Immigration Variant Designated:
LowMediumHigh
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

* These projections have as base the estimated labour force at 31 March 1978. The mortality, fertility, and net immigration assumptions on which the projections are based, are the same as those for the population projections appearing in the Population Section.

Projections based on “changing” labour force participation assume the continuation of 1956–76 trends in age-and-sex-specific labour force participation rates until 1986, after which time participation rates are assumed to remain constant.

(thousand)
1978 (Base)878427130587842713058784271305
1981886450133689145513468964591355
1982892462135489846713659074731380
1983900475137590948113909204871407
1984910489139992249614189335021435
1985923504142793551014459465171463
1986936518145494752514729585311489
1991101055715671022564158610335711604
1996106658016461079588166710915961687
2001111160017111126610173611406191759
2006115462617801170636180611866461832
2011119264718391208657186512256661891

UNEMPLOYMENT—The following table shows numbers of registered unemployed and also those employed on special work or under one of the private sector job-creation programmes set up by the Government in an attempt to alleviate unemployment.

PeriodRegistered UnemployedEmployed on Special WorkPrivate Sector Job Creation Programmes
MalesFemalesTotalWith Government DepartmentsSubsidised Work With Local Authorities
* Average of March to December 1978.
Monthly average for December year
19752713145341662969124...
19763133222353565593581...
19774318306773856195906...
197813,498883222,330993944225430*
197915,559968025,239999471377306
At end of month
1979—Jan14,18710,71724,90410,74968948919
Feb13,14110,99624,13710,32966829413
Mar13,62510,10923,734985266119645
Apr15,114978324,897990067078991
May15,180933324,513992767948260
Jun16,003936025,363999071197844
Jul17,112901926,13110,34872387666
Aug17,322859325,91510,38274196805
Sep17,671856726,23810,23075736018
Oct15,967847124,438946675854862
Nov15,55110,15925,710946875404773
Dec15,83211,05726,889928574844477

The relatively large numbers of young people included among the registered unemployed is a matter of concern, and various programmes and measures have been instituted to assist young people to obtain employment, to provide vocational guidance, and to increase their skills. These include the Young Persons Training Programme and (during the university long break) the Student Community Service Programme. Information on employment promotion is given later in this section.

The following table shows unemployed persons by sex and age group as at the end of each month of 1979.

MonthAge Group (In Years)
Under 1818–2021–2930–3940–4950 and Over
Males
Jan323627584396164310211133
Feb281623924138169710041094
Mar277424444508175910071133
Apr281827554998207811901275
May281927505179201311731246
Jun282728405424223113341347
Jul293329795840244214551463
Aug284330095929251015221509
Sep269430046109263816671559
Oct257227445482230114051463
Nov259032145236200612231282
Dec328928844474245113021432
Females
Jan465427442105534392288
Feb457128482276563440298
Mar403526142095598447320
Apr379625932060567473294
May358224402006555463287
Jun366624452006556404283
Jul349122861951562434295
Aug316821591937597443289
Sep308822061904619440310
Oct310821831854579416331
Nov356229472354592399305
Dec443429841993838433375

PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT—The functions and duties of the Department of Labour are set out in the Labour Department Act 1954. On the employment side the duties include: the provision of a complete employment service for the purposes of placing workers in employment, assisting employers to provide employment, helping persons to find better or more suitable employment, and aiding persons who require occupational readjustment or training; the collection and publication of information relating to employment and unemployment; the making of surveys and forecasts of the classes of employment required or available; the promotion of voluntary placing of suitable persons in such employment; and in general, the promotion and maintenance of full employment. The department also operates hostels for workers, and arranges for the selection of immigrants.

To sum up, the department seeks to maintain a policy of full employment at the highest productive level. As an aid to this, it operates 22 district employment offices and a number of satellite offices and administers employment schemes, subsidised where necessary, for those unfit to compete in the ordinary labour market.

As an aid to employment, the department operates five hostels and assists with accommodation for all classes of workers, workers-in-training, and jobseekers, especially for young people away from home for the first time.

The department's Employment and Vocational Guidance Service has been restructured and strengthened to cater for the needs of a much wider spectrum of the work force and potential members of it. The aim of the new service is to provide the co-ordinating point for employment and related services for the labour force. It offers advice and assistance to both workers and employers to promote the best use of available labour resources. Piloted initially in Auckland, the new service has been extended to all 22 district offices and has been substantially improved and extended over the past year. Resident vocational counselling services are now available in 18 districts following the 1 April 1978 merger of the Vocational Guidance and Employment Services, and in the other 4 districts regular itinerant visits are made. A 5-year plan is in operation for the extension of counselling services throughout the country in association with an extended career guidance network in schools.

A feature of district employment service developments is the involvement of community interests in the work of the new service. Employment advisory committees have been established in Auckland, Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, Rotorua, Gisborne, Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, Buller-Westland, Canterbury, South Canterbury, and Southland. Further committees are planned for New Plymouth, Wanganui, and Nelson. The committees act on a local level as a direct link between the community and the Employment Service. Their membership comprises representatives of employer and employee-related organisations and other groups active in the community. Their role is to provide guidance in the operations of the service within the context of the local labour market, so that the needs of employers, job seekers, and those who have special problems in employment are interpreted and met in the best possible way. At present they have a major role in identifying and establishing skills-training courses under the Young Persons Training Programme.

Regional meetings of chairmen of these committees have been held in order to share particular local problems and experience. It is intended that such meetings should become a regular means of exchanging ideas.

Staffing of the District Employment and Vocational Guidance Service is being steadily strengthened, and at present totals around 400 in the employment group and 100 in the vocational guidance group.

The availability of the service to job seekers has been improved by the opening of satellite offices, which are now located at Takapuna, Panmure, Henderson, Levin, Upper Hutt, Porirua, Tokoroa, Kaitaia, Paeroa, and Oamaru. Further offices are planned for Kaikohe, Te Kuiti, and Ashburton.

A core responsibility of the new combined service is to match the training, experience, aptitudes, and desires of workers or potential workers, with the job opportunities offering. To help achieve this, considerable emphasis is placed on personal contact and continued liaison with employers and other organisations. This, in turn, leads to the notification of an increased number and wider range of vacancies as well as a better appreciation of the regional labour market. The result is that clients can be interviewed in greater depth and more and better matched placements made.

During 1980 the department will be implementing Job Self-service. This is a new service designed to streamline the process of finding employers staff, and utilises display boards showing job vacancies. Jobseekers select jobs that interest them and are briefly screened for suitability before being referred to employers.

Each employment district has officers designated “Special Duties”, whose role is with the disadvantaged or disabled jobseekers. There is extensive collaboration with a wide range of community organisations, which are concerned with the disabled. Training subsidies are utilised for the support of disabled persons who require some training before they can compete with others for employment openings.

The service also administers job-creation programmes and the number of these offered has increased in both the public and private sectors. The Temporary Employment Programme provides employment in Government departments, local authorities, education boards, and hospital boards. The group work schemes provide a controlled and helpful work environment for mainly young persons who, for social or ethnic reasons, may be considered as unable to cope with normal patterns of employment. In the private sector, the Additional Jobs Programme with the Farm Employment Scheme provide formerly-unemployed persons with full-time subsidised employment. During the university vacation, from October to late February, the Student Community Service Programme provides a wide variety of employment with a range of organisations, for tertiary students.

In addition to the Job Creation programmes, the Department of Labour, in association with the Department of Education, has instituted a programme of training courses for young persons experiencing difficulty in finding employment because of a lack of work skills and experience. The programme is known as the Young Persons Training Programme.

The new employment service recognises that many clients do not wish to formally register for assistance in finding employment. They do, however, require informed advice to satisfy their own employment or training needs. In this category are short-term or part-time farm or seasonal workers, those considering apprenticeships, trade and vocational inquirers, school leavers, women contemplating returning to the work force, those seeking employment or training opportunities in other districts, and many others.

This level of assistance also encompasses the development of better information resources, including occupational and careers displays.

VOCATIONAL TRAINING—Meeting the employment needs of industry and commerce in order to improve productivity growth rates and enhancing an individual's chances of contributing to his/her development and to the economy are vital functions of vocational training. The development and organisation of training within New Zealand on a national basis is the responsibility of the Vocational Training Council (VTC).

The council has the following membership, appointed jointly by the Ministers of Education and Labour: a chairman; the Director-General of Education; the Secretary of Labour; 2 members nominated by the N.Z. Employers' Federation; 2 members nominated by the N.Z. Federation of Labour; 1 member nominated by the N.Z. Manufacturers' Federation; 1 member nominated by the Technical Institutes Association; 1 member nominated by the Technicians Certification Authority of New Zealand; and not more than 5 other members (3 appointments have so far been made under this provision).

In addition, the council has 3 associate (non-voting) members: an appointee of the State Services Coordinating Committee; an appointee of the Combined State Services Organisations; and the chairman of the University Grants Committee.

Under the Vocational Training Council Act 1968 the council's functions are prescribed as advisory to Government, State departments, industry, commerce, agriculture, social welfare, and other interested organisations.

The objectives of the Vocational Training Council within the constraints of the Act are to:

  1. Encourage the implementation of systematic training and development schemes to ensure that New Zealand has the people at all levels of employment, with the requisite knowledge and technical skills to perform their tasks efficiently.

  2. Ensure that people as individuals have the opportunity to continue to develop.

  3. Raise the standards of knowledge, skill and effectiveness.

  4. Encourage those directly responsible for achieving the foregoing objectives.

Recommendations may relate to improved training, the development of new or established facilities, the co-ordination of training schemes, levies or other methods for the financing or encouragement of training, the award of scholarships, the fostering of research, the carrying out of inquiries and investigations in any field of training, and maintenance of an adequate information service.

However, the activities of the council considerably exceed that of an advisory or recommendatory role. The council has been, and still is, deeply involved in the promotion of fully-integrated and meaningful training in the majority of industries and local authorities.

The Vocational Training Council encourages a systematic approach to training at all levels in all sectors of the economy, linked to proper manpower development policies with in-built tangible recognition for proven efficiency. There is emphasis on industry self-help and on joining in company manpower schemes.

Representative voluntary industrial and commercial training boards have been established for 26 industries. Boards include members from employer, employee, educational, and other specialist groups. A major incentive has been the Government grant of $18,600 a year to encourage the appointment of executive training officers to work for industry training boards. There are now 57 of these positions established. Industry training boards, among other things, examine existing training and assess the need for revised or new schemes. This involves both the identification of the level of ability of the person required (machine operator, graduate, tradesman, supervisor, etc.) and the numbers required at each level.

Further, the council has concerned itself with “back-up” research and investigational studies and with promoting training programmes for particular groups within the community. This is done through a series of advisory committees. Specialists in areas such as women and employment, apprenticeship and trade training, management and supervisory training, and Polynesians in the work force meet to organise projects in these areas and to make recommendations to the council.

APPRENTICESHIPS—Under the Apprentices Act 1948 orders governing apprenticeships are made by the Arbitration Court, which consists of a judge, a workers' member, and an employers' member. Orders are made on the recommendations of New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees, which consist of 4 representatives of employers, 4 representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of each committee. The New Zealand committees are in effect policy-making committees. There are 36 committees, which normally meet once or twice a year. Committees covering larger industries, e.g., engineering, carpentry, printing, meet 3 or 4 times per year.

Day-to-day administration of the Apprentices Act and the apprenticeship orders is carried out by the District Commissioners of Apprenticeship in conjunction with local apprenticeship committees, of which there are 246. They consist of 3 representatives of employers, 3 representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the District Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of all committees for the district for which he is appointed. District Commissioners delegate chairmanship to other officers of the Department of Labour when necessary.

In the majority of industries there are provisions in apprenticeship orders for the attendance of apprentices at technical classes, both during working hours and in the evening. In most industries technical training is concentrated into an annual course of 3 or 4 weeks' duration. In some cases courses are longer with the advent of extended institute training, as in the carpentry and joinery, engineering, and aircraft engineering industries.

The general policy regarding apprentice education is determined by the Department of Education in co-operation with New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees. That department itself operates a Technical Correspondence Institute, which provides courses of instruction for those apprentices who live too far from any school to allow them to attend evening classes.

A statutory body, the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, conducts examinations for apprentices (see Section 7A, Education). The examinations are voluntary and, except in the electrical trade and in plumbing (where registration is required), no examination test is required for the practice of a trade. Trades which have extended trade training, e.g., carpentry and engineering, have internal assessment conducted by technical institutes in place of the 1st and 2nd qualifying examinations. There is very close liaison between New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees and the board, the Commissioner of Apprenticeship being a member of the board.

In 1972 the Apprentices Act was amended so that apprenticeships in all trades are now open to women as well as to men.

The number of apprenticeship contracts registered and the number completed during the 2 latest March years, and in force at the end of each year, are indicated in the following table.

TradeApprenticeship Contracts
Registered During Year Ended 31 MarchCompleted During Year Ended 31 MarchIn Force at 31 March
197819791978197919781979
Aircraft1091005990490478
Baking102854754273272
Boilermaking60475153228202
Bricklaying54376965231182
Carpentry9478721976162348773880
Clothing36394521101106
Coachbuilding51252731034218611891
Electrical63455459854922502153
Engineering89089063664831313267
Footwear repair and making5641514
Footwear manufacturing52671718158185
Furniture207321257230905905
Glazing45396138165162
Greenkeeping182112145656
Hairdressing7117762593621655x1780
Heating and ventilating28282320111112
Horticulture87845240270289
Industrial instrumentation2414114152
Jewellery50493039181182
Masonry3431912
Motor trades148414241312122252245141
Moulding20131794143
Painting and paperhanging216196169153701665
Photo-engraving45463240156x156
Piano repairing and tuning21243
Plastering49334140149130
Plumbing29525724128713361252
Printing256246190232894852
Radio9880136105410350
Refrigeration engineering43462942157155
Retail meat40339420625911721214
Saddlery, leather, etc.193219199193
Sheetmetal working1321137379421425
Shipbuilding42352837177163
Signwriting31301922116113
Timber industry44292927108102
Woollen milling13158
Others503334x43151128
Total780475717084682328327x27,173

In addition to the numbers of apprentices shown above, there were at 31 March 1979, 3445 apprenticeship contracts in force in Government departments, of which 757 were registered during the year ended 31 March 1979.

TRAINING COURSES FOR MAORIS AND PACIFIC ISLANDERS—Vocational training to broaden employment opportunities for Maori and Pacific Island youths has the support of industry and the educational and apprenticeship authorities. Time spent on trade courses is credited towards the normal apprenticeship which is completed with employers in the usual way.

The training schemes are run in conjunction with technical institutes in Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Palmerston North, Wellington, Petone, and Christchurch; community colleges in Whangarei, Rotorua, Napier, and Invercargill; and senior technical divisions in Tauranga, Gisborne, and Wanganui. Entry has in the past been restricted to rural school leavers, but is now being intensified to provide more training opportunities for urban youth. Trainees taken into the schemes and their parents enter into a training agreement to ensure regularity of attendance at classes and good conduct on the course and in return are paid a weekly training allowance.

In 1979 a total of 47 courses in 27 trades and occupations were conducted at technical institutes and community colleges. Trades and occupations include auto diesel and motor mechanics, carpentry, catering, coach and body building, electrical wiring, fitting and welding, fitting and turning, fishing, general merchandising, joinery, ladies hairdressing, meat retailing, painting and decorating, plastering, plumbing, secretarial studies, sheetmetal, agriculture, horticulture, and farm training. In addition basic skills courses designed to enhance job placement are conducted in provincial centres in the home districts of school leavers. A further 60 school leavers were recruited for clerical and social work training. Sixty-two sponsorships for computer-programming and accountancy students were also made to students with the necessary qualifications, thus broadening the base of career opportunities. The intake of trainees and school leavers for 1979 totalled 926.

Further expansion of these schemes in 1980 provides further places for 465 school leavers. The new courses include secretarial and typing in smaller centres such as Turangi and Whakatane; carving and Maori Language on a marae in Porirua; hotel and travel receptionists in Rotorua; a technicians course in engineering in Auckland; and additional courses in catering and meat retailing in Christchurch and Wellington. Twenty-week Job Entry Training Courses provide additional training facilities for the urban school leaver. A further 40 sponsorships were made available for students accepted for NZ Certificate courses.

In conjunction with education authorities, employer organisations, and church organisations a total of 1391 positions for trades and occupations are being made available. The courses being offered for 1980 cover a very wide range. They include:

Fanning, agriculture and horticulture4 courses
Trade courses—
    automotive3 trades
    building6 trades
    engineering2 trades
    retail2 trades
Other careers and vocations12 occupations
Short-term skills courses25 courses

Farm Training—Special arrangements have again been made for 6 Maori boys to enter Telford Farm Training Institute this year. This is a comprehensive 1-year course covering important theoretical and practical aspects of farming and farm management. The department meets full cost of board and school fees at the institute.

Agriculture and Horticulture—Agriculture and horticulture courses are spread over 24 weeks, comprising 10-weeks induction at Flock House, Feilding, and 2-weeks local block course, followed by 12 weeks with local farmers and horticulturists. Trainees are fully integrated into the appropriate regional cadet scheme at the completion of the period.

Automotive, Building, and Engineering Trades—Except for carpentry, which is of 2 years' duration, all courses in this group involve 1 year's training.

Other Careers and Vocations—With the exception of general merchandising, social work trainees, clerical cadets, and computer/accounting sponsorship courses, all other courses are of 1 year duration.

General Merchandising—A 6-month course, allowing for 2 intakes each year, with normal standard training allowance being paid during the period of training.

Special Work and Clerical Cadet Trainees—These are recruited and appointed to the Department of Maori Affairs in terms of the provisions of the State Services Act. Training is over a 2-year period, the first year with this department and the secondment to other statutory welfare agencies in the second year to broaden their experience and skills. Permanent placements are found at the conclusion of the 2-year period. These are not necessarily with Department of Maori Affairs. Salaries are in accordance with the educational qualifications.

Computer N.Z. Certificate and Accountancy Sponsorships—Sponsorships are being offered in computer N.Z. Certificate and accountancy/commerce courses to be conducted at both provincial and urban technical institutes as a means of encouraging more school leavers into the private sector. Eligibility is open to both urban and rural youth who must have the requisite educational qualifications for acceptance into the courser, Sponsorships involve the Department of Maori Affairs meeting tuition fees, and an amount towards the cost of books. Additional assistance is provided where parental hardship is established. Students will also be eligible for the standard tertiary bursary.

Short-term Basic Skills Courses—These courses were instituted in 1979 to replace former pre-employment courses. They are planned to meet the needs of those who would not qualify for trade training. Structure and content of courses are designed for employment opportunities relevant to local conditions in provincial centres, as well as in Auckland and Wellington.

Basic Skills Training for Urban Youth—This type of training was established at Petone in September 1978 as a pilot scheme. It provided for 6-weeks' basic training over a variety of job occupations, such as welding, car engine repairs, panelbeating, spray painting, and typing. The course started out of concern for unemployed youth and was supported by business firms, industry, and the Maori community in the Petone/Hutt Valley area. The project is currently being evaluated with a view to establishing similar training facilities in other urban centres.

STATISTICS OF EMPLOYMENT: Half-yearly Surveys—The Department of Labour carries out at half-yearly intervals a general survey of employment in New Zealand. These surveys are conducted by means of inquiries sent out to employers of labour, the results being published in the Labour and Employment Gazette. Returns are required from all establishments in which at least 2 persons (including working proprietors) are engaged. Government and local authority employment is included. Employers in farming, hunting, trapping, fishing, waterfront work, seagoing work, private domestic service, and armed forces are not required to submit half-yearly returns. The following tables are based on these surveys.

A summary of employment is given in the following table.

Date of SurveyFull-time Employees and Working ProprietorsPart-time WorkersHalf-yearly Percentage Rate of Labour Turnover*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemales
* The relationship between the number of terminations over the previous half-year and the average number of employees during the same period.
April—percentpercent
    1975634,937293,178928,11532,78693,302126,0882334
    1970641,961299,754941,71532,13196,623128,7542029
    1977644,735307,513952,24832,800102,586135,3862129
    1978638,597303,402941,99933,548106,447139,9951725
    1979638,792317,059955,85133,950112,368146,3181723
October
    1975625,552291,850917,40232,61396,070128,6832027
    1976628,342299,289927,63132,895100,806133,7011926
1977624,631302,939927,57033,696106,200139,8962026
1978625,623305,828931,45133,942109,337143,2791727
1979624,344318,504942,84834,464115,699150,163....

EMPLOYMENT BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Employees of local authorities are principally engaged in the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric, and water supply, and transport), and community services.

In the following table particulars are given of the number of all direct wage-earning employees who were actually in the employ of the various classes of local authorities (hospital boards excluded) at 15 April of each of the latest 3 years inclusive. Besides permanent staff, including administrative and professional employees, the statistics include part-time, casual, and temporary employees, and subsidised workers, but exclude those employed by contractors.

Local Authorities*Employees at 15 April
197619771978

* For numbers see Section 2.

As at 30 September.

Taken over by Fire Service Commission.

§ Gas board employees are included with electric power board employees.

Total includes employees of licensing trusts (2791 employees in 1978) and hydatids districts (29 employees in 1978).

Catchment boards824856923
City and borough councils19,41119,44920,190
County councils556454845579
Crematorium board211
District councils142465606
Electric power boards6638§6568§6870§
Fire boards2169
Harbour boards383237663967
Harbour bridge authority128122130
Land drainage boards323138
Local railway board111110
Museum authority130142129
Nassella tussock boards47157117
Plantation board101312
Pest destruction boards735780754
Regional authority250824042668
River boards577
Road tunnel authority374343
Town boards321922
Urban drainage boards461468505
Urban transport board454473477
Valley authority383638
Water supply boards129149156
                  Total458444423246062

PUBLIC SERVICE EMPLOYMENT—Permanent staff in the Public Service as at 31 March 1979 totalled 64111, of whom 42412 were males and 21699 females. In addition, the Public Service gave employment to 1578 temporary staff and 18827 wage workers, giving a total for all employees of 84516 (57519 males and 26997 females) compared with 83242 as at 31 March 1978. These figures do not include the staffs of the Post Office, the railway service, the Police (except civilian staff), education boards, hospital boards, or universities.

UNEMPLOYMENT—Except for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available. Such information is, however, available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Department of Labour (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade unionists were collected from trade union secretaries by the Department of Statistics from 1925 to 1930. A table showing figures of unemployment from June 1931 to March 1939 will be found on page 854 of the 1940 Yearbook. Monthly average figures of registered unemployed for each year from 1946 are given in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

Census Data on Unemployment—The great disadvantage of the population census as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only. Unemployment figures from the 1971 Census were 8757 males and 7411 females. Figures from the 1976 Census give a total of 14392 males and 11945 females. Of these, 4205 of the males and 6112 of the females were in the 15–19 years age group.

The following table gives relevant census data on unemployment during this century. Prior to 1951 Maoris were not included.

CensusNumber of Males UnemployedProportion per 1000 Male Wage and Salary Earners
31 March 1901846748
12 April 1906818939
2 April 1911715230
15 October 1916592026
17 April 192111,06139
20 April 192610,69434
24 March 193635,77496
25 September 1945582316
17 April 1951790218
17 April 1956555812
18 April 196146749
22 March 196651258
23 March 1971875713
23 March 197614,39221

The 1936 figure includes men on rationed relief work, but excludes men (16222) partly unemployed but not on relief work. The 1945 figure includes ex-servicemen recently returned from overseas who had not then resumed work. At the time of the 1951 Census the waterfront dispute was in progress and it was estimated that approximately 15000 workers in that and other industries were not in work. Evidently many of these were not returned as unemployed; it is likely that a number changed to other industries, while some may not have considered themselves to be unemployed.

Unemployment Benefit—Unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act have been payable since 1 April 1939. The number in force at 31 March 1979 was 17894 compared with 17484 at the same date in 1978, 3651 in March 1977, 5127 in March 1976, and 2894 in March 1975.

Subject to the conditions set out in Section 6A, the unemployment benefit may be claimed as of right. Registration at a district office of the Department of Labour is a compulsory prerequisite to eligibility for the benefit. Hence it is considered that the great majority of workers becoming involuntarily unemployed would register for employment in order to validate a claim for the benefit.

Close liaison is maintained between the Department of Social Welfare and the Department of Labour to prevent the payment of benefit where work is available. In addition to the requirement that a benefit applicant must register for work at an employment office, all unemployment beneficiaries must report once weekly at the employment office.

VACANCIES, PLACEMENTS, AND UNEMPLOYED PERSONS—In addition to the half-yearly survey of the employment position, the Department of Labour maintains a weekly record of registered unemployed persons and a half-monthly record of vacancies and placements. The following tables are derived from this record and hence relate only to the department's operations as an employment service.

The following table contains a summary of the numbers of notified vacancies, placements, and registered unemployed persons as recorded by the Department of Labour.

DateNotified Vacancies at End of MonthPlacements During MonthRegistered Unemployed Persons at End of Month
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Monthly Average For Calendar Years
19751640411205120235432566271314534166
19761287379166623567793135313322235356
19771197326152321888563044431830677385
1978......175143241684600813,498883222,330
1979......168739531930588315,559968025,239

Registered unemployed, vacancies, and placements are classified by occupation in the following table on the basis of monthly averages. Because of rounding, individual components in this and the following table do not always add to the total given.

Occupation CroupRegistered Unemployed (Monthly Average)Vacancies (Monthly Average)Placements (Monthly Average)
1978*19791978*19791978*1979
* Except for the total, figures given are averages for 11 months, i.e. they exclude October, therefore figures for individual occupation groups do not add up to the total.
Professional, technical, and clerical21702234218190248274
Sales12301322140129134128
Farming, fishing, logging101513227694825568
Transport and communications855953125506961
Manufacturing and trades59226389761860780822
Services17201979130137159189
Labouring49845670174133569497
All other occupations44865370919632443343
                Total all occupations22,33025,2391751168760085883

A finer breakdown of the monthly average numbers of unemployed by usual occupation and sex is shown in the following table for the 2 latest calendar years.

Usual Occupation1978§1979
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

* Includes typists, machinists, and other related workers.

Includes sawmill workers.

Includes those who have been attending university full-time.

§ See footnote to previous table.

Professional, technical, and clerical*76214078151419
Storemen, storewomen, packers5099946691
Sales workers, shop assistants, etc.338892361961
Farm and forestry workers689326927394
Drivers7044277846
Tradesmen and tradeswomen9133185230
Freezing workers104528194551
Process/factory workers1248204912011753
Cooks and other domestic workers, etc.37313464121567
Labourers47292555261409
All other occupations9836021051610
School leavers (no previous full-time job)1183182814902349
                    Total13,498883215,5599680

STATISTICS FROM CENSUS OF POPULATION—Figures of the industrial and occupational distribution of the labour force by industry major divisions and occupation major groups at the 1976 Census of Population are given in the 2 following tables.

Industry Major DivisionAge Group (Years)Total
1524254950 and Over
 Number of Persons
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing27,49872,07229,330128,900
Mining and quarrying963286612305059
Manufacturing85,369158,63361,722305,724
Electricity, gas, and water37077884373815,329
Construction30,59862,38419,155112,137
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels56,239110,87749,006216,122
Transport, storage, and communication26,82761,71822,742111,287
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services27,81738,49513,48079,792
Community, social, and personal services81,877131,83549,537263,249
Activities not adequately defined15,97613,427533134,734
                  Total356,871660,191255,2711,272,333
Occupation Major GroupAge Group (Years)Total
1524254950 and Over
* Includes related workers.
 Number of Persons
Professional and technical *52,11298,50728,202178,821
Administrative and managerial128727,26112,36040,908
Clerical*75,07590,62740,216205,918
Sales workers24,06971,27829,933125,280
Service workers26,01749,43320,53195,981
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters27,89571,96930,826130,690
Production workers* , transport equipment operators, and labourers138,397241,50288,937468,836
New workers seeking employment42583414293
Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately described68539013413720,003
Workers not reporting any occupation9085671281603
Total356,871660,191255,2711,272,333

Employment Status—The following table shows the employment status of persons in the labour force, and also persons not actively engaged, excluding children under 15 years, at the 2 latest censuses. Part-time workers, i.e., those working less than 20 hours per week, have been classified as “not actively engaged.”

Employment Status1971 Census1976 Census
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Employer of labour59,815810367,91870,98712,50083,487
Own account worker62,18510,10172,28676,75114,76091,511
Wages or salary earner651,499307,064958,563699,326363,8441,063,170
Unemployed8757741116,16814,39211,94526,337
Relative assisting, unpaid25035360367032053875
Not specified2463834329729729813953
Total, actively engaged in the labour force784,969333,8661,118,835865,098407,2351,272,333
Not actively engaged181,375652,798834,173222,802706,043928,845
                  Grand total966,344986,6641,953,0081,087,9001,113,2782,201,178

Industrial Distribution: Divisions—The industrial distribution of the labour force analysed by industrial major divisions and divisions as recorded at the 1976 Population Census is shown below.

Industrial Major Division and DivisionMalesFemalesTotalPercentage
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing—
    Agriculture and hunting95,42822,754118,1829.3
    Forestry and logging748335178340.6
    Fishing27869828840.2
                Total 1976105,69723,203128,90010.1
                Total 1971110,66518,229128,89411.5
Mining and quarrying—
    Coalmining15906016500.1
    Crude petroleum and natural gas production690677570.1
    Metal-ore mining29820318
    Other mining22617323340.2
                Total 1976483922050590.4
                Total 1971508817752650.5
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco56,28212,50568,7875.4
    Textile, wearing apparel, and leather industries16,92431,44448,3683.8
    Wood and wood products including furniture22,209271524,9242.0
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing23,391833431,7252.5
    Chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products17,410697324,3831.9
    Non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal10,139159311,7320.9
    Basic metal industries570960063090.5
    Fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment68,80015,67984,4796.6
    Other manufacturing industries2857216050170.4
                Total 1976223,72182,003305,72424.0
                Total 1971207,08874,022281,11025.1
Industrial Major Division and DivisionMalesFemalesTotalPercentage
Electricity, gas, and water—
    Electricity, gas, and steam12,752152714,2791.1
    Waterworks and supply10163410500.1
                Total 197613,768156115,3291.2
                Total 197112,105116813,2731.2
Construction—
    Building and construction68,765286071,6255.6
    Allied trades38,530198240,5123.2
                Total 1976107,2954842112,1378.8
                Total 197190,671301793,6888.4
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels—
    Wholesale trade43,40415,23058,6344.6
    Retail trade66,11057,733123,8439.7
    Restaurants and hotels13,74519,90033,6452.6
                Total 1976123,25992,863216,12217.0
                Total 1971117,23781,078198,31517.7
Transport, storage, and communication—
    Transport and storage67,542914276,6846.0
    Communication20,22214,38134,6032.7
                Total 197687,76423,523111,2878.7
                Total 197184,86118,320103,1819.2
Finance, insurance, real estate, and business services—
    Financial institutions11,27111,33322,6041.8
    Insurance9316586715,1831.2
    Real estate and business services24,30117,70442,0053.3
                Total 197644,88834,90479,7926.3
                Total 197137,81126,96364,7745.8
Community, social, and personal services—
    Public administration and defence41,97017,63759,6074.7
    Sanitary and similar services4094337774710.6
    Social and related community services53,65693,493147,14911.6
    Recreational and cultural services10,413510115,5141.2
    Personal and household services21,92910,78132,7102.6
    International and other extra-territorial bodies5372617980.1
                Total 1976132,599130,650263,24920.7
                Total 1971110,887105,640216,52719.4
Activities not adequately defined—
                Total 197621,26813,46634,7342.7
                Total 19718556525213,8081.1
                Grand total 1976 actively engaged865,098407,2351,272,333100.0
                Grand total 1971 actively engaged in the labour force784,969333,8661,118,835100.0

Occupations—The occupational classification in major and minor groups is given for 1976 in the following table, with major group totals for 1971.

Occupational Major Group and Minor CroupMalesFemalesTotal

* Includes related workers.

Including workers not classifiable by occupation.

Professional and technical*
    Physical scientists and technicians331215404852
    Architects, engineers and technicians29,892175531,647
    Aircraft and ships officers3177223199
    Life scientists and technicians375525026257
    Medical, dental, and veterinary workers*11,71429,19840,912
    Statisticians, mathematicians, systems analysts and technicians17764302206
    Economists647116763
    Accountants980976110,570
    Jurists34531673620
    Teachers22,78530,32653,111
    Workers in religion27713773148
    Authors, journalists, and writers*20959333028
    Sculptors, painters (artists), photographers302612054231
    Composers and performing artists16849902674
    Athletes, sportsmen*838128966
    Professional, technical n.e.c. *412335147637
                Total 1976104,85773,964178,821
                Total 197181,95057,440139,390
Administrators and managerial workers—
    Legislative officials and government administrators76349812
    Managers (excluding those in wholesale and retail trade, catering and lodging services, and in farming)37,272282440,096
                Total 197638,035287340,908
                Total 197127,348105528,403
Clerical workers—
    Clerical supervisors552816047132
    Government executive officials54204565876
    Stenographers, typists, and card-and tape-punching machine operators45237,25337,705
    Bookkeepers, cashiers*14,43525,50939,944
    Computing machine operators84262377079
    Transport and communication supervisors61972766473
    Transport conductors5555560
    Mail distribution clerks203418603894
    Telephone and telegraph operators126156296890
    Clerical n.e.c*33,29557,07090,365
                Total 197670,019135,899205,918
                Total 197170,034110,347180,381
Sales workers—
    Managers (wholesale and retail trade)14,928291817,846
    Working proprietors (wholesale and retail trade)11,981714419,125
    Sales supervisors, and buyers684410147858
    Technical salesmen, commercial travellers, and manufacturers' agents13,36296914,331
    Insurance, real estate, securities and business services salesmen, and auctioneers10,54186011,401
    Salesmen and shop assistants*19,85334,72154,574
    Sales workers n.e.c.10936145
                Total 197677,61847,662125,280
                Total 197176,54338,683115,226
Service workers (incl. Armed Forces)—
    Managers (catering and lodging services)221415323746
    Working proprietors (catering and lodging services)370728876594
    Housekeepers and related service supervisors28527653050
    Cooks, waiters, bartenders*643213,22519,657
    Maids and related housekeeping service workers n.e.c.73884929230
    Building caretakers, charworkers, and cleaners*5783546311,246
    Launderers, drycleaners, and pressers104424703514
    Hairdressers, barbers, beauticians *106445075571
    Protective service workers10,50539510,900
    Service workers n.e.c.3953715811,111
    Armed Forces10,62673611,362
                Total 197646,35149,63095,981
                Total 197142,48546,36388,848
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters—
    Farm managers and supervisors54251795604
    Farmers57,204995767,161
    Agricultural and animal husbandry workers35,76511,71147,476
    Forestry workers67381156853
    Fishermen and hunters*3518783596
                Total 1976108,65022,040130,690
                Total 1971112,41517,235129,650
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers—
    Production supervisors, overseers and general foremen (non-clerical) and excluding agriculture, transport, sales and service supervisors, overseers and foremen)17,849174919,598
    Miners, quarrymen, and well-drillers*215022152
    Metal processers26991602859
    Wood preparation workers and paper makers86413669007
    Chemical processers*19143382252
    Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers*461237818393
    Tanners, fellmongers, and pelt dressers8562251081
    Food and beverage processers38,358452142,879
    Tobacco preparers and tobacco product makers141319460
    Tailors, dressmakers, sewers, and upholsterers*486520,16325,028
    Shoemakers and leather goods makers201927034722
    Cabinet makers and related woodworkers55794636042
    Stone cutters and carvers1978205
    Blacksmiths, toolmakers, and machine tool operators70656327697
    Machinery fitters, machine assemblers, and precision instrument makers (except electrical)50,555193752,492
    Electrical fitters and electrical and electronics workers26,689353330,222
    Broadcasting station and sound equipment operators and cinema projectionists400102502
    Plumbers, welders, sheet-metal and structural metal preparers and erectors25,59571626,311
    Jewellery and precious metal workers8382481086
    Glass formers and potters*23526693021
    Rubber and plastics product makers451818186336
    Paper and paper-board products makers6144621076
    Printers*8425290111,326
    Painters14,16525814,423
    Production and related workers n.e.c.326117925053
    Bricklayers, carpenters, and other construction workers53,46115753,618
    Stationary engine and related equipment operators n.e.c.3217133230
    Material handling and related equipment operators, dockers, and freight handlers37,038782144,859
    Transport equipment operators40,955170042,655
    Labourers n.e.c.34,043620840,251
                Total 1976403,07165,765468,836
                Total 1971366,16857,959424,127
Workers not classifiable by occupation—
    New workers seeking employment171125824293
    Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately described13,821618220,003
    Workers not reporting any occupation (excluding armed forces)9656381603
                Grand total 1976, actively engaged865,098407,2351,272,333
                Grand total 1971, actively engaged in the labour force784,969333,8661,118,835

NOTE: n.e.c. denotes—not elsewhere classified.

WOMEN IN THE LABOUR FORCE—During the past 40 years there has been a marked change in the composition of the New Zealand labour force. The female component of the labour force has increased from 21.2 percent in 1936 to 32.0 percent in 1976.

The percentage of women and girls of 15 years of age and above who were actively engaged in the full-time labour force for each population census during the past 40 years is as follows: 1936, 24.9; 1945, 26.0; 1951, 25.0; 1956, 26.0; 1961, 27.7; 1966, 30.9; 1971, 33.8; and 1976, 36.6. Between 1936 and 1976 the male labour force increased by 64.0 percent and the female labour force by 186.9 percent.

Despite these marked increases the New Zealand female participation rate in the labour force is not as high as that in some overseas countries.

The following table shows for a selected group of countries the percentage of the females in each age group and in the female population as a whole who are actively engaged in the labour force. As with all international statistics, comparisons should be made with caution owing to differences in definitions of “actively engaged” (especially as regards women assisting without pay in family businesses), social customs, different methods of data collection, and the different age structures of the populations. The table is derived from the ILO publication, Yearbook of Labour Statistics 1979.

CountryFemale Labour Force Participation Rate
Age Croup (Years)Female Population 15 years and above
15192024254445545559606465+

* 16 to 19 years of age.

Population 16 years of age and above.

Percentage of female population aged 55 to 64 years.

§ Based on sample survey of labour force.

 Percentage
Canada (1976)42.667.653.849.339.527.66.945.0
United States (1978)43.368.461.756.848.132.87.848.2
Japan (1978)§20.268.349.260.451.038.415.847.3
Germany, Fed. Rep. of (1978)§44.169.955.048.339.012,23.438.7
Netherlands (1977)§37.964.033.125.515.89.11.428.5
Sweden (1975)§46.5*65.568.271.757.735.13.549.7
United Kingdom (1975)54.660.951.761.439.9 6.142.9
Australia (1976)50.365.053.350.735.218.25.146.3
New Zealand (1976)51.158.840.243.529.013.92.836.6

Married women in the New Zealand labour force have increased until, in 1976, 56.7 percent of the total female labour force consisted of married women.

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of the female labour force are given in the following table.

ItemCensus
19451956196619711976
Number of married women in labour force29,60662,033116,314166,472231,104
Percentage of female labour force17.732.041.549.956.7

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of all married women increased from 3.6 in 1936 to 32.6 in 1976.

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of all married women in the same age group are given in the next table.

Age (Years)Census
193619451956196619711976
Percentage of Married Women in the Labour Force
16–195.718.218.523.530.340.3
20–244.317.419.426.734.344.0
25–293.710.311.715.820.728.8
30–343.68.011.316.424.331.5
35–393.68.413.921.831.841.7
40–443.98.716.626.935.346.3
45–494.47.817.527.735.944.2
50–544.26.115.525.230.737.8
55–594.24.610.818.522.025.4
60–642.82.55.29.511.211.4
65+1.61.01.62.12.42.4
All ages—
    16+3.77.712.919.926.132.6

Participation of married women in the labour force may be said to follow this pattern—higher than average percentages below 25 years of age when the economic desirability of a second income in the purchase and furnishing of a home is likely to be at its greatest; lower than average percentages between 25 and 34 years when younger families are being cared for; higher than average percentages at 35–54 years when family responsibilities have diminished; and lower than average percentages at 55 years and beyond when retirement causes increasing withdrawals from the labour force.

The increasing tendency for women to continue in employment after marriage until the birth of the first child and to re-enter the labour force as family responsibilities lessen has been aided by a combination of factors, including the progressively younger ages at marriage, changing social attitudes particularly toward the role of married women, and possibly to a greater awareness and acceptance of family planning.

LEVEL OF EDUCATION ATTENDED—The 1976 Census of Population included a question on educational levels attended. Figures of educational levels attended by members of the labour force of 15 years of age and above, are given by occupation major group in the following table. Part-time members of the labour force (less than 20 hours weekly), are included in the relevant major group. It should be noted that each person is included under every applicable level, and so may be included more than once. For example, a person who proceeded through secondary school to a university, technical institute, or teachers college will be included under Secondary School and also under the appropriate tertiary institution. The final column, “Attendance at other tertiary levels”, covers the remaining vocational training institutions, including nursing schools, business and secretarial colleges, and professional institutes.

Occupation Major GroupEducation Level Attended
Secondary School (Form III Onwards)UniversityTechnical InstituteTeachers CollegeNo Attendance at Sec. School, Uni, Tech Inst or Teachers CollegeAttendance at Other Tertiary Levels

* Includes related workers.

Not engaged in any paid employment.

Males
Professional, technical*102,88952,63633,06219,498244811,780
Administrative and managerial workers34,3367243804386235172509
Clerical*63,294820810,188148674263290
Sales workers70,682632710,893115393803023
Service workers40,8363016543891374989601
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters88,9876213630587021,4672039
Production* , transport equipment operators, and labourers335,723813681,373346467,1819156
New workers seeking employment1687594062410
Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described96475847301434483144
Workers not reporting any occupation7595735191988
Not applicable119,27222,6567568240488,1182394
                Total868,112115,135163,67530,818211,74043,954
Females
Professional, technical*84,87724,218858731,026185733,663
Administrative and managerial workers2905368262208365225
Clerical*143,155634715,334484294558867
Sales workers48,48912852001126397011568
Service workers55,68818153230141514,0193040
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters22,7951052817157236911245
Production* , transport equipment operators and labourers57,030909184091214,5851170
New workers seeking employment2552416993031
Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described52022041851361633113
Workers not reporting any occupation5602322227812
Not applicable426,39127,24917,33823,537205,27720,242
                Total849,64463,51149,68564,942260,69170,176

WORKING LIFE EXPECTANCIES—A table of working life displays the manner in which rates of participation in, entry to, and withdrawal from, the labour force vary with age for the given population group. Also included are expectancies of future working life and retirement life, assuming that the rates displayed in the table continue unchanged. The main applications of these tables are to economic and social studies relating to large groups of people. Individuals frequently do not conform to group patterns and, therefore, applications of any statistics from the tables must be made with caution.

Abridged tables of working life for males and females, based on labour force data from the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings and the 1975–77 Life Tables (Total Population), are now given.

Exact Age (Years)Percentage of Population in Labour ForceNumber in Labour Force, per 100000 Live BirthsChanges in the Labour Force in the Following 5 Years of Age, per 100000 Live BirthsExpectation of Work Life of Person in Labour Force(Years)Expectation of Retirement Life of Person in Labour Force(Years)
Total Entries*Total Withdrawals

* Entries of females into the labour force below the horizontal line are secondary entries by those who withdrew at younger ages for family formation.

The working life expectancies for females allow for the possibility of a second spell of labour force membership after a period of non-membership due to family formation.

Difference between life expectancy and working life expectancy.

§ These are withdrawals at all ages 80 and above.

Males
1583,49153045.710.0
2085.882,961979882041.110.1
2596.091,939215063736.510.2
3098.293,45230165731.710.2
3598.693,09646105526.910.3
4098.592,087180422.210.4
4598.190,283342017.610.5
5097.186,863629713.210.6
5594.380,56617,2399.010.8
6079.963,32735,0825.610.5
6540.228,24517,9464.88.1
7017.710,29964344.65.4
759.1386527634.03.7
804.1110211023.32.4
Females
1587,05717,52318.843.0
2071.169,53412,03238,08216.940.1
   *   
2544.643,484109513,82721.231.0
3032.631,65212,194507222.924.4
3540.138,7749662278120.721.9
4047.545,6554039384616.821.0
4548.345,8482262659713.020.3
5044.541,51369596569.719.1
5535.932,55214,3866.817.8
6020.818,16611,0925.115.4
658.6707446354.612.0
703.3243916174.58.5
751.38225654.35.7
800.5257257§4.03.2

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on employment will be found in the following publications.

Report of the Department of Labour (Parl. paper G. 1).

Report of the State Services Commission (Parl. paper G. 3).

Labour and Employment GazetteDepartment of Labour (quarterly).

1976 Census of Population and Dwellings: Bulletin 16, Labour ForceDepartment of Statistics.

Monthly Abstract of StatisticsDepartment of Statistics.

Prices, Wages, and Labour—Department of Statistics (annual).

New Zealand Tables of Working LifeDepartment of Statistics.

Pocket Digest of StatisticsDepartment of Statistics (annual).

New Zealand Standard ClassificationsDepartment of Statistics.

New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations (NZSCO).

New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC).

The Department of Labour publishes a wide range of booklets, reports, and pamphlets on topics connected with its functions and responsibilities, especially employment opportunities and vocational guidance.

Chapter 33. Section 33 WAGES

Table of Contents

For many yearn the basis for determination of wages and salaries for the majority of employees has been a system of conciliation and arbitration supplemented by general wage orders. About half of New Zealand's wage and salary earners are subject to awards and collective agreements falling under the jurisdiction of the Industrial Relations Act 1973.

The State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977 retained the principle of fair relativity prescribed in the superseded 1969 Act., and other measures introduced in the Wage Adjustment Regulations which more closely aligned State and private sector procedures were incorporated, for example, the negotiation of pay and conditions of State employees in “blocks” at intervals of no less than 12 months, and procedures for dealing with disputes of rights. A State Services Co-ordinating Committee was established under the 1969 Act as the principal co-ordinating body for Government and as the main official negotiating body on issues having significant inter-service or “across the board” application. Hospital and education services committees have been appointed to conduct negotiations on matters affecting respectively the hospital service alone and the education service (teachers) alone. There is a Public Sector Tribunal, under the chairmanship of a Judge of the Arbitration Court, to hear appeals by employee organisations, and also a Government Service Tribunal, a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, a Post Office Staff Tribunal, and a Hospital Service Tribunal. The chairman of the Public Sector Tribunal is also chairman of these single-service tribunals.

Pay and allowances for the Armed Services are prescribed by the Secretary of Defence in accordance with provisions of the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977. A Police Staff Tribunal, established under the Police Act 1958, makes orders as to the remuneration and conditions of service of members of the Police.

A significant feature of recent years has been the exceptionally high rate of both price rises and wage and salary increases. Average weekly earnings have increased at 3 times or more the average annual rate of 4.8 percent for the 10 years prior to 1970. Following the 1970 experience of a rise of 13.6 percent, consideration of deflationary measures began with discussions between the Government and representatives of the Employers' Federation and the Federation of Labour with a view to slowing down the accelerated trade-by-trade leap-frogging which was occurring with wage bargaining. These discussions showed that the relativities issue was but one aspect of a total problem contributing to the inflationary spiral. Attention then turned to positive wage and salary stabilisation as part of an overall stabilisation programme and on 25 Match 1971 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act was passed. This Act stipulated that new awards and agreements had to remain in force for at least 12 months and established an independent Remuneration Authority to administer certain arrangements under the Act. The Remuneration Authority continued to operate until December 1972, although in April 1972 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act was superseded by the Remuneration Regulations.

After the abolition of the Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations in December 1972 there was a return to free collective bargaining within the framework of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954. However, in response to increasing pressure on the level of wage settlements during the early part of 1973, direct Government intervention in the wage-fixing process was again deemed necessary and the Economic Stabilisation Regulations became effective on 10 August 1973. Under the regulations a partial wage pause until June 1974 was introduced with a Wages Tribunal being established to deal with various administrative aspects of the regulations, including the settlement of wage relativity anomalies caused by the regulations.

Following the expiry of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations on 30 June 1974, and in response to continued inflationary pressures within the economy, the Government introduced long-term wage stabilisation measures. The Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 became effective on 1 July 1974 and formed an integral part of a much wider economic stabilisation policy.

In their original form the Wage Adjustment Regulations represented a significantly less restrictive and more flexible wage control system than that previously operating; one of the major relaxations was a return to free collective bargaining for wages and conditions of employment. However, subsequent amendments to the regulations, particularly changes made in 1976, greatly tightened the criteria under which increases in remuneration might exceed those general adjustments prescribed under the regulations. Restrictions were eased by a further amendment in August 1977. Since that time, the Government has allowed free collective bargaining between the parties constrained only by the condition that wage rates should remain in force for at least 12 months. In 1979 the Remuneration Act was passed allowing the Government to intervene in wage settlements which have a significant impact on the wider economy.

GENERAL WAGE ORDERS—Following the re-establishment of the Arbitration Court under the Industrial Relations Amendment Act 1977, the General Wage Orders Act 1969 was consolidated and amended to form the General Wage Orders Act 1977.

This remained in force until repealed by the Remuneration Act in 1979.

The purpose of the General Wage Orders Act was to provide for the Arbitration Court to make a periodic review of rates of remuneration in awards and collective agreements.

In its review, the Court was required to give paramount importance to the promotion of the economic stability of New Zealand, but it was also to consider the maintenance and promotion of living standards, the promotion of industrial harmony, export promotion, the maintenance of full employment, and movements in the Consumers Price Index. The General Wage Orders Act had an unsettled life in the 1970s. It had been suspended during the currency of the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971, by the Economic Stabilisation Regulations in 1973, and again by the Wage Adjustment Regulations in 1974.

General wage orders from 1964 have been as follows:

Date of OrderEffective DateIncrease in Minimum Wage Rates

* Application limited to first $40 a week for male workers, $30 for female workers and $25 for junior workers. Earlier, in June 1968, after a general wage order hearing, the Court had decided not to issue a general wage order.

Limited to $7 per week, i.e., 7 percent on first $100 of weekly income.

  percent
19 August 196410 September 19646
10 November 1966  1 December 19662 1/2
  5 August 196819 August 19685*
  3 November 197023 November 19703
  4 July 197817 July 19787

GENERAL INCREASES—The Remuneration Act 1979 replaced the General Wage Orders Act 1977 as the enacting authority for the making of general increases in rates of remuneration in awards and collective agreements.

The first general increase of 4.5 percent was announced by the Government to take effect on 3 September 1979.

A cost of living increase of 4 percent with effect from 1 August 1980 was announced in the 1980 Budget on 3 July 1980.

INCOME STABILISATION—Stabilisation of Remuneration—On 25 March 1971 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971 was passed. This Act, among other things, limited the renegotiation of new agreements affecting remuneration to a minimum period of 12 months (subject to certain exceptions), and generally aimed to restrict the annual increase in such agreements to a maximum of 7 percent. In addition, a Remuneration Authority was established to administer certain arrangements under the Act.

Under the Act the Remuneration Authority was required to make cost of living orders as soon as possible after the Consumers Price Index has been prepared by the Government Statistician for the quarters ended 30 June 1971 and 31 December 1971. Two orders were made by the Remuneration Authority—the first of 4.8 percent applying from 21 July 1971, and the second of 9.1 percent (including the order of 4.8 percent) applying from 31 January 1972. The orders applied automatically to all awards and agreements which, based on the rate of 1 January 1971, had not changed.

As from 1 April 1972 increases in pay were subject to the Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations 1972, which were made under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948. The Remuneration Authority continued to operate until 17 December 1972 when it was discontinued with the change in Government.

In accordance with a provision made by the Government, a cost-of-living order of 4.2 percent was made by the Remuneration Authority following publication of the Consumers Price Index for the September 1972 quarter. The order applied automatically from 26 October 1972 to minimum rates in awards and industrial agreements as at 1 February 1972, and by agreement between the parties, could be applied to other rates of pay.

As with the orders made under the 1971 Act, negotiated increases effective from February 1972 were offset against the order. But increases approved by the authority explicitly on the grounds of productivity not involving price increases were not to be offset.

Economic Stabilisation Regulations—Following the abolition of the Remuneration Authority in December 1972, New Zealand experienced a return to free collective bargaining during the earlier part of 1973. However, in response to the high level of wage and salary increases in the period of free bargaining, deflationary measures were considered necessary and resulted in the promulgation of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1973. These regulations became effective on 10 August 1973, the section relating to wages being designed to expire on or before 30 June 1974.

The main features of the regulations were as follows:

All instruments in force at the date of making of the regulations were to continue in force without amendment until the expiry of the regulations. All new instruments made subsequent to 10 August 1973 were to cover a period of not less than 12 months.

A wage adjustment order of 8.5 percent, up to a maximum of $5.80 per week, was introduced to be applied to all rates payable under any award or industrial agreement. The increase could also be applied to other rates of pay by agreement between the parties concerned. However, this order was to be offset by any increase effected during the period 1 February to 10 August 1973 (inclusive). The application of the wage adjustment order to State employees was limited to 6.2 percent up to a maximum of $4.60 per week.

A Wages Tribunal was established to remove or relieve any serious anomalies created by the regulations. Provision was also made for the tribunal to consider applications for wage increases on the basis of productivity gains.

Under the regulations a further wage adjustment order effective from 11 February 1974 was made on the basis of movements in the Consumers Price Index during 6 months ended 31 December 1973. The amount was 2.7 percent, based on a 4.7 percent rise in the index over the period abated by 2 percent.

Wage Adjustment Regulations—Subsequent to the expiry of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations on 30 June 1974, a new long-term wage stabilisation policy became effective. The Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 provided for the control and adjustment of salaries and wages in both the private and State sectors and, as well, delineated specific guidelines for the control of special salaries such as those of members of Parliament and senior employees in the State services, public bodies, and local authorities.

Upon introduction, the Wage Adjustment Regulations created an initial round of adjustment in 3 distinct tiers. The first of these provided for a general wage adjustment of 9 percent, effective from 1 July 1974, applying automatically to the rates of remuneration payable on 30 June 1974 under all awards and collective agreements. Its application to other types of industrial instruments (such as ruling rates or house agreements) was subject to agreement between the parties to the instrument concerned. State employees and officers of public bodies and local authorities automatically received the 9 percent order but the salaries of members of Parliament were specifically excluded from its scope. The general increase applied to every payment expressly stated in money terms, including piece rates and allowances.

In addition to the wage adjustment order the regulations restored freedom for a majority of those groups in the State and private sectors to negotiate a supplementary increase of up to 2.25 percent of the rate of remuneration payable on 30 June 1974. Members of Parliament and specific groups in the higher salaries category were excluded from this provision. Freedom for all groups to negotiate improvements in conditions of employment (such as sick leave, annual holidays, etc.) was restored.

The third tier of wage adjustment contained in the regulations enabled parties to negotiate wage and salary increases beyond the 2.25 percent limit, subject to the consent of the Industrial Commission or other appropriate wage-fixing tribunal.

As first introduced, the Wage Adjustment Regulations also empowered the Industrial Commission to grant cost-of-living increases (based on movements in the Consumers Price Index) at intervals of not less than 6 months. The filing of applications for such orders was restricted to a central organisation (i.e., the Employers' Federation or the Federation of Labour) or to the Minister of Labour. All groups covered by the regulations received the cost-of-living orders, although in the private sector their application was subject to the same conditions that applied to the general wage adjustment of 30 June 1974.

In addition to the provision for making cost-of-living orders, the Wage Adjustment Regulations established a Higher Salaries Commission; its functions include the determination of salaries and allowances of members of Parliament, the salary of the highest paid executive officer of each of a number of corporations and other public bodies, salaries of the highest paid officers of local authorities, and the salaries of certain university positions.

The Industrial Commission (private sector) and the State Services Tribunal (public sector) were vested with the authority to approve wage increases in order to remove or relieve any “serious anomalies”.

Since their promulgation the Wage Adjustment Regulations have been the subject of considerable amendment. The major amendments have been as follows:

Amendment 3 provided for the first cost-of-living adjustment to be applied as from 15 January 1975: the amount was 4 percent on the first $75 of gross weekly earnings.

The main purposes of Amendment 4 were to absorb the 15 January cost-of-living order into a new cost-of-living order and to extend the coverage of the regulations to individual worker/employer instruments. Under this amendment every ordinary-time rate of remuneration lawfully payable on 14 January 1975 was increased on and from 9 July 1975 by 11 cents per hour or $4.40 per week or $230 per year as appropriate. Piece rates were increased by 4.5 percent. In contrast to earlier provisions, the 2.25 percent free bargaining margin was negotiable on the 14 January 1975 rate, as increased by the application of the 9 July cost-of-living order.

A third cost-of-living order was made under Amendment 7. As from 27 January 1976 rates of remuneration payable in any award or collective agreement as at 26 January were increased by 9 cents per hour or $3.60 per week or $188 a year as appropriate. The second tier of the regulations, which enabled parties to negotiate a further 2.25 percent in addition to general adjustments, was removed.

Amendments 9 and 10, introduced in May and June 1976 respectively, substantially amended the Wage Adjustment Regulations. From a wage bargaining viewpoint, the net effect of these 2 amendments was to considerably tighten the conditions under which wage increases could be obtained. In summary form, Amendments 9 and 10 provided for—

  1. A cost-of-living order of 7 percent to a maximum of $7 per week or $365 in any one year. Application was to all taxable earnings and the order was effective on and from 25 June 1976.

  2. The establishment of a Wage Hearing Tribunal with power to make an order effecting a general wage increase under similar criteria to those of the General Wage Orders Act 1969.

  3. A change in the definition of “remuneration” to include conditions of employment such as paid leave (sick leave, annual holidays, etc.)

  4. A further tightening in the criteria under which the parties to an industrial instrument could negotiate, and have approved, wage increases in excess of those provided for by general orders. Under the “exceptional circumstances” clause, employers and workers are required to make a joint application to the appropriate wage fixing authority when seeking approval to increase rates of remuneration payable under any industrial instrument. Increases in remuneration can also gain approval if they form part of a new genuine productivity agreement or are matters specifically deferred until the next renegotiation of the instrument.

  5. Continued freedom to negotiate reimbursing payments and conditions of employment not involving rates of remuneration. Coincident with Amendment 9 to the Wage Adjustment Regulations, separate regulations were introduced to “freeze” professional charges and to limit directors fees and company distributions to shareholders for a period of 12 months.

In November 1976 the Federation of Labour lodged an application for a wage order to be made under the Wage Adjustment Regulations. Following a series of hearings from interested parties, the Wage Hearing Tribunal made a general wage order for a 6 percent increase on basic rates applicable from 14 March 1977.

Wage increases authorised under the stabilising legislation are summarised as follows:

AuthorityEffective DateRate of Increase

* This increase absorbed that effective from 21 July 1971.

Limited to 2.8 percent for State employees.

Maximum $5.80 per week, application to State employees limited to 6.2 percent (maximum $4.60 per week).

§ A supplementary increase of 2.25 percent could be negotiated.

|| On first $75 of gross weekly earnings.

$4.40 per week, $230 per year. Piece rates increased by 4.5 percent. A supplementary increase of 2.25 percent could be negotiated.

** Cost-of-living allowance which applies each time the rate of remuneration changes. Maximum $7 per week.

†† Applies to rates of ordinary pay only, not to cost-of-living allowances.

Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 197121 Jul 19714.8 percent
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 197131 Jan 19729.1 percent*
Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations 197226 Oct 19724.2 percent
Economic Stabilisation Regulations 197311 Aug 19738.5 percent
Economic Stabilisation Regulations 197311 Feb 19742.7 percent
Wage Adjustment Regulations 19741 Jul 19749.0 percent§
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197415 Jan 19754.0 percent||
Wage Adjustment Regulations 19749 Jul 197511.0 cents per hour
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197427 Jan 19769.0 cents per hour
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197425 Jun 19767.0 percent**
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197414 Mar 19776.0 percent††

The regulations were again substantially amended in August 1977 when the general freeze on increases in rates of remuneration ceased. Existing rates of remuneration could be amended provided they had been in force for 12 months; and new rates of remuneration set after 14 August 1977 were to remain in force for 12 months. The 6 percent general wage order effective from 14 March 1977 and the 7 percent cost-of-living allowance effective from 25 June 1976 could be absorbed into rates of remuneration when negotiation of a new award or collective agreement was carried out.

As described in section 34, dealing with industrial relations, under the Industrial Relations Amendment Act 1977 the Industrial Commission was abolished and a new Arbitration Court established, among the functions of which was the making of general wage orders. In March 1978 the Federation of Labour lodged an application for a general wage order under the General Wage Orders Act 1977. The Court made a general wage order authorising an increase of 7 percent with a limit of $7 per week, i.e., 7 percent on the first $100 of weekly income.

Remuneration Act—As part of the Government's wider economic strategy the Remuneration Act was enacted in August 1979. The intention behind the Act was to allow free collective bargaining to continue while the Government retained the authority to intervene in particular wage disputes which had wider economic implications. The Act has 3 primary provisions:

  1. It repealed the General Wage Orders Act 1977.

  2. It provided for general increases in rates of remuneration determined by awards and collective agreements.

  3. It conferred power to make regulations for the purpose of promoting stability in rates of remuneration and other conditions of employment.

The first regulations under the Act provided for a general increase of 4.5 percent in rates of remuneration in awards and collective agreements.

In October 1979, as part of its policy of selective intervention in wage disputes, the Government regulated to restrict wage increases negotiated by freight-forwarding; employees.

The Remuneration Act Repeal Bill was before a Select Committee in October 1980.

EQUAL PAY—The Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Equal Pay (Parliamentary Paper H.54 1971) was tabled in Parliament in September 1971. An Equal Pay Act giving effect, in the main, to the commission's recommendations was passed in October 1972. It provided for the phasing in of equal pay in 5 annual steps, ending in 1978, but an amendment to the Act in 1973 required the phasing in to be completed by 1977.

The Act was further amended in 1976 as a consequence of the recommendations made by the Equal Pay Review Committee. Among other things, an employer is required to keep a record of his equal pay determinations as well as to provide his employees, on request, with details of their entitlements under the Act. Full equal pay was implemented by 1 April 1977.

WEEKLY EARNINGS—In the past the Department of Labour has carried out half-yearly surveys of employment and wages in April and October. These surveys have now been replaced by an annual employment survey in February and quarterly sample surveys in May, August, and November. Some figures from the first annual survey conducted in February 1980 are included below.

For these surveys returns have been required from all establishments in which at least 2 persons (including working proprietors) are engaged. Government and local authority employment is included, but not farming, hunting, fishing, waterfront and seagoing work, or domestic service in private households. The armed forces are excluded.

The following table shows the average weekly payout per person (covering males and females, adult and juvenile) derived from these surveys during the latest 5 years. Comparison is made with the weighted average nominal wage rate for adult workers as used in the wage rates index covering rates prescribed by all determining authorities.

Date of SurveyWeekly Wage Payout per Person*Average Nominal Weekly Wage Rate for Adult Workersas at End of Preceding Month
Aggregate Payout Including Overtime for 1 week Divided by-Aggregate Ordinary-time Earnings Divided By Full-time and Half Part-time Employees
Full-time and Part-time EmployeesFull-time and Half Part-time Employees

* Including allowances and special payments (bonuses, penal and shift allowances, paid leave, and commission).

Relates to adult males only up to and including, 1977. From 1978 relates to all adult workers. Weighted average of the sample rates used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index.

From February 1980 refers to rate as at mid-point of current month.

 $     $     $     $     
1975—April94.388100.83691.60590.66
            October97.333104.20595.66295.56
1976—April104.994112.227102.835100.22
            October110.773118.809109.748106.67
1977—April120.538129.164118.165117.38
            October123.906133.305124.000118.60
1978—April132.754142.683132.176132.27x
            October140.398151.252140.654142.64x
1979—April153.754165.570153.449153.59
            October165.57 167.45157.15
1980—February180.44 180.13179.71

HOURLY EARNINGS—In the following table average hourly earnings from the half-yearly surveys are shown; estimated average ordinary time worked by full-time employees has been obtained by dividing aggregate ordinary-time hours worked during one week by the sum of full-time employees plus half of the part-time employees; hence if there are any part-time workers the sum of the average ordinary-time hours and overtime hours will not be equal to the average time worked by full-time and part-time employees as shown in the last column.

DateAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For All Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For: Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $     $     $     hourshourshours
1975—April2.4533.4822.52137.42.837.4
            October2.5683.6092.63037.22.537.0
1976—April2.7643.9842.83737.22.537.0
            October2.9474.0483.01037.22.436.8
1977—April3.1764.4013.25337.22.737.1
            October3.3394.5543.40237.12.236.4
1978—April3.5695.0273.64737.02.336.4
            October3.7885.2413.86337.12.236.3
1979—April4.1365.8294.22637.12.336.4
            October4.525.994.5937.02.138.9
1980—February4.866.90..37.12.2..

The preceding table combines all industries. The following table shows a dissection by industrial groups of the last line of that table according to the major headings of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification. It relates to the October 1979 survey.

Industrial GroupAverage Hourly Earnings For All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For: All Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For: Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $     $     $     hourshourshours
Forestry and logging4.466.164.5536.91.938.8
Mining and quarrying5.105.975.2136.15.241.3
Manufacturing—
    Seasonal food processing5.016.355.1533.83.937.6
    Other food, beverages and tobacco4.065.774.2337.14.641.3
    Textiles, clothing and leather3.675.333.7536.81.738.4
    Wood and wood products4.125.954.2637.23.340.4
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing4.816.554.9837.04.140.8
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics4.676.034.7837.53.541.0
    Non-metallic mineral products4.406.234.5637.63.841.3
    Metal products and engineering4.416.044.5537.73.641.2
    Machinery (except electrical)4.316.214.4437.92.840.7
    Electrical machinery and equipment4.115.524.1937.42.339.6
    Transport equipment4.555.784.6337.32.640.0
    Other manufacturing3.815.543.8737.41.338.7
              Sub-total, manufacturing4.366.044.4936.83.239.9
Electricity, gas, and water4.816.914.9338.12.440.4
Construction4.335.754.4439.03.342.2
Wholesale, retail, etc.—
    Wholesale trade4.565.824.6038.21.239.3
    Retail trade3.694.873.7236.71.437.8
    Restaurants, hotels, etc.3.705.203.7532.12.233.3
              Sub-total, wholesale, retail, etc.4.035.284.0636.41.437.6
Transport and communication—
    Transport and storage (excl. seasonal)4.875.944.9837.54.441.9
    Seasonal storage and warehousing4.045.614.1337.82.240.0
    Communication4.556.594.6438.81.840.5
Sub-total, transport, etc.4.726.074.8338.03.341.3
Financing, insurance, etc.—
    Finance4.635.774.6538.10.538.6
    Insurance5.127.425.1337.40.237.5
    Real estate and business services4.796.374.8136.50.637.1
              Sub-total, financing, etc.4.786.184.8037.30.537.7
Community and personal services—
    Public administration and defence5.407.085.4437.10.938.0
    Sanitary services, etc. 3.855.833.9232.42.4
    Education services5.185.515.1835.735.7
    Research and scientific institutes6.237.586.2537.00.537.5
    Health services4.696.194.7138.30.838.9
    Other community services4.576.134.5935.60.736.1
    Recreational and cultural services4.956.645.0234.21.835.6
    Personal and household services3.685.593.7338.21.339.4
              Sub-total, services4.866.354.8936.80.737.5
              Total, all surveyed industries4.525.994.5937.02.138.9

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE RATES INDEX—A revised Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index was introduced in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for January–February 1979. The revised index, which is shown in the following table, represents the movements in all minimum or mandatory rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court or any special industrial tribunal or determined from time to time by some statutory authority. It covers all adult male and female employees, whereas the index it replaced related to adult males only. In selecting the occupations to be used for measuring wage and salary rate changes regard has been paid to all significant awards, agreements and determinations and the more important occupations (from the point of view of numbers employed) described by these documents. The index covers 284 awards and agreements within the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court (Part 1 of the Index) with 461 selected occupations from these awards and agreements. For other agreements and determinations within the jurisdiction of other industrial tribunals and determining authorities (Part 2 of the Index) 210 occupations have been selected.

The awards and agreements used in Part 1 define only the legal minimum rates of pay, although in many cases, particularly with industrial agreements, these are the rates actually paid. On the other hand most of the rates used in Part 2 are normally mandatory. (A new series of wage rate indexes following this Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index is based on prevailing or actual rates of pay.)

The following factors were taken into account in selecting the representative awards and agreements:

  1. The numbers of workers covered by the respective awards and agreements. All of the more important awards and agreements—so far as numbers of workers covered are concerned—are included in the index;

  2. The industrial coverage. The selection of awards and agreements appropriate for the various narrowly defined industry groups ensures that each industry is represented by its own award or agreement, or that for a closely related industry; and

  3. The geographic coverage. Not all district awards or agreements could be used but a balanced representation of the major industrial districts was obtained.

The latest index is much wider in scope than the old index it replaced. Because of this, any linking of the 2 indexes for the purpose of measuring long-term trends in nominal wage and salary rates must suffer some limitations. Nevertheless some such measure is required and linked series at All Groups level have been supplied back to the December quarter 1975. These are shown in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

The following table shows the industry and occupation grouping of the revised index. The industry grouping conforms to the production groups of the New Zealand System of National Accounts, and the occupation groups are major groups of the New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations. It is not therefore possible to link the groups between the old and the new series.

The use of standard production groups means that the classification is consistent with National Accounts, the General Price Index, and the Integrated Economic Census series. The integration of these statistics should improve the usefulness of all of them.

The revised index is calculated for rates effective at mid-quarter.

NOTE: Index numbers in the following table were correct at the time of going to press but, because of the possible incorporation of retrospective increases in wage and salary rates in awards, collective agreements, and determinations, they may be subject to later revisions. They may be checked against the appropriate table in the latest Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

INDEX NUMBERS OF NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE RATES—ADULT EMPLOYEES*
Base: For each group, average rates ruling for December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
GroupDec Quarter 19771979Dec Year 1979
Mar QuarterJun QuarterSep QuarterDec Quarter

* Comparisons of the index numbers for one grouping of rates with those for other groupings indicate relative movements in average rates in the different groups, not relative levels of average rates of wages and salaries. Because of possible retrospective increases in the wage or salary rates in forthcoming awards, collective agreements or determinations, etc., the more recent index numbers should be treated as provisional.

These indexes measure changes in the rates (minimum and mandatory) within the jurisdiction of the stated wages and salary determining authorities.

Derived in each case by dividing the nominal (or money) Wage Rate Index Number by the corresponding Consumers Price Index Number and multiplying by 1000.

Part 1—Rates within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court
Industry Group      
Agriculture100012861312133014661348
Fishing and hunting100012121303132113811304
Forestry and logging100012421260126013301273
Mining and quarrying100012161257125913871280
Food, beverages, and tobacco100012081227124013181248
Textiles, apparel and leather100012281260126013251268
Wood and wood products100012131248124813121255
Paper, printing and publishing100012031230125813411258
Chemicals, petroleum and plastics100012121236123713361255
Non-metallic mineral products100012261248128113731282
Basic metals100012291233123313911272
Machinery and metal products100011931211121913541244
Other manufacturing100011801266126613321261
Electricity, gas and water100012001213121313181236
Construction100012111263127013491273
Trade, restaurants and hotels100012421277128213571290
Transport and storage100012301275126313781293
Communication1000     
Insurance and financing100011571221123612921226
Community and personal services100011851240124113371251
Central Government100012101232123213011244
Local Government100011971212122212881230
Private non-profit services100011971211121112651221
              All industries combined100012161249125713451267
Occupation Group      
Professional, technical and related workers100012181231126813351263
Administrative and managerial100012001226123812961240
Clerical and related workers100011751264126913281259
Sales workers100012681270127013321285
Service workers100012471277127713381285
Agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry workers100012731309132314451338
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers100012101232124013431256
              All industries combined100012161249125713451267
Index of Effective Rates —All Groups100010801061101710481051
Part 2—Rates Prescribed by Other Industrial Tribunals or Determining Authorities
Industry Group      
Agriculture100011411141114113161185
Fishing and hunting1000..........
Forestry and logging100011551155115513331200
Mining and quarrying100011301130113013031173
Food, beverages and tobacco1000..........
Textiles, apparel and leather1000..........
Wood and wood products100011511151115113281195
Paper, printing and publishing100011521152115213271196
Chemicals, petroleum and plastics100012151215137114071302
Non-metallic mineral products1000..........
Basic metals1000..........
Machinery and metal products100011581158115813181198
Other manufacturing1000..........
Electricity, gas and water100011631163116313311205
Construction100011521152115213201194
Trade, restaurants and hotels100011611161116113241202
Transport and storage100011521209120913541231
Communication100011541154115413311198
Insurance and financing100011531153115313261196
Community and personal services100011431143114313181187
Central Government100011601160116013341204
Local Government1000..........
Private non-profit services1000..........
              All industries combined100011571162116213341204
Occupation Group      
Professional, technical and related workers100011551155115513311199
Administrative and managerial100011661166116613451211
Clerical and related workers100011571157115713351202
Sales workers100012001200120013801245
Service workers100011771177117713371217
Agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry workers100011491149114913251193
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers100011531185118513381215
              All occupations combined100011571162116213341204
Index of Effective Rates —All Groups100010289879401040998
Part 3—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of all Determining Authorities
Industry Group      
Agriculture100012841309132614631284
Fishing and hunting100012121303132113811304
Forestry and logging100011961205120513111234
Mining and quarrying100011701189119013421222
Food, beverages and tobacco100012091227124013181248
Textiles, apparel and leather100012281260126013251268
Wood and wood products100012121247124713121254
Paper, printing and publishing100012001226125213401254
Chemicals, petroleum and plastics100012121236123713371256
Non-metallic mineral products100012261248128113731282
Basic metals100012291233123313911272
Machinery and metal products100011911207121513511241
Other manufacturing100011801266126613321261
Electricity, gas and water100011891199119913221227
Construction100011941230123513401250
Trade, restaurants and hotels100012421276128313571290
Transport and storage100012001244124413671264
Communication100011541154115413311198
Insurance and financing100011561205121613001219
Community and personal services100011781225122613341241
Central Government100011621164116413321206
Local Government100011971212122212881230
Private non-profit services100011971211121112651221
              All industries combined100011941217122213411244
Occupation Group      
Professional, technical, and related workers100011631165117013321334
Administrative and managerial100011771186119013291220
Clerical and related workers100011671217122013311234
Sales workers100012651268126813341284
Service workers100012221242124213381261
Agriculture, animal husbandry, forestry workers100012511280129214241312
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers100012011225123213431250
              All occupations combined100011941217122213411244
Index of Effective Rates —All Groups10001060103498910451032

PREVAILING WEEKLY WAGE RATES INDEX—A new series of wage rate indexes was released by the Department of Statistics in March 1980. Known as the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index, this new series measures the movements in the overall level of prevailing or actual rates of pay for all adult employees whose minimum or mandatory rates of pay are fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court or any special industrial tribunal or determined from time to time by some statutory authority, and includes house agreements registered with the Court.

This index has the same weighting pattern and coverage of awards and agreements as the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index (see previous pages). It is possible, therefore, to compare the 2 series so as to measure “wage drift”. For the 12 months ended December 1979 the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index (wage rates actually paid) moved by 14.4 percent, whilst the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index (award rates) moved by 14.1 percent, a drift of 0.3 percentage points.

Part 2 of the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index is identical with part 2 of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index.

The payrates surveyed for the index are those actually paid to the employees engaged in the nominated positions and are measured at the payday for the period which includes the 15th day of the mid-month of the quarter.

The Effective Prevailing Wage Rates Index (index of effective rates) adjusts the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index for the movements in the consumer price levels. This index is derived by dividing the Prevailing Wage Index for each quarter by the corresponding Consumers Price Index, and multiplying by 1000.

Like the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index, the Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Indexes for more recent quarters are subject to later revision resulting from any backdating of awards, agreements, and determinations.

INDEX NUMBERS OF PREVAILING WAGE RATES—ADULT EMPLOYEES
Base: For each group, average rates prevailing for December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
GroupDec Quarter 19771979Dec Year 1979
Mar QuarterJun QuarterSep QuarterDec Quarter
Part 1—Rates within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court
Industry Group      
Agriculture100012281261128614201299
Fishing and hunting100011381220125612941227
Forestry and logging100012351253125413231266
Mining and quarrying100012291269127514031294
Food, beverages, and tobacco100012681284129213381296
Textiles, apparel, and leather100012351267127413481281
Wood and wood products100012181257126213261266
Paper, printing, and publishing100012151246126613661278
Chemicals, petroleum and plastics100012261251126213611275
Non-metallic mineral products100012451268129713901300
Basic metals100012371255125914241294
Machinery and metal products100012171238128713871272
Other manufacturing100011811245127713431262
Electricity, gas, and water100012061220122013251243
Construction100012181272127913621283
Trade, restaurants, and hotels100012441275129213641294
Transport and storage100012391267127113801289
Communication1000     
Insurance and financing100011581223124313181236
Community and personal services100011901247125913501262
Central Government100012631283128413591297
Local Government100011991214122312901232
Private non-profit services100012421244123513001255
              All industries combined100012271259127113591279
Occupation Group      
Professional, technical, and related workers100012311237127813511274
Administrative and managerial100011991231123913131246
Clerical and related workers100011871259127413371264
Sales workers100012451256127013451279
Service workers100012701303130513631310
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters100012221260128313991291
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators and labourers100012311257126613641280
    All occupations combined100012271259127113591279
Index of Effective Rates—All groups100010901070102810591061
Part 2—Rates Prescribed by Other Industrial Tribunals or Determining Authorities
Industry Group      
Agriculture100011411141114113161185
Fishing and hunting1000     
Forestry and logging100011551155115513331200
Mining and quarrying100011301130113013031173
Food, beverages, and tobacco1000     
Textiles, apparel, and leather1000     
Wood and wood products100011511151115113281195
Paper, printing, and publishing100011521152115213271196
Chemicals, petroleum, and plastics100012151215137114071302
Non-metallic mineral products1000     
Basic metals1000     
Machinery and metal products100011581158115813181198
Other manufacturing1000     
Electricity, gas and water100011631163116313311205
Construction100011521152115213201194
Trade, restaurants and hotels100011611161116113241202
Transport and storage100011521209120913541231
Communication100011541154115413311198
Insurance and financing100011531153115313261196
Community and personal services100011431143114313181187
Central Government100011601160116013341204
Local Government1000     
Private non-profit services1000     
              All industries combined100011571162116213341204
Occupation Group      
Professional, technical, and related workers100011551155115513311199
Administrative and managerial100011661166116613451211
Clerical and related workers100011571157115713351202
Sales workers100012001200120013801245
Service workers100011771177117713371217
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters100011491149114913251193
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators and labourers100011531185118513381215
              All occupations combined100011571162116213341204
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups100010289879401040998
Part 3—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of all Determining Authorities
Industry Group      
Agriculture100012271258128414181297
Fishing and hunting100011381220125612941227
Forestry and logging100011941202120313281232
Mining and quarrying100011771195119813501230
Food, beverages, and tobacco100012681284129213381296
Textiles, apparel, and leather100012351267127413481281
Wood and wood products100012171256126113261265
Paper, printing, and publishing100012121241127713641274
Chemicals, petroleum, and plastics100012261251126213611275
Non-metallic mineral products100012451268129713901300
Basic metals100012371255125914241294
Machinery and metal products100012131233124113831268
Other manufacturing100011811245127713431262
Electricity, gas, and water100011941204120413261232
Construction100011991237124213501257
Trade, restaurants, and hotels100012441274129113641293
Transport and storage100011991240124213681262
Communication100011541154115413311198
Insurance and financing100011571207122313201227
Community and personal services100011831231124113451250
Central Government100011661167116713361209
Local Government100011991214122312901232
Private non-profit services100012421244123513001255
              All industries combined100012021225123313501252
Occupation Group      
Professional, technical, and related workers100011651166117113341209
Administrative and managerial100011771187119013351222
Clerical and related workers100011741215122413361237
Sales workers100012441254126813471278
Service workers100012381259126113541278
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters100012101241126013861274
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators and labourers100012201246125413601270
              All occupations combined100012021225123313501252
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups10001067104199810521038

EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES—Except for one line, the Index of Effective Rates, at the foot of each table, the index numbers quoted in the foregoing tables relate to nominal and prevailing weekly wage rates only—that is, they are based on actual or equivalent money rates without any allowance being made for changes during the period under review in the prices of those goods and services which are purchased out of wages earned. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance, for a rise in wage rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing power of money. Index numbers of effective (or “real”) wage rates are arrived at by dividing the index numbers of nominal or effective wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices (both series of index numbers having first been set on a common time base) and multiplying the result by the base value of 1000.

The following table accordingly shows a comparison of nominal, prevailing, and effective weekly wage rates.

The base of the index numbers is in each case December quarter 1977 (= 1000).

YearConsumer Prices (All Croups)Nominal Weekly Wage RatesAdult Males*Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates—Adult Employees
ActualEffectiveActualEffective
* From 1978 the index covers all adult workers.
19725145171006....
19735565781040....
19746186571063....
19757087471055....
19768288351008....
19779479491002....
197810601077x1016x10821021
197912061244103212521038

The continuous index of consumer prices required for the foregoing table has been obtained by linking together the successive series of the Consumers Price Index and converting the whole to the base: December quarter 1977 (= 1000).

In making use of these results it should not be overlooked that the index numbers of nominal rates apply only to full-time employment at award or mandatory rates of pay. They do not take into account either, on the one hand, above-award rates or overtime earnings, or on the other, short-time deductions. The index numbers of prevailing weekly wage rates, on the other hand, are based on the actual rates of pay of employees in the nominated positions. The consumer prices index numbers do not take cognisance of all classes of household expenditure. For example, income tax, charitable and other gifts, overseas travel, and domestic help are omitted (see section 23).

MINIMUM WAGE—Enforceable minimum wage rates are determined under various statutes, the most universally applicable being the Minimum Wage Act 1945. This Act provides that workers of 20 years of age and upwards must receive not less than the rates prescribed under the Act. In the great majority of cases, however, workers are subject to wage orders, awards, or industrial agreements relating to the particular industries in which they are employed and which provide somewhat higher enforceable minimum rates. The minimum wage for males is currently set at a rate which is lower than the standard rate for unskilled labour.

As from 3 September 1979 the minimum rates for all workers (male or female) became $1.95 an hour if paid by the hour or on piecework, $15.43 a day if paid by the day; and $77.07 a week in other cases. On and after 1 April 1977, minimum rates for female workers became the same as for males.

FARM EMPLOYEES—The numbers of paid permanent employees on farms at 30 June 1978 and the aggregate totals of salaries and wages (including bonuses) paid during the year ended 30 June 1978 are shown by types of farm in the following table. The table does not include paid part-time employees (of whom there were 10130 at 30 June 1978) or paid casual employees, of whom there were 10483 at the same date.

Farm Type**Paid Permanent Employees on 30 June 1978Salaries and Wages Year Ended 30 June 1978
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

* Gross income of 75 percent or more is derived from stated activity.

From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first-named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§ Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

|| More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

** These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

   $(000)$(000)
Dairy farming*414478921,637.22,395.3
Sheep farming*575470030,443.41,590.7
Beef farming*486782,447.5177.2
Pig farming*267161,585.349.9
Cropping*204201,003.043.6
Dairy farming with sheep15825846.963.6
Dairy farming with beef207441,075.8124.9
Dairy farming with other9515539.845.8
Sheep fanning with dairy526324.116.4
Sheep farming with beef3,95933521,230.8817.4
Sheep farming with cropping429482,286.395.9
Sheep farming with other15114785.830.4
Beef farming with dairy258137.417.3
Beef farming with sheep366291,756.877.1
Beef farming with other463250.14.8
Cropping with sheep262181,379.045.9
Cropping with other413260.19.2
Pig fanning with other697373.219.3
Mixed livestock16601728,933.5433.2
General mixed farming§551542,930.7116.5
Poultry farming||3881152,343.3533.3
Market gardening and flowers||5211183,255.1519.7
Orchards||9841915,237.1781.5
Tobacco growing||11597648.1265.6
Nurseries||5663523,417.71,416.1
Plantations||3,9536625,702.6268.8
Other farming812874,453.1254.2
                Total, all farm types26,2653410145,283.710,213.6

FURTHER INFORMATION—Further information on wages will be found in the following publications:

Prices, Wages, and Labour: Pt. B. Wages and Labour—Department of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of StatisticsDepartment of Statistics.

Labour and Employment GazetteDepartment of Labour (quarterly).

Report of the Department of Labour (Parl. paper G. 1).

Equal Pay Implementation in New ZealandReport of a Special Committee (Parl. paper G. 1A).

Chapter 34. Section 34 INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND WORKING CONDITIONS

Table of Contents

The rules underlying the New Zealand system of industrial relations have traditionally been embodied in legislation. In the private sector, statutes confer bargaining rights on certain registered/recognised organisations and specify various procedures for the conduct of negotiations. Various institutions are also available to assist the parties in resolving their differences.

RULES GOVERNING INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS—The main body of rules covering industrial relations in the private sector is contained in the Industrial Relations Act 1973. By a process of registration, unions secure bargaining rights for the class of workers they represent, and also access to various procedures for the settlement of disputes associated with the renegotiation of the collective agreement (disputes of interest) and its subsequent application (disputes of right).

In the case of disputes of interest, the emphasis is on the parties reaching a settlement through the processes of collective bargaining. The parties may agree to negotiate a voluntary settlement of the dispute. Alternatively, either party may apply for the dispute to proceed through the more orthodox conciliation and arbitration channels. It should be stressed that the applicant may, at any time, withdraw his claims from conciliation. Moreover, the Arbitration Court may refuse to arbitrate (i.e., make an award) if it considers that the parties have not made a genuine attempt to settle in conciliation.

In the case of disputes of right, the emphasis is on their peaceful resolution, and accordingly the process of arbitration is rather more in evidence. The disputes proceed through a system of disputes committees chaired by an independent person who may either make a decision in the event of the parties failing to agree or refer the matter to the Arbitration Court for a decision. Personal grievance issues proceed directly to the Court for a decision in the event of the parties failing to agree.

The Act provides for the registration and enforcement of collective agreements. An agreement so registered is binding on the immediate parties to it (and their members). Additionally, an agreement arrived at through the process of conciliation, or an award of the Court, automatically binds any person who subsequently becomes connected with or engaged in the industry to which it relates.

Separate enactments cover bargaining relationships in the agriculture sector, on the waterfront, and in the aircrew services.

INSTITUTIONS: The Arbitration Court—The Arbitration Court has the broad responsibility for the registering of settlements as collective agreements, the making of awards, and the settlement of disputes of right referred to it under the Act.

The Court attempts, by means of a common membership, to achieve consistency in the decisions of the various wage fixing tribunals, e.g., public sector, waterfront, aircrew, agricultural.

The constitution of the Court varies according to the matters before it and the wishes of the parties. The full Court comprises 5 persons: 1 Judge and 2 sets of members, nominated by the Employers' Federation and the Federation of Labour. The full Court is limited to hearing disputes of interest and then only at the request of one or both of the parties. In all other circumstances, the Court comprises 3 persons: being 1 Judge and 1 set of nominated members. An establishment of 3 Judges (with jurisdiction over other wage fixing tribunals) together with 2 sets of nominated members creates the possibility of 2 courts and 1 tribunal (or 1 court and 2 tribunals) sitting simultaneously.

The specific functions of the Arbitration Court are to:

  1. hear and determine any question connected with the construction of any award or collective agreement;

  2. hear and determine any question connected with the construction of the Industrial Relations Act or any Act relating to industrial matters;

  3. make an order determining the rights of parties under any award or collective agreement;

  4. order compliance with any award or collective agreement;

  5. make an order determining the validity of any award or collective agreement (this power was not in the 1973 Act and is designed to cope with situations in which a union negotiates an agreement which covers workers who are not covered by its membership rule);

  6. hear and determine enforcement and recovery actions;

  7. hear and determine appeals from disputes committees;

  8. hear and determine matters referred to the Court relating to the grievance procedure;

  9. hear and determine questions relating to the registration and jurisdiction of unions;

  10. inquire into and determine questions relating to disputed elections.

The Industrial Conciliation Service—The New Zealand system of industrial relations has historically been governed by a formal system of conciliation and arbitration—and the Industrial Conciliation Service has long been an integral part of that system.

The service consists of conciliators appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister. The conciliator acts to convene conciliation councils for the hearing of disputes of interest, and to take any other steps considered advisable in reaching fair and amicable voluntary settlements of such disputes. More specifically, a conciliator sets dates for the hearing of disputes, appoints assessors to constitute the council, and calls or strikes out parties to a dispute. He is also responsible for recording and reporting the procedures of a conciliation to the Court and referring unsettled disputes to the Court for determination.

In practice, what does this mean? The conciliator really has 2 roles. During the formal proceedings he acts as a chairman. That is, he occasionally calls the council to order, ensures that they stick to the topic, and suggests the time for a break in the formal proceedings. It is during the break in formal proceedings that the conciliator really gets into action. He moves from one room to the other, listens to what each party is saying, drops hints, and makes suggestions. In short, he acts as a link between the parties and assists them in moving to common ground. Above all, he ensures that the negotiations keep going.

The Industrial Mediation Service—The mediation service is relatively new to the industrial relations scene. It was established by an amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1970.

The service consists of mediators appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister after consultation with the central organisations. A mediator acts to “assist employers, unions, and workers to carry out their responsibilities to establish and maintain harmonious industrial relations”. The mediator has no power to impose his services on the parties to a dispute and may merely offer his assistance. With the agreement of the parties however he may decide issues referred to him. The mediator is on no account to be involved in a dispute of interest while conciliation or arbitration proceedings are in progress.

Once involved in a dispute, the mediator's approach is, of necessity, a flexible one. As with the conciliator, his objective is to assist the parties in arriving at a settlement themselves. This involves getting the parties talking to one another, and keeping them talking. In certain circumstances, it might be appropriate for the mediator to request that the Minister appoint a compulsory conference, perhaps with himself as chairman with decision-making powers. At other times, it might be appropriate to get the parties together in an informal way as a prelude to more formal discussions.

The Industrial Relations Council—This is an advisory body comprising representatives at national level of employer organisations, worker organisations, and the Government, under the chairmanship of the Minister of Labour. The council provides permanent machinery for tripartite consultation on industrial affairs. Some specific matters to which the council gives consideration are: the formulation and implementation of manpower policies; the formulation of codes of practice relating to industrial relations; and ways and means of improving industrial relations, industrial organisations, and industrial welfare. Various sub-committees have been formed to consider a range of policy issues.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS—The New Zealand system of conciliation and arbitration is based on the voluntary registration of industrial unions and industrial associations. The Industrial Relations Act 1973 simplified and consolidated procedures developed over the years under the former Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. A sliding scale operates to determine the minimum number required to form a union depending on the number of industrial districts in which the union has coverage. A union of employers with coverage of up to 1 full industrial district is to have a minimum of 6 members or more than 75 percent of employers engaged in the industry in the area concerned who together employ more than 75 percent of the workers so engaged, with an absolute minimum of 3. A union of workers with coverage of up to 1 full industrial district is to have a minimum of 30 members or more than 50 percent of the total number of workers engaged in the industry in the area concerned, with an absolute minimum of 10 members. The prime minimum and the absolute minimum figures increase progressively with coverage of a greater number of industrial districts. If the membership of a union falls below the minimum requirements the union may be deregistered. The great majority of unions of workers and employers in the private enterprise field are registered under the Industrial Relations Act.

Further provisions of the Industrial Relations Act 1973 operate to deter multiple unionism and simplify the procedures for amalgamation of unions. It is hoped that this will give impetus to amalgamation of unions.

Restrictions on the exercise of welfare activities by unions have been removed and unions are able, subject to membership approval, to devote any percentage of subscription to welfare activities. A union may apply funds to futherance of political objects if this is decided by a secret ballot of members.

A 1978 amendment to the Industrial Relations Act significantly altered the procedures governing the insertion of an unqualified preference (union membership) provision in awards and collective agreements. The amendment inserted a new rule in the rules of every union. Its purpose is to ensure that all union members have the opportunity of endorsing or opposing the insertion of an unqualified preference provision in unions awards and industrial agreements. The new rule, which must be followed every 3 years, requires each union to give written notice to its members to seek an unqualified preference clause in its awards and collective agreements. That intention is to be discussed at a special meeting called for the purpose. A secret ballot supervised by an officer of the Department of Labour is to be conducted at the meeting. The union will not seek or agree to the insertion of the unqualified preference provision unless the majority of valid votes cast in the ballot are in favour. As an alternative to the special meeting procedure the union may request the Registrar of Unions to conduct a postal ballot of persons covered by a particular award. An unqualified preference provision once inserted in an award or collective agreement, becomes a condition of employment and any worker who is not a union member must join the appropriate union upon taking up employment (usually within 14 days).

Fishing Industry Union Coverage Act 1979—Special legislation governing union coverage in the fishing industry was passed in 1979. This Act excludes existing unions from the fishing industry and provides that only 1 union may be registered in respect of the industry. The consent of the Minister of Labour is required prior to registration.

UNIONS OF WORKERS—In the years subsequent to 1936, when changes in the law enabled national unions of workers to be formed and introduced compulsory membership of unions, 2 tendencies were visible. The first was the immediate creation of many new small unions, the number of unions jumping from 410 in 1935 to 499 in 1937, as many small groups of workers for the first time became unionised and secured an award. Later, a tendency for small unions to amalgamate into New Zealand unions became evident, so that the total number of unions declined at the same time as the number of larger unions increased. By 1942 the result of these changes was to leave the number and membership of the small unions little different from what they were in 1928, but substantially to increase the number of large unions, and to increase greatly their membership.

Compulsory unionism resulted in a great numerical strengthening of the existing unions with consequential increase in their financial strength, while the legislation enabling national unions to be formed helped to consolidate these gains: at the same time it resulted in the unionisation of many small groups of workers who were previously unorganised. Since 1962 the State has not imposed compulsory union membership.

The union movement remains diverse, with 291 separate registrations and some important unions and the professional associations outside it* . In size, the registered unions range from over 44000 members down to 9, with many of them having fewer than 100. Amalgamation is proceeding and significant consolidation has occurred in recent years.

Most unions are still occupational, or craft-based, and the industry agreements that are becoming more common—especially at the informal bargaining level—require the co-operation of numerous unions .

The Act provides for a worker to seek a certificate of exemption from any union-membership provision on grounds of conscience.

Federation of Labour—The great increases in the membership of the trade unions brought about by compulsory unionism and the formation of national unions were factors facilitating the formation of the Federation of Labour in 1937 as an organisation representative of the trade union movement as a whole on a national basis.

* Mainly the State Services organisations, and the pulp and paper workers.

The Engineers Union.

More than a dozen; for example, in the forest products agreements and in the Hurt Valley motor vehicle assembly plants agreement.

The supreme authority of the Federation of Labour is the annual conference of delegates representing affiliated unions. Between conferences the business of the federation is carried on by a National Executive Committee and a National Council. The executive consists of the president, vice president, secretary, and 6 members elected directly by the conference. The National Council, which meets regularly twice a year, and at other times as required, consists of members of the National Executive and is representative of each local trades council. It is the governing body of the federation between meetings of the conference. The local organs of the federation are the local trades councils, 20 in number, and 1 trade union committee, to which all local unions and branches of unions affiliated to the Federation of Labour are entitled to send representatives. The trades councils meet once a month to carry on the local business of the federation and they maintain close contact with the National Executive by means of exchange of minutes of meetings. Within each district the trades council has local autonomy, but where any matter affects other districts the National Executive or the National Council usually deals with it.

UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS—By registering, the employers secure all the rights of a union and can exercise them, with only minor differences, in the same manner as a union of workers.

Compulsory membership of unions does not apply to employers and in many cases their unions are maintained with a nominal membership.

Employers are more organised for negotiations with unions than figures of membership and the prevalence of local unions of employers might suggest. The New Zealand Employers Federation is the central organisation of employers and the chief co-ordinating body of employers in all matters of industrial relations and employment. It comprises 4 regional divisions (the Auckland Provincial, Wellington Regional, Canterbury, and Otago-Southland Employers Associations) plus national and North or South Island organisations that are admitted to membership of the Federation's General Council. There are nearly 70 in this latter category.

Individual company membership of the 4 regional divisions of the federation now exceeds 10000, and these employers receive advice, assistance, and representation from the associations' specialist industrial staff. In addition to work in the negotiations and advocacy field, the Employers Federation has staff handling research and information services.

A new constitution adopted by the federation in 1971 was designed to achieve greater unity amongst employers and employer organisations associated with the federation, and greater employer sector participation has been provided in the formulation of the federation's policies.

STATISTICS: Unions of Workers—The numbers and membership of workers' unions at the end of the year according to industry groups is shown in the following table. Where the members of a union are employed in more than 1 industry they have been classified to the predominant industry for the union concerned.

Industrial Group197619771978
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.516,418517,130516,548
Mining and quarrying448644874486
Manufacturing—
    Metal products and engineering1551,8541552,0471551,638
    Texiles, clothing, and leather2232,0322329,9012329,533
    Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal4150,9324049,8144053,030
    Wood and wood products, including furniture917,093816,960817,596
    Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing59935510,580616,458
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics104372104026104115
    Non-metallic mineral products71765717535738
    Other manufacturing881486947544
Construction1344,8281344,6641445,401
Road and rail transport1736,1751737,2171735,968
Air transport518635197951966
Shipping and stevedoring3114,3283013,9863013,670
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.2967,1952970,7252772,440
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.3481,3183686,2043788,088
Government and local authority, n.e.c.1014,1961015,1301016,341
Recreational services103629103467103967
Social community services including health, education, etc.,429284399144338
Other personal and community services1312,2921312,6771213,668
            Total292464,453292473,432289486,533

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership.

At 31 DecemberUnder 100100–199200–299300–499500–9991000–19992000–29993000–49995000–999910000 and OverTotal
Number of Unions
197590262333343418101410292
197687292132373613131311292
197786282329433116121311292
197881322230403513121212289
Membership
197543243598570513,27823,75045,13543,65636,497100,476178,572454,991
197639924116513612,60824,87350,09231,47948,48692,601191,070464,453
197741813985565911,05929,28444,14037,45444,74494,533198,393473,432
197837874405536511,93827,07950,59931,53546,90787,779217,139486,533

The following table shows the total membership of industrial unions of workers at intervals since 1940. In 1936 the membership of industrial unions had more than doubled, growing from 80929 in 1935 to 185527 in 1936. This was a result of the 1936 amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act which made union membership compulsory whenever an award or industrial agreement existed.

At at End of YearNumber of Members
1940248,081
1945229,103
1950275,779
1955304,520
1960332,362
1965353,093
1970378,465
1971386,275
1972394,748
1973427,692
1974436,623
1975454,991
1976464,453
1977473,432
1978486,533

Unions of Employers—The numbers and membership of registered industrial unions of employers as at the end of the year are shown in the following table according to industrial groups. Some employers belong to two or more unions.

Industry Group197619771978
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.104445104438115154
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing—
    Metal products and engineering, etc.811638115481133
    Textiles, clothing, and leather114551047610491
    Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal224922148021455
    Wood and wood products, including furniture953895019534
    Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing853985118539
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics824782138216
    Non-metallic mineral products245245234
    Other manufacturing121120119
Construction567159567163567101
Road and rail transport418024182041830
Air transport234234234
Shipping and stevedoring414241014100
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.515545153551536
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.5615,5675513,1945513,275
Government and local authority, n.e.c.437242994298
Recreational services192181164
Social community services, including health, education, etc.278227842810
Other personal and community services771867355682
              Total22036,16721633,58421634,305

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS—Associations of 2 or more unions in different districts in the same industry can be registered as industrial associations. As at 31 December 1978 there were 13 industrial associations of employers and 28 of workers, the former having 105 affiliated unions and the latter, 137.

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS—The following table shows the proportion of workers belonging to registered unions to the total number of wage earners in the country. The figures for total wage earners are derived from census enumerations.

Census YearTotal Wage EarnersEnd of Year Nearest to Census DateNumber of Workers on Rolls of Registered Unions*Percentage of Wage Earners on Rolls of Registered Unions*
* There are a number of associations of employees not registered. These include many State servants and mine workers, chemical fertiliser workers, agriculture workers, etc.
1956 (Apr)653,3581955304,52047
1961 (Apr)750,8821960332,36244
1966 (Mar)870,8131965353,09341
1971 (Mar)958,5631970378,46539
1976 (Mar)1,063,1701975454,99143

STATISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES—In the tables which follow only those disputes are included which resulted in a strike, penalty, or lockout, or where organised “go slow” or other passive-resistance methods were clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes. Stoppages in which no demand is made on the employer (or the employees in the case of a lockout) are not included—for example any stoppage which is die result of disagreement by workers with measures taken (or not taken) by Government or other authority, as distinct from employers, is excluded. To avoid confusion with the term “dispute” as used in industrial relations legislation, these statistics have been called “industrial stoppages”. A long-term series of stoppages is given towards the back of this Yearbook.

The figures for stoppages include details of stopwork meetings unless, as on the waterfront, provision is made for these in the relevant award or agreement. In all cases unauthorised stopwork meetings are included, also unauthorised delays in resuming work after recognised stopwork meetings. A single stoppage may include or may consist of one stopwork meeting or several stopwork meetings; if several such meetings are included, these may be held at different times or at different places, provided all relate to the same issue.

The following table shows incidence rates of stoppages during recent years.

YearNumber of Wage and Salary Earners*Workers Involved in Stoppages as Percentage of Wage and Salary EarnersWorking Days Lost per 1000 of Wage and Salary Earners

* October estimates.

Ratios for 1977, 1978, and 1979 are worked on 1976 number of salary and wage earners.

 (000)  
1972948.56.37141.81
1973987.411.73275.17
19741015.86.98180.83
19751024.57.30209.50
19761034.319.44472.24
1977 15.41422.32
1978 15.27x367.98x
1979 15.27366.51

Industrial stoppages during recent years are summarised in the following table. The totals of stoppages include lockouts (if any). Where several occasions have been grouped as 1 stoppage the largest number of workers involved on any 1 day have been included under the relevant headings. Workers indirectly involved have also been included. “Partial strike” indicates a reduction of the normal rate of output.

Calendar YearNumber of StoppagesDurationNumber of Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostAverage Days Lost per Worker InvolvedApproximate Loss In Wages
Complete StrikePartial Strike*TotalTotal (Working (Days)Average (Working Days)

* Reduction of normal rate of output.

Includes lockouts and penalties (Port Bureau Rules: 1 lockout in 1975, none in later years).

      (000)(000) $(000)
19753963142818294.27752152.874,220x
1976451x34485x19864.082014882.4310,840
1977538245622173 1/2x3.87x159437x2.74x10,560x
1978405x6411x1347x3.23x158x381x2.41x10,948x
19795091452318633.561583822.4112,698

In the following table industrial stoppages are classified according to the industry in which they took place. The figures relate to stoppages which terminated during the 12 months ended December 1979.

INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES 1979
IndustryNumber of StoppagesDuration (Working Days)Number Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
* From 1976 any stoppage which has involved workers in more than 1 industry has been counted once in each respective industry (number and duration) but as a single stoppage in the total of all industries. In 1979 there were 11 extra cases and 81.5 extra days' duration.
     $(000)
Agriculture, hunting
Forestry, logging12.0701404.5
Mining, quarrying26.013371.1
Meat export works181274.577,461141,1225,977.3
Other slaughtering, preparation, and preserving meat13.0900270070.4
Dairy products; fruit, vegetable, and fish canning and preserving; vegetable oils, animal oils and fats731.01400254221.9
Grain milling, bakery products, sugar, confectionery, etc.12.01052107.6
Beverage industries, tobacco856.518018516191.3
Textile, wearing apparel, leather goods35.0931584.1
Wood, wood products (incl. furniture)32.5115962.3
Paper, paper products; printing and publishing22123.5569833,4461,034.8
Chemicals; chemical, petroleum, and coal products1140.5312128344.6
Rubber and plastic products1240.526365157207.1
Non-metallic mineral products432.0456224073.2
Basic metal industries1379.016828667334.6
Metal products, machinery including electrical24126.535768954274.2
Transport equipment32145.0893019,579609.6
Professional and scientific equipment
Other manufacturing29.0572597.8
Electricity, gas, water363.01821475.3
Buildings6127.08543475115.1
Construction other than buildings24102.017185619203.7
Ancillary building and construction services24.022541.0
Wholesale trade26136.013034753151.1
Retail trade414.530956473179.0
Restaurants and hotels411.51681163.6
Land transport31176.024,61688,2162,579.8
Water transport82160.513,67725,442231.2
Air transport58.511362361115.1
Services allied to transport224.0215131843.3
Communication
Financing, insurance, real estate, etc.32.51077105231.4
Community, social, and personal services12131.519256311127.0
Several industries35.02902148945.5
                  Total, all industries*5231863.0158,195381,89612,698.4

The following table gives an analysis of stoppages by duration during 1978.

DurationNumber of StoppagesNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Day, LostApproximate Loss in Wages
    $(000)
1 day and less22258,01236,4251,135.5
Over 1 day but not over 2 days7022,30830,3601,049.3
Over 2 days but not over 3 days32943418,862453.7
Over 3 days but less than 1 week21490211,676337.1
1 week but less than 2 weeks3032,19482,2402,185.0
2 weeks but less than 4 weeks21560755,5271,695.0
4 weeks but less than 8 weeks1423,90986,8482,428.0
8 weeks and over1153758,6671,664.7
        Total411157,903380,60510,948.4
NOTE: A week is considered to be 5 working days.

CAUSES—In the next table the causes of stoppages occurring during 1978 are shown. A breakdown in negotiations over a range of matters rather than over any 1 or more of the other categories of cause is recorded under “General Breakdown in Negotiations”.

Under the heading “Wages” are included stoppages concerning wages, overtime, or rates of piecework. Stoppages concerning the hours of work, leave and holidays are included under the heading “Period of Work”.

“Conditions of Work” includes safety, health, and general working conditions. Such matters as supervision, work allocation, manning levels, dismissals, redundancy, etc., are included under “Managerial Practice”.

Stoppages caused by workers striking in sympathy with demands of other workers, demarcation, victimisation, and other union matters are included under “Union Matters”.

The number of stoppages, number of workers involved, and working days lost are shown for each cause.

InvolvementCause of StoppageTotal
General Breakdown in NegotiationsWagesPeriod of WorkConditions of WorkManagerial PracticeUnion Matters*and other Causes
* Union matters: 89 stoppages; 22647 workers involved; 19738 working days lost.
Number of—
    Stoppages4081126296120411
    Workers involved66,47336,016135513,04611,33729,676157,903
    Working days lost153,375158,680429817,57720,94725,728380,605

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT—Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes causing stoppages in 1978. “Private negotiations” take place when discussions have occurred between employers and workers without intervention of a third party. Third parties intervening may include the industrial mediator, conciliators, the Department of Labour, the Minister of Labour, the Federation of Labour, etc.

A settlement is classified as “Voluntary return to work” where no negotiations have taken place, no conditions are changed, and workers simply return to work or decide to drop their claims.

Method of SettlementNumber of StoppagesNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
    $(000)
Private negotiations6410,96658,4981,840.3
Intervention of third party5018,141141,0233,552.4
Voluntary return to work294127,871178,2985,480.6
Other3925278675.0
      Total411157,903380,60510,948.4

WORKING CONDITIONS—A considerable proportion of the persons comprising the labour force of New Zealand have their working conditions determined either directly or indirectly by virtue of the provisions of the Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971, the Factories Act 1946, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Shops and Offices Act 1955, the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, the Agricultural Workers Act 1977, the Construction Act 1959, the Machinery Act 1950, the Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act 1960, the Bush Workers Act 1945, the Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937, the Shearers Act 1962, and the Industrial Relations Act 1973. Legislative authority covering the working conditions of substantially the greater portion of the remaining participants in the labour force is contained in the State Services Act 1962, the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, the Government Railways Act 1949, the Post Office Act 1959, the Police Act 1958, the Fire Services Act 1975, the Education Act 1964, the Hospitals Act 1957, the Hospital Employment Regulations 1963, and the Waterfront Industry Act 1976.

Notes on Acts which have as their prime purpose the protection of workers from accidents in the course of their employment have been included in Section 35D, Occupational Safety.

HOURS OF WORK—Employees in most occupations have had the benefit of a 40-hour 5-day week since 1946, with the first legislation in this regard being enacted in 1936.

HOLIDAYS—The Annual Holidays Act 1944 provides for an annual holiday of 3 weeks duration paid at the worker's average weekly earnings during the year of entitlement. A worker who has been employed for less than 1 year, on termination of his employment, is entitled to proportionate annual holiday pay for the period of employment. An employer is required to keep a record (holiday book) containing particulars of employment, annual holidays, and amounts paid in respect of each worker in his employment.

Public holidays include Christmas Day, Boxing Day, New Year's Day, 2 January (or a day in lieu), Waitangi Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Anzac Day, Labour Day, the Sovereign's Birthday, and the provincial anniversary day (or a day in lieu). Labour Day is deemed to be the fourth Monday in October. Waitangi Day is 6 February. Anzac Day (the 25th day of April) is a day of commemoration, being the anniversary of the first landing of troops on Gallipoli in 1915, and in terms of employment is observed as if it were a holiday. Observance of Waitangi Day and Anzac Day cannot be transferred to another date.

Other statutes dealing with holidays are the Anzac Day Act 1966, Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952, and the Waitangi Day Act 1976.

FACTORIES ACT—The Factories Act 1946 applies to “any building, office, or place in which 2 or more persons are engaged or in which 1 or more persons are employed . . . directly or indirectly, in any handicraft, or in preparing or manufacturing goods for trade or sale. . . .”

Restrictions on Employment—No boy or girl under 16 years of age may be employed in any factory unless a certificate of fitness is issued by an Inspector of Factories.

Safety, Health, and Welfare—The safety measures have reference to dangerous liquids, harmful noise, means of access and safety of employment, and means of escape in case of fire. The employer is required to keep a register of all accidents of which he has any knowledge, and first-aid appliances must be provided and maintained. The health and welfare provisions are very extensive and include reference to such matters as air space, cleanliness, ventilation, canteens, the care of employees, amenities, and other things to be supplied by the employer to secure employees' health or welfare.

SHOPS AND OFFICES ACT: Hours of Work—For shop assistants the hour of commencing work for persons under 16 years must not be earlier than 7 a.m., except that newspapers may be delivered from 6 a.m. by persons aged 12 years and under 16, and milk by persons aged 14 years and under 16 from the same hour. Persons under 18 years may not be employed after 10.30 p.m. The Act also provides that persons under 18 years cannot be employed in restaurants before 5 a.m. or after 10.30 p.m.

Shop Trading Hours—On 1 October 1977, the Shop Trading Hours Act 1977 replaced the trading hour provisions of the Shops and Offices Act 1955 and the various awards and collective agreements.

Shops may now open at any time between 7 a.m. and 9 p.m. Mondays to Fridays inclusive but are to be closed outside these hours and on Saturdays, Sundays, and statutory holidays unless an extension of opening hours has been authorised by the Shop Trading Hours Commission.

The Act provides that “approved” goods may be sold at any time and that “special” goods may be sold between the stated hours on Saturdays only. Goods other than those on the “approved” or “special” list are “restricted” goods. If an occupier is authorised to open his shop to sell “approved” or “special” goods outside the hours mentioned above, then all “restricted” goods must be out of sight of the public or kept in a part of the shop that is closed off.

Provision is made for the granting of orders authorising a shop occupier to open at times other than those mentioned above. The majority of the shop occupiers in an “area” (which may be a street, mall, or municipality area) can also apply for such an order to cover the whole of the area.

“Approved” and “Special” Goods—These are listed in Schedules to the Act. “Approved” goods include bakers' and pastrycooks' goods, building supplies and handyman requisites, condiments, confectionery, dairy produce, drinks, fish, frozen foods, fruit and flowers, fuels, gardening supplies, aquarium flora and fauna, miscellaneous groceries, magazines and periodicals, meats and smallgoods, medicinal and household goods, motor accessories, photographic goods, plants, prepared and cooked foods, tobacco, etc., vegetables, and a number of miscellaneous lines. “Special” goods which can be sold outside the normal weekday trading hours on Saturdays only include cut flowers, wreaths, vegetables, new and used motorcars, and motor cycles.

Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions—The Shops and Offices Act 1955 also makes provision for the safety, health and welfare of assistants. Particular matters that are covered relate to dangerous liquids and noxious gases, limitation of loads, safe means of access, construction and maintenance of floors, passages, and stairs, fire precautions, lighting, cleanliness, ventilation, drinking water, drainage, washing facilities, clothing, accommodation, seating and first-aid facilities, rest rooms for women, sanitary conveniences, temperature and heating appliances, accommodation for meals, etc.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT—Under the Agricultural Workers Act 1977 regulations have been made setting out minimum standards of accommodation to be supplied for agricultural workers.

Restrictions on Employment of Children—Under the Agricultural Workers Act no child under the age of 15 years may: (a) be employed in any agricultural work during such times as the child is required to attend school under the Education Act; (b) be required to lift any weights, or to perform any task, likely to be injurious to his health; (c) work more than 8 hours in any 1 day.

Safety and Health—The Agricultural Workers Act requires employers to take reasonable precautions for the safety and health of employees and provides for the instruction of employees as to dangers and precautions, miscellaneous protection, and the provision of protective clothing or equipment as appropriate.

Fixing of Wages and Conditions of Employment—The Act institutes a new system for fixing wages and conditions of employment somewhat akin to that which operates for workers in other industries. The emphasis is on voluntary and conciliated settlement of disputes, but in cases of no agreement a specialised Agricultural Tribunal can make an award. A significant new concept is the registration of a single employers' organisation and a single employees' organisation for each class of agricultural work. The registered organisations have exclusive rights of representation for the particular class. Certain classes of work are defined and certain organisations are deemed to be registered from the commencement date of the Act, November 1977. Machinery is provided in the Act for amendment of the definitions of classes of work and for the registration of replacement organisations. This whole new system has been integrated into the all-encompassing wage fixing machinery under the newly-constituted Arbitration Court. A Judge of that Court is the President of the Agricultural Tribunal.

SHEARERS ACT—Under the Shearers Act 1962 an employer is required to provide amenities for all shearers employed by him. Where 5 or more shearers are to be accommodated on the farm suitable accommodation must be provided. Minimum standards of amenities and accommodation are prescribed by the Shearers Regulations 1963.

SHIPPING AND SEAMEN LEGISLATION—The general superintendence of matters relating to merchant ships and seamen in New Zealand is the responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport.

Competence, Safety, and Welfare Provisions—The Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 makes provision to ensure competence on the part of navigational officers, engineers, and certain crew members. Rules or regulations under that Act set out the qualifications and examination standards for persons to obtain the appropriate certificates in New Zealand, and there are provisions for the acceptance of certain certificates granted in other Commonwealth countries. The number and qualifications of persons required to man ships of various classes are set out in statutory scales.

The seaworthiness of ships is covered by annual survey for compliance as to condition and equipment, and regulations govern the day-to-day operations of ships to ensure their safe navigation and operation.

The pay and many conditions of employment are determined by industrial awards or agreements between shipowners and employee organisations. There are also legislative measures to ensure compliance with some of the international conventions or recommendations relating to the employment of seafarers.

MINING LEGISLATION—Consolidating legislation was passed as the Mining Act 1971 and this became law after its attendant regulations were gazetted early in 1973.

Working Conditions—In the coal-mining industry working conditions are determined by agreement reached at annual conferences between the coal-mine owners and the employee organisations.

Restrictions on Employment—No person under the age of 16 years may be employed underground in any coal mine, or in any alluvial mine, or on or about any dredge; while the minimum age in respect of underground work in a quartz mine is 19 years. No youth may be employed in a mine for more than 8 hours per day or 48 hours per week except in cases of emergency.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY—Measures for occupational safety, involving the Machinery Act 1950, the Construction Act 1959, and a number of other Acts, are discussed in Section 35D.

WORKING CONDITIONS OF STATE SERVANTS—Apart from remuneration (which is discussed in Section 33—Wages) the working conditions of State servants are controlled by legislation set out in the following paragraphs.

Members of the Public Service are governed by the State Services Act 1962 and the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977. Included in the functions of the State Services Commission are the provision of suitable office accommodation, the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions, and also the regulations of a variety of points connected with control—e.g., leave, hours of work.

The Government Railways Act 1949 and the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977 furnish the legislative framework for determination of the working conditions of railway employees. There is a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, the principal function of which is to adjudicate on single service conditions of work in respect of railway employees.

Working conditions for Post Office employees are determined by the administrative authority, the Postmaster-General, with the Director-General as executive head. Power is vested in the Minister by virtue of the Post Office: Act 1959. There is a Post Office Staff Tribunal whose function it is to hear and determine applications referred to it in respect of conditions of employment of Post Office staff.

There are other legislative enactments which apply to the relevant sections of general Government employees. Members of the Police are governed by the Police Act 1958 and the Police Regulations 1959, while there is also a Police Staff Tribunal. The 3 armed services are controlled by the Defence Act 1971.

The Education Act 1964 and amendments authorise, either by regulation or through the agency of education boards, the employment of teachers and other members of the education service. Payment and conditions of service are covered by determinations issued under the machinery set up by the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977.

In the hospital service, medical Officers are employed under section 52 of the Hospitals Act 1957, paramedical groups under the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, and clerical, trades and other support groups under awards issued in accordance with the Industrial Relations Act.

WATERFRONT INDUSTRY—Work within the waterfront industry is governed by the Waterfront Industry Act 1976. The Act defines waterside work as the loading and unloading of ships, barges, lighters, and other vessels, together with certain other work customarily performed within wharf limits by waterside workers. Work within the waterfront industry includes waterside work and certain other work carried out within wharf limits such as the driving or operation of mechanical cargo-handling equipment, tallying, the shoring and unshoring of cargo, and the work of foremen stevedores and timekeepers. Separate bodies are empowered by the Act to carry out, on the one hand, legislative and judicial functions, and on the other administrative functions only.

Waterfront Industry Tribunal—The legislative and judicial body is the Waterfront Industry Tribunal, which consists of 2 members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister, and as chairman the Chief Judge of the Arbitration Court or a judge of the Arbitration Court nominated by him. The members are appointed for a term of 3 years. The tribunal is a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The functions of the tribunal are, firstly, to prescribe the terms and conditions of employment for work within the waterfront industry, and here the tribunal's procedure is similar to that followed by the Government Service Tribunal. To assist with this function, the Act also provides for the Minister of Labour to direct the establishment of conciliation councils each consisting of an independent chairman and an equal number of employers' representatives and workers' representatives. These councils conduct conciliation proceedings on any application to the tribunal which concerns 2 or more ports and the chairman is appointed by the Minister for a term not exceeding 1 year. Secondly, the tribunal is required to settle any disputes that arise in relation to work within the waterfront industry and for this function has the assistance of Port Conciliation Committees which consist of an equal number of employers' and workers' representatives with an independent chairman. Thirdly, the tribunal is a general appeal court from decisions of Port Conciliation Committees (with certain limitations) and to determine appeals from any orders or decisions of the Waterfront Industry Commission imposing levies or charges and in respect of the provision of amenities for waterside workers, as well as against refusal of the commission to register an applicant for entry on the Register of Employers of Waterside Workers.

Waterfront Industry Commission—The Waterfront Industry Commission, which is the administrative body, consists of an independent chairman, 2 members nominated by the Union of Employers, and 2 members nominated by the New Zealand Waterside Workers' Federation. All 5 members are appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour for a term not exceeding 3 years. The functions of the commission are, firstly, to carry out all administrative work in connection with guaranteed wage payments, annual and statutory holiday payments, and systems of payments by results for waterside workers, and to perform these functions for other workers in the waterfront industry if requested by the employers and workers concerned. Secondly, the commission is responsible for the provision of amenities for waterside workers and for the equipping, operation and management of these amenities which include waiting rooms or assembly halls, restaurants, canteens, and first aid rooms. The commission provides such amenities costing not more than $50,000 each at any port and approves schemes for the provision by harbour boards of amenities costing more than $50,000 each at any port.

Of the remaining functions of the commission, the main ones are the determination of the number of workers to be entered on the Bureau Register for each port so as to ensure the supply of sufficient waterside labour for its efficient working, to be the sole employer of waterside workers for the purposes of the Accident Compensation Act 1972, to train waterside workers in first aid, to publish statistical information in relation to the waterfront industry, and to register employers of waterside labour providing they meet the statutory requirements.

The organisation of “registered” waterside workers is on the basis of separate port unions with one association or federation of unions. The port unions and the association are registered through the Registrar of Industrial Unions in the Department of Labour.

LEGISLATIVE PROVISION FOR CERTAIN OTHER GROUPS: Hospital Board Employees—The provisions relating to working conditions of hospital board employees, such as nurses, etc., will be found in the Hospitals Act 1957 and the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION—Information on working conditions in many industries can be obtained from the appropriate Acts or awards. Many of the Acts are mentioned in this section. Further information on industrial relations, etc., can be found in the following publications.

Prices, Wages, and Labour: Pt B Wages and Labour—Department of Statistics (annual).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Labour and Employment Gazette—Department of Labour (quarterly).

Report of the Department of Labour (Parl. paper G. 1).

Report of the Waterfront Industry Commission (Parl. paper G. 2).

Report of the State Services Commission (Parl. paper G. 3).

Wages, Hours, and Employment—Department of Labour (6-monthly).

Yearbook of Labour Statistics—International Labour Office (annual).

Chapter 35. Section 35 PERSONAL SAFETY

35 A—ACCIDENT PREVENTION, REHABILITATION, AND COMPENSATION

ACCIDENT COMPENSATION ACT—The Accident Compensation Act 1972, which took effect from 1 April 1974, was undoubtedly one of the most significant developments in social welfare for many years.

The 3 main objectives of the legislation are: (a) to promote safety in every walk of life; (b) to urge forward the concept of prompt and effective rehabilitation of all people injured by accident so as to restore them to the fullest physical, mental, social, vocational, and economic usefulness of which they are capable; and (c) to provide prompt, fair, and reasonable compensation so that every accident victim will be treated according to his real needs.

Cover, embracing all 3 objectives, extends to virtually everyone in New Zealand, from the smallest child to the oldest citizen.

Accident prevention, which is of great importance to the Accident Compensation Commission, is promoted by a safety division which aims at co-ordinating existing organisations and maintaining its own advisory programme.

Similar stress is laid on rehabilitation, and a staff of field officers has been established in main centres to make personal contact with the injured person and to ensure that all necessary rehabilitative measures are effectively undertaken.

As far as compensation is concerned, the Accident Compensation Act:

  1. provides immediate benefits for every person who suffers personal injury by accident in New Zealand, regardless of his or her fault and wherever the accident occurred in New Zealand;

  2. entitles the injured person to compensation both for permanent physical disability and also for loss of earnings on an income-related basis;

  3. provides for regular adjustment in the level of payment to injured persons in accord with variations in the value of money; and

  4. provides for everyone an effective insurance against personal injury by accident in New Zealand.

In all, New Zealand has a comprehensive system, the essence of which is that the community itself recognises its responsibility for both the accident toll and its effects, and finances and provides for the victims of all accidents however their injuries are caused.

ACCIDENT COMPENSATION COMMISSION—To administer the Act, the Accident Compensation Commission, comprising 3 persons., is appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour.

The head office of the commission, based in Wellington, has safety, medical and rehabilitation, compensation, legal, research and planning, finance, and administration divisions, each headed by a director. There is a branch office in Dunedin. Regional offices are in Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, and Christchurch; district offices at Whangarei, Rotorua, Tauranga, New Plymouth, Napier, and Invercargill; and liaison services at Gisborne, Wanganui, and Nelson.

SAFETY—By virtue of its legislative duty as a matter of prime importance to take an active and coordinating role in the promotion of safety in all the different areas where accidents can occur, the commission is involved in the prevention of accidents of every kind, whether they happen at work, on the roads, in the home, on the playing field, or in the outdoors. It has been recognised by industry that accidents have no economic boundaries, since a worker's productivity is affected equally whether he is injured on the job or off the job.

As accidents are reduced there is a corresponding reduction in the need for compensation and rehabilitation and a lessening of the financial drain on the whole community, of which compensation and other “direct” costs are only a portion.

The commission's safety division comprises specialists in various aspects of accident prevention—including occupational, rural, home, and recreational safety.

Education and training form the cornerstone of their activities. An extensive range of residential and in-plant training courses is available, each course tailored to meet the requirements of a different level of employee—top and middle management, safety officers and engineers, supervisors, apprentices, and the rank-and-file worker.

The safety division also assists and co-ordinates the efforts of organisations already doing valuable work in accident prevention, and makes financial grants for specific projects.

REHABILITATION—Prompt and successful rehabilitation reduces the need for compensation by returning people to economic usefulness more quickly, as well as in some cases providing them with a vocation and self-respect they might otherwise have lost altogether.

In many ways, however, rehabilitation goes hand in hand with compensation. By removing anxiety and economic fear, adequate compensation in itself helps to achieve rehabilitation of the injured. From the outset, earner and non-earner alike are assured of retaining a reasonable enjoyment of life and a reasonable standard of living, despite even the most severe disability.

The commission's interests in rehabilitation extend to co-operating with existing work—some of it of an extremely high standard already—and to developing the whole concept to give the injured person the best possible treatment.

Rehabilitation extends to such matters as reducing the possibility of permanent disability; assisting those who are disabled to make the best possible use of what ability remains or can be inculcated by new training, further education, or other special help; re-establishing people in employment; modifying homes or workplaces to provide for incapacitated people; providing a wide assortment of rehabilitation aids; and adapting a car to hand-control so that transport to work is available.

To achieve these objectives, the commission employs a field force of rehabilitation liaison officers whose function it is to counsel and advise claimants in respect of their needs and who recommend to the commission what should be done to assist them.

Their services are readily available to all who have cover under the Act, earners and non-earners alike.

COMPENSATION—People are covered against personal injury by accident under 3 schemes in the accident compensation system:

  1. Earners' scheme—This provides for everyone who receives remuneration either as an employee or as a self-employed person in New Zealand. Persons who have cover under the earners' scheme are entitled to both earnings-related compensation and other benefits as summarised below.

  2. Motor vehicle accident scheme—This covers everyone injured by the use of a motor vehicle. Motor accident victims qualify for all benefits including, if they receive earnings in New Zealand, earnings-related compensation.

  3. Supplementary scheme—This brings in all those not otherwise covered, among them tourists and visitors to New Zealand; and people not earning, such as housewives, children, students, and retired people. Persons who have cover under the supplementary scheme do not normally qualify for earnings-related compensation but they are eligible for all other benefits.

BENEFITS PROVIDED: Earnings-Related Compensation—The earners' scheme provides for the payment of compensation for loss of earnings at the rate of 80 percent of normal average earnings at the time of the accident, subject to a present maximum of $288 a week. No payment is made by the commission for the first week following the accident but if it happens at work (including travel to and from work), an employer is generally required to pay an employee his normal rate of pay (excluding overtime) for this period.

If the injured person has more than one job he receives full pay for the first week from his employer on the job on which the accident occurred and the commission pays compensation based on the amount he would have earned from the other jobs.

After the first week, earnings-related compensation is paid by the commission to all earners, regardless of how or where the accident occurred.

Weekly payments generally cease at the age of 65 years, but can continue until the normal retiring age for a particular job. If the accident occurs after 60 years of age, payment continues for a further 5 years; if it occurs after 65 years of age then up to the age of 70 years; and if the accident happens after the age of 70 compensation is payable for 1 year; assuming in all these cases that the injured person was an earner at the time of the accident.

Appropriate adjustments to the amount of compensation payable are made for partial incapacity. In some special circumstances, compensation for loss of potential earnings may be awarded.

Earnings-related compensation constitutes taxable income, PAYE tax being deducted at source.

Other Compensation—Provision is made for a wide range of benefits, including compensation for medical and hospital expenses, cost of transport to hospital, or wages paid to an attendant or nurse, and for reasonable expenses resulting directly from the accident.

In addition, the injured person may qualify for payment of a lump sum for permanent loss or impairment of bodily function up to a maximum of $7,000; and for loss of capacity to enjoy life, for pain and mental suffering, and for disfigurement, up to a maximum of $10,000.

Fatal Claims—In the event of a fatal accident the commission pays reasonable funeral expenses.

Also, the dependent spouse of an earner who has died as a result of an accident can qualify for half the earnings-related compensation the deceased would have received had he or she been totally incapacitated but still living. For each of up to 3 dependent children, an additional one-sixth may be paid. Thus a widow with 3 or more children could qualify for the full earnings-related compensation her husband would have received had he been totally incapacitated. In addition, a lump sum of up to $1,000 is payable to the totally dependent widow, plus up to $500 for each dependent child, to a maximum of $1,500 for the dependent children. Partially dependent widows and children receive a proportion of these amounts.

The same provisions would apply to dependent or partially dependent widowers.

Housewives—As well as the appropriate benefits listed under “Other Compensation” and “Fatal Claims”, housewives who are injured in an accident may, if justified, qualify for the cost of home help; or, in certain circumstances, the husband may be compensated for loss of earnings while he is looking after the house until the injured wife can resume her duties.

FINANCING OF COMPENSATION FUNDS—Accident compensation is a form of compulsory insurance in which the community as a whole accepts responsibility for the accidents which inevitably will afflict a proportion of its members, as a consequence of the kind of life that society today demands as its right.

The community pays in these ways:

  1. Levies on employers (including the Crown) and on self-employed to pay for the earners' scheme. They are paid through the Inland Revenue Department (as agent for the commission).

  2. Levies on vehicle owners are paid to another agent for the commission, the Post Office, to pay for the motor vehicle accident scheme.

  3. General taxation pays for the supplementary scheme through the Consolidated Account.

The employer pays levies on a risk-related scale, ranging from 50 cents to $5 per $100 of wages paid, and he classifies his employees for the appropriate levy in accordance with the industrial activity in which he is engaged. There are special classes for staff on clerical-management and commercial travelling duties, so that the employer can pay for them at a lower levy rate than that for employees engaged directly in his industrial activity. The maximum amount on which levy is payable is $18,720 a year for each employee.

A levy of 1.07 percent of earnings applies to self-employed people, regardless of their industrial activity, but the limit of income on which the levy may be imposed is $18,720 a year. Hence, the maximum payable by any self-employed person is $200.30 a year.

Levies for the motor vehicle accident scheme are collected when motor vehicles are registered or reregistered.

HANDLING OF CLAIMS—The commission itself deals with claims in Otago. In all other areas the State Insurance Office is the claims handling agent for all cases except New Zealand seamen, whose claims are dealt with by P. & I. Services Limited. Claims are made by a worker injured at his place of employment notifying his employer and filling in a claim form which the employer then forwards to the State Insurance Office; or, in other cases, by direct notification to the State Insurance Office. Claims need to be supported by a medical certificate.

It is intended that there should be no long delays in providing compensation. An injured worker who is hurt at work will receive his pay in full from his employer for the first week if he is unable to work. If his incapacity continues beyond the first week, earnings-related compensation should become available promptly, so mat, effectively, there is no break in his flow of income. He will continue to be paid locally, without delay.

The commission's objective for the self-employed is that earnings-related payments should begin equally promptly, after the first week. Difficulties often arise, however, in determining the weekly amount which on a fair and just basis truly reflects loss of earning capacity. More complex arrangements are necessary and these are set out in pamphlets available from all commission and State Insurance offices.

Naturally, it will take time to assess permanent disability, loss of faculty, potential earnings, pain and suffering, loss of enjoyment of life, and the like; but here again it is firmly intended that delays will be minimised and early payments made once the disability has reached a stable condition.

REVIEWS AND APPEALS—Decisions by the commission acting either itself or by its agents are subject to a right of appeal. The claimant can first apply to the commission for a review of the decision. This review will be conducted by the commission itself, or by a hearing officer appointed by the commission. From any decisions made on a review there is a right of appeal to an appeal authority, who has full power to confirm, modify, or reverse any decision by the commission. There is a further right of appeal to the High Court, on a question of law, a matter of general or public interest, or a matter which for any other reason should be heard by the High Court, and to the Court of Appeal on questions of law only.

35 B—COMPENSATED ACCIDENTS

The main tables in this section cover accidents in the calendar year 1979. They are confined to claims compensated by the Accident Compensation Commission; that is, where victims or their dependants have been compensated for one or more of the following:

  1. loss of earnings beyond the first week of incapacity;

  2. permanent incapacity;

  3. non-economic loss;

  4. funeral expenses;

  5. damage to teeth, artificial aids, or clothing;

  6. medical treatment and transport expenses;

  7. cost of home help;

  8. rehabilitation costs; or

  9. certain other unusual costs.

The tables largely exclude injuries causing less than 8 days' incapacity (for which the commission is not required to pay compensation) and those only entailing medical treatment (for which the doctor is normally reimbursed direct). In addition, the commission does not always receive claims in the case of non-earners who are injured, which limits the significance of the tables of non-work injuries, especially where children are concerned.

Suicides and self-inflicted injuries are not normally compensable. Any appearing in the tables are the results of the commission's discretion to pay compensation under certain circumstances or of the fact that some compensation was paid before it was established that injury was self-inflicted.

Since claims continue to be received and processed some months after the end of 1979, all figures should be treated as provisional only.

The tables in this Yearbook do not exhaust the range of accident details recorded by the commission, nor do they attempt to present many of those parameters in combination. The Accident Compensation Commission is happy to respond to requests for more specific or detailed statistics required for a definite purpose by any organisation or individual.

CLAIMS RECEIVED—The following table sets out, for the 5 years of the Accident Compensation Commission's operation, the number of claims received, according to the fund with which they were identified. It should be noted that not all claims result in compensation being paid—especially those made to protect the claimant's entitlement when incapacity has not yet arisen but may do in the future.

This table, and the 2 financial tables following, refer to March years.

ClaimsYear Ended 31 March
19751976x1977x1978x1979
Earners' Fund—
    Work accidents63,21271,61168,14862,82663,318
    Non-work accidents28,12538,53539,07940,65542,645
            Total91,337110,146107,227103,481105,963
Motor Vehicle Fund940511,04210,46411,56311,422
Supplementary Fund4276946912,54417,39417,984
              Total claims105,018130,657130,235132,438135,369

COMPENSATION PAID—The following tables analyse compensation paid and medical expenditure incurred during the 5 years of the commission's operation, according to the fund charged and the type of payment. It must be pointed out that in many cases compensation will continue to be paid beyond the year in which a claim is made, sometimes until the claimant is aged 65. Hence the claims shown for any given year are not identical with the claims for which compensation was paid in that year. It could therefore be misleading to attempt to match claims with compensation payments. The true cost of any year's claims is not likely to be known until many years later.

Compensation and Medical ExpenditureYear Ended 31 March
19751976197719781979
 $(thousand)
Earnings-related compensation18,70933,70139,67044,30350,211
Dependants' allowances2991,6013,5745,1176,543
Funeral expenses4279921,2771,5051,343
Non-economic loss (i.e., lump sums)4342,9919,37218,11016,833
Medical treatment5,6958,85611,15812,80014,851
Hospital treatment4481,1091,9162,3032,734
Dental treatment2579461,6892,1211,746
Conveyance for medical attention2276309041,4912,232
Rehabilitation1470168220200
Other2717921,0881,2121,336
                Total26,78151,68870,81689,18298,029
Fund ChargedYear Ended 31 March
19751976197719781979
 $(thousand)
Earners' Compensation Fund21,31140,76654,47965,77771,147
Motor Vehicle Compensation Fund2,6936,0739,22113,24115,289
Supplementary Compensation Fund2,7774,8497,11610,16411,593
                Total26,78151,68870,81689,18298,029

During the year ended 31 March 1980 compensation and medical expenses charged to the three funds were as follows: Earner's Compensation Fund, $75.6 million compared with $71.1 million the previous year; Motor Vehicle Compensation Fund, $16.7 million compared with $15.3 million in 1978–79; and Supplementary Compensation Fund, $12.2 million compared with $11.6 million.

The number of claims on the Earners' Compensation Fund during 1979–80 totalled 96745, an 8.7 percent reduction on the 105963 received during 1978–79 and a 12.2 percent reduction on the 110146 claims received during the peak year 1975–76. It is too early to say if the reductions represent a trend or merely a temporary reduction, but the commission hopes that they are, in part, a reflection of its work in accident prevention and advice on safety measures. The year 1979–80 saw the beginning of a scheme to reward employers with a significantly better-than-average accident record.

Claims on the Motor Vehicle Compensation Fund during 1979–80, at 11150, represented a 2.4 percent reduction on the previous year's total of 11422. There was a 2.8 percent increase in claims on the Supplementary Compensation Fund, which totalled 18496 compared with 17984 the previous year.

ENVIRONMENT—The environments in which accidents occurred in 1979 are summarised in the following table in which accident victims are divided into 2 groups—earners and non-earners—and a fuller analysis given of each group.

COMPENSATED ACCIDENTS 1979
EnvironmentEarner-Status
EmployedSelf-employedBoth Employed and Self-employedUnemployedNot Adequately DescribedTotal Earners
Work environments—
    Working at workplace36,921402021440,957
    Working away from workplace90999
    Travelling to or from work31691843353
    Not adequately described23182318
                Total40,18042132233246,727
Home environment11,7246447586412,497
Road environment612019926536389
Sport or recreational environments—
    Athletics955100
    Court games1374951541479
    Equestrian32933113367
    Field sports6673815711
    Football codes5651237210235923
    Flying74680
    Hunting136102148
    Shooting343138
    Pedestrian sports13592146
    Water sports7848163874
    Winter sports3521214369
    Wheeled sports7012822733
    Martial sports150511157
    Other sports7393249784
              Total11,2215944325811,909
Other environments4116229237474431
Not adequately described325252528
              Total73,364587917192502984,481

It should be noted that “work” takes precedence over other environments. For example, an accident to a truck driver occurring on the road during the normal course of his employment would be classified under “work” and not under “road”.

LOCALITY—An analysis of the localities in which accidents occurred by cities, boroughs, towns, and counties is available on request from the Accident Compensation Commission.

COMPENSATED ACCIDENTS 1979
Non-earner-StatusOther or Not Abroad DescribedTotal Non-earnersTotal
Preschool ChildSchool StudentTertiary StudentHousewifeUnemployedRetiredInvalidity BeneficiaryVisitor Adequately
40,957
99
3353
2318
46,727
381114010140858963403022405216,549
698643540410330720431018558244
241126126
126311914522601739
271193196463
1053243122149860
521114161315666489
41585
2114152
22442
124178133179
71441144151711941068
1562101245117486
3622141774
131111118175
151972221051222651049
25131322218315879212177813,687
941420174044934227462824276858
41197919844512
5694741842434242167094211205112,09696,577

WORK ACCIDENTS—The following table analyses compensated work injuries occurring in 1979 by the industrial groups in which the victims were working, and whether the accident resulted in fatality or permanent disability, or temporary incapacity only. The groups are those of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC).

Because “first-week” incapacity does not usually result in a claim on the Accident Compensation Commission, it is not possible to compile injury frequency and severity rates as in the past. However, a column is included in the table showing the labour force engaged in each industrial group according to the 1976 Census of Population. From this has been calculated an “injury rate”—that is, the number of compensated accidents per 1000 workers. Although not a comprehensive figure this rate will give a guide to the relative frequency of more serious injuries between the various industrial groups.

It is generally not feasible to make valid comparisons between the figures in the following table and those published for 1973 and earlier years by the Government Statistician. The earlier figures, being derived from claims made under the now-repealed Workers' Compensation Act, included first-week-only incapacities. On the other hand, they excluded injuries to self-employed people (notably farmers) and all but a few injuries incurred while travelling to and from work; these factors would have particularly affected the number of fatalities shown.

WORK ACCIDENTS
Industrial GroupFatalityPermanent DisabilityTemporary DisabilityTotalLabour Force*Injury Rate

* As recorded at 1976 Census of Population.

Compensated claims per 1000 of labour force.

Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing
    Agriculture and livestock production1217235763760106,64135
    Agricultural services92663266710,41264
    Hunting, trapping, and game propagation347279112970
    Forestry157067215028143
    Logging3143293462806123
    Fishing59154168288458
                  Total322405469574112890045
Mining and quarrying
    Coalmining151811871650113
    Crude petroleum and natural gas production454575759
    Metal ore mining1151631850
    Other mining129699233442
                  Total37337347505969
Manufacturing
    Food61359440958162,697153
    Beverages6236242475351
    Tobacco14041133731
    Textiles22243345715,64329
    Wearing apparel except footwear1020021025,0368
    Leather and products of leather substitutes and fur (except footwear and apparel)7135142316345
    Footwear (except vulcanised or moulded rubber or plastic footwear)48488452619
    Wood, wood and cork products (except furniture)4861156124616,74074
    Furniture and fixtures (except primarily of metal)13225238818429
    Paper and paper products21551653312,80242
    Printing, publishing, and allied industries1828330118,92316
    Industrial chemicals16160167448037
    Other chemical products12135138729519
    Petroleum refineries1151650931
    Miscellaneous products of petroleum and coal393947083
    Rubber products14320325528661
    Plastic products, n.e.c.14246260634341
    Pottery, china, and earthenware14546146931
    Glass and glass products3107110256643
    Other non-metallic mineral products110273284769737
    Iron and steel basic industries19324334375789
    Non-ferrous metal basic industries6158164255264
    Fabricated metal products (except machinery and equipment)3551144120221,21857
    Machinery (except electrical)1829931724,85613
    Electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies21664065815,49842
    Transport equipment22993596621,94744
    Professional and scientific equipment, measuring and controlling equipment, n.e.c. and photographic and optical goods101096010
    Other manufacturing industries15111117501723
                  Total28495177091823230572460
Electricity, gas, and water
    Electricity, gas, and steam21675577314,27954
    Waterworks and supply3131105030
                  Total2167868041532952
Construction
    Building and construction131774579476971,62543
    Allied trades40,512
                  Total131774579476911213743
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels
    Wholesale trade53492196058,63416
    Retail trade5614651521123,84312
    Restaurants, cafes, and other eating and drinking places1328029328,47410
    Hotels, motels, rooming houses, camps, and other lodging places19446456517188
                  Total61123112323021612215
Transport, storage, and communication
    Land transport9562174223945,11150
    Water transport2141158117417,88766
    Air transport92197208839925
    Services allied to transport1353652877
    Communication881982734,60324
                  Total20814383448411128740
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services
    Financial institutions3828522,6044
    Insurance1515215,1833
    Real estate1141568912
    Business services (except machinery and equipment rental and leasing)54482587434,06026
    Machinery and equipment rental and leasing33538105436
                  Total552100710647979213
Community, social, and personal services
    Public administration and defence1402210225159,60738
    Sanitary and similar services27308317747142
    Education services1027628664,3234
    Research and scientific institutions1363758686
    Medical, dental, and other health and veterinary services3191440146263,55423
    Welfare institutions1141564722
    Business, professional, and labour associations101018755
    Other social and related community services3138141505728
    Motion picture and other entertainment services136973676311
    Libraries, museums, botanical and zoological gardens, and other cultural services, n.e.c.-14647196424
    Amusement and recreational services, n.e.c.19202212678731
    Repair services, n.e.c.42452955718,89929
    Laundries, laundry services, and cleaning and dyeing plants-25254345216
    Domestic services--4425362
    Miscellaneous personal services-7109116782315
    International and other extra-territorial bodies----798-
                  Total121275443558226324921
Not adequately described331012340247434,734
    Total, all industries154140845,16546,7271,272,33337

MOTOR VEHICLE ACCIDENTS—Compensated accidents in which a motor vehicle was involved during 1979 numbered 13054, or 13.5 percent of all accidents. The following table analyses these cases according to the type of motor vehicle, and whether the victim was an earner and in a work or non-work environment.

Motor VehicleEarnerNon-earnerTotal
WorkNon-work
Motorcar1187358210695838
Rental car29516
Taxi19181148
Truck68918575949
Bus1473857242
Tractor4224420486
Motorcycle170434093335446
Other1511329
              Total41857296157313,054

TYPE OF ACCIDENT—In the following table, accidents during 1979 have been analysed by type according to a classification recommended by the International Labour Organisation. In addition, the Accident Compensation Commission analyses work accidents by agency and source of injury, and non-work accidents by external cause of injury; classifications recommended by (respectively) the International Labour Organisation and the World Health Organisation. Since these 2 classifications are not compatible the analyses are not published here; however, specific information regarding the statistics is available on request from the commission.

Type of AccidentEarnerNon-earnerTotal
WorkNon-work
Fall—
    From bridge44210
    From building1630955
    From deck315119
    From furniture83187159429
    From gangway2316
    From horseback20735487648
    From ladder567405821054
    From pole77
    From roof1039211206
    From scaffolding190483241
    From tree255435114
    From cablecar (moving)6118
    From cablecar (stationary)66
    From motor vehicle (moving)57112421211934
    From motor vehicle (stationary)3428935466
    From train (moving)341136
    From train (stationary)48149
    From other vehicle or mobile machine (moving)69110085012200
    From other vehicle or mobile machine (stationary)151215177
    From any vehicle due to collision29653482912
    From wall59216
    On stairs or steps (while handling object)969323212
    On stairs or steps (other)92913894262744
    Through opening23427
    From other elevation9638494562268
    Into cavity or hole1668920275
    Into excavation, pit, quarry, or shaft43750
    Into tank or well11
            Total55786529206314,170
Slipping, tripping, stumbling, on same level—
    While handling object127617562643296
    Other2909466223089879
            Total41856418257213,175
Struck by falling object—
    Collapse of building, wall, chimney, scaffolding, goods, etc.238435
Cave-in66
    Other falls of coal, earth, rocks, etc.—
    In mine or quarry2323
    Avalanche257
    Other32234
    Object falling from load while loading or unloading12841133
    Object falling from stack while stacking or unstacking12611137
    Object falling due to collision112
    Falling tree, branch, or limb168183189
    Object dropped76917323965
    Other falling object48713726650
                  Total1765359572181
Stepping on object—
    Sharp object13631425475
    Other199657271
                  Total33537932746
Striking against object—
    Stationary object (excluding as a result of a fall)160310634513117
    Stationary object due to collision3647552561375
    Moving object99725826414220
                  Total2964440013488712
Struck by object (not falling object)—
    Flying particles or fragments, due to collision213
    Flying particles or fragments, other34011531486
    Motor vehicle74210515122305
    Other road vehicle or mobile machine1703126227
    Vehicle on rails2610541
    Rolling log48250
    Object thrown237360156
    Swinging load, hook, boom, etc.757183
    Hand tool485510171145986
    Other moving object2296449317108499
                  Total85756801246017,836
Caught in object—
    Block, sling, or rope3614353
    Coupling or hook29231
    Door, due to collision106521
    Door, gate, lid, etc.31919367579
    Machinery under power1892279662237
    Machinery over-running6118
    Machinery at rest68977
    Other machine or appliance50017951730
                  Total28606831933736
Caught between objects—
    Stationary object and object handled6128911712
    Stationary object and moving motor vehicle3141274
    Stationary object and stationary motor vehicle231437
    Stationary object and other moving vehicle or mobile machine826189
    Stationary object and other stationary vehicle or mobile machine22426
    Stationary object and moving rail vehicle23124
    Stationary object and stationary rail vehicle1212
    Stationary object and other moving object2011198328
    Moving object (not falling or flying object)53492104
                  Total1059323241406
Over-exertion—
    Lifting rail vehicle66
    Lifting other object5088736615885
    Pushing or pulling rail vehicle55
    Pushing or pulling hand truck771087
    Pushing or pulling other object69013211833
    Operating machinery1032105
    Use of hand tool7191687894
    Handling or throwing object945156151116
    Strenuous or sudden movement311231892526553
                  Total10,745439334615,484
Repetitive movement444585507
Exposure to heat—
    Sun2911
                  Total2911
Exposure to cold—
    Snow or ice, outdoor11
    Atmospheric, outdoor
    Environmental, indoor213
                  Total224
Contact with heat or cold—
    Hot liquid51632293931
    Molten metal983101
    Controlled flames (blowlamp, etc.)7716295
    Other flames12421067401
    Other hot substances or objects22515428407
    Very cold substances or objects112
                  Total10417061901937
Exposure to or contact with electricity—
    Contact with electric current4615667
    Exposure to lightning
    Exposure to electric flash1515
    Exposure to welding glare16117
                  Total7715799
Harmful material, substance, or radiation—
    Contact with sharp material or object234514331623940
    Contact with chemical240244268
    Inhalation of gas, fumes, etc.633470
    Absorption of other harmful substance12394136
    Exposure to radiation44
    Other4322671
                  Total281414951804489
Miscellaneous types of accidents—
    Explosion5636698
    Exposure to noise or vibration18232187
    Exposure to air pressure713222
    Immersion25256110
    Occupational dermatitis173173
    Other occupational disease314314
    Other, occupational305305
    Physical violence18213081821672
    Venomous bite or sting166426
    Other animal violence28716950506
                  Total152415873023413
Other, ill-defined, or not stated2757359723178671
                  Total46,72737,75412,09696,577

INJURIES—At the time of going to press, analysis of the injuries resulting from compensated work accidents in 1979 had not been completed. The following table sets out similar information for 1977 accidents. It is based on the World Health Organisation's International Classification of Diseases. This classification sometimes requires 2 or more injury sites to be amalgamated, as will be apparent from the table following. Future statistics will use the commission's own classification, which enables any site to be shown separately. Since these statistics were extracted after a greater interval following the year-end than were the 1979 figures, the two should not be compared.

A similar analysis of injuries from compensated work injuries in 1979 is now available from the Accident Compensation Commission, Private Bag, Wellington.

Site of InjuryType of Injury
Amputation or Enucleation (Traumatic)Bum or ScaldContusion or Crushing (With Intact skin)Dislocation (without Fracture)Effect of Foreign Body Entering OrificeFracture (Including Fracture Dislocation)Superficial InjuryInjury to Internal Organ (Includes Brain)Laceration or Open WoundInjury to Nerve or Spinal CordFracture of Spine with Cord LesionSprain or Strain (Joint or Adjacent Muscle)Toxic or Adverse EffectOther or UnspecifiedTotal
* Includes 908 inguinal hernias and 44 other hernias of abdominal cavity (all without mention of obstruction).
Head—
 Brain—               
  Concussion299299
  Other8181
 Cranial bones—               
 Face142142
 Other46569
Eye or orbit565833739611415241272
Other, multiple, ill defined42112532711
     Total510719543782079638044126241863
Neck, trunk—
 Sacral spine, sacro-iliac region4093415751105063376713,115
 Back/spine, other, or n.o.d.78775
 Heart, lung(s)121
 Other internal organ(s)4131
 Rib, sternum575
 Pelvic region, n.e.c.655988
 Other, multiple, ill defined311022
     Total40934582851152325063310532213,115
Upper limb—
 Clavicle175175
 Shoulder, scapula22126418953184124149920,445
 Upper arm171
 Elbow468291506735411
 Forearm52645
 Wrist404375589812281
 Hand4261015173231,545
 Finger4561,11210377506,81118
 Thumb119 
Multiple, ill defined7261711106
      Total5826252,270356306312429,1411683,277220,726
Lower limb—
 Hip, including neck of femur5581443165641316221012,197
 Thigh, femur67120
 Knee7995109424052
 Lower leg4389
 Ankle30404323221
 Foot270213501186301
 Toe103441231
Multiple, ill defined7 433313
      Total195582145138194859917131324938712,197
Multiple—
 Head with limb552536117
 Head with trunk1
 Trunk with limb51181113147
 Upper with lower limb2131236
 More than two sections of body5151
      Total1573107786351
Other—
 Adverse effect of medicinal agent55
 Lead poisoning2929
 Other toxic effect4444
 Other adverse effect387387
 Occupational disease—               
  Leptospirosis203203
  Noise-induced hearing loss9595
  Brucellosis3636
  Infectious hepatitis2626
  Other3333
      Total465393858
 Not adequately defined4033810212110267351,9064063,018
      Total606,15275,8856003836,1652,09853411,4728673320,65946783252,128
          
299299
8181
142142
6569
9611415241272
32711
2079638044126241863
15751105063376713115
78775
21
131
575
655988
311022
82851152325063310,532213,115
175175
53184124149920445
171
1506735411
52645
5589812281
5173231545
1037750681118
 
261711106
3063124291411683277220,726
5641316221012197
67120
95109424052
4389
404323221
501186301
3441231
433313
194859917131324938712,197
2536117
1
81113147
131236
51
107786351
55
2929
4444
387387
203203
9595
3636
2626
3333
465393858
121102673519064063018
6165209853411,4728673320,65946783252,128

35 C—FARM ACCIDENTS

While the increasing mechanisation on 69400 farm holdings in 1978 is principally responsible for the high output per unit of labour engaged in farm production, it is equally responsible for the high number of accidents to persons associated with agricultural production.

Normal farm activities and the bringing into production of new land utilised in 1977 some 33000 trucks, 52000 disc harrows, 89000 agricultural tractors, and 20000 fertiliser spreaders. These have taken a high annual toll in accidents and deaths. These figures are further aggravated by the use of some 50000 chain saws, 32000 farm bikes, and large numbers of chemical-spraying plants.

The increasing use of chemicals in agriculture for weed control, and as pesticides and therapeutants, has added to the hazards to which those engaged in the agricultural industry are subjected. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries undertakes educational activities to endeavour to reduce the accident rates.

Tables in this section present information compiled by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health on accidents and deaths sustained on farms. Domestic accidents or accidents in farm homes are excluded.

Accidents on Farms—The following table shows the number of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals in 1978 after treatment for injuries sustained in farm accidents (excluding motor vehicle accidents). Readmissions are included.

Cause of AccidentsAge of Patients (In Years)Total Patients
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
Machinery, n.e.c.1193123680
Falls6144603614215
Animals191151914812493
Accidental poisoning1016119248
Firearms23510
Fire and flames7551119
Hot substances, corrosive liquids, or steam1042218
Struck by falling object5142110353
Cutting or piercing instruments186674317196
Other and unspecified farm mishaps58961195615344
                Total, 1978363418419216601476

Deaths from Accidents on Farms—Causes of deaths from accidents on farms are shown in the following table. Injured persons who died after admission to a public hospital are also included in the preceding table. (Motor vehicle accidents on farms are included.) Detailed figures for later years were not available at the time of going to press.

Cause of Fatal AccidentAge of Deceased (In Years)Total Deaths
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
197319741973197419731974197319741973197419731974
Farm machinery5452472741624
Electric current1212
Falls131133
Firearms1111132
Blow from falling or projected object12322275
Drowning or submersion44
Other and unspecified53311312145
              Total1711103910711564841

35 D—OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

GENERAL—The legislation on occupational safety is principally contained in the following statutes (and the regulations made under them). The last two items were actually made under the Public Works Act 1928 but are always quoted in their own right.

The Factories Act 1946, section 44 to 79; the Machinery Act 1950; the Bush Workers Act 1945; the Construction Act 1959; the Shops and Offices Act 1955, First Schedule; the Accident Compensation Act 1972; the Coal Mines Act 1925; the Mining Act 1971; the Explosives Act 1957; the Dangerous Goods Act 1974; the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950; the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952; the Quarries Act 1944; the Health Act 1956 in so far as it relates to occupational health (see Section 5A); the Petroleum Act 1937; the Geothermal Energy Act 1953; the Electricians Act 1952; the Electric Linemen Act 1959; the Agricultural Workers Act 1977; the Electrical Wiring Regulations 1976; and the Electrical Supply Regulations 1967.

Department of Labour—This department has the largest overall responsibility for the prevention of accidents in industry. The principal statutes it administers are: the Factories Act 1946, which is concerned with safety, health, and welfare in factories; the Construction Act 1959, which covers safety, health, and welfare of workmen on construction work as defined in the Act; and the Machinery Act 1950, which is concerned with the inspection of all machinery (with some exceptions covered by other legislation) in work places and the safety of persons working with such machinery. The department also administers regulations under these Acts, and other statutes dealing with specific spheres of occupational safety, health, and welfare, e.g. the Bush Workers Act 1945, the Agricultural Workers Act 1977 (section 6) and the Shops and Offices Act 1955. In addition the department supervises more than 1225 collective agreements and awards, many of which include specific safety, health, and welfare provisions relating to particular occupations and processes.

The administration of this safety legislation is based primarily on regular inspection of work places and requisitioning for improvements, together with investigation of reported breaches of legislation by employers and workers and investigation of a large number of accidents including serious and fatal accidents in industries coming within the scope of the legislation. The department employs some 186 inspectors of factories (including 10 who specialise in bush undertakings), together with some 55 safety inspectors appointed under the Construction Act 1959, all of whom are qualified by special examination. Their work is substantially preventive. The department also engages in a large amount of occupational safety education.

A Joint Committee on Occupational Health and Safety of the Departments of Labour and Health and the Accident Compensation Commission ensures that the educational work in this field is co-ordinated and that unnecessary overlapping of functions is avoided.

Machinery Act—The Machinery Act 1950, with certain exceptions, applies to all machinery and places an obligation on the owners of machines to securely fence moving and dangerous parts. The Act also covers amusement devices, which require a certificate from a registered engineer that the device is mechanically and structurally safe for the purpose intended. The Act also requires the testing and certification of tractor safety frames used in agricultural operations.

Construction Act—The Construction Act 1959, the provisions of which are in addition to and not in substitution for the safety provisions of any other Act, promotes the safety and welfare of persons engaged in construction work, a description which covers a wide variety of work including new construction, maintenance, and demolition of buildings, roads, harbour works, railways, canals, bridges, dams, pipelines, earthworks, etc. Certificates of competency are issued after examination to scaffolders, safety supervisors, construction blasters, and powder-powered tool operators.

A register of divers competent and fit to undertake underwater construction work is maintained.

Explosives and Dangerous Goods Acts—Responsibility for the administration of the Explosives Act 1957 and the Dangerous Goods Act 1974 was transferred to the Department of Labour from the Department of Internal Affairs with effect from 1 April 1979.

Ministry of Transport: Safety of Ships—A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960 and the International Load Line Convention 1930, to both of which New Zealand is a signatory. Both conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters.

Aircraft—The Ministry of Transport is responsible for promoting the safety of aircraft and crews engaged in private and commercial carriage of the public and commercial carriage of goods, including agricultural aviation.

Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes—All boilers and power cranes are inspected and certificated once a year and lifts twice a year. In the calendar year 1978 there were 25496 inspections of boilers and unfired pressure vessels, 6555 inspections of lifts, and 4209 inspections of cranes. Sixty-three accident investigations were carried out under the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act.

Ministry of Energy—The Mining Act 1971 and the Quarries Act 1944 make provision for the safety of persons working in mines (both underground and opencast) and in quarries. The definition of a quarry covers the construction of electric power generation works, dams for public water supply, tunnels, and opencast coal quarries.

The ministry is also responsible for the administration of Acts designed to ensure the safety of electrical apparatus and installations and of electrical workers.

Ministry of Works and Development—On each major construction project the Ministry of Works and Development appoints a senior technical officer to act in the capacity of safety officer.

Occupational Health Centres—The Department of Health provides occupational health centres at strategic points in Auckland, Rotorua, Mount Maunganui, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Attendances at occupational health centres and waterfront clinics in 1978 totalled 22504 first attendances and 21452 re-attendances.

Chapter 36. Section 36 COOK ISLANDS, NIUE, AND TOKELAU

General—The Cook Islands were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1888 and in 1901 they were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand under the Colonial Boundaries Act 1895. In 1965, under United Nations supervision, the people of the Cook Islands in an act of self-determination opted for a status of full self-government in free association with New Zealand.

Niue was also brought within the boundaries of New Zealand in 1901 and in 1974, also in an act of self-determination under United Nations supervision, opted for a similar status to that of the Cook Islands.

The Governments of the Cook Islands and Niue enjoy exclusive legislative and executive competence in all matters. They are free to amend their own constitutions and by their own unilateral act to opt for complete severance of the free association status at any time. The people of the Cook Islands and Niue remain New Zealand citizens and accordingly have a free right of entry to New Zealand. Under the constitutional relationship New Zealand has agreed to act on behalf of the Cook Islands and Niuean Governments, after consultation with the Premiers, in matters of foreign affairs and defence. However, New Zealand does not retain any reserve powers in these fields. Moreover in a wide and growing range of matters (including the conclusion of treaties and membership of regional organisations) the Cook Islands and Niue deal independently in matters of foreign affairs.

Tokelau was formerly part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. It was administered by New Zealand on behalf of Britain from 1925 until 1949 when it became part of New Zealand. The people of Tokelau are New Zealand citizens. Tokelau is a non-self-governing territory. However a system of self-administration has been introduced. Reports on Tokelau are forwarded annually to the United Nations and in June 1976 a delegation from the UN Committee on Decolonisation visited Tokelau at New Zealand's invitation to gather facts and ascertain the wishes and aspirations of the people.

COOK ISLANDS: Descriptive—There are 15 islands in the Cook Group, scattered over an area of some 2204000 square kilometres of ocean, and extending from Penrhyn, situated 9° south of the equator, to Mangaia, which is just north of the Tropic of Capricorn. The Cook Islands are bounded on the east and west by the 156th and 167th meridians of the west longitude respectively, and on the north and south by the 8th and 23rd parallels of south latitude. The total land area of the 15 islands is approximately 236 square kilometres.

Of the islands of the Southern Group, Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Atiu, Mitiaro, Mauke, and Mangaia are elevated and fertile, while Manuae and Takutea and the islands of the Northern Group, comprising Penrhyn, Manihiki, Rakahanga, Pukapuka, Palmerston, Nassau, and Suwarrow, are sea-level coral atolls. As a consequence the southern islands support the greater population. The Northern Group island of Penrhyn possesses a good harbour while Avatiu harbour in Rarotonga can accommodate vessels of approximately 1000 tons.

All of the Cook Islands lie within the hurricane zone, and a number of destructive storms have been experienced. The Cook Islands are covered by a meteorological service with headquarters in Fiji, and advance warning of the intensity and path of tropical storms is available and enables precautions to be taken to protect life and property. From December to March the climate is warm and humid, and there is always the possibility of serious storms. In the remaining months of the year the climate of the Southern Group is mild and equable. The mean annual temperature in Rarotonga taken over the last 40 years was 23.6°c, and the average yearly rainfall over the same period was 213.4 cm.

Administration: Executive Government—The Executive Government of the Cook Islands is vested in the Crown. The Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964 provides for the appointment by the Governor-General of a High Commissioner of the Cook Islands as the representative of Her Majesty the Queen in the Cook Islands, and also as the representative of the Government of New Zealand. The Chief Justice of the Cook Islands presently holds the position, in terms of the Constitution, as acting Representative of the Head of State, while the New Zealand Government has its own office headed by the New Zealand Representative.

Executive Government lies with a Cabinet of Ministers comprising the Premier of the Cook Islands and six other Ministers. The Premier is appointed by the High Commissioner as the member of the Assembly commanding the confidence of the majority of members in the Assembly, and the other Ministers are appointed by the High Commissioner on the advice of the Premier. An Executive Council of the Cook Islands, consisting of the High Commissioner of the Cook Islands and the members of Cabinet, may be summoned by the High Commissioner or the Premier to consider any Cabinet decision, and has power to ask Cabinet to reconsider its decisions. If Cabinet, after reconsideration, reaffirms its original decision, this decision is forthwith put into operation.

The departments of the Cook Islands Government are structured in the following Ministries: Finance; Health; Education; Immigration; Agriculture and Fisheries; Energy Resources; Trade, Industries, Labour, and Commerce; Internal Affairs; Justice; Police; Civil Defence and Traffic; Works; Survey; Conservation and Parks; Sports and Recreation; Culture; and External Affairs. The Premier is responsible for the portfolios of Civil Aviation, External Affairs, and Finance.

The House of Ariki—The House of Ariki of the Cook Islands consists of up to 15 Ariki, representing all islands in the group, and is required to meet at least once every 12 months. The House considers any matters relative to the welfare of the people of the Cook Islands which may be submitted to it for consideration by the Legislative Assembly and has such other functions as may be prescribed by law.

Island Councils—Island councils exist in each of the main islands of the Cook Islands and have done so for many years. All island councils were reconstituted by the Local Government Act 1966, the major effect of which was to provide that the chairman was to be elected from among the councils' members. Previously the Resident Agent (except on Rarotonga) was Chairman ex officio. The Resident Agents are still members ex officio, but without vote, and their primary function is of advisers.

The councils meet regularly and are empowered to make bylaws for the imposition of tolls, rates, taxes, and other charges (except customs duties); to regulate, control, or prohibit many activities; and to carry out various works and services on each island.

Legislative Government—The Legislative Assembly of the Islands, as constituted by the Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964, consists of 22 members, all elected by secret ballot under a system of universal suffrage by the electors of the following islands: three members from Aitutaki and Manuae; two members each from Atiu and Mangaia; one member each from Manihiki, Mauke, Mitiaro, Penrhyn, and Rakahanga; one member from Pukapuka and Nassau; nine members from Rarotonga and Palmerston.

General elections are normally held at 4-yearly intervals. There is a common roll for both Maoris and non-Maoris. The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly is elected by members from persons within or without the assembly.

The Legislative Assembly may make Acts for the peace, order, and good government of the Cook Islands. (These powers extend to the making of laws having extra-territorial operation.) The responsibilities of the Crown in right of New Zealand for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands are discharged after consultation by the Prime Minister of New Zealand with the Premier of the Cook Islands.

The Constitution of the Cook Islands is the supreme law of the Cook Islands and the Legislative Assembly alone has power to amend or repeal it. Such repeal or amendment, however, can only be made by a two-thirds affirmative vote of the Assembly followed by an interval of not less than 90 days.

Health—All Cook Islanders receive free medical and surgical treatment. School and pre-school children also receive free dental treatment.

Although lying within the tropics, the Cook Islands are singularly free from the common diseases prevalent in other tropical islands. Malaria is unknown, but filariasis is endemic, and this provides the main health problem of the group.

A general hospital equipped with dispensary, X-rays, and laboratory facilities, is maintained in Rarotonga. In the outer islands dispensaries with accommodation for a few patients are operated by assistant medical practitioners. Cottage hospitals have been built at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mauke, Penrhyn, Manihiki, Pukapuka, find Mangaia.

Education—Primary education in the Cook Islands is provided by the Government, the Roman Catholic Mission, and the Seventh Day Adventist Mission. The Government also provides secondary education.

Education is free, compulsory, and secular from the time of a child's sixth birthday to his fifteenth birthday. In 1979 the total number of pupils on the rolls was 6881, and there were 373 teachers.

Population and Vital Statistics—The Cook Islands Maori is Polynesian and has a common ethnic origin with the New Zealand Maori. There is a strong resemblance between the two peoples in tradition, language, and custom. Many of the tribes in both places are able to trace their descent back to a common ancestor.

A census of the Cook Islands, taken in December 1976, recorded a total population of 18112, a decrease of 3211 on the population recorded at the 1971 Census. The main drop was in 1973 and 1974 following the opening of the international airport. Recent quarterly estimates suggest that the population has stabilised for the time being at around 18513–9587 males and 8926 females. Details of population of the islands of the group as at December 1976 are set out in the following table.

IslandArea Sq kmMalesFemalesTotal
Rarotonga67.08509947129811
Aitutaki18.13120712072414
Mangaia51.807737571530
Atiu26.947006121312
Mauke18.39341369710
Mitiaro22.27163142305
Manuae6.22
Palmerston2.07252853
Pukapuka1.29373413786
Nassau1.295756113
Manihiki5.44132131263
Rakahanga4.14142141283
Penrhyn9.84274257531
Suwarrow1.15211
Takatea0.29
        Total236.709287882518,112

Labour and Employment—On the atolls in the Northern Group the people subsist largely on coconuts and fish, and apart from making copra, there is little opportunity for them to engage in other economic pursuits. It is in the fertile islands of the Southern Group that most of the population is concentrated, and labour is required for the growing, harvesting, packing, and shipment of fruit. As most of the land in these islands is held by family groups under customary title, many of the people are engaged in work on their own plantations. There is, however, opportunity for wage and salary earners in Government departments, in plantation work, in the handling of fruit for export, and in commerce.

In Rarotonga secondary industries have been established in the form of 2 clothing factories, a fruit cannery, and factories manufacturing local artifacts. Products from these industries are exported to the New Zealand market.

Agriculture—Fresh fruit exports include bananas and mandarins, and canned pineapple and fruit juices processed locally have become major exports. Agricultural statistics are limited. The first agricultural census was taken in Rarotonga in 1975. The following figures of areas planted in major crops are taken from that census: citrus fruits, 249 hectares; coconuts, 151 hectares; maniota, 65 hectares; taro, 58 hectares; and kumaras, 35 hectares. In addition, other vegetables, melons, pawpaws, and other fruit are grown. In the group as a whole, it is estimated that 5747 hectares are growing coconuts and 598 hectares citrus fruit.

Transport and Communications—The New Zealand Shipping Corporation operates fortnightly shipping services between the Cook Islands and New Zealand ports.

An international airport was opened for full international services in December 1973. Rarotonga is connected by jet service with Auckland, Nadi, Apia, Tahiti, and Honolulu; and by turboprop with Niue. Air New Zealand flies in 4 times a week, and there are regular services between Rarotonga and the principal islands run by Cook Islands Airways.

Radio communication has largely removed the former isolation of the islands, there being now no permanently inhabited island without a radio station. The chief station is Rarotonga Radio, which maintains direct communication with the substations and with Wellington, Apia, and Suva. Postal and telegraph services are available in all the islands. There is a telephone service in Rarotonga and smaller services operate on Aitutaki and Mangaia.

Trade—There is free trade between the Cook Islands and New Zealand, which takes almost all the exports of the Cook Islands and supplies over 80 percent of their imports. Import Licences are required for goods imported from countries other than New Zealand.

The principal exports are fruit juice, canned fruit, and fruit pulp; copra; and bananas. The main imports are foodstuffs, followed by drapery and piece goods, petrol and oil, and vehicles and spares.

Tourism—Following the establishment of an international airport at Rarotonga, high-class hotel accommodation has been built to accommodate the growing tourist trade. Visitor arrivals have increased from 2882 in 1973 to 17913 in 1978.

Public Finance—The New Zealand Government has continued to give financial aid to the Cook Islands Government through grants for social services and ordinary administrative expenditure, plus grants and loans for capital works and economic development. The level of aid is reviewed triennially.

NIUE: Descriptive—Niue Island, discovered by Captain Cook in 1774, became part of New Zealand in 1901. The island is situated in latitude 19°2' south and longitude 169°52' west, approximately 483 km east of Tonga, 653 km south-east of Samoa, and 933 km west of Rarotonga. The island, which has an area of 26265 hectares, is an elevated coral outcrop with a coral reef fringing a precipitous and broken coastline. The central saucer-shaped plateau, rising to a height of 67 m, is encircled by a narrow terrace about 27 m above sea level. The soil, though fertile, is not plentiful, and this feature, combined with the rocky and broken nature of the country, makes cultivation difficult. The climate is mild and equable, but the island is in the hurricane belt. The mean annual temperature is 24.7°C, and the average rainfall is 217.7 cm.

Administration—On 19 October 1974 (Constitution Day), Niue became self-governing in free association with New Zealand. The Leader of Government became the Premier of Niue and the Executive Committee became the Cabinet. Under the Constitution the Niue Assembly consists of 20 members elected by universal suffrage, 14 members each representing a village constituency, and 6 members elected on a common roll.

Population—Niueans are Polynesians with close ethnic ties with the Tongans and Samoans. The language is a Polynesian dialect peculiar to the island, but closely related to that of Tonga and Samoa, with some elements from eastern Polynesia. Niueans are New Zealand citizens. The population at the last census (28 September 1976) was 3843; by the end of 1979 it had dropped to an estimated 3500. The continued decline is principally due to emigration to New Zealand, but also attributable to a falling birth rate.

The principal exports of Niue are passion fruit, limes, copra, plaited ware, and honey. The bulk of the trade is with New Zealand.

TOKELAU: Descriptive—Situated some 480 kilometres to the north of Western Samoa, between 8° and 10° south latitude and between 171° and 173° west longitude, forming a border area between Micronesia and Polynesia, are the 3 atoll islands of Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo, of the Tokelau Group. A fourth island, Olohega, belonging to the United States of America and lying 160 kilometres to the south of Fakaofo, completes the group.

Each atoll is composed of a number of coral islets surrounding a central lagoon. These islets vary in size from 100 metres in length, while none is wider than 400 metres nor, with but few exceptions, higher than 3 metres above sea level. The land area of each atoll is approximately as follows: Fakaofo, 263 hectares; Atafu, 202 hectares; Nukunonu, 546 hectares. The atolls do not lie in close proximity, there being 64 kilometres of open sea between Fakaofo and Nukunonu, and 92 kilometres between Nukunonu and Atafu.

Owing to the absence of humus in the soil, the vegetation is practically restricted to coconut palms, although one islet of each atoll is reserved for growing the tauanave, a short stubby tree, which yields to the people of Tokelau their only timber for the construction of canoes and utensils.

Administration—Tokelau was included under the protection of Great Britain in 1877. In 1916 the islands, at the request of the inhabitants, were formally annexed to Great Britain by an Order in Council, which also extended the boundaries of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony to include the Tokelau Group (then known as the Union Islands) and their dependencies. The group was governed by the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific and administered by the District Officer at Funafuti, in the Ellice Group. In 1925 the New Zealand Government, at the request of the British Government, agreed to administer the islands. By Order in Council the group was separated from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and by a further Order in Council in the same year the Governor-General of New Zealand was empowered to make laws for its peace, order, and good government.

By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 the Tokelau Group was included within the territorial boundaries of New Zealand; legislative powers are now vested in the Governor-General in Council. In December 1976 the territory was officially redesignated ‘Tokelau’, the name by which it has customarily been known to its inhabitants. The inhabitants of Tokelau are New Zealand citizens.

Because of the very restricted economic and social future in the atolls, the Tokelauans agreed to a proposal put to them by the Minister of Island Territories in 1965 that over a period of years most of the population be resettled in New Zealand. Up to the end of March 1975, 528 migrants had entered New Zealand as permanent residents under Government sponsorship. Many others have settled in New Zealand of their own accord. However, as a result of the assisted resettlement scheme, overpopulation is not at present a problem and, in 1975, with a decline in the number of people seeking resettlement assistance and a threat of social distortion through the drain of able-bodied manpower to New Zealand becoming apparent, the scheme was suspended.

Village affairs are managed by the Council of Elders (“fono”) comprising representatives of the families, and this body also exerts influence over the “aumaga” or village labour force. In this way the traditional form of patriarchal authority has been preserved and regulates Tokelau society, performing a service alongside, and in addition to, the public duties of government which are carried out by local officials such as the Faipule and the Pulenuku.

Population—The people are closely allied to the Samoans. On 25 October 1976 a census showed a total population of 1575.

IslandMalesFemalesTotal
Atafu263283546
Fakaofo315351666
Nukunonu169194363
Total7478281575

General Economic Conditions—The physical characteristics of the atolls allow very little scope for economic development and the few natural resources are sufficient only to meet the needs of the simple pattern of life followed by the people. There has, until recent years, been little demand for the material standards of more developed countries, but increasing contacts with Western Samoa and New Zealand have stimulated a desire among the people for wider opportunities to advance their living standards.

The economy of Tokelau is based mainly on the resources of the sea and on the coconut and pandanus palms. Employment on the works programme has diverted much of the islands' labour force from food gathering and copra production although care is taken to limit such dislocation. Most families obtain part of their cash income from relatives working in New Zealand. Funds are also sent by the Tokelau communities in New Zealand for village and church projects.

Increased attention has been paid to revenue-earning possibilities such as stamps, coins and handicrafts, which are now regarded as the principal revenue earners.

Public Works—New hospital buildings on all 3 atolls were completed during 1976–77. Work is under way on the construction of a medical officer's house and nursing home at Atafu, and on nursing homes at Nukunonu and Fakaofo. A reef channel improvement programme is well under way, and administration buildings have been built on each island. To improve the supply of fresh water, additional water tanks have been installed in each village.

Land Tenure and Usage—The numerous uninhabited islets at each atoll are used as food plantations. Local timber is used for canoe making, house building, and domestic utensils, while woodwork and plaited ware are marketed on a small scale. The coconut palm, which is predominant in the atolls, provides a staple export in the form of copra.

Practically all land is held by customary tide in accordance with the customs and usages of the inhabitants. Land holdings pass from generation to generation within the families, being held by the head of a closely related family group, although some land is held in common.

Apart from the manufacture of copra, agricultural products are of a basic subsistence nature. Food crops consist of coconuts, pulaka, breadfruit, ta'amu, pawpaw, the fruit of the edible pandanus, and bananas. Numerous other seeds have been tested but because of the poverty of the soil very poor results were achieved.

Livestock consists of pigs which, except in Fakaofo, are kept apart from the village areas, and fowls. Ocean and lagoon fish and shellfish are available in quantity and form a staple constituent of the diet, the most common species of fish caught being tuna, bonito, trevally, and mullet.

Labour and Employment—Copra production and the manufacture of plaited ware and woodwork are the only industries and no supervision of employment conditions in these industries is necessary. Between trading calls the people devote their labour to procuring food from lagoon, ocean, or plantation, to village maintenance, and to the production of woven mats, fans, and curios. Many of the men also work on the Administration's building projects.

Housing Conditions—Most Tokelau houses are constructed of kanava and pandanus timbers with walls and roofs of plaited pandanus. The style of house is well suited to the climate.

The villages are well laid out. The people of Atafu live in one village which occupies part of a motu (islet). At Nukunonu the village occupies about half of one motu which is connected by bridge to a neighbouring motu where some families have settled.

The village at Fakaofo is situated on a small but comparatively high and well-shaded motu. To accommodate the increasing population at Fakaofo a new village has been established on a larger nearby motu, where the school, the hospital, and other facilities are located.

Health—The health authorities in Tokelau receive advice and guidance from Apia, the South Pacific Commission, and the World Health Organisation. Each atoll has its own medical staff. In addition, each atoll has an active women's committee, and to these committees much credit is due for their work in village health and sanitation.

Education—During 1978–79 there were 40 trained Tokelauan teachers and 15 teacher-aides in the islands. All necessary school equipment, stationery, and textbooks are supplied by the New Zealand Government; the schools also receive copies of the Samoan Teachers Monthly Guide and of Samoan and New Zealand School Journals. In addition, they are equipped with filmstrip and movie projectors and also with radio sets so that the daily educational broadcasts of the Western Samoan Education Department may be utilised. Attendance at schools is very close to 100 percent, parents being most enthusiastic in supporting the schools. Pre-school classes are run in each village.

Tokelauan pupils are included in the training scheme for education in New Zealand, and selected students also receive schooling and training in Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, and Fiji.

In January 1979 an expatriate education adviser was appointed for a term of 2 years to assist the Department of Education to review school curricula and to upgrade teaching standards, particularly in the senior classes.

Communications—Ship is the only means of transport between Tokelau and the outside world. Voyages between Western Samoa and Tokelau are made 5 or 6 times a year by an administration-chartered ship.

Radiotelegraph receivers and transmitters are operated on each atoll. In addition, radio receiving sets are installed in all villages and enable the people to listen to broadcasts from the Apia broadcasting station. Preparations have been completed for a radio-telephone link between the 2 inhabited islets of Fakaofo.

Trade and Finance—The value of copra exported for the year ended 31 March 1979 amounted to NZ$70,000. Apart from copra, the only other exports are handicrafts.

Revenue is derived principally from overseas remittances and from an export tax levied on copra. Other revenue is derived from an export tax on handicrafts, duty on imported goods, shipping and freight charges, radio and telegram services, and the sale of postage stamps and souvenir coins. Tokelau's earnings from these sources for the year ended 31 March 1979 was some NZ$248,000. New Zealand's financial aid to Tokelau in 1978–79 amounted to NZ$1.3 million.

Further Information—Fuller information on Tokelau will be found in the annual publication, Tokelau: Report of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Parl. paper E. 14).

Chapter 37. Section 37 TRAVEL AND TOURISM

EXPANSION OF TRAVEL AND TOURISM—Travel between countries in and around the Pacific has developed rapidly in recent years and international jet air services have made New Zealand fairly easily accessible to tourists of all countries. During the last two decades the tourist industry has become the fastest growing sector in international commerce; in some countries it has become the largest industry. The industry has grown so fast and is having such an impact on the international balance of payments that the economics of tourism are receiving increasing attention.

In New Zealand a healthy domestic tourist industry has led to the growth of all services necessary for New Zealand's wider participation in this expanding industry. There has been a considerable surge in building of hotels and motels and the provision of complementary transport and other service facilities. New scenic routes have been developed, while facilities have been improved and extended in major resort areas. There is a network of convenient air services.

Various travel associations (the Pacific Area Travel Association, for example) and international airlines have predicted that the Pacific area will experience a higher than average rate of growth in tourism during the remaining years of this century. This prediction is based on the belief that, as traditional holiday areas become overcrowded, travellers will seek new destinations in relatively unspoiled areas.

Travel Arrivals and New Zealand Residents Departing Temporarily—Overseas travel, once largely the prerogative of the wealthy or adventurous, is now within the reach of a large proportion of the population in developed countries. Between 1965 and 1970 the surge in overseas travel resulted in almost doubling the annual total of overseas visitors to New Zealand. In more recent years the rate of increase has declined, reflecting less favourable conditions on the world economic scene.

At the end of 19/3 the Tourism Advisory Council, an advisory body to the Government, predicted an average increase in visitor arrivals for New Zealand of 8 percent through the 1980s. Currently this target is being met, but rising fuel prices and air fares may lead to a slower rate of growth in the future.

The following table shows overseas visitors to New Zealand during recent years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTouristsPersons on BusinessTemporary Work or Working HolidayOtherTotal Overseas Visitors*
Holiday or VacationStay with Relations or FriendsTotal
* Does not include through passengers, defined as passengers (mainly on cruise snips) who do not stay ashore in New Zealand. They totalled 117 441 in 1974–75, 136927 in 1975–76, 140920 in 1976–77, 162733 in 1977–78, and 176566 in 1978–79.
1975217,96567,367285,33234,44621,31320,103361,194
1976243,24869,576312,82437,98610,95022,826384,586
1977236,49069,888306,37839,838846825,538380,222
1978234,59274,840309,43244,060901228,436390,940
1979247,48376,701324,18444,88213,93135,747418,744

New Zealand residents departing temporarily (i.e., for less than 12 months) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchTouristsPersons on BusinessTemporary Work or Working HolidayOtherTotal N.Z. Residents Departing Temporarily
Holiday or VacationStay with Relations or FriendsTotal
1975151,07149,879200,95028,19511,7079032249,884
1976136,70850,362187,07031,39410,56011,634240,658
1977136,92450,150187,07433,17211,59213,160244,998
1978153,20064,268217,46837,99212,37216,452284,284
1979193,02865,900258,92846,49216,55221,792343,764

Some of the permanent movement shown in migration statistics in Section 3 concerns travel. Persons intending to be absent for 12 months or more are shown as permanent departures; when they return to New Zealand after 12 months' absence they are shown as immigrants intending permanent residence. Persons arriving on working holidays or for educational purposes are not normally classified internationally as visitors or tourists.

Auckland is the main point of arrival and receives initially 68 percent of all visitors: most of the visitors arrive by air.

Travel Receipts and Payments—Travel receipts and payments (excluding fares) as recorded by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchAustraliaUnited StatesCanadaUnited KingdomJapanOtherTotal
 NZ$(million)
 Receipts
197694.224.12.012.50.89.4143.1
1977102.635.42.410.41.48.6160.8
197894.738.42.313.72.39.3160.7
197999.234.02.516.92.510.8165.9
 Payments
197670.029.53.148.11.141.6193.4
197788.043.14.853.21.654.4245.1
1978115.546.24.266.42.165.6300.0
1979155.363.46.387.52.273.7388.3

From a survey made by the Tourist and Publicity Department a few years ago it was estimated that overseas visitor expenditure in New Zealand during the 12 months ended October 1973 was $76.7 million. This was broken down into expenditure per visitor from selected countries and regions as shown in the following table.

ItemVisitors from
AustraliaUnited Stales and CanadaUnited KingdomJapanEuropeOther
Total expenditure ($m)41.717.94.71.42.28.8
Expenditure per tourist ($)—
    Accommodation1068974969173
    Meals353637273835
    Transport576648465650
    Excursions12798107
    Social181225142016
    Souvenirs and gifts373231332229
    Personal9793520
    Other1620931610
                Total290269242230258240
Average length of stay (days)16.511.327.45.716.620.0

This survey refers to all overseas visitors. In addition to tourists, it includes persons from overseas visiting relatives or friends, and expenditure by persons in New Zealand on business.

Countries of Origin—The countries or areas of origin of all visitors other than through passengers to New Zealand during years ended 31 March are given in the following table.

Country1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79
Australia213,301231,358222,804216,444217,776
Canada12,23012,55012,87012,80813,524
United States46,31349,54052,36454,28858,908
United Kingdom23,68726,41225,46827,96428,664
Other countries65,66364,72666,71679,43699,872
All countries361,194384,586380,222390,940418,744

Visitors who are not New Zealanders require permits to enter the country, and temporary permits or student permits are issued as appropriate. Those people who are accorded the right of free entry are not required to apply to make visits. They are granted entry on arrival. Others may make visits without visas under agreements we have entered into with a number of countries, including Japan and United States. Residents of other countries must obtain entry authorities before they set out and these are obtained through the various New Zealand posts overseas. The British posts also have some authority to act in the absence of an accredited New Zealand post. Short-term visitors are asked to submit to very little formality. Those coming under the visa abolition agreements must intend remaining no longer than the periods set out in the agreements, which vary from 30 days to 3 months, and all visitors must have sufficient funds for maintenance, and fully paid tickets which will take them out of the country.

In 1978–7951 percent of New Zealanders touring overseas went to Australia, and 10 percent to Fiji. In order of popularity, Fiji was followed by the United Kingdom, with 9 percent, and the United States, also with 9 percent. The balance was spread over a large number of countries.

Internal Tourism—The Tourist and Publicity Department estimates that New Zealanders' aggregate expenditure on holiday travel within New Zealand is of the order of $300 million annually. This includes accommodation and miscellaneous holiday expenditure.

ACCOMMODATION IN NEW ZEALAND—Accommodation has been developed by the private and public sector, with the Government's Tourist Hotel Corporation (THC) operating establishments in 12 areas. The THC has mainly concentrated its activities in isolated resort areas where private enterprise finds it uneconomic to operate. The development by both sectors has provided hotels of an excellent standard in all main centres and resorts. These establishments usually operate on a room-only basis with meals as an optional extra.

There are large numbers of high standard motor hotels and motels throughout New Zealand and scores of motor camps.

Motor camping is a popular form of holidaymaking during the summer months (December to Easter). Campers provide their own tents and equipment (a number of companies specialise in hiring out camping equipment) and the camps provide community washing, cooking, and toilet facilities. Some camps offer limited cabin accommodation.

Tourist arrivals are highest from October to March. These arrivals, taken in conjunction with the demand from the New Zealand summer holiday period, can impose a strain on available hotel accommodation at the major tourist resorts.

Inventory of Accommodation—An inventory of accommodation has been compiled by the Tourist and Publicity Department. It relates only to hotels licensed to supply liquor and to motels. Licensed hotels have been grouped, as far as possible, according to physical standards provided:

Group 1—are hotels having all or most rooms with private bath/shower and toilet, ample good quality public rooms, and excellent standards of maintenance.

Group 2—are hotels of good overall quality. They have a sufficient proportion of their rooms with private bath/shower and toilet to meet normal demands from people requiring these facilities. A much greater proportion than of Group 1 are older hotels.

Group 3—are hotels providing good, simple accommodation but which are not able to be included in Groups 1 and 2.

Establishments of a motel character having a tourist hotel licence or restaurant licence are counted as hotels in that they may provide hotel facilities for their guests. Motel units when run as pan of a hotel are included as accommodation of that hotel.

Motels are defined as establishments providing self-contained units or apartments with bath/shower and toilet. They may include kitchen and dining-room facilities. They may (but usually do not) provide restaurant services on the premises. Tourist flats and holiday flats which do not supply ready made-up beds, and where linen, etc., is available for hire, are excluded.

Private hotels and guest houses (also holiday flats not catering for overnight travellers) have not been included. Private hotels and guest houses, however, provide a significant proportion (up to 20 percent) of all available commercial accommodation. In the following table statistics for licensed hotels and motels are set out by regional areas, as at 31 March 1979.

RegionRooms in Licensed HotelsUnits in Motels
Group 1Group 2Group 3
Northland298225228983
Auckland18792142241563
Waikato152195129591
King Country23624515745
Coromandel-Thames2625138321
Rotorua - Bay of Plenty8374441891639
Taupo18413761476
East Coast61186179236
Hawke's Bay25276229541
Taranaki20250220360
Wanganui - Tongariro National Park165146180242
Manawatu-Horowhenua16049153403
Wairarapa617691
Wellington1025284201499
Marlborough15380158381
Nelson233171336
Westland411183189353
North and Mid Canterbury944438322867
South Canterbury-North Otago54786217370
Otago1205327272770
Southland182123173259
Fiordland472101
            Total96853513386611,427

NOTE-–Licensed hotels are here grouped principally according to availability of rooms with private facilities: Group 1—all or most rooms so equipped; Group 2—sufficient private facilities for general availability; Group 3—a smaller proportion of rooms with private facilities.

Assistance to the Hotel Industry—Between 1962 and 1973 the New Zealand Government made available loan and guarantee finance to encourage the building of new hotels and motor hotels and the extension of existing hotels in areas where there was a shortage of accommodation.

Under this scheme, the Government made available $14.8 million by way of loan guarantees and $3.9 million by way of loans, resulting in the availability of an additional 3493 first class beds. Provision for guarantees was reintroduced in 1976.

A similar scheme of financial assistance in respect of tourist facilities other than accommodation was introduced in 1969 for both loans and guarantees, to encourage private enterprise operators to develop amenities, where necessary, in key tourist areas.

There are special depreciation allowances for taxation purposes which apply to approved visitor accommodation.

The 1979 budget provided for new incentives for the development of New Zealand tourism.

The existing tourist promotion tax incentive, allowing for an additional 50 percent taxation deduction for certain types of expenditure incurred in promoting tourism, was replaced by the export market development taxation incentive. The new scheme, providing a tax rebate of 67.5 percent, came into effect on 1 April 1980. Two other incentives, the export performance incentive and the export programme grants scheme, also came into effect on 1 April 1980.

The new incentives are expected to result in improved profitability for tourism operators and in increased promotional and marketing activities overseas.

TRANSPORT—All main cities, towns, and tourist resorts are served by regular road or rail services and there is an extensive network of internal air services. In addition to the inter-island air services, the North and South Island are also linked by roll-on roll-off ferry services operating between Wellington and Picton.

Touring by drive-yourself hire car is a popular way of seeing the country. Several companies provide a nation-wide car-hire service. All main centres also have chauffeur-driven cars available. Coach tours of a high standard and covering a range of prices and periods are operated by a number of companies.

At several locations, but particularly in the alpine and lake regions of the South Island, set or charter air tours are available.

Travel Services—Fully accredited travel agencies are available throughout New Zealand. Most of the major international agencies are represented or have affiliates in the country and there are the Government Tourist Bureaus which offer a national service for overseas visitors and New Zealand travellers.

WIDE RANGE OF ATTRACTIONS—With features such as the amazing thermal areas, magnificent lakes and fiords, glaciers, alpine regions, and unrivalled fishing, and other sporting opportunities, New Zealand combines in a comparatively small area a host of attractions. In addition to these natural attractions, the dignity and charm of the Maori people offers for study a culture which is unique to New Zealand.

Thermal Areas—New Zealand is distinctive in having a wide range of volcanic phenomena and associated thermal spas. The chief concentration is in the volcanic belt north-east from the three major volcanoes (all usually quiet), in the centre of the North Island. The Rotorua locality is a noted centre of thermal activity, with a wide variety of geysers, mud-pools, pools of boiling water, and steam blowholes.

Many mineral springs are reputed to have a beneficial effect and mineral baths are maintained by private interests in many places.

Rotorua, with its great variety and abundance of hot springs, is a well-known New Zealand spa. At Taupo and Wairakei hot mineral waters feed into attractive swimming pools.

Weather—New Zealand lies wholly within the South Temperate Zone. The weather is sunny and rather changeable, but is neither excessively hot in summer nor uncomfortably cold in winter. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2000 hours of sunshine a year.

Seasons —The seasons in New Zealand are the opposite of those in the Northern Hemisphere:

Summer: December, January, February.

Autumn: March, April, May.

Winter: June, July, August.

Spring: September, October, November.

SPORTING ATTRACTIONS: Fishing—A wide variety of salt-water fish abound in the coasts, bays, and harbours and in both North and South Islands many streams, rivers, and lakes provide excellent rainbow and brown trout fishing.

Sizes of New Zealand trout vary from district to district depending on environment, climate, food available, and angling pressure. Average trout weights are as follows: North Island—rainbow 1 kg and brown 2 1/4 kg in the Rotorua lakes, rainbow 2 1/4 kg and brown 2 kg in Lake Taupo, rainbow and brown 1 kg in river systems; South Island—rainbow and brown 1–11/2 kg in lake systems, sea-run brown 2 1/2 kg in West Coast rivers, sea-run “Quinnat” salmon 5 1/2 kg in the east coast rivers, land-locked salmon 1–1$ kg.

Big-game Fishing—The warm waters off the east coast of the North Island provide some of the best surf, line, and scuba fishing in the world. The main bases for line fishing from charter boats are at Whangaroa, Bay of Islands (Russell, Otehei Bay, and Waitangi), Tutukaka, Mercury Bay (Whitianga), and Tauranga (Mayor Island).

The most prized catches are broadbill, black marlin, striped marlin and blue marlin, while other types of big game fish found in New Zealand waters art; mainly tiger shark, hammerhead shark, mako shark, thresher shark, kingfish (yellow tail), and tuna. The best catches are usually made in February but fishing is good from December to April.

Shooting and Hunting—The principal game birds are duck, swan, pheasant, quail, geese, and chukor, but the sport is limited, the main season usually extending for about 6 weeks from early May.

There are fewer restrictions, however, on stalking—no limit on the number of game animals that can be taken, no licence required, and the season is open all year round. However, commercial hunting operations have severely limited the numbers of some game animals (deer of several species, elk, chamois, and thar), that once abounded in the forest and alpine regions. Wild pigs, goats, and wallaby are still numerous in several areas of the country. A guide is essential for the success of a hunting expedition.

Ski-ing—The ski-ing season in New Zealand extends from mid-July to late October in the North Island and from early July to late September in the South Island. With the operation of ski planes and helicopters in the Mount Cook region, very good spiring ski-ing is available to experienced skiers in the alpine snowfields in and around the Mount Cook National Park.

In the North Island the main ski-ing centre is Mount Ruapehu in the Tongariro National Park. Equipment and instruction is available for skiers, and facilities include 3 chairlifts, 2 T bars, 4 poma lifts, and many rope tows. A new ski field with excellent facilities has been developed at Turoa on the southwest slopes of Mount Ruapehu. Mount Egmont is the North Island's other principal ski area.

In the South Island the principal areas are Coronet Peak (Queenstown), Mount Hutt, Tekapo, Lake Ohau, Porter Heights, Treble Cone (Wanaka), and the Mount Cook region (access by ski plane or helicopter). Coronet Peak, 19 km from Queenstown, has the best powder snow conditions in New Zealand, lying on extensive undulating slopes of varying gradients. Facilities at commercial ski fields are of a high standard and equipment and professional instruction is available at reasonable rates.

Mountaineering and Tramping—The proximity of mountain and forest to the main centres of population encourages tramping in New Zealand. Both North and South Islands have appealing tramping routes and parties can set out to enjoy the beauty and challenge of lonely country.

In the Waitakere and Hunua Ranges near Auckland, the central ranges of the North Island, at Mount Egmont, Tongariro National Park, and the Urewera area, and in the South Island's Fiordland and Golden Bay, there are numbers of tracks with high mountain traverses and passages through beautiful scenery.

Other Sports—A wide range of other sports is available. Golf courses are to be found in all parts of the country. Horse racing takes place throughout the year. Rugby football, soccer, and cricket are widely played during their seasons. There are facilities for bowls, tennis, skating, squash, and most other sports in most parts of the country.

Shopping and Souvenirs—Articles of a particularly New Zealand character include attractive jewellery made from paua shell, greenstone, and gem stones, Maori carvings in native timbers, records of Maori singing, pottery depicting Maori emblems, and natural or dyed lambskin rugs and clothing.

Tourist and Publicity Department—The Tourist and Publicity Department is responsible for the promotion of New Zealand overseas as a tourist destination and also operates a comprehensive travel service. Bureaus are sited in Auckland, Rotorua, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Queenstown, and Invercargill, with agencies in other parts of New Zealand. There are overseas offices in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, London, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York, Toronto, Tokyo, and Frankfurt. The department also supplies general New Zealand publicity material, publications, films, photographs, and displays for use within New Zealand and overseas to create a background knowledge of New Zealand, its people, and way of life.

Other Tourist Organisations—The New Zealand National Travel Association, an organisation representing private travel interests in New Zealand, is also concerned with the development of the tourist industry.

New Zealand is a foundation member of the Pacific Area Travel Association which was formed in 1952 as a tourist promotional body for the Pacific area.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Books, guides, and other publications on the tourist attractions of New Zealand are, of course, numerous. A small selection is listed in the section on New Zealand books near the back of this Yearbook. The sub-section on National Parks and Reserves in section 10B, Public Lands, may also be of interest. The Tourist and Publicity Department (see above) is always pleased to be of assistance.

The following publications are concerned mainly with the present and future development of tourism as an Industry.

Report of the Tourist and Publicity Department(Parl. paper G. 25).

Report of the Tourist Hotel Corporation—(Parl. paper G. 24).

Monthly Abstract of StatisticsDepartment of Statistics.

Accommodation SurveysTourist and Publicity Department.

N.Z. Accommodation Inventory and Room Occupancy RatesTourist and Publicity Department.

New Zealand Visitor StatisticsTourist and Publicity Department.

Chapter 38. Section 38 MISCELLANEOUS

Table of Contents

HUMAN RIGHTS—An Act to establish a Human Rights Commission and to promote the advancement of human rights in New Zealand in general accordance with the United Nations International Covenants on Human Rights was passed by Parliament in November 1977.

The Human Rights Commission, established by the Act of the same name, has the general functions of promoting, encouraging, and co-ordinating programmes and activities in the field of human rights, and the specific functions of investigating alleged breaches of the wide-ranging provisions against discrimination on grounds of sex, marital status, or religious or ethical beliefs set out in Part II of the Act. (Part II also makes unlawful any discrimination on grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origin in a number of areas of activity not already covered by the Race Relations Act 1971).

The membership of the commission consists of the Chief Human Rights Commissioner (the chairman), the Chief Ombudsman, the Race Relations Conciliator, and three others appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Justice.

An Equal Opportunities Tribunal was constituted under the same Act. The Tribunal consists of a chairman, who must be a barrister or solicitor of the High Court, and two other persons appointed by the chairman for the purposes of each hearing from a panel maintained by the Minister of Justice. The principal function of the Equal Opportunities Tribunal is to adjudicate in civil proceedings brought by the commission alleging discriminatory practice under Part II of the Act.

RACE RELATIONS—The Race Relations Act 1971 was designed to affirm and promote racial equality in New Zealand and implements the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. Discrimination is unlawful on the grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins for; (a) access by the public to places, vehicles, and facilities; (b) provision of goods and services; (c) employment (including employment of independent contractors); (d) land, housing, and other accommodation. It is also unlawful to publish or display any advertisement or notice which indicates an intention to commit a breach of any of these provisions.

A breach of any of the provisions may be the subject of an investigation by the Race Relations Conciliator.

The Act also makes it an offence to incite racial disharmony.

The most important role for a race relations mediator is in situations where misunderstanding due to different racial backgrounds or concepts on the part of the parties has occurred. Potential racial incidents can often be avoided by a mediator with an explanatory role. This extension of the conciliator's duties from an area confined to complaints of racial discrimination to one where discrimination may not have occurred, but where racial misunderstanding exists, is in keeping with the aims of the Act of affirming and promoting racial equality in New Zealand.

There are offices for receiving complaints under the Human Rights Commission Act and the Race Relations Act in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

METRICATION—The Metric Advisory Board was set up by the Government in 1969 to encourage, advise, and assist the progressive adoption within New Zealand of the metric system of weights and measures. The conversion to this system was substantially completed by the end of 1976.

New Zealand's decision to change to the metric system was based almost entirely on the necessity to keep in step with her overseas trading partners. The metric system is not only simpler and more efficient than the imperial system but also has the benefits of internationally agreed definitions and standardisation. The modern version of the metric system known as the “International System” (also called SI—“Systeme International d' Unites”) has been adopted for use in New Zealand. This system is also being adopted by all those other countries that have recently changed, or are in the process of changing, to the metric system. A table showing the relationships between British (Imperial) units and SI (Metric) units is included in the front pages of this Yearbook.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE MARKS—The legislation concerned with patents, designs, and trade marks is the Patents Act 1953, the Trade Marks Act 1953, and the Designs Act 1953. The total number of applications for the grant of letters patent, and for the registration of designs and trade marks during the financial year 1978–79 was 7950, which was 615 more than in the previous year.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade marks and designs for March years.

YearPatentsTrade MarksDesigns
1973–7435664041369
1974–7532383618371
1975–7633983828416
1976–7732723757531
1977–7830853799451
1978–7932214155574

Patents—The 3221 applications received during 1978–79 were broadly classified as follows: chemistry, 1072; mechanical engineering, 913; building construction, 381; home science, 314; electrical engineering, 260; primary industries, 281.

Applications originating in New Zealand totalled 1138; the United States, 700; the United Kingdom, 390; Australia, 217; Switzerland, 158; West Germany, 128; France, 121; Japan, 68; Italy, 52; the Netherlands, 49; Sweden, 45; and the balance of 155 from 27 other countries.

Trade Marks—During the year 1978–79 applications for trade marks totalled 4155. The countries from which the applications for the registration of trade marks originated were: New Zealand, 1788; United States, 890; Great Britain, 384; Australia, 278; West Germany, 178; France, 137; Japan, 115; and Switzerland, 85; with the remaining 300 distributed among 33 other countries.

Trade marks registered during 1978–79 totalled 2018. Renewal of registration of 3358 trade marks was effected during the year.

COPYRIGHT—Under the Copyright Act 1962, copyright comes into existence automatically upon the completion of any original literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic work (including photographs). No registration is necessary (or even possible), nor is any other formality required for securing copyright protection.

Copyright also exists in New Zealand for sound recordings, cinematograph films, broadcasts, and published editions (typography) of literary, dramatic, and musical works.

Copyright in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works (except photographs) continues until 50 years after the author's death, if the works are published in the author's lifetime, and until 50 years after publication or 75 years after death (whichever is shorter) if they are unpublished at the death of the author. Copyright in photographs, sound recordings, cinematograph films, and broadcasts continues until 50 years after the making, and in editions until 25 years after publication.

Copyright in New Zealand in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works and in cinematograph films extends to all countries which are parties to the International Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Berne Copyright Union) and to all countries which are parties to the Universal Copyright Convention. In some cases, sound recordings, broadcasts, and published editions are also protected overseas. New Zealand is a party to both conventions. Most countries of the world have acceded to the one or the other or both conventions.

In 1976, New Zealand acceded to the Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms against Unauthorised Duplication of their Phonograms. The Convention obliges each contracting state to protect the producers of phonograms (i.e., records, cassettes, and other exclusively aural fixations of a performance or other sounds) against the unauthorised reproduction of their phonograms, and against the importation and distribution to the public of such unauthorised reproductions.

In New Zealand certain disputes relating to performing rights of copyright works, sound recordings, or films may be determined by the Copyright Tribunal.

INDUSTRIAL DESIGN COUNCIL—The New Zealand Industrial Design Council was established under the Industrial Design Act 1966 to promote the development of industrial design with the object of improving the quality, efficiency, packaging, and appearance of goods produced in New Zealand. It works closely with relevant Government departments, statutory bodies, and professional design organisations, and maintains regular contact with the manufacturers' and retailers' federations and other organisations interested in industrial design. Products which meet high standards of design and manufacture are awarded the prestige Designmark label and included in the Index of Designmark Products. The Council gives assistance through its field advisory service to improve products which do not meet these standards. This can include the recommendation of designers from its designer service. The Council publishes a monthly magazine Designscape and maintains a library at its Wellington headquarters.

STANDARDS COUNCIL—The Standards Act 1965 established the Standards Council as the governing body of the Standards Association of New Zealand (SANZ). Its aims are to improve efficiency and stimulate development in industry and commerce by providing standards documents, which will also assist in promoting public and industrial welfare, health, and safety. The association administers the standard certification mark scheme, which encourages improved quality control in industry with consequent improvement in the quality of consumer goods.

It also provides a service known as Technical Help to Exporters (THE) which provides assistance to manufacturers whose products need to comply with the standards and regulations of overseas markets.

The Council regards international standardisation as an important factor in facilitating international trade. The Association is the New Zealand member of the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and the Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC). The SANZ library holds about 170000 overseas or international standards. Copies of all standards, from whatever source, can be obtained from the association's sales service.

The association publishes new and revised New Zealand Standards and amendments. Details of these and of other national and international standards activities are given in a monthly publication, Standards. An index, published annually, lists all the standards in use in New Zealand.

The association depends on the subscriptions of members and on sales of standards for a large proportion of its income. Sales of standards exceed $360,000 annually and the subscribing membership of the association, which includes most of the more prominent manufacturers and local authorities, totalled 1749 at 31 March 1979.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE—In the early years of settlement in New Zealand those who wished to make provision for the administration of their estates on their deaths often experienced difficulty in selecting a suitable person competent and willing to act as trustee. That difficulty was natural in a new country where the colonists were fully occupied with their own affairs, and were unable to give to the property or business of another the close attention that was demanded.

In these circumstances the Public Trust Office was established in 1872 (it is now constituted under the Public Trust Office Act 1957) under the administration of the Public Trustee, a corporation sole with perpetual succession and a seal of office. The main purpose of the original Act was to provide a means of overcoming the difficulties that have been mentioned and to make available to the public a trustworthy administrator of the estates of deceased persons at a reasonable cost, the integrity of the Public Trustee and his officers being guaranteed by the State. That continues to be the chief function of the Office, but since its establishment the range of services has been considerably extended. The Public Trustee now acts in many capacities, e.g., as administrator in intestate estates; executor and trustee under wills; trustee under marriage and other settlements; trustee of benefit or relief funds; agent or attorney for absentees or persons desiring to be relieved of business worries; sinking fund commissioner for local authorities; administrator of unclaimed lands and property; manager of the estates of protected patients; manager (when so appointed by the court) of the estates of aged and infirm persons unable to attend to their own affairs; and trustee of compensation moneys. The wills of persons desiring the Public Trustee to act as their executor and any subsequent will or codicil may be prepared and held in safe custody by him, free of charge. With certain qualifications the Public Trustee may act jointly with another person or persons.

In lieu of obtaining probate or other grant of administration, the Public Trustee may file in an office of the High Court an election by him to administer an estate (testate or intestate) if the gross value of the property in New Zealand is estimated not to exceed $15,000. If after the filing of the election the value of the property is found to exceed $20,000 the Public Trustee must obtain a grant of probate or administration in the ordinary way.

During the year ended 31 March 1980, 8350 estates and funds valued at $110.2 million were accepted for administration. Estates and funds under administration at 31 March 1980 numbered 33714 and were valued at $478.6 million.

Capital moneys becoming available for investment either form part of the Common Fund of the Office or, at the option of the testator or settlor, are invested in such securities as he may specify. Interest is allowed on moneys in the Common Fund at the rate fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council and is free of all commission and other charges. Both capital and interest are guaranteed by the State, thus affording the complete security that it is the object of the Office to provide. On the other hand, moneys invested pursuant to S. 30A or directed to be invested in specific securities do not carry the State guarantee and, subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee, any loss resulting from their investment falls upon the estate concerned. Commission is charged on the collection of the interest.

Charges and commission rates are contained in the Public Trust Office Regulations 1958.

New investments completed during the year ended 31 March 1980 totalled $14.4 million. The investments held by the Office at 31 March 1980 totalled $113.8 million. These figures relate exclusively to Common Fund investments, and do not include other special investments made on behalf of estates, or investments which constitute assets of estates when the latter came under the Public Trustee's administration and which are still held as assets of those estates.

During the year ended 31 March 1980, 28603 wills appointing the Public Trustee executor were deposited with him for safe custody. The total number of such wills held on deposit at 31 March 1980 was 315581. During the year ended 31 March 1980 effect was given in 1319 cases to changes desired by testators.

BANKRUPTCY—The law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Insolvency Act 1967 and the Insolvency Regulations 1970. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the High Court.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of $10 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of the court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in this case. Not less than $200 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due to them. In such a case, after approval of the court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the assignee on a resolution by creditors. A person adjudged bankrupt is discharged three years after the date of adjudication unless discharged sooner.

Another form of financial failure is covered by private assignments, of which there was 1 in 1973, and 2 in 1974. Private assignments are not included in official bankruptcy statistics. There were none in 1975, 1976, 1977, 1978 or 1979.

Transactions in Bankruptcy—The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last 5 years is now given. A long-term record of the more important features will be found in the Statistical Summary given later in this volume.

YearBankruptciesCourt Orders for Liquidation of CompaniesTotal Commercial Failures
Petitions by DebtorsAdjudications on Petitions by Creditors

* Includes 2 estates relating to 1975.

Includes 1 order under Pt. IV Administration Act 1969 and 1 order under Pt. XVIII Insolvency Act 1967.

197524969169487
1976209100150459*
1977290129207626
1978325182285792
1979302194336834

In the case of a partnership, each partner is counted in the total of transactions and also the partnership. The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by official assignees.

In some cases of company liquidation, subsequent court orders are given for the winding up of companies to be transferred to private liquidators.

The table following shows for each of the last 6 years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the proportion of dividends, preferential claims, and secured claims, to debts.

YearAverage Debts Proved per EstateProportion of Dividends, etc., to Debts
 $     percent  
19749,28718.8
197518,7315.0
197620,7867.3
197722,9034.8
197822,0665.2
197917,8393.1

Apart from dividends, preferential and secured claims, and Government commission, payments made from assets realised include cost of actions, solicitors' fees, and expenses incurred in managing estates for the benefit of creditors.

In the following table bankruptcies during 1979 are classified according to amount groups of stated liabilities. With all partnerships the liabilities for each partner are included, but not the partnership. Company liquidations are included.

Liabilities1979
* Excludes 5 partnerships, 135 companies, and 31 private bankruptcies. Includes 8 bankruptcies for which liabilities were nil.
Under $2,000114
       $2,000 and under $5,000157
     $5,000 and under $10,000115
  $10,000 and under $20,000120
  $20,000 and under $50,00089
  $50,000 and under $100,00037
$100,000 and over25
              Total657*

Occupational Groups of Bankrupts—All persons adjudged bankrupt (whether self-employed, employers of labour, or salary and wage earners) have been classified in the following table according to the occupation in which they were last employed.

Occupational Group19751976197719781979

* Excludes partnerships as follows: 1975, 6; 1976, nil; 1977, 3; 1978, nil; and 1979, 5.

Excludes 2 1975 estates shown in total figures for 1976.

Excludes 4 annulments.

§ Excludes 1 annulment and 1 transfer.

Professional, technical, and related workers474179
Administrative and managerial workers85112122
Clerical and related workers812589
Sales workers5329546762
Service workers3227232541
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters3534446656
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers140144219242236
Not gainfully employed/actively engaged3249525958
                Total*312307412505§493

The occupational status of individual bankrupts is given in the following table. With all partnerships the occupation of each partner is included, but not the partnership.

YearOccupational Status
Working for Salary or WagesEmployer of LabourWorking On Own Account But Not Employing LabourNot Gainfully EmployedTotal*

* Excludes partnerships as follows: 1975, 6; 1976, nil; 1977, 3; 1978, nil; and 1979, 5.

Excludes 2 estates relating to 1975 and 1 for which the occupational status is not known.

197598949921312
1976122619924306
19771717811350412
19781896718762505
19791816316386493

INTERNATIONAL INDICATORS OF STANDARDS OF LIVING—Relative standards of living cannot be compared by taking per-head incomes or expenditure alone. Environmental and other factors are being increasingly recognised as components of the quality of life, a much less easily measured concept. In assessing standards of living, the United Nations Economic and Social Council is now giving consideration to the development of social indicators parallel with purely economic terms of measurement. These include health and personal safety; equality of educational opportunity; employment and quality of working life; leisure satisfaction; social welfare provisions; social opportunity and quality; social, cultural, and communication capabilities; housing and community facilities; and the physical environment.

Methods of measurement of these factors are being recommended on an international basis. In these wider terms of reference New Zealand's position is appreciably improved.

Some comparative indicators related to standards of living are set out in the following table. In other sections of the Yearbook there are international comparisons on food consumption, life expectancy, infant mortality, medical and dental services, energy, libraries, and newspaper circulation.

ItemNew ZealandUnited StatesCanadaAustraliaUnited KingdomSwedenJapan

* 1975

1974

England.

Number per 1000 of population—
    Passenger cars (1976)384507388*368260350164
    Commercial vehicles (1976)7012294*87342098
    Radios (1976)8651882*1011770706390530
    Television sets (1976)259571*428351317363235*
    Telephones (1978)545744632415415717442
Consumption per head—
    Coffee (1977) kg1.254.333.501.701.744.961.24
    Sugar (1977) kg53.146.447.855.8..42.929.0
    Steel (1977) kg280618550365349463512
    Wool (1975) kg3.90.20.21.52.00.21.2
    Cotton (1974) kg9.87.57.810.14.57.86.3
    Artificial and synthetic fibres (1974) kg8.714.411.712.59.311.37.0
    Newsprint (1977) kg27.841.650.338.325.932.020.3
Public education expenditure as a percentage of GNP (1976)5.56.07.86.3*6.27.75.5*
Persons per hospital bed (1975)991521098011166..

GAMING AND LOTTERIES—The Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977, passed by Parliament during the 1977 session, came into force on 1 April 1978. This new legislation replaced the Gaming Act 1908, which was itself based on legislation passed in the 1870s. Since 1908 the law has become less than clear, with experts (let alone the ordinary citizen) finding it difficult to thread a way through the Act, amendments, and Court decisions.

The new legislation has discarded many of the former restrictions. The basic principle that gambling may not be conducted for private gain has been retained, but for minor forms of gambling it is not necessary to obtain licences or permits provided conditions laid down in the Act are met. Provision has also been made for the authorisation of additional forms of gambling if the public demand for them becomes sufficient. Some prohibitions are necessary in the public interest. Where large numbers of participants and substantial amounts of money could be involved, licences continue to be required.

The 1977 Act identifies, and provides for the control of, 4 forms of gambling: games of chance (such as housie); bookmaking and betting (other than betting on horse racing and greyhound racing); prize competitions (such as football pools); and lotteries (previously called raffles). It is a self-contained body of New Zealand statute law on gambling with the exception of betting on horse racing and greyhound racing which is still controlled through the Racing Act 1971.

During the year ended 31 March 1979, 71 Golden Kiwi jackpot lotteries and 9 Golden Kiwi Half-Million-Dollar Lotteries were drawn. The confidence in the success of the Golden Kiwi jackpot lottery has been substantiated by a continuing demand for tickets, with an average of more than one draw per week. This is also true of the Golden Kiwi Half-Million-Dollar Lottery. To meet the demand the number of tickets was increased and five additional prizes of $100,000 each were introduced.

Raffles licensed by the Department of Internal Affairs during the year totalled 12227, compared with 18290 during the previous year. This number was considerably reduced during 1978–79 as a result of the new Act which does not require a licence where the prizes do not exceed $500 in value.

The aggregate financial results of lotteries are shown for the last 5 years.

Item1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79
Number of lotteries 6266736380
Gross sales$(000)11,15011,62415,07319,47630,249
Commission on sales$(000)1,0021,0221,4191,9712,649
Expenses$(000)4305216787301,117
Prizes$(000)6,4916,2348,24010,90617,278
Lottery duty$(000)1,2151,1621,5071,9753,025
Direct profit$(000)2,9872,6853,2283,8886,180

The net profits from these lotteries are required by the Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977 to be distributed for charitable, philanthropic, or cultural purposes or for other purposes beneficial to the community. The New Zealand Lottery Board has the responsibility of apportioning profits of lotteries to various distributing authorities which consider applications for assistance and make grants. Allocations made by the board in 1978–79 are shown in the following tables.

Recipient$(thousand)
Welfare of Aged Persons Distribution Committee700
Welfare Services Distribution Committee800
Medical Research Distribution Committee300
Scientific Research Distribution Committee300
Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council600
Minister of Internal Affairs (S. 93)350
General Purposes Distribution Committee2,435
Lottery funds directed to the arts370
 5,855

The General Purposes Distribution Committee allocated funds as follows:

Organisation or Purpose$     
Historic Places Trust300,000
New Zealand Litter Control Council60,000
Surf Lifesaving Association150,000
New Zealand Mountain Safety Council180,000
New Zealand Water Safety Council200,000
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust.15,000
Cultural Facilities Scheme400,000
Film Commission900,000
Community Development Fund600,000
Conservation30,000
 $2,435,000

LIQUOR LICENSING—The principal source of legislation governing the sale of liquor in New Zealand is the Sale of Liquor Act 1962. In terms of that Act no liquor may be sold without the appropriate licence, and licences may only be authorised if it is shown that they are necessary or desirable in particular localities. The Act also serves to regulate the conduct of the licensed trade and the provision and standard of accommodation, amenities, and service provided for the public.

The Licensing Control Commission established under that Act has the following functions:

To ascertain the requirements of the public as to the provision of accommodation services and other facilities on licensed premises; to determine what new hotel, tavern and tourist house premises, restaurant, theatre, airport, cabaret, and wholesale licences and club charters are necessary or desirable; and to authorise their issue. It is also the Commission's function to prescribe and enforce standards of accommodation, facilities and services on licensed premises, to grant and renew club charters, and to hear appeals from Licensing Committees decisions.

There are 21 licensing committees throughout the country. These are serviced by the local District Courts. Each committee has five members, of whom four are nominated by the local authorities in the area. The chairman is a District Court judge. The functions of licensing committees are to issue licences, renew licences annually, and hear applications for the cancellation or suspension of licences on the grounds of lack of hygiene or fire safety or the failure of the licensee to conduct the premises in a proper manner.

There is a right of appeal to the Licensing Control Commission from most decisions of a licensing committee except on a matter of law or character, in which case the appeal is to the High Court. Some of the Commission's decisions are themselves subject to appeal to the High Court and an appeal may be brought in any case on a point of law. Such appeals lie with the administrative division of the High Court.

In 1976 two new kinds of licence were introduced, i.e., caterers' licences and general ancillary licences. Ancillary licences are available to organisations and persons taking part in any sporting or recreational activity or holding social gatherings of persons sharing common occupational, educational, technical, cultural, ethnic, national, or regional interests. Caterers' licences are available to persons catering for social functions being promoted by any person or association not being the holder of the licence.

Two new types of permit were also created. A vineyard bar permit is now available to the holder of a wine makers licence. It authorises the sale of wine made by him for consumption on the premises. A permit is now available to the owners of unlicensed restaurants whereby patrons may bring their own liquor to the restaurant for consumption with their meal.

Licences either in force or authorised at 31 March 1979 comprised 785 hotel premises licences, 315 tavern premises licences, and 85 tourist house premises licences. A total of 351 chartered clubs were in existence. Wine resellers licences authorised totalled 375 and wholesale licences totalled 176. There were also 5 theatre, 5 airport, 25 cabaret, 30 caterers, and approximately 1000 general ancillary licences in force.

The Sale of Liquor Act was further amended in 1979 to empower a licensee or manager to refuse to admit to a public bar any person whom he has reasonable cause to believe will, if admitted to the premises, engage in violent, quarrelsome, insulting, or disorderly conduct, or provoke other persons to engage in such conduct on the premises.

New Licences—The Licensing Control Commission decides after a public inquiry, at which all interested parties may make representations, whether the issue of any new hotel or tavern premises licences or a wholesale or wine resellers licence are necessary or desirable in particular localities. In the case of a hotel or tavern premises licence the Commission prescribes the minimum standards of accommodation, services, and other facilities that must be provided. There is provision for a poll of residents to be taken to determine whether they desire that a hotel or tavern be established in their locality. If the majority of votes recorded at the poll is against the issue of the licence, the Commission may not authorise such a licence unless special circumstances exist.

Subject to the result of any such poll, the Commission may then call for applications for the licence and may grant it to the most suitable applicant. When the Commission decides to issue a new wholesale or wine reseller's licence the matter is then referred to the appropriate licensing committee, which then invites and considers applications for the licence. Applications for all other types of licences may be made at any time and are considered at public hearings in various centres throughout the country.

Hours of Sale—The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 governs the hours of sale. A special general poll was held on 23 September 1967 concerning the closing hours for the sale of liquor in hotels, taverns, and chartered club bar rooms. Since 1917 the closing hour had been 6 p.m. The proposal for later closing was carried, and the new hours of 11 a.m. to 10 p.m. came into effect from 9 October 1967. Hotels and taverns may also seek authority to open earlier than 11 a.m., but may not be open for more than 11 hours each day. The Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1976 allowed for further extensions upon application for individual hotels or taverns. Orders may be made permitting these to remain open until 11 p.m. on Friday or Saturday or on Christmas Eve and until 12.30 a.m. on the morning of New Year's Day. Any such extension is in addition to the 11 hours per day during which liquor may normally be sold to the public. With certain exceptions, sales from hotels and taverns are prohibited on Sundays and Christmas Day and Good Friday.

Legislation in 1960 authorised hotels to serve liquor to guests and lodgers partaking of a meal for consumption with that meal. A further amendment in 1976 extended the hours which are now from 9 a.m. on any day to 1 a.m. the following morning.

By the 1960 Act the hours during which licensed restaurants could sell and serve liquor to diners were fixed as 12 noon to 2.30 p.m. and 6 p.m. to 11.30 p.m. on any day. The 1976 Amendment extended these hours, which are now 12 noon on any day to 1 a.m. in the morning of the following day. The Act authorised the Commission to grant permits to a hotel for the sale of liquor in a lounge or lounge bar to diners during hours fixed by the Commission, but not later than 11.30 p.m. This has been extended to 1 a.m. It also provides for theatre, cabaret, and airport licences, and prescribes the hours of sale in each case. The hours in respect of theatres and cabarets have also been extended.

The hours of sale under a general ancillary licence are set by the Licensing Control Commission when granting the licence and are generally between 9 a.m. and 10 p.m. on any day. Caterer's licences authorise the sale of liquor between 9 a.m. on any day (except Good Friday) and 1 a.m. the following day. The permits for unlicensed restaurants authorise consumption by patrons of their own liquor until 11.30 p.m. on any day, and the vineyard bar permit authorises sales until 9 p.m. except on Sundays, Good Friday, or Christmas Day.

Drinking Age—The Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1969 made provision from 24 October 1969 for the sale of liquor to persons of the age of 20 years; liquor may also be supplied to persons of 18 years of age or above if the person is accompanied by a spouse of 20 or more years of age or a parent. The 1976Amendment to the Act also provided for a family lounge permit, whereby parents may take their underage children into designated parts of hotels, taverns, or chartered clubs. Liquor may be supplied to an unaccompanied person of 18 years of age or above as part of a meal provided in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

Licensing Trusts—The system of trust control in New Zealand is an alternative to the traditional means of controlling liquor outlets through privately-held licences supervised by licensing committees, and the Licensing Control Commission gives the public an indirect control over the conditions under which liquor is sold. Licensing trusts are elected by the residents and are responsible to them, similar to local bodies.

The first licensing trust in New Zealand was set up in 1944 following the carrying of restoration in the former Invercargill no-licence district. There are now eight district trusts—Ashburton, Clutha, Geraldine, Invercargill, Masterton, Mataura, Oamaru, and Porirua. In addition an increasing number of local trusts scattered throughout New Zealand are operating hotels and taverns. Because of the circumstances of the remaining no-licence districts and their relation to the metropolitan areas of Auckland and Wellington, legislation was introduced in 1963 providing a special procedure if any of those areas should carry restoration. A new form of trust control, known as suburban trusts, was introduced.

Prior to 1975, six suburban trusts had been constituted—Johnsonville; Terawhiti; Wellington South (in Wellington); and Mt Albert; Portage; and Waitakere (in Auckland). These trusts held licences under the Sale of Liquor Act and had a preferential right to all hotel, tourist house, or tavern premises licences, or wholesale licences authorised by the Commission in their areas. In 1975 these mists and the Birkenhead Local Licensing Trust were converted into district trusts, which did not hold such licences and were then not subject to the jurisdiction of the Licensing Control Commission. They were also free to choose the nature of the liquor outlets and where and when they should be established.

The 1976 Amendment to the Licensing Trusts Act converted these trusts back to suburban trust status, bringing them under a degree of supervision by the Licensing Control Commission but not to the same extent as that which prevailed prior to 1975. The trusts are still free to establish what outlets they see fit without the need to hold licences under the Sale of Liquor Act, but the Commission's approval must first be obtained. This allows the Commission to consider the requirements of the particular area of which the suburban trust is part, as well as providing an appropriate forum in which objections to the trust's proposals may be heard. Local residents also have the right to apply to the Commission for a poll to be conducted to determine if any proposed new premises should be established in their area.

There are also local licensing trusts which are established to operate a new hotel or tavern authorised by the Commission. Local trusts are set up following the carrying of a poll to determine if the residents desire that a new licence be issued to a trust.

The Licensing Trusts Act was again amended in 1977, principally to permit licensing trusts to operate catering facilities on the same basis as holders of a caterer's licence may operate their premises under the Sale of Liquor Act.

In addition the same right to apply for later hours on Fridays, Saturdays, Christmas Eve, and New Year's Eve that private licences enjoy under the Sale of Liquor Act was conferred on licensing trusts by this amendment.

GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS—A general election of Parliamentary representatives was held on 25 November 1978, voting in New Zealand for both General and Maori electorates taking place on that day.

The strength of the political party representation among members of Parliament after the 1978 election was National 51, Labour 40, Social Credit, 1. The relative strengths after the eight preceding general elections were as follows: November 1954, National 45, Labour 35; November 1957, Labour 41, National 39; November 1960, National 46, Labour 34; November 1963, National 45, Labour 35; November 1966, National 44, Labour 35, Social Credit 1; November 1969, National 45, Labour 39; November 1972, Labour 55, National 32; November 1975, National 55, Labour 32.

The total numbers of electors on the roll for the election in 1978 was 2487594, of whom 1721443 (69.2 percent) recorded their votes.

The following table shows for the last four general elections the number of votes recorded by the main political parties, along with the percentages that the various party votes represent of the total valid votes.

Political PartyVotes RecordedPercentage of Total Valid Votes
19691972197519781969197219751978
Labour592,055677,669636,319691,07644.1848.3739.7040.41
National605,960581,422760,365680,99145.2241.5047.4439.82
Social Credit121,57693,231119,123274,7569.076.657.4316.07
Values...27,46783,21341,220...1.965.192.41
Others20,57721,363375722,1301.531.520.231.29
        Total valid votes1,340,1681,401,1521,602,7771,710,173100.00100.00100.00100.00
Informal votes11,6459088824311,270............
        Total votes recorded1,351,8131,410,2401,611,0201,721,443............

NATIONAL LICENSING POLL—The licensing poll of 25 November 1978, held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the eighteenth at which the three issues—national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. Official figures of the 1978 poll, together with those of five preceding polls, were as follows:

Voting Issue196319661969197219751978x
For national continuance791,767817,760903,962931,7781,094,4451,053,268
For State purchase and control157,581176,946242,499244,003235,374252,154
For national prohibition235,959198,859176,055203,791250,640374,194

POLL ON TERM OF PARLIAMENT—On 23 September 1967 a special general poll was held on a proposal that the term of the House of Representatives be changed. Votes for a maximum of 3 years, as at present, totalled 678960; votes for a maximum term of 4 years totalled 317973.

TIME-SERVICE ARRANGEMENTS—One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand. The New Zealand Gazette of 31 October 1868 contained a Government announcement to the effect that the time corresponding to longitude 172° 30' east of Greenwich (exactly 11 1/2 hours in advance of Greenwich time) was to be adopted as the New Zealand Mean Time throughout the colony.

This New Zealand Mean. Time, 11h 30 min. in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.), was observed continuously up to 1927, when on 6 November clocks were advanced 1 hour until 4 March 1928. Summer Time, with clocks advanced only 30 minutes (to 12 h ahead of G.M.T.), became standard practice in the summer months under the Summer Time Act 1929.

The Daylight Saving Emergency Regulations of 1941 provided for the continuance of Summer Time throughout that year, and its continued observance during subsequent war years was provided for by regulations made annually.

By the Standard Time Act of 1945 the time of the meridian 180° east of Greenwich (12 h in advance of G.M.T.) was adopted as the Standard Time for New Zealand. Thus, what was formerly known as “Summer Time” became “New Zealand Standard Time” as from 1 January 1946.

The Time Act of 1974 consolidated the Standard Time Act of 1945 and also enabled the Governor-General, by Order in Council, to introduce 1 hour of daylight saving for specified periods. This time is designated New Zealand Daylight Time, and is 13 h in advance of Universal Time (or Greenwich Mean Time). The first period specified for the use of New Zealand Daylight Time was from 3 November 1974 to 23 February 1975.

Time in the Chatham Islands is 45 minutes ahead of that kept in New Zealand.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the New Zealand Time Service, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is kept as correct as possible by comparison with radio signals from observatories in other parts of the world, and the error rarely exceeds a few milliseconds.

The Observatory provides a time service over Station ZLW and stations operated by the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand.

BOOK PUBLISHING—The following table classifies the publications for 1978 and 1979 which have been included by the Alexander Turnbull Library in the New Zealand National Bibliography.

Subject19781979
BooksPamphletsTotalBooksPamphletsTotal
General.4539844576121
Religion, theology, philosophy363066364278
Sociology, statistics4235777081151
Political science, economics99129228117222339
Law, public administration, social welfare878317085114199
Education59601196664130
Trade, communications, transport223254404383
Linguistics, philology32512214
Sciences6912419373100173
Technology, and trades112123235115175290
Agriculture, forestry63581219086176
Domestic science30939232750
Commercial management334174193554
Fine arts, etc.47651125280132
Entertainment, sport54571117141112
Literature621271897985164
Geography, travel344478413879
History, biography81431248665151
              Total97811012079112013762496

The New Zealand National Bibliography, which commenced publication in 1967, is issued monthly and cumulated annually by the National Library of New Zealand. It lists works published in New Zealand and also works published overseas by authors normally resident in New Zealand, and works that deal in whole or part with New Zealand. It includes books, pamphlets, art prints, music scores, sound recordings, maps, new periodicals, and periodicals that have ceased publication.

As at 31 January 1980 there were 5323 periodicals (other than parish and school magazines) being received regularly under the legal deposit provisions of the Copyright Act.

PUBLIC HOLIDAYS—These are listed below.

Holiday19781979198019811982
* Actual date of Queen's Birthday, 21 April 1926.
New Year's Day1 January1 January1 January1 January1 January
Waitangi Day6 February6 February6 February6 February6 February
Good Friday24 March13 April4 April17 April9 April
Easter Monday27 March16 April7 April20 April12 April
Anzac Day25 April25 April25 April25 April25 April
Queen's Birthday*5 June4 June2 June1 June7 June
Labour Day23 October22 October27 October26 October25 October
Christmas Day25 December25 December25 December25 December25 December
Boxing Day26 December26 December26 December26 December26 December

In addition to the above, there is in each provincial district a holiday for the provincial anniversary. The actual anniversary days are as follows: Northland, 29 January; Auckland, 29 January; Taranaki, 31 March; Hawke's Bay, 1 November; Wellington, 22 January; Marlborough, 1 November; Nelson, 1 February; Canterbury, 16 December; Westland, 1 December; Otago and Southland, 23 March.

When Anniversary Day falls on Friday or later, the holiday is observed on the next Monday; if earlier, it is observed on the preceding Monday. In some cases the holiday is taken on the local show day or some other day; in Taranaki it is the second Monday in March to avoid a clash with Easter observance.

RECREATION AND SPORT—Although New Zealand has traditionally been considered an outdoor sporting nation preliminary results from a recent national survey indicate that activities based around the home may be the most popular form of recreation. Reading, gardening, and sewing appear to be the three most popular recreational pursuits. Other home-based activities such as knitting, visiting and entertaining friends, cooking and baking, and house maintenance are also enjoyed by many New Zealanders for their recreational value. The popularity of dining-out, as providing a change for the busy housewife and a break from the humdrum of every day living is reflected in the rise, over the last 10 years, in the number of restaurants and eating places catering for a wide variety of tastes and incomes.

Sport, however, does play an important part in the recreation of New Zealanders. Rugby Union is the most popular sporting activity and the leading winter sport. Soccer, netball, and indoor basketball are also popular winter sports. Swirnming is a very popular summer activity and salt-water fishing, tennis, boating, and cricket also have large followings. Of the all-year-round sporting activities, golf is most popular followed by billiards, snooker and pool, indoor bowls, and squash. An interesting feature of sport in New Zealand is the large number of activities that involve small groups, such as swimming, fishing, tennis, boating, golf, etc., as distinct from the team sports. A substantial proportion of these small group activities are enjoyed more for their socially relaxing value than for any competitive element they may contain. As well as participating in sport, many New Zealanders enjoy watching sports as a recreational activity.

The New Zealand outdoors is enjoyed by many in other ways: of those activities regarded as recreational, driving, travelling, climbing, and tramping are all very popular. So too are hunting and shooting and fishing in New Zealand's many rivers, lakes, and streams. Many people enjoy picnics and barbecues.

Cultural pursuits are also an important part of recreation. Music is a popular recreational activity, and painting and sketching, going to the cinema or theatre, ballroom dancing, woodwork, making models and miniatures, and photography (while not as popular as music) are also enjoyed by a lot of New Zealanders.

Many of these recreational activities are organised into local clubs, some of which (especially in the case of the sporting activities) are affiliated to national organisations.

Promising players, performers, and artists have opportunities through a variety of ways, to reach national levels in their activities. In many sports the ultimate level to be reached is to represent New Zealand at the Olympic and Commonwealth Games.

Opportunities and facilities exist for those interested in outdoor education and recreation. The Youth Hostels Association of New Zealand operates 50 hostels in centres ranging from Kaitaia in the north to Invercargill in the south. In the more remote areas the New Zealand Forest Service and several tramping clubs have built huts.

Short courses in outdoor recreation are run by the Outward Bound School in Queen Charlotte Sound, and the Outdoor Pursuits Centre near Turangi. Educational authorities and some voluntary organisations have established outdoor recreation and education camps throughout the country where young people are encouraged to enjoy and make use of the natural environment.

Outdoor recreation courses are not solely land-based. The sailing vessel Spirit of Adventure, administered by a trust board, operates an all-year-round programme enabling groups of secondary school pupils to undertake 10-day seagoing trips around the Hauraki Gulf. The course emphasises not only the skills of sailing and navigation, but also community spirit and personal development.

Attempts have been made to introduce social education programmes into the schools and this has involved the introduction of a wider range of recreational activities with encouragement to students to continue with these activities after leaving school.

Most of the tertiary education institutions have facilities and staff available to serve the physical recreation needs of the student body.

In November 1972 a Minister of Recreation and Sport was appointed. The Recreation and Sport Act 1973 provided for the establishment of a Ministry of Recreation and Sport and a New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport. The general functions of the council are to foster and promote the total wellbeing of, and the fullest use of leisure by, the residents of New Zealand; to advise the Government on any matters relating to recreation and sport; to investigate developments in recreation and sport, and disseminate knowledge and information about such developments. The sum of $4.5 million was expended through the ministry during 1978–79 to support community recreational activities, together with an additional $1.3 million made available by the New Zealand Lottery Board to provide funds for community development activities and the financing of community facilities.

From the Government moneys provided for the recreation and sport programme, $2,353,000 was distributed through local authorities to assist local activities, and $1,032,000 was allocated to national recreational organisations. Subsidy assistance for the salaries of new recreation advisers employed by local authorities totalled $139,729, and $178,000 was provided to national youth organisations by way of capitation and physical welfare grants.

The ministry also operates a programme to support the employment of detached youth workers who work with groupings of young people whose needs are not separately met by existing programmes and services. The scheme is intended to cater especially for those young people who have failed to respond to more conventional methods of social work, and for whom structured youth organisations have no appeal. Grants totalling $133,342 were made to groups to employ such workers.

Grants totalling $152,039 were made from a Youth Initiatives Fund to provide financial help for projects carried out by young people, preferably on their own initiative. The projects were required to be of a social, cultural, recreational, employment, or community nature, and to be of benefit to the community.

New Zealand is party with other Commonwealth nations in the Commonwealth Youth Programme. Established in 1973 the Commonwealth Youth Programme is a six-point plan of practical action: operating regional youth development centres, administering youth bursaries and study fellowships, investigating applied research, developing youth information services, assisting local youth projects, and supporting youth programmes. In New Zealand the Commonwealth Youth Programme is administered by a National Liaison Committee serviced by the Ministry of Recreation and Sport. The National Liaison Committee is composed of representatives from the Ministry of Recreation and Sport, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Department of Education, the Department of Maori Affairs, and the National Youth Council.

The New Zealand Mountain Safety Council and the New Zealand Water Safety Council, which are also serviced through the Ministry of Recreation and Sport, received allocations from lottery profits of $180,000 and $200,000 respectively in 1978–79. These councils work closely with 40 local mountain safety committees and 43 local water safety committees in promoting the safe use of New Zealand's mountain, bush, and water areas.

NATIONAL ANTHEMSGod Defend New Zealand, the words written by Thomas Bracken and the music composed by John J. Woods, was written in the early 1870s and formally adopted as the New Zealand national hymn in 1940. In November 1977 it was announced that, with the consent of Her Majesty the Queen, the Government had decided that the national anthems of New Zealand shall be the traditional anthem, God Save the Queen and God Defend New Zealand, both being of equal status as national anthems appropriate to the occasion.

GOD DEFEND NEW ZEALAND

  1. God of nations at Thy feet In the bonds of love we meet. Hear our voices, we entreat, God defend our Free Land. Guard Pacific's triple star From the shafts of strife and war, Make her praises heard afar. God defend New Zealand.

  2. Men of ev'ry creed and race Gather here before Thy face, Asking Thee to bless this place, God defend our Free Land. From dissension, envy, hate, And corruption guard our State, Make our country good and great, God defend New Zealand.

  3. Peace, not war, shall be our boast, But, should foes assail our coast, Make us then a mighty host, God defend our Free Land. Lord of battles in Thy might, Put our enemies to flight, Let our cause be just and right, God defend New Zealand.

  4. Let our love for Thee increase, May Thy blessings never cease, Give us plenty, give us peace, God defend our Free Land. From dishonour and from shame Guard our country's spotless name, Crown her with immortal fame, God defend New Zealand.

  5. May our mountains ever be Freedom's ramparts on the sea, Make us faithful unto Thee, God defend our Free Land. Guide her in the nations' van, Preaching love and truth to man, Working out Thy glorious plan, God defend New Zealand.

NEW ZEALAND ENSIGN—The national flag is the New Zealand Ensign described in a Gazette notice of 27 June 1902. Its specifications are given in an Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. The basis is the Union Jack in the upper left quarter, and on a blue ground to the right the Southern Cross is represented by four five-pointed red stars with white borders.

NEW ZEALAND COAT OF ARMS—The New Zealand Coat of Arms was pictured and described as a frontispiece in the 1969 and earlier issues of the Official Yearbook. It appears on the title page and the spine of the present volume.

BY-ELECTIONS—Two by-elections were held on 7 June 1980 following the death of Mr F. L. Rogers, previously the M.P. for Onehunga, and the resignation of Mr M. Rata, previously the M.P. for Northern Maori.

The results were as follows:

NORTHERN MAORI
Gregory, B. C. (L)3580
Rata, M. (M.M.)2589
Te K Toia, H. (S.C.)560
Heteraka, W. (C.U.)80
Weal, T. K. (C.D.U.)13
Ter Warner, P. (R.)9
Informal53
                Total valid votes6831
ONEHUNGA
Gerbic, F. M. (L)6543
Wood, S. K. (N)5336
Park, T. K. (S.C.)1535
Perry, S. C. (I)134
Terreni, V. L. (C.U.)35
Overton, M. (I.B.C.P.)17
Informal102
                Total valid votes13,600

A further by-election was held on 6 September 1980 following the appointment of Air Commodore Hon. T. F. Gill, previously the M.P. for East Coast Bays, as New Zealand Ambassador to the United States. Provisional night-of-poll results (not including special votes) were as follows:

EAST COAST BAYS
Knapp, G. T. (S.C.)7728
Brash, D. T. (N)6616
Hoadley, Mrs W. (L)3130
Moore, Mrs J. (V)137
Informal58
                Total valid votes17,611
Party affiliations are abbreviated as follows:
C.D.U. Christian Democratic Union.M.M. Mana Motuhake.
C.U. Cheer Up.N. National.
I. Independent.R. Reform.
I.B.C.P. Imperial British Conservative Party.S.C. Social Credit.
L. Labour.V. Values.

FURTHER INFORMATION—Some information on the many subjects mentioned in this section will be found in the following publications.

Annual Report of the Human Rights Commission (Parl. paper E. 6).

Report of the Race Relations Conciliator (Parl. paper E. 17).

Report of the Department of Justice (Parl. paper E. 5).

Report of the New Zealand Industrial Design Council (Parl. paper G. 16).

Report of the Standards Council (Parl. paper G. 15).

Accounts and Reports of the Public Trust Office (Parl. paper B. 9).

Monthly Abstract of Statistics—Department of Statistics.

Report of the Department of Internal Affairs (Parl. paper G. 7).

Licensing Control Commission (Parl. paper E. 8).

Report of the New Zealand Lottery Board (Parl. paper G. 7B).

The General Election 1978 (Parl. paper E. 9, 1979).

Licensing Polls 1978 (Parl. paper E. 9B, 1979).

Report of the Trustees of the National Library of New Zealand (Parl. paper G. 13).

Report of the New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport (Parl. paper E. 20).

Chapter 39. Section 39 OFFICIAL

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND

His Excellency The Hon. Sir David Stuart Beattie, G.C.M.G., Q.C.

Official Secretary—James Brown.

PREVIOUS VICE-REGAL REPRESENTATIVES

Governors since 1840 and Governors-General since 1917 are listed below.

Vice-Regal RepresentativeAssumed OfficeRetired
THE DEPENDENCY PERIOD  
Lieutenant-Governor  
Captain William Hobson, R.N.30 Jan 18403 May 1841
THE CROWN COLONY  
Governor  
Captain William Hobson, R.N.3 May 184110 Sep 1842
Captain Robert Fitz Roy, R.N.26 Dec 184317 Nov 1845
Captain George Grey18 Nov 184531 Dec 1847
Governor in Chief  
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.1 Jan 18487 Mar 1853
THE SELF-GOVERNING COLONY  
Governor of New Zealand  
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.7 Mar 185331 Dec 1853
Colonel Thomas Gore Browne, C.B. (later K.C.M.G.)6 Sep 18552 Oct 1861
Sir George Grey, K.C.B. (later P.C.)4 Dec 18615 Feb 1868
Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.M.G. (later P.C.)5 Feb 186819 Mar 1873
The Rt. Hon. Sir James Fergusson, Bt., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., P.C.(later G.C.S.I.)14 Jun 18733 Dec 1874
The Rt. Hon. the Marquess of Normanby, K.C.M.G., P.C. (later G.C.B., G.C.M.G.)9 Jan 187521 Feb 1879
Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, G.C.M.G. (later Lord Rosemead, P.C.)17 Apr 18798 Sep 1880
The Hon. Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, G.C.M.G. (later Lord Stanmore)29 Nov 188023 Jun 1882
Lieutenant-General Sir William Francis Drummond Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B.20 Jan 188322 Mar 1889
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G.2 May 188924 Feb 1892
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G.7 Jun 18926 Feb 1897
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Ranfurly, G.C.M.G.10 Aug 189719 Jun 1904
The Rt. Hon. Lord Plunket, G.C.M.G., K.C.V.O. (later K.B.E.)20 Jun 19048 Jun 1910
The Rt. Hon. Lord Islington, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., P.C. (later G.B.E.)22 Jun 19102 Dec 1912
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O.19 Dec 191227 Jun 1917
Governor-General of New Zealand  
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O., P.C.28 Jun 19177 Jul 1920
The Rt. Hon. Viscount (later Earl) Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O.27 Sep 192026 Nov 1924
General Sir Charles Fergusson, Bt., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., D.S.O., M.V.O. (later G.C.B.)13 Dec 19248 Feb 1930
The Rt. Hon. Viscount Bledisloe, G.C.M.G., K.B.E., P.C.19 Mar 193015 Mar 1935
The Rt. Hon. Viscount Galway, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., O.B.E., P.C.12 Apr 19353 Feb 1941
Marshal of the Royal Air Force the Rt. Hon. Lord Newall, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.M.G., C.B.E., A.M.22 Feb 194119 Apr 1946
Lieutenant-General the Rt. Hon. Lord Freyberg, V.C., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., K.B.E., D.S.O.17 Jun 194615 Aug 1952
Lieutenant-General the Rt. Hon. Lord Norrie, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., C.B., D.S.O, M.C.2 Dec 195225 Jul 1957
The Rt. Hon. Viscount Cobham, G.C.M.G., T.D. (later K.G., G.C.V.O., P.C.)5 Sep 195713 Sep 1962
Brigadier Sir Bernard Edward Fergusson, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O, D.S.O., O.B.E. (later Rt. Hon. Lord Ballantrae, K.T.)9 Nov 196220 Oct 1967
Sir Arthur Espie Porritt, Bt., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., C.B.E. (later Rt. Hon. Lord Porritt)1 Dec 19676 Sep 1972
Sir (Edward) Denis Blundell, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.B.E., Q.S.O.27 Sep 19725 Oct 1977
The Rt. Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, K.G., G.C.M.G., C.H.26 Oct 197723 Oct 1980
The Hon. Sir David Stuart Beattie, G.C.M.G., Q.C.6 Nov 1980 

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PRIME MINISTERS

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856
Name of MinistryName of Prime MinisterAssumed OfficeRetired
1. SewellHenry Sewell7 May 185620 May 1856
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May 18562 Jun 1856
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 Jun 185612 Jul 1861
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 Jul 18616 Aug 1862
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug 186230 Oct 1863
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.30 Oct 186324 Nov 1864
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov 186416 Oct 1865
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct 186528 Jun 1869
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 Jun 186910 Sep 1872
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sep 187211 Oct 1872
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse, M.L.C.11 Oct 18723 Mar 1873
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar 18738 Apr 1873
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 Apr 18736 Jul 1875
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 Jul 187515 Feb 1876
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb 18761 Sep 1876
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sep 187613 Sep 1876
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sep 187613 Oct 1877
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct 18778 Oct 1879
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct 187921 Apr 1882
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 Apr 188225 Sep 1883
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sep 188316 Aug 1884
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug 188428 Aug 1884
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug 18843 Sep 1884
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sep 18848 Oct 1887
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct 188724 Jan 1891
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan 189127 Apr 1893
27. SeddonRt. Hon. Richard John Seddon1 May 189310 Jun 1906
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 Jun 19066 Aug 1906
29. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bt., K.C.M.G.6 Aug 190628 Mar 1912
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar 191210 Jul 1912
31. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey10 Jul 191212 Aug 1915
32. Massey (National)Rt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey12 Aug 191525 Aug 1919
33. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey25 Aug 191910 May 1925
34. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C., M.L.C.14 May 192530 May 1925
35. CoatesRt. Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, M.C.30 May 192510 Dec 1928
36. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bt. G.C.M.G.10 Dec 192828 May 1930
37. ForbesRt. Hon. George William Forbes28 May 193022 Sep 1931
38. Forbes (Coalition)Rt. Hon. George William Forbes22 Sep 19316 Dec 1935
39. SavageRt. Hon. Michael Joseph Savage6 Dec 19351 Apr 1940
40. FraserRt. Hon. Peter Fraser, C.H.1 Apr 194013 Dec 1949
41. HollandRt. Hon. Sir Sidney George Holland, G.C.B., C.H.13 Dec 194920 Sep 1957
42. HolyoakeRt. Hon. Keith Jacka Holyoake20 Sep 195712 Dec 1957
43. NashRt. Hon. Walter Nash, C.H.12 Dec 195712 Dec 1960
44. HolyoakeRt. Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H.12 Dec 19607 Feb 1972
45. MarshallRt. Hon. John Ross Marshall, C.H.7 Feb 19728 Dec 1972
46. KirkRt. Hon. Norman Eric Kirk8 Dec 197231 Aug 1974
47. RowlingRt. Hon. Wallace Edward Rowling6 Sep 197412 Dec 1975
48. MuldoonRt. Hon. Robert David Muldoon, C.H.12 Dec 1975 

THE MINISTRY

Rt. Hon. R. D. MULDOON, C.H., Prime Minister, Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Legislative Department, Minister in Charge of the Audit Department, Minister in Charge of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service.

Rt. Hon. B. E. TALBOYS, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Overseas Trade.

Rt. Hon. D. MacINTYRE, D.S.O., O.B.E., E.D., Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Fisheries, Minister in Charge of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation.

Rt. Hon. L. R. ADAMS-SCHNEIDER, Minister of Trade and Industry.

Hon. D. S. THOMSON, M.C., E.D., Minister of Defence, Minister of State, Minister of State Services, Leader of the House of Representatives, Minister in Charge of War Pensions, Minister in Charge of Rehabilitation.

Hon. G. F. GAIR, Minister of Health, Minister of Social Welfare.

Hon. H. C. TEMPLETON, Minister of Customs, Minister of Statistics, Minister of Broadcasting, Deputy Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Inland Revenue Department, Minister in Charge of Friendly Societies.

Hon. J. B. BOLGER, Minister of Labour, Minister of Immigration.

Hon. C. A. McLACHLAN, Minister of Transport, Minister of Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services, Minister of Railways

Hon. W. L. YOUNG, Minister of Works and Development.

Hon. V. S. YOUNG, Minister of Lands, Minister of Forests, Minister for the Environment, Minister in Charge of the Valuation Department.

Hon. D. A. HIGHET, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Local Government, Minister of Recreation and Sport, Minister of Civil Defence, Minister for the Arts.

Hon. W. F. BIRCH, Minister of Energy, Minister of National Development, Minister of Science and Technology.

Hon. M. L. WELLINGTON, Minister of Education.

Hon. J. K. McLAY, Attorney-General, Minister of Justice.

Hon. D. F. QUIGLEY, Minister of Housing, Minister in Charge of the Public Trust Office, Minister in Charge of the Government Life Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the State Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission, Associate Minister of Finance.

Hon. M. B. R. COUCH, Minister of Maori Affairs, Minister of Police.

Hon. W. E. COOPER, Postmaster-General, Minister of Tourism, Minister of Regional Development, Minister in Charge of Publicity, Minister in Charge of the Government Printing Office.

Parliamentary Under-Secretaries:

K. R. ALLEN, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to the Minister of Trade and Industry.

K. M. COMBER, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to the Minister of Internal Affairs, to Minister of Local Government, to Minister of Recreation and Sport, to Minister of Civil Defence, and to Minister for the Arts.

R. L. G. TALBOT, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to Minister of Agriculture and to Minister of Fisheries.

A. G. MALCOLM, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to Minister of Labour and to Minister of Immigration.

B. E. BRILL, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to Minister of Energy.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Prime Minister—Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon,

C.H. Leader of the Opposition—Rt. Hon. W. E. Rowling

Speaker—Hon. Sir Richard Harrison, E.D.

Chairman of Committees—J. F. Luxton

Clerk of the House—C. P. Littlejohn, LL.M.

NameElectoral District
* Government member.
For General Electorates 
Adams-Schneider, Rt. Hon. L. R.*Waikato
Allen, K. R.*Tauranga
Arthur, Hon. Sir Basil, Bt.Timaru
Austin, H. N.*Bay of Islands
Austin, W. R.*Awarua
Bailey, Hon. R. L.Heretaunga
Bassett, Dr M.Te Atatu
Batchelor, Mrs M. D.Avon
Beetham, B. C.Rangitikei
Bell, R.L.*Gisborne
Birch, Hon. W.F.*Rangiriri
Bolger, Hon. J. B.*King Country
Brill, B.E.*Kapiti
Burke, K.West Coast
Butcher, D.Hastings
Caygill, DSt Albans
Christie, G.Napier
Colman, Hon, F. MacD.Pencarrow
Comber, K.M.*Wellington Central
Connelly, Hon. M. A.Yaldhurst
Cooper, Hon. W. E.*Otago
Couch, Hon. M. B.*Wairarapa
Courtney, M. F.Nelson
Cox, M.E.C.*Manawatu
Douglas, Hon. R. O.Manurewa
East, P. C.*Rotorua
Elliott, J. G.*Whangarei
Elworthy, J. H.*Waitaki
Falloon, S.J.*Pahiatua
Faulkner, Hon. A. J.Roskill
Fraser, Hon. W. A.St. Kilda
Freer, Hon. W. W.Mount Albert
Friedlander, A. P. D.*New Plymouth
Gair, Hon. G. F.*North Shore
Gerbic, F.M.Onehunga
Gray, R. M.*Clutha
Harrison, Hon. Sir Richard, E.D.*Hawke's Bay
Hercus, Mrs A.Lyttelton
Highet, Hon. D. A.*Remuera
Holland, Hon. E.S.F.*Fendalton
Hunt, J. L.New Lynn
Hunt, T. de V.*Pakuranga
Isbey, E. E.Papatoetoe
Jones, D. M. J.*Helensville
Jones, N. P. H., Q.S.M.*Invercargill
Kidd, D.L.*Marlborough
Kirk, N.JSydenham
Knapp, G. T.East Coast Bays
Lange, D. R.Mangere
Luxton, J. F.*Matamata
MacDonell, B. P.Dunedin Central
MacIntyre, Rt. Hon. D., D.S.O., O.B.E., E.D.*East Cape
McKinnon, D. C.*Albany
McLachlan, Hon. C. C. A.*Selwyn
McLay, Hon. J. K.*Birkenhead
McLean, I.*Tarawera
Malcolm, A.G.*Eden
Marshall, C. R.Wanganui
Maxwell, R.Waitakere
Minogue, M. J.*Hamilton West
Moore, M.Papanui
Muldoon, Rt. Hon. R. D., C.H.*Tamaki
O'Flynn, F., Q.C.Island Bay
Palmer, G.Christchurch Central
Peters, W. R.*Hunua
Prebble, R.W.Auckland Central
Quigley, Hon. D. F.*Rangiora
Ridley, J.Taupo
Rodger, S.Dunedin North
Rowling, Rt. Hon. W. E.Tasman
Schultz, L. C.*Hauraki
Shearer, Dr I. J.*Hamilton East
Talbot, R. L. G.*Ashburton
Talboys, Rt. Hon. B. E.*Wallace
Templeton, Hon. H. C.*Ohariu
Terris, J.Western Hutt
Thompson, G. W. F.*Horowhenua
Thomson, Hon. D. S., M.C., E.D.*Taranaki
Tizard, Hon. R. J.Otahuhu
Townshend, C. B.*Kaimai
Walding, Hon. J.Palmerston North
Wall, Dr G. A.Porirua
Waring, Marilyn*Waipa
Wellington, Hon. M. L.*Papakura
Wilkinson, Hon. P. I.*Kaipara
Young, T.J.Eastern Hutt
Young, Hon. V. S.*Waitotara
Young, Hon. W. L.*Miramar
For Maori Electorates 
Gregory, Dr B. C.Northern Maori
Reweti, P. B.Eastern Maori
Tirikatene-Sullivan, Hon. MrsSouthern
T. W. M.Maori
Wetere, K. T.Western Maori
PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS
ParliamentPeriod of Session
Thirty-fifth26 April 1967–24 November 1967
26 June 1968–19 December 1968
15 May 1969–24 October 1969
Thirty-sixth12 March 1970–13 March 1970
1 April 1970–3 December 1970
25 February 1971–25 March 1971
9 June 1971–17 December 1971
8 June 1972–20 October 1972
Thirty-seventh15 February 1973–16 March 1973
5 June 1973–23 November 1973
4 February 1974–29 March 1974
28 May 1974–8 November 1974
25 March 1975–10 October 1975
Thirty-eighth23 June 1976–14 December 1976
28 February 1977–4 March 1977
19 May 1977–16 December 1977
11 May 1978–6 October 1978
Thirty-ninth17 May 1979–14 December 1979
 15 May 1980–

LEGISLATION 1979—During the Parliamentary session of 1979, 148 Public Acts, 20 Local Acts, and 4 Private Acts were passed.

PUBLIC GENERAL ACTS OF NEW ZEALAND—The following list shows the departments responsible for the administration of the Public Acts of general application in New Zealand which were in force at January 1980 or which had been passed to come into force at a later date.

The list does not include references to Acts that are spent or expired or to amending Acts, Appropriation Acts, Finance Acts, or other Acts containing miscellaneous provisions, such as Statutes Amendment Acts, Local Legislation Acts, Reserves and Other Lands Disposal Acts, and Maori Purposes Acts.

ActDepartment
Accident Compensation Act 1972Labour
Accident Insurance Companies Act 1908Justice
Acts Interpretation Act 1924Justice
Administration Act 1969Justice
Admiralty Act 1973Transport
Adoption Act 1955Justice
Adult Education Act 1963Education
Age of Majority Act 1970Justice
Aged and Infirm Persons Protection Act 1912Justice
Agricultural and Pastoral Societies Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Chemicals Act 1959Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Pests Destruction Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Workers Act 1977Labour
Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act 1934Agriculture and Fisheries
Agriculture (Emergency Regulations Confirmation) ActsAgriculture and Fisheries
Air Services Licensing Act 1951Transport
Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971Labour
Airport Authorities Act 1966Transport
Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council Act 1976Justice
Alcoholics Act 1966Justice
Animal Remedies Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Animals Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Animals Protection Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Annual Holidays Act 1944Labour
Antarctica Art 1960Foreign Affairs
Antiquities Act 1975Internal Affairs
Anzac Day Art 1966Internal Affairs
Apiaries Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Apprentices Act 1948Labour
Arbitration Act 1908Justice
Arbitration Causes (Protocol) and the Arbitration (Foreign Awards) Act 1933Justice
Arbitration (International Investments Disputes) Act 1979Labour
Architects Art 1963Internal Affairs
Archives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Armed Forces Canteens Act 1948Defence
Armed Forces Discipline Art 1971Defence
Arms Act 1958Police
Atomic Energy Act 1945Energy
Auckland Harbour Bridge Act 1950Works and Development
Auctioneers Act 1928Justice
Aviation Crimes Act 1972Transport
Bank of New Zealand Act 1979Treasury
Banking Act 1908Treasury
Beer Duty Art 1977Customs
Berryfruit Levy Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Bills of Exchange Act 1908Treasury
Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951Justice
Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950Transport
Broadcasting Act 1976Broadcasting
Corporation Building Performance Guarantee Corporation Act 1977Housing Corporation
Building Research Levy Act 1969Scientific and Industrial Research
Building Societies Act 1965Justice
Burial and Cremation Act 1964Health
Bush Workers Act 1945Labour
Bylaws Act 1910Internal Affairs
Carriage by Air Act 1967Transport
Carriage of Goods Act 1979Justice
Charitable Trusts Act 1957Justice
Chartered Associations (Protection of Names and Uniforms) Act 1930Internal Affairs
Chateau Companies Act 1977Justice
Chatham Islands County Council Empowering Act 1936Internal Affairs
Chattels Transfer Act 1924Justice
Cheques Act 1960Treasury
Children and Young Persons Act 1974Social Welfare
Children's Health Camps Act 1972Health
Chiropractors Act 1960Justice
Cinematograph Films Art 1976Internal Affairs
Citizenship Act 1977Internal Affairs
Civil Aviation Act 1964Transport
Civil Defence Act 1962Internal Affairs
Civil List Act 1979Prime Minister
Clean Air Art 1972Health
Clerks of Works Act 1944Labour
Coal Mines Act 1979Energy
Commerce Act 1975Trade and Industry
Commissions of Inquiry Art 1908Internal Affairs
Commonwealth Countries Act 1977Foreign Affairs
Commonwealth Fabric Corporation Act 1962Treasury
Commonwealth Games Symbol Protection Act 1974Internal Affairs
Companies Act 1955Justice
Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act 1934–35Justice
Companies Special Investigations Act 1958Justice
Construction Act 1959Labour
Consular Privileges and Immunities Act 1971Foreign Affairs
Consumer Council Act 1966Trade and Industry
Consumer Information Art 1969Trade and Industry
Continental Shelf Art 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Contracts Enforcement Art 1956Justice
Contraception, Sterilisation, and Abortion Act 1977Justice
Contractual Mistakes Act 1977Justice
Contractual Remedies Act 1979Justice
Contributory Negligence Act 1947Justice
Cook Islands Act 1915Foreign Affairs
Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964Foreign Affairs
Co-operative Companies Act 1956Justice
Co-operative Dairy Companies Act 1949Justice
Co-operative Forestry Companies Act 1978Forest Service
Co-operative Freezing Companies Act 1960Justice
Copyright Art 1962Justice
Cornish Companies Management Act 1974Justice
Coroners Act 1951Justice
Costs in Criminal Cases Act 1967Justice
Counties Insurance Empowering Act 1941Internal Affairs
Courts Martial Appeals Art 1953Defence
Crimes Act 1961Justice
Criminal Justice Act 1954Justice
Crown Grants Art 1908Lands and Survey
Crown Proceedings Art 1950Justice
Customs Art 1966Customs
Customs Law Art 1908Customs
Dairy Board Art 1961Agriculture and Fisheries
Dairy Industry Art 1952Agriculture and Fisheries
Dangerous Goods Act 1974Internal Affairs
Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act 1952Justice
Decimal Currency Art 1964Treasury
Declaratory Judgments Act 1908Justice
Deeds Registration Act 1908Justice
Defamation Act 1954Justice
Defence Act 1971Defence
Demise of the Crown Act 1908Internal Affairs
Dental Act 1963Health
Department of Social Welfare Act 1971Social Welfare
Deputy Governor's Powers Act 1912Internal Affairs
Designs Act 1953Justice
Development Finance Corporation Act 1973Treasury
Dietitians Act 1950Health
Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities Act 1968Foreign Affairs'
Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975Social Welfare
Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act 1950Labour
Disabled Soldiers' Civil Re-establishment Act 1930Social Welfare
Distillation Act 1971Customs
Distress and Replevin Act 1908Justice
District Courts Art 1947Justice
District Railways Act 1908Works and Development
Dogs Registration Act 1955Internal Affairs
Domestic Actions Art 1975Justice
Domestic Proceedings Act 1968Justice
Domicile Act 1976Justice
Door to Door Sales Act 1967Trade and Industry
Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944State Insurance Office
Economic Stabilisation Act 1948Trade and Industry
Education Act 1964Education
Education Lands Art 1949Education
Electoral Art 1956Justice
Electric Linemen Act 1959Energy
Electric Power Boards Act 1925Energy
Electrical Registration Act 1979Energy
Electrical Supply Authorities Association Act 1930Energy
Electricity Act 1968Energy
Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953Social Welfare
Employment Agents Act 1908Labour
Enemy Property Art 1951Public Trust
Energy Resources Levy Act 1976Energy
Engineering Association Art 1961Works and Development
Engineers Registration Act 1924Works and Development
English Laws Act 1908Justice
Equal Pay Art 1972Labour
Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968Inland Revenue
Evidence Act 1908Justice
Exhibitions Art 1910Trade and Industry
Explosives Art 1957Internal Affairs
Export Guarantee Act 1964Treasury
Extradition Art 1965Justice
Factories Act 1946Labour
Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964Social Welfare
Family Protection Act 1955Justice
Farm Ownership Savings Act 1974Treasury
Fees and Travelling Allowances Act 1951Treasury
Fencing Act 1978Justice
Fertilisers Art 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Fire Service Art 1975Internal Affairs
Fisheries Art 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Fisheries (Agreement with Japan) Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Fishing Industry Board Act 1963Agriculture and Fisheries
Fishing Industry (Union Coverage) Act 1979Labour
Fishing Vessel Ownership Savings Act 1977Treasury
Food and Drug Art 1969Health
Foreign Affairs Art 1943Foreign Affairs
Foreign Travel Tax Act 1976Customs
Forest and Rural Fires Act 1977Forest Service
Forestry Encouragement Art 1962Forest Service
Forests Act 1949Forest Service
Franklin-Manukau Pest Destruction Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Friendly Societies Act 1909Treasury
Frustrated Contracts Act 1944Justice
Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 (U.K.)Justice
Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977Internal Affairs
Gaming Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Gas Industry Act 1958Energy
Gas Supply Act 1908Energy
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Act 1948Customs
Geneva Conventions Act 1958Foreign Affairs
Geothermal Energy Act 1953Energy
Government Life Insurance Act 1953Government Life Insurance Office
Government Railways Act 1949Railways
Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960State Service Commission
Government Superannuation Fund Act 1956Treasury
Guardianship Act 1968Justice
Harbours Act 1950Transport
Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act 1967Lands and Survey
Health Act 1956Health
Heavy Engineering Research Levy Act 1978Scientific and Industrial Research
Higher Salaries Commission Act 1977Labour
Hire Purchase Act 1971Justice
Historic Places Act 1954Internal Affairs
Hive Levy Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Home Ownership Savings Act 1974Treasury
Hospitals Act 1957Health
Hotel Association of New Zealand Act 1969Justice
Housing Act 1955Housing Corporation
Housing Corporation Act 1974Housing Corporation
Hovercraft Act 1971Transport
Howard Estate Act 1978Public Trust Office
Human Rights Commission Act 1977Justice
Human Tissues Act 1964Health
Hunter Gift for the Settlement of Discharged Soldiers Act 1921Lands and Survey
Hydatids Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Illegal Contracts Act 1970Justice
Immigration Act 1964Labour
Impounding Act 1955Internal Affairs
Imprisonment for Debt Limitation Act 1908Justice
Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910Public Trust
Income Tax Act 1976Inland Revenue
Incorporated Societies Act 1908Justice
Indecent Publications Act 1963Justice
Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1908Justice
Industrial Design Act 1966Trade and Industry
Industrial Relations Act 1973Labour
Industrial Societies Act 1908Justice
Industrial Training Levies Act 1978Labour
Industries Development Commission Act 1961Trade and Industry
Infants Act 1908Justice
Inferior Courts Procedure Act 1909Justice
Inland Revenue Department Act 1974Inland Revenue
Innkeepers Act 1962Justice
Insolvency Act 1967Justice
Insurance Companies' Deposits Act 1953Justice
Insurance Law Reform Act 1977Justice
International Air Services Licensing Act 1947Transport
International Departure Tax Act 1979Treasury
International Energy Agreement Act 1976Energy
International Finance Agreements Act 1961Treasury
Invercargill Licensing Trust Act 1950Justice
Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959Energy
Joint Council for Local Authorities Services Act 1977Internal Affairs
Joint Family Homes Act 1964Justice
Judicature Act 1908Justice
Juries Act 1908Justice
Kermadec Island Act 1887Foreign Affairs
Kitchener Memorial Scholarship Trust Act 1941Education
Labour Department Act 1954Labour
Lake Coleridge Water Power Act 1915Energy
Lake Waikaremoana Act 1971Maori Affairs
Lake Wanaka Preservation Act 1973Prime Minister
Land Act 1948Lands and Survey
Land Drainage Act 1908Internal Affairs
Land Purchase Act 1977Lands and Survey
Land Tax Act 1976Inland Revenue
Land Transfer Act 1952Justice
Land Transfer (Hawke's Bay) Act 1931Justice
Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948Justice
Law Practitioners Act 1955Justice
Law Reform Act 1936Justice
Law Reform Act 1944Justice
Law Reform (Testamentary Promises) Act 1949Justice
Legal Aid Act 1969Justice
Legislative Council Abolition Act 1950Legislative
Legislature Act 1908Legislative
Libraries and Mechanics' Institutes Act 1908Internal Affairs
Licensing Act 1908Justice
Licensing Trusts Act 1949Justice
Life Insurance Act 1908Justice
Limitation Act 1950Justice
Lincoln College Act 1961Education
Liquid Fuels Trust Act 1978Energy
Litter Act 1979Internal Affairs
Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963Internal Affairs
Local Authorities Loans Act 1956Treasury
Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Elections and Polls Act 1976Internal Affairs
Local Government Act 1974Internal Affairs
Local Railways Act 1914Works and Development
Machinery Act 1950Labour
Manapouri-Te Anau Development Act 1963Works and Development
Maori Affairs Act 1953Maori Affairs
Maori Affairs Department ACT 1968Maori Affairs
Maori Affairs Maori Community Development Act 1962Maori Affairs
Maori Education Foundation Act 1961Education
Maori Housing Act 1935Maori Affairs
Maori Purposes Funds Act 1934–35Maori Affairs
Maori Reserved Land Act 1956Maori Affairs
Maori Soldiers Trust Act 1957Maori Affairs
Maori Trust Boards Act 1955Maori Affairs
Maori Trustee Act 1953Maori Affairs
Maori Vested Lands Administration Act 1954Maori Affairs
Margarine Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Marginal Lands Act 1950Lands and Survey
Marine and Power Engineers' Institute Industrial Disputes Act 1974Labour
Marine Farming Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marine Insurance Act 1908Justice
Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Marine Pollution Act 1974Transport
Marine Reserves Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marketing Act 1936Agriculture and Fisheries
Marriage Act 1955Justice
Massage Parlours Act 1978Justice
Massey University Act 1963Education
Master and Apprentice Act 1908Labour
Masterton Licensing Trust Act 1947Justice
Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968Health
Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963Justice
Matrimonial Property Act 1976Justice
Meat Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Control Act 1921–22Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Prices Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966Health
Health Medical Practitioners Act 1968Health
Medical Research Council Act 1950Health
Mental Health Act 1969Health
Mercantile Law Act 1908Justice
Merchandise Marks Act 1954Trade and Industry
Military Decorations and Distinctive Badges Act 1918Defence
Military Manoeuvres Act 1915Defence
Milk Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Minimum Wages Act 1945Labour
Mining Act 1971Energy
Mining Tenures Registration Act 1962Justice
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Ministry of Energy Act 1977Energy
Ministry of Transport Act 1968Transport
Ministry of Works Act 1943Works and Development
Minors' Contracts Act 1969Justice
Misuse of Drugs Act 1975Health
Moneylenders Act 1908Justice
Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act 1936Treasury
Motor Spirits Distribution Act 1953Trade and Industry
Motor Spirits Duty Act 1961Customs
Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933Energy
Motor-Vehicle Dealers Act 1975Justice
Mount Egmont Vesting Act 1978Lands and Survey
Municipal Association Act 1939Internal Affairs
Municipal Insurance Act 1960Internal Affairs
Music Teachers Registration Act 1928Education
Mutual Insurance Act 1955Public Trust
National Art Gallery, Museum, and War Memorial Act 1972Internal Affairs
National Development Act 1979Works and Development
National Expenditure Adjustment Act 1932Treasury
National Housing Commission Act 1972Housing Corporation
National Library Act 1965Education
National Parks Act 1952Lands and Survey
National Provident Fund Act 1950Treasury
National Research Advisory Council Act 1963State Services Commission
National Roads Act 1953Works and Development
National Savings Act 1940Treasury
Native Plants Protection Act 1934Lands and Survey
Nature Conservation Council Act 1962Lands and Survey
Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908Defence
New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement Act 1965Trade and Industry
New Zealand Bank Act 1861Treasury
New Zealand Boundaries Act 1863 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution (Amendment) Act 1947 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Amendment (Request and Consent) Act 1947Internal Affairs
New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1972Education
New Zealand Council for Postgraduate Medical Education Act 1978Health
New Zealand Council of Law Reporting Act 1938Justice
New Zealand Counties Association Act 1949Internal Affairs
New Zealand Debt Conversion Act 1932–33Treasury
New Zealand Export-Import Corporation Act 1974Trade and Industry
New Zealand Film Commission Act 1978Internal Affairs
New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946Lands and Survey
New Zealand Government Property Corporation Act 1953Treasury
New Zealand Library Association Act 1939Education
New Zealand Maori Arts and Crafts Institute Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
New Zealand Planning Act 1977Works and Development
New Zealand Ports Authority Act 1968Transport
New Zealand Register of Osteopaths Incorporated Act 1978Health
New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969Justice
New Zealand Society of Accountants Act 1958Treasury
New Zealand Walkways Act 1975Lands and Survey
Newspapers and Printers Act 1955Justice
Ngarimu V.C. and 28th (Maori) Battalion Memorial Scholarship Fund Act 1945Education
Niue Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Niue Constitution Act 1974Foreign Affairs
Noxious Plants Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Nurses Act 1977Health
Oaths and Declarations Act 1957Justice
Occupational Therapy Act 1949Health
Occupiers Liability Act 1962Justice
Offenders Legal Aid Act 1954Justice
Official Appointments and Documents Act 1919Internal Affairs
Official Secrets Act 1951Justice
Ombudsmen Act 1975Justice
Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Act 1976Health
Orakei Block (Vesting and Use) Act 1978Lands and Survey
Orchard Levy Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Overseas Investment Act 1973Treasury
Overseas Representatives Act 1942Foreign Affairs
Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation Act 1972Education
Partnership Act 1908Justice
Passport Act 1946Internal Affairs
Patents Act 1953Justice
Patriotic and Canteen Funds Act 1947Internal Affairs
Pawnbrokers Act 1908Justice
Payment of Jurors Act 1919Justice
Penal Institutions Act 1954Justice
Perpetuities Act 1964Justice
Pesticides Act 1979Agriculture and Fisheries
Petroleum Act 1937Energy
Pharmacy Act 1970Health
Phosphorus Matches Act 1910Labour
Physiotherapy Act 1949Health
Plant Varieties Act 1973Agriculture and Fisheries
Plants Act 1970Agriculture and Fisheries
Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Act 1976Health
Police Act 1958Police
Police Offences Act 1927Justice
Political Disabilities Removal Act 1960Labour
Pork Industry Act 1974Agriculture and Fisheries
Post Office Act 1959Post Office
Potato Industry Act 1977Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Board Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Regulations Confirmation Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Private Investigators and Security Guards Act 1974Justice
Private Savings Banks Act 1964Treasury
Private Schools Conditional Integration Act 1975Education
Property Law Act 1952Justice
Protection of British Shipping Act 1936Transport
Public Authorities (Party Wall) Empowering Act 1919Works and Development
Public Bodies' Contracts Act 1959Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Leases Act 1969Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Meetings Act 1962Internal Affairs
Public Contracts Act 1908Labour
Public Finance Act 1977Treasury
Public Holidays Act 1955Labour
Public Safety Conservation Act 1932Justice
Public Trust Office Act 1957Public Trust
Public Works Act 1928Works and Development
Quantity Surveyors Act 1968Works and Development
Quarries Act 1944Energy
Queen Elizabeth The Second Arts Council of New Zealand Act 1974Internal Affairs
Queen Elizabeth The Second National Trust Act 1977Lands and Survey
Queen Elizabeth The Second Postgraduate Fellowship of New Zealand Act 1963Education
Queen Elizabeth The Second Technicians Study Award Act 1970Education
Race Relations Act 1971Justice
Racing Act 1971Internal Affairs
Radiation Protection Act 1965Health
Rangitaiki Land Drainage Act 1956Internal Affairs
Rates Rebate Act 1973Internal Affairs
Rating Act 1967Internal Affairs
Real Estate Agents Act 1976Justice
Reciprocal Enforcement of Judgments Act 1934Justice
Recreation and Sport Act 1973Ministry of Recreation and Sport
Regulations Act 1936Justice
Rehabilitation Act 1941Social Welfare
Remuneration Act 1979Labour
Rent Appeal Act 1973Housing Corporation
Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964Reserve Bank
Reserves Act 1977Lands and Survey
Restricted Drugs Act 1960Health
River Boards Act 1968Internal Affairs
Road User Charges Act 1977Transport
Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind Act 1963Education
Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Royal Powers Act 1953Foreign Affairs
Royal Society of New Zealand Act 1965Scientific and Industrial Research
Royal Titles Act 1974Foreign Affairs
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation Act 1974Treasury
Rural Housing Act 1939Housing Corporation
Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927Housing Corporation
Safety of Children's Night Clothes Act 1977Trade and Industry
Sale of Goods Act 1908Justice
Sale of Liquor Act 1962Justice
Sales Tax Act 1974Customs
Sand Drift Act 1908Lands and Survey
Scientific and Industrial Research Act 1974Scientific and Industrial Research
Sea Carriage of Goods Act 1940Trade and Industry
Seal of New Zealand Act 1977Internal Affairs
Seamen's Union Funds Act 1971Labour
Secondhand Dealers Act 1963Justice
Secret Commissions Act 1910Justice
Securities Act 1978Justice
Securities Transfer Act 1977Justice
Securities Advertising Act 1977Justice
Services Export Development Grants Act 1973Trade and Industry
Sharebrokers Act 1908Justice
Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937Labour
Shearers Act 1962Labour
Shipping and Seamen Act 1952Transport
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973Transport
Shop Trading Hours Act 1977Labour
Shops and Offices Act 1955Labour
Shorthand Reporters Act 1908Justice
Simultaneous Deaths Act 1958Justice
Small Claims Tribunals Act 1976Justice
Social Security Act 1964Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1969Social Welfare
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941Works and Development
Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952Internal Affairs
Stamp and Cheque Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Standards Act 1965Trade and Industry
State Insurance Act 1963State Insurance Office
State Services Act 1962State Services Commission
State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977State Services Commission
Statistics Act 1975Statistics
Status of Children Act 1969Justice
Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Statutes Drafting and Compilation Act 1920Parliamentary
Counsel Office Statutory Land Charges Registration Act 1928Justice
Stock Foods Act 1946Agriculture and
Fisheries Submarine Cables and Pipelines Protection Act 1966Transport
Summary Proceedings Act 1957Justice
Superannuation Schemes Act 1976Treasury
Surveyors Act 1966Lands and Survey
Swamp Drainage Act 1915Lands and Survey
Taranaki Harbours Act 1965Transport
Taranaki Scholarships Trust Board Act 1957Education
Tarawera Forest Act 1967Maori Affairs
Technicians Training Act 1967Labour
Tenancy Act 1955Labour
Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977Foreign Affairs
Testing Laboratory Registration Act 1972Scientific and Industrial Research
Timber Floating Act 1954Forest Service
Time Act 1974Internal Affairs
Tobacco-growing Industry Act 1974Trade and Industry
Tokelau Act 1948Foreign Affairs
Tourist and Health Resorts Control Act 1908Tourist and Publicity
Tourist and Publicity Department Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
Tourist Hotel Corporation Act 1974Tourist and Publicity
Town and Country Planning Act 1977Works and Development
Toxic Substances Act 1979Health
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act 1933Customs
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Canada) Ratification Act 1932Customs
Trade and Industry Act 1956Trade and Industry
Trade Unions Act 1908Treasury
Trademarks Act 1953Justice
Trades Certification Act 1966Education
Tramways Act 1908Works and Development
Transport Act 1962Transport
Treaties of Peace (Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Finland) Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Peace (Japan) Act 1951Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975Maori Affair
Trespass Act 1968Justice
Trustee Act 1956Justice
Trustee Companies Act 1967Justice
Trustee Companies Management Act 1975Justice
Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948Reserve Bank
Tuberculosis Act 1948Health
Unclaimed Moneys Act 1971Treasury
Underground Water Act 1953Works and Development
Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919Labour
Unit Titles Act 1972Justice
Unit Trusts Act 1960Justice
United Nations Act 1946Foreign Affairs
United Nations (Police) Act 1964Police
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration Act 1944Foreign Affairs
Universities Act 1961Education
University of Albany Act 1972Education
University of Auckland Act 1961Education
University of Canterbury Act 1961Education
University of Otago Ordinance 1869 and University of Otago Amendment Act 1961Education
University of Waikato Act 1963Education
Unsolicited Goods and Services Act 1975Justice
Valuation of Land Act 1951Valuation
Valuers Act 1948Valuation
Vegetables Levy Act 1957Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Services Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Surgeons Act 1956Agriculture and Fisheries
Victoria University of Wellington Act 1961Education
Visiting Forces Act 1939Foreign Affairs
Vocational Awards Act 1979Education
Vocational Training Council Act 1968Education
Volunteers Employment Protection Act 1973Labour
Wages Protection Act 1964Labour
Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act 1939Labour
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act 1910Works and Development
Waikato Valley Authority Act 1956Works and Development
Wairarapa Cadet Training Farm Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Waitangi Day Art 1976Internal Affairs
Waitangi Endowment Act 1932–33Forest Service
Waitangi National Trust Board Act 1932Lands and Survey
Wanganui Computer Centre Act 1976Justice
War Expenses Act 1939Treasury
War Funds Act 1915Internal Affairs
War Pensions Act 1954Social Welfare
Water and Soil Conservation Art 1967Works and Development
Waterfront Industry Art 1976Labour
Weights and Measures Act 1925Labour
Western Samoa Act 1961Foreign Affairs
Westport Harbour Act 1920Transport
Wheat Board Act 1965Trade and Industry
Wheat Levy Art 1974Trade and Industry
Wild Animal Control Art 1977Forest Service
Wildlife Act 1953Internal Affairs
Wills Act 1837 (U.K.)Justice
Wine Makers Levy Art 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Act 1965Internal Affairs
Wool Industry Act 1977Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Labelling Act 1949Trade and Industry
Wool Testing Authority Art 1964Agriculture and Fisheries

ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS—Administrative tribunals have gradually developed over a period of more than 50 years. As a rule they are set up by Act of Parliament or under powers conferred by statute. Their growth is related to the continuing expansion of governmental activity and responsibility for the general well-being of the community. This development is common to many countries. Useful references are The Citizen and Power: Administrative Tribunals—a survey by the Department of Justice, and the reports of the Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee, published annually.

Appeals from Administrative Tribunals—An Administrative Division of the High Court (then the Supreme Court) was established by the Judicature Amendment Act 1968. The Division consists of up to four Judges of the High Court, who are assigned to the Division by the. Chief Justice. One of the most important functions of the Division is to determine appeals from such administrative tribunals as are specified by statute. It also hears and determines applications for judicial review and for prerogative writs and other classes of applications and proceedings referred to it by the Chief Justice or specified by statute. Judges who are at present assigned to the Division are the Chief Justice, the Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E.; the Hon. G. D. Speight; the Hon. J. C. White; and the Rt. Hon. D. W. McMullin.

JUDICIARY

Judges of the Court of Appeal and High Court

Chief Justice: Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G, G.B.E.

Court of Appeal: Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E. (ex officio): Rt. Hon. Sir Clifford Richmond, K.B.E., President; Rt. Hon. Sir Owen Woodhouse; Rt. Hon. Sir Robin Cooke; Rt. Hon. I. L. M. Richardson; Rt. Hon. D. W. McMullin.

High Court: Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E.; Hon. L. F. Moller; Hon. G. D. Speight; Hon. C. M. Roper; Hon. J. C. White; Hon. J. P. Quilliam; Hon. P. T. Mahon; Hon. J. B. O'Regan; Hon. M. F. Chilwell; Hon. M. E. Casey; Hon. E. J. Somers; Hon. J A. Ongley; Hon. R. I. Barker; Hon. J. F. Jeffries; Hon. M. H. Vautier; Hon. J. W. Bain; Hon. J. B. Sinclair; Hon. J. R. Mills, C.M.G.; Hon. T. M. Thorp; Hon. G. F. Bisson; Hon. A. D. Holland; Hon. L. M. Greig; Hon. J. P. Cook; Hon. R. C. Savage, Hon. M. Hardie Boys; Hon. E. M. Prichard.

OMBUDSMEN

Since 1962 there has been an Ombudsman whose principal function has been to inquire into complaints from members of the public relating to administrative decisions of Government departments and related organisations. Jurisdiction was extended in 1968 to hospital and education boards and, under the Ombudsmen Act 1975, to all other local authorities and certain national boards and organisations. Provision was made under the new Act for the appointment of a Chief Ombudsman and one or more other ombudsmen, who may be permanent or temporary. Complaints must be made in writing. Investigations are conducted in private but an ombudsman can decide not to investigate where, for instance, the subject matter is trivial or the complainant has not a sufficient personal interest in the subject matter of the complaint.

Where an ombudsman forms the opinion that a complaint can be sustained he is required in the case of a Government department or Government organisation to report that opinion and any recommendation that may be made to the department or organisation concerned and to make a copy of the report available to the responsible minister. In the case of a local organisation the ombudsman is required to report the opinion formed to that organisation and to make a copy of the report available to the mayor or chairman.

An analysis of the complaints made to the Ombudsmen during the latest available year is given in the following table.

Action on ComplaintYear Ended March 1979
Declined, no jurisdiction227
Declined or discontinued562
Sustained, recommendation made22
Sustained, no recommendation made107
Not sustained538
Abandoned before investigation209
Still under investigation as at 31 March379
Total number of complaints2044

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND HOLDERS OF CHIEF ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS
DepartmentChief Administrative Positions
TitleName
* Director-General of Housing Corporation acts also as permanent head of Rural Bank.
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry ofDirector-GeneralM. L. Cameron, B.A.GR.SC.
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralA. C. Shailes, B.A., A.C.A.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralD. P. Neazor, LI. M., Q.C.
CustomsComptrollerJ. A. M. Kean, ACCTS. PROF.
Defence, Ministry ofSecretaryD.B.G. McLean, M.SC., B.A. (OXON.)
 Chief of Defence StaffRear-Admiral N. D. Anderson, C.B., C.B.E.
 Chief of Air StaffAir Vice-Marshal D. E. Jamieson
 Chief of General StaffMajor-General B. M. Poananga C.B., C.B.E.
 Chief of Naval StaffRear-Admiral K. M. Saull
EducationDirector-GeneralW. L. Renwick, M.A.
Energy, Ministry ofSecretaryW. M. Duncan, B.E., M.I.C.E., M.A.S.C.E.. M.N.Z.I.E.
Environment, Commission for theCommissionerK. Piddington, M.A.
Foreign Affairs, Ministry ofSecretaryM. Norrish, M.A.
Government Life Insurance OfficeCommissionerH. D. Peacock, F.I.A.
Government Printing OfficeGovernment PrinterP. D. Hasselberg, ACCTS. PROF.
HealthDirector-GeneralH. J. H. Hiddlestone, M.D., CH.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.A.C.P.
Housing CorporationDirector-GeneralE. J. Babe, B.COM., A.C.A., D.P.A., DIP.R.V.
Inland RevenueCommissionerR. T. Phillips, A.C.A.
Internal AffairsSecretary and Clerk of WritsJ. N. L. Searle, F.C.A.. B. COM.
JusticeSecretary for JusticeJ. F. Robertson, A.C.A., D.P.A.
LabourSecretary of LabourG. L. Jackson, A.C.A.
Lands and SurveyDirector-GeneralN. S. Coad, B.COM., D.P.A., ACCTS. PROF.
LegislativeClerk of House of RepresentativesC. P. Littlejohn, LL.M.
Maori AffairsSecretary and Maori TrusteeI. P. Puketapu, B.A.
New Zealand Forest ServiceDirector-GeneralG. M. O'Neill, B.SC. B.SC. FOR. (EDB.)
New Zealand Security Intelligence ServiceDirector of SecurityP. L. Molineaux, M.A., LL.B.
PoliceCommissionerR. J. Walton, O.B.E., Q.P.M., E.D.
Post OfficeDirector-GeneralG. M. Peters
Prime Minister'sPermanent HeadG. Hensley, M.A.
Public Trust OfficePublic TrusteeN. C. Kelly, LL.M.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerT. M. Hayward, F.C.I.T.
Rural Banking and Finance Corp.*  
Scientific and Industrial ResearchDirector-GeneralD. Kear, B.SC., PH.D.(LOND.), A.R.S.M.
Social WelfareDirector-GeneralS.J. Callahan, A.C.A., D.P.A.
State Insurance OfficeGeneral ManagerM. F. O'Connell
State Services CommissionChairmanR. M. Williams, M.A., PH.D. (CANTAB.)
StatisticsGovernment StatisticianJ. H. Darwin, M.SC. B.A., PH.D. (MANCUN.)
Tourist and PublicityGeneral ManagerW. N. Plimmer. M.A.
Trade and IndustrySecretaryJ.W.H. Clark, B.A., ADMIN, PROF., D.P.A.
Transport, Ministry ofSecretaryA. J. Edwards, B.A. (Hon.), M.C.I.T.
TreasurySecretaryB. V. J Galvin, B.A., M.P.A. (HVD.)
ValuationValuer-GeneralM. R. Mander, DIP. V.F.M., R.V.
Works and Development, Ministry ofCommissionerN. C. McLeod, B.E.

FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS THE STATE SERVICES

The State services comprise, in the widest sense, all servants of the Crown other than those holding political or judicial office. They include the 34 departments of the Public Service, and the Post Office, Railways Department, Legislative Department, Parliamentary Counsel Office, and other State organisations such as Government corporations and agencies, the Police, the armed forces, and the teaching and health services.

Under the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, the State Services Co-ordinating Committee is constituted as the principal adviser to the Minister of State Services and the official negotiating body with service organisations on all personnel matters which in the opinion of the committee significantly affect more than one employing authority. The committee consists of the following or their representatives: Chairman of the State Services Commission; Secretary to the Treasury; Director-General of the Post Office; General Manager of Railways; Secretary of Defence; Director-General of Health; and the Director-General of Education. Other State service employing authorities may be co-opted as members of the committee from time to time.

Apart from proposals concerning salaries and related conditions of employment, the committee discusses more general personnel matters referred to it by the Government, individual employing authorities, and employee organisations, and tries to achieve a reasonable degree of inter-service uniformity.

Brief summaries of the functions of Government departments are now given.

Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of—The main functions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries are to promote and encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, and fishing industries with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing their production.

Audit Office—The Audit Office is responsible for auditing throughout the public sector—the Public Accounts, Government departments, Government trading corporations, local authorities, producer boards. The audit is wider than the normal company audit and encompasses the twin areas of:

Financial—independent opinion on annual financial statements produced by above bodies.

—periodic review over financial control systems not directly related to the production of external financial statements.

Value for money—periodic reviews of the systems in both Central and Local Government for ensuring the efficient and effective use of public funds. The Auditor-General, the statutory head of the Audit Office, has an annual duty to report to Parliament on any matters arising from audits which he desires to bring to public attention. In recent years these reports have concerned themselves with many aspects of financial management and administration generally in the public sector.

Crown Law Office—The primary function of the Crown Law Office is to act as the legal adviser of the Government and Ministers in matters affecting the Crown and Government departments. In addition the Solicitor-General performs most of the statutory and ex officio duties of the Attorney-General's, office and is himself entrusted by statute with various specific rights, duties, and functions. In range and activity the legal work of the Crown Law Office corresponds with the activities of the Government itself, and just as those activities have extended in the past 30 years into commerce and social services, as well as the purely governmental sphere, so the scope of the Crown Law Office's legal work has widened accordingly.

Customs Department—A principal function is the collection of indirect taxation—Customs duty, excise duty, sales tax, beer duty, motor spirits duty, and international departure tax. Advice is given to Government in matters of Tariff protection for local industry.

The department is also responsible for the prevention of smuggling and related offences, for the entry and clearance of ships and aircraft, passenger processing, and the control of exports from New Zealand.

Another principal function is the implementation of policy and procedural decisions in relation to import control. This involves the receipt of applications, issuing licences, exercising delegated authority, and ensuring that import licensing requirements are met at the point of importation.

Defence, Ministry of—Functions include the provision of the resources required to enable Defence Headquarters to undertake the central command, control, management, and administration of the defence forces and the Ministry of Defence, and also maintaining and operating the defence communications network.

Education, Department of—The primary objective of the department is to ensure that suitable education facilities and services are readily available for all children of compulsory school age (from 6 to 15 years); for children who by choice start school at the age of 5 years; for the rapidly increasing number of pupils over the age of 15 who stay on at school; for suitably qualified school leavers who seek or are required to undertake education and training on leaving school in secondary schools, teachers colleges, or technical institutes; and for adults wishing to continue their education, whether for vocational or non-vocational purposes. Associated with this objective is the responsibility for administering government policy in the maintenance and development of pre-school education.

In carrying out these objectives the department's main activities are the provision of professional and administrative services for the support of the education system, the administration of primary and secondary education, special education, the training of teachers, technical and continuing education, and the National Library.

Energy, Ministry of—The Ministry of Energy was established by Order in Council on 1 April 1978 following the passing of the Ministry of Energy Act late in 1977. The new ministry brought together the former “energy” departments of Electricity, Mines, and Energy Resources. It was established to advise the Government on the formulation, implementation, co-ordination, and continuing review of effective and efficient energy policies for New Zealand. In carrying out this function the ministry must take into account energy sources and resources; exploration, assessment, research and development, production, supply, distribution, consumption, and conservation; needs of industry, commerce, transport, and domestic users; needs of regions; international responsibilities; environmental and social issues; organisational and administration methods; and future patterns, changes, problems, and the need for planning.

The ministry is responsible for administering licensing for the prospecting and mining of petroleum, coal, and other minerals. This includes the regulation and inspection of mining operations to ensure acceptable operating safety standards.

One of the roles of the ministry is to encourage the active exploration and the proper development and use of the country's natural resources. To this end a substantial sum is provided for assistance to oil exploration. The policy of assisting the mineral industry with technical advice and financial help by way of grants and contingently repayable loans continues as in the past.

The ministry is also responsible for the production and marketing of coal from the State coal mines.

The primary purpose of the Electricity Division of the ministry is to operate and maintain the bulk electricity supply system and to extend it so that the electricity needs of New Zealand are supplied safely, continuously, and economically. A further requirement is to undertake or promote measures to achieve greater economy and efficiency in the use of electricity as a means of reducing the future rate of growth of electricity requirements.

Environment, Commission for the—The commission provides advice and administrative support to the Minister for the Environment, promotes the co-ordination of Government policies in the environmental field, and initiates new policy proposals for the consideration of the Minister and others. It also audits environmental impact reports prepared by Government departments and other organisations on proposed new major works with significant environmental consequences.

Foreign Affairs, Ministry of—The ministry is responsible for the administration of foreign policy and the conduct of New Zealand's external relations generally, including relations with other countries and then-representatives in New Zealand, and New Zealand's representation abroad.

The ministry's operating arm overseas is the network of diplomatic posts, consisting of embassies, high commissions, consulates-general, and other permanent missions, located in areas of direct and immediate concern to New Zealand. Attendance at international and regional conferences is undertaken both by staff attached to posts and by officials from the head office of the ministry in Wellington. The ministry also maintains liaison with the representatives of the other countries accredited to New Zealand and encourages cultural exchanges and visits to New Zealand by overseas journalists, officials, and others.

On 1 April 1975 the ministry also became responsible for the Island activities of the former Department of Maori and Island Affairs. From 1 September 1978 the ministry became responsible for all official New Zealand information and publicity activities overseas other than those specifically concerned with trade promotion or tourism.

From 1 April 1979, following unification of the overseas service, the ministry took over the administration of all New Zealand's 47 posts abroad, including 9 previously administered by the Department of Trade and Industry.

Forest Service, New Zealand—Management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards maintaining an exotic forest estate sufficiently large and diverse to meet future domestic timber and other forest produce needs and to provide for exports whilst also protecting, conserving, and, where possible, perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests.

Development and management of a wood resource for new forest-based industries leads to continuing employment opportunities and other socio-economic benefits regionally.

Implementation of a multiple-use forest policy involves the establishment and maintenance of forests for wood production, soil and water conservation, scenery preservation, the provision of recreational areas, and biological reserves.

Government Life Insurance Office—The operations of the Government Life Insurance Office are essentially a single activity which is to provide full and progressive life insurance and superannuation facilities for the people of New Zealand.

The office is a mutual life insurance office operating in active competition with private offices.

Government Printing Office—The function of the department is to supply the requirements of printing, stationery, and allied services to Government departments. It follows that the volume of demand from client departments regulates to a large extent the development or expansion of the Printing Office.

Health, Department of—The principal functions of the Department of Health are:

  1. To administer the Health Act 1956, the Hospitals Act 1957, the Mental Health Act 1969, Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, the Toxic Substances Act 1979, the Clean Air Act 1972, and all other public Acts relating to the promotion or conservation of human health.

  2. To advise local authorities in matters relating to environmental health.

  3. To prevent, limit, and suppress communicable and other diseases.

  4. To promote or carry out research and investigation in public health fields and the prevention and treatment of disease.

  5. To publish reports, information, and advice concerning public health.

  6. To organise and control medical, dental, and nursing services, so far as such services are paid for out of public moneys.

  7. Generally to take all such steps as may be desirable to secure the preparation, effective carrying out, and co-ordination of measures conducive to public health.

  8. To provide advisory information and processing services to hospital boards and various health agencies.

Housing Corporation—The Housing Corporation is the chief government agency for providing finance for home ownership. It also provides home improvement loans, mortgage guarantees., and refinance assistance.

Its other main function is the provision of publicly-owned housing. Activities include land acquisition and development, land sales, house construction, the management of its rental houses, sale of houses, loans and subsidy for pensioner accommodation, and urban development and redevelopment.

The corporation in its own right, or as agent, provides industrial loans and agency services including: administration of the Home Ownership Savings Act 1974; advances under the Family Benefit Capitalisation scheme; rehabilitation concessions to ex-servicemen; subsidies for hostel accommodation for young people; loans for hotel/motel accommodation, private schools, medical centres, and home insulation; and loans and mortgage guarantees to provide tourist accommodation and facilities.

Inland Revenue Department—The main function of the Inland Revenue Department is to assess and collect various taxes and duties. The principal of these is income tax which is collected in part by PAYE deductions from salaries and wages, in part by the payment of provisional tax during the year of derivation of income, and in part by an end of the year assessment. Of the other revenues collected the most significant comprise stamp duty, estate and gift duties, land tax, and totalisator duty. The department also collects accident compensation levies on behalf of the Accident Compensation Commission.

Internal Affairs, Department of—The department is primarily responsible for administering Government policies and legislation relating to local government, the development of cultural and recreational services, and the protection of indigenous wildlife.

The Local Government Division attends to formal constitutional matters relating to the summoning and prorogation of Parliament and administers policies and legislation relating to territorial local government, the New Zealand Fire Service, servicemen's cemeteries, the Chatham Islands, and the control of Lake Taupo. It also services the Local Government Commission schemes.

The Recreation Arts and Youth Division is responsible for administering Government policies and legislation relating to cultural matters, the recreation and sport programme, and youth activities. It administers a large number of community funding programmes. The New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport, the National Museum, National Art Gallery, the New Zealand Historic Places Trust, the National Archives, and the Film Censor are all serviced by the department. The Historic Publications Branch is also part of the department and the work of the Commonwealth Youth Programme within New Zealand is co-ordinated by the department.

The Ministry of Civil Defence implements Government policy for assistance to local authorities in carrying out their civil defence obligations and for co-ordinating the planning and use of Government resources in civil defence emergencies.

The Wildlife Service, in addition to managing the wildlife resources of two major acclimatisation districts, is responsible nationally for the protection of New Zealand fauna. It administers legislation on freshwater fishing, game hunting, and the conservation of rare native birds.

The department also administers the legislation relating to horse racing, gaming and lotteries, New Zealand citizenship, passports, and visas. It operates the translation service for Government departments and administers the cleaning of Government offices. Administrative matters relating to the office of the Governor-General and his staff are also the department's responsibility. Reception of guests of the Government, State functions, meeting the costs of internal and overseas travel by Ministers of the Crown and parliamentary delegations are other responsibilities.

Justice, Department of—The functions of the department may be classified broadly under the headings of penal policy and administration; law reform; the administration of justice; commercial affairs (including the administration of the Companies and Insolvency Acts); electoral; registration work including land titles, trade marks, patents, and births, deaths, and marriages; and social measures of a preventive nature. The Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, Legal Aid Act 1969, the Race Relations Act 1971, and the Summary Instalment Order provisions of the Insolvency Act 1967 have taken the department further into the broad area of social administration. The department is, through its Tribunals Division, responsible for the administration of the Sale of Liquor Act 1962, the Indecent Publications Act 1963, and the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 (Appeal Board provisions), together with other various tribunals.

Labour, Department of—The principal responsibilities of the Department of Labour are to promote and maintain full employment through the provision of a complete employment service, to ensure through the work of its field staff that workers are employed under safe and healthy working conditions, to promote good industrial relations, and to collect and publish relevant information. In addition, it administers a complex variety of statutes; among the most important are the Industrial Relations Act, the Factories and Construction Acts, and those dealing with weights and measures, apprenticeship, and immigration.

Lands and Survey, Department of—As the Government's major land administering agency, the department manages, controls, or is involved with the administration of about 10.3 million hectares of land, which represents approximately 38 percent of New Zealand's land area. Some 5.7 million hectares of this area is Crown leasehold, 2.7 million hectares is national parks and reserves, 670926 hectares is being developed for farming purposes while the balance falls into miscellaneous categories (mountain tops, vacant Crown land, lake and riverbeds, etc.).

The department is also the national survey and mapping organisation, thus providing economies and effective co-ordination of all activities. This work includes control surveys as the basis for cadastral surveys and basic topographic mapping, land title surveys, large scale topographical surveys for engineering and management purposes, land development servicing, fixing of marine and air navigation aids and aerodrome obstruction surveys, earth deformation studies, and land environmental planning.

Maori Affairs, Department of—The broad functions of the Department of Maori Affairs are to assist the Maori and Pacific Island peoples, particularly in social, economic, and cultural matters. For example, Maori land owners are assisted by the way of title reform and capital advances to make full use of their resources, and through its Community Services Division, the department gives encouragement in the fields of education, employment, housing, and health.

New Zealand Police—The role of the Police is:

    1. To protect life and property, by guarding, patrolling, and anticipating danger not only from criminal acts, but also those which are natural, accidental, or unintentional.

    2. To safeguard the liberties of the individual and preserve the public peace, by seeking to create and maintain conditions under which people may go about their lawful affairs undisturbed and protected from harmful and dangerous conduct.

    3. To prevent crime and to seek, identify, and eliminate the causes of crime.

    4. To detect offenders if crime is committed.

  1. To encourage and advise the community on how to protect their persons and property from criminal behaviour.

  2. To provide guidance and assistance:

    1. In helping young people to achieve social maturity.

    2. In cases of tragedy, or family and/or other personal crisis.

Post Office—The Post Office is charged with the operation and development of postal and telecommunications systems, both internal and overseas; the Post Office Savings Bank; and with handling a wide range of payments and receipts for Government departments and other organisations.

Prime Minister's Department—Since December 1975 the Prime Minister's Department has been established as a separately administered department with its own permanent head.

General services provided by the department include servicing the Cabinet, its committees, and the Executive Council; advising the Prime Minister on policy matters as required; and providing a public information service on ministerial matters for the news media.

The External Intelligence Bureau centralises the intelligence functions in the general field of international affairs; it receives direction and policy guidance from the New Zealand Intelligence Council.

Public Trust Office—The Public Trustee provides a wide range of services as trustee, executor, manager, and attorney. He also acts as sinking fund or depreciation fund commissioner for many local authorities when so appointed, and additionally holds other funds on their behalf. He is required to provide a number of statutory services irrespective of whether these are remunerative.

Railways Department, New Zealand Government—The fundamental and continuing aim of New Zealand Railways is to take its part in the operation and development of the nation's transport services by means of a strong, successful, and efficient organisation consisting of rail, road, and inter-island sea services which will help to increase the wealth and well-being of the community.

The main objectives are:

  1. To provide services of the highest standard possible consistent with an overall requirement of economic and safe operation, within the constraints imposed by available labour, equipment, and investment capital.

  2. To trade as a business enterprise.

  3. To earn sufficient revenue to cover operating and renewal costs, to build up a contingency reserve, and to provide whatever proportion of development capital circumstances allow.

Rural Banking and Finance Corporation—The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation was established on 1 April 1974 with the principal function of making loans and providing other assistance for farming and other primary industries and for related service industries.

Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of—The department exercises the functions of providing background scientific research for economic development, land use, and environmental control in several major areas.

Agriculture—Agriculture is a priority area, it being the mainstay of the country's economy. Increasing emphasis is placed on (a) new crops, including those suitable for irrigated land and mechanical harvesting, to meet the demands of the rapidly expanding food processing industry; (b) the breeding of new and better varieties of pasture, particularly for hill country farming; (c) pests and disease control, and (d) the curing, drying, storage, processing, and packaging of agricultural products.

Manufacturing—Particular emphasis is given to improved industrial liaison and advisory services, electronic and electrical work, metal cutting and forming, industrial vibration and acoustic problems, and new product development.

Minerals—Continuing emphasis is given to prospecting, finding new uses for and testing the processing of local raw materials with a view to substantially increasing the “added value” component before export.

Energy—Aspects of prospecting for, storage, and processing of energy resources are investigated. Advice is given on building and maintenance of energy-generating installations and on efficiency of use and conversion of energy in building and appliances. Processes for production of motor fuels from crops, coal, and wastes are being developed and tested, including economic aspects. Emphasis is being given to investigating the extent and possible additional utilisation of indigenous energy resources such as coal, natural gas, oil, and geothermal steam. Alternative forms of energy, i.e., solar, wind, ocean, are being investigated.

Natural Environment—Surveys are made of geology, soils, oceanography, flora, and fauna. Studies involve the environmental impact of major development proposals, including pollution problems.

Other Scientific Services—There are increasing demands for scientific services from Department of Health (food and drug analysis), Ministry of Transport (blood alcohol analysis), and Police Department (forensic), and for work related to road safety.

Social Welfare, Department of—The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are:

  1. To administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Children and Young Persons Act 1974; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; the Rehabilitation Act 1941; and the Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Minister may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities.

  5. Maintain close liaison with and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among any organisations and individuals engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

State Insurance Office—The State Insurance Office transacts all classes of fire, accident, and marine insurance in New Zealand. Its function is to maintain a competitive insurance service.

It administers the Export Guarantee Office, which provides credit insurance for exporters, and also acts as claims-handling agent for the Accident Compensation Commission.

Statistics, Department of—The Department of Statistics has the following broad functions:

  1. To collect, compile, analyse, abstract, and publish economic, financial, production, and social statistics, and to make estimates, forecasts, projections, and statistical models;

  2. To advise and inform the Minister of Statistics on statistical policy matters;

  3. To define and promote standard concepts, procedures, definitions, and classifications;

  4. To examine all proposals by other departments for commencing or commissioning new statistical surveys, and to prepare submissions to the Minister of Statistics for his approval;

  5. To review periodically the collection, compilation, analyses, abstraction, and publication of all official statistics;

  6. To maintain liaison with international organisations or agencies requiring or making use of New Zealand statistics.

Pay Research—The Pay Research Unit conducts pay research investigations into specified classes of work carried on in the State Services and comparable work carried on outside. The work is assigned by the Pay Research Council which comprises an equal representation of official and staff organisations.

Tourist and Publicity Department—The main functions of the Tourist and Publicity Department are to promote travel to, within, and beyond New Zealand; to develop domestic tourism and to stimulate off-season travel; to promote New Zealand overseas in the interests of tourist industry development; to administer schemes for financial assistance for the provision of accommodation and other tourist facilities; to operate and sell tours and provide a booking service to assist overseas travel agents; and to provide, within New Zealand, information and publicity services for Ministers of the Crown and Government departments. It also provides research services for the Tourism Advisory Council, an advisory body established in 1977 to report and make recommendations to the Minister of Tourism on all aspects of tourism.

Trade and Industry, Department of—The principal statutory functions of the department are to promote and encourage the improvement and development of industry and commerce and promote and encourage the export trade of New Zealand.

New dimensions to the department's role, however, have emerged recently from New Zealand's rapidly changing economy. The Government's general stabilisation policies have involved the department in the formulation and execution of broader economic matters than formerly, and the development of pricing policy is now inextricably linked with decisions taken in the area of wages and general incomes policy.

The need for conservation of materials, and the drive to increase exports, are other major areas of departmental activity resulting from a changing economic environment.

Transport, Ministry of—The ministry is responsible for providing Government with the information and advice necessary for the development of an efficient and economic transport policy.

The principal objective of the Road Transport Division is to promote the safe and efficient movement of people and goods on the roads and streets of New Zealand.

The main objective of the Marine Division is to promote the safety of shipping in and beyond New Zealand waters, to ensure the safe handling of cargo at New Zealand ports, and the safe operation of boilers, pressure vessels, cranes, and lifts throughout New Zealand.

The main objective of the Civil Aviation Division is continuation of the existing high standards of civil aircraft operation. The ministry will continue its programme of providing improved facilities associated with the safe operation of aircraft particularly in regard to navigation aids, surveillance radars, aircraft and airport security, and general aviation supervision.

The Meteorological Service is responsible for the provision of information and advice to all sections of the community on the atmosphere, environment, weather, climatic conditions, and pollution of the air.

Treasury—The role of Treasury is:

  1. To control the receipt, custody, and payment of the Government's finances as directed by statute and Government decisions and accounting and management information systems relating thereto.

  2. To keep the Government informed on the existing external and internal economic situation, the effects of existing policy and trends and prospects for the future.

  3. To advise the Government on the level and content of its expenditure and receipts, and assess the most effective allocations of limited resources among competing expenditure proposals.

  4. To advise on, and implement, various aspects of the Government's financial and economic policies.

These general functions involve financial and economic management and investigating divisions of Treasury in the following particular tasks; the allocation of funds to departments; the investment of public funds; the raising, repayment, and conversion of loans; the preparation and co-ordination of economic situation reports, forecasts, and policy advice; and the preparation of the Budget and the annual Estimates of Expenditure.

The following specialist functions are also carried out by Treasury:

  1. The Superannuation Division administers the Government Superannuation Fund, and the National Provident Fund. The division also operates the local authorities investment pool which involves the granting of loans to local authorities and the investment of surplus funds.

  2. The Government Actuary's office provides specialist services for the Government Life Insurance Office and Government superannuation, registered friendly societies, and Government departments as required. The Government Actuary is also the Registrar of Building Societies.

  3. The Government Stores Board is the central controlling agency for the purchase, custody, and disposal of Government stores.

Valuation Department—The major activity of the department is the preparation of valuation rolls for all districts in New Zealand, to maintain these rolls up to date with changes in property holdings, ownership, occupancy, and development and to revise the values at not more than 5-yearly intervals.

Works and Development, Ministry of—In addition to the carrying out of Government works, the ministry has responsibility under the Minister's direction of executing projects and undertakings of national significance. Its objectives include investigation, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of these works, having due regard to standards and costs, and the best practical means whereby environmental conditions can be conserved, restored, or enhanced. In most cases, completed works are taken over for operation and maintenance by operating departments such as the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy, and New Zealand Railways.

Further roles of the department include the development of natural resources and the encouragement, investigation, and co-ordination of proposals for regional planning, as well as the task of assembling information on the building and construction industries, and the programming of national capital formation including Government works.

Specific statutes administered by the department include the Public Works Act (which, inter alia, provides the Crown and local authorities with land acquisition powers), the Town and Country Planning Act, National Roads Act (the department services the National Roads Board), Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, Water and Soil Conservation Act (which involves the department in water allocation and quality control activities), and some local Acts.

Staff of State Services—The following table shows employment levels in the public sector.

OrganisationStaff Numbers at 31 March
1975x1976x1977x1978x1979

* Source: Annual Reports; calculated on head count basis.

Includes Cook Strait ferry staff.

Comprises teaching, non-teaching, and ancillary staff and all university staff. Sources: Department of Education and University Grants Committee. Only the 1978 and later figures are counted entirely on head count basis

§ Source: National Health Statistics Centre; calculated as average full-time equivalents.

|| Effective strength of uniformed police plus cadets, matrons, staff on retiring leave, etc.

Includes Legislative Department, Parliamentary Counsel Office, Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, Ombudsmen's Office, Privacy Commissioner's Office, Vocational Training Council, and other bodies financed by Government funds.

Public Service*76,79579,19978,89483,24284,516
Railways*22,54322,20921,99321,91522,076
Post Office*36,90338,90738,23038,89439,395
Education57,33558,50959,10862,216 
Hospital services§43,94446,01846,89747828x48,668
Armed forces*12,67012,42012,45612,76212,739
Police||4286x4501x4598x4828x4882
Other (estimated)700700700700750
              Total255176x262463x262876x272,385 
Percentage of total labour force21.1321.4821.3....
Labour force as at April1,207,7001,222,0001,230,100....

In New Zealand, with its long tradition of Government activity in many spheres, the work of the State Services covers a broad field. The Government decides when a new service is to be provided or a new function undertaken. Work loads increase as a result of such factors as legislative changes or population growth, but are offset to some extent by improvements in efficiency. Since February 1976 the total staff ceiling of the public service has been frozen, with priority demands for additional staff in departments being met from a “pool” of positions to which each department contributes a fixed percentage of its total staff ceiling. It should be noted that staff ceiling figures are calculated on full-time equivalent positions while the figures in the tables are actual head counts and also include staff appointed under the separate ceilings for training and for unemployment-related functions. Recent trends have been for more staff for research and resource development and expanded social services.

The consumption expenditure of Central Government and Local Government as percentages of the appropriation of national disposable income is shown in the following table.

Year Ended MarchFinal Consumption Expenditure ofNational Disposable IncomeExpenditure as Percentage of National Disposable Income
Central GovernmentLocal GovernmentCentral GovernmentLocal Government
* Provisional.
 $(m)$(m)$(m)%%
1974–751,2641869,18713.82.0
1975–761,51921310,50514.52.0
1976–77*1,73321412,67613.71.7
1977–78*2,08925013,77615.21.8
1978–79*2,56532915,99216.02.1

STATE SERVICES COMMISSION—The State Services Act 1962 provides for a State Services Commission of up to four persons appointed by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.

In respect of departments of the Public Service, the Commission is responsible for—

  1. Reviewing the machinery of Government, including the allocation of functions to and between departments, the desirability of or need for the creation of new departments and the amalgamation or abolition of existing departments, the co-ordination of the activities of departments, and the extent and nature of controls exercised by any one department over the operations of another department;

  2. Reviewing the efficiency and economy of each department;

  3. The provision of suitable office accommodation and the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions of all employees in the Public Service;

  4. Approving and reviewing establishments of staff;

  5. Acting as the central personnel authority for the Public Service;

  6. Prescribing basic training programmes, furnishing advice on and assisting with the training of staff, and making recommendations to the Minister on the facilities necessary for the proper training of staff;

  7. Providing management consultation services, including advice as to efficient work and control methods and techniques, data processing equipment, and problems of organisation.

It has complete independence in dealing with individual employees of the Public Service, but is made responsible to a Minister in all other matters.

When directed by the Minister charged with the administration of the Act, at the request of the Minister responsible for another part of the State Services, e.g., the Post Office or the Railways Department, the Commission must associate itself with the head of that particular part of the service in an investigation of its organisation, methods, or procedures. The Commission must also, when requested by the head of (or the Minister in Charge of any part of) the State Services, provide management consultation services.

Computer Services—The Computer Services Division of the State Services Commission is responsible for the control, co-ordination, planning, and provision of electronic-data processing services within the Public Service. The division's head office is in Cumberland House, Willis Street, Wellington.

It maintains 4 computer centres:

Cumberland Computer Centre, Cumberland House, for accounting and payroll application for the majority of Government departments.

Pipitea Computer Centre, Thorndon Quay, for Valuation, Social Welfare, and Inland Revenue systems.

Trentham Computer Centre, Anzac Road, Trentham, to support bulk processing of the Statistics Department and scientific users.

Wanganui Computer Centre, Wairere House, Bute Street, Wanganui, to service the Police, Transport, and Justice Departments.

An engineering and scientific computer centre in the Vogel Building, Wellington, is operated by the Ministry of Works and Development as agent for the State Services Commission.

The division also maintains 4 data preparation centres located in Blenheim, Palmerston North, Waikanae, and Upper Hutt.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE: Recruitment—The recruitment of public servants is conducted by the State Services Commission through its recruitment officers and district representatives, and by departments in collaboration with the Commission. Details of career openings in the Service are regularly supplied to schools, and career leaflets are published.

Promotion—Promotion in the Public Service is based on merit. All vacancies above basic level are widely advertised, and appointments to these positions may be made either from people within the Public Service or from people outside the service. Public servants have certain rights of appeal to the Public Service Appeal Board.

Classification and Grading—Since 1963 the Commission has prescribed occupational classes, according to the nature of the duties required to be performed. Each occupational class is graded according to relative levels of responsibility and skills required.

Remuneration—Salary rates are prescribed in accordance with the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977 and are in general related to the levels of remuneration of persons doing comparable work in employment outside the Public Service. Adequate margins are maintained for skill and responsibility.

Efficiency and Economy—In fulfilling its responsibility for reviewing efficiency and economy in the Public Service, the Commission, in collaboration with departments, reviews and analyses systems, standards, and controls; new training methods and materials; modern technical processes and equipment; and lays down clearly defined systems of delegation of authority and of discipline.

Staff Training and Education—A comprehensive Service training and education policy is provided, and future staffing needs of the Public Service are studied.

Elimination of Discrimination—The public service has tended to be ahead of the private sector in the introduction of provisions to eliminate discrimination, e.g., equal pay, maternity and paternity leave, preferential re-entry after resigning to care for a pre-school child, and equal access to housing finance for male and female staff on transfer.

Statistics: Staff—The detailed distribution of staff among departments in the Public Service is shown in the Commission's annual report to Parliament (Parliamentary paper G. 3). At 31 March 1979 there were 64111 permanent officers and 1578 temporary staff (excluding casuals) employed; a year earlier the comparable figures were 62017 and 1677 respectively. These figures do not include wage workers, who totalled 18827 in 1979.

STATUTORY BOARDS AND COMMITTEES—The following is a list of the main statutory boards and committees grouped according to the Government department responsible for the administration of the legislation or the servicing of the boards. The order of departments is generally that followed in the Yearbook for coverage of the main subject matter.

* List includes incorporated bodies which the department assists or with which it collaborates on industrial research.
Health, Department of
Advisory Committee on Commercial, Household, and Agricultural Poisons.
Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health.
Advisory Committee on Tuberculosis.
Ambulance Transport Advisory Board.
Anaesthetic Mortality Committee.
Anaesthetic Technicians Training Committee.
Artificial Aids Technical Advisory Committee.
Board of Health.
Board of Health Committee on Care of the Aged.
Board of Health Committee on Child Health.
Board of Health Epidemiology Advisory Committee.
Board of Health Local Authority Affairs Committee.
Board of Health Maori and Polynesian Health Committee.
Board of Health Maternity Services Committee.
Central Committee on Training of Orthopaedic Technicians.
Children's Health Camps Board.
Chiropodists Board.
Civil Defence Medical Planning Committee.
Clean Air Council.
Committee on Adverse Drug Reactions.
Committee on Drainage and Sanitary Plumbing.
Congenital Anomalies Advisory Committee.
Consultant Advisors in Pathology Committee.
Dental Benefits Central Advisory Committee.
Dental Technicians Board.
Dental Technicians Board: Appeals Tribunal.
Dietitians Board.
Dietitians Salaries Grading Committee.
Drug Assessment Advisory Committee.
Engineers Salaries Grading Committee.
Fluoridation Advisory Committee.
Food Standards Committee.
Hospital Medical Officers Advisory Committee.
Hospital Services Committee.
Hospital Works Committee.
Hospitals Advisory Council.
House Surgeons Establishment Committee.
Industrial Chemicals Committee.
Laboratory Officers Salaries Grading Committee.
Laboratory Services Advisory Committee.
Maternal Deaths Assessment Committee.
Maternity Benefits Negotiating Committee.
Medical Councils Advisory Committee on Medical Manpower.
Medical Officers Salaries Grading Committee.
Medical Radiographers Board.
Medical Services Advisory Committee.
Medical Technologists Board.
National Co-ordinating Committee.
National Technical Committee on Standards and Quality Control in Medical Clinical Laboratories.
Northland Health Services Advisory Committee.
Nutrition Advisory Committee.
Occupational Therapy Board.
Opticians Board.
Penal Cases Committee.
Personnel Sector Advisory Committee.
Pharmaceutical Advisory Committee.
Pharmaceutical Benefits Negotiating Committee.
Pharmaceutical and Therapeutics Advisory Committee.
Pharmacy Board of Appeal.
Physiotherapy Board.
Physiotherapy Board Examination Committee.
Poisons Committee.
Radiation Protection Advisory Council.
Radiographers Salaries Grading Committee.
Radiological Services Advisory Committee.
Registrars Review Panel.
Review Committee.
Secretarial and Clerical Officers Salaries Grading Committee.
Senior Medical Officers Overseas Study Grants Selection Committee.
South Auckland Plunket Child Health Committee.
Special Advisory Committee on Health Services Organisation.
Standing Committee on Health Centres.
Transfusion Advisory Committee.
Wellington Health Services Advisory Committee.
Social Welfare Department
War Pensions and Rehabilitation
War Pensions Board.
War Pensions Appeal Board.
War Pensions Medical Research Trust.
Rehabilitation Board.
N.Z. Artificial Limb Board.
Advisory Council for the Community Welfare of Disabled Persons.
Education, Department of
Maori Education Foundation.
N.Z. National Commission for UNESCO.
National Council for Adult Education.
National Library Board of Trustees.
Ngarimu V.C. Scholarship Fund Board.
N.Z. Council for Educational Research.
Royal N.Z. Foundation for the Blind (Board of Trustees).
Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation.
Primary Teachers Appointments Appeal Board.
School Certificate Examination Board.
Teacher Assessment and Classification Appeal Board.
Teachers Court of Appeal.
Teachers Disciplinary Board.
N.Z. Technicians Certification Authority.
N.Z. Trades Certification Board.
University Entrance Board.
University Grants Committee.
Vocational Training Council. (Joint appointments Ministers of Education and Labour.)
Justice, Department of
Accident Compensation Appeal Authority.
Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council.
Borstal Parole Boards.
Prison Parole Board.
Town and Country Planning Appeal Boards.
Legal Aid Board.
Legal Aid Appeal Authority.
Co-operative Dairy Companies Tribunal.
Indecent Publications Tribunal.
Copyright Tribunal.
Crimes Compensation Tribunal.
Chiropractic Board.
Licensing Control Commission.
Licensing Committees (there are 22 of these committees).
Land Valuation Tribunals (there are 21 of these tribunals).
Motor Vehicle Salesmen Registration Boards.
Motor Vehicle Disputes Tribunals.
Hotel Investment Account Advisory Committee.
Law Reform Council.
Property Law and Equity Reform Committee.
Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee.
Representation Commission.
Small Claims Tribunals.
Contracts and Commercial Law Reform Committee.
Torts and General Law Reform Committee.
Criminal Law Advisory Committee.
District Courts Rules Committee.
Real Estate Agents Licensing Board.
Release to Work Committee.
Rules Committee.
Ministry of Defence
Armed Forces Canteen Council.
Police Department
Disciplinary Inquiry Tribunal.
Police Promotion Board.
Police Appeal Board.
Police Staff Tribunal.
Medical Appeal Board.
Transport, Ministry of
Air New Zealand.
Air Services Licensing Appeal Authority.
Air Services Licensing Authority.
Marine Council.
Maritime Appeal Authority.
New Zealand Ports Authority.
New Zealand Urban Public Passenger Transport Council.
Regional Transport Licensing Authority (Auckland).
Road Traffic Safety Research Council.
Shipping Industry Tribunal.
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand.
Small Boat Safety Committee.
Transport Advisory Council.
Transport Licensing Authorities (5).
Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.
Transport Charges Appeal Authority.
Railways Department
Government Railways Appeal Board.
Government Railways Industrial Tribunal.
Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of*
Agricultural Chemicals Board.
Building Research Association of N.Z. Inc.
Carter Observatory Board.
Cawthron Institute Trust Board.
Coal Research Association of N.Z. Inc.
N.Z. Dairy Research Institute.
Fruit Research Advisory Committee.
Hop Research Committee.
Meat Industry Research Institute of N.Z.
National Research Advisory Council.
N.Z. Atomic Energy Committee.
N.Z. Committee of Culture Collection of Microorganisms.
N.Z. Concrete Research Association.
N.Z. Fertiliser Manufacturers Research Association.
N.Z. Heavy Engineering Research Association (Inc.).
N.Z. Leather and Shoe Research Association Inc.
N.Z. Logging Industry Research Association.
N.Z. Pottery and Ceramics Research Association.
Potato Research Advisory Committee.
Research Institute of Textile Services.
Ross Dependency Research Committee.
Tobacco Research Advisory Committee.
Wheat Research Committee.
Wool Research Organisation of N.Z. Inc.
Testing Laboratory Registration Council.
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of*
Agricultural Chemicals Board.
Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.
Agricultural Training Council.
Animal Remedies Board.
Apple and Pear Marketing Board.
Apple and Pear Prices Authority.
Citrus Marketing Authority.
Dairy Factory Managers' Registration Board.
Dairy Industry Loans Council.
Dairy Products Prices Authority.
Fisheries Licensing Authority.
Fishing Industry Board.
Hop Marketing Committee.
Kiwifruit Marketing Licensing Authority.
Meat Export Prices Committee.
Meat Industry Authority.
Meat Industry Research Institute of New Zealand (Inc.)
Nassella Tussock Boards (Marlborough and North Canterbury).
National Beekeepers' Association of New Zealand (Inc.)
National Dairy Association of New Zealand Ltd.
National Hydatids Council.
N.Z. Berryfruit Growers' Federation.
N.Z. Bobby Calf Pools Central Executive.
N.Z. Dairy Research Institute.
N.Z. Deer Farmers' Association.
N.Z. Federation of Livestock Improvement Associations.
N.Z. Fertiliser Manufacturers' Association.
N.Z. Freezing Companies Association (Inc.)
N.Z. Fruitgrowers' Federation Ltd.
N.Z. Honey Marketing Authority.
N.Z. Meat Exporters Council.
N.Z. Meat Producers Board.
N.Z. Milk Board.
N.Z. Nurserymen's Association (Inc.)
N.Z. Pork Industry Council.
N.Z. Poultry Board and Egg Marketing Authority.
N.Z. Sheep Dog Trial Association (Inc.)
N.Z. Society of Farm Management (Inc.)
N.Z. Vegetable and Produce Growers' Federation (Inc.)
N.Z. Wheat Board.
N.Z. Wool Board.
N.Z. Wool Testing Authority.
Plant Varieties Office.
Potato Board.
Raspberry Marketing Committees (Nelson, Canterbury, and Otago.)
Raspberry Marketing Council.
Tobacco Board.
Town Milk Producers' Federation of New Zealand (Inc.)
Veterinary Services Council.
Veterinary Surgeons' Board.
Wine Industries of New Zealand (Inc.)
Wool Auction Sales Committee.
(Excludes advisory or technical committees appointed under section 13 of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953).
Works and Development, Ministry of
Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority.
Building Industry Advisory Council.
Clerks of Works Registration Board.
Engineering Associates Registration Board.
Engineers Registration Board.
National Roads Board.
National Water and Soil Conservation Authority.
Quantity Surveyors' Registration Board.
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council.
Water Resources Council.
Lands and Survey, Department of
Land Settlement Board.
Marginal Lands Board.
National Parks Authority.
Maritime Parks Boards.
National Parks Boards.
Nature Conservation Council.
N.Z. Survey Board.
N.Z. Geographic Board.
N.Z. Walkway Commission.
Land Use Advisory Council.
National Land Inventory Committee.
Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust.
N.Z. Forest Service
N.Z. Forestry Council.
Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee.
Forest Disease Control Advisory Committee.
Forest Parks Advisory Committees (18)
Timber Preservation Authority.
Indigenous Forest Timber Advisory Committee.
Scientific Co-ordinating Committee for Beech Research.
National Recreational Hunting Advisory Committee.
Maori Affairs, Department of
Maori Land Board.
Maori Purposes Fund Board.
Licensed Interpreters Board of Examiners.
Valuation Department
Valuers Registration Board.
Housing Corporation of New Zealand
Housing Allocation Committees
Ministry of Energy
N.Z. Gas Council.
Coal Mines Council.
Coal Mining Districts Welfare and Research Fund Council.
Electricians Registration Board.
Electric Lineman Training Committee.
Rural Electrical Reticulation Council.
Committee on Electric Power Development.
Committee to Review Power Requirements.
Electrical Wiring Regulations Committee.
Trade and Industry, Department of
Advisory Committee on Heavy Engineering Industry.
Commerce Commission.
Consumer Council.
Development Finance Corporation (in relation to invention, development and industrial research and development.)
Distribution Council.
Electronics Advisory Committee.
Emergency Protection Authority.
Industries Development Commission.
Manufacturing Development Council.
Motor Spirits Licensing Authority.
N.Z. Industrial Design Council.
N.Z. Wheat Board.
Pacific Islands Industrial Development Committee.
Productivity Advisory Council.
Regional Development Councils (11).
Standards Association of N.Z. Tobacco Board.
Overseas Trade
Export Development Grant Advisory Committee.
Export Guarantee Advisory Committee.
N.Z. Export Import Corporation.
Trade Promotion Council.
Treasury
Commission for the Future.
Committee on Women.
Government Stores Board.
Local Authorities Loans Board.
National Provident Fund Board.
National Provident Fund Investment Committee.
N.Z. Planning Council.
Government Superannuation Board.
Co-operative Dairy Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.
Labour, Department of
Agricultural Tribunal.
Arbitration Court.
Advisory Committees on Employment (12).
Building Industry Technical Training Council.
Exempted Goods Committee under Shops and Offices Act.
Higher Salaries Commission.
Industrial Conciliation Service.
Industrial Mediation Service.
National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women.
Public Service Appeal Board.
Vocational Training Council. (Appointments made by Minister of Education and Minister of Labour, acting jointly.)
Construction Act Advisory Committee.
Public Service Classification and Grading Committee.
Aircrew Industrial Tribunal.
Equal Pay Review Committee.
Waterfront Industry Commission.
Industrial Relations Council.
Shop Trading Hours Commission.
New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees (37).
Dental Technicians Training Council.
Conscientious Objection Committee.
Tourist and Publicity Department
Tourism Advisory Council.
Internal Affairs, Department of
Architects' Education and Registration Board.
Architects' Investigation Committee.
Fauna Protection Advisory Committee.
N.Z. Historic Places Trust.
N.Z. Lottery Board and Distributing Committees (4).
N.Z. Fire Service Commission.
N.Z. Canteen Fund Board.
N.Z. Patriotic Fund Board.
N.Z. Racing Authority. Totalisator Agency Board.
Arts
ANZAC Fellowship Selection Committee
Authors Fund Advisory Committee.
Cultural Facilities Advisory Committee.
Films Censorship Board of Review.
Films Licensing Authority.
Film Trade Board.
Literary Fund Advisory Committee.
National Art Gallery, Museum and War Memorial Board and Councils (4).
Art Galleries and Museums Fund Advisory Committee.
Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council.
Regional Arts Councils (3).
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Board.
Civil Defence
National Civil Defence Committee.
National Civil Defence Planning Committees for: Communications; Fire Fighting Services; Law and Order; Medical; Public Information; Emergency Supply; Movement Control in an Emergency; Transport; Emergency Welfare; Energy.
Local Government
Interdepartmental Advisory Committee on the Chatham Islands.
Local Authority Finance Committee.
Local Government Commission.
Lake Taupo Basin Co-ordinating Committee.
Recreation and Sport
N.Z. Council for Recreation and Sport.
State Services Commission
Classification and Grading Committee.
Education Service Committee.
Hospital Service Committee.
Government Service Tribunal.
National Research Advisory Council.
Public Service Appeal Board.
State Services Co-ordinating Committee.
Public Sector Tribunal.
Wanganui Computer Centre Policy Committee.
Wanganui Computer Centre Management Committee.

HONOURS AND AWARDS

Since the preceding issue of the Yearbook the Queen has been graciously pleased to approve the following awards, for services rendered in connection with New Zealand:

NEW YEAR HONOURS LIST 1980

CIVIL LIST

Dame Commander of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (D.B.E.): Mrs Miriam Patricia Dell, C.B.E., J.P.

Knight Commander of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.):

Dr John Malfroy Staveley, O.B.E., M.C.

Knights Bachelor:

James Muir Cameron Fletcher; Valdemar Reid Skellerup, C.B.E.

Companions of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.): William Milton Douglas Bremner; Raymond Douglas Jamieson.

Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Philip William Blakeley; Ronald Victor Giorgi, O.B.E. J.P.; Sydney James Guppy, M.B.E., J.P.; The Honourable Eric Henry Halstead, E.D.; Thomas Michael Hunt; Phillip Keith McLiskie, M.C.; Bruce Edward George Mason; John Sutherland.

Officers of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Frederick Joseph Burnard Beattie, J.P.; Keith Spencer Calder, J.P.; Alford Dornan; Dr Lloyd Allister Drake; Mrs Minnie Maria Dronke; Robert Duthie; William Douglas Goodfellow; Henry James Hopkins, D.F.C.; Mrs Constance Violet Kirkcaldie; William Donald McKenzie; Dr Stanley William Paterson Mirams; Mrs Mona Joy Reid; Angus Ross, M.C., E.D.; Douglas Marshall Shirley, J.P.; Leo John Sullivan, J.P.; Russell Williams Thomas; Edwyn Peter Wilding; Mrs Edna May Wills.

Companions of the Queen's Service Order for Community Service (Q.S.O.):

Cyril Robertson Bradwell, J.P.; Miss Joan Pomeroy Dunne (The Reverend Mother Mary Phillipine); Edward Alexander McKay; Hubert Edgar Millar; Mrs Mabel Lillian Ross.

Companions of the Queen's Service Order for Public Services (Q.S.O.):

Peter Stanhope Beath, J.P.; Alan Trevor Bell, J.P.; James Bruce Crompton; Ian Douglas Dick; Michael Ernest Groome; Reginald Alfred Keeling; Dr Harry Tawn Nemaia, J.P.

Members of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Mrs Amy Mona Anderson; Bruce Cooper Bell; Ronald Graeme Dellow; Mrs Isobel Cookson Miriam Doel; Mrs Molly Ngaire Dorne; Mrs Mary Josephine Drayton; Cyril Leonard Fitzgerald; Mrs Daisy Pearl Ann Griggs; Pirihana Te Tama Jhurangi Kotua; Hugh Thomas Augustus McGahan; Ashley George McHugh; Joseph Alexander Maich, E.D.; Mrs Lorimer Jean Marshall; William Robert Francis Naylor; Miss Dulcie Ruth Newman; Mrs Eunice Constance Patterson; Miss Rebecca Vivienne Mary Perrott; Alfred Andrew Henry Pinkerton; Mrs Hilda Catherine Ramsay; Trevor James Smith; Mrs Rehutai Florence Somerville; Frank William Terry; Harold Wilson Upton; Dr Robert Tannahill Watson; Mrs Noel Maud Wells.

Queen's Service Medal for Community Service (Q.S.M.):

Mrs Gladys Annie Armstrong; Mrs Maxwell Stewart Bartholomew, J.P.; Mrs Edith Annie Brennan; Mrs Violet Ada Briffauit; Mrs Reta Elizabeth Chapman; Alexander Edward Hope Clow; Miss Molly Davis Cook; Mrs Violet May Cruden; Mrs June Catherine Davey; Mrs Bertha Lillian Gates; Mrs Myrtle Muriel Godfery; Mrs Mary Anne Gough; Mrs Pauline Dawn Grainger; Leo Damien Greenwood; Francis Hardman; Mrs Rewa Mary Henderson; Mrs Florence Myrtle Keene; Mrs Muriel Joan Leggatt; Mrs Roseanna Gillespie Mardon; Bronislaw Nawrocki; Mrs Gladys Ngaere Phillips; Mrs Janet Annabelle Prescott, J.P.; Mrs Hilary Fay Reid; The Reverend Roger Frederick Norton Thompson; Mrs Edith Kathleen Werry; Mrs Ray Evelyn Lilian Whale, J.P.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

Miss Enid Laura Annan; Miss Constance Joyce Barns; Eric George Boggs; Mrs Heapera Matekino Collier; Douglas George Francis; Herbert Angus Graham; Mrs Betty Ileene Holmes; Ronald James Iremonger; Miss Ann Kerse; Clement Leicester Steele Paterson; Lesley Richard Payne; James Thomas Francis Rowe; Joseph William Henry Trickey; Dr Ying Kay Tseung; Albert Burnie Towle White; Thomas Harold Edward Wilton.

Queen's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.F.S.M.):

William James Henderson, O.B.E.; James Edward Carn-Bennett; Donald Leslie Hallett.

POLICE LIST

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

Walter Graham Douglas; Russell McIndoe Chant, Gerald Sanders Tamati.

Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.P.M.):

Peter Ian Jenkinson.

MILITARY LIST

Companion of the Military Division' of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (C.B.):

Rear Admiral Neil Dudley Anderson, C.B.E.

Commander of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Brigadier John Lindsay Smith, M.B.E.

Officers of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Commander Iain Malcolm McGibbon; Brigadier Alfred Connel Hamilton; Group Captain John Jeremy Gordon.

Members of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Lieutenant Commander Charles Thomas Money Raven; Warrant Officer Class 1 Raymond Owen Wills; Major Derek Graye Shattky; Major John Brunswick Bell; Squadron Leader Graeme Yuill Gemmell; Squadron Leader Ronald Bruce Wooller.

Air Force Cross (A.F. C):

Flight Lieutenant Gary Alexander Wrathall.

Associate of the Royal Red Cross Second Class (A.R.R.C):

Major Jessie Eveline Grant.

British Empire Medal, Military Division (B.E.M.):

Master at Arms Donald Neilson Shepherd; Petty Officer Seaman Raymond Victor Williams; Leading Signalman Sidney Christopher Milner; Corporal Garry Edward Cantwell, Sergeant John Alfred Elliot; Staff Sergeant Alan John Oliver; Staff Sergeant Phee Wanda; Sergeant Paul Schwabe; Flight Sergeant John Raymond Hibbard; Flight Sergeant Nowell Bruce Mant-Old.

QUEENS BIRTHDAY HONOURS LIST 1980

CIVIL LIST

Dame Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (D.C.M.G.):

Norma Janet, Her Excellency Lady Holyoake, of Government House, Wellington.

Knight Commander of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.):

Graham Stanley Latimer.

Knights Bachelor:

Alan Fleming Gilkison, C.B.E.; The Honourable John Richard Harrison, E.D., M.P.; Ralph Patrick Thompson.

Companions of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.):

Howard Graham Fleming Callam; Frank Henry Comer.

Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Kevin Nicholas McNamara; Charles Stuart Masters; George Malcolm Peters; John Graeme Sinclair Reid; Professor George Lancelot Rolleston; William Alexander Sutton; Horace Leslie Verry; Mrs Sheilah Maureen Winn.

Officers of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

John Boyd-Clark; Mrs Ailsa Evelyn Densem; Mrs (Helen June) Patricia Evison; Ronald William Greenough; Frank Albert Hardy, Q.F.S.M.; Victor Edwin Jaynes; Sydney James Lavelle, J.P.; Robert Stewart Lockwood; J.P.; George Tuoro Marsden, E.D., J.P.; Herbert James Poole; Hollis Wilton Reed; Harry Leonard Riley, M.B.E., J.P.; Mrs Nancy Elizabeth Russell; John Oswald Sanders; Hugh Hunter Saunders; Alan Raine Topham.

Companions of the Queen's Service Order for Community Service (Q.S.O.):

Mrs Emilie Bellwood; Mrs Yolande Elizabeth Lyell Gay, J.P.; Norman George Goffin; Russell James Laurenson, J.P.; Mrs Noeline Mary McIlroy; Peter Leonard Newberry; Huntly Stuart Skinner, J.P.; Mrs Mona Wikaira, J.P.

Companions of the Queen's Service Order for Public Services (Q.S.O.):

Ian Lawrence Baumgart; Howard Byron Danby, J.P.; Ernest Dwyer; Gordon Glendinning Grieve; Mrs Lorna Margaret Johnston; John Holdsworth Nairn; William Henry Parr, J.P.; Ronald George Russell, J.P.; John Bernard Thomas, J.P.; Wallace Emilie Walker, J.P..

Members of the Civil Division, of the Mas' Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Mrs Beverley Doris Bennett; Jack Breward; Colin Alexander Dickie; Andrew Robert Dreaver, E.D.; Maurice Raymond Duckmanton; Ralph Oliver Eagles, J.P., William Elliott; Alan Charlton Fraser; Richard John Hadlee; Ralph James loins, J.P.; Arthur Kennedy; Ian Andrew Kirkpatrick; Eugene James Metge MacLoughlin; Lieutenant Commander Courtney Phillip Medland; Miss Ethel Margaret Millar; Alfred Nevil Wells? (Peter) Newton; James Julius Nielsen; Mrs Thelma Elsie Pearson; Mrs Irene Mary Reid; Thomas Michael Noel Rodgers; Edgar Pearce Rogers; Ortvin Sarapu; William David Skelton; Donalo: Murray Stafford; Henry Ellis Thomas Sutton; Mrs Beatrice Marion Webster.

Queen's Service Medal for Community Service (Q.S.M.):

Mrs Audrea Eileen Beddie; Mrs Margaret Clare Boyce; Mrs Alice Elizabeth Corballis; Mrs Moe Alma Mary Dudfield; Thomas Mutu Ellison; Mrs Violet Edith Fairweather; Mrs Valerie Lorna Ferguson; Mrs Molly Casement Persse Foster; Leslie Herbert Freeman; Mrs Ripeka Huingariri Atawhai Wilcox George; Mrs Cecilia Joan Andrews Greenwood; Mrs Ruby Hannan; Albert Charles Norman Harmer, J.P.; Tihi Harris; Mrs Kararaima Heke; Mrs Punia Molly Hotene, J.P.; Mrs Norah Annie Humphreys; Arthur Tolson Inskeep; Mrs Mabel Elizabeth James; Richard Malcolm Leach; Mrs Hazel Adelaide Lomax; Mrs Adelaide Frances McLean; Ian Nelson Menzies; Evan William Musgrove; Mrs Eva Rennie; Mrs Zella Roberts; Robert Hugh Rodgers; Mrs Lucy Dorset Taylor; Mrs Hinauri Strongman Tribole; Miss Margaret Gertie Wall; Mrs Teoti Rupi Wawatai.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

Dr Basil Ernest West Aldwell, M.C.; John Renata Blackman; Mrs Dorothy Brenda Isabel Ruth Brown; Mrs Nancy Margaret Caldwell, J.P.; Mrs Dora Kathleen Cathro; Raymond William Cleland; Miss Elsie Barrie Dillon; Grahame Durston; Douglas Eccles Fleury; Thomas William Darcy Hughes; Hugh Marchwell Jennings; Mrs Patricia Mary Lockhart; Thomas Richard Alexander McCleary; Mrs Tere Anini McGuire, J.P.; George Cyril Parish; Miss Betty Alice Plant; Hoera Kewa Tika Ruru, J.P.; Henry Richard Thorp; Bryan Blake Wills, J.P..

Queen's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.F.S.M.):

Phillip Ernest O'Malley; Garth Winston Bicknell, J.P.; Andrew Barr.

POLICE LIST

Officer of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

George Edward Twentyman.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

Richard Joseph O'Connell; Alexander Rober McLay.

Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.P.M.):

Ross Phillip Dallow.

MILITARY LIST

Companion of the Military Division of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath C.B.E.

Major General Brian Matauru Poananga, (O.B.E.):

Officers of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Colonel James Alexander McArthur; Lieutenant Colonel David William Stewart Moloney; Group Captain Geoffrey Charles Hubbard.

Members of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Lieutenant Commander Nicholas Terence Byrne; Warrant Officer Marine Engineering Artificer Arthur Wayne Hurndell; Warrant Officer Master at Arms John Joseph Watt; Major Bruce Hill; Major Gordon Crichton Forgie, E.D.; Warrant Officer Class I Albert James Owen Hewlett; Warrant Officer Class I Selwyn Francis Ryder; Squadron Leader Daniel Wakefield McLeod; Warrant Officer Brian Kelvin Read; Warrant Officer Russell John David McKay.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C.):

Wing Commander Robin John Klitscher, D.F.C.

British Empire Medal, Military Division (B.E.M.):

Chief Petty Officer Control Electrical Artificer Leonard John Bilton; Petty Officer Radio Supervisor Rodney Michael Kevin Berry; Staff Sergeant Thomas Douglas Whitaker; Staff Sergeant Keith Allan Inwood; Sergeant Ian Leslie McKenzie; Flight Sergeant Roger Wilfred Louis; Flight Sergeant Rex William Johnson; Sergeant Neville Roderick Clyde Simpson.

Queen's Commendation for Valuable Services in the Air:

Squadron Leader Ian George Brunton; Sergeant Peter Stanley Burton.

NEW ZEALAND'S REPRESENTATIVES OVERSEAS

Australia—High Commission, Commonwealth Avenue, Canberra, A.C.T. 2600.

Consulate-General, 60 Park Street (corner Park and Elizabeth Streets), Sydney, N.S.W. 2000 (G.P.O. Box 365, Sydney, N.S.W. 2001).

Government Tourist Office, 115 Pitt Street, Sydney, N.S.W., 2000 (G.P.O. Box 614, Sydney N.S.W. 2001).

Consulate-General, 330 Collins Street, Melbourne, Vic. 3000 (G.P.O. Box 2136T, Melbourne, Vic. 3000).

Government Tourist Office, 93–95 Elizabeth Street, Melbourne, Vic. 3000 (G.P.O. Box 2136T, Melbourne, Vic. 3001).

Consulate, Watkins Place Building, 288 Edward Street, Brisbane, Qld. 4001 (G.P.O. Box 62).

Government Tourist Office, Watkins Place Building. 288 Edward Street, Brisbane, Qld. 4001 (G.P.O. Box 62).

Consulate, 5th Floor, St. George's Court, 16 St. George's Terrace, Perth, W.A. 6000 (G.P.O. Box X2227, Perth, W.A. 6001).

Austria—Embassy, Hollandstrasse 2/XII, A-1020 Vienna (Postal address: Postfach 1471, A-1011 Vienna).

Bahrain—Consulate-General (Postal address: P.O. Box 5881 Manama, Bahrain).

Bangladesh—High Commissioner resident in New Delhi.

Barbados—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Belgium—Embassy, Boulevard du Regent 47–48, 1000 Brussels.

Britain—High Commission, New Zealand House, Haymarket, London S.W. 1Y. 4TQ.

Brunei—High Commissioner resident in Kuala Lumpur.

Burma—Ambassador resident in Kuala Lumpur.

Canada—High Commission, Metropolitan House, 99 Bank Street, Ottawa, Ontario KIP 6G3. Consulate-General, Suite 2616, 2 Bloor East, Toronto, Ontario M4W IA8. Consulate, Suite 1160–701, West Georgia Street, I.B.M. Tower, Vancouver (P.O. Box 10071, Pacific Centre), Vancouver, B.C. V7Y 1B6.

Chile—Embassy, Avenida Isidora Goyenechea 3516 Las Condes, Santiago.

China, People's Republic of—Embassy, Ritan Dongerjie No. 1, Chao Yang District, Peking.

Cook Islands—Office of the New Zealand Representative, P.O. Box 21, Rarotonga.

Czechoslovakia—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Denmark—Ambassador resident in Brussels.

Egypt, Arab Republic of—Ambassador resident in Rome.

European Communities—Ambassador resident in Brussels. N.Z. Mission to the European Communities, Boulevard Duregent, 47–48, 1000 Brussels.

Fiji—High Commission, Ratu Sukuna House, corner of Victoria Parade and MacArthur Street (P.O. Box 1378), Suva.

Finland—Ambassador resident in Moscow.

France—Embassy, 7 ter, rue Leonard de Vinci, 75116 Paris.

Consulate-General, 4, Boulevard Vauban, Noumea, New Caledonia (Postal Address: Boîte Postale 2219).

New Zealand Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Ltd., rue du General de Gaulle, Papeete.

Germany, Federal Republic of—Embassy, Bonn Centre, HI 902, Bundeskanzlerplatz, D-5300 Bonn.

Government Tourist Office, Rathenauplatz 1A, D-6000 Frankfurt Main.

German Democratic Republic—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Greece—Embassy, Leoforos Vasilissis Sophias 29, Athens T.T. 138.

Guyana—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Holy See—Ambassador resident in Paris.

Hong Kong—Commission, 3414 Connaught Centre, Connaught Road (G.P.O. Box 2790), Hong Kong.

Hungary—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

India—High Commission, 39, Golf Links, New Delhi 110003.

Indonesia—Embassy, Jalan Diponegoro No. 41, Menteng, Jakarta. (Postal address: Kotak Pos. 2439 DKT).

Iran—Embassy, Avenue Nadershah, Afshin Street, No. 29, (P.O. Box 128), Tehran.

Iraq—Embassy, 2D/19, Zuwiya, Jadriyah, Baghdad (near Baghdad University), (P.O. Box 2350 Alwiyah).

Ireland—Ambassador resident in London.

Italy—Embassy, Via Zara, 28, Rome 00198.

Jamaica—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Japan—Embassy, 20–40 Kamiyama-cho, Shibuya-Ku, Tokyo 150.

Korea—Embassy, 2nd Floor, Publishers Association Building, No. 105–2, Sayan-dong, Chongro-ku (G.P.O. Box 1059), Seoul.

Laos—Ambassador resident inok.

Luxembourg—Ambassador resident Brussels.

Malaysia—High Commission, 193 Jalan Pekeliling, (P.O. Box 2003), Kuala Lumpur.

Maldives—Ambassador resident in Singapore.

Malta—High Commissioner resident in Rome.

Mexico—Ambassador resident in Washington.

Mongolian People's Republic—Ambassador resident in Moscow.

Nauru—High Commissioner resident in Suva.

Nepal—Ambassador resident in New Delhi.

Netherlands—Embassy, Lange Voorhout 18, 2514 EE The Hague.

Niue—Office of the New Zealand Representative (P.O. Box 78), Niue.

Norway—Ambassador resident in The Hague.

O.E.C.D.—Mission, 7 ter, rue Leonard de Vinci, 75116 Paris.

Pakistan—Ambassador resident in Tehran.

Papua New Guinea—High Commission, 6th Floor, Australian Government Building, Waigani, Port Moresby (P.O. Box 1144, Boroko, Port Moresby).

Peru—Embassy, Avenida Salaverry 3006, San Isidro (Postal address: Casilla 5587), Lima.

Philippines—Embassy, 10th Floor, Bankmer Building, 6756 Ayala Avenue (P.O. Box 2208, Makati Commercial Centre), Makati, Metro, Manila

Poland—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Romania—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Saudi Arabia—Ambassador resident in Rome.

Singapore—High Commission, 13 Nassim Road, Singapore 10.

Solomon Islands—High Commissioner, Soltel House, Mendana Avenue (P.O. Box 697), Honiara.

Spain—Ambassador resident in Paris.

Sri Lanka—High Commissioner resident in Singapore.

Sweden—Ambassador resident in The Hague.

Switzerland—Consulate-General, 28A chemin du Petit-Saconnex, CH-1209 Geneva (Postal address: Case Postale 84, CH-1211 Geneva 19).

Thailand—Embassy, 93 Wireless Road (P.O. Box 2719), Bangkok 5.

Tonga—High Commission, Tungi Arcade, Taufa'ahau Road, Nuku'alofa.

Trinidad and Tobago—Acting High Commissioner, Furness Withy Building, 84–86 Independence Square (P.O. Box 823) Port of Spain

United Nations—New Zealand Permanent Mission to the United Nations, One U.N. Plaza, 25th Floor, New York, N.Y. 10017. New Zealand Mission to the Office of the United Nations in Geneva, 28A chemin de Petit-Saconnex, CH-1209 Geneva, (Postal address: Case Postale 84, CH-1211 Geneva 19).

United States—Embassy, 37 Observatory Circle, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008.

Consulate-General, Suite 530, 630 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10020. Consulate-General, Alcoa Building, Suite 970, 1 Maritime Plaza, San Francisco, Ca. 94111.

Consulate-General, Suite 1530, Tishman Building, 10960 Wilshire Boulevard, Los Angeles, Ca. 90024.

New Zealand Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Ltd, Suite 1700, Waikiki

Business Plaza, 2270 Kalakaua Avenue, Waikiki, Ha, 96815.

U.S.S.R.—Embassy, 44 Ulitsa Vorovskovo, Moscow, 121069.

Western Samoa—High Commission, Beach Road (P.O. Box 208), Apia.

Yugoslavia—Ambassador resident in Rome.

Officers of the Department of Trade and Industry, the Ministry of Defence, the Tourist and Publicity Department, and other Government departments can be found at many of the overseas missions listed above.

Fuller information and also details of official overseas trade representation in New Zealand are set out in the booklets New Zealand: Representatives Overseas and New Zealand: Diplomatic Corps and Consular and other Representatives published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Wellington.

DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR REPRESENTATION IN NEW ZEALAND

Argentina—Embassy of the Argentine Republic, 13th flos Dalmuir House, The Terrace, Wellington.

Australia—Australian High Commission, 72–78 Hobson street, Thorndon, Wellington. Consulate-General, Lome Towers, Lorne Street, Auckland.

Austria—Hon. Consulate-General, Commerce House, 125 Wakefieid Street, Wellington.

Belgium—Embassy of Belgium, 1–3 Willeston Street Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 40, Devore Street, St. Heliers Bay, Auckland. Hon. Consul, 132 Tuam Street, Christchurch.

Brazil—Hon. Consul, 8 Commerce Street, Auckland.

Britain—British High Commission, Reserve Bank Building, 2 The Terrace, Wellington. Consulate-General, Norwich Union Building, Queen Street, Auckland 1.

Canada—Canadian High Commission, ICI House Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Chile—Embassy of the Republic of Chile, Robert Jones House, Jervois Quay, Wellington. Hon. Consul, c/o Hoescht (NZ) Ltd., 280–288, Parnell Road, Auckland.

China—Embassy of the People's Republic of China, 2–6 Glenmore Street, Wellington.

Cook Islands—Cook Islands Government Office, 330 Parnell Rd, Parnell, Auckland.

Costa Rica—Hon. Consul-General, 2–12 Parnell Road, Auckland.

Czechoslovakia—Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, 12 Anne Street, Wellington.

Denmark—Hon. Consul-General, 105–109, The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul-Generak, Princes Court, Princes Street, Auckland.

Danish Trade Representative, Princes Court, Princes Street, Auckland. Hon. Consul, 100 Cumnor Terrace, Woolston, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, 12–20 St. Andrew Street, Dunedin.

Ecuador—Hon. Consul, Data Bank House, 175 The Terrace, Wellington.

Egypt, Arab Republic of—Embassy of the Arab Republic of Egypt, Dalmuir House, The Terrace, Wellington.

El Salvador—Hon. Consul, Gladstone Buildings, 5 Anzac Street Takapuna, Auckland.

Fiji—High Commission, Robert Jones Building, Jervois Quay, Wellington.

Finland—Hon. Consul-General, Commerce House, 126 Wakefield Street, Wellington. Hon. Consul, Enfield Street, Auckland 3. Hon. Consul, 6–8 Kingsley Street, Sydenham, Christchurch. Hon. Consul, 11 Bond Street, Dunedin.

France—Embassy of France, 1–3 Willeston Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, corner of Princes Street and Eden Crescent, Auckland 1.

Office of the Trade Representative for France, U.D.C. Building, cm. Albert and Wyndham Streets, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 904–908 Colombo Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, c/o University of Otago, Dunedin.

Germany, West—Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 1st Floor, Queen's Arcade Building, Customs Street East, Auckland 1.

Greece—Hon. Consul-General, 270 Wakefield Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Prudential Assurance Building, 9 Manukau Road, Epsom, Auckland.

Holy See—Apostolic Nunciature, 112 Queen's Drive, Lyall Bay, Wellington 3.

Iceland—Hon. Consul-General, 88 Oriental Parade, Wellington.

India—High Commissioner for India, Lamphouse Chambers, 49 Willis Street, Wellington.

Indonesia—Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, 11 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington 1.

Ireland—Hon. Consul, Dingwall Building, 87 Queen Street, Auckland.

Israel—Embassy of Israel, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Italy—Embassy of Italy, 38 Grant Road, Wellington.

Hon. Consular Agent, Victoria Arcade, Queen Street, Auckland.

Office of the Trade Representative for Italy, 95 Queen Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consular Agent, 68 Lichfield Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consular Agent, 356 High Sttreet, Dunedin.

Japan—Embassy of Japan, Norwich Insurance House, 3–11 Hunter Street, Wellington.

Consulate-General of Japan, Bank of New South Wales Building, 79–85 Queen Street Auckland.

Consular Office of Japan, 210 Oxford Terrace, Christchurch.

Korea—Embassy of the Republic of Korea, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Rainger House, 150 Victoria Street West, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 126 Cashel Street, Christchurch.

Malaysia—High Commission of Malaysia, Chase-NBA House, 163–165 The Terrace, Wellington. Hon. Consul, 14 Hazeldean Road, Christchurch.

Mexico—Hon. Consul, Tatra House, 96 Tory Street, Wellington.

Nauru—Hon. Consul, Samoa House, 283 Karangahape Road, Auckland.

Netherlands—Royal Netherlands Embassy, 10th Floor, Investment Centre, Corner Ballance and Featherson Streets, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 79 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 161–163 Kilmore Street, Christchurch.

Norway—Hon. Consul-General, 38–42 Waring Taylor Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 13 Brighton Terrace, Mairangi Bay, Auckland 10.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 152 Manchester Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 365 Princes Street, Dunedin.

Papua New Guinea—Papua New Guinea High Commission, Construction House, 82 Kent Terrace, Wellington.

Peru—Hon. Consul, Hon. Vice-Consul, 79–83 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Philippines—Embassy of the Philippines, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Hon. Consul-General, care of Wilson and Horton Ltd., corner of Queen and Wyndham Streets, Auckland 1.

Poland—Embassy of the Polish People's Republic, 17 Upland Road, Wellington.

Portugal—Hon. Consul, P.O. Box 190, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, Challenge House, 105–109 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 352 Stuart Street, Dunedin.

Romania—Consulate-General, 100 Evans Bay Road, Wellington.

Singapore—High Commission, 17 Kabul Street, Khandallah, Wellington.

South Africa—Consul-General, Molesworth House, 101–103 Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Sri Lanka—Hon. Trade Commissioner, Huddart Parker Building, Wellington.

Sweden—Royal Swedish Embassy, Aurora House, 48–64 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 37 St Georges Bay Road, Parnell, Auckland.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 7 Liverpool Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 40 Jetty Street, Dunedin.

Hon. Vice-Consul, The Crescent, Invercargill.

Switzerland—Embassy of Switzerland, Panama House, 22–24 Panama Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 48 Carr Road, Mount Roskill, Auckland.

Thailand—Royal Thai Embassy, 2 Burnell Avenue, Wellington.

Tonga—New Zealand Agents for the Government of Tonga, Beachcroft Avenue, Auckland 6.

Tongan Government Liaison Officer, C.M.L. Centre, 159 Queen Street, Auckland.

Turkey—Hon. Consul-General, 228 Queen Street, Auckland.

Tuvalu—Hon. Consul, 33–37 Great South Road, Otahuhu, Auckland.

U.S.A.—Embassy of the United States of America, 29 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington 1.

Consul-General, Northern Building Society Building, Cnr. Queen and Wellesley Streets, Auckland.

Consular Agent, 311 Manchester Street, Christchurch.

U.S.S.R.—Embassy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 57 Messines Road, Karori, Wellington.

Western Samoa—High Commission for Western Samoa, 1A Wesley Road, Kelburn, Wellington.

Consulate-General, 3rd Floor, Maota Samoa, 283 Karangahape Road, Auckland.

Yugoslavia—Embassy of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 24 Hatton Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, A.M.P. Building, corner of Queen and Victoria Streets, Auckland.

Countries with diplomatic representation in Canberra, Jakarta, or Tokyo with cross-accreditation to New Zealand are: Austria, Bangladesh, Brazil, Burma, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, German Democratic Republic, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Laos, Mexico, Mongolia, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sri Lanka, Turkey, and Vietnam.

Chapter 40. STATISTICAL SUMMARY

LIST OF TABLES

 PAGE
NOTE: Throughout this section, years are December Years unless otherwise defined.
Total Population and External Migration911
Vital Statistics912
Education913
Justice914
Summary of Price Movements (i) 915
Summary of Price Movements (ii)916
Price and Wage Movements 917
Labour Force, Unemployment and Industrial Stoppages918
Postal and Telecommunications 919
Government Railways 920
Agriculture 921
Livestock 922
Agricultural and Pastoral Production 923
Manufacturing 924
Coal Consumption 925
Summary of Overseas Trade 926
Exports of New Zealand Produce 927
New Zealand’s Official Overseas Reserves 933
Revenue and Expenditure of Central Government 934
Government Current Expenditure on Social Services 935
Indebtedness of Central Government936
Finances of Local Authorities 937
Post Office Savings Bank938
Mortgages and Land Transfers939
Bankruptcies and New Company Registrations. 940
TOTAL POPULATION AND EXTERNAL MIGRATION
YearPopulation*Mean Population*Natural IncreaseNet Migration
At 31 MarchAt 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 March

* Does not include armed forces personnel overseas.

Excluding tourists on cruising liners, crews, and members of armed forces, etc.

Provisional.

19291,471,1101,486,1341,460,3631,473,41915,639711
19301,489,2031,506,8091,478,0271,493,01915,6772385
19311,511,7001,522,7621,498,4161,514,21515,8055109
19321,525,5451,534,7351,517,9401,527,06214,660−3172
19331,538,0281,547,1241,530,1191,539,59014,342−2595
19341,550,1251,558,3731,542,6511,551,53213,410−2335
19351,560,9921,569,6891,554,2971,562,23313,486−3150
19361,573,9271,584,6171,565,2631,575,23113,737−1114
19371,587,2111,601,7581,578,7571,589,97214,681−353
19381,604,4791,618,3131,594,2751,606,76313,9712386
19391,624,7141,641,6391,611,3621,628,51216,9394963
19401,640,9011,633,6451,633,4471,637,30521,0706028
19411,636,2301,631,2761,635,7151,630,94822,123714
19421,634,3381,636,4031,630,4191,639,57219,701209
19431,634,0941,642,0411,640,1911,635,63517,562541
19441,643,9001,676,2861,637,5701,655,79520,988107
19451,679,9721,727,8171,664,5851,694,64123,8481018
19461,756,7561,781,2141,710,6801,759,52629,8042343
19471,789,4761,817,4531,770,2911,798,26232,2563038
19481,828,0251,853,8061,807,6111,834,65531,7775756
19491,864,5601,892,0421,843,7671,871,74831,2634181
19501,902,8831,927,6291,881,3171,909,09231,2477880
19511,938,0321,970,5221,917,9341,947,52930,9707522
19521,984,7302,024,5561,958,7291,996,14932,95015,664
19532,037,5532,074,7812,009,5062,048,82633,53422,032
19542,087,7402,118,4342,061,3762,094,91035,17915,441
19552,130,9272,164,7342,105,7672,138,94636,3717030
19562,175,3732,209,1322,150,2902,182,83336,8358092
19572,221,1692,262,8142,194,1082,232,59137,56311,492
19582,275,5152,315,9002,246,0932,285,85240,25515,408
19592,326,1292,359,7462,298,8142,334,61740,6709992
19602,370,1662,403,5672,345,6022,377,01041,8873213
19612,414,2962,461,2432,388,0042,426,65443,6081620
19622,474,5882,515,8352,441,4002,484,87342,93318,832
19632,527,8682,566,9152,498,3572,536,91242,11113,639
19642,582,4072,616,9702,550,1142,589,15039,44115,484
19652,628,9002,663,8432,601,2192,635,35237,07111,991
19662,676,7782,711,3182,647,1962,682,60436,22512,021
19672,725,9142,744,9632,694,6802,727,65838,01514,435
19682,752,6622,772,9332,735,2072,753,51237,648−8090
19692,777,2102,804,0592,760,0772,780,10138,199−10848
19702,815,9872,852,1372,788,8392,819,60237,210−2060
19712,861,0002,896,6002,831,3002,864,20040,1517845
19722,906,7002,954,4002,875,5002,912,90038,41410,851
19732,967,0003,015,8002,927,7002,970,80035,41525,475
19743,030,6003,079,0002,986,4003,031,90034,07533,167
19753,089,0003,127,9003,047,0003,087,00031,52529,141
19763,124,5003,148,3003,097,5003,116,20029,6485192
19773,140,4003,151,9003,120,7003,127,70028,218−16270
19783,145,9003,151,4003,128,9003,129,40026,360−22156
19793144700x3150900x3129200x3,124,40026,869−26544
19803,148,400 3,124,700  −22299
VITAL STATISTICS
YearNumbersRates per 1000 of Mean PopulationDeaths Under 1 Year per 1000 Live Births*Marriages
Live Births*DeathsDeaths Under 1 YearDeathsBirths*NumberRate per 1000 Mean Population

* Figures have been revised to exclude registrations under Section 24 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1925 and Section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 (late registration).

Provisional.

192928,85913,220108619.598.9737.6311,4037.74
193028,82213,145111219.308.8038.5811,4947.70
193128,86713,062107719.068.6337.3110,2546.77
193227,53512,875103918.038.4337.7310,4926.87
193327,20412,862104317.678.3538.3411,0677.19
193427,22013,810106017.548.9038.9411,7887.60
193527,15013,664112817.388.7441.5512,7448.16
193628,39514,658116818.039.3141.1314,4489.17
193729,89615,215117818.809.5739.4014,9739.42
193830,84516,874153719.2010.5049.8315,9599.93
193932,87215,933137120.199.7841.7117,79110.92
194036,94515,875136222.569.7036.8718,08411.04
194139,17017,047156224.0210.4539.8813,8308.48
194237,81818,117138823.0711.0536.7012,7757.79
194334,68417,122135021.2110.4738.9212,0217.35
194438,03717,049147322.9710.3038.7313,6468.24
194541,53417,686144924.5110.4434.8916,6939.85
194647,52417,720152427.0110.0732.0721,09611.99
194749,69817,442148727.649.7029.9219,04710.59
194849,06217,285135026.749.4227.5217,7509.67
194948,84117,578146826.099.3930.0617,3549.27
195049,33118,084136425.849.4727.6517,0998.96
195149,80618,836137425.579.6727.5916,9158.69
195251,84618,896147525.979.4728.4517,0618.55
195351,88818,354133525.338.9625.7317,2248.41
195454,05518,876130225.809.0124.0917,5578.38
195555,59619,225136525.998.9924.5517,7958.32
195656,53119,696131325.909.0223.2317,5318.03
195758,42520,862142026.179.3424.3017,6147.89
195860,55620,301141626.498.8823.3818,3058.01
195961,79821,128147726.479.0523.9018,3157.84
196062,77920,892142026.418.7922.6218,9097.96
196165,39021,782149026.958.9822.7919,4268.01
196265,01422,081133126.168.8920.4719,5727.88
196364,52722,416126925.448.8419.6719,8567.83
196462,30222,861119324.068.8319.1520,7208.00
196560,04722,976117422.798.7219.5521,7028.23
196660,00323,778106422.378.8617.7322,9498.55
196761,02223,007110222.378.4318.0623,5158.62
196862,11224,464116422.568.8818.7424,0578.74
196962,36024,161105722.438.6916.9524,9718.98
197062,05024,840104022.018.8116.7625,9539.20
197164,46024,309106622.518.4916.5427,1999.50
197263,21524,80198821.708.5115.6326,8689.22
197360,72725,31298520.448.5216.2226,2748.84
197459,33625,26192219.578.3315.5425,4128.38
197556,63925,11490418.358.1415.9624,5357.95
197655,10525,45776617.688.1713.9024,1547.75
197754,17925,96177017.328.3014.2122,5897.22
197851,02924,66970316.317.8813.7822,4267.17x
19795227925,41065716.738.1312.5722,3327.14
EDUCATION
Roll Numbers at Educational Institutions
At 1 JulyPrimarySecondaryHigher
State SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsState SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsTechnical Institutes (Full-time Students)Teachers' CollegesUniversity Institutions (Including Extra-mural and Part-time Students)

* Revised.

Does not include kindergarten trainees.

Includes kindergarten trainees.

1930219,27426,61729,2844513 11554801
1931220,97626,44831,0534602 11655111
1932217,23626,39030,9444512 9905171
1933203,58926,09730,4734315 4435085
1934201,87026,58430,9154430  5059
1935200,13526,92331,6114743 4295101
1936213,49727,54031,8945108 11855218
1937212,07627,50732,1155595 13465238
1938209,96128,27134,3456059 15225707
1939208,64127,97235,6926266 15885979
1940208,43327,86835,2736379 14575528
1941208,59527,83633,2536451 15035065
1942208,72126,98332,3916483 14634373
1943206,88428,52134,8937184 17755953
1944207,29229,22340,7238121 16787267
1945211,74229,58344,2798933 14318425
1946218,12930,58144,9859424 157511,361
1947229,80431,92945,2499968 163411,874
1948235,24332,81845,1099793 187511,964
1949244,37733,94146,51210,243 232111,598
1950254,66435,77548,23210,511 268411,515
1951265,23037,10950,68211,045 270410,956
1952282,69939,34254,12411,622 271010,691
1953298,48141,27759,55812,476 276910,831
1954311,54142,79766,34413,627 283410,803
1955320,58044,08672,11714,970 284710,851
1956332,04946,26175,35415,832 296311,077
1957344,95947,95378,84316,265 321811,761
1958356,22448,41882,69916,984 360212,881
1959365,76151,54989,50817,663 375314,388
1960371,82552,88799,36519,29371383815,809
1961376,47554,079109,63220,752221381416,820
1962384,31355,293118,52322,290441422317,214
1963392,59556,341124,97823,603532453618,303
1964404,25757,154128,70924,439620469119,640
1965415,58257,244132,09425,073857479022,145
1966429,91656,050136,10425,5851163502224,302
1967445,04554,910141,92226,2321355515626,313
1968455,11953,782152,42227,0201485609628,821
1969461,30552,4071,155,87327,9101661691231,494
1970465,46050,904157,79728,4411882758734,446
1971467,09751,009160,83929,2672236779137,257
1972468,69250,859166,85129,8043118808838,482
1973470,27350,711171,97830,2013378781138,995
1974473,09950,574177,58231,0143561761639,949
1975474,57850,745187,95031,8043840721142,436
1976475,11349,899197,91232,3794513752146,207
1977473,62149,309199,73432,2814946683447,706
1978472144x48,893202756X32,2875960623448,511
1979468,71448,476198124*32004*6286*582.0*49188*
JUSTICE
YearMagistrates' Courts*Supreme Court*Prisoners in Jail at End of Year (Undergoing Sentence)
Summary ConvictionsRate per 1000 of Mean PopulationPersons SentencedRate per 1000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1000 of Population as at 31 Dec
* From 1 April 1980 the name of the Supreme Court was changed to the High Court, and Magistrates' Courts became District Courts.
192925,18617.104730.3213420.90
193025,19216.875380.3615231.01
193123,25915.366000.4016141.06
193223,23615.226360.4215220.99
193320,35513.225310.3414100.91
193419,65412.674900.3211990.77
193519,67212.594720.3011120.71
193621,45013.624620.299150.58
193723,56314.825070.327900.49
193823,76214.784880.307770.48
193924,77415.215710.358950.55
194025,67015.675470.338630.53
194124,52915.045420.339880.61
1942  4570.2810340.63
1943  4940.3010240.62
1944  5600.349450.56
1945  6190.379980.58
1946  6550.379920.56
194720,18711.227400.4110880.60
194821,91011.947170.399860.53
194922,02111.766760.369410.50
195021,10211.056420.3410430.54
195122,40911.506440.3310400.53
195227,15113.607040.3510830.54
195328,99414.151790.0910880.52
195431,48815.031480.0711960.57
195532,44415.161470.0711180.52
195635,30216.172040.0913620.62
195736,96916.551990.0914740.66
195835,39315.482060.0916420.72
195931,83713.362120.0917140.73
196033,97014.292860.1217770.75
196135,31814.552940.1218180.75
196238,31215.412650.1217070.69
196339,12815.423090.1217650.69
196439,54915.242420.0916890.65
196539,96515.163040.1216530.63
196642,14915.702800.1018980.71
196747,49117.403180.1219830.73
196852,35119.013510.1320230.73
196954,01019.423140.1119670.71
197055,56019.703600.1323650.84
197161,70121.544040.142544x0.88x
197265,27422.424760.162447x0.83x
197368,47723.064790.162370x0.78x
197472,76224.005450.182295x0.74x
197582,65526.786690.222593x0.82x
197691,67529.427100.232713x0.86x
1977  6870.222711x0.86x
1978  7250.2324240.77
SUMMARY OF PRICE MOVEMENTS (i)
Base: December Quarter 1977. (= 100 for terms of trade. For all other indexes = 1000.)
YearImport PricesExport PricesTerms of TradeWholesale Prices*
Pastoral and DairyAll ExportsImportedHome ProducedAll Commodities
* Wholesale Prices Index replaced by General Price Index (which see) from December quarter 1977.
192910715214813895127112
193010611811610993122109
19319989899091108102
19329481818691102100
19339680818496100102
19349510110010595103103
193593979810595111107
19369311211111995114107
193799132130131103122116
193899122121122104125118
193999119118119106133122
1940114138136119125136136
1941127141140110140144149
1942140145143102154151161
194315515215097170153172
194416215915898175156177
1945165172170103178159180
1946184189186101177162181
1947219239233106181173187
1948224266259116204190209
1949204258251123199194207
1950223366355159211221226
1951261430416159246257263
1952285343334117278279292
1953269383372138264295290
1954265390379143252309287
1955270400389144256309290
1956277391380137263326301
1957287386374130270323305
1958285327319112279331313
1959279374364130286335318
1960282362353125282338319
1961284342334118283336318
19622773483411.23283333316
1963277385373135289339322
1964282420407144289357334
1965282405393139295368343
1966282401389138300374349
1967287364355124311380357
1968338389382113348399382
1969351414405115364420401
1970372415407109387445425
1971395456441112416478457
1972411551531129444512489
1973433730680157471591551
1974549693669122556617595
197572464266392701661674
197689286987498849813825
197798010141003102966959961
19781020x1081x1066x103.........
SUMMARY OF PRICE MOVEMENTS (ii)
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
YearImport Prices (All Groups)Expert Prices (All Croups)Wholesale Prices*Consumers PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
ImportedHome ProducedAll CommoditiesFoodAll Groups
* See note to previous table.
Year Ended 31 March
1940  108135124133137273
1945  176156177144159361
1950  200197209179185420
1955265383252311288277256490
1960279371285336318303299657
1962283332283336318311308736
1963274347284333317312315768
1964279387290343325322322887
1965282403290360337341335996
1966282391296370346348345946
1967282381302375350357356874
1968299355319384362381378805
19693413903544043873953951044
19703544073674254064134131234
19713784113944534334474461189
19723974634254854654824901078
19734175734495295025055211232
19744446944846055645735701373
19755936505886166066286371051
19767707107436917097147371059
19779239248798558638438551109
19789831000.........9769801023
19791032x1107x.........107710871139
1980  .........129912571182
Year Ended 30 June
1940 134113136128134139276
1945 167177157178144160364
1950213287203202213183187432
1955266378254311289279257499
1960282373284338319303299706
1962282332284335317312311733
1963276356286334318314317785
1964280402289348328326325917
19652813962923633393443381004
1966282393297372346351348929
1967282372305377353364361852
1968311361328387367383381831
19693463993584093924004001111
19703604083724304114194191249
19713854194024624424564581151
19724024864304934724894991087
19734216194545485165185311303
19744736935036135765885831326
19756266346226246236426601018
19768257787847297487467671059
19779419649098928988388831097
19789961012.........100410081044
19791057x1167x.........112411191143
1980  .........135813101322
PRICE AND WAGE MOVEMENTS
Bases: December Quarter 1977 for CPI and share prices (= 1000); 31 December 1974 for wage rates (=1000).
YearConsumers' PricesShare Prices (All Groups)Weekly Wage Rates (Adult Males)
FoodAll GroupsNominalEffective*

* Index numbers of effective or “real” wage rates are obtained by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices and multiplying by 1000.

† See Wages section of this Yearbook and Latest Statistical Information section for wage rates for all adult employees on new base.

1930122135283121582
1931106125228112583
193297115216103579
19339110925299586
193497111295100585
1935104115312102573
1936109119297113617
1937119127300123628
1938124131281129639
1939131136268131624
1940134142281135614
1941138148281139610
1942141152284145617
1943142156330150622
1944144159359152620
1945144161378164661
1946144162418171684
1947153167441177686
1948173181427189677
1949177184412200707
1950195194463213712
1951224216505243730
1952247232417255712
1953262243416272725
1954275254479293747
1955282260508303754
1956298269524309743
1957297275572323706
1958302287540327738
1959303298612333724
1960308300782349754
1961311306755355752
1962312314751364752
1963318320849373755
1964337331977385753
196534634397x408771
1966353352899420773
1967378373804442767
1968390389961459764
19694094091202485769
19704364351233548815
19714754811076672906
19724985141170734926
19735545561381819955
19746186181123932978
197568370810361059969
197681082811261184926
197794894710261346921
1978104910601114
1979123112061209
LABOUR FORCE, UNEMPLOYMENT, AND INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES
YearTotal Labour Force*Registered Unemployed Monthly AverageIndustrial Stoppages
MalesFemalesTotalNumberTotal Duration (Days)Workers InvolvedWorking Days Lost

* Estimated labour force as at 15 April of each year. The Department of Labour publishes estimates as at 15 April and 15 October of each year. April estimates are frequently a little higher than those for the following October because of seasonal employment.

The National Employment Service was established as from 1 April 1946 under the Employment Act 1945. Prior to 1942 a State Placement Service had operated a system of local labour exchanges. From 1942 to the end of March 1946 this was merged in the Industrial Manpower Division of the National Service Department.

 (000)(000)(000)   (000)(000)
1943544.6170.3714.96710160828.593.5
1949550.8172.5723.39212367261.5218.2
1950559.2176.7735.93812956791.5271.5
1951560.4180.3740.738109346436.91157.4
1952572.2182.4754.6475010816.328.1
1953588.1178.6766.7857314522.219.3
1954601.8185.2787.0586113616.220.5
1955609.2191.1800.3566521120.252.0
1956619.5194.4813.92595039013.623.9
1957629.6200.3829.93945116515.528.2
1958641.7206.2847.97854915213.718.8
1959651.3210.5861.811887322918.829.7
1960660.6215.0875.66336034414.335.7
1961670.5224.8895.33767135316.638.2
1962680.9230.7911.610409649839.993.2
1963693.7236.2929.98496036614.954.5
1964709.8248.1957.96509333334.866.8
1965728.9262.5991.451310528715.321.8
1966745.6280.41026.046314546233.199.1
1967759.4293.11052.538528934728.5139.5
1968756.2287.21043.4688115362237.5130.3
1969764.7296.51061.2292616968344.0138.7
1970779.2311.51090.716003231394110.1277.3
1971789.8322.21112.03115313138986.0162.6
1972796.9326.01122.95684266125760.4134.5
1973814.7335.51150.223213941892115.9271.7
1974834.2357.11191.3955380153070.9183.7
1975843.2364.51207.74166428182974.8214.6
1976849.5372.51222.053564871986201.1488.4
1977841.7388.41230.173855622174159.4436.8
1978   22,3304111347157.9380.6
1979   25,2395231863158.2381.9
POSTAL AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Year Ended 31 MarchMail Posted*TelephonesTollsTelegramsMoney Orders and Postal NotesRevenueExpenditure

* Calendar year until 1945. Includes letters, other articles, and parcels.

Installed as at 31 March. At 31 March 1980 there were 1114910 subscribers (including applicants).

 million(000)millionmillionmillion$(m)$(m)
1929266152.510.76.34.76.86.8
1930271161.311.46.04.77.37.2
1931233161.710.75.53.67.47.4
1932218160.89.53.93.37.56.7
1933231155.69.03.43.56.66.5
1934243155.19.13.54.06.46.4
1935263159.19.93.44.56.66.6
1936267166.611.43.84.67.17.1
1937274178.613.14.34.57.87.7
1938304192.014.54.64.78.58.5
1939296206.215.64.94.39.19.1
1940266217.915.74.53.49.79.2
1941262228.316.14.23.210.19.6
1942 235.416.94.53.110.510.0
1943 238.417.65.73.011.210.4
1944 244.818.16.33.011.810.3
1945237256.719.56.53.012.611.8
1946 265.821.07.3 13.312.7
1947294282.322.77.13.316.414.3
1948301300.623.96.73.417.116.4
1949319322.825.36.73.418.018.0
1950343348.527.16.93.418.118.4
1951358370.027.26.93.321.821.2
1952347394.628.37.03.424.624.8
1953358425.229.37.03.426.626.7
1954359456.331.17.03.431.731.0
1955386496.334.07.33.534.734.0
1956408534.536.57.63.737.136.7
1957412568.338.87.53.640.039.9
1958439605.241.97.53.544.244.1
1959446641.343.97.23.645.345.2
1960464686.047.57.33.848.548.4
1961495744.851.77.54.153.353.2
1962507801.955.57.24.460.160.0
1963526850.658.27.14.264.964.8
1964534902.061.07.24.470.270.1
1965551962.664.47.24.677.876.6
19665731025.167.67.34.787.084.9
19675761085.169.17.24.991.593.6
19685681119.467.76.14.8106.6100.8
19695751155.568.35.94.9112.8106.6
19705951202.667.05.74.9119.5117.1
19716151262.467.95.55.5129.8143.5
19726221304.764.85.15.4169.8169.5
19736451358.167.15.05.5186.9188.9
19746691444.073.94.95.4206.3212.5
19756991531.277.64.65.2236.5257.2
19767071610.480.74.35.1262.9301.6
19776621674.179.43.64.3367.5346.3
19786511715.383.03.5x4.1440.0402.3
19796601677.3x86.23.2x 514.5464.9
19806541730.089.52.8 604.3533.4
GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS
Year Ended 31 MarchKilometres Open for TrafficRevenue Train-KilometresRail Passenger JourneysGoods and LivestockRevenue*Expenditure*
* Figures relate to railway operation only.
  (000)(000)tonnes(000)$(000)$(000)
1930529019,34725,414791414,94813,696
1931534618,15722,814707013,56212,812
1932533516,36519,151591811,57810,604
1933533515,81818,367557910,6789,668
1934534316,35619,047573311,2589,754
1935534317,10119,654612111,81610,278
1936534317,78320,358628812,48811,046
1937534319,10021,235692213,80812,676
1938534820,56422,441763715,18414,584
1939534121,03923,266766016,01015,328
1940545621,51224,454779717,52415,886
1941545621,82326,277856119,38816,814
1942545622,49728,611861020,76817,806
1943556824,36536,133903024,83020,040
1944563924,67038,611917226,93022,732
1945563920,60432,995909824,89623,394
1946567821,65432,418935826,21025,100
1947567821,19328,869947925,64827,290
1948567522,06725,887967627,92830,180
1949567522,36226,168982130,67833,576
1950567523,20825,89510,10832,12434,722
1951568322,77724,824977037,00037,450
1952569519,90921,292998740,19443,030
1953568921,58021,45510,18745,17845,510
1954563922,07923,272979047,36447,242
1955561523,20724,73510,50254,01851,084
1956550723,95325,07510,84955,74253,550
1957550124,30425,37710,49157,01457,388
1958557823,85824,81710,49860,02062,128
1959550423,50425,43710,53359,64661,010
1960536923,30326,13410,71260,54261,516
1961536423,77526,23311,00462,85862,978
1962536224,05626,32410,99663,39063,632
1963525123,45625,66510,20562,75266,874
1964525424,00825,73411,26867,64867,946
1965523724,66925,13712,16472,78671,932
1966523224,82923,88912,07974,75373,228
1967516924,71823,72311,71975,02875,151
1968501822,27222,18610,75171,65371,880
1969492921,64122,26110,97174,60272,892
1970492921,39621,03111,77983,19479,8e6
1971484721,87720,78412,04086,99996,502
1972480721,37620,11511,493101,296107,277
1973480521,39918,56512,322112,162117,197
1974479922,44718,94413,378125,789135,363
1975479722,22918,89412,883124,921166,657
1976479722,05320,03513,197137,287194,829
1977472421,30318,47813,601202,419214,796
1978466820,07316,40212,577212,748251,863
1979457720,15016,74911,721237,266287,241
1980451618,78216,01111,755274,369331,360
AGRICULTURE
SeasonWheal for ThreshingYield of
AreaYieldYield per HectareOatsBarleyPeas for ThreshingPotatoes
 hectarestonnestonnestonnestonnestonnestonnes
1928–29103,321240,3952.3355,61317,71514,357125,591
1929–3095,482197,0322.0654,47417,1248008132,195
1930–31100,772206,2742.0561,26518,9996570153,957
1931–32108,762179,1551.6551,13312,1888420118,617
1932–33122,430300,8722.4693,11812,72415,933131,151
1933–34115,830245,9242.1258,83216,57819,005133,148
1934–3591,212161,4791.7734,29510,99311,881110,874
1935–36100,620241,1132.4059,92316,90515,315122,946
1936–3789,755195,1102.1763,96516,94113,091128,341
1937–3875,251164,4662.1947,91724,62910,138149,141
1938–3976,599151,4341.9847,26224,42110,53289,078
1939–40104,220218,0032.0937,76020,77015,327143,370
1940–4198,418226,0522.3056,51824,18620,18295,634
1941–42104,410235,9972.2662,50329,40823,19091,042
1942–43116,144267,2432.3050,96223,98724,201141,276
1943–4494,610196,1862.0733,28218,88824,187164,104
1944–4574,416190,3002.5676,37131,41128,238127,704
1945–4665,174148,0292.2750,74742,46422,233142,503
1946–4757,225146,0992.5548,73945,96833,508117,620
1947–4850,080123,5342.4751,77447,35431,008157,505
1948–4959,370162,1542.7367,47051,17432,528111,404
1949–5050,650133,3492.6347,54255,19933,822137,601
1950–5158,584170,6972.9133,16643,14717,031121,700
1951–5236,404105,8752.9144,80749,49219,87670,962
1952–5351,486123,1612.3943,27648,53316,72296,171
1953–5446,059130,1802.8317,15375,64725,957158,445
1954–5542,083111,9512.6629,06845,17624,098146,472
1955–5627,71272,3522.6135,33446,07517,278102,293
1956–5726,60580,2953.0252,40564,74223,015147,578
1957–5833,968101,4372.9926,49380,56528,491159,627
1958–5953,788164,3533.0628,59060,35422,585152,332
1959–6066,028236,7853.5933,11571,14325,142159,324
1960–6175,590253,3573.3542,62777,46725,331193,495
1961–6275,388213,2482.8334,22180,75320,765191,049
1962–6391,357249,1982.7318,66395,29327,230184,357
1963–6482,540273,9973.3228,080130,99529,985203,999
1964–6574,450250,2983.3645,249105,90723,891246,965
1965–6680,745291,7843.6143,520114,07728,798234,563
1966–6793,305347,7593.7328,180134,01432,185187,358
1967–68126,651442,3303.4944,754219,39936,300235,835
1968–69129,975456,6483.5152,148232,56956,617256,350
1969–70108,394287,2122.6557,712174,44649,601253,204
1970–7197,528325,6463.3459,752259,32051,856209,927
1971–72106,596389,1563.6549,457335,49057,519219,970
1972–73107,690376,1113.4944,965258,26159,733244,211
1973–7467,414214,5823.1863,226241,56952,882206,192
1974–7557,656179,8743.1250,219262,88147,522225,522
1975–76103,742388,1783.7441,820285,49554,515248,321
1976–7796,236354,0353.6857,997272,09645,023270,497
1977–78x90,982328,7563.6151,540258,69059,051237,291
1978–7987,156295,0283.3858,249263,58063,407203,285
LIVESTOCK
YearBeef CattleDairy Cows in MilkTotal Dairy CattleTotal CattleSheepPigs
* Coverage to 1959 relates to holdings of 1 acre and over; thereafter to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries, except that Manukau City has been included since Manukau County was absorbed by the city. Since 1970 the coverage applies to 1 hectare and over. Figures are as at 31 January of year stated, except for sheep which are as at 30 June.
..(000)(000)(000)(000)(000)(000)
1930..1390..377030,841488
1931..1479..404429,793469
1932..1562..407228,692506
1933..1703..415527,756584
1934..1796..426428,649653
1935..1807..425729,077755
1936..1803..421730,114801
1937..1785..435231,306795
1938..1743..446932,379749
1939..1724..452831,897676
1940..1719..449631,063706
1941..1759..453931,752769
1942..1757..4642..689
1943..1715..4448..605
1944..1648..443933,200573
1945..1679..459133,975594
19462066166226004667..549
1947204816582586463432,682546
1948207817142638471632,483548
1949204117472681472332,845545
1950208818502867495533,857555
1951214918982911506034,786564
1952228219062883516535,384566
1953247819622968544636,193628
1954263419993110574538,011649
1955280819953079588739,117681
1956........40,255..
1957286119982948580942,382602
1958291519672970588646,026628
1959297019313004597346,876692
1960*301918872973599247,134660
1961333419293111644648,462655
1962346219683136659848,988686
1963355819973133669150,190766
1964356820113128669651,292771
1965362820323174680153,748716
1966385620883362721857,343667
1967424121313506774760,030603
1968454922323698824760,474614
1969481223043793860559,937553
1970504823213729877760,276578
1971*528022393539881958,913617
1972541422003360877460,883580
1973573321903355908856,684507
1974614221403273941555,883507
1975652820803125965355,320500
1976676920923008977756,400505
1977650520742966947259,105536
1978619720532932912962,163539
19795582x20402917849963,523503
AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION
SeasonWool ProductionMilkfat ProductionSawn Timber Production*Meat Production§
Total Production (Greasy Equivalent)Average Price (Greasy Wool)Total ValueTotal ProductionYield per Cow in Milk||Average Revenue per kg

* Year ended 31 March.

Milkfat for butter making only. These figures do not include payments for non-fat solids in the whole milk delivered for butter manufacture; therefore they cannot be used as a measure of total income from milk or manufacture.

Provisional.

§ Year ended September.

|| Calculated from 1966–07 on “at factory” basis.

 tonnes (000)c per kg$(m)tonnes (000)kgc per kgm3 (000)tonnes (000)
1929–3011915.7218.714210329.39665..
1930–3111710.4312.31469821.12540..
1931–321229.6611.81549820.21363..
1932–331269.4611.918010416.53392..
1933–3413220.3526.819410716.53467..
1934–3512012.0214.418610217.46576..
1935–3613816.7823.119810922.97691..
1936–3713728.8639.720811525.18722..
1937–3813518.4524.919711227.93762..
1938–3914916.8425.118110430.31748..
1939–4014122.4433.219511230.69793..
1940–4115122.4935.521111930.69807..
1941–4215620.5137.019811230.86765..
1942–4315425.6441.318310631.42807..
1943–4415025.664.217510533828..
1944–4516925.6845.319611537.30802..
1945–4616625.5144.116910038.96816550
1946–4716633.0054.518511043.54835569
1947–4816446.1475.819010948.881.7558
1948–4916647.4278.92.711751.081109565
1949–5017769.78123.421111353.641128586
1950–51177161.38285.522211656.95124653
1951–5218573.83136.322511763.561357612
1952–5319084.86160.924012268.341357587
1953–5419392.33178.422311171.471354598
1954–5520691.25188.322811370.171454647
1955–5621084.86177.823811869.821477693
1956–57223100.60224.023511770.001409681
1957–5822575.62170.125012767.791409699
1958–5924566.27162.325012960.251503743
1959–6026282.03214.724512969.451638785
1960–6126774.12197.724912861.551687770
1961–6226671.98191.724812560.801635834
1962–6328178.70221.325312660.451517841
1963–64279101.17283.126513164.291572866
1964–6528377.40218.828213867.621737836
1965–6631576.46241.129214068.941787843
1966–6732264.77208.429613568.951770905
1967–6833050.42166.528912465.5416211002
1968–6933261.86205.430112565.8116971030
1969–7032856.48185.327811366.1818061051
1970–7133453.42178.427911670.0718531055
1971–7232266.46214.229212773.5417491082
1972–73309143.96444.528012276.7717871097
1973–74285139.19396.426111876.662054990
1974–7529491.75269.827312880.8920861089
1975–76312157.12489.929613774.4220031234
1976–77303219.58664.230314381.8622121152
1977–78311190.43591.9279131x96.8019611160x
1978–79321218.85701.5301142..18651119
MANUFACTURING
YearEstablishmentsPersons*EngagedSalaries*and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsOther Expenses of ProductionValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)Value of Land and Buildings, Plant and Machinery

* For the year 1915–16 and earlier, figures refer to productive employees only.

Figures based on Integrated Economic Census of Manufacturing (see Section 18 Manufacturing). Not directly comparable with figures for earlier years.

Includes ancillary units.

§ Purchases and other expenses.

|| Turnover.

Value Added.

** Provisional.

 No.No.  $(million)  
1900–01305938,6515.615.4..33.0..13.1
1905–06338145,1987.226.6..43.2..19.1
1910–11342142,1428.737.5..57.1..24.0
1915–16365744,67310.659.7..83.8..31.6
1920–21389462,97223.5106.0..151.0..51.4
1925–26464370,21228.3102.614.5156.9..64.8
1930–31504770,62527.890.616.9143.437.069.0
1935–36539178,70126.2113.717.3167.537.566.4
1940–416252104,78448.6186.022.4274.867.784.3
1941–426225108,27553.6193.024.1291.275.587.5
1942–435985106,17958.9203.825.1311.684.089.3
1943–446062109,22162.8214.127.3329.789.892.0
1944–456340113,53468.4233.029.1357.296.697.5
1945–466847118,88675.8234.130.6367.1103.9103.6
1946–477498124,92583.0262.734.6411.3115.8111.6
1947–487822130,50495.9349.740.2518.4130.5126.6
1948–497852132,427102.8390.143.9572.8141.0147.2
1949–507815133,245112.5430.048.3634.7158.8156.0
1950–518113138,435130.0533.857.7760.4171.6175.2
1951–528546144,352150.1581.564.0862.0219.7195.0
1952–538511143,164157.0637.970.5927.9222.9218.2
1953–548377146,488173.2665.780.5990.4247.8244.5
1954–558366153,575196.8730.695.71,101.2278.6276.5
1955–568515158,238215.9769.6113.11,171.9294.4337.1
1956–576793143,040203.3766.280.61,152.0277.7334.4
1957–586774148,641219.8810.588.71,233.4303.5349.9
1958–596757153,811235.3808.596.71,257.4321.9380.9
1959–606709156,778250.0846.3101.51,345.0366.8415.7
1960–616875165,572277.3905.0111.01,441.9393.9462.8
1961–626984171,108296.9936.7120.51,532.4439.3521.6
1962–637025174,417312.2964.1128.41,596.7461.9591.8
1963–647317181,399338.61,115.0139.31,832.0531.7626.5
1964–657554191,995378.81,292.5156.22,081.6580.6693.3
1965–667659203,165418.81,360.0174.92,260.7664.0792.1
1966–677838207,999451.71,402.3193.82,354.9691.0874.3
1967–687788204,510454.21,427.1203.92,404.9704.0912.2
1968–697667207,703483.51,591.0224.72,645.8757.1969.0
1969–707686220,108559.61,791.4255.12,994.8867.11,130.4
1970–717600229,104676.02,014.6306.73,407.4995.71,239.3
1971–727783232,424780.32,288.6354.43,874.31,130.71,436.9
1972–737669235,648875.42,787.2561.54,611.31,301.71,634.0
1973–747690244,5221,042.23,112.8683.75,250.91,502.4..
1974–758883292,4481,389.04,664.0§6,433.0||2,144.0..
1975–769212298,6921,576.04,993.0§7,264.0||2,351.0..
1976–779738306,1771,802.06,381.0§8,987.0||2,865.01..
1978–79**10480296,5542,280.07,565.010,912.0||3,496.0..
COAL CONSUMPTION
YearFactoriesShippingRailGas WorksHouseholdsPublic Hospitals and Central HearingElectricity GenerationTotal
* Estimated.
    tonnes(000)    
1928510324417225....1802600
1929506321484232....912588
1930499251440244....1732615
1931402180375224....1882249
1932396151394210....251941
1933431141388207....82012
1934443163425208....82155
1935463157450208....102240
1936508156466224....102241
1937517155520225....152317
1938550154522230....152312
1939684128538246....342449
1940693154572262....822540
1941732125577268....1112702
1942749148658276....752759
1943746135671292....762826
1944765121613305582..492823
1945758126643315604..672871
1946747111626320549..622838
194778893601328607..622856
1948..78586328630....2842
194985856561316650..672892
195083250486306610..912778
195187538451264549..642494
195290437442294599..1312772
19539083442328355987452555
195494636405270559881392651
1955100429377272528861202612
1956104933316265549861362700
1957107028273260559761792627
1958108825242275559802512735
1959104314231280549793632753
1960101592232815491006112965
196110038219283544986122917
19629698190266478963472474
1963104991862725251046072807
19641046101692624901075952821
1965102991432644901224402664
1966101010122245488*1284992645
19679286101252427*1442322270
1968938650231396*1552572143
1969920513172376*1635462311
197091010154345*1635422306
19719255*109300*1644422114
1972934*99290*1875582188*
1973948*91284*1938272461*
19741120*109289*2818142613*
19751077*89234*2448442488*
19761149*80288*2407302487*
19771125*80290*265610x2370x*
19781075*75240*2675252182*
SUMMARY OF OVERSEAS TRADE*
YearExports (f.o.b.)Imports (c.d.v.)Imports (c.i.f.)
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population

* Figures are in terms of New Zealand currency. Gold and specie excluded.

Previous to 1955 c.d.v. +10 percent.

Provisional.

§ Valuation for 1979 and 1980 is v.f.d. (value for duty).

 $(m)$     $(m)$     $(m)$     
193088.859.4780.653.9988.759.39
193168.745.4048.231.8253.034.99
193268.945.1044.829.3449.332.28
193379.351.5246.530.2151.233.22
193492.059.2857.036.7262.740.39
193590.257.7266.042.2672.646.49
1936110.770.2880.551.0888.556.18
1937130.582.11102.164.22112.370.63
1938114.271.04100.862.71110.868.98
1939112.869.2989.855.1298.760.63
1940143.687.7089.154.4198.059.84
1941131.380.5089.454.8198.360.29
1942159.197.0597.959.72107.765.69
1943140.685.98173.2105.87190.5116.46
1944152.792.24157.194.87172.8104.35
1945160.794.85100.159.09110.265.00
1946200.2113.80130.173.95143.181.34
1947256.8142.78233.9130.06257.3143.06
1948294.4160.48233.7127.37257.0140.11
1949293.3156.72218.2116.59240.0128.25
1950364.9191.12287.1150.41315.9165.45
1951494.6253.95375.5192.80413.0212.08
1952479.5240.22458.9229.88504.8252.89
1953470.7229.74327.2159.70359.9175.68
1954488.0232.92426.3203.48468.9223.83
1955518.1242.20501.3234.37574.2268.47
1956554.5254.02469.5215.51536.8245.91
1957552.5247.48523.4234.42594.1266.09
1958499.9218.68505.5221.14570.0249.38
1959586.6251.26410.1175.64462.7198.21
1960604.6254.35506.2212.94564.5237.48
1961567.4233.76576.4237.48649.7267.64
1962 (Jan-Jun)332.6134.32237.495.88264.3106.74
Year ended June
1963627.5249.42523.7208.16576.6229.18
1964737.3286.72637.4247.88694.0269.91
1965742.2282.95662.7252.64724.5276.20
1966767.3288.54729.4274.31792.8298.13
1967727.2268.57752.2277.79813.2300.32
1968820.5299.04622.9227.03674.7245.91
1969989.1357.56799.2288.91852.9308.32
19701,086.7388.3944.3337.41,007.2359.9
19711,131.7398.21,070.6376.71,155.5406.6
19721,375.0476.41,152.7399.41,239.0429.3
19731,792.0609.31,282.2436.01,374.1467.3
19741,787.3595.51,861.8620.42,036.7678.5
19751,621.5529.72,492.0814.02,763.1902.6
19762,386.9768.72,730.1879.32,961.6953.8
19773,228.71,033.53,244.41,038.53,538.01,132.5
19783,313.51,058.73,018.2964.53,276.71,046.9
1979x4,067.41,300.53,574.1§1,142.83,840.51,228.0
19805,152.01,648.24,770.6§1,526.25,133.21,642.2
EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE
YearWool
GreasyScoured and WashedTotal, including Slipe*
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
* Including fine animal hair.
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
192989,97825.157862.3106,57430.7
193069,95411.257401.589,46715.3
193175,0688.250120.996,03411.0
193284,6838.665971.0108,03611.5
1933104,13011.391411.5129,86714.8
193495,07720.274992.0116,02825.0
193578,88910.371551.5100,99714.2
1936118,72421.176581.9142,61426.6
1937106,20430.949821.9128,06738.1
1938102,01219.457091.6123,05224.4
1939102,74818.458591.5125,82323.3
1940104,76224.293422.9136,20933.8
194173,31517.411,1643.797,85925.2
194297,77823.317,3985.8139,50136.7
194369,62318.511,3534.093,81327.0
194458,61815.813,4594.885,54725.4
194530,9968.425,1639.575,41425.4
1946119,94935.818,9267.5165,74553.2
1947116,75040.023,02511.6170,24563.9
1948147,23764.818,25311.8190,97289.0
1949148,44766.918,40011.7194,89793.1
195013720.1110.615,09716.4178,704149.3
1951111,820188.510,81524.5143,727256.4
1952154,629122.715,35416.6198,723164.0
1953137,903124.714,68618.2177,630169.2
1954137,692130.816,14220.4178,216176.9
1955146,417138.118,72323.2189,408187.9
1956151,350136.618,44922.0194,163183.1
1957153,478161.219,41125.3195,880212.1
1958162,595122.018,71317.7207,333160.1
1959188,118137.421,20919.4240,037179.5
1960182,542152.923,58925.3236,947205.0
1961197,367152.924,33824.3251,723200.7
1962 (Jan-Jun)128,18697.815,32514.6163,039127.5
Year ended June
1963204,338163.229,59628.5261,724214.5
1964195,139201.832,00939.7256,547271.6
1965180,920149.932,31436.1241,066208.6
1966212,149170.2371537.8278,228231.9
1967158,468117.736,06732.9227,150174.1
1968182,29799.748,91535.6268,427158.2
1969205,260131.465,91355.1307,915212.4
1970196,430119.374,68463.3303,053204.2
1971173,926100.282,22565.7293,499187.9
1972177,990119.196,62984.1312,374228.6
1973160,325224.294.49152.5288,082424.0
1974120,927189.366,976131.3213,158361.6
1975102,871107.786,997125.4218,198261.7
1976142,605220.1105,432197.7272,369456.4
1977124,625283.3103,005304.6253,899648.2
1978111,346228.7106,385297.9242,913580.0
1979117,612271.3121,198365.0258,775683.3
YearBeef and VealLamb and MuttonAll Meat
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
192919,7961.3138,77717.2169,48719.8
193021,2891.5173,23319.2205,07121.9
193123,9421.2175,93115.7210,26117.8
193227,1910.9195,63115.0236,00116.9
193347,1641.9193,92716.0264,33019.7
193445,6261.9177,24519.0252,46023.8
193547,0202.2184,48020.0264,50325.5
193643,2262.3177,18520.2260,09824.5
193750,9113.0184,92922.0274,88329.4
193852,5143.6184,85822.4272,97730.2
193962,1114.5203,87922.2300,05130.8
194075,9856.0237,85727.8354,42939.4
194140,2093.5192,19224.5268,48333.2
194246,6144.5221,01027.6291,67635.6
194325,8312.3188,74823.9224,17327.6
194471410.6194,01623.0211,13725.0
194529,9232.9243,11430.3287,22935.2
194662,4886.7255,78635.9343,08746.5
194768,4648.7259,64345.1353,36258.7
194868,9768.1253,43343.8349,00857.2
194959,9666.7261,04943.0349,55654.4
195059,9717.0258,00945.6343,44257.2
195143,5675.8212,07439.6278,92950.7
195257,42110.3299,71760.9384,16278.8
195345,0989.9256,12960.5329,04778.8
195460,48714.7281,44878.0367,237100.5
195595,58126.8262,34683.8383,562121.2
1956119,67529.2274,39487.2420,635127.7
1957117,40231.3254,66887.0394,531128.1
1958117,62751.1273,91085.5411,773146.9
195990,27944.4326,81087.0441,574142.4
196099,99244.4350,45497.2474,188152.3
196197,02444.4348,27889.9467,883144.2
1962 (Jan-Jun)49,55821.6218,81152.5282,28280.6
Year ended June
1963128,77758.8358,46698.2516,376169.5
1964121,19758.1368,993107.2522,744180.0
1965121,39357.4366,434135.0519,742208.5
1966101,19754.6369,234121.4501,983193.1
1967106,25163.9367,842119.5505,425200.8
1968129,33889.3413,227147.0581,251256.2
1969133,226109.1473,286175.5645,443304.5
1970177,704154.2439,344182.9658,534364.3
1971180,858170.4425,311186.5647,785385.7
1972185,390187.2446,913178.1674,335393.3
1973203,529241.3441,837257.5691,992535.5
1974183,326235.5348,950256.5570,406529.5
1975192,445161.8385,263238.7616,545438.0
1976228,111241.4397,408297.4674,867586.2
1977260,639312.1402,501387.5716,703756.5
1978225,776313.0374,888389.7647,057756.8
1979244,628487.1460,500528.5751,8321,087.2
YearButterCheeseMilk, Dried and Condensed
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
192984,01726.590,38314.062300.7
193095,72423.792,10412.968950.7
1931101,02421.383,1308.958270.5
1932111,03121.390,9599.972730.5
1933133,87723.3100,7389.580010.6
1934132,82420.1100,8189.497800.8
1935141,70327.287,7648.894270.7
1936142,05130.684,24110.210,7690.8
1937151,19234.083,68010.711,2100.7
1938132,82533.081,81811.993150.6
1939124,12632.285,20911.711,1340.8
1940133,24036.5103,30716.511,9930.8
1941115,00731.6120,21119.713,4451.4
1942121,80633.9136,53823.712,5131.4
1943102,61929.4102,11018.311,8801.2
1944117,23137.178,95014.983601.1
1945105,16738.688,82919.015,3472.0
1946103,43839.776,96216.917,2682.4
1947129,75857.788,44123.220,3023.3
1948137,81167.576,83722.426,9664.4
1949150,04070.995,44625.334,9425.7
1950140,48671.7101,49329.141,2846.6
1951149,83083.0108,33033.347,4637.9
1952186,982112.392,72031.163,73913.1
1953161,660102.9102,98736.764,00112.6
1954134,60789.691,87432.845,9498.2
1955153,388102.086,40727.451,7427.2
1956170,137106.390,30344.552,9168.8
1957147,40376.989,89635.868,79811.5
1958178,20777.790,86324.853,8827.6
1959196,075111.684,79144.271,50911.5
1960159,572100.380,68837.161,28711.1
1961167,68978.889,01339.851,2678.4
1962 (Jan-Jun)86,07841.552,99021.330,7264.4
Year ended June
1963167,22790.993,68937.064,3679.5
1964184,875109.689,00035.173,76811.0
1965192,180119.694,74640.788,05018.9
1966193,472109.698,03741.7101,15222.0
1967203,163109.4104,36045.1135,23529.8
1968204,467112.2100,28147.4140,45030.3
1969206,378114.887,66142.6134,73323.1
1970198,021109.790,58244.3184,35131.1
1971194,464113.992,68148.0160,45234.1
1972187,680183.988,46466.3191,92576.5
1973176,619137.195,25579.2197,75787.4
1974162,146109.568,48161.8278,333130.6
1975164,171122.164,76348.4159,869103.1
1976206,788204.280,64078.0147,82684.6
1977212,929253.979,04684.9240,423108.5
1978177,265240.970,15476.6242,041129.5
1979192,200277.263,36975.5200,522125.6
YearCaseinApples and Pears*Grass and Clover Seeds
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
* Whole fruit only.
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
192929060.318,2991.229390.4
193029110.324,0821.318570.3
193126880.224,3161.320810.3
193221730.128,6771.617440.2
193324730.226,0981.440800.3
193429330.328,4311.624770.3
193533100.318,8591.036400.4
193641070.422,3791.240630.5
193739390.517,1100.929520.4
193821030.228,0531.523110.5
193919570.119,0081.123280.6
194012370.110,7540.523240.7
19416300.1193- -44801.1
1942250- -148- -41911.2
19437500.184- -46091.3
1944305- -9- -80512.9
19458180.172- -84613.6
19467550.155150.376513.9
194726340.7109- -74693.3
194841901.218,2361.788823.4
194955481.296910.882303.0
195056271.312,9741.483374.2
195159871.912,6751.444922.5
195284982.625,0694.183044.2
195387452.520,9203.491073.7
195482772.522,5413.193605.6
195512,4873.718,8872.640342.7
195613,6234.229,2504.174383.2
195714,3554.526,0313.682582.4
195820,3866.233,1754.675303.0
195929,6488.834,8154.846342.0
196028,6558.434,8394.865263.4
196129,4948.837,1224.867022.6
1962 (Jan-Jun)14,9564.640,7565.630511.2
Year ended June
196330,2468.433,7844.783083.6
196442,18911.338,5495.392583.5
196552,59416.844,0666.146342.0
196642,98520.051,5927.110,3223.2
196743,26518.640,1555.511,3373.2
196840,92318.141,5435.711,9193.7
196950,02621.744,0756.191613.5
197061,98925.857,7429.479393.6
197169,53430.255,5969.297194.9
197242,11325.460,63510.711,6404.4
197327,72822.069,56913.415,9546.5
197439,96528.668,96313.593098.9
197517,11914.781,11019.711,41110.0
197624,26327.177,93021.260714.5
197762,38459.760,66916.612,39610.8
197859,94060.581,70826.593209.9
197952,37262.385,44430.490449.8
YearHides and SkinsSausage CasingsTallow*
* From 1929 to 1948 figures cover only inedible tallow, and unrendered fats of bovine cattle, sheep, or goats are included in all figures.
 $(m)$(m)tonnes$(m)
19295.91.321,1661.4
19304.41.625,0231.4
19312.50.823,6370.8
19322.10.525,7840.9
19333.70.828,4701.0
19344.41.328,1061.0
19354.81.625,6831.3
19366.61.326,5141.3
19374.51.526,3561.3
19384.81.530,0881.1
19395.11.429,6050.9
19406.51.834,6861.4
19418.21.639,9591.6
19429.51.852,6102.3
19438.82.244,6602.1
19449.02.127,0511.2
194510.02.231,2191.8
194611.52.825,1532.1
194720.83.126,1384.7
194818.94.520,3854.3
194913.44.125,8405.1
195020.05.330,0714.3
195125.77.830,1345.1
195219.99.849,3959.4
195321.44.940,4333.9
195420.96.439,4965.1
195518.48.144,1315.7
195621.29.840,2545.3
195720.29.346,9496.1
195816.69.052,0836.8
195926.58.354,4196.6
196026.67.060,4225.9
196124.37.358,6496.3
1962 (Jan-Jun)15.26.036,6353.1
Year ended June
196325.410.560,3524.8
196430.412.077,3517.2
196531.711.158,8557.1
196640.010.951,5866.7
196733.612.066,4137.0
196839.89.974,6377.0
196955.410.971,7426.6
197048.714.073,5519.2
197150.614.165,83810.2
197262.215.469,6518.9
197395.914.272,9509.7
197467.017.253,76913.8
197562.718.871,63716.4
197677.423.596,13025.8
1977128.625.895,45133.0
1978144.027.085,30432.4
1979181.830.289,59942.4
YearTimberWood PulpNewsprint
 $(m)tonnes(000)$(m)tonnes(000)$(m)
19290.9
19300.6
19310.3
19320.5
19330.5
19340.6
19350.7
19360.5
19370.4
19380.4
19390.3
19400.4
19410.4
19420.2
19430.1
19440.1
19450.1
19460.3
19470.4
19481.0
19491.1
19500.7
19511.5
19521.2
19531.340.4
19541.8201.6
19552.5282.3- -- -
19562.1484.0263.1
19571.8665.3364.3
19582.9705.5425.3
19594.4785.8445.4
19604.2715.6506.2
19614.4655.0475.4
1962 (Jan-Jun)2.6332.7222.3
Year ended June
19634.1705.5738.0
19645.0675.510911.5
19656.5574.711311.9
19666.5716.011911.9
19677.3735.99610.1
196816.5766.212715.8
196928.5897.412316.1
197034.1827.212215.8
197137.1979.411114.0
197240.911311.313116.5
197345.614214.112316.2
197447.824325.710314.5
197528.231243.512120.8
197632.036058.813234.3
197750.442070.017651.8
197861.843169.919051.6
197978.445686.220355.7
NEW ZEALAND'S OFFICIAL OVERSEAS RESERVES
As at Last Wednesday of Each QuarterAssets of N.Z. Banking SystemTreasury-held Overseas SecuritiesOther Government-held Overseas SecuritiesGoldInternational Monetary FundTotal
Reserve PositionSpecial Drawing Rights
$(million)
1961—Mar107.077.55.82.0192.3
1962—Mar113.758.15.80.522.5200.5
1963—Mar167.265.05.80.522.5260.9
1964—Mar166.572.65.80.522.5267.8
1965—Mar159.367.118.10.522.5267.5
1966—Mar116.361.512.70.2190.1
1967—Mar116.356.613.10.3186.3
1968—Mar200.376.914.50.2291.8
1969—Mar183.180.515.31.2280.1
1970—Mar204.887.516.10.823.6332.7
1971—Mar172.4117.317.40.745.119.6372.6
          Jun243.9132.817.40.745.119.4459.3
          Sep253.4170.717.40.745.119.4506.7
          Dec244.1146.517.40.745.124.8478.6
1972—Mar331.4186.318.90.745.147.5629.9
          Jun425.2216.218.90.745.151.6757.7
          Sep450.6210.218.90.745.152.1777.5
          Dec435.7209.825.60.745.152.1768.9
1973—Mar561.9235.022.30.745.152.1917.2
          Jun764.3209.122.30.745.151.91,0935
          Sep656.0199.620.00.745.151.9973.3
          Dec502.1202.522.50.745.151.9824.8
1974—Mar477.1182.121.70.745.151.9778.5
          Jun289.4185.021.70.745.151.7593.6
          Sep324.4174.321.70.70.8521.8
          Dec335.8220.724.20.70.5581.8
1975—Mar281.8230.923.90.74.8542.1
          Jun316.2222.923.90.70.5564.2
          Sep322.4221.126.40.74.8575.4
          Dec290.9224.126.40.74.6546.7
1976—Mar374.2274.026.30.79.7684.8
          Jun299.1239.326.30.76.5571.9
          Sep303.5247.326.30.716.1593.9
          Dec359.3285.323.90.79.8679.0
1977—Mar390.7284.223.90.721.2720.6
          Jun399.3286.723.90.72.524.7737.8
          Sep250.4292.123.90.72.532.7602.2
          Dec257.6258.523.91.62.540.5584.6
1978—Mar471.7424.323.91.613.848.3983.6
          Jun554.4287.323.90.713.854.7934.7
          Sep341.4275.928.90.729.562.8739.2
          Dec292.3175.230.82.527.856.2584.7
1979—Marx411.2266.933.20.743.548.4803.9
          Jun386.1428.933.20.743.539.8932.2
          Sep381.1412.036.70.760.219.0909.7
          Dec394.5371.438.60.713.1818.4
1980—Mar563.0287.747.30.739.2937.9
          Jun367.3284.549.80.723.9726.2
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsDeficitSurplus
From TaxationFrom Other SourcesTotal

* Excludes duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Art; $1.9 million in 1958–59, $4.7 million in 1959–60, $2.0 million in 1960–61, $0.8 million in 1961–62, $0.8 million in 1962–63, $0.8 million in 1963–64.

Includes transfers from Loans Account ($730 million), Reserve Account ($90 million), and Trust Account ($20 million).

Includes transfer from Loan Account ($678 million).

$(million)
CONSOLIDATED FUND
193039.011.750.750.40.3
193137.28.946.149.43.3
193232.413.145.449.74.3
193331.213.945.145.1- -
193434.112.947.048.41.4
193540.411.952.349.03.3
193643.19.252.351.80.6
193753.98.462.361.40.9
193863.326.389.688.01.6
193964.622.887.485.81.6
194065.628.293.893.20.6
194168.732.2102.998.53.5
194270.338.7109.1105.83.3
194372.437.8110.2101.88.3
194484.031.1115.1110.74.5
194591.428.5119.9117.42.4
194696.731.1127.8125.32.5
1947181.435.2216.6207.49.2
1948192.242.0234.2230.73.6
1949202.141.0243.0237.85.3
1950207.742.3250.0241.48.6
1951244.443.2287.5271.016.5
1952313.947.7361.6336.325.3
1953308.547.1355.6349.06.6
1954312.452.2364.6361.03.6
1955325.057.4382.4368.813.7
1956334.960.0394.9386.68.3
1957345.667.0412.6405.96.7
1958317.969.3387.2387.50.3
1959409.771.1480.8*480.0*0.8
1960552.976.8629.7*628.4*1.3
1961474.894.0568.7*567.9*0.8
1962508.393.0601.3*600.6*0.6
1963471.5101.8573.3*581.2*7.9
1964512.6120.6633.2*635.9*2.7
CONSOLIDATED REVENUE ACCOUNT
1965783.2120.5903.7894.59.2
1966852.2122.2974.5970.93.5
1967918.8132.51,051.31,050.60.7
1968949.4147.31,096.71,095.31.4
1969992.1162.51,154.61,146.97.7
19701,102.0170.51,282.51,275.17.4
19711,363.0203.21,566.21,560.95.3
19721,617.3203.41,820.71,812.38.4
19731,830.9304.92,135.82,141.05.2
19742,291.6220.52,512.22,509.82.4
19752,760.5285.53,046.13,034.911.2
19763,084.0598.53,682.53,684.11.6
19773,737.5490.34,227.84,225.12.7
19784,500.0576.05,076.05,073.82.2
CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNT
19794,8301,6886,5186,5135.2
19805,8811,6667,5477,5451.4

NOTE—The figures shown in the above table are not on a comparable basis over the whole period.

GOVERNMENT CURRENT EXPENDITURE ON SOCIAL SERVICES*
Year Ended 31 MarchHealthEducationSocial Security and WelfareWar PensionsTotal

* Excludes capital expenditure.

Includes hospital boards.

Provisional.

$(million)
195771.246.2119.217.9254.5
195878.251.4124.619.6273.8
195983.055.8142.521.9303.2
196089.659.8180.023.2352.6
196197.467.2192.027.4384.0
1962104.071.0196.327.5398.8
1963113.078.8196.528.3416.6
1964121.287.0205.929.7443.8
1965132.099.0210.329.9471.2
1966148.0110.4217.730.5506.6
1967161.7124.4225.430.9542.4
1968168.2136.8244.830.7580.5
1969178.8145.6254.830.8610.0
1970200.1168.4272.032.4672.9
1971238.7214.9301.333.5788.4
1972283.1279.6338.536.1937.3
1973333.8309.1468.540.21,151.6
1974390.1367.2574.244.61,376.1
1975480.9432.6652.850.31,616.6
1976589.5499.3838.452.71,979.9
1977668.9572.01,035.967.22,344.0
SOCIAL SERVICES EXPENDITURE (INCLUDING AND EXCLUDING EDUCATION) AS PERCENTAGE OF GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT, AND OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
Year Ended 31 MarchGross National ProductPublic A/c Administrative ExpenditureTotal Social Services ExpenditureSocial Services Expenditure less EducationTotal Social Services Expenditure as Percentage ofSocial Services Expenditure Less Education as Percentage of
Gross National ProductTotal Government ExpenditureGross National ProductTotal Government Expenditure
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)%%%%
19572,061462.9254.5208.312.355.010.145.0
19582,208489.6273.8222.412.455.910.145.4
19592,297527.9303.2247.413.257.410.846.9
19602,463585.4352.6292.814.360.211.950.0
19612,650631.4384.0316.814.560.812.050.2
19622,752654.9398.8327.814.560.911.950.1
19632,953691.2416.6337.814.160.311.448.9
19643,231738.2443.8356.813.760.111.048.3
19653,530802.0471.2372.213.358.810.546.4
19663,823872.1506.6396.213.358.110.445.4
19673,973935.6542.2418.013.758.010.544.7
19684,128966.5580.5443.714.160.110.745.9
19694,3551,031.8610.0464.414.059.110.745.0
19704,8091,142.5672.9504.514.058.910.544.2
19715,5341,346.6788.4573.514.258.510.442.6
19726,4521,579.7937.3657.714.559.310.241.6
19737,4981,907.51,151.6842.515.460.411.244.2
19748,6822,244.51,376.11,008.915.961.311.644.9
19759,4522,635.51,616.61,184.017.161.312.544.9
197610,9143,292.01,979.91,480.618.160.113.645.0
197712,7863,764.62,344.01,772.018.362.313.947.1
INDEBTEDNESS OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—AMOUNT OF DEBENTURES AND STOCK IN CIRCULATION
(Nominal Amounts)
As at 31 MarchDomiciled inTotalPer Head of Population
United States and World BankLondon and Europe, etc.AustraliaNew Zealand

* Provisional.

Amounts outstanding overseas other than in Europe, U.S.A., or with the World Bank. External debt is now usually shown by currencies rather than by countries (see section 26C).

   NZ$(million) $     
1930293.28.6233.1534.8359.20
1931309.18.4234.7552.1365.20
1932268.97.8236.8511.5335.30
1933270.45.7236.7512.9333.50
1934269.45.8278.0553.2356.90
1935269.64.4234.9508.8325.90
1936265.03.2244.5512.7325.80
1937261.11.8260.1523.0329.30
1938261.51.8264.9528.0329.10
1939261.31.8292.5555.6341.90
1940263.31.8328.3593.4361.70
1941264.41.8380.4646.5395.10
1942255.11.7461.6718.4439.60
1943264.21.7609.4875.3535.60
1944265.91.7733.51,001.1608.90
1945266.21.7806.51,074.5639.60
1946189.11.7945.51,136.3646.80
1947189.11.7966.01,156.8646.40
1948166.41.6988.21,156.2632.50
1949159.91.31,068.81,230.0659.70
1950156.31.31,130.21,287.8676.70
1951155.61,178.81,334.5688.60
1952155.61,151.81,307.3658.70
1953155.61,179.81,335.4655.40
1954175.61,233.21,408.7674.80
1955195.61,261.61,457.2683.80
1956191.61,278.81,470.4675.90
19578.9200.91,304.51,514.2681.70
19587.9199.21,357.11,564.2687.40
195947.1236.61,349.01,633.1702.10
196037.9235.51,15.61,689.0712.60
196137.0216.31,483.01,736.3719.20
196225.1254.01,528.61,807.7730.50
196341.5272.51,620.41,934.3765.18
196441.8279.91,700.02,021.7782.89
196554.3276.51,908.82,139.6813.87
196688.3244.81,922.82,256.0842.78
1967107.3283.42,021.32,412.0884.42
1968170.7329.42,116.52,616.6950.56
1969179.2336.22,261.02,776.5999.74
1970184.2341.62,351.32,887.11,021.71
1971178.6397.82,430.53,007.01,051.06
1972159.4494.12,533.03,186.61,096.55
1973135.1428.92,939.13,503.11,180.75
1974113.3351.93,269.33,734.51,232.07
1975180.1682.63,336.94,199.71,359.17
1976304.91,158.34,094.75,557.91,778.82
1977517.11,309.54,462.66,289.22,002.75
1978564.71,882.05,037.17,483.82,378.91
1979483.72,436.45,899.48,819.52,804.65*
1980571.92,534.0461.76,778.910,346.43,286.2*
FINANCES OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES*
Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsTotal Gross Indebtedness
RevenueOther ReceiptsTotal
From Rates and LeviesFrom Other Sources

* Exclusive of hospital boards.

Debt up to 1967 shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being convened to its New Zealand currency equivalent. As from 1968 the gross public debt is shown in New Zealand currency only, including overseas debt.

§ Excludes Fire Districts, which were taken over by the Fire Service Commission on 1 April 1976.

Includes petrol tax $16.7 million in 1972–73, $18.0 million in 1973–74, $17.8 million in 1974–75, $17.9 million in 1975–76, $18.1 million in 1976–77, and $18.2 million in 1977–78.

$(million)
192710.617.214.041.943.5128.0
192811.219.012.042.144.9132.8
192911.718.412.942.942.6138.6
193012.020.711.944.544.1142.4
193111.320.49.741.444.4145.4
193211.018.110.039.140.2144.8
193310.517.09.837.237.8145.0
193411.016.58.536.135.5142.0
193511.017.29.037.237.4142.5
193611.218.09.939.038.7140.8
193712.019.19.440.540.4137.1
193813.121.19.743.944.1136.1
193914.022.613.550.050.2136.4
194014.624.414.553.551.4139.0
194114.725.410.250.349.5136.0
194214.926.07.248.048.1133.2
194315.527.46.149.046.5130.3
194415.629.64.950.047.6126.5
194515.830.15.050.950.4122.5
194617.330.86.454.454.7120.0
194719.133.08.560.661.0115.6
194819.634.410.064.064.9114.2
194921.638.212.372.071.6113.2
195023.340.716.280.279.3112.6
195125.243.416.785.386.5112.2
195229.048.121.398.497.7115.7
195330.855.231.5117.4116.7128.9
195432.864.641.0138.5136.4146.9
195536.570.642.1149.2148.0158.6
195637.876.850.9165.4167.1176.0
195741.379.160.7181.2181.5198.2
195845.484.771.1201.2196.6229.4
195948.897.869.6216.2213.2255.9
196051.5101.783.6236.8231.2287.1
196155.0108.788.1251.8245.0318.8
196258.0118.978.7255.6267.5337.6
196362.4125.596.2284.1286.5370.2
196468.3153.2120.0351.5329.6401.8
196577.2164.0122.7363.8361.1436.2
196680.5176.4119.0375.8387.5461.4
196785.9191.2119.4396.5401.6485.0
196892.4200.2137.3430.0420.7533.5
196999.9223.7149.1472.6456.6564.3
1970108.1240.2155.1503.3492.1597.2
1971117.9262.7155.5536.1539.2629.8
1972126.3297.6169.6593.5604.7667.1
1973148.5330.9216.6696.0674.2722.4
1974153.8395.3274.0823.1799.8787.4
1975192.2431.6345.7969.5985.8840.9
1976236.6490.5402.11,129.21,139.4933.7
1977§277.8628.1444.91,350.81,291.91,054.0
1978§316.0806.1469.71,591.71,575.71,138.6
POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK
Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest Credited to DepositorsTotal Amount of Withdrawals During Year*Excess of Deposits plus Interest over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year

* From January 1958 includes interest paid out on investment accounts; and from October 1969 includes interest paid on National Development Bonds redeemed.

Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

Excludes 15,439 accounts credited with $0.6 million transferred to Apia, Western Samoa.

§ Includes School Savings Accounts from 1 April 1964. From 1 October 1969 includes National Development Bonds, and from 1 March 1970 Post Office Bonds.

|| From 1968–69 includes ordinary, National Savings, and School Savings Accounts, with balance dates as at March, June, and December respectively.

 Number  $(million)  
1930–31878,04349.13.556.1−3.595.3
1931–32877,09038.93.250.9−8.886.5
1932–33797,09733.92.939.3−2.484.1
1933–34798,26238.92.535.65.789.7
1934–35817,61748.42.641.99.198.8
1935–36840,67151.22.847.17.0105.8
1936–37880,85761.33.054.110.3116.1
1937–38920,80566.13.359.310.2126.3
1938–39946,82260.93.569.2−4.9121.4
1939–40960,56550.33.258.9−5.4116.0
1940–411,142,79258.53.350.611.2127.2
1941–421,298,48368.43.750.821.3148.5
1942–431,399,89680.33.853.830.3178.8
1943–441,494,136107.94.471.241.0219.8
1944–451,570,586121.35.584.642.2262.1
1945–461,605,981148.66.5114.041.0303.1
1946–471,634,548155.17.5129.333.3336.4
1947–481,652,765157.78.2143.522.4358.8
1948–491,679,692153.68.7142.020.3379.1
1949–501,730,072197.99.7161.646.0425.1
1950–511,760,541189.310.2179.619.9445.0
1951–521,800,709215.610.8198.927.5472.5
1952–531,835,552216.911.4207.620.7493.3
1953–541,868,788237.212.1214.934.4527.7
1954–551,900,649255.712.8243.624.9552.6
1955–561,927,422255.213.3256.412.1564.7
1956–571,971,731279.116.3265.829.4594.1
1957–582,013,664311.717.9291.238.5632.6
1958–592,052,626294.218.5307.45.3637.9
1959–602,084,837326.318.9311.034.1672.0
1960–612,116,675374.620.1350.144.6716.6
1961–622,143,586383.421.0383.720.7736.7
1962–632,190,757409.122.0397.233.9770.6
1963–642,245,339471.623.6442.952.3822.8
1964–652,563,154506.725.1501.730.0855.8§
1965–662,604,058507.825.8521.911.8867.6
1966–672,639,890525.626.0542.09.6877.3
1967–682,646,284488.127.2512.42.9879.3
1968–692677631||487.728.0507.97.8887.1
1969–702,710,202568.528.2561.834.9922.0
1970–712,745,267620.929.6626.424.1946.1
1971–722,769,190663.528.9676.216.3962.4
1972–732,838,441782.430.5736.576.31,038.7
1973–742,941,206913.031.9843.8101.11,139.8
1974–752,953,893976.634.1963.747.11,186.9
1975–762,937,1101,175.735.31,132.178.91,265.8
1976–773,076,4131,328.138.51,296.670.11,335.9
1977–783,157,0331,558.745.91,495.3109.31,445.1
1978–793,016,0001,977.453.41,858.2172.71,617.8
1979–80 2,543.264.62,522.885.01,702.9
MORTGAGES AND LAND TRANSFERS
Year Ended 31 MarchMortgagesAverage Rate of Interest On New MortgagesLand Transfers
RegisteredDischargedNumberConsideration

* Land sales restrictions removed in 1950.

 $(m)$(m)percent $(m)
192967.150.56.4630,76062.3
193077.756.76.3532,11261.7
193160.440.16.2525,62644.1
193226.820.16.2816,94326.4
193318.316.35.8815,38122.0
193415.618.25.5615,76019.1
193523.727.55.0618,62824.4
193632.535.14.7323,04431.2
193739.439.64.6025,17837.7
193838.038.74.6526,26946.7
193940.133.24.5828,96547.3
194035.228.24.6928,05744.2
194132.531.94.6928,82851.5
194229.130.24.7328,20746.5
194324.333.44.7227,65748.3
194431.240.14.6333,70176.3
194536.242.04.5133,28464.9
194645.046.64.1038,06076.7
194762.251.93.8542,99489.9
194864.150.83.9048,80180.9
194970.646.83.9836,56476.8
195072.046.23.9939,05881.3
1951*91.664.54.0957,938158.7
1952135.974.54.1556,609218.3
1953147.462.84.2948,378201.4
1954140.872.04.4952,615228.8
1955169.282.34.6956,571273.4
1956192.570.74.7649,100241.9
1957182.475.45.0945,334229.4
1958199.192.25.2450,573279.4
1959217.188.85.1549,153255.2
1960239.0102.35.0152,855285.4
1961300.8136.65.0161,412375.6
1962331.5133.85.2757,813360.1
1963295.1135.65.5153,566336.3
1964339.8168.85.7059,836419.9
1965420.0206.85.7869,548536.2
1966487.7230.06.0771,508592.6
1967493.4239.36.3168,639589.2
1968467.8236.16.6463,925541.8
1969482.3260.96.7465,655576.5
1970573.9328.16.7772,624724.4
1971703.0376.56.8883,610918.9
1972759.8415.87.4086,042985.4
1973940.7510.57.58105,1931,339.9
19741,301.7672.97.86125,7962,133.0
19751,477.2601.58.2596,8472,135.1
19761,612.4654.18.6198,0032,202.8
19771,870.1863.49.85101,9682,691.6
19781,809.7851.510.3085,7052,538.6
19792,164.1 10.8691,2292,964.6
19802,467.5 11.38100,1763,575.9
BANKRUPTCIES AND NEW COMPANY REGISTRATIONS
YearBankruptciesNew Company Registrations*
Number of BankruptciesAmount Realised by Official AssigneeAmount of Debts ProvedNumber of New RegistrationsAmount of Nominal Capital

* Public, private, and overseas.

The extraordinarily high figure for 1934 is due to the inclusion of all overseas companies (numbering 187 with an aggregate nominal capital of $386 million) which had previous to 1934 established places of business in New Zealand and which were reregistered in 1934 under Pan XII of the Companies Act 1933.

Since 1954 company liquidations are included in the total.

  $(000)$(000) $(m)
1928806233.21,534.673622.0
1929687182.41,004.290324.9
1930780166.61,654.789313.4
1931848217.62,084.479516.6
1932661151.31,249.881213.7
1933450123.4979.883014.6
193432689.1517.8933401.5
193525782.1451.081048.5
193626066.0339.794219.9
1937222111.9343.488812.2
1938267129.0460.982413.2
193926788.3451.068117.8
194021384.8250.63917.6
194116570.9142.028822.5
19428259.564.51981.9
19434537.840.12703.1
19445126.9102.14643.0
19454537.1236.47416.8
19465241.997.0143522.1
19477431.189.5181319.2
1948148100.6286.6175117.4
194917976.8406.3215716.0
195014298.5251.8207420.4
195114596.5273.6202025.6
1952168112.5502.3174466.8
1953215144.3762.0204186.1
1954277165.1826.9268555.5
1955304224.8764.6269536.7
1956390261.11,095.5325541.2
1957437360.71,564.53502161.1
1958495369.61,638.3303461.5
1959618389.81,510.4273794.2
1960495331.21,337.8376774.0
1961425303.61,415.8356771.7
1962591446.12,138.4335145.1
1963566441.11,660.3416574.1
1964507325.51,784.9505490.0
1965507335.62,337.5556385.8
1966507378.52,033.55609187.3
1967652373.92,312.24829102.7
1968820487.23,743.55010190.1
1969659746.53,743.56403286.6
1970596466.53,660.16431282.9
1971477604.43,471.75490359.0
1972461698.54,138.565474,271.1
1973329783.02,991.08837249.4
1974324606.03,009.07749471.8
19754871,041.09,122.07815104.6
19764591,392.09,541.06366 
19776261,564.014,314.05292 
19787922,860.017,410.45473 
19798342,003.524,585.85778 

Chapter 41. CHRONOLOGY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS

NOTEWORTHY EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND

1642 European discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769 Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1791 Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792 First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1814 Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand. 1820 Hongi's visit to England.

1823–28 Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1825 First attempt at colonisation, by an expedition under Captain Herd.

1827 Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1831 Tory Channel whaling station established. Application of 13 chiefs for the protection of King William IV.

1833 Mr James Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834 Waimate Pa, near Opunake, shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which HM troops employed in New Zealand.

1835 Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand”. Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1838 Pelorus Sound discovered.

1839 Governor of New South Wales authorised to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840 Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841 Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842 Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843 Affray with Maoris at Wairau.

1844 Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845 Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846 Arrival of first steam vessel (HMS Driver) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Maori hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847 Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848 Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Otago founded.

1850 Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852 Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854 Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855 First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856 Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857 Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858 New Provinces Act passed.

1860 Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861 Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovery at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862 Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. White Swan, with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened—Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863 Wreck of HMS Orpheus on Manukau Bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Maori affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand, portion of Christchurch-Lyttelton line, opened.

1864 Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including battles of Rangiaowhia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. First major discovery of gold on West Coast of South Island.

1865 Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Maoris defeated at Wairoa.

1866 Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

1867 Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868 Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner Rifleman and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Maoris.

1869 Continuation of fighting with rebels and pursuit of Te Kooti. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870 Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail service. Possession taken of Bounty Island. Inauguration of Vogel public works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University.

1871 Commencement of railway construction under public works policy.

1872 Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873 Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Co.

1874 In pursuance of immigration and public works policy, 31774 assisted immigrants arrived.

1875 Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company.

1876 New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877 Education Act passed, providing for free compulsory education.

1878 Completion of the Christchurch-Invercargill railway.

1879 Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata coal mine explosion, whereby 34 lives lost.

1881 Wreck of s.s. Tararua, with loss of 130 lives.

1882 First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883 Direct steamer communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1886 Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887 Annexation of Kermadec Islands.

1888 British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1890 Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1892 Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure.

1893 Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Prime Minister. Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. Wairarapa, with loss of 135 lives.

1896 Brunner Mine explosion, causing 67 deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898 Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899 Labour Day instituted. New Zealand contingent (the first of 10) sent to South Africa.

1901 Penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902 Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. Elingamite, with loss of 43 lives.

1903 Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1905 Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner”.

1906 Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier. Advances to Workers Act passed.

1907 New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908 Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland.

1909 S.s Penguin wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of 75 lives. Battle cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910 Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911 Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912 Public Service placed under Commissioner Control.

1913 Extensive strikes.

1914 Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal mine disaster, with loss of 43 lives.

1915 New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operation on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. Pensions for miners introduced.

1916 New Zealand Division transferred to Western Front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918 S.s Wimmera sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast, with loss of 26 lives. Otira Tunnel pierced. End of First World War. Great influenza epidemic, causing nearly 7000 deaths.

1919 Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, Prime Minister.

1920 Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921 Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate.

1922 Meat-export trade placed under control of a board.

1923 Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed, and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Dairy Produce Export Control Act passed.

1924 Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor Vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licencing of motor vehicles. Pensions for blind persons introduced. S.s Ripple foundered off Cape Palliser with loss of 16 lives.

1925 Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand.

1926 Family allowances Act passed.

1928 Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman Sea.

1929 Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused 17 deaths.

1930 Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed.

1931 Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 percent in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Mortgagors' relief legislation passed.

1932 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rentals, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference.

1933 Exchange rate raised to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (telegraphic transfers). Sales tax instituted. Conversion of internal public debt with reduction in interest rates, and provision made for local authorities interest reduction and loans conversion. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England.

1934 First official trans-Tasman airmail. Reserve Bank incorporated and commenced business. First licensed air transport service commenced operations.

1935 Rural Mortgagors' Final Adjustment Act passed, and Court of Review established. Labour Government assumed office for first of four successive terms.

1936 Inauguration of inter-Island trunk air services. Reserve Bank nationalised. System of basic prices for butter and cheese introduced. Forty-hour week became operative. Powers of Court of Arbitration restored.

1938 Social Security Act passed. Introduction of import selection and control.

1939 Declaration of war with Germany. Recruitment for 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Arrangements for purchase of farm products by Britain.

1940 Departure of First Echelon of 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Death of the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage; succeeded in office by Hon. P. Fraser. Declaration of war with Italy. RMS Niagara sunk off New Zealand coast by enemy mine.

1941 Declaration of war with Japan. Territorial Forces mobilised.

1942 Complete mobilisation of Military Forces ordered. Introduction of control of industrial manpower. Compulsory enrolment of all male British subjects between ages of 18 and 65 inclusive, in Emergency Reserve Corps. Lend-lease reciprocal aid extended to include Australia and New Zealand. Rationing introduced. Mobilisation of women for essential work.

1943 North African campaign brought to a successful conclusion. Railway accident near Hyde—21 persons killed. 2nd NZEF (3rd Division) took part in action against Japanese in the Pacific Area.

1944 Australia-New Zealand Agreement 1944, providing for collaboration on matters of mutual interest.

1945 War in Europe ended (8 May). Manpower controls in regard to women and young persons relaxed. Wartime press censorship abolished. War Cabinet dissolved. War in Pacific ended. Japan formally surrenders (15 August). Electoral Amendment Act providing for abolition of the “country quota” passed. South Island Main Trunk Railway opened, through rail connection from Picton to Bluff established.

1946 Restrictions on consumption of electric power imposed in North Island. Remaining manpower controls lifted in June. Family benefit of $1 per week made universal as from 1 April.

1947 Local Government Commission appointed. First woman Cabinet Minister in New Zealand appointed. Marketing of dairy produce taken over by Dairy Commission. Statute of Westminster adopted by New Zealand Parliament.

1948 Licensing Control Commission appointed. Adjustments of exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20 August.

1949 Polls on the establishment of off-course betting and on an alteration in hotel hours held in March. Referendum agrees to compulsory military training.

1950 Control of land sales, except of farm land, lifted. Control of sterling funds and securities relaxed. Abolition of petrol and butter rationing. Legislative Council Abolition Act passed. K-force sailed from Wellington for Korea.

1951 Prolonged waterfront strike resulted in proclamation of State of Emergency, and issue of regulations under the Public Safety Conservation Act. Servicemen kept essential cargoes moving. Waterfront unions deregistered. Establishment of Civil Emergency Reserve. United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed Pacific Security Treaty.

1952 Accession of Queen Elizabeth II.

1953 Power restrictions suspended in North Island, first time for 12 years. Armistice agreement signed in Korea. New Zealand's worst railway disaster occurred at Tangiwai on Christmas Eve, with a death roll of 154 persons. Arrival of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, on 23 December, the first occasion on which a reigning monarch had visited these shores.

1954 New Zealand took seat on United Nations Security Council. The Executive Council and Cabinet held meetings at Auckland on 25 May to mark the centenary of parliamentary government in New Zealand. New Zealand signed the South-east Asia Treaty at Manila.

1955 Pulp and paper mill at Kawerau began operation. Rimutaka tunnel opened for traffic in November.

1956 Roxburgh and Whakamaru power stations in operation. Colombo Plan Conference held in Wellington.

1957 New Zealand Antarctic Expedition established Scott Base at Pram Point, McMurdo Sound. Separate Court of Appeal constituted.

1958 Import selection and exchange allocation brought into force to conserve overseas exchange. PAYE taxation on incomes introduced. Power generated from geothermal steam at Wairakei and from coal station at Mercer.

1959 Auckland Harbour Bridge opened (May). Reconstructed Wellington Airport opened for traffic (July). S.s. Holmglen foundered off Timaru with loss of 15 lives. Twelve nations, including New Zealand, signed treaty to preserve Antarctica for peaceful scientific research for all time.

1960 Government signed agreement for company to use power from Te Anau-Manapouri Lakes system for large aluminium smelting industry. Regular television programmes began in Auckland.

1961 Tasman Empire Airways became wholly owned by New Zealand (later renamed Air New Zealand). New Zealand joined International Monetary Fund, International Bank For Reconstruction and Development, and International Finance Corporation.

1962 Western Samoa became first independent Polynesian State. Cook Strait rail-ferry service commenced with Aramoana. New Tasman cable link completed as part of Commonwealth Pacific cable.

1964 Three Cook Strait cables, each of 25 miles, laid as part of inter-Island transmission project. Start made on Tongariro hydro-electric power scheme. Oil refinery opened at Whangarei.

1965 Limited free trade agreement negotiated with Australia. Cook Islands became self-governing. Auckland International Airport came into use. Jet airliners (three DC8s) obtained by Air New Zealand. Haast Pass highway opened to link south Westland and Otago. Millionth telephone installed.

1966 Labour force reached 1000000. Licensed television sets reached 500000. Collier Kaitawa sank off Cape Reinga with loss of 29 lives.

1967 Matahina electric power station brought into operation. Explosion at Strongman mine caused 19 deaths. Decimal currency introduced on 10 July ($2 equal to former unit of £).

1968 SEATO Conference held in Wellington. T. E.V. Wahine foundered in Wellington Harbour in severe storm with loss of 51 lives. Jet planes introduced in internal air services.

1969 Electric power generated from giant Manapouri project. Construction of aluminium smelter at Invercargill commenced. First output from steel mill at Glenbrook. Construction of thermal power station at New Plymouth commenced. Oil strike off shore at Taranaki. Voting rights extended to 20-year old persons.

1970 Council for Asian and Pacific Co-operation (ASPAC) met in Wellington. Physical Environment Conference held. Natural gas from Kapuni supplied to Auckland.

1971 Negotiations by Britain with members of European Economic Community secure New Zealand's position by special arrangement for her butter and cheese exports to the United Kingdom; Britain decides to join EEC in 1973 and later signs Treaty of Accession. First container ships loaded at Wellington and Auckland. Major shipments of ironsand to Japan from Taranaki coast. Bluff aluminium smelter in commercial operation and first exports made. All seven generators installed at Manapouri hydro-electric station. Silver Star express introduced on North Island main trunk line. Natural gas reticulation to Wellington completed. Introduction of first steps of metric conversion for weights and measures.

1972 Special measures for stabilisation of remuneration and prices. Sheep retention scheme payments. Containerised shipping service in operation from Auckland and Wellington to United Kingdom and Europe. Legislation passed for Wool Marketing Corporation, Equal Pay, and Accident Compensation. Labour Government assumed office under Right Hon. N. E. Kirk.

1973 Britain joins European Economic Community. Wool Marketing Corporation established. Farm income equalisation scheme extended. Trade negotiations with China; embassy opened in Peking. Extension of trade with Peru, Brazil and Chile. New Zealand becomes member of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). First DC10 jet aircraft in service with Air New Zealand. Agreement reached for development of Maui field of natural gas off shore from Taranaki. Timber and pulp mill opened at Whirinaki, Napier. New Zealand currency placed on “near float arrangement” of relationships with major trading partners. Revaluations of 3 percent and 10 percent. Colour television introduced. First step of Equal Pay Act in effect. Industrial Relations Act passed. New Zealand Shipping Corporation established. Construction of 100–megawatt Rangipo hydro-power station and 550-megawatt Huntly coal-fired power station approved.

1974 Tenth British Commonwealth Games held in Christchurch. New Plymouth thermal power station in operation and projects approved during the year include three hydro stations, two thermal stations, and more gas turbines. Revised Customs Tariff introduced on 1 July in metric measure. State Shipping Corporation places order for container ship. Fourth Cook Strait rail-ferry brought into service. Self-government granted to Niue after referendum. Death of the Prime Minister, Right Hon. N. E. Kirk; succeeded in office by Right Hon. W. E. Rowling. Severe fall in overseas reserves. Shah and Empress of Iran visited New Zealand; trade agreement signed.

1975 New measures to assist farmers included $50 million for meat and wool income stabilisation schemes, increase in lamb prices of $1 on each lamb sold to export works, minimum wool prices, and suspension of meat inspection fees. Further Government participation in off-shore oil exploration announced. New trade deals established with Middle-East countries, Japan, and U.S.S.R. (Jul) New Zealand's terms of trade reached lowest level since the Second World War. (Aug) New Zealand dollar devalued by 15 percent. (Oct) Permanent stabilisation scheme for meat prices announced. Conversion of New Plymouth power station from oil to natural gas under way. Continued oil conservation measures introduced, including steep petrol price rises. Sharp rise in wool shipping freight rates. National Government, under Right Hon. R. D. Muldoon, assumed office.

1976 In February, cuts in food subsidies and in subsidies on electricity, rail charges, and Post Office charges resulted in substantial price increases. (Mar) Government review of monetary and housing policies resulted (among other things) in a tightening-up of hire purchase terms and higher interest rates on savings. (Apr) Subsidies on bread and flour abolished. Mini-budget abolished subsidies on eggs and butter and made cuts in Government spending. (Jun) Cost-of-living wage order of 7 percent or $7 per week, whichever was less, issued. E.E.C. set import quotas for New Zealand butter in the years 1978–80 of 125000 tonnes, 120000 tonnes, and 115000 tonnes. Rail freight charges raised. (Jul) Wool Income Stabilisation Scheme introduced. (Aug) Price and rent freeze until end of year introduced. New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement extended for further 10 years. Controversy over New Zealand's sporting links with South Africa resulted in African nations walk-out at Olympic Games in Montreal. (Oct-Nov) Rises in freight rates for New Zealand exports. Inflation continued as major problem throughout the year. (Nov) New Zealand dollar devalued by 7 percent following Australian devaluation of 17.5 percent. (Dec) New Zealand dollar revalued by 2 percent in wake of Australian revaluation. Storm caused severe flooding in Hutt Valley.

1977 The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh visited New Zealand in February as part of the Silver Jubilee celebrations. Also in February the new national superannuation scheme came into operation. (March) General Wage Order of six percent announced. New Zealand Planning Council formed. (May) Announcement that merger of Wool Board and Wool Marketing Corporation was to proceed. Report of the Royal Commission on Contraception, Sterilisation, and Abortion published. (June) Commonwealth Heads of Government Conference sponsored Gleneagles agreement on sporting contacts with South Africa. (July) Budget included announcement that future energy policy will include on-shore oil exploration by the Government, continued Government involvement with oil companies in off shore exploration, and an increase in exploratory and development work on coal and geothermal steam resources. (September) Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act passed, establishing 200-mile-wide economic zone around New Zealand coast. (October) Act passed establishing Ministry of Energy, combining functions of Mines Department, Electricity Department, and Ministry of Energy Resources. Mildly stimulatory mini-Budget announced. Difficult economic conditions, with inflation as a major problem and an increasing problem of unemployment, continued throughout year. There were also continued population losses from net migration.

1978 Merger of New Zealand Wool Board and New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation came into effect on 7 February. Also in February, severe drought hit farmers in Wairarapa. (April) Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977 in force; Foreign fishing boats required to be licensed to operate within 200-mile limit. National Airways Corporation merged with Air New Zealand. Hire purchase restrictions eased on TV sets and motor vehicles. (June) Budget included major changes in personal tax rates, increased financial assistance to farming industry, and additional energy policy measures. (July) Registered unemployed topped 25000. Arbitration Court made general wage order of 7 percent on first $100 of weekly income. (August) At Commonwealth Games at Edmonton (Canada), New Zealand won 5 gold, 6 silver, and 9 bronze medals. (September) Japan and New Zealand signed fishing agreement. Government approved programme for large-scale production of methanol from Maui gas by 1985–86 to cut oil imports. (Oct) Widespread floods in Southland. (Nov) National party retains power at General Election with greatly reduced majority. Another year of difficult economic conditions with relatively heavy unemployment and continuing population losses from net emigration.

1979 (Feb) Weekend sales of motor spirit banned in light of continued rises in overseas oil prices. (Apr) First stage of Maui gasfield development completed. Price control phased out over a wide range of commodities and services; replaced by price surveillance scheme. International seminar on statistical organisation held in Wellington under ESCAP auspices. Electricity concessions made to South Island industries. (May) Price rises announced for motor spirit, diesel, home heating oil, coal, and rail and road service charges. Expansion to Marsden Point oil refinery approved. Sales tax of 20 percent announced on caravans, light trailers, boats, etc. Bulk electricity tariff raised by 60 percent. (June) Budget included new system of exchange rate adjustment, new export incentives, and changes in tax structure. (Aug) General Wage Orders Act 1977 repealed. General wage increase of 4.5 percent authorised from 3 September. Severe landslip at Abbotsford. Carless days introduced to further conserve motor spirit. (Sept) Plans for Maui gas, including building of methanol plant, announced by Government. (Nov) Air New Zealand D.C. 10 crash on Mount Erebus in Antarctica, killing 257 passengers and crew. 25th Commonwealth Conference held in Wellington. Another difficult year with relatively high unemployment, inflation, and population losses from net migration.

Chapter 42. Select Bibliography New Zealand Books

Compiled in the Alexander Turnbull Library, National Library, Wellington

The following list of books has been compiled to give New Zealand and overseas readers a selective approach to the country's literature and sources of information. Entries are arranged alphabetically under appropriate subject headings which are in approximate order of the Dewey Classification. Selection has covered books published in New Zealand as well as book published overseas about New Zealand. Works of less than 75 pages have been indicated by an asterisk.

The New Zealand National Bibliography, published monthly and cumulated annually, lists books, pamphlets, music, maps, periodicals, and selected non-book materials. It is prepared in the Alexander Turnbull Library, and available from the National Library of New Zealand, Private Bag, Wellington.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY, AND ENCYCLOPAEDIAS

BAGNALL, A. G., ed. New Zealand National Bibliography to the Year 1960. Wn, Govt. Print., 1890–1960. 3 v. A-H $15; I-O $16.80; P-Z $22.50.

DUNMORE BOOK OF NEW ZEALAND RECORDS, edited by P. Dunmore. Palmerston North, Dunmore Press, 1977. $8.95.

ELLIS, N., comp. New Zealand Associations, Societies & Clubs; A National Directory. 2nd ed. Wn, Victoria University Press with Price Milburn, 1979. $4.50.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF NEW ZEALAND, edited by A. H. McLintock. Wn, Govt. Print., 3 v. o.p. $15.

FAIR, A. P. R. Guide to Book Values, New Zealand - Australia - Pacific - Antarctic; Book Auction Records 1971–1974. Wn, the author, 1975. $5.

FISCHER, B. Guide to New Zealand Book Collecting and Handbook of Values. Dn, City Publishers, 1977. $15.95.

GUIDE TO NEW ZEALAND INFORMATION SOURCES. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1975. Bibliographies have been published on plants and animals, farming, field and horticultural crops, education, livestock farming, fisheries, and forestry.

HEINEMANN NEW ZEALAND DICTIONARY, edited by H. W. Orsman. Ak, Heineman Educational, 1979. $9.95.

HOCKEN, T. M. A. A. Bibliography of the Literature Relating to New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1909. o.p. Reprinted. Wn, Newrick Associates, 1973. $20.

NATIONAL REGISTER OF ARCHIVES AND MANUSCRIPTS IN NEW ZEALAND. Wn, National Library of New Zealand, 1979. $5, $8 with binder for each volume.

NEW ZEALAND BOOKS IN PRINT 1979. Melbourne, Thorpe, 1979. A$16.50.

NEW ZEALAND LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. Bibliography of New Zealand Bibliographies. Wn, 1967.

OXFORD NEW ZEALAND ENCYCLOPAEDIA. London. O.U.P., 1965. o.p.

RODGER, D. M. Theses of the History of New Zealand. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1968–72. 4v.

TAYLOR, C. R. H. A Bibliography of Publications on the New Zealand Maori, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1972. $3.50.

TAYLOR, C. R. H. A Pacific Bibliography. 2nd ed. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. o.p.

UNION CATALOGUE OF NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS PRESERVED IN PUBLIC LIBRARIES, NEWSPAPER OFFICES, AND LOCAL AUTHORITY OFFICES. 2nd ed. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1961. $1.30.

UNION LIST OF SERIALS IN NEW ZEALAND LIBRARIES. 3rd ed. Wn, National Library of New Zealand, 1969–70. 6 v. $25. Interim edition on microfiche. 1976. $45.

UNION LIST OF THESES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW ZEALAND, 1910–1954. Wn, New Zealand Library Association, 1956. o.p. Supplement, 1955–1962. $1.25. Supplement, 1963–1967. $4. Supplement, 1968–1971. $4. Supplement, 1971–1975. $9. See also Rodger above.

* WOOD, G. A. A Guide for Students of New Zealand History. Dn, McIndoe, 1973.

SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

ADOLESCENCE IN NEW ZEALAND; A Book of Readings. Editor Robert A. C. Stewart. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1976. 2 v. $7.50 each.

* ALTERNATIVES TO ANZUS, edited by R. Phillips. Ak, New Zealand Foundation for Peace Studies, 1977. $1.

BURNETT, A. A. AND R. BURNETT. The Australia and New Zealand Nexus. Canberra, Australian Institute of International Affairs, 1978. $5.

CLARK, K. J. The Two-way Street; A Survey of Volunteer Service Abroad. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1978. $8.

CLEVELAND. L. The Politics of Utopia; New Zealand and its Government. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1979. $12.95.

CONTEMPORARY NEW ZEALAND; Essays on the Human Resource, Urban Growth, and Problems of Society, edited by K. W. Thomson and A. D. Trlin. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1973. $10.40.

* DOLLIMORE, H. N. The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliament House. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973. 90c.

FAMILIES IN NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY, edited by P. G. Koopman-Boyden. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 19–78. $2.95.

FOREIGN POLICY SCHOOL, 13th, Australia and New Zealand Relations, edited by Ralph Hayburn, Dn, University of Otago, 1978. $4.95.

GEARE, A. J. New Zealand Industrial Relations: Legislation and Practice. Dn, Campbell & James 1979. $3.95.

GLYNN, J, F. The New Zealand Policeman; The Developing Role of New Zealand Police. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1975. $4.25.

GRIMSHAW, P. Women's Suffrage in New Zealand. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $5.25.

GUSTAFSON, B. S. Social Change and Party Organization; The New Zealand Labour Party Since 1945. London, Sage, 1976. £1.50.

HILL, L. B. The Model Ombudsman; Institutionalising New Zealand's Democratic Experiment. Princeton, N. J., Princeton University Press, 1976. US$16.50.

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS IN NEW ZEALAND, by John Deeks and others. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. $13.95.

JONES, T. C. A Hard-won Freedom; Alternative Communities in New Zealand. Ak, Hodder & Stoughton, 1975. Hbk: $8.95. Pbk: $5.95.

JULIAN, R. Brought to Mind; A Study of Informal Family Day Care in Four Geographical Areas in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1977. $7.50.

MACLEAN, F. S. Challenge for Health; A History of Public Health in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $3.50.

N.Z. DEPT. OF LABOUR. Research and Planning Division. Immigration and Immigrants; A bibliography. Wn, Dept. of Labour, 1975.

NEW ZEALAND FOREIGN POLICY; Occasional Papers, 1973–74. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1975. 75c.

NEW ZEALAND FOREIGN POLICY; Statements and Documents, 1943–1957. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $9.

NEW ZEALAND IN WORLD AFFAIRS, Vol. I. Wn, Price Milburn for the New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1977. Hbk: $8.50. Pbk: $4.50.

NEW ZEALAND MINISTRY OF ENERGY. Energy Strategy '79. Wn, Office of the Minister of Energy, 1979. $5.50.

NEW ZEALAND PARLIAMENTARY RECORD, 1840–1949, edited by G. H. Scholefield. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. $3.50. Supplement 1950–1969, edited by J. O. Wilson. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969.

NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY; Contemporary Perspectives, edited by S. D. Webb and J. Collette. Sydney, J. Wiley, 1973.

NEW ZEALAND PLANNING COUNCIL; Planning Perspectives, 1978–1983. Wn, New Zealand Planning Council, 1978. $3.25.

NEW ZEALAND, SOUTH AFRICA, AND SPORT, Background Papers. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1976. $1.

N.Z. TASK FORCE ON ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PLANNING. New Zealand at the Turning Point. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $4.50.

PACIFIC HORIZONS. A Regional Role for New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Insitute of International Affairs, 1972. $2. PALMER, G. Unbridled Power; An Interpretation of New Zealand's Constitution and Government. Wn, O.U.P., 1979. $8.95.

POLICES FOR REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND, ed. by G. A. Town. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1972. $2.50.

POLITICS IN NEW ZEALAND, A Reader, edited by S. Levine. Sydney Allen & Unwin, 1978. Hbk: $17.50. Pbk: $9.95.

ROTH, H. O. Trade Unions in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

SCOTT, C. D. Local and Regional Government in New Zealand; Function and Finance. Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 1979. $6.95.

SOCIAL CLASS IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by David Pitt. Ak, Longman Paul. 1977. Hbk: $6.95. Pbk: $4.50.

SOCIAL WELFARE AND NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY, edited by A. D. Trlin. Wn, Methuen, 1977. $12.95.

SPIRIT OF AN AGE, New Zealand in the Seventies. Essays in honour of W. B. Sutch, edited by John L. Robson and Jack Shallcrass. Wn, Reed, 1975. $7.50.

URBANISATION IN NEW ZEALAND; Geographical Essays, edited by R. J. Johnson. Wn, Reed Education, 1973. Hbk: $10.50. Pbk: $6.95.

THE WELFARE STATE TODAY, edited by Geoffrey Palmer. Wn, Fourth Estate Books. 1977. $19.50.

ECONOMICS AND BANKING

BLYTH, C. A. Inflation in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, 1977. $3.95.

BURTT, D. J. Trans-Tasman Development and Trade. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, 1977. $3.

CAREY, R. H., and F. W. HOLMES. A Preliminary Bibliography of New Zealand Economics and Economic History. Wn, Victoria University of Wellington, 1967. o.p.

EQUITY INVESTMENT, 1978–79; A Ten Year Review of New Zealand and Selected Australian Companies Listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges. Wn, Berl Publications, 1978.

FIGGE, A. H. Introduction to Economic Policies in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $5.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT POLICY IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by R. H. Carey. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1975. $4.50.

FRANKLIN, S. H. Trade, Growth and Anxiety; New Zealand Beyond the Welfare State. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. Hbk: $29.95. Pbk: $24.95.

GREENSMITH, E. I. The New Zealand Wool Commission. Wn, New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation, 1976.

HAWKE, G. R. Between Governments and Banks; A History of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973.

HOLMES, F. W. Money, Finance, and the Economy. Ak, Heinemann, 1972. $4.95.

JOHNSTON, T. R. The Law and Practice of Company Accounting in New Zealand. 4th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $17.50.

LANE, P. A. Economy in the Balance; An Introduction to the New Zealand Economy. Wn, Methuen, 1976. $5.25.

LLOYD PRICHARD, M. F. An Economic History of New Zealand to 1939. Ak, Collins, 1970. $8.

LLOYD PRICHARD, M. F. Economic Practice in New Zealand, 1954/55–1967/68. Ak, Collins, 1970. $5.60.

MARRIS, E. C. New Zealand Investment Guide. Rev. ed. Wn, N.Z. Financial Times Publishers, 1976. $4.50.

MONETARY POLICY AND THE NEW ZEALAND FINANCIAL SYSTEM, edited by R. S. Deane and P. W. E. Nicholl. Wn, Reserve Bank of New Zealand, 1979. $5.

N.Z. COMMITTEE OF ENQUIRY INTO INFLATION ACCOUNTING. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $1.75.

OLIVER, H. M. Printing and Publishing in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Economic Research, 1976. $2.

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT. New Zealand. Paris, O.E.C.D., 1979. $3.20.

LAW

BROOKS, B. T. The Practice of Industrial Relations in New Zealand. Ak, Commerce Clearing House (New Zealand), 1978. $16.75.

DOYLE, M. W. Criminal Procedure in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1978. $8.95.

DUNCAN, P. C. The Layman and the Law in New Zealand. Rev. ed. Wn, J. McGregor, 1976. $1.95.

HINDE, G. W. and M. S. HINDE. New Zealand Law Dictionary. 3rd ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1979. $26.

HOLDEN, A. C. Family Law and You. Dn, McIndoe, 1978. $2.50.

THE MATRIMONIAL PROPERTY ACT 1976, Papers presented at the Legal Research Foundation Inc. seminar, 2nd February 1977. Ak, Auckland University Legal Research Foundation, 1977. $5.

MULHOLLAND, R. D. Introduction to the New Zealand Legal System, 3rd rev. ed, Wn, Butterworth, 1979. $22.50.

N.Z. COMMISSION FOR THE ENVIRONMENT. A Guide to Environmental Law in New Zealand. Wn, Commission for the Environment, 1976. $2.50.

NEW ZEALAND LAWS, STATUTES, ETC. Reprint of the Statutes of New Zealand, 1908–57. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958–1961. 16 v. $11.75 ea.

NEW ZEALAND ROYAL COMMISSION ON THE COURTS. Report of the Royal Commission on the Courts, 1978. Wn, Govt. Print., 1978. $5.80.

NORTHEY, J. F. Index to New Zealand Legal Writing. Ak, Legal Research Foundation, 1977. Annual supplements also published.

O'KEEFE, J. A. B. Introduction to New Zealand Law. 3rd ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1976. Hbk: $20. Pbk: $17.50.

WOMEN AND THE LAW IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by K. Turner and P. Vaver. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975. $3.60.

EDUCATION

ADVISORY COUNCIL ON EDUCATIONAL PLANNING. Directions for Educational Development. Wn, 1974. $2.25.

ART IN SCHOOLS; The New Zealand Experience. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1978. $14.25.

BARRINGTON, J. M. and T. H. BEAGLEHOLE. Maori Schools in a Changing Society, An Historical Review. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1974. $8.

BOSHTER, R. Adult and Continuing Education in New Zealand, 1851–1978; A Bibliography. Vancouver, Adult Education Research Centre, Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia; Toronto, International Council for Adult Education, 1979. $7.75.

CAMPBELL, W. J. Realities of Teacher Development. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1977. Gratis.

CUMMING, I. and A. CUMMING. History of State Education in New Zealand, 1840–1975. Wn, Pitman, 1978. $17.95.

EDUCATION AND THE EQUALITY OF THE SEXES; Conference on Women and Education sponsored by the Committee on Women and the Department of Education, 23–27 November 1975, Victoria University of Wellington. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1976. Gratis.

FITZGERALD, T. K. Education and Identity; A Study of the New Zealand Maori Graduate. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1977. $8.

FORWARD TO BASICS, edited by J. Shallcrass. Wn, New Zealand Education Institute, 1978. $9.95.

GADD, D. B. H. Cultural Difference in the Classroom; The Special Needs of Maoris in Pakeha Schools. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1976. $2.

McDONALD, G. Maori Mothers and Pre-school Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1973. $4.

McLAREN, I. A. Education in a Small Democracy, New Zealand. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974. £3.25.

MEADE, A. comp. New Zealand Early Childhood Care and Education: Bibliography, 1965–1978; with annotations. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1979. $4.

NEW ZEALAND COMMITTEE ON HEALTH AND SOCIAL EDUCATION. Growing, Sharing, Learning; The report of the Committee on Health and Social Education. 2nd ed. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1978. $3.

NEW ZEALAND COMMITTEE ON SECONDARY EDUCATION. Towards Partnership. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1976. $2.80.

NEW ZEALAND DEPT. OF EDUCATION. Education and the Equality of the Sexes; a list of resources. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1978. Gratis.

NEW ZEALAND EARLY CHILDHOOD CARE AND DEVELOPMENT CONVENTION. 2nd, University of Canterbury, 1979, Early Childhood in New Zealand: Their needs, our concern. Ch, Christchurch Teachers College, 1979. $5.

* NEW ZEALAND EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL. Review of Educational Developments, 1974–1978: Progress on Recommendations of the Educational Development Conference. Wn, Educational Development Council, 1978. $1.85.

NEW ZEALAND POST-PRIMARY TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. Curriculum Review Group. Education in Change; Report. Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $2.50.

NEW ZEALAND RESEARCH COMMITTEE ON OPEN PLAN SCHOOLS. Report on Open Plan Education in New Zealand Primary Schools. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1977. $3.25.

PARTON, H. The University of New Zealand. Ak, Auckland University Press; Wn, C.U.P., 1979. $16.

POLICIES FOR PARTICIPATION; Trends in Educational Administration in Australia and New Zealand, edited by J. E. Watson. Wn, New Zealand Educational Administration Society, 1977. $7.

RAMSAY, P. D. K. and others. The Family and the School in New Zealand Society; An Introduction to the Sociology of New Zealand Education. Carlton, Vic., Pitman, 1975. $7.75.

ROTH, H. O. A Bibliography of New Zealand Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1964. $2.25.

SEMINAR ON ASPECTS OF TERTIARY EDUCATION, Wellington, 1968. Trends and Issues in Higher Education; seven papers presented at a seminar organised by the Association of University Teachers of New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research and the Association of University Teachers of New Zealand, 1970. $2.40.

WILLIAMS, B. M. Structures and Attitudes in New Zealand Adult Education, 1945–75. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1978. $10.

THE MAORI PEOPLE, PAST AND PRESENT

TE AO HURIHURI; The World Moves On; Aspects of Maoritanga, edited by M. King. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975, reprinted 1977. Pbk: $6.95.

BEST, E. Games and Pastimes of the Maori. Wn, Board of Maori Ethnological Research for the Dominion Museum, 1924. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $17.

BEST, E. The Maori as He Was. Wn, Dominion Museum, 1924. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $6.50.

MAORI AGRICULTURE. Wn, Board of Maori Ethnological Research for the Dominion Museum, 1925. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $13.50.

BIGGS, B. G. Let's Learn Maori; a Guide to the Study of the Maori language. Wn, Reed, 1975. $3.50.

BIGWOOD, K. V., and H. DANSEY. The Maori in Colour. Wn, Reed, 1976. $8.50.

BUCK, Sir P. The Coming of the Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1974. $4.75.

CLARK, P. J. A. Hauhau; The Pai Marire Search for Maori Identity. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975. $9.40.

CONCISE MAORI HANDBOOK; compiled by A. W. Reed. Wn, Reed, 1978. $7.50.

CONFLICT AND COMPROMISE; Essays on the Maori Since Colonization. Wn, Reed, 1975. $5.50.

DUFF, R. S. The Moa-hunter Period of Maori Culture, 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $17.50.

FIRTH, R. W. Economics of the New Zealand Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $7.

MAIN, W. Maori in Focus. Wn, Millwood Press, 1976. $9.95.

MAORI IS MY NAME; Historical Maori Writings in Translation, edited by John Caselberg. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. Hbk: $6.50. Pbk: $3.95.

THE MAORI PEOPLE IN THE NINETEEN SIXTIES, A Symposium edited by E. G. Schwimmer. Ak, Longman Paul, 1972. $9.95.

METGE, J. The Maoris of New Zealand: Rautahi. London, Routledge, 1976. Hbk: £4.50. Pbk: £2.95.

POOL, D. I. The Maori Population of New Zealand, 1769–1971. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $8.35.

REED, A. W. Treasury of Maori Exploration; Legends Relating to the First Polynesian Explorers of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1977. $12.50.

RYAN, P. M. A Dictionary of Modern Maori. Ak. Heinemann Educational, 1971.

SALMOND, A. Hui; A Study of Maori Ceremonial Gatherings. Wn, Reed, 1975. Hbk: $9.95. Pbk: $5.95.

SCHWIMMER, E. G. The World of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1974. $3.50.

SELECTED READINGS IN MAORI; edited by B. Biggs, P. Hohepa, and S. M. Mead. Wn, Reed, 1967.

SIMMONS, D. R. The Great New Zealand Myth; A Study of the Discovery and Origin Traditions of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1976. $18.50.

TIHE MAORI ORA; Aspects of Maoritanga, edited by M. King. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. $4.95.

WILLIAMS, H. W. A Bibliography of Printed Maori to 1900, and Supplement. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $4.50.

WILLIAMS, W. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. 7th ed., by H. W. Williams. Rev, and augmented by the Advisory Committee on the Teaching of the Maori Language, Department of Education. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $6.

SCIENCE, GENERAL

BIOGEOGRAPHY ECOLOGY IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by G. Kuschel. The Hague, Dr W. Juur, 1975.

DIRECTORY OF NEW ZEALAND SCIENCE. 5th ed., Wn, New Zealand Association of Scientists, 1975. $8.

ELLIS, N. E. The New Zealand Environment; a bibliography of material available through New Zealand public libraries, including a select list of overseas publications, 1968–1974. Wn, Nature Conservation Council, 1975. Supplements also published.

* HOARE, M. E. Beyond the Filial Piety; Science History in New Zealand. Melbourne, Hawthorn Press, 1977.

LANDSAT II OVER NEW ZEALAND, Monitoring Our Resources From Space, edited by P. J. Ellis, I. L. Thomas and M. J. McDonnell. Wn, DSIR, 1978. $20.

MORTON, J. E. and M. MILLER. The New Zealand Sea Shore. 2nd ed. London, Collins, 1973. $12.50.

NEW ZEALAND'S NATURE HERITAGE. Ak, Hamlyn, 1976.

GEOLOGY

ADKIN, G. L. and B. W. COLLINS. A Bibliography of New Zealand Geology to 1950. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1967. o.p. Index, compiled by D.L. Jenkins, published Wn, D.S.I.R., 1976. $5.50.

BECK, R. J. New Zealand Jade; The Story of Greenstone. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.95.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF NEW ZEALAND GEOLOGY, 1951–1969, complied by Guyon Warren and others. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1977. $7. Updates Adkin.

COTTON, Sir C. A. Geomorphology. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1958. $3.25.

EIBY, G. A. Earthquakes. 2nd rev. ed. London, Muller, 1967. $3.

FLEMING, Sir C. A. The Geological History of New Zealand and its Life. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1979. $7.60.

GEOCHEMISTRY, 1977; A Collection of Papers by New Zealand Geochemists in Honour of S. H. Wilson, compiled by A. J. Ellis. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1977. $20.

GEOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND, chief editor, R. P. Suggate, associate editors, G. R. Stevens, M. T. Te Punga. Wn, Govt. Print., 1980. 2v. $92.

GRINDLEY, G. W., H. J. HARRINGTON, and B. L. WOOD. The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2000000. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1959. $3.25.

KINGMA, J. T. The Geological Structure of New Zealand. New York, Wiley, 1974. $69.

NEW ZEALAND WATER AND SOIL DIVISION. Land Use Capability Survey Handbook; a New Zealand Handbook for the Classification of Land. Rev. ed. Wn, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, 1971.

SALMON, J. H. M. A History of Goldmining in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.70.

SOIL BUREAU, Soils of New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1968. 3 v. (Its Bulletin 26.) $15.

STEVENS, G. R. Rugged Landscape; The Geology of Central New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.50.

THOMPSON, B. N. and L. O. KERMODE. New Zealand Volcanology. 3 v. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1965.

WILLIAMS, G. J. Economic Geology of New Zealand. Parkville, Vic. Australiasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1974. $23.

ZOOLOGY

BULLER, Sir W. L. Birds of New Zealand. New ed. by E. G. Turbott. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1967. $16.50.

BULL, P. C. and P. D. GAZE and C. J. R. ROBERTSON. Bird Distribution in New Zealand; A Provisional Atlas, 1969–1976. Wn, Ornithological Society of New Zealand, 1978. $10.

CHAPMAN, M. A. and M. H. LEWIS. An Introduction to the Freshwater Crustacea of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1976. $19.50.

DOAK, W. T. Fishes of the New Zealand Region. Rev. ed. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1978. $16.75.

FALLA, R. A., R.B. SIBSON, and E. G. TURBOTT. A New Guide to Birds of New Zealand and Outlying Islands. Rev. Ed.; ed. London; 1979. $13.95.

FORSTER, R. R., and L. M. FORSTER. Small Land Animals of New Zealand. Dn, McIndoe, 1970. Hbk: $7.95. Pbk: $4.95.

FORSTER. R. R. New Zealand Spiders. Ak, Collins, 1973. $10.60.

GASKIN, D. E. The Butterflies and Common Moths of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1966. o.p.

LAIDLAW, W. B. R. Butterflies of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1970. o.p.

LESLIE, M. A. Animals of the Rocky Shore of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1968. o.p.

McDOWALL, R. M. New Zealand Freshwater Fishes; A Guide and Natural History. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1978. $24.75.

MARSHALL, J., F. C. KINSKY, and C. J. R. ROBERTSON. The Fiat Book of Common Birds in New Zealand. 3 v. Wn, Reed, 1972–75. $7.50.

MILLER. D. Common Insects in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $7.50.

OLIVER, W. R. B. New Zealand Birds. Reprinted. Wn, Reed, 1974. $18.50.

PENDERGAST, J. G., and D. R. COWLEY. An Introduction to New Zealand Freshwater Insects. Ak, London, Collins, 1966. $1.80.

POWELL, A. W. B. New Zealand Mollusca: Marine, Land and Freshwater Shells. AK, Collins, 1979. $60.

POWELL, A. W. B. Shells of New Zealand, An Illustrated Handbook, 5th ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $12.

SHARELL, R. New Zealand Insects and Their Story. Ak, Collins, 1971. $9.20.

SHARELL, R. The Tuatara, Lizards, and Frogs of New Zealand. London, Collins, 1966. $8.40.

SOPER, M. F. New Zealand Birds, 2nd ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $19.50.

WILD ANIMALS IN NEW ZEALAND, compiled under the direction of A. L. Poole. Wn, Reed, 1970. $8.50.

BOTANY

ALLISON, K. W. and J. CHILD. The Mosses of New Zealand. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1971. $6.60.

CONNOR, H. E. The Poisonous Plants in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $9.75.

EAGLE, A. L. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand in Colour, two hundred and twenty-eight botanical paintings. Ak, Collins, 1975. $50.

Also published 1978 in 2 volumes as Eagle's 100 Trees of New Zealand, and Eagle's 100 Shrubs & Climbers of New Zealand. $15 each.

FISHER, M. E. New Zealand Ferns in Your Garden. Ak, Collins, 1976. $9.95.

FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961–3 v. 1 v. H. H. Allan, 1961. $10.50; 2 v. by L. B. Moore and E. Edgar, 1970. $4.50.

HEATH, E. W. and R. H. CHINNOCK. Ferns and Fern Allies of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

LAING, R. M., and E. W. BLACKWELL. Plants of New Zealand. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $3.85.

MARK, A. F., and N. M. ADAMS. New Zealand Alpine Plants. Wn, Reed, 1973. Hbk: $19.50. Pbk: $13.50.

MARTIN, W. and J. CHILD. Lichens of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1972.

MOORE, L. B. and J. B. IRWIN. The Oxford Book of New Zealand Plants. Wn, O.U.P., 1978.

PARHAM, B. E. V., and A. J. HEALY. Common Weeds in New Zealand; An Illustrated Guide to Their Identification. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $6.75.

POOLE, A. L., and N. M. ADAMS. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.50.

SAINSBURY, C. O. K. Handbook of the New Zealand Mosses, Royal Society of New Zealand.

TAYLOR, G. M. Mushrooms and Toadstools in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.50.

WILSON, H. D. Wild Plants of Mount Cook National Park; Field Guide. Ch, Field Guide Publication, 1978. $9.50.

TECHNOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE

ALLSOP, F. The First Fifty Years of New Zealand's Forest Service. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973.

ATKINSON, J. D. DSIR's First Fifty Years. Wn, Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1976. $5.

CALDER, D. H. Seeing the Southern Sky. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1977. $7.95.

CHURCHOUSE, E. J. The Pamir Under the New Zealand Ensign. Wn, Millwood Press, 1978. $25.

DURING, C. Fertilisers and Soils in New Zealand Farming. 2d. ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $6.

THE ENGINEERING HISTORY OF ELECTRIC SUPPLY IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by L. B. Hutton and F. N. Stace. Wn, Electric Supply Authority Engineers' Institute of New Zealand, 1958–75. 3 v.

FISHER, M. E., E. SATCHELL, and J. M. WATKINS. Gardening with New Zealand Plants, Shrubs, and Trees. Rev. ed. Ak, Collins, 1975. $12.50.

HADFIELD, J. W. Arable Farm Crops of New Zealand. Rev. by J. H. Claridge. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1972. $9.50.

HARRISON, R. E. Handbook of Bulbs and Perennials for the Southern Hemisphere. 2nd. ed. Rev. Palmerston North, R. E. Harrison, 1963. o.p.

HARRISON, R. E. Handbook of Trees and Shrubs. New ed. Rev, Wn, Reed, 1979. $14.95.

HEALY, A. J. F. Indentification of Weeds and Clover. Wn, Editorial Services, 1976. $9.50.

LANGER, R. H. M. Pastures and Pasture Plants. Wn, Reed, 1973. Hbk: $10.95. Pbk: $8.50.

LEVY, E. B. Grasslands of New Zealand. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1970. $5.50.

LEITCH, D. B. Railways of New Zealand. Ak, L. Fullerton; Newton Abbot, Devon, David and Charles, 1972, $9.10.

McCASKILL, L. W. Hold This Land; A History of Soil Conservation. Wn, Reed. 1973. $9.50.

McLEAN, I. The Future for New Zealand Agriculture; Economic Strategies for the 1980s. Wn, Fourth Estate Books, 1978. $4.50.

MATTHEWS, B. W. Gardens of New Zealand. Ak; Hamlyn, 1975. $9.95.

METCALF. L. J. The Cultivation of New Zealand Trees and Shrubs. Wn, Reed, 1972. $12.80.

MUNRO, M. N. and J. MUNRO, A Taste of New Zealand in Food and Pictures. Wn, Reed, 1977. $5.50.

NEW ZEALAND FARMERS' VETERINARY GUIDE. 4th. ed. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Exporter, 1972. $6.

NEW ZEALAND INSECT PESTS, edited by D. N. Ferro. Lincoln, Lincoln University College of Agriculture, 1976. $15.

NEW ZEALAND MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES. New Zealand Agriculture. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $6.

NEW ZEALAND ROYAL COMMISSION ON NUCLEAR POWER GENERATION IN NEW ZEALAND. Nuclear Power Generation in New Zealand; Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry. Wn, Govt. Print., 1978. $4.

NOONAN, R. J. By Design; A Brief History of the Public Works Department, Ministry of Works. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $18.50.

PAINTER, G. The Herb Garden Displayed. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1979. $28.50.

SCHOFIELD, J. C. Materials for the New Zealand Potter. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $3.75.

SIMPSON, T. E. Kauri and Radiata: Origin and Expansion of the Timber Industry of New Zealand. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1973.

TROUP, G. S. Steel Roads of New Zealand; An Illustrated Survey. Wn, Reed, 1973. $12.50.

WARD, A. H. A. Command of Co-operatives; The Development of Leadership, Marketing and Price Control in the Co-operative Dairy Industry of New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Board, 1975. $5.60.

WATKINSON, J. G. and SMITH, R. New Zealand Fisheries. Wn, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1972.

YEREX, D. Deer Farming in New Zealand, Wn, Deer Farming Services Division, Agricultural Promotion Associates, 1979. $11.50.

ARTS

ARCHEY, Sir G. E. Whaowhia; Maori Art and its Artists. Ak, Collins, 1977. $15.

BARROW, T. T. Decorative Art of the New Zealand Maori. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1975. $4.50.

BARROW, T. T. Maori Art of New Zealand. Wn, Reed; Paris, Unesco Press, 1978. $5.50.

BROWN, G. H. and H. H. KEITH. An Introduction to New Zealand Painting, 1839–1967. Ak, Collins, 1969. o.p.

CAPE, P. I. New Zealand Painting Since 1960; A Study in Themes and Developments. Ak, Collins, 1979. $29.50.

CAPE, P. I. Prints and Printmakers in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1974. $19.50.

DOCKING, G. C. TWO Hundred Years of New Zealand Painting. Wn, Reed, 1971. $29.50.

DOWNES, P. E. Shadows on the Stage; Theatre in New Zealand; The First Seventy Years. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. $9.50.

DOWNES, P. E. and P. HARCOURT. Voices in the Air; Radio Broadcasting in New Zealand. Wn, Methuen, 1976. $9.50.

ELLIS, E. M. and D. G. ELLIS. Early Prints of New Zealand, 1642–1875. Ch, Avon Fine Prints, 1978. $80.

FEARNLEY, C. Early Wellington Churches. Wn, Millwood Press, 1977. $19.95.

HAMON, R. P. F. Rei Hamon; Artist of the New Zealand Bush. 2 v. Ak, Collins, 1971–76. $37.50.

HARCOURT, P. M. A Dramatic Appearance; New Zealand Theatre, 1920–1970. Wn, Mediuen, 1978. $11.95.

HARRIS, M. M. and A. BRODIE. Potters in New Zealand; An Illustrated Directory of Members of the New Zealand Society of Potters. Wn, New Zealand Society of Potters, 1978. $3.

* HILL, P. M. New Zealand Architecture. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1976. $1.25.

HISTORIC BUILDINGS OF NEW ZEALAND; North Island, edited by Frances Porter. Ak, Cassell New Zealand, 1979. $30.

KNIGHT, F. H. Photography in New Zealand; A Social and Technical History. Dn, McIndoe, 1971.

McLEAN, M. E. and M. ORBELL. Traditional Songs of the Maori. Ak, Auckland University Press; Wn Oxford University Press, 1979. $13.50

N.Z. ART & ANTIQUES YEARBOOK, 1977/78, volume 1; incorporating N.Z. art auction records. Wn, Newrick Associates, 1977. $14.95.

* NEW ZEALAND FOLK SONGS: Songs of a Young Country, compiled by N. Colquhon. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1972. $2,95.

THE NEW ZEALAND POSTER BOOK, 1830–1940, compiled by E. Ellis. Wn, Reed, 1977. $9.50.

NEW ZEALAND POTTERS; Their Work and Words, edited by D. Blumhardt. Wn, Reed, 1976. $15.95.

SMYTH, B. W. and HOWORTH, H. Books and Pamphlets Relating to Culture and the Arts in New Zealand; A Bibliography Including Works Published to the End of the Year 1977. Ch, Dept. of Extension Studies, University of Canterbury, Wn, New Zealand National Commission for UNESCO, 1979. $2.

STACPOOLE, J. M. Colonial Architecture in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1976. $11.50.

STACPOOLE, J. M. and P. BEAVEN. Architecture, 1820–1970. Wn, Reed, 1972. $4.95.

TAYLOR, R. A. H. and J. GLEN., C. G. Goldie, 1870–1947; His Life and Painting. Martinborough, A. Taylor, 1977. $220 o.p.

TAYLOR, A and GLEN, J. C. F. Goldie, 1870–1947; Prints, Drawings and Criticism. Martinborough, A. Taylor, 1978. $295.

TROTTER. M. M. and B. McCULLOCH. Prehistoric Rock Art of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $2.95.

WILSON, L. L. R. P. van der Velden, 1837–1913, Wn, Reed, 1976. $13.95.

SPORT, INCLUDING MOUNTAINEERING

AGNEW, I. J. Kiwis Can Fly. Ak, Marketforce, 1976. $7.95.

ALLAN, W. J. D. Power and Sail; A Complete Guide to Yachting and Boating in New Zealand. Ak, Heinemann, 1975.

BENNETT, M. The Venison Hunters. Wn, Reed, 1979. $12.95.

BISMAN, R. W. New Zealand Trotting Greats. Ak, Moa Publications, 1977. $8.95.

BRITTENDEN, R. T. The Finest Years; Twenty Years of New Zealand Cricket. Wn, Reed, 1977. $12.50.

BULL, M. A. Vintage Motor Cycling; A Record of Motor Cycling in New Zealand from 1899 to 1931. Masterton, Hedley's Bookshop, 1970. o.p.

CARMAN, A. H. New Zealand International Cricket, 1894–1974. Tawa, Sporting Publications, 1975. $12.95.

CARMAN, A. H. Castles in the Air; Men and Mountains in New Zealand, edited by P. Temple. Dn, McIndoe, 1973.

CHESTER, R. H. and N. A. C. McMillan. Men in Black. Rev. ed. Ak, Moa Publications, 1979. $14.95.

COSTELLO, J. B. New Zealand Galloping Greats. Enl. ed. Ak, Moa Publications, 1977. $8.95.

DOOGUE, R. B., and J. M. MORELAND. New Zealand Sea Anglers' Guide. 5th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $5.50.

FORRESTER, R. and ILLINGWORTH, N. Hunting in New Zealand. New rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1979. $9.95.

HOWTTT, R. J. New Zealand Rugby Greats. Ak, Moa Publications, 1975. $7.50.

KELLY, G. M. Golf in New Zealand; A Centennial History. Wn, New Zealand Golf Association. 1971. $4.50.

LOUSLEY, D. P. Guide to the Ski Fields of the South Island, New Zealand. Dn, McIndoe, 1976. $2.95.

MEMORABLE MOMENTS IN NEW ZEALAND SPORT, edited by Don Cameron. Ak, Moa Publications, 1979. $14.95.

SWAN, A. C. They Played for New Zealand; A Complete Record of New Zealand Rugby Representatives 1884–1972 and Their Matches. Wn, N.Z. Rugby Football Union, 1973. $1.50.

TEMPLE, P. Ways to the Wilderness; Great New Zealand Walking Tracks. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1977. $17.50.

TODD, S. P. DB Sporting Records of New Zealand. Ak, Moa Publications, 1976. $9.95.

LITERATURE, GENERAL

A BOOK OF NEW ZEALAND, edited by J. C. Reid and P. Cape. Rev. and enl. ed. Ak, Collins 1979. $14.95.

CURNOW, W. T. L. Essays on New Zealand Literature. Ak, Heinemann, 1973. $5.50.

McCORMICK, E. H. New Zealand Literature; a Survey. London, O.U.P., 1959. o.p.

ORBELL, M. R., comp. Contemporary Maori Writing. Wn, Reed, 1970. $3.95.

POETRY

* ADCOCK, K. F. The Inner Harbour. Oxford, O.U.P., 1979. £2.75.

ALLEY, R. Winds of Change; poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1972.

ANTHOLOGY OF TWENTIETH CENTURY NEW ZEALAND POETRY, selected by V. O'Sullivan. 2nd ed. Wn, O.U.P., 1976. Hbk: $10.50. Pbk: $7.

BAXTER, J. K. Collected Poems of James K. Baxter. Wn, O.U.P. 1980. $19.50.

BERTRAM, J. M. Charles Brasch. Wn, O.U.P., 1976. $3.65.

BRASCH, C. O. Home Grown. Ch, Caxton Press, 1974. $4.50.

CAMPBELL, A. Kapiti; Selected Poems, 1947–71. Ch, Pegasus, 1972. $3.50.

CURNOW, T. A. M. Collected Poems, 1933–73. Wn Reed, 1974. $5.95.

* DALLAS, R. Steps of the Sun. Ch. Caxton Press, 1979. $6.50.

DOYLE, C. D. James K. Baxter. Boston, Twayne, 1976.

FAIRBURN, A. R. D. Collected Poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1966.

GLOVER, D. Enter Without Knocking. Enl ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972.

* IRELAND, K. Literary Cartoons. Ak, Islands/Hurricane, 1977. $5.

JAMES K. BAXTER; A Memorial Volume. Wn, A. Taylor, 1972.

* KIDMAN, F. J. On the Tightrope, poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1978. $3.75.

* MCALPINE, R. Stay at the Dinner Party. Dn, Caveman Press, 1977. $3.25.

MASON, R. A. K. Collected Poems. New ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972.

MITCALFE, B. Maori Poetry; The Singing Word. Wn, Price Milburn, 1974.

* MITCHELL, D. R. Pipe Dreams in Ponsonby, poems. Dn, Caveman Press, 1975. $3.50.

NGA MOTEATEA, edited by A. T. Ngata. 3 v. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1959–72. Collection of Maori songs.

* NEW ZEALAND LOVE POEMS, chosen by J. Bertram. Dn, McIndoe, 1977. Hbk: $8.95. Pbk: $4.95.

O'SULLIVAN, V. G. Butcher and Co. Wn. O.U.P., 1977. $3.65.

O'SULLIVAN, V. G. James K. Baxter. Wn, O.U.P., 1976. $2.95.

PENGUIN BOOK OF NEW ZEALAND VERSE, edited by T. A. M. Curnow. Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1966.

POETRY NEW ZEALAND, vol. 3. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1976. Pbk: $3.50.

TEN MODERN NEW ZEALAND POETS, edited by H. J. McQueen. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973.

THESE ISLANDS, A Collection of New Zealand Verse, edited by G. M. Jones. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973.

* THOMSON, J. E. P. Denis Glover. Wn, O.U.P., 1977. $2.95.

* TUWHARE, H. No Ordinary Sun. 3rd ed. Dn, McIndoe, 1977. $3.95.

* WEDDE, I. C. Earthly; Sonnets for Carlos. Akaroa, Amphedesma Press, 1975.

FICTION

ANTHONY, F. S. Follow The Call, together with an unfinished novel entitled ‘Dave Baird’. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975.

BALLANTYNE, D. W. The Cunninghams. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. Hbk: $8.50. Pbk: $4.50.

BIRD, HAWK, BOGIE; Essays on Janet Frame, edited by Jeanne Delbaere. Aarhus, Dangaroo Press, 1978.

CAMPION, E. A Place to Pass Through and Other Stories. Wn, Reed, 1977. $7.50.

COPLAND, R. A. Frank Sargeson. Wn, O.U.P., 1976.

COWLEY, C. J. The Growing Season. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1979.

CRITICAL ESSAYS ON THE NEW ZEALAND NOVEL, edited by Cherry Hankin. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1976. $6.95.

CROSS, I. R. The God Boy. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1972.

CRUMP, B. J. The Best of Crump. Ak, Crump Productions, 1974.

DAVIN, D. M. Roads from Home. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1976. $8.40.

DUGGAN, M. N. O'Leary's Orchard and Other Stories. Ch, Caxton Press, 1970. EVANS, P. D. Janet Frame, Boston, Twayne, 1977. FRAME, J. Living in the Maniototo. New York, Braziller, 1979, US$8.95.

DUGGAN, M. N. O'Leary's Owls Do Cry. London, W. H. Allen, 1961.

DUGGAN, M. N. O'Leary's A State of Siege. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1967.

GANT, P. The Fifth Season. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1976. $6.25.

GEE, M. G. Games of Choice. Wn, O.U.P., 1977. $4,50.

GEE, M. G. Plumb. Wn, OUP; London, Faber and Faber, 1979. Pbk; $4.95

GRACE, P. F. Mutuwhenua; The Moon Sleeps. Ak, Longman Paul, 1978. Hbk: $7.95. Pbk: $4.95.

GRACE, P. F. Waiariki. Ak, Longman Paul, 1975.

HILLIARD, N. H. Maori Girl. London, Heinemann, 1971.

HILLIARD, N. H. Send Somebody Nice. London, Hale, 1976.

HOLCROFT, M. H. Islands of Innocence; The Childhood Theme in New Zealand Fiction. Wn, Reed, 1964. o.p.

HYDE, R. The Godwits Fly. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1970.

IHIMAERA, W. T. The New Net Goes Fishing. Ak, Heinemann, 1977. $8.95.

—– Tangi. Ak, Heinemann, 1974. $4.95.

—– Whanau. Ak, Heinemann, 1974.

JOSEPH, M. K. A Soldier's Tale. Ak, Collins, 1976. $7.50.

KIDMAN, F. A Breed of Women. Sydney, Harper & Row, 1979. $12.95.

LEE, J. A. Children of the Poor. Ch, Whitecombe & Tombs, 1973.

MANDER, J. Allen Adair. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1971.

MANSFIELD, K. Complete Stories. Ak, Golden Press, 1974.

MIDDLETON, O. E. G. Selected Stories. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. Hbk: $7.95. Pbk: $3.95.

MORRIESON, J. R. H. Pallet on the Floor. Palmerston North, Dunmore, 1976. $2.95.

—– The Scarecrow. Ak, Heinemann, 1976. $7.95.

MULGAN, J. A. E. Man Alone. 2nd ed. Ak, Longman Paul, 1975. $2.50.

N.Z. LISTENER SHORT STORES, chosen by B. Manhire. 2 v. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1977–78. $5.95, $5.65.

NEW ZEALAND SHORT STORIES, Wn, O.U.P., 1975. 3 series. $13.95.

OWEN, W. E. Tryphena's Summer. Ak, Collins Silver Fern, 1975. 52.95.

PICKARD, A. G. All Part of the Game; The Stories of A. P. Gaskell. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1978. Hbk: $9.95. Pbk: $5.90.

RHODES, H. W. New Zealand Fiction Since 1945. Dn, McIndoe, 1968.

SARGESON, F. Never Enough; Places and People Mainly. Wn, Reed, 1977. $6.95. Final volume of autobiography.

—– Stories. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973.

SATCHELL, W. The Greenstone Door. Ak, Golden Press, 1973.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. Figures in Light: Selected Stories. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1978. Hbk: $9.95 Pbk: $5.95.

—– The New Zealanders; A Sequence of Stories. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1974.

—– Strangers and Journeys. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1972. Hbk: $7.15. Pbk: $2.75.

SHIRLEY TEMPLE IS A WIFE AND MOTHER; 34 Stories, edited by C.C. Catley. Whatamongo Bay, Cape Catley, 1977. Hbk: $8.50. Pbk: $5.95.

STEAD, C. K. Smith's Dream. Ak, Longman Paul, 1971.

STEVENS, J. The New Zealand Novel, 1860–1965. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1966.

SUTHERLAND, M. Getting Through, and Other Stories. Ak, Heinemann, 1977. $9.50.

WEDDE, I. C. Dick Seddon's Great Dive. Ak, Islands, 1976. $2.10.

WENDT, A. Sons for the Return Home. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973.

DRAMA

*BAXTER, J. K. Jack Winter's Dream, Wn, Price Milburn for Victoria University Press, 1979. $2.50.

CURNOW, A. Four Plays. Wn, Reed, 1972. Hbk: $5.50. Pbk: $3.95.

CONTEMPORARY NEW ZEALAND PLAYS, selected by H. McNaughton. Wn, O.U.P., 1974. $2.95. HALL. R. L. Middle-age Spread. Wn, Price Milburn, 1978. $3.50.

—– Glide Time; a play in four acts set in the Public Service. Wn, Price Milburn, 1977. $3.50.

MC NAUGHTON, H. D. New Zealand Drama; A Bibliographical Guide. Ch, Library University of Canterbury, 1974.

MCNEILL, B. The Two Tigers; a play on Katherine Mansfield and John Middleton Murry. Wn, Price Milburn, 1977. $3.25.

PLAYMARKET. A Directory of New Zealand Plays and Playwrights. Wn, Playmarket, 1978. $1.

DESCRIPTION AND TRAVEL

BIGWOOD, K. V. New Zealand in Colour, Rev. ed. Wn. Reed, 1972, 2 v. $13.

BRAKE, B. J. and M. SHADBOLT. New Zealand Gift of the Sea. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1973. $9.95.

BRAITHWAITE, E. F. The Companion Guide to the North Island of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1970. $7.90.

—– The Companion Guide to the South Island of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1972. $6.80.

—– New Zealand and its People. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $9.95.

FODOR'S AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, AND THE SOUTH PACIFIC 1978, edited by Robert C. Fisher and Leslie Brown. New York, David McKay, 1978. US$9.95. Also published London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1978. £6.95.

NEW ZEALAND ATLAS, edited by Ian Wards. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $33.

NEW ZEALAND IN MAPS, edited by A. G. Anderson. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1977. £5.50.

NEW ZEALAND AUTOMOBILE ASSOCIATION. AA Road Atlas of New Zealand. Rev. ed. Ak, Hamlyn, 1978. $7.95.

—– AA Book of the New Zealand Countryside. Ak, Hamlyn, 1978. $12.95.

PASCOE, J. D., ed. National Parks of New Zealand 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $9.

POPE, D. M. and J. D. POPE. Mobil New Zealand Travel Guide, North Island. 3rd ed. Wn, Reed, 1977. $5.95.

—– South Island. 3rd ed. Wn, Reed, 1978. $5.95.

REED, A. W. Place Names of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1975. $10.50. and supplement, 1979. $9.95.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. The Shell Guide to New Zealand. Rev. ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $9.95.

SIERS, J. and J. HENDERSON. The New Zealanders. Wn, Milwood Press, 1975. $14.95.

SMITH, R. and W. JACOBS and G. BILLING. The New Zealanders. Rev. ed. Ch, Kowhai Publishing, 1979. $12.95.

WISES NEW ZEALAND GUIDE; A Gazetteer of New Zealand. 7th ed. Ak, Wise Publications, 1979. $45.

HISTORICAL WORKS

ADAMS, P. W. T. Fatal Necessity; British Intervention in New Zealand, 1830–1847. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $13.60.

BASSETT, M. Confrontation 1951; The 1951 Waterfront Dispute. Wn, Reed, 1972. $4.50.

BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. The Discovery of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, O.U.P., 1961. o.p.

BEGG, A. C, and N. C. BEGG. James Cook and New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969. $4.50.

BRETT, H. White Wings. Ak, Brett Printing Co., 1924–28. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1976.2 v. $50. Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

COOK, J. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Edited by J. C. Beaglehole. Cambridge, Hakluyt Society, 1955–5 v. to date. (Hakluyt Society. Extra series No. 34.)

COWAN, J. The New Zealand Wars. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955–1956. 2 v. $9.

FACSIMILES OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE AND THE TREATY OF WAITANGI. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $12.95.

HOLCROFT, M. H. The Shaping of New Zealand. Ak, Hamlyn, 1974. $9.50.

INGRAM, C W. N. New Zealand Shipwrecks, 1795–1975. 5th ed. Wn, Reed, 1977. $14.50.

JACKSON, W. K. The New Zealand Legislative Council; A Study of the Establishment, Failure and Abolition of an Upper House. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1972. $8.95.

LISSINGTON, M. P. New Zealand and Japan, 1900–1941. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $5.75.

—– New Zealand and the United States, 1840–1944. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $3.

LOOKING BACK; A Photographic History of New Zealand, compiled by K. Sinclair & W. Harrex. Wn, O.U.P., 1978. $16.50.

MCLINTOCK, A. H. Crown Colony Government in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958. $3.50.

MCNAB, R. The Old Whaling Days; A History of Southern New Zealand from 1830 to 1840. Ak, Golden Press, 1975. $4.95.

MADDOCK, S. These Antipodes; A New Zealand Album, 1814 to 1854. Ak, Collins, 1979. $29.50.

MANING, F. E. Old New Zealand; A Tale of the Good Old Times and A History of the War in the North Told by an Old Chief of the Ngapuhi Tribe. Ak, Golden Press, 1973.

MORRELL, W. P. The Anglican Church in New Zealand; A History. Dn, McIndoe, 1973.

—– The Provincial System in New Zealand, 1852–76. 2nd rev. ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $4.50.

NEW ZEALAND CENTENNIAL BRANCH. Making New Zealand; Pictorial Surveys of a Century. Wn, 1939–40. 2 v. o.p.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST. Leaflets on various historic sites; Booklets. See under individual authors, e.g., Standish, M. W., in following section, gratis.

NEW ZEALAND WAR HISTORY BRANCH. Documents Relating to New Zealand's Participation in the Second World War, 1939–45. Wn, 1949–63. 3 v. 1 o.p.; 2, $1.25; 3, $2.50.

NEW ZEALAND'S HERITAGE; The Making of a Nation. Ak, Hamlyn, 1977. 7 v. in 105 pts, issued weekly. $1 per issue.

OLIVER, W. H. The Story of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, Faber, 1963. Hbk: $3.50. Pbk: $1.35.

PASCOE, J, D. Exploration New Zealand. Wn, Reed. 1971. $4.50. Ross, J. O. This Stern Coast; the Story of the Charting of the New Zealand Coast. Wn, Reed, 1969, o.p.

SHARP, C. A. The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman. London, O.U.P., 1968. $8.

SIMPSON. A. C. The Road to Erewhon. Ak, Beaux Arts, 1976. $8.95.

—– The Sugarbag Years. Wn, A. Taylor, 1974. Hbk: $8.95. Pbk: $5.95.

SINCLAIR, K. A. History of New Zealand. Rev. ed. Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1969. $1.35.

—– The Origins of the Maori Wars. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1974. $4.70.

SUTCH, W. B. Poverty and Progress in New Zealand; A Reassessment. 2nd rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $4.95.

—– The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840 to 1966. Wn, O.U.P., 1966. Hbk: $6.50. Pbk: $3.

TAYLOR, R. Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.95.

THIRTEEN FACETS; Essays to Celebrate the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth the Second, 1952–1977, edited by I. Wards. Wn, Govt. Print., 1978. $13.95.

WAKEFIELD, E. J. Adventure in New Zealand. Ak, Golden Press, 1975. $3.95.

WOOD, F. L. W. The New Zealand People at War; Political and External Affairs. Wn, Historical Publications Branch in conjunction with Reed, 1971. $5.95.

REGIONAL AND LOCAL WORKS

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

ACLAND. L. G. D. The Early Canterbury Runs. 4th. ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1975. $14.95.

ALINGTON, M. H. Unquiet Earth; A History of the Bolton Street Cemetery. Wn, Wellington City Council, Govt. Print., 1978. $9.75.

ALLAN. R. M. Nelson; A History of Early Settlement. Wn, Reed, 1965.

ANDERSEN, J. C. Place Names of Banks Peninsula; A Topographical History. Wn, Govt. Print., 1927. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1976. $12. Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

BAGNALL, A. G. Wairarapa. Masterton, Hedley's Bookshop, 1976. $19.50.

BARBER. L. H. The View from Pirongia; The History of Waipa County. Ak, Richards Publishing, 1978. $12.50.

BEGG, A. C. and N. C. BEGG. Port Preservation. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1973, $12.50.

BROCKLEBANK, N. and GREENAWAY, R. Oamaru. Dn, McIndoe, 1979. $10.95.

BUCHANAN J. D. H. The Maori History and Place Names of Hawke's Bay. Wn, Reed, 1973.

CAMPBELL. M. D. N. Story of Napier, 1874–1974. Napier, Napier City Council, 1975. $7.

CARKEEK, W. The Kapiti Coast; Maori History and Place Names. Wn, Reed, 1966. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1978. $30.

FIELD, T. A. Relics of the Goldfields, Central Otago. Dn, McIndoe, 1976. $6.95.

GIBBONS, P. J. Astride the River; A History of Hamilton. Ch, Whitcoulls for the Hamilton City Council, 1977. $11.50.

GILLESPIE, O. A. South Canterbury; A Record of Settlements. 2nd ed. Timaru, South Canterbury Centennial History Committee, 1971.

GUTHRIE-SMITH, W. H. Tutira; The Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969.

HALL-JONES, Fiordland Explored; An Illustrated History. Wn, Reed, 1976. $10.95.

A HISTORY OF CANTERBURY. Canterbury Centennial Historical and Literary Committee; Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1957–71. 3 v.

HOLCROFT, M. H. The Line of Road; A History of Manawatu County, 1876–1976. Dn, McIndoe for the Manawatu County Council, 1977. $10.

HOWARD, B. H. Rakiura; A History of Stewart Island. Dn, Reed, 1974. $18.50.

IRVINE-SMITH, F. L. The Streets of My City; Wellington, New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1967.

LAMBERT, T. The Story of Old Wairoa and the East Coast District, North Island, New Zealand. Dn, Coulls Somerville Wilkie, 1925. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1977. $40.

MCALLISTER, C. Old Taranaki and its Mountain. Wn, Millwood Press, 1976, $17.50.

MCARA, J. B. Gold Mining at Waihi, 1878–1952. Waihi, Waihi Historical Society, 1978. $16.50.

MAIN, W. Auckland Through a Victorian Lens. Wn, Millwood Press, 1977. $14.95.

MAY, P. R. The West Coast Gold Rushes. 2nd. Rev. ed. Ch, Pegasus, 1967.

OGILVIE, G. B. The Port Hills of Christchurch. Wn, Reed, 1978. $13.50.

OLIVER, W. H. Challenge and Response; A Study of the Development of the Gisborne East Coast Region. Gisborne, East Coast Development Research Association, 1971. $4.50.

REED, A. H. The Story of Northland. Wn, Reed, 1975. $6.50.

SIERS, J. and A. BRISTOW. Wellington. Wn, Millwood Press, 1974.

SMART, M. J. G. and A. P. BATES. The Wanganui Story. Wanganui Newspapers, 1972. $5.90.

* STANDISH, M. W. The Waimate Mission Station, Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. 70c. Also others issued by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust.

BIOGRAPHY

HONOURS, TITLES, STYLES, AND PRECEDENCE IN NEW ZEALAND, compiled and edited by P. P. O'Shea. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $13.50.

WHO'S WHO IN NEW ZEALAND. 11th ed., edited by J. E. Traue. Wn, Reed, 1978. $16.50.

BASSETT, J. Sir Harry Atkinson, 1831–1892. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975. $9.15.

BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. The Life of Captain James Cook. London, Black, 1974.

BELL, G. E. Ernest Dieffenbach. Palmerston North, Dunmore Press, 1976. $10.75.

BINNEY, J. and CHAPLIN, G. and WALLACE, C. Mihaia; The Prophet Rua Kenana and His Community at Maungapohatu. Wn, O.U.P., 1979. Hbk; $19.95. Pbk; $13.50.

CONDLIFFE, J. B. Te Rangi Hiroa; The Life of Sir Peter Buck. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971.

CRESSWELL, W. D. The Letters of D'Arcy Cresswell. Ch, University of Canterbury, 1971. $6.

HENDERSON, J. M. Ratana; The Man, the Church, the Political Movement. 2nd ed. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1972. $3.95.

HILLARY, SIR E. P. Nothing Ventured, Nothing Won. London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1975. $4.50.

JAMES, N. At One with the Sea. Ak, Hutchinson of New Zealand, 1979. $12.95

KING. M. Te Puea. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1977. $12.95.

LUSH, V. The Auckland Journals of Vicesimus Lush, 1850–63, ed. by A. Drummond. Ch, Pegasus, 1971. $7.

MACGREGOR, M. F. Petticoat Pioneers, North Island Women of the Colonial Era. Wn, Reed, 1973. $8.95. 2 v. 1975. $9.95.

MCCORMICK, E. H. Omai, Pacific Envoy. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $21.60.

MEYERS, J. Katherine Mansfield; A Biography. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1979. $16.75. Also published London, H. Hamilton, 1978.

OGILVIE, G. B. The Riddle of Richard Pearse. Wn, 1973. $4.95.

OLSSEN, E. N. John A. Lee. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1977. $14.95.

RAESIDE. J. D. Sovereign Chief, A Biography of Baron de Thierry. Ch, Caxton Press, 1977. $22.50.

ROGERS, L. M. Te Wiremu; A Biography of Henry Williams. Ch. Pegasus, 1973. $7.50.

ROLLESTON, R. William and Mary Rolleston. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.50.

SCOTT. R. G. A Stake in the Country; Assid Abraham Corban and His Family, 1892–1977. Ak, Southern Cross Books, 1977. $25.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. Love and Legend; Some 20th Century New Zealanders. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1976. $8.45.

SINCLAIR, K. Walter Nash. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1976. $13.95.

—– William Pember Reeves; New Zealand Fabian. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. $6.90.

STACPOOLE, J. William Mason; The First New Zealand Architect. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P. 1971. $7.40.

STIRLING, A. M. Amiria; The Life Story of a Maori Woman, as told to Anne Salmond. Wn, Reed, 1976. Hbk: $13.95. Pbk: $9.95.

WEBSTER, P. Rua and the Maori Millennium. Wn, Price Milburn for Victoria University Press, 1979. $18.

Chapter 43. THE NEW ZEALAND ENVIRONMENT AND CHANGES EN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SINCE 1970

The Physical Environment Conference of 1970 marked the beginning of a decade of social and institutional concern with environmental questions. The decade closed with another environmental staging post—the review of environmental policy and management in New Zealand by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Much then has happened in the elaboration of environmental administration, evolution of policy, and growth in public awareness.

In 1968 the first plenary session of the National Development Conference reached the conclusion that attention was being focused solely on economic growth without regard to the social, environmental, and cultural implications of a growth policy. The NDC steering committee then set up a Physical Environment Committee with the task of reporting on the kind of physical environment to which the community might aspire, to identify the problems which might arise in its attainment, and consider the institutional arrangements needed for dealing with such problems. When it reported to the second plenary session in May 1969, the Physical Environment Committee recommended a further programme of study, the results of which were to be presented to the Physical Environment Conference in May 1970.

As a result, this conference considered reports prepared by 5 working parties which had worked for some 12 months. The working party on Land Resources and Use stressed the need for a comprehensive and integrated land information system, and the desirability of the development of land use criteria. It was concerned about urban encroachment on to high quality soils and the fundamental importance of conservation and the enlightened management of natural resources. The co-ordination of regional and national policies for reserves, the protection of the coastline, lakeshores, and river banks for public use, and the preservation of wetlands were considered critical issues. A national policy on the use and management of coastal waters and the sea bed was advocated.

The working party on problems of pollution of the environment addressed itself to environmental pollution under the headings of air, land, and water, and pesticides which affected all three. The working party believed that adequate technology was available to control most forms of air pollution, but that a changed social attitude was needed to ensure the application of the technology. The potential to minimise problems through competent planning was recognised. The potential seriousness of pollution from domestic coal fires and motor vehicles was noted. Noise in industry, homes, public buildings, and streets was identified as a growing problem. The working party called for more effective means of waste disposal and urged industry to explore ways of reducing waste, particularly indestructible packaging materials and containers. The potential of reuse and recycling was pointed out, including the recovery and use of wastes from the fruit and vegetable industries; similarly the meat industry was encouraged to promote investigations into the processing of meat wastes for useful purposes. The working party expressed concern at the deterioration of natural water quality and the growing demands which were outstripping readily available supplies. Industries should be encouraged to follow a policy of maximum reuse of waste water. Measures to control the loss of nutrients from the land to water were seen to be vital and the introduction of fiscal measures to encourage pollution abatement was recommended. Recreation should be seen as a primary factor in water resource planning. While the importance of pesticides and herbicides to agriculture and horticulture was recognised, there was an anxiety that indiscriminate application of persistent organic chemicals could cause far-reaching ecological unbalances. Agents should be sought which had a minimum of biological recycling and side-effects on wild life, and on human health. The working party believed that there was an urgent need for a national review of the control of pollution and the development of a Government strategy with stated targets for pollution control.

Two working parties considered urban development and expansion. One studied the existing urban situation, while the other examined peripheral expansion. The urban development working party grouped its concerns under the headings of planning objectives and planning procedures. Under objectives the working party identified the importance of a national design sense, the need for studies of alternative urban forms, the acceptance by Central and local Government of outline structure plans, greater emphasis on broad strategic planning goals and transportation studies, and greater consideration of roading types and influences. Attention was drawn to urban pressures on coastal, alpine, and rural areas and the need for identification of and control over areas of high scenic quality. The working party emphasised the desirability of commitment in principle at the formation stage by Central and local Government agencies to structure plans prepared by regional or joint planning authorities and suggested an amendment to the Town and Country Planning Act requiring planning authorities to publish a clear statement of policies and objectives prior to preparation of district schemes. A review of the terms of reference and status of the Town and Country Planning Appeal Boards was suggested.

The other urban working party drew attention to desirable social aspects of new areas—variety and mix of housing, provision of community services at the outset, residential relationship to light and service industries, and the grouping of social functions. It was strongly advocated that reserves contributions should be used for neighbourhood reserves only, and not for major parks and playing fields. Attention was given to the importance of planning capability and the need for local authorities to have competent staff. An important recommendation was the need for research based upon user responses to existing homes and communities. The working party also recommended a study of the land-price effects of planning decisions.

The last of the working parties, on Government Organisation for the Control of the Environment, pointed to the many and varied responsibilities spread through a large number of departments and agencies, and to the evident difficulties of co-ordination. The establishment of an independent advisory body was recommended. No single existing agency had the breadth of policy concern required.

The Physical Environment Conference recommended such a body, and the Environmental Council held its first meeting in November 1970. While the council was the first body with a policy advisory role across the whole environmental spectrum, the Nature Conservation Council had been established by statute in 1962 in an independent advisory role on matters of nature conservation.

The Environmental Council consisted of 15 members, 7 (including the chairman) being citizens of suitable qualification and experience, 3 being nominated from local and regional government. The remaining 5 members represented the Ministry of Works and Development, the departments of Lands and Survey, and Health, the Forest Service, and the Treasury.

The council's terms of reference have remained very broad—essentially to advise the Government on any matters related to the state and trend of the environment.

In 1972 a separate ministerial portfolio for the environment was established. Late in 1972, the Commission for the Environment was set up to service the Minister and to ensure that Government decision makers are provided with information on the environmental implications of policies and projects before decisions are made.

Thus the Environmental Council functioned for its first 2 years without a minister or commission. It was at that time a sector council of the National Development Council and concerned itself with implementation of recommendations of the Physical Environment Conference. Amongst early policy concerns and recommendations were the management of coastal waters, the use of coastal land, preservation of wetlands, small hydro schemes, and regional planning. New Zealand's leading role in opposition to nuclear testing at the 1972 United Nations Environment Conference was based on a council recommendation. When, in 1976 the Fact-finding Group on Nuclear Power, and later the Royal Commission, were set up, the council's position was that before any decision was taken, fundamental issues such as the country's approach to economic development, consequential future energy patterns, and the viability of alternative means of production should be explored publicly.

Coastal management, nuclear power, and regional planning have represented continuing interests of the council, which was one of the bodies pressing the Government strongly prior to the establishment of the coastal purchase fund. Environmental Council recommendations and persistence have contributed to the maritime and regional planning provisions now incorporated in the 1977 Planning Act.

The council also recommended the establishment of environmental grants, and in 1978 and 1979, called for applications and subsequently recommended grants to the Minister.

In general, the object of the grants is to foster the public contribution of the environmental movement, for example, in the establishment of regional environment centres, and to aid groups and organisations to carry out research and studies.

The council has published a number of reports and booklets about environmental issues. Following its contribution to the New Zealand report to the World Population Conference in Bucharest in 1974, a working party of the council prepared a booklet for New Zealand on population issues, entitled Crisis or Choice. In this and other publications such as Energy in the New Zealand Environment the council has sought to provide basic public information about issues which will help individual understanding and decisions about environmental controversies. Several of the publications have been designed for, and widely used by, the education system. Effective environmental management must be based on a comprehensive community understanding of facts and issues. For this reason, apart from its publications about issues, the Environmental Council has been a protagonist of freedom of information, producing a report to the Minister for the Environment on this subject in 1977.

As one of a number of bodies concerned with the environment the council has been careful to liaise with the Nature Conservation Council, the Commission for the Environment, the Social Development Council, and the New Zealand Planning Council. All these bodies, and others, contribute to the steady development of environmental policy and management.

The first appointment of a Minister for the Environment was followed later in 1972 by the setting up of the commission. The Minister has no management or executive responsibility (except for operations of the Commission for the Environment), but is responsible for ensuring that environmental considerations are given full weight in Cabinet and Cabinet Committee deliberations. There is no environmental Act defining his responsibilities so he has freedom to exert his influence wherever there are important environmental issues at stake. The fact that the Minister for the Environment also holds other portfolios with developmental responsibilities helps to ensure that environmental improvement and economic development are regarded as complementary rather than conflicting national aims, and the understanding of these objectives as complementary moves towards an eventual objective of the creative integration of development and conservation.

The Commission for the Environment does not have any executive or management responsibilities. The commissioner has 3 main roles. Firstly, he provides the Minister with information and advice on environmental issues, whether these are the environmental implications of development proposals or are primary issues which are considered independently of any immediate development. Secondly, he and his staff work among Government departments seeking to ensure that environmental considerations are incorporated into all phases of departmental operations. Thirdly, the commission administers the environmental protection and enhancement procedures which involve the publication of environmental impact reports, receiving and evaluating public comments, and preparing and publishing evaluations of the environmental issues involved, in the form of “audits”. It also publishes discussion papers on its own initiative to stimulate public thinking and discussion of important forthcoming environmental issues. The commission's basic function is educative and advisory, to ensure that information of the environmental issues involved is available when decisions are taken.

In constitutional terms the Commissioner for the Environment fulfils an unusual dual role. On the one hand he is a public servant responsible to a Minister of the Crown, for whom he provides advice. On the other hand he is a potential public critic on the environmental aspects of proposals being submitted.

A feature of the New Zealand scene is the wide range of environmental responsibility across many agencies and departments. It is obvious that the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation must be deeply involved in fundamental environmental questions. It is equally clear that the Department of Health must be concerned with all aspects of environmental and health relationships, from noise to air pollution and lead levels, to waste water treatment, potable water quality, and pathways and destinations for heavy metals.

These agencies, and departments like the Ministry of Works and Development, the Department of Lands and Survey, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the New Zealand Forest Service, and the Ministry of Transport have carried their responsibilities for some considerable time, and prior to the Physical Environment Conference. Since the conference, not only have the Environmental Council, and the commission been set up, and a Minister appointed, but also the New Zealand Planning Council, the Commission for the Future, and the Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust have been established.

As potentially the leading protector of open space in New Zealand, the Queen Elizabeth the Second Trust is clearly a very important environmental agency. It has identified the need for an inventory of open space resources, both land and water, on a regional basis, commenced the establishment of open space covenants, and made some moves towards the joint acquisition of land of recreational value with local authorities. It sees a role as an advisory agency on open space, and has come out strongly in support of protection for recreational and scenic values on natural water.

A primary role of the Commission for the Future is as the promoter of public discussion and understanding of long-term issues. Some environmental issues, such as the conservation of the earth's mantle of soil and water, or man-effects on climate, or the longer-term effects of short-term decisions, are of the greatest importance, and must be considered with other long-term questions.

The New Zealand Planning Council was set up following Government consideration of New Zealand at the Turning Point, a report prepared by a task force on economic and social planning. The report devoted considerable discussion to environmental questions. It pointed to the importance of the availability of information, and of the consideration of alternatives, with long- and short-term effects being fully considered in advance, so that environmentally positive choices could be made. It drew attention to the need for effective integration between the statutory requirement and the impact reporting procedures. Environmental assessments should become a fundamental part of every preliminary plan so that there would be no need for separate preparation. The report supported and quoted the Environmental Council's view of the importance of regional management, “Effective regional management is an element so vital that our planning structure cannot be regarded as being established without it”.

One of the very significant legislative enactments of the early part of the decade was the Clean Air Act 1972, which established the Clean Air Council and legislative control of air quality. The report of the Clean Air Council in 1978 noted that “on the whole, the Clean Air Act 1972 has been a successful piece of legislation and is working well”, but that, “an amendment to control fluorocarbons may be required in view of the possibility of their effect on stratosphere ozone”. The same report recorded “the disappointment and frustration felt by the council in the lack of progress and, at times even of apparent interest, in the implementation of its recommendations”. The report went on to say that “The council believes a downgrading of the importance of clean air through apathy, the energy crisis or whatever reasons will, in time, produce in parts of New Zealand air quality reminiscent of that found in the worst areas of the Northern Hemisphere”. The report points out that pollution from motor vehicles in Auckland and domestic fumes in Christchurch has degraded the atmospheric environment of these cities.

In addition to the Clean Air Act 1972 and the Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust Act, there have been other important legislative actions. The Marine Pollution Act 1974 made extensive provision for prevention of marine pollution caused by oil or the unauthorised dumping of waste. It also formally implemented New Zealand's international obligation as set out in the International Convention for Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1954 and certain other treaties to which New Zealand is a party.

The Marine Reserves Act 1971 provides for the establishment and management of areas of the sea and foreshore as marine reserves for the purpose of preserving them in their natural state as the habitat of marine life for scientific study. However, only 1 marine reserve has, up until 1979, been declared under the Act. This was the Goat Island Reserve of 526 hectares near Cape Rodney, declared a marine reserve in 1975.

The stated aim of the Walkways Act 1975 is that of establishing walking tracks over public and private land, so that the people of New Zealand will have safe, unimpeded foot access to the countryside for physical recreation as well as for enjoyment of the outdoor environment. The New Zealand Walkways Commission has made considerable progress with the establishment of the system, concentrating in the early stages on walkways near urban areas, and a number have already been opened to the public.

The Lake Wanaka Preservation Act 1973 prevents impondment or control of the lake or its outflow, the objective being to preserve as far as possible the natural state of water levels and the shoreline.

The Water and Soil Conservation Act 1975, one of New Zealand's most important pieces of environmental legislation, has been the subject of amendment over the decade. It is currently under review and is likely to receive further amendment in the near future. The approach adopted to control of water quality, that of classification of receiving waters, has been the subject of controversy. This should not obscure the fact that progress in the establishment of a national structure for water management has been made, and that important problems are now being grappled with. These include the better combined management of land-use and water-use, improved decision-making on coastal matters, the implementation of urban land conservation practices, and the co-ordination of land-water use decisions within planning.

One of the most influential environmental events of the decade was the passing of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977. This established a new system of regional planning wherein united and regional councils have to establish a planning committee to advise on regional planning. The committee is to have representatives on it of catchment authorities, maritime planning authorities (if any), other local authorities as may be agreed with the Minister, the Maori people (where there are significant Maori land holdings in the region), and the Crown. The regional planning committee, thus conceived, has the potential to become the primary co-ordinator of environmental management at the regional level.

The 1977 Act also introduced maritime planning, providing for maritime planning authorities to be appointed, and for the preparation and administration of maritime planning schemes. The Act also widened the scope for public involvement in planning decisions.

The National Development Act 1979, coming right at the end of the decade, gave expression to Government concern that co-ordination needed to be provided for the many procedures and separate licences and consents created in legislation, much of it in the past decade, if delay was to be minimised for projects of national interest. The Act took a number of environmentally-important steps, two of the most significant being the appearance of the environmental impact report for the first time in legislation, and (also for the first time) legislative reference to the Commissioner for the Environment. The environmental impact report becomes the base document on which an inquiry by the Planning Tribunal is focused. The Act provides standing for the commissioner as an important witness in the inquiry, and provides that in his capacity he will not be subject to Government direction.

No account of environmental developments of the decade would be complete without reference to the rapid growth of citizen organisations, involvement, and contribution. Wide community interest has been demonstrated in the number and range of interest of groups, from the civic trusts to those concerned with waste reduction and recycling, to those whose primary focus is conservation of nature and indigenous forests. An important new institution, the environmental centre, has been established by the groups in a number of cities and towns. Public policy has been significantly affected (and improved) by the criticism, and the constructive contribution of the environmental movement. The work has depended almost wholly on individual commitment, enthusiasm, and dedication.

The urban environment, in which 8 out of 10 New Zealanders live, has shared in the environmental awakening of the 1970s, chiefly through the development and maturing of planning by management. The importance of a clear view of objectives by local government, and of their statement in district schemes, has become appreciated. The Environmental Council sought to contribute to this process when it published its Urban Objectives Report early in 1978. There has been a noticeable shift towards a better understanding of the interrelated nature of the physical and the social environments.

In total, the decade has demonstrated substantial progress towards balanced environmental decisionmaking. The evolution of new institutions has been rapid, the elaboration of legislative control considerable, and the extension of the “man in the street's” environmental awareness very marked. The review of environmental policy and management in New Zealand by a committee of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development is therefore a timely stocktaking. On the whole, the 1980s begin with some useful environmental machinery in place.

In the 1980s New Zealand will have to learn how to use this machinery, because the 1970s have been more notable for creation of control than for effective implementation. Many outstanding problems still remain in the field. Wetlands continue to decrease. An effective approach to the difficult problem of the increasing volume of noise has yet to be worked out. New Zealand needs more marine reserves. The Clean Air Council's comments about air quality remain valid. Problems of land use can be expected to intensify, and a series of national seminars on land use sponsored by the Land Use Advisory Council will provide important information for management in the 1980s. The effective interrelating of land-use and water-use management remains a problem on the coast, as indeed over the whole country. In the 1970s, some steps were made on a long and difficult journey.

Chapter 44. LIFE TABLES: A MEASURE OF LIFE EXPECTANCY

Life tables are based on census results and the mortality statistics over a period and depict the pattern of mortality over the age span of life for particular components of the population. In addition to giving a general indication of the standard of health of populations and their longevity and level of social development, life tables have a wide range of special applications in demographic, actuarial, legal, medical, and sociological work.

In New Zealand, life tables for the non-Maori component of the population have been constructed at regular intervals since 1880. Maori life tables were first produced for the period 1950–52. The most recent tables prepared by the Department of Statistics are based on the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings together with mortality statistics for 1975–77.

The full tables, together with details concerning life-table methodology and construction and long-term trends in life expectancy, are published in New Zealand Life Tables 1975–77, obtainable from Government bookshops.

PATTERNS OF MORTALITY: NON-MAORI—The following table shows survival rates and life expectancy of non-Maori males and females at selected ages. (The full tables as published give similar data for each year of life.) Columns 4 and 5, the “Probability” columns, are complementary, totalling 1.00000.

The general long-term trend since 1880 for non-Maoris has been a steady improvement in life expectancy for both sexes. The improvement has been striking for the younger ages but relatively slight for the more elderly. Progress in medical science, coupled with improved social conditions and better health education, has resulted in a substantial reduction in infant mortality and smaller but significant reductions in mortality for all ages up to middle age. This trend has continued up to 1975–77 for females, but there was a temporary decrease in male life expectancy for most ages between 1960–62 and 1965–67. However, the improvement in mortality rates for males up to 80 years of age between 1965–67 and 1975–77 was sufficient to halt this temporary fall in life expectancy. In the latest table, male life expectancy is above the 1960–62 level at birth and at all adult ages above 22 years. The general pattern of non-Maori mortality over the age-span of life can best be examined by considering the life-table column headed “Probability that a person who reaches this age dies within a year”. This shows that the same general pattern is exhibited by both males and females. The pattern is characterised by relatively high mortality in the first year of life, followed by a gradual decline until about the age of ten years. Thereafter age-specific mortality increases with increasing age except that there is a “hump” in mortality rates centred in the late teens which is attributed to a relatively high accident rate in this group. (This “accident hump” is much more pronounced for males than for females.)

NON-MAORI MALE. AND FEMALE LIFE TABLES 1975–77
Exact Age (Years)Out of 100000 Males or Females BornProbability that a Male or Female Who Reaches This AgeExpectation of Life (Years)
Number Who Live to This AgeAverage Number Living in Next Year of AgeNumber Who Die During Next Year of AgeLives a Further YearDies Within a Year
Males
0100,00098,60616490.983510.0164969.37
198,35198,2901220.998760.0012469.53
298,22998,183920.999060.0009468.61
398,13798,097790.999190.0008167.68
498,05798,024670.999320.0006866.73
597,99197,963560.999430.0005765.78
1097,77797,760340.999650.0003560.92
1597,56997,528820.999160.0008456.04
2096,76996,6672040.997890.0021151.48
2595,89095,8231340.998600.0014046.93
3095,27495,2151180.998760.0012442.22
4093,80393,6912240.997610.0023932.79
5090,03989,7166460.992820.0071823.92
6080,11979,35315320.980880.0191216.17
7059,04957,61728640.951500.048509.98
8027,44425,96129660.891940.108065.66
904160361210950.736680.263322.80
1003726220.415100.584901.11
Females
0100,00098,99611990.988010.0119975.88
198,80198,7391240.998740,0012675.80
298,67798,638770.999220.0007874.90
398,60098,573520.999470.0005373.96
498,54798,528390.999600.0004072.99
598,50898,491330.999660.0003472.02
1098,35498,340290.999710.0002967.13
1598,19798,174460.999530.0004762.24
2097,91997,890590.999400.0006057.40
2597,63797,608570.999420.0005852.56
3097,33797,303680.999300.0007047.72
4096,37496,2931620.998320.0016838.14
5093,75593,5593930.995810.0041929.04
6088,09187,6438970.989820.0101820.55
7075,35674,37819560.974040.0259613.07
8048,60246,88834280.929460.070547.27
9013,61712,28626630.804420.195583.38
1002131531180.443920.556081.20

The following table shows the life expectancies of non-Maori males and females at birth and at the exact ages of 20 years and 60 years, as revealed by each life table compiled during the past 60 years.

Life TableLife Expectancy (Years)
Males Aged ExactlyFemales Aged Exactly
0206002060
1911–1560.9647.6115.5463.4849.1416.72
1921–2262.7648.6616.0365.4350.3617.29
1925–2763.9948.9315.7966.5750.9617.23
193165.0449.6116.2267.8851.2817.30
1934–3865.4649.8916.0668.4552.0217.49
1950–5268.2951.1516.1972.4354.6418.53
1955–5768.8851.4416.1973.8855.8719.16
1960–6269.1751.5316.0974.5156.3319.39
1965–6768.6750.8915.8274.8456.4619.68
1970–7269.0951.1615.8275.1656.7419.91
1975–7769.3751.4816.1775.8857.4020.55

PATTERNS OF MORTALITY: MAORI—The mortality of Maori males and females displays the same broad pattern of variation with age as in the case of non-Maori males and females. The probability of dying within a year is relatively high in the first year of life, but declines noticeably in the second year. The downward trend continues until approximately the age of ten years, but thereafter the probability of dying within a year rises with increasing age until the early 20s (20 years of age for females, 23 years of age for males) when the “accident hump” is surmounted and the probability of dying within the year diminishes slightly before resuming its slow annual rise.

At birth a Maori male has a life expectancy of 63.35 years; this increases to 63.62 years if he survives to his first birthday. Maori female life expectancy rises from 67.75 years at birth to 67.76 years at the first birthday. This rise in life expectancy after one year reflects the relatively high mortality experience in the first year of life. There is an overall higher incidence of mortality at nearly all ages among Maoris than is evident among non-Maoris. Under 1975–77 mortality conditions, 1.98 percent of Maori males at birth can be expected to die before their first birthday. Among non-Maori males the figure is only 1.65 percent; for females these chances are 1.47 percent for Maoris, and 1.20 percent for non-Maoris. Maori mortality is higher than non-Maori mortality at all ages except 85 to 93 years for males. The data at these ages are based on small numbers of deaths and exposed-to-risk populations and, consequently, are not very reliable.

The following table shows survival rates and life expectancy of Maori males and females at selected ages.

MAORI MALE AND FEMALE LIFE TABLES, 1975–77
Exact Age (Years)Out of 100000 Malts or Females BornProbability That a Male or Female Who Reaches This AgeExpectation of Life (Years)
Number Who Live to This AgeAverage Number Living in Next Year of AgeNumber Who Die During Next Year of AgeLives a Further YearDies Within a Year
Males
0100,00098,42419750.980250.0197563.35
198,02597,9451600.998370.0016363.62
297,86597,8081150.998830.0011762.72
397,75197,701990.998990.0010161.80
497,65297,608890.999090.0009160.86
597,56397,523810.999170.0008359.91
1097,22997,206460.999530.0004755.11
1596,97096,9181030.998940.0010650.25
2096,14696,0262400.997500.0025045.66
2594,87094,7422570.997290.0027141.24
3093,66193,5532160.997690.0023136.74
4090,62790,3565430.994010.0059927.77
5082,39681,77612420.984930.0150719.98
6066,14565,08921130.968050.0319513.55
7039,75738,42326670.932920.067089.04
8015,65514,63620380.869830.130175.50
90253022325980.763800.236202.93
1001611110.344620.65538
Females
0100,00098,84914710.985290.0147167.75
198,52998,4242110.997860.0021467.76
298,31898,2551270.998710.0012966.90
398,19198,146900.999080.0009265.99
498,10198,066700.999290.0007165.05
598,03198,003570.999420.0005864.09
1097,83397,823220.999780.0002259.22
1597,64897,610760.999220.0007854.32
2097,14997,0901170.998800.0012049.59
2596,59496,5441010.998950.0010544.86
3096,07796,0151240.998710.0012940.09
4093,75293,5474100.995630.0043730.94
5087,29586,76610580.987880.0121222.80
6072,88371,98417980.975330.0246716.23
7050,33549,06725360.949620.0503811.12
8026,29525,28820130.923460.076546.87
906496576014730.773250.226752.99
1005035300.388700.611301.06

Life expectancies of Maori males and females at birth and at the exact ages of 20 years and 60 years, as revealed by each life table compiled for the Maori population since 1950–52, are shown in the following table.

Life TableMaori Life Expectancy (Years)
Males Aged ExactlyFemales Aged Exactly
0206002060
1950–5254.0542.2112.8155.8843.2914.41
1955–5757.2344.1213.0358.6844.1413.38
1960–6259.0544.1913.0261.3745.2514.10
1965–6761.4445.1312.8964.7847.4815.09
1970–7260.9643.9712.9664.9647.5414.60
1975–7763.3545.6613.5567.7549.5916.23

There has been an increasing trend in Maori life expectancies since 1950–52, except for a slight decline at most ages for males between 1965–67 and 1970–72. This was largely accounted for by increased mortality due to accidents and cancer during this period, a trend which did not continue between 1970–72 and 1975–77.

Another aspect of the comparative pattern of mortality between Maoris and non-Maoris is shown by the table below which sets out, under 1975–77 mortality experience, the percentages of persons born alive and attaining certain ages which frequently represent social or economic milestones.

Exact Age (Years)Percentage of Persons Born Who Survive to this Age
MaorisNon-MaorisMaorisNon-Maoris
 MalesFemales
5 (Start school)97.698.098.098.5
16 (Many start work)96.997.557,698.2
24 (Average age at marriage)95.196.096.797.7
60 (Retirement)66.180.172.988.1
902.54.26.513.6

As a consequence of the higher age-specific mortality among Maoris, Maori life expectancies are considerably less than those for non-Maoris. The expectation of life at birth for a Maori male is 6.02 years less than for a non-Maori male (63.35 years as against 69.37 years); for a Maori female it is 8.13 years less than for a non-Maori female (67.75 years as against 75.88 years). The differential between Maoris and non-Maoris is greatest at birth.

An indication of the rate at which Maori life expectancy is changing relative to non-Maori life expectancy is furnished by the following table, which sets out for selected ages the differences between non-Maori and Maori life expectancy since 1955–57.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NON-MAORI AND MAORI LIFE EXPECTANCY, FROM 1955–57 TO 1975–77
Exact Age (Years)Differences Between Non-Maori and Maori Life Expectancy (Years)
1955–571960–621965–671970–721975–77
 Males
011.6510.127.238.136.02
19.178.546.467.755.91
58.297.936.127.515.87
107.837.725.997.405.81
207.327.345.767.195.82
306.626.595.416.655.48
405.535.604.745.845.02
603.163.072.932.862.62
 Females
015.2013.1410.0610.208.13
113.3711.919.509.578.04
512.5811.519.209.407.93
1012.3611.409.149.377.91
2011.7311.088.989.207.81
3010.9710.568.638.897.63
4010.109.658.068.247.20
605.785.294.295.314.32

This table shows that the differences between non-Maori and Maori life expectancies, after steadily decreasing between 1955–57 and 1965–67, rose between 1965–67 and 1970–72. However, the gap again narrowed between 1970–72 and 1975–77, to the extent that it was generally smaller than in 1965–67.

There was a significant improvement in Maori infant mortality between 1970–72 and 1975–77, together with lesser decreases in both Maori male and female mortality at most ages.

PATTERNS OF MORTALITY: TOTAL POPULATION—The overall pattern of mortality over the age span of life for the total New Zealand population, Maoris and non-Maoris combined, is dependent on two factors. First, there are the relative differences between Maori and non-Maori age-specific mortality rates, and secondly, the relative proportions in each ethnic group within the total population at various ages.

Between 1965–67 and 1970–72, life expectancy for males in the total population increased up to 71 years of age, while life expectancy for females increased up to 85 years of age. This trend continued between 1970–72 and 1975–77, with male life expectancy increasing up to the age of 83, and life expectancy for females increasing up to the age of 92.

Because of the similarity between the mortality patterns of non-Maoris and the total population, the general descriptive remarks in the earlier section on non-Maori mortality apply, mutatis mutandis, to the total population.

Survival rates and the life expectancies of males and females in the total population are shown in the following table.

TOTAL POPULATION MALE AND FEMALE LIFE TABLES 1975–77
Exact Age (Years)Out of 100000 Males or Females BornProbability That a Male or Female Who Reaches This Age
Number Who Live To This AgeAverage Number Living in Next Year of AgeNumber Who Die During Next Year of AgeLives a Further YearDies Within a YearExpectation of Life (Years)
 Males
0100,00098,58416870.983130.0168769.01
198,31398,2501260.998720.0012869.20
298,18798,140940.999040.0009668.28
398,09398,052810.999170.0008367.35
498,01197,977700.999290.0007166.40
597,94297,913590.999400.0006065.45
1097,71397,695350.999640.0003660.60
1597,49297,449870.999110.0008955.73
2096,68196,5762110.997820.0021851.17
2595,78095,7101410.998530.0014746.63
3095,12695,0631260.998680.0013241.94
4093,51293,3882480.997350.0026532.56
5089,46089,1186830.992370.0076323.77
6079,30178,52015620.980300.0197016.09
7058,08056,66328330.951220.048789.97
8026,92725,47229100.891930.108075.66
904065353410630.738490.261512.85
1004230240.430520.569481.15
 Females
0100,00098,97912300.987700.0123075.45
198,77098,7031340.998640.0013675.39
298,63698,595820.999170.0008374.49
398,55498,529500.999490.0005173.55
498,50498,483400.999590.0004172.59
598,46398,446340.999650.0003571.62
1098,30898,293290.999710.0002966.73
1598,14998,124480.999510.0004961.83
2097,85597,824640.999350.0006557.01
2597,54597,513630.999350.0006552.18
3097,21197,174760.999220.0007847.35
4096,15296,0621800.998130.0018737.81
5093,26693,0534250.995440.0045628.81
6087,17886,7139290.989340.0106620.42
7074,18073,20319550.973650.0263513.03
8047,61645,93633600.929440.070567.26
9013,30612,00426040.804320.195683.38
1002151561180.450460.549541.22

It should perhaps be stated, as applicable to all life tables, that life expectancy is only meaningful as an average applicable to a large population group. Care should therefore be exercised in the application of this statistical measure to particular individuals.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS—Until the Second World War, the New Zealand (non-Maori) expectation of life was consistently higher than that in other countries. (There were no Maori life tables prior to 1950–52). This pre-eminent ranking has not been maintained. As can be seen in the following table, a number of European countries, together with Canada and Japan, now have a longer male life expectancy at birth than New Zealand, and these countries—together with France and the United States—also have a longer female life expectancy. It appears that New Zealand has continued to lose ground, life expectancies not having improved in recent years as much as in some other countries. Comparisons with other countries indicate that infant mortality and deaths from accidents (especially among children and young people) are major areas where there is room for further improvement.

The table below compares the life expectancy at birth for the total population of New Zealand with that for selected overseas countries. Sources: United Nations Demographic Yearbook 1977 and Mortality Statistics, 1976England and Wales.

CountryPeriodLife Expectancy at birth (Years)
MalesFemales
Australia1970–7267.9074.60
Canada1970–7269.3476.36
Denmark1975–7671.176.8
England and Wales1974–7669.675.8
France197469.076.9
Japan197471.1676.31
Netherlands1971–7571.277.2
New Zealand1975–7769.0175.45
United States197568.776.5

Chapter 45. SPECIAL FEATURES IN PREVIOUS ISSUES

SPECIAL ARTICLES

Special articles published prior to 1965 were listed in the 1979 and earlier Yearbooks.

SubjectYearPage
The Maori people as shown by the Population Census 196119651160
Industrial relations—The next ten years and beyond19661131
Population growth and economic development in New Zealand19661136
Scientific research in New Zealand19671118
Recent constitutional changes in the South-West Pacific19681104
National Development Conference 196919691103
Development of forestry and forest industries19691107
Captain James Cook and his three voyages of discovery in the Pacific 1768–7919691116
Metrication19701110
Human pressures on the natural environment19701115
Ministry of Works, 1871–197119711110
Evolution of social security in New Zealand19721015
Evolution of New Zealand dairy industry 1871–197119721024
Development of the meat industry 1922–7219731047
New Zealand membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development19731064
Tenth British Commonwealth Games 197419731068
New Zealand Ports and Shipping Developments19741065
Revision of Consumers Price Index 197419751039
Household Sample Survey 1973–7419751047
Input-output analysis: an abacus for economists19751052
Tourism: the invisible export19761030
One hundred years of Lands and Survey19761046
Royal Visit 19771977942
New Zealand at the turning point1977945
Education in the New Zealand community1977952
Abbreviations, contractions, and acronyms1978936
General Price Index1978943
Abbreviations contractions, and acronyms (revised)1979931
The child and learning in a multi-cultural society1979938

PHOTOGRAPHIC SUPPLEMENTS

Photographic supplements published since 1965 are listed below. A capital C following the subject denotes a colour supplement.

SubjectYearbook
Outdoor Recreation in New Zealand1965
The Continuing Development of New Zealand1966
Attractive New Zealand1967
Universities in New Zealand1968
Forests of New Zealand1969
Natural New Zealand1970
A Century of Public Works 1871–19711971
New Zealand Environment1972
Leisure in New Zealand1973
Tenth British Commonwealth Games (C)1974
Vista of Colourful New Zealand (C)1975
Seeing New Zealand—Then and Now (C)1976
New Zealand's Primary Industries (C)1977
New Zealand from the air (C)1978
New Zealand Children (C)1979

Chapter 46. DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS SELECTED PUBLICATIONS

General Statistical Publications
Monthly Abstract of Statistics
Pocket Digest of Statistics
New Zealand Official Yearbook
New Zealand Statistics (brochure)
Catalogue of Statistics
Annual Reports
Agricultural Statistics
Balance of Payments
Building Statistics
External Trade
Exports (Final Statistics)
Imports (Final Statistics)
Report and Analysis
Household Survey
Incomes and Income Tax
Insurance Statistics
Justice Statistics
Local Authority Statistics
Population and Migration
Pt. A Population
Pt. B External Migration
Prices, Wages, and Labour
Pt. A Prices
Pt. B Wages and Labour
Transport
Vital Statistics
Census of Population and Dwellings 1976
Vol. 1 Location and Increase of Population
Pt. A Population Size and Distribution
Pt. B Population Density
Pt. C Usually Resident Population
2 Ages and Marital Status
3 Religious Professions
4 Labour Force
5 Incomes and Social Security Benefits
6 Education and Training
7 Birthplaces and Ethnic Origin
8 Maori Population and Dwellings
9 Dwellings
10 Households, Families, and Fertility
11 Internal Migration
Some Other Censuses
Census of Building and Construction
Census of Distribution
Census of Libraries
Census of Manufacturing
(Results of the 1974–75 and 1975–76 Censuses have been published in 3 series of Bulletins.)
Other Publications
Inter-Industry Studies
Life Tables
Life Annuity Tables
Quarterly Population Bulletins
Sub-national Population Projections

A leaflet showing further details of statistical publications can be obtained from Government Bookshops at the following addresses—

Auckland: Hannaford Burton Building, Rutland Street (P.O. Box 5344). Ph. 32919.

Hamilton: Northern Automobile Building, Alexandra Street (P.O. Nos 857). Ph. 80103.

Wellington: Head Office, Mulgrave Street (Private Bag). Ph. 737320.

Wellington: World Trade Center, Cubacade (Private Bag). Ph. 849572.

Christchurch: Avon House, 130 Oxford Terrace (Private Bag). Ph. 797142.

Dunedin: T. and G. Building, Princes Street (P.O. Box 1104). Ph. 778294.

Chapter 47. DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS STATISTICAL BULLETINS

A wide range of statistical information is published in the form of statistical bulletins, frequently before publication in an annual volume. A detailed list of Department of Statistics publications is published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics or is available from the Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington, from whence details of the Department's Information Service can also be obtained.

Summary results of the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings were published in a series of 24 national, regional, and subject-matter bulletins before publication of the subject-matter volumes.

A list of bulletins in the Miscellaneous Series is published below. Most of these bulletins are obtainable only from the Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.

Miscellaneous Series

  1. New Zealand Males and Females: A Statistical Comparison

  2. New Zealand Tables of Working Life

  3. Concentration of Ownership in New Zealand Manufacturing Industries 1974–75

  4. New Zealand Supreme Court Criminal Statistics: Time Series to 1976

  5. New Zealand Supreme Court Divorce Statistics: Time Series to 1976

  6. New Zealand Children and Young Persons Courts Statistics: Time Series to 1976

  7. New Zealand Maori and Non-Maori Populations—Time Series

  8. 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings, The Range and Availability of Regional Statistics

  9. 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings, The Range and Availability of National Statistics

  10. Family Statistics in New Zealand

  11. Survey on Driving Practices and Opinions, 1975

  12. New Zealand Children 1979

  13. A Discussion of New Zealand's Changing Population Structure

  14. Provisional New Zealand Input-Output Tables 1976–77

  15. Survey on Housing Conditions and Internal Migration in New Zealand, 1975

  16. Health and Health Services and Travel to Work in New Zealand

  17. New Zealand Permanent and Long-Term Migration Time Series Statistics, 1922–1979

Survey of Persons Aged 65 years and over

New Zealand Standard Classifications

Obtainable from Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.

  1. New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations (NZSCO)

  2. New Zealand Standard Country Code (NZSCC)

  3. New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC)

  4. New Zealand Standard Institutional Sector Classification (NZISC)

  5. New Zealand Statistical Classification of Exports

  6. New Zealand Statistical Classification of Imports

Chapter 48. CENSUS OF POPULATION AND DWELLINGS 1981

The Department of Statistics conducts a number of censuses—a census of agriculture, of manufacturing, of distribution, of building and construction, of mining and quarrying, and others—but the most important is undoubtedly the 5–yearly Census of Population and Dwellings. To the man (or woman) in the street, and probably to most professional users of statistics, this is “the census”. It is the one census that directly concerns everybody in New Zealand.

There are 2 Census Questionnaires, a Personal Questionnaire and a Dwelling Questionnaire. The Census Personal Questionnaire must be completed by (or for) every person in the country, and on the same day. The baby who draws a first breath at a minute before midnight on the date of the Census must have a Personal Questionnaire completed on his or her behalf (however, the instructions on the schedule considerately say, “If baby has not yet been given a Christian or first name, enter surname and write 'baby”', and he (or she) is exempted from the sections dealing with occupations and marital status) and so must the greybeard full of years and wisdom who dies a minute after midnight.

In the days immediately preceding and following the Census a small army of subenumerators, temporarily employed by the Department of Statistics and sworn to secrecy regarding the contents of questionnaires, are engaged in delivering blank questionnaires, giving any required assistance in filling them in, and collecting the completed questionnaires. Houses, flats, hotels, hospitals, barracks, hostels, boarding schools, construction camps, caravans, tents, even ships and trains—all come within the scope of the census. At each dwelling, a subenumerator leaves a single Dwelling Questionnaire and a Personal Questionnaire for each person present on Census night. The number of questionnaires distributed and (later) collected runs into millions.

The Census of Population and Dwellings—

  • is the one census that directly concerns everybody.

  • is more than a mere “count of heads”. It is a comprehensive statistical survey of social and economic conditions and of the structure and distribution of the population.

  • provides essential “benchmarks” by which to determine the accuracy of sample surveys and estimates made during inter-census years.

  • is completely confidential. By law, no information from individual questionnaires can be given to other government departments or any outside person or organisation, nor can information be published in a form that makes it possible to identify individuals.

  • provides information vital to the planning of new community services such as schools, hospitals, drainage schemes, and shopping centres.

  • will supply population figures to be used in setting new electoral boundaries for the 1984 parliamentary elections.

  • data are widely used by the private sector—by manufacturers, distributors, importers, market researchers, member of the professions, and, of course, teachers and students.

  • is a valuable historical record of living conditions and social and economic development. (The omission of the 5–yearly census due to be taken in 1931 has left a permanent gap in our historical records).

THE CENSUS OF POPULATION AND DWELLINGS WILL BE TAKEN ON 24 MARCH 1981

THE CENSUS MEANS YOU

PLEASE CO-OPERATE

Chapter 49. LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

Later statistical information has become available during the course of printing the Yearbook. Some of these statistics are entered in the Statistical Summary (pp. 910 to 940). Other information is given in the following pages with references to appropriate sections of the Yearbook. Readers are referred to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and the frequent Information Service releases of the Department of Statistics for the most recent information on many statistical series.

POPULATION

Population—See Statistical Summary. During the year ended 30 June 1980 the population is provisionally estimated to have increased by 4500, or 0.15 percent, to reach a total of 3100100 at 30 June.

Employment—Registered unemployed and those on special work during recent months are shown in the following table.

PeriodRegistered UnemployedEmployed on Special WorkPrivate Sector Job Creation Programme
MalesFemalesTotalWith Government Depts.With Local Authorities
Monthly average—
    197915,559968025,239999471377306
End of month—
    1980—January16,45311,71728,170842468043951
            February16,81411,77328,587811568843897
            March17,42311,57528,998782870274095
            April17,09311,70828,801811171404091
            May18,21611,67929,895796974103910
            June21,65112,07433,725813076333973
            July24,42012,70037,120829479584005

Migration—Total arrivals and departures are classified in the following table.

CategoryYear Ended 31 March
197819791980
* Mainly on cruise ships.
Arrivals   
Permanent and long-term arrivals36,97240,80841,607
New Zealand residents returning287,868346,324439,137
Temporary visitors390,940418,744445,195
            Total715,780805,876925,939
Crews182,176172,825175,810
Through passengers*162,733176,586176,822
            Grand total, all arrivals1,060,6891,155,2871,278,571
Permanent and long-term departures63,68081,00876,024
New Zealand residents departing temporarily284,284343,764426,805
Temporary visitors departing389,972407,648444,424
            Total737,936832,420947,253
Crews182,327173,187176,795
Through passengers*162,733176,586176,822
            Grand total, all departures1,082,9961,182,1931,300,870
Net inflow (+) or outflow (-)−22307−26906−22299

The following table shows permanent and long-term arrivals and departures by occupation during the 2 latest March years.

Occupational DivisionYear Ended March 1979Year Ended March 1980
ArrivalsDeparturesArrivalsDepartures
* Included in above.
Professional, technical, and related workers768013,496797112,108
Administrative and managerial workers82419167611714
Clerical and related workers3988978440599082
Sales workers1048282811682862
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forest workers, fishermen and hunters932191210181796
Craftsmen, factory workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers608016,260649316,210
Service workers1936367217853599
Occupations not classifiable or unspecified2420337214622250
Not actively engaged15,90027,76816,89026,403
                Total40,80881,00841,60776,024
                Net loss4020034417
 Actively engaged*
                Total24,90853,24024,71749,621
                Net loss2833224904

TRANSPORT

Railway Transport—Summarised statistics of railway transport for the latest available year are compared with previous years.

ItemUnitYear Ended 31 March
197819791980
* Including road services, rail-road ferry, and other subsidiary services.
Passenger journeys—
    Railways(000)16,40216,74916,011
    Railway road motor services(000)19,90019,740 
Freight carried (excl. parcels)tonnes(000)12,57711,72111,755
Revenue—
    Railway operation$(000)212,748237,266274,369
                Total*$(000)266,404299,512349,126
Expenditure—
    Railway operation$(000)251,863287,241331,360
                Total*$(000)304,183346,786404,931
Deficit$(000)37,77947,27355,805

Road Transport—Statistics of motor vehicles licensed at 31 March 1980 are compared with those for 31 March 1979.

ClassAs at 31 March
19791980
* Mostly farm tractors, etc.
Cars1,257,0161,297,253
Trucks247,892253,564
Contract vehicles12681396
Omnibuses and service coaches34163397
Motor cycles104,872123,365
Power cycles18902001
Vehicles exempted from payment of licence fees*89,10490,345
Trailers and caravans367,335374,490
Miscellaneous12,37611,705
                Grand total2,085,1692,157,516

International Civil Aviation—The following table shows passengers, freight (including excess baggage), and mail carried by international scheduled air services on scheduled routes.

Calendar YearPassengers CarriedFreight CarriedMail Carried
 (000)tonnes
1975117930,8772270
1976124539,7062229
1977128641,6842286
1978141549,2092366
1979168256,9772665

Domestic Civil Aviation—During 1979 domestic scheduled services flying scheduled routes flew 26875000 kilometres and carried 2627000 passengers, 49600 tonnes of freight, and 1619000 tonne/kilometres of mail.

BUILDING AND HOUSING

Building Permits—The following table presents statistics on building permits and authorisations issued during the two latest March years.

Type of Building PermitYear Ended 31 March
19791980*
NumberValueNumberValue

* Provisional.

Works which require building permits but are not in the nature of buildings, e.g. swimming pools, retaining walls, etc. includes alterations and additions.

  $(m) $(m)
New houses and flats19,050498.915,197462.2
Alterations and additions to houses and flats49,906138.751,751153.5
Other buildings (including additions and alterations)17,498511.717,786545.1
                Total, all buildings86,4541,149.484,7341,160.9
Other construction641630.9626630.4

Houses and Flats Completed—Houses and flats completed during the year ended 31 March 1980 totalled 16000 compared with 19200 during the previous year. The 1979–80 total includes 1173 State rental dwellings built by the Housing Corporation (compared with 1180 during 1978–79). An additional 100 dwellings were created by the conversion of existing buildings.

MANUFACTURING

Manufacturing Main Indicators—This series of indicators, which is published quarterly, is based on a sample survey of approximately 1400 firms.

Year Ended MarchSalesStocksGross Capital Expenditure
MaterialsFinished Goods*
* Includes work in progress.
 $(million)
19789,905.71,063.21,051.1x410.9
197911,394.0x1,116.0x1,120.1x467.1
198013,628.81,375.71,364.8571.1
Year Ended MarchSalaries and WagesPurchasesOther Operating ExpensesHours Worked
Includes all other operating expenses except interest, bad debts, and donations.
 $(million)
19782,062.65,709.61,782.5532,887
19792,362.9x6,341.7x1,834.9x538,028
19802,801.27,895.12,153.3547,324

MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

Wool—Weight, sale value, and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand in the latest 3 seasons are shown below.

SeasonWeight of Greasy Wool SoldSale ValueValue per kgIndex Numbers*Base: 1974–75 (= 1000)
* Index numbers of price of new clip greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand adjusted to a clean f.o.b. New Zealand port basis. The base is the average over all sales of 1974–75 season (= 1000).
 kg(m)$(m)c 
1977–78198.6378.2190.432066
1978–79204.4447.2218.852363
1979–80235.7624.9265.092831

DOMESTIC TRADE

Retail Trade—
Quarter EndedTotal TurnoverTurnover per Head of Population
In Current $In Constant December Quarter 1974 $In Current $In Constant December Quarter 1974 $
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally CorrectedAs RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$     $     $     $     
1980—
    March1,764.71,890.3800.1859.4560.2600.1254.0272.8
    June1,897.81,936.5822.8837.4607.5619.9263.4268.1

Details of retail sales and retailers' stocks by store-type group are shown in the table following.

Store-type GroupRetail StocksRetail Sales
As atQuarter Ended
31 March 198030 June 198031 March 198030 June 1980
 $(million)
Butcher, poulterer, etc.4.84.861.166.5
Grocer and dairy110.5110.7441.7450.5
Other food and drink12.412.0135.4144.5
Footwear49.147.031.739.7
Apparel161.0153.2114.6140.4
Furniture and soft furnishings120.1122.492.0105.8
Household appliances, electrical goods, radios, T.V., etc.90.393.799.0116.5
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.91.2100.4120.7127.6
Chemist42.443.967.466.5
General department and variety171.7176.9189.3225.0
Other299.0308.0411.8414.8
                Total, all retail stores1,152.51,173.11,764.71,897.8
                Total, seasonally corrected1,153.01,178.41,890.31,936.5

Hire Purchase Trade—The following statistics show trade for the latest quarter (compared with the previous quarter) by surveyed businesses covering about 72 percent of total hire purchase business as recorded by the 1968 Census of Distribution. Since this time some businesses have used other forms of lending and the figures below include some lending by way of lease.

Quarter EndedValue of Goods Sold on Hire PurchaseTotal Amount Owing Under H.P. Agreements*
Motor VehiclesPlant and MachineryTelevision SetsOther Household and Personal GoodsTotal
* As at end of quarter.
$(thousand)$(m)
1980—
    March89,67112,4553,75329,525135,404522.0
Wholesale Trade—
PeriodFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicals
Quarter ended—$(million)
1980—Sales or Turnover
    31 March431.8118.252.1217.5198.8123.1
    30 June457.4122.961.2227.2222.4136.5
As at—
1980—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
    31 March167.496.458.7161.1169.186.7
    30 June174.393.861.3166.7177.095.7
PeriodGeneral MerchantsMachineryElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryMiscellaneousTotal
ActualSeasonally Corrected
Quarter ended$(million)
1980—Sales or Turnover
    31 March135.790.737.648.2362.71,816.41,944.7
    30 June127.695.539.550.7357.11,897.81,877.8
As at—
1980—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
    31 March78.2131.639.031.3182.21,201.81,194.6
    30 June76.2136.640.233.8173.11,228.71,221.7

EXTERNAL TRADE

Exports and Imports—The following table shows the values of exports and imports during the 3 latest June years. Exports are valued f.o.b. (free on board) and imports v.f.d. (value for duty).

Class of CommodityYear Ended June
19781979x1980*
* Provisional.
 $(million)
 Value of Exports (f.o.b.)
Food and live animals, beverages, and tobacco—
    Meat and meat preparations765.21,094.01,192.4
    Dairy produce and eggs453.7485.3687.2
                Total (including other commodities)1,454.81,864.82,271.8
Crude materials (inedible) except fuels930.11,122.51,468.9
Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials, animal and vegetable oils, and fats74.586.2113.5
Chemicals104.5123.9193.6
Manufactured goods classified chiefly by material382.6514.9679.4
Other manufactures and miscellaneous185.6233.8285.4
                Total of New Zealand produce3,141.03,946.05,012.6
Re-exports172.5121.4139.4
                Total exports3,313.54,067.45,152.0
 Value of Imports (v.f.d.)
Food and live animals, beverages, and tobacco181.9186.6247.6
Crude materials (inedible) except fuels; animal and vegetable oils and fats134.5201.4225.2
Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials466.3502.2944.2
Chemicals417.5453.5602.8
Machinery and electrical equipment636.3686.6861.2
Transport equipment316.5468.6539.1
Iron, steel, and non-ferrous metals234.4300.3356.0
Textiles, clothing, and footwear210.3275.8351.5
Other manufactures and miscellaneous420.7499.0643.0
                Total merchandise importsv.f.d.3,018.23,574.14,770.6
c.i.f.3,276.73,840.55,133.2

Principal Exports and Imports—Some of the principal exports and imports are shown by value and volume in the following table. Figures of volume are in thousand tonnes unless otherwise indicated.

 Year Ended June
1979x1980§
VolumeValueVolumeValue

* Bars, rods, plates, sheets, tubes, pipes, and all other shapes, sections, and fittings.

Litres(000).

Number.

§ Provisional.

 tonnes(000)$(000)tonnes(000)$(000)
Meat, fresh, chilled, or frozen—Exports
    Beef and veal244.6487,147215.6528,067
    Lamb320.6418,547318.4486,191
    Mutton139.9109,98787.498,280
                Total, incl. other items 1,087,220 1,183,771
Dairy produce—
    Skimmed milk powder120.060,685172.1118,899
    Butter192.2277,212231.4360,754
    Cheese63.475,47269.2105,642
                Total, incl. other items 483,026 685,487
Hides, skins, and furskins 181,804 180,359
Wool258.8683,322285.2930,661
Wood pulp456.286,217479.0120,227
Other forest products 140,211 200,087
Fruit and vegetables 103,790 128,618
Casein52.462,62958.6112,522
Aluminium and aluminium alloys146.8153,891127.5165,489
Petroleum—Imports
    Crude1836.3117,0122017.9366,163
    Partly refined796.4109,320625.2174,091
Motor spirits60380279,451663939159,552
Distillate fuels48867854,707536949105,650
Motor cars (unassembled)60073145,45366569186,597
Iron and steel*459.8194,545432.9218,314

PRICES

Retail Prices—Consumers Price Index figures for the latest available quarters are set out in the following table.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX
Base: Weighted average 25 centres, December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
Group or SubgroupDecember Quarter 1977March Quarter 1980June Quarter 1980
Food—
    Fruit and vegetables100013151398
    Meat, fish and poultry100015771600
    Other foods100013241410
                Food100013901459
Housing—
    Rentals100011881216
    Home ownership100012031243
                Housing100012001238
Household operation—
    Fuel and light100015201580
    Household furnishing100013061356
    Household supplies and services100012331261
                Household operation100013191365
Apparel—
    Clothing100012611325
    Footwear100013691422
                Apparel100012821344
Transportation—
    Public transport100015241582
    Private transport100014041485
                Transportation100014141494
Miscellaneous—
    Tobacco and alcohol100014411475
    Other supplies100013921444
    Other services100013981482
                Miscellaneous100014151467
All groups100013331388

Compared with June quarter 1979, the Consumers Price Index for June quarter 1980 showed a rise of 17.9 percent. Compared with March quarter 1980, June quarter figures showed a rise of 4.1 percent.

The level of retail prices for September quarter 1980 was 3.6 percent above the June quarter 1980 level. Compared with September quarter 1979, retail prices for September quarter 1980 were up 16.3 percent.

General Price Index—The General Price Index replaced and considerably extended the Wholesale Price Index, which was discontinued from December quarter 1977. The following table shows the 2 latest quarters.

GENERAL PRICE INDEX
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
Indexes in this series are centred on the mid-point of the period shown.
Industry CroupQuarter Ended
31 March 198030 June 1980
InputsOutputsInputsOutputs
Agriculture1591161215931500
Fishing and hunting1460121015241248
Forestry and logging1394169014611829
Mining and quarrying1340135914071475
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco1533147014801493
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries1344129914051361
Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture1445138515351477
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing1400132814801423
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products1671146318801633
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1362132614681408
Basic metal industries1398142714641488
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment1349136014431426
Other manufacturing industries1531150215571534
Electricity, gas, and water1643155117461615
Construction1403..1478..
Trade, restaurants and hotels1393..1471..
Transport and storage1587139216711456
Communications1443124015521241
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services1356..1440..
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings1395115214641181
Community, social, and personal services1363131314361375
Central Government services1369..1452..
Local Government services1403..1524..
Private non-profit services to households1411..1481..
                All industry1451..1517..

WAGES

Nominal, Prevailing, and Effective Weekly Wage Rates Index—The following table of index numbers of weekly wage rates for adult employees is calculated from all adult rates effective at mid-quarter. It represents all industry and occupation groups. There are two principal indexes of wage rates, together with indexes of effective wage rates based on each.

The Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index measures changes in the mandatory or, in some cases, minimum rates of wages and salaries, prescribed by wage and salary determining authorities and industrial tribunals, including the Arbitration Court.

The Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates Index refers to the same industrial and occupational groups but measures movements in the actual wages and salaries paid as compared with movements in the mandatory or legal minimum rates applying to the same groups, as measured by the nominal weekly wage rates index. The differences in movements between the nominal and prevailing indexes show “wage drift”, that is, the extent to which actual wages and salaries have risen more than the legally required rates.

An Effective Weekly Wage Rates Index has been derived from each of these series. This effective weekly wage rates index is arrived at by dividing the nominal or the prevailing index by the corresponding consumers price index number and multiplying by 1000. Thus, it relates wages to prices.

Because of possible retrospective increases in wages or salaries in later awards, agreements, determinations, etc., the more recent index numbers should be regarded as provisional.

NOMINAL, PREVAILING, AND EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES INDEXES—ADULT EMPLOYEES
Base: December Quarter 1977 (=1000)
PeriodRates Within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration CourtRates Prescribed By Other Industrial Tribunals or Determining AuthoritiesRates Within the Jurisdiction of All Determining Authorities
IndexPercentage ChangeIndexPercentage ChangeIndexPercentage Change
Index of Nominal Weekly Wage Rates
December year—
    197796713.191814.794913.7
    1978110714.5102611.8107713.5
    1979126714.5120417.3124415.5
Quarter—
    1980—March14345.7133413973.6
    June14551.5133414100.9
Index of Effective Nominal Weekly Wage Rates
December year—
    19771021−1.29690.31002−0.6
    197810442.3968−0.110161.4
    197910510.79983.110321.6
Quarter—
    1980—March10761.71001−3.81048−0.3
    June1048−2.6961−4.01016−3.1
Index of Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates
December year—
    19781114 1026 1082 
    1979128014.9120417.3125415.9
Quarter—
    1980—March14496.2133414084.0
              June14782.0133414271.3
Index of Effective Prevailing Weekly Wage Rates
December year—
    19781051 968 1021 
    197910611.09983.110401.9
Quarter—
    1980—March10872.21001−3.810560.1
              June1065−2.0961−4.01028−2.7

NOTE—This table is derived from the wage rate tables in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, which should be consulted for the latest figures or any revisions to figures.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Public Account Taxation Receipts—This table shows direct and indirect taxation.

Source: Financial Statement (Budget) and Public Accounts.
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19791980*1981

* Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

Estimated.

Direct taxation—$(thousand)
    Income tax3,655,1794,465,6445,400,000
    Estate and gift duty53,07949,69530,000
    Land tax9,49410,72910,000
    Property speculation tax9048
                Total—Direct taxation3,717,8424,526,1165,440,000
Indirect taxation—
    Customs duty286,099331,622349,000
    Beer duty58,85358,15965,000
    Sales tax449,694624,104802,000
    Motor spirits duty (less refunds)153,872x177,241137,000
    Payroll tax1
    Racing duty38,52542,75150,000
    Stamp duties33,60739,62947,000
    Energy resources levy28,94218,57521,000
    Motor vehicle fees and charges45,68445,62848,000
    Mileage tax29037313,000
    Film hire tax1,035743
    Foreign fishing vessel entry tax303
    Foreign travel tax15,8909,289
    International departure tax6,300
    Highways taxation159,501x139,455182,000
                Total—Indirect taxation1,272,0231,493,8721,714,000
                Total—Taxation receipts4,989,8656,019,9887,154,000

The functional classification of gross Government expenditure is shown in the following table.

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF GROSS GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19791980*1981

* Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

Estimated.

Administration—$(million)
    General administration230.5271,2316.5
    Law and order172.7201.7236.4
    Government services152.5142.9173.0
    Miscellaneous services33.538.043.5
    Stabilisation135.6171.170.1
                Total724.8824.9839.5
Foreign relations—
    Defence299.5346.1412.9
    Foreign affairs93.9112.7126.1
                Total393.4458.8539.0
Development of industry—
    Land use561.3527.4582.9
    Fuel and power485.9442.8529.1
    Other industrial services206.0260.0308.5
                Total1,253.21,230.21,420.5
Education936.71,019.51,241.5
Social services—
    Social welfare1,804.22,110.92,392.4
    Other social services121.8143.3128.3
                Total1,926.02,254.22,520.7
Health—
    Health981.21,137.51,329.5
Transport and communications—
    Transport666.7759.7826.2
    Communications502.0571.2652.6
Total1,168.71,330.91,478.8
Debt services and miscellaneous investment and financing transactions987.81,182.41,382.0
                Total8,371.89,438.410,751.5

The following table is a 5–year summary of the financing of Government expenditure. Where necessary, figures for earlier years have been revised in line with the provisions of the Public Finance Act 1977.

FINANCING OF GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE: A 5–YEAR SUMMARY
ItemFinancial Years (Years Ended 31 March)
1975–761976–771977–781978–791979–80
Net Expenditure$(million)
Administration475.9388.3479.2603.4692.6
Foreign relations271.0288.7329.0384.7451.5
Development of industry573.1504.9629.8858.0714.2
Education627.0699.4807.5929.31,009.3
Social services997.01,158.91,569.31,853.52,175.0
Health605.7689.1808.5980.11,136.2
Transport and communications275.3230.6247.6279.1265.0
Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions311.2409.5516.8592.3770.6
                Sub-total4,136.24,369.45,387.76,480.47,214.4
Miscellaneous financing transactions308.1208.8281.0368.0372.3
                Total expenditure4,444.34,578.25,668.76,848.47,586.7
Financed from—
    Taxation—
        Income tax2,295.82,828.53,482.83,655.24,465.6
        Customs, sales tax, and beer duty576.9652.6703.0794.61,013.9
        Highways tax101.2107.4126.3159.5139.4
        Motor spirits tax76.3100.4102.2154.2177.6
        Other taxation135.1156.0212.1226.4223.4
                Total taxation3,185.33,844.94,626.34,989.96,020.0
        Interest, profits, and miscellaneous receipts257.3227.2348.0413.0539.8
                Total receipts3,442.64,072.14,974.35,402.96,559.8
Amount to be financed from borrowing1,001.7506.1694.41,445.51,026.9
Borrowing in New Zealand1,100.9629.4799.41,214.91,502.4
    Less repayments in New Zealand414.4238.6230.4369.9591.5
686.5390.8569.0845.0910.9
    Plus sales (less purchases) of investments+15.7−12.8−134.6+152.6−207.0
    Net borrowing in New Zealand702.2378.0434.4997.6703.9
    Internal surplus (+) or deficit (-)−299.5−128.1−260.0−448.3−323.0
Borrowing overseas483.1421.4832.6554.4661.1
    Less repayments overseas156.6278.9424.6267.6324.0
326.5142.5408.0286.8337.1
    Plus sales (less purchases) of overseas investments−39.4−12.7−142.2+157.2−9.4
    Net borrowing overseas287.1129.8265.8444.0327.7
Cash surplus (+) deficit -−12.4+1.7+5.8−3.9+4.7

Consolidated Account: Expenditure—The Consolidated Account replaced the Consolidated Revenue Account in accordance with the provisions of the Public Finance Act 1977.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19791980
 $(thousand)
Permanent appropriations—
    Under Special Acts of Legislature—
    Civil List2,9063,336
Debt services—
    Interest590,111757,793
    Transfer to Loans Redemption Account75,00060,000
    Administration and management5,1087,831
Total—Debt services670,219825,624
Superannuation60,44859,511
Miscellaneous73,69977,275
Total—Permanent appropriations807,272965,746
Annual appropriations—
    Administration—
        General administration—
            Accident Compensation4045
            Audit3,0543,650
            Broadcasting121131
            Building Performance Guarantee Corporation1214
            Commission for the Environment556628
            Customs13,93916,882
            Inland Revenue33,22739,135
            Internal Affairs39,30857,085
            Legislative5,4729,421
            Prime Minister's Department1,0861,141
            State Services Commission44,07552,133
            Statistics9,50310,492
            Treasury7,7008,738
            Valuation7,5148,624
                Total—General administration165,607208,119
        Law and order—
            Crown Law818906
            Justice12,83584,018
            Police94,169110,797
            Security Intelligence Service1,6742,215
                Total—Law and order169,496197,936
Government services—
    Government Printing Office24,77328,256
    Works and Development127,697114,671
                Total—Government services152,470142,927
Stabilisation—
    Stabilisation120,470158,618
                Total—Administration608,043707,600
Foreign relations—
    Defence—
        Defence299,506346,091
    Foreign Affairs—
        Foreign Affairs93,819112,624
                Total—Foreign relations393,325458,715
Development of industry—
    Land use—
        Agriculture and Fisheries288,608228,513
        Forest Service133,301152,835
        Lands and Survey80,47287,897
        Maori Affairs45,49143,032
        Rural Banking and Finance Corporation8,57110,037
                Total—Land use556,443522,314
    Fuel and power—
        Energy17,99332,143
    Other industrial services—
        Labour117,985162,314
        Scientific and Industrial Research47,17955,478
        Tourist and Publicity13,63513,467
        Trade and Industry26,63528,480
                Total—Other industrial services205,434259,739
                Total—Development of industry779,870814,196
Education—
    Education936,6711,019,475
Social services—
    Housing Corporation66,36963,131
    Internal Affairs8,7236,374
    Maori Affairs12,36416,373
    Social Welfare1,804,2302,110,904
                Total—Social services1,891,6862,196,782
Health—
    Health981,0501,137,536
Transport and communications—
    Transport95,917118,358
    Works and Development16,74326,862
                Total—Transport and communications112,660145,220
                Total—Annual appropriations5,703,3056,479,524
  Public Finance Act 1977, Section 100—
    Exchange differences on overseas transactions16,284
Unauthorised expenditure1,8223,850
Transfer to Reserve Account80,000
Transfer to Trust Account404
                Total payments6,512,8037,545,404

N.B.—More detailed notes on some items are given in similar tables in the Budget (Parl. paper B.6) and the Public Accounts (Parl. papers B.1 Pt. I and II).

National Roads Fund Income and Expenditure

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197819791980
 $(thousand)
Income 
Motor spirits duty (less refunds)106,696109,67487,771
Road user charges (less refunds) 48,30251,234
Other taxation, etc.19,5601,525450
Contributions from Consolidated Account10,00014,00024,000
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account4,000
Miscellaneous, including interest3,1093,5424,732
                Total income143,365177,043x168,187
Expenditure 
State highways maintenance37,19143,69150,892
State highways construction37,24041,64735,686
Subsidies to local authorities56,85866,61968,790
Administration and general13,88914,20415,841
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account repaid4,000
Unauthorised265
                Total expenditure145,180170,167171,214

Overseas Exchange Transactions—The following statement gives statistics of overseas exchange transactions for the latest 3 March years and the latest June year. (Source: Reserve Bank.)

ItemYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 30 June 1980
197819791980
 $(million)
Receipts
Exports—
        Meat903.21,090.91,332.41,326.0
        Wool612.3701.6924.0967.6
        Butter217.5208.8291.2299.0
        Cheese92.482.083.887.6
        Milk powders150.9154.3203.7222.8
        Other dairy products156.0141.0178.4201.2
        Other animal products281.0349.8411.9402.6
        Forest products291.2292.9457.1501.2
        Other primary products163.2187.5236.8269.8
        Manufactured exports501.0613.5780.3824.2
        Miscellaneous26.427.741.742.9
                Total exports3,395.13,849.94,941.35,144.8
    Other current receipts747.3811.7992.11,036.1
                Total current receipts4,142.54,661.65,933.36,180.9
    Capital receipts—
        Government borrowing852.1570.7774.8441.7
        Other official receipts56.894.952.5252.5
        Private461.4330.6424.0482.2
                Total capital receipts1,370.2996.21,251.21,176.4
    I.M.F.—
        Drawings63.963.9
        Allocations of SDRs29.432.432.4
                Total receipts5,512.75,687.27,280.97,453.7
Payments
    Imports—
        Government166.9188.8182.7199.6
        Private2,900.53,001.03.951.34,190.1
                Total imports3,067.53,189.84,134.04,389.7
    Other current payments—
        Government321.5420.2513.1523.8
        Private1,263.11,478.01,768.01,799.4
                Total other current payments1,584.61,898.22,281.12,323.2
                Total current payments4,652.05,088.06,415.16,712.9
    Capital payments—
        Government debt repayments430.2266.7379.1449.7
        Other official payments94.999.399.3
        Private201.5381.8325.1364.6
                Total capital payments631.7743.4803.5913.6
I.M.F. repurchases6.457.1125.7160.1
                Total payments5,290.15,888.57,344.37,786.7
Balance on trade transactions+327.7+ 660.1+ 807.2+ 755.1
Balance on invisible transactions−837.2−1,086.5−1,289.0−1,287.1
Current account balance−509.5−426.4−481.8−532.0
Official capital account balance+478.7+ 304.0+ 348.8+145.3
Private capital account balance+259.9−51.1+98.9+ 117.5
I.M.F. transactions (inc. SDRs)−6.4−27.7−29.4−63.8
Change in official overseas reserves+262.9−179.7x+ 134.0−206.0
Official overseas reserves at end of period983.6803.9x937.9726.2

Chapter 50. GENERAL FINANCE

SUMMARY OF BUDGET PROPOSALS—The 1980 Financial Statement (Budget) was presented to Parliament by the Minister of Finance, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, on 3 July 1980. Main points included the following:

  • A general wage increase of 4 percent from 1 August.

  • Cash refunds for forestry companies in a tax-loss position as a result of forest establishment and maintenance costs.

  • National superannuation rates to be based on more up-to-date surveys, enabling superannuitants to receive the benefits arising from increases in the average wage 5 months earlier than previously.

  • An increase of $3 a week in the maximum level of the supplementary hardship grant for tertiary students.

  • Improvements in employment promotion, training, and retraining programmes.

  • Increased taxes on beer, spirits, fortified wines, and tobacco products.

  • Small adjustments to sales tax including the imposition of a 10 percent tax on cleaning preparations, and sales tax exemption for small sailing craft.

  • Imposition of a domestic air travel tax at 5 percent.

  • Changes in the tax rebate scheme for low income families designed to increase take-home pay.• Increases in postage rates and in duty on cheques.

Land Transfers

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197819791980
Properties of under 2 hectares—
    Number76,93481,81389,123
    Consideration$(m)1,893.32,206.42,578.8
    Average price per hectare$211,120236,861249,372
Properties of 2 hectares and over—
    Number8771941611,053
    Area hectares(000)781.1805.21015.9
    Consideration$(m)645.3758.2997.1
    Average price per hectare$826942981
All properties: Total consideration$(m)2,538.62,964.63,575.9

Mortgages—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the latest 4 financial years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchRegisteredDischarged
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
1977160,4211,870.1112,135863.4
1978143,5491,809.7105,116851.5
1979169,3492,164.1131,195 
1980164,9962,467.5131,592 

The average rate of interest on new mortgages during the year ended 31 March 1980 was 11.38 percent compared with 10.86 percent during the previous year.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Current Account Summary—The following table gives a summary of the current account of the balance of payments for the two latest March years.

Item1978–791979–80
CreditDebitCreditDebit
 $(million)
Exports/imports (as published in external trade statistics)3,8443,5294,8934,920
Adjustments to balance of payments concepts−2.0−258−1−319
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)3,8423,2724,8934,600
                Balance on merchandise trade571293
Transportation558518593704
Travel166388197500
Insurance−17- -−12
Other miscellaneous services103285120317
Government transactions4811040143
Exports/imports of services8741,3099511,652
                Balance on services−435−701
International investment income109685111707
                Balance on invisibles−1,011−1,297
Transfers166208224207
                Balance on current account−483−987

FARMING

The following agricultural statistics are derived from the Annual Censuses of Agriculture, 1978 and 1979.

As at 30 June19781979Annual Movement

* Working more than 30 hours per week on a continuing basis.

Working less than 30 hours per week on a continuing basis.

Working on a seasonal or temporary basis.

Land usehectares(000)percent
    Grass and lucerne91389325+2.0
    Crops, nurseries, and fallow433453+4.6
    Plantations of exotic trees768806+4.9
    Tussock and danthonia49284665−5.3
    Other land on holdings59875982−0.1
                Total land on holdings21,25421,231−0.1
    Number of holdings69,40170,452+1.5
Livestock on holdingsthousandpercent
    Dairy cows and heifers in milk or in calf, 2 years old and over20202039+0.9
    Total dairy cattle29112900−0.4
    Beef cows and heifers used for breeding19161823−4.9
    Total beef cattle55075122−7.0
    Breeding ewes43,97245,733+4.0
    Total sheep61,27863,791+4.1
    Sows for breeding5652−7.1
    Total pigs473443−6.3
Employment on farmsthousandpercent
    Working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers84.984.7−0.2
    Permanent full-time employees*29.727.7−6.7
    Permanent part-time employees10.19.5−5.9
    Casual employees10.58.3−21.0
    Unpaid members of family21.822.7+4.1
 19761979 
Land irrigated: a triennial collectionhectares(000)percent
    Grasslands113.4118.1+4.1
    Lucerne15.712.7−19.1
    Fruit5.25.7+9.6
    Vegetables6.56.2−4.6
    Other crops22.923.2+ 1.3
    Other land0.70.5−28.6
                Total land irrigated164.4166.4+ 1.2
 19781979 
Capital expenditure for year ended 30 June$(thousand)percent
    Buildings103,451110,463+6.8
    Construction20,45424,849+21.5
    Land development61,63284,731+37.5
    Transport vehicles54,13282,885+53.1
    Plant and machinery69,22099,088+43.1
    Working animals1,6581,925+16.1
                Total capital expenditure310,547403,941+ 30.1

MINING AND QUARRYING

The following table is a summary of the provisional results of the 1978–79 Census of Mining and Quarrying.

The 1978–79 Census is one of a new series of integrated economic censuses which commenced with manufacturing in 1974–75 and which is planned to cover the whole economy over a five-yearly cycle. The new series takes greater account of the structure of firms, integrates the activities of associated ancillary units, and gives an economic measurement of business activities of New Zealand based on normal accounting figures.

Because the Census of Mining and Quarrying is on a new basis with some changes in classification the results are not strictly comparable with those for previous censuses.

 UnitN.Z.S.I.C. DivisionMajor Division 2 Total
21 and 22, Coal Mining, Crude Petroleum, 2nd Natural Gas Production23, Metal Ore Mining29, Other Mining
Establishments and ancillary unitsNo.11323341477
Total persons engaged at 15 April 1979No.198537820044367
Salaries and wages paid$(000)20,0164,58815,10239,706
Depreciation$(000)7,3512,5904,82614,767
Purchases and other expenses$(000)118,74534,55563,851217,151
Sales and other income$(000)249,40939,14973,058361,616
Capital expenditure less disposals$(000)71,8521,9256,50980,286

CENSUS OF LIBRARIES 1979

The five-yearly Census of Libraries was taken for the year ended 31 March 1979. It covered public, specialist, and school libraries, but not privately-run commercial libraries. Results are available on request from the Department of Statistics.

Public Libraries—Included in the Census were 209 public library systems and 67 branch libraries, making a total of 276 libraries. Of the libraries available to the general public, 166 are controlled by local authorities and 17 by voluntary committees. The remaining libraries are those run by the Armed Forces for service personnel and their families (7) and by the Justice Department for the inmates of penal institutions (19).

Public libraries had a total book stock of 6.08 million volumes, and an annual circulation of 25.64 million volumes (22 volumes per member). Full-time staff totalled 997 and part-time staff, 1472. Of the total staff, 409 had library qualifications.

Specialist Libraries—The Census covered six branches of the National Library, and the libraries of 39 tertiary institutions comprising universities, technical institutes and teachers' colleges, 100 Government department libraries, and 141 other libraries controlled by interest groups, local authorities, and business firms.

The National Library had a book stock of 4.8 million volumes; tertiary institutions, 3.8 million volumes; and Government departments, 1.6 million volumes.

School Libraries—The Census covered 1293 State schools and 194 private schools. Of the total of 1487 schools, 963 were primary, 141 intermediate, and 383 secondary. The following table shows total pupils, book stock, and estimated annual circulation.

School TypeNumber of PupilsBook StockEstimated Annual CirculationEstimated Circulation Per Pupil User
 thousand
Primary338443413,96843
Intermediate72884293441
Secondary2522924429517
                Total662824321,19733

RURAL BANKING AND FINANCE CORPORATION

Loan Authorisations—A summary of loans authorised by the Rural Bank during the years ended 31 March 1979 and 1980 is given in the following table.

Loans1978–791979–80
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
Standard settlement97463.1983464.29
Special settlement10012.789615.40
Workers holding (“stepping stone” units)1304.171886.42
Additional land (strengthening existing farms)32912.1327111.08
Sharemilkers suspensory (farm purchase)1410.321630.37
Development494380.38468087.01
Irrigation1624.40561.43
Irrigation suspensory400.49460.81
Stock and plant loans (sharefarmers)101112.6093415.60
Advances to RIC associations1161.27941.25
Refinance65210.4646910.78
Climatic relief4922.802753.18
Estate duty361.36672.22
Department of Lands and Survey settlement371.80130.52
Livestock Incentive Scheme (loan option)258420.96185415,18
Land development encouragement166129.59181133.99
Fishing industry11413.461088.66
Rural industrial lending25320.7348328.73
                Total13,775292.8912,436306.92
Livestock Incentive Scheme (tax option)961.91801.43

INDEX

NOTE—Where more than one reference to a subject is given, the chief reference, wherever it has been possible to determine it, is indicated by bold type. Two or more references to a subject so indicated signify major, and approximately equal, importance.

Population centres, localities, and geographical features are not indexed separately, partly for reasons of space and compiling time, and partly because in the main they are included only in tables indexed under geographical classifications, e.g., cities, boroughs, counties, communities, urban areas, lakes, mountains, etc.

A

Abortion, 140
Accident Compensation—
Act, 246, 328, 348, 768, 826–829
claims received, 830, 831
Commission, 120, 125, 246, 251, 676, 684, 826–843, 893, 989
compensation paid, 831
vote, 676
Accident insurance, 328, 767–768
Accidents—
aircraft, 141, 341, 946
by type, 837–841
cases treated in hospitals, 140
causes of, 141, 837–841
compensated, 830–843
deaths from, 99, 100, 105–108, 140, 325–327, 341, 834–837, 844, 946
drowning, 106, 107, 108, 844
environment of, 107, 832–833
farming, 107, 108, 844
industrial, 107, 830, 831, 832–844
in home, 107, 142, 832
mining, 107, 834
motor-vehicle, 99, 105, 106, 325–327, 837, 838
poisoning, 105, 106, 141, 142, 841
railway, 141, 313, 943, 944
road, 99, 105, 106, 141, 325–327
shipping and boating, 105, 108, 307
sport and recreational, 832
transport, 99, 105, 106, 141, 325–327
water, 105, 107, 108, 141
work, 830, 831, 832–844
Acclimatisation of fish, 418
Accommodation licences, 868–869
Accommodation, tourist, 855–856
Accounts—
national, 638–653
production, 642–649
public, 671–699, 986–991
Acts (see legislation)
Additional benefit, 152, 156, 165
Additional Jobs Programme, 779
Administrative tribunals, 885
Adolescent dental service, 124, 131, 133
Adoptions, 93, 158–159
Adult education, 202–203
National Council of, 202
Advances—
bank, 718, 720, 721–723
bank, reserve ratio, 718
building societies, 758–760
rural, 752–755, 996
Advertising, radio, television, and press, 349, 352, 354
Aerial—
land survey, 283–284
photography and mapping, 263, 284
topdressing, 334, 340–341, 357, 375–376
work operations, 334, 340–341, 400
Africa, relations with, 30, 38, 39, 568–569
Age distribution of—
labour force, 774
population, 76, 78, 79–80, 81
unemployed, 778
women in labour force, 793
Agricultural (see also Farms, Farming, Crops, etc.)—
aviation, 340–341
imports of, 598, 602
clubs, 188
imports of, 598, 602
machinery, 362, 378–379, 453, 461, 578, 995
imports of, 598, 602
pests and diseases, 207, 212, 340–341
production, 207–208, 363–366, 921, 923, 994
production account, 363–364
Production Council, 373
products exported, 515–533, 574, 575–576, 577, 579–590
publications, 395, 953–954
research, 207–208, 375
services, 364, 365
Training Council, 373, 377, 899
Workers Act, 823
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of, 208, 212–213, 271, 273, 373, 374–375, 382, 384, 386, 412, 413, 677, 886, 888, 899, 990
Aid—
legal, 246
overseas, 37–40, 204
Air—
Force, Royal New Zealand, 256–257
freight, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 979
licensing and control, 334–335
mail, 336, 337, 338, 339, 342–343
navigational aids, 335
pollution, 118, 273, 964
services, 37, 334, 338, 979
travel tax, 993
Air New Zealand, 334, 336, 338, 341, 438, 697, 898, 944, 946
Aircraft—
accidents, 141, 341, 946
imports of, 600
manufacture, 438, 454, 462, 579
safety of, 846
types in domestic services, 336
Alcoholic liquors—
consumption of, 122, 635
duty on, 135, 610, 674, 993
household expenditure on, 610, 630–631
imports of, 596, 600, 601
manufacture of, 449, 456, 468
sale of, 867–869
Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council, 122
Alcoholism, 122
Alexander Turnbull Library, 223
Aluminium (See also Non-ferrous metals), 437, 438, 502, 577, 578, 983
Ambulance services, 135
Amenities of dwellings, 487–488
Americas, relations with the, 33–34, 39, 561, 566, 567
Ammonia/urea plant, 439, 495.
Angling, 418, 857
Anhydrous milkfat, 367, 519, 520
Animal health, 212, 364, 374, 377
Anniversary Days, 871
Annuities, 168–172
Antarctic, 216–218, 258, 430, 944, 946
Ante-natal services, 120–121
Antiquities, protection of, 221, 222, 279
ANZUS Treaty, 28, 34, 36, 37
Apiaries and apiculture, 375, 395
Apples, 208, 379, 380, 386, 387, 388, 526
consumption of, 634, 635
exported, 575, 576, 589, 930
marketing of, 375, 526, 899
retail prices, 619
Apprentices, 198, 781–782
Arable farming, 358, 359, 360, 361, 363, 365, 366, 378, 379–385, 389, 921, 994, 995
Arahanga, G.M.V., 300, 309
Aramoana, G.M.V., 300, 309
Aranui, G.M.V., 300, 309
Aratika, G.M.V., 300, 309
Arbitration Court, 781, 797, 801, 813–814, 900, 943, 946
Archeological sites, 221, 222
Area of New Zealand, 2, 57, 65, 262, 396
of farmland, 261, 262, 360, 361, 994
of forested land, 262, 396
Armed Forces, 252–259, 776, 791, 895, 996
in war, 259, 943–944
pay, 254
serving overseas, 257
strengths of, 254–257, 895
superannuation, 168–170
Army, New Zealand, 255–256
Art galleries, 218, 219, 220
Artificial aids (for physical disabilities), 131, 133
Artificial limbs, 131
Arts Council, 218, 219
Arts in New Zealand, 218–221, 954–955
Asbestos, 429
Asia, relations with, 30–31, 37, 38, 561, 566, 582
Asian Development Bank (ADB), 37, 39, 40, 656, 678, 746
Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN), 30–31, 561, 566, 582
Assurance, life, 727, 764–767
Auckland Harbour Bridge, 315, 899, 944
Audio-visual teaching aids, 190
Audit Office, 676, 886, 888, 989
Australia—
communications with, 345
exports to, 438, 558–559, 562–563, 564, 566, 581, 582, 583, 584, 587, 589, 590, 591, 592
Free Trade Agreement with, 33, 558–559, 562–563, 608
imports from, 5, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600
investment in New Zealand, 661–662
shipping to and from, 299, 300
social security reciprocity with, 156
trade relations with, 33, 518, 558–559, 562–563, 564, 566, 582, 592, 608, 610, 658, 660, 944, 945
visitors and migrants from, 72, 854, 855
Authority for Vocational Awards, 198, 200
Aviation, 37, 334–341, 979
agricultural, 340–341
Awards, cultural, 218, 220–221

B

Bacon and ham curing, 448, 455
Balance of payments, 653–664, 994
overseas direct investments in New Zealand, 660–664
survey of companies with overseas affiliations, 660–664
Balance of trade, 564
Bananas—
consumption of, 634
imports of, 527, 606
Bank notes, 717, 718, 720, 736, 743
Bank of New Zealand, 697, 719–720, 941
Banking publications, 949
Bankruptcies, 761, 863–865, 940
Banks and banking, 557, 716–747, 938
assets and liabilities, 699, 718–719, 720
overseas assets of, 739, 933
savings, 699, 716, 719, 725, 727, 728, 729–733, 938
trading, 716, 717, 718, 719–724, 726–727, 728
Barley, 379, 380, 381, 382, 576, 577, 921
Basic metal industries, 445, 446, 452–453, 460, 470, 471
Beds, hospital, 135–136, 138
Beech forests, 1, 278, 397, 399
Beef—
cattle, 390–391, 393, 994
consumption of, 633
exports of, 515, 516, 558, 560, 561, 562, 575, 635, 928, 982
production of, 361, 362, 365, 369, 381, 921
retail prices of, 619, 621
Beer—
consumption of, 635
duty on, 610, 674, 681, 683, 986, 988, 993
production of, 449, 456, 468
retail price of, 620
Bees and beekeeping, 375, 395
Benefits, social welfare, 129–133, 147–149, 149–156, 481
Bentonite, 420, 421, 428
Berryfruit, 386, 387–388, 634, 635
Beverage industries, 444, 445, 447, 449, 456
Beverages, consumption of, 635
imports of, 594, 596, 600, 601
Bibliography, New Zealand publications, 871, 947–960
Big-game fishing, 417, 858
Bird sanctuaries, 278, 279, 280
Birth rate, 52, 86, 87, 88, 94, 912
Birthplaces of population, 82
Births, 52, 86–93, 912
ex-nuptial, 91–92
first, 90–91
multiple, 89
of Maoris, 86, 87
registration of, 86–87, 92
still, 86, 89, 93, 103
Biscuit industry, 449, 456, 468
Blind, benefits for and education of, 154, 178
Board of Health, 116, 897
Boarding of school children, 187
Boilers, lifts, and cranes, inspection of, 846
Bonds, National Development, 685, 731
Bonus Bonds, 730, 731
Bonus issue tax, 688
Book publishing, 871
Books—
imports of, 600, 603
library, 224–227, 996
New Zealand, 947–960
Boroughs and cities, 47, 49, 59–60, 265, 784
area of, 59–60
capital and unimproved values, 291–292
councils, 49, 700–706
debt, 704–706, 937
franchise, 47
number of, 49
population, 59–60
Borstal institutions and training, 231, 233, 235, 240, 243
Botany, publications on, 953
Bread, bakeries, 449, 456
retail price of, 619, 621
Breast prostheses, 131, 133
Breweries, 435, 449, 456, 468
Brick production, 480
Brides and grooms, 108, 109
Bridges and bridging, 308, 314, 315, 317, 318
British postal orders, 344
British sovereignty, 23
Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, 219, 349, 676, 697, 989
Broadcasting, radio and television, 348–352
Broadcasting Tribunal, 349
Budget, 413, 441, 726, 727, 946, 993
Building and construction (see also Housing), 362, 472–490, 679
census of, 473–474
accidents at work, 834–837, 844
finance, 722, 723, 763
gross domestic product, 643, 644, 646
gross fixed capital formation, 650, 652–653
hourly earnings, 803
incomes, 707, 708, 709
persons engaged in, 474, 479–480, 776, 787, 789
private contractors, 474
wage rates, 803
of dwellings, 488–489, 619
production of, 480
costs and prices, 473, 481, 485, 619, 622–623
accidents at work, 834–837, 844
finance, 722, 723, 763
gross domestic product, 643, 644, 646
gross fixed capital formation, 650, 652–653
hourly earnings, 803
incomes, 707, 708, 709
persons engaged in, 474, 479–480, 776, 787, 789
private contractors, 474
wage rates, 803
of dwellings, 488–489, 619
production of, 480
government expenditure on, 679
accidents at work, 834–837, 844
finance, 722, 723, 763
gross domestic product, 643, 644, 646
gross fixed capital formation, 650, 652–653
hourly earnings, 803
incomes, 707, 708, 709
persons engaged in, 474, 479–480, 776, 787, 789
private contractors, 474
wage rates, 803
of dwellings, 488–489, 619
production of, 480
industry—
accidents at work, 834–837, 844
finance, 722, 723, 763
gross domestic product, 643, 644, 646
gross fixed capital formation, 650, 652–653
hourly earnings, 803
incomes, 707, 708, 709
persons engaged in, 474, 479–480, 776, 787, 789
private contractors, 474
wage rates, 803
of dwellings, 488–489, 619
production of, 480
materials—
of dwellings, 488–489, 619
production of, 480
on farms, 362, 995
permits, 475–479
work put in place, 479
Building—
Industry Advisory Council, 473, 899
Performance Guarantee Corporation, 473, 676, 989
Research Association, 210, 211, 251, 899
societies, 482, 727, 751, 758–760
Special Character Zones, 265
Bursaries—
boarding, 187
ex-servicemen's children, 165
teachers, 192, 194
university, 180, 192, 194
Buses, 313–314, 320, 323, 330–333
Butter (see also Dairy produce), 366, 367, 468, 515, 520, 523, 524, 529, 530, 619, 621, 633, 635
exports of, 515, 520, 522, 524, 574, 576, 577, 586, 625, 929, 982, 992
By-elections, 874

C

Cabinet, 44–45, 878
Cables, overseas, 345
Cadet Forces, 258
Calves, slaughter and marketing of, 370
Campbell Island, 1, 2, 11, 280
Canada—
exports to, 558–560, 564, 566, 581, 583, 584, 585, 586, 588, 589
imports from, 598
relations with, 34
trade relations with, 515, 516, 517, 559–561, 566, 569, 592, 608–609, 658, 660
visitors and migrants from, 72, 854, 855
Cancer—
ages of decedents, 101
deaths from, 99, 101–102, 139
lung, 101–102, 122
site of disease, 102
Society of New Zealand, 101, 126, 134
Canned fruit and vegetables—
consumption of, 634, 635
production of, 449, 456, 468
Capital—
consumption of fixed, 639, 640, 641
of Government, 347, 679
of hotel and restaurant industry, 534, 545, 546–547
of Post Office, 347
of railways, 312
of retail trade, 534, 540, 542–544
of service industries, 534, 548, 549, 550
of wholesale trade, 534, 537–538, 539
in manufacturing industries, 443, 447–448, 455–463, 467, 469, 470
on farms, 362–363, 995
expenditure—
of Government, 347, 679
of hotel and restaurant industry, 534, 545, 546–547
of Post Office, 347
of railways, 312
of retail trade, 534, 540, 542–544
of service industries, 534, 548, 549, 550
of wholesale trade, 534, 537–538, 539
in manufacturing industries, 443, 447–448, 455–463, 467, 469, 470
on farms, 362–363, 995
finance account, 639, 642
gross fixed (formation), 640, 642, 649–653
invested in electric-power undertakings, 504, 507, 678, 679
invested in gas industry, 511
of companies, 940
overseas, invested in N.Z. industries, 660–664, 711–713
transfers, 741, 742, 743
value of land, 290–292
Capitalisation of family benefit, 150, 154, 481, 756, 890
Cargo carried by air transport, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340
Cargo handled at ports, 302–306
Caribbean, relations with, 34
Carpets and carpet yarns, 438, 449, 457, 468, 577, 578, 619
Casein, 367, 468, 515, 521, 522, 530, 574, 575, 576, 578, 588, 930, 983
Cassette tapes, production of, 468
Catchment authorities, 49, 270–272, 701, 702, 705, 784
Cattle, 359, 361, 362–363, 365, 366, 390–391, 393, 921, 994
hides exported (see Hides, skins, and pelts) slaughtered, 370
Cement—
industry, 452, 460
production of, 480
Census—
age distribution of population, 76, 78, 79–80, 81
benefits and pensions, 157
country of birth, 82
educational attendance levels, 200, 794–795
employment statistics, 787–792
ethnic groups, 82
household data, 77–80
income earners in each household, 714
incomes of individuals, 713–715
internal migration, 83
major industrial groups, 787, 788–789
marital status, 76–77, 79–80
occupations of population, 314, 787, 790–792
of building and construction, 473–474
of dwellings, 475, 486–489
of libraries, 224–227, 996
of mining and quarrying, 431–433
pleasure craft, 307
publications, 974
religious professions, 80–81
smoking habits, 121–122
transport to work, 323–325
Censuses, economic—
of distribution, 533–550
of gas industry, 509–514
of manufacturing, 442–467
of mining and quarrying, 995
Central Government finance, 149, 150, 641, 642, 644, 647, 649, 650–651, 652, 653, 671–699, 726, 728, 731, 733, 751, 752–757, 895, 934–936, 986–991
Central Institute of Technology, 177, 197–198
Cereals, 379–382, 449, 456, 579, 921
consumption of, 634, 636
imports of, 594
Cerebral palsy, 125
Cerebrovascular disease, 99, 100, 102
Certificates of title (land), 285
Chartered clubs, 868
Chatham Islands, 1, 11, 178, 190, 286, 334, 700, 870, 941, 942
Cheese (see also Dairy produce), 366, 367, 369, 468, 515, 519, 520, 523, 529, 530, 619, 633, 635, 929
exports of, 515, 519, 520, 522, 574, 576, 577, 587, 625, 982, 992
Chemicals and chemical products industry, 444, 446, 447, 451, 459, 470, 471
exports of, 580
imports of, 593, 594, 597, 602
Chemists, 129, 133, 536, 538, 541, 543
Child health and welfare, 116, 121, 124, 148, 152, 154, 156, 158–161, 243–245
Childbirth accidents, etc., 99, 103–104, 140
Children and Young Persons Act 1974, 92, 159–160
Children and Young Persons Courts, 159–160, 243–245
Children—
adopted, 93, 158–159
causes, 103, 104, 105, 106–107
allowances for, 147–148, 150, 151, 152, 154
causes, 103, 104, 105, 106–107
born, number and sexes of, 88–89, 912
causes, 103, 104, 105, 106–107
deaths of (sec also Infant mortality), 95, 96, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106–107, 912
causes, 103, 104, 105, 106–107
delinquent, 158–161, 243–245
dental treatment of, 117, 124, 131
dependent, 152, 153–154, 164, 165
deprived, 158–159, 160–161
handicapped, 125, 156, 158, 181–182
heights and weights of, 145–146
intellectually handicapped, 156, 158, 181–182
involved in separation agreements, 248
killed on roads, 105, 106, 326
offences by, 243–245
restrictions on employment of, 822, 823, 824
school, 173–174, 177, 178–180, 183–186, 913
under supervision 158–161
Children's health camps, 121, 134, 897
Children's homes, 158, 159, 161
China, relations and trade with, 31, 209, 561, 566, 582, 583, 584, 586, 588, 590
Chiropodists, 128
Chronology of principal events, 941–946
Churches, 80–81
marriages in, 111–112
Cigarettes and tobacco—
duty on, 135, 610
imports of, 594, 596, 600, 601
production of, 444, 445, 447, 449, 456, 469
retail price of, 620
Cinemas, 354–356, 620
Cities and boroughs, 47, 49, 59–60, 172, 265, 291–292, 700–706, 784
Citizen radio service, 346
Citizenship, 75
Citrus fruits, 379, 380, 386, 387, 606
consumption, of, 634
imports and marketing of, 527
Citrus Marketing Authority, 527
Civil—
aircraft accidents, 141, 341, 946
aviation, 334–341
defence, 48, 259–260, 703, 891, 901
jurisdiction, 245–246
List, 675
Clays and clay products, 420, 431, 432–433, 452, 460, 480
Clean Air Council, 118, 273, 897, 964, 965
Climate, 12–21
observations for year, 18–21
Clinics—
ante-natal, 120–121
dental, 124, 131
family planning, 121
Clothing and footwear, retail prices of, 619–620
Clothing—
exports, 579, 581
household expenditure on, 630–631
imports, 595, 606
Clothing industry, 444, 445, 447, 450, 457, 468, 470, 471, 763, 981
Clover (see also grass seed), 385, 576, 578
Coal, 419, 420, 421, 422–425, 426, 431–433, 491, 492, 493, 507, 511, 619
and petroleum products industry, 444, 446, 447, 452, 459, 594
persons engaged in, 432, 787, 791
deposits, 8, 419, 422–424
persons engaged in, 432, 787, 791
exports of, 580
persons engaged in, 432, 787, 791
mining, 419, 421, 422–425, 431–433, 834
persons engaged in, 432, 787, 791
research, 422–424, 431, 439
Research Association, 211, 213, 422, 431
resources, 422–424, 431, 496
State mines, 424–425, 430, 678, 697
usage, 424, 491, 492, 493, 501, 502, 925
Coastal erosion, 272
Coastal shipping, 300
Coastline, 2, 265–266, 272, 280, 281, 399, 961
Cocoa, 634
Agreement, International, 611
manufacture, 449, 456
Co-education, 174, 185
Coffee—
Agreement, International, 611
consumption, 635, 865
imported, 596, 600, 601
retail price of, 619, 620
Coin and coinage, 736
held by banks, 720
Colleges, teachers', 174, 175, 177, 178, 179, 182, 188–189, 200, 794–795, 913
Colonisation, 23–24
Commerce Act 1975, 557, 612
Commerce Commission, 557, 612
Commercial failures, 761, 863–865, 940
Commercial radio, 350, 352
Commission for the Environment, 267–268, 281, 676, 962–965, 989
Commission for the Future, 205, 294–295, 900
Commodity sales—
retail, 534, 540, 542–545, 551–553, 980–981
wholesale, 534, 537–539, 554–555, 981
Common Agricultural Policy (EEC), 515, 522, 560
Common Law, 228
Common Market (see European Economic Community)
Commonwealth, 29, 39, 258
defence, 257
youth programme, 39, 873
Communications, 342–356, 622
radio, 346
satellite, 346
Communities, 48, 61
Community—
and Housing Improvement Programme (CHIP), 475, 483
centres, 203
colleges, 174, 177
councils, 48
housing, 483
services, 158–159, 162–163
Companies, 761–763, 940
finance, 723, 725, 726, 727, 734–735, 736, 763
income of, 708–709, 710–713, 762–763
joint stock, 761
overseas, 660–664, 711–713, 761
private, 761
profits of, 762–763
public, 761–763
registered, 761, 940
share prices indexes, 628, 916, 917
taxation of, 688–689, 710, 712–713, 762
with overseas affiliations, 660–664, 711–713, 761
Compensation—
accidents involving, 830–843
criminal injuries, 246
Compressed natural gas (CNG), 495, 498
Computers, 345, 896
Conciliation service (industrial), 814
Concrete products industry, 452, 460, 480
Concrete Research Association, 210, 211
Condensate, natural gas, 420, 425, 426, 491, 493, 4, 503
Confectionery industry, 449, 456
Confinements, 89, 90–91
Conjugal status of persons marrying, 109, 111
Conservation (see Physical environment)
Conservation of Cultural Property Committee, 219
Consolidated Account (or Consolidated Revenue Account), 117, 317, 527, 671–672, 674–677, 680, 698, 934, 989–991
Consolidated Accounts of the Nation, 639–642
Constitution of New Zealand, 23, 25–26, 40–41
Construction (see Building, Housing)
Consumer—
affairs, 612–613
index, 613–618, 620, 798–799, 810, 916, 917, 983–984
Council, 613
index, 613–618, 620, 798–799, 810, 916, 917, 983–984
prices, 619–620, 621
index, 613–618, 620, 798–799, 810, 916, 917, 983–984
protection, 612–613
Consumers Institute, 613
Consumption of—
coal, 491, 492, 493, 507, 511
electricity, 491, 492, 493, 504, 507–509
food, 633–636
natural gas, 491, 492, 493, 504, 507–509
oil, 491, 492, 493, 507, 511
Contact lenses, 131
Containerisation, 298–300
Convictions (court), 232–235, 914
for traffic offences, 235–236, 329–330
of juveniles, 244–245
of women, 237
Convictions in Magistrates' Courts, 234–235, 329–330, 914
Convictions in Supreme Court, 232–233, 914
Cook Islands, 11, 22, 29, 31–32, 38, 53, 72, 73, 82, 168, 190, 343, 346, 441, 561, 564, 565, 592, 605, 740, 742, 847–850, 942, 944
Cook Strait—
air freight services, 309
road-rail ferry service, 300, 309, 311, 312, 944
submarine power cable, 503–504
Co-operative credit associations, 753
Copper ore, 428
Copra, 606
Copyright, 861
Correspondence school, 173, 177, 178, 182, 184, 185, 190, 203
Cotton piece-goods, imports of, 597, 600, 602
Council for Adult Education, 201
Council for Educational Research, 201
Counties, 47, 49, 61–62, 784
area of, 61–62
capital and unimproved values, 291–292
councils, 49, 700–706
debt, 172, 704–706
franchise, 47
populations, 61–62
roads and roading, 315, 317, 318–319
Court of Appeal, 228, 229, 232, 245, 289, 885, 944
Courts (see also High, District, Children's etc.), 159–160, 914
changes to system, 228–229
Judges of, 228, 229, 885
structures and types of, 45, 228–229
Cows in milk, 390, 391, 393, 994
Cranes, boilers, and lifts, inspection of, 846
Cremation, 98, 784
Crime, law and, 228–246, 249–250, 914
Criminal—
appeals, 232
injuries compensation, 246
jurisdiction, 232–239
reformation and punishment, 230–231
Crippled children (see Handicapped children)
Crops, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362–363, 365, 366, 375, 379–389, 921, 994–995
Crown land, 274–276, 360
Crown Law Office, 676, 886, 888, 989
Cultivation, area in, 360, 361
Cultural activities and awards, 218–219, 220–221
Cultural Exchange Programme, 219
Currency and banking (see Banks and banking)
Customs Department, 571, 607–611, 676, 886, 888, 989
Customs tariff and revenue, 607–611, 673, 674, 681, 683, 945, 986, 988

D

Dairy—
Board, New Zealand, 368, 519, 525,
exported, 303, 305, 515–533, 558–562, 570, 574, 575, 576, 577, 579, 586–587, 635, 740, 742, 927–931, 981, 992
export price index, 625, 626
inspection of, 374
marketing of, 515, 519–522, 523–524, 525, 527, 529–530
prices for, 529, 530, 923
cows, 367, 390, 391, 393, 921, 994
exported, 303, 305, 515–533, 558–562, 570, 574, 575, 576, 577, 579, 586–587, 635, 740, 742, 927–931, 981, 992
export price index, 625, 626
inspection of, 374
marketing of, 515, 519–522, 523–524, 525, 527, 529–530
prices for, 529, 530, 923
factories, 367, 368, 369, 390, 435, 448, 456, 722
exported, 303, 305, 515–533, 558–562, 570, 574, 575, 576, 577, 579, 586–587, 635, 740, 742, 927–931, 981, 992
export price index, 625, 626
inspection of, 374
marketing of, 515, 519–522, 523–524, 525, 527, 529–530
prices for, 529, 530, 923
farming, 357, 361, 362, 365, 366, 381, 390, 391, 393, 707, 708, 722, 921, 994, 995
exported, 303, 305, 515–533, 558–562, 570, 574, 575, 576, 577, 579, 586–587, 635, 740, 742, 927–931, 981, 992
export price index, 625, 626
inspection of, 374
marketing of, 515, 519–522, 523–524, 525, 527, 529–530
prices for, 529, 530, 923
machinery, 378, 379
exported, 303, 305, 515–533, 558–562, 570, 574, 575, 576, 577, 579, 586–587, 635, 740, 742, 927–931, 981, 992
export price index, 625, 626
inspection of, 374
marketing of, 515, 519–522, 523–524, 525, 527, 529–530
prices for, 529, 530, 923
produce, 357, 361, 362, 365, 366–368, 374, 448, 456, 468, 594, 619, 621, 923
exported, 303, 305, 515–533, 558–562, 570, 574, 575, 576, 577, 579, 586–587, 635, 740, 742, 927–931, 981, 992
export price index, 625, 626
inspection of, 374
marketing of, 515, 519–522, 523–524, 525, 527, 529–530
prices for, 529, 530, 923
consumption of, 633, 636
exported, 303, 305, 515–533, 558–562, 570, 574, 575, 576, 577, 579, 586–587, 635, 740, 742, 927–931, 981, 992
export price index, 625, 626
inspection of, 374
marketing of, 515, 519–522, 523–524, 525, 527, 529–530
prices for, 529, 530, 923
household expenditure on, 631
inspection of, 374
marketing of, 515, 519–522, 523–524, 525, 527, 529–530
prices for, 529, 530, 923
Research Institute, 206, 208, 211, 213, 273, 899
Data service (Post Office), 345
Databank Systems Ltd., 719
Deaf, education of, 181–182, 189
Death benefits, 150, 156,
Death duty, estates passed for, 691–693
Death rates, 52, 94–96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 912
Maori non-Maori comparisons, 94–95
Deaths, 52, 86, 94–96, 98–108, 912, 943
accidental (see Accidents)
by ages, 95
by causes, 98–103
distribution over year, 95
due to earthquakes, 9
from accidents on farms, 844
from air accidents, 341
from external causes, 105–108, 834–837, 844
from industrial accidents, 107, 834–837, 844
in fires, 251
in hospitals, 139–141, 142,
in psychiatric hospitals, 145
international classification, 98–99
maternal, 104
neo-natal, 103–104
of infants, 103–104, 105, 912
of Maoris, 86, 94–95, 96, 103
of children, 95–96, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106–107
perinatal, 99, 103–104
registration of, 98
Debt—
hospital boards, 137
local government, 704–706, 937,
public (see Public debt)
Decimal currency, 736, 945
Deer farming, 276, 394
Defence, 36–37, 252–260
civil, 259–260
Council, 252
expenditure on, 253, 672, 676, 987, 990
Ministry of, 252, 253, 886, 888, 898, 907
policy, 36–37
services, strength of, 254–257
Degrees, university, 196
Delinquency, juvenile, 158–161, 243–245
Demolition of buildings, 475
Density of population, 65
Dental—
benefits (social security), 124, 131, 133
health, 124
nurses, 124
research, 124
services, 117, 124, 131, 133
Dentists, 124, 127, 708
Departments, Government, 878, 886–895
Agriculture and Fisheries, 208, 212–213, 271, 273, 373, 374–375, 382, 384, 386, 412, 413, 677, 886, 888, 899, 990
Audit Office, 676, 886, 888, 989
Crown Law, 676, 886, 888, 989
Customs, 571, 607–611, 676, 886, 888, 989
Defence, 252, 253, 886, 888, 898, 907
Education, 121, 161, 173, 181, 182, 190, 219, 350, 780, 781, 873, 887, 889, 895, 898
Energy, 209, 422, 430, 431, 494, 497, 498, 503, 504, 505, 671, 672, 677, 846, 887, 889, 895, 898, 946
Foreign Affairs, 28, 37, 204, 219, 873, 887, 889
Forest Service, 208, 210, 267, 269, 276, 281, 398–401, 405, 408–409, 677, 703, 872, 887, 890, 900, 962, 963, 990
Government Printing Office, 676, 887, 890, 990
Health, 115, 116–121, 123–134, 135, 138, 143, 148, 149, 272, 613, 887, 890, 893, 897–898, 962, 963
Inland Revenue, 676, 887, 890, 896, 989
Internal Affairs, 218, 676, 677, 866, 887, 890, 896, 989, 990
Justice, 161, 181, 230, 284, 676, 887, 891, 896, 898, 989, 996
Labour, 116, 119–120, 125, 148, 153, 191, 204, 670, 677, 778–781, 786, 801, 845, 887, 891, 900–901, 918, 990
Lands and Survey, 210, 263, 274, 275, 276, 280, 281, 283, 433, 677, 754, 887, 891, 900, 962, 963, 990, 996
Maori Affairs, 162, 282, 283, 483, 677, 873, 887, 891, 900, 991
Scientific and Industrial Research, 119, 205, 206–212, 213, 214, 253, 269, 273, 384, 408, 429, 430, 677, 887, 892, 899, 990
Social Welfare, 147–148, 149, 158, 159, 178, 181, 246, 887, 893, 896, 898
Trade and Industry, 382, 439, 440, 441, 571, 612, 613, 677, 887, 894, 900, 907, 990
Transport, 306, 315, 322, 327–329, 334, 335, 433, 845–846, 887, 893, 894, 896, 898–899
Works and Development, 158, 210, 222, 264, 266, 269, 271, 281, 284, 308, 315, 316, 318, 430, 433, 499, 676, 888, 894–895, 896, 899, 962, 963, 990, 991
Dependants of servicemen, pensions for, 163–167
Dependent children, 152, 153–154, 164, 165
Deportation, 74
Deposits—
interest on, 729, 730, 732, 733
time, 720, 721
with building societies, 759, 760
with Reserve Bank, 718, 720
with savings banks, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 938
with stock and station agencies, 733–734
with trading banks, 720, 721
Depreciation—
in manufacturing industries, 455–463, 467
in domestic trade, 534, 537–538, 539, 540, 542–544, 545, 546–550
Deprived children, 158–159, 160–161
Desertion in marriage, 113
Designs, registration of, 860–861
Detention centres, 231, 233, 235, 240
Development Finance Corporation, 440, 498, 697, 746, 900
Diagnostic laboratory services, 130, 133
Diatomite, 420, 428
Diesel and diesel-electric rail transport, 310
Dietitians, 128, 136
Diplomatic representation, 26, 28, 30, 31, 34, 905–909
Disabled Rehabilitation League, 125
Disability allowance, 150, 156
Disability war pension, 163–167
Disabled civilians, rehabilitation of, 125, 779, 827
Disabled servicemen, 163–167
Diseases—
deaths from, 99–101, 139–141
mental, 139, 140, 144–145
occupational, 120
treated in public hospitals, 139–141
Displaced persons, 72–73
Disputes, industrial, 813–814, 818–821, 918, 942, 943
Dissolution of marriage, 111–114
Distance tax, 316, 317, 682, 684
Distillate fuels, 420, 425–426, 491, 493, 495, 576, 578, 597, 600, 602, 983
Distribution—
census of, 533–550
by ages, 76, 78, 79–80, 81
of labour force, by industry and occupation, 775, 776, 787–792
by ages, 76, 78, 79–80, 81
of population, 56–65
by ages, 76, 78, 79–80, 81
District—
Communities, 61
Judges of, 228, 233, 243
Community Councils, 48
Judges of, 228, 233, 243
Councils, 48, 60, 701, 702, 705, 784
Judges of, 228, 233, 243
Courts (see also Magistrates' Courts), 45, 228, 229, 233, 245, 249,
Judges of, 228, 233, 243
high schools, 178, 184–185, 186
planning, 263, 264, 265–266
Road Councils, 316
Diversification of trade, 515–522, 558–559, 560–563
Dividends, totalisator, 694
Divorce, 109, 111, 112–114
Divorced persons, 76, 77, 79–80
remarrying, 109–111
Doctors, 121, 126, 127, 129–130, 132, 708
Dolomite, 420, 421
Domains, public, 280–281, 703
Domestic assistance, 131
Domestic proceedings, 247–248
Domestic purposes benefit, 150, 151, 152, 153–154, 157
Domestic trade, 533–557, 776, 787, 789, 790, 803, 980–981
Dominion status, 25, 27
Drainage boards, 49, 784
Drama publications, 957
Drinking age, 868
Drivers' licences, 320
Drowning accidents, 106, 107, 108
Drugs, 118–119, 211, 233, 234, 236, 250, 451, 459
offences involving, 233, 234, 236
therapeutic, 118–119
Drunkenness, 234, 236, 237, 239, 328, 329
Duties—
customs and excise, 607–610, 644, 673, 674, 681, 683, 986, 988
estate and gift, 674, 682, 689–693, 986
lottery, 682, 866
Dwellings (see also Houses and flats), 472–490, 755–757, 979
amenities, 487
heating of, 488
insulation of, 489, 498
materials used, 488–489
number of rooms and occupants, 489
tenure, 487
type of, 486

E

Earth resources satellite programme, 263
Earthquake and War Damage Commission, 699, 772–773
Earthquake and war damage insurance, 772–773
Earthquakes, 9–11, 773, 941, 943
Eastern Europe, relations with, 30, 559, 561–562, 568
Economic—
aggregates, 638–670
censuses (see censuses, economic)
indicators (industrial production), 469–471
Monitoring Group (EMG), 294
pensions, 164, 165
Economics publications, 949
Education (see also Schools), 173–204, 913, 942
Act, 173, 174
adult, 202–203
boards, 173–174
buildings, 175, 177, 476, 477, 486, 679
community colleges, 174, 177
continuing, 202–204
Department of, 121, 161, 173, 181, 182, 190, 219, 350, 780, 781, 873, 887, 889, 895, 898
expenditure on, 175–176, 177, 672, 673, 677, 679, 865, 987, 988, 990
health, 117, 119–120, 122, 123–124
international, 204
Maori, 183, 184, 185, 186, 190, 201–202
of handicapped children, 181–182
Pacific Islanders, 201–202, 204
pre-school, 175, 177, 178, 179, 182
primary, 173–174, 177, 178, 179, 182–184, 913
psychological service, 181
publications, 190–191, 204, 950–951
road safety, 328
rural, 186–188
secondary, 173–174, 177, 178, 179, 184–186, 794–795, 913
special, 175, 181–182
technical, 174, 178, 179, 197–200, 781–783, 794–795, 913
training of teachers, 174, 175, 178, 188–189, 913
university, 191–197, 913
Educational—
attainments, 185
attendance levels, 200, 794–795
planning, 173–174, 186, 201, 202
qualifications of labour force, 794–795
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 35, 36, 195
Eels, 418
Effective weekly wage rates, 805–809, 810, 985–986
Eggs—
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 635
marketing of, 394, 527
production of, 394
retail price of, 619
Elderly, housing of, 133, 483, 484, 703, 756
Elections, general, 41, 46–47, 869–870
Electoral—
Act 1956, 41, 46–47
Representation Commission, 46
roll, 46, 869
Electorates, 46, 874, 879
Electric—
appliances in homes, 487–488
boards, 49, 505, 701, 702, 705, 706, 784
capital invested in, 504, 507
finance of, 172, 504, 507, 509
stations, 419, 425
power, 419, 422, 424, 425, 439, 491–493, 495, 496, 497, 501–509
boards, 49, 505, 701, 702, 705, 706, 784
capital invested in, 504, 507
finance of, 172, 504, 507, 509
stations, 419, 425
railways, 310
Electrical machinery and appliances—
imported, 595, 599, 601, 602
industry, 445, 446, 454, 461, 468
Electricity—
consumption of, 491, 492, 493, 504, 507–509
estimates, 504
generation, 506–508
price of, 619
Electronics manufacture, 436, 438
Embassies, 905–909
Emergency Protection Authority, 572
Emigration, 67–72, 775, 977, 978
Employers, unions of, 814, 816, 817, 818
Employment, 774–796, 977, 995
and Vocational Guidance Service, 779–780
by local authorities, 784
centres, 779–780
in building industry, 474, 479–480, 776, 787, 789
in coal mining, 424, 432, 788, 791
in domestic trade, 534, 535–536, 539, 540–542, 544–550, 776, 787, 789, 790
in forestry, 409, 788, 791
in industry, 443, 444, 445, 448–455, 463–467, 775, 776, 787, 788–789
index of, 670
on farms, 361–362, 788, 791, 811
placement service, 778–780
programmes, 778–780, 993
promotion, 778–780, 993
public service, 785, 824, 895, 897
regulations affecting, 821–825
survey of, 783–784
vacancies, 785–786
Energy, 205, 206–207, 209, 491–514, 990
conservation, 497–499
Ministry of, 209, 422, 430, 431, 494, 497, 498, 503, 504, 505, 671, 672, 677, 846, 887, 889, 895, 898, 946
pricing policy, 497–499
research and development, 439, 472, 495, 496, 499
Energy resources—
development of, 494–497
levy, 674, 682, 986
Engineering industries, 445, 446, 453–454
Entry permits, 73–74
Environment—
Commission for, 267–268, 281, 889, 963–965
physical, 205, 210, 212, 261–274, 961–965
research in, 205, 210, 212, 214, 262, 269
Environmental—
agencies, 267–269, 961–965
Council, 268, 962–965
health, 116, 118
protection by industry, 269–270
Equal Opportunities Tribunal, 860
Equal pay, 801
Erosion, 7, 8, 271–272, 399–400, 408
control of soil, 271–272
control of coastal, 272
Estate and gift duty, 674, 682, 689–693, 754, 986
Estates—
administered by Public Trust Office, 862–863
passed for death duty, 691–693
Ethnic groups, 82
Europe, relations with, 29–30, 515, 516, 518–525
European Economic Community (EEC), 28, 29, 515, 516, 519, 520–521, 522–524, 558, 560, 565–566, 607, 608, 655, 945
investment in New Zealand, 661–662
trade with, 515, 518, 520, 565–566, 583, 584, 585, 586, 588, 589, 659, 660
Ewes, breeding, 392
Examinations, 180–181, 184, 185, 191, 204
Excess retention tax, 688
Exchange (currency)—
control of, 717, 737–739, 743
rates of, 737–739
transactions, overseas, 717, 740–744, 992
Excise duties, 607–610, 673, 674, 681, 683, 986, 988
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), 252, 258, 411, 413, 414, 416, 439, 946
Executive council, 44–45
Ex-nuptial infants, 91–92, 93, 158–159
ages of mothers, 92
births of, 91–92, 158
protection of, 158–159
registration of, 92
Exotic forest, 396, 397–398, 399, 400, 401–402, 409–410
Expectation of life, 96–98, 966–972
Expenditure—
defence, 253, 672, 676
education, 175–176, 177, 672, 673, 677, 679, 865
Foreign Affairs, 672, 676
Forest Service, 401, 677, 679
Government (see Government Finance)
health, 117, 129–133, 673, 677, 679
household, 629–631
local government, 318, 319, 701, 702, 703, 937
National Roads Fund, 317, 318, 319, 680
Post Office, 347, 919
Railways, 310–311, 678, 679
research, 214, 215, 677
roads, 317, 318, 319, 677, 679, 680, 991
social welfare and services, 149, 150, 166, 167, 673, 677, 679, 935
transport, 673, 677, 679
Export Guarantee Office, 442, 573, 893
Export-Import Corporation, 441, 573, 678, 697
Exports and Shipping Council, 528
Exports (see also under individual products), 305–306, 340, 407–408, 558–570, 573–592, 641, 642, 654, 660, 926–932, 981–983, 992
by air, 340
value, 574, 577–581, 583–591, 740, 742, 981–983
volume, 575–577, 583–591, 982–983
index numbers, 624–627, 915, 916
index numbers, 570
by ports, 303, 305–306, 591
value, 574, 577–581, 583–591, 740, 742, 981–983
volume, 575–577, 583–591, 982–983
index numbers, 624–627, 915, 916
index numbers, 570
classification of, 579–581
value, 574, 577–581, 583–591, 740, 742, 981–983
volume, 575–577, 583–591, 982–983
index numbers, 624–627, 915, 916
index numbers, 570
commodities exported—
value, 574, 577–581, 583–591, 740, 742, 981–983
volume, 575–577, 583–591, 982–983
index numbers, 624–627, 915, 916
index numbers, 570
destination of, 558–569, 581, 582, 583–591
index numbers, 624–627, 915, 916
index numbers, 570
incentive scheme, 572–573
index numbers, 624–627, 915, 916
index numbers, 570
manufactured, 437, 438, 440
index numbers, 624–627, 915, 916
index numbers, 570
meat, 370, 574, 575, 577, 579, 584–586
index numbers, 624–627, 915, 916
index numbers, 570
oil, 493
index numbers, 624–627, 915, 916
index numbers, 570
prices, 528–530, 531–532
index numbers, 624–627, 915, 916
index numbers, 570
pulp and paper, 406–407, 408, 932
index numbers, 570
timber, 306, 407
index numbers, 570
value of, 565–569, 574, 577–581, 583–591, 656, 658–659, 926–932, 982–983, 992, 994
index numbers, 570
volume of, 575–577, 583–591, 927–932
index numbers, 570
Ex-servicemen—dependants of, 163–167
disabled, 163–167
pensions and rehabilitation, 163–167
External—
migration (see also emigration, immigration), 52, 55, 67–74, 851, 853–855, 911
trade, (see Trade (external), Exports, Imports, etc.)
transactions account, 639, 642

F

Factories (see also Manufacturing industries), 435–471, 476, 477, 822
dairy, 367, 368, 369, 390, 435, 448, 456
employees, 443, 444–445, 448–455, 463–467
Factory production, 435–471, 924
Falls, accidental, 107, 141, 142, 838
Family—
and the law, 246–248
capitalisation of, 150, 154, 481, 756, 890
benefits, 147–148, 150, 151, 152, 154
capitalisation of, 150, 154, 481, 756, 890
health, 116, 120–121
planning, 121
Farm—
accidents, 107, 108, 844
index of, 624
imports of, 598, 601, 602
production of, 453, 461
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
advisory service, 374–375
index of, 624
imports of, 598, 601, 602
production of, 453, 461
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
area in cultivation, 360, 361, 994
index of, 624
imports of, 598, 601, 602
production of, 453, 461
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
capital expenditure, 362–363, 995
index of, 624
imports of, 598, 601, 602
production of, 453, 461
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
employees, 361–362, 788, 791, 811, 995
imports of, 598, 601, 602
production of, 453, 461
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
Employment Scheme, 779
imports of, 598, 601, 602
production of, 453, 461
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
finance, 273–274, 722, 723, 752–755, 996
imports of, 598, 601, 602
production of, 453, 461
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
forestry, 276
imports of, 598, 601, 602
production of, 453, 461
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
holdings, 360, 361, 994
imports of, 598, 601, 602
production of, 453, 461
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
incomes, 707–709, 710, 711–712
imports of, 598, 601, 602
production of, 453, 461
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
industry reserves, 532–533
imports of, 598, 601, 602
production of, 453, 461
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
machinery, 362, 378–379
imports of, 598, 601, 602
production of, 453, 461
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
ownership account, 731
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
produce—
consumption of, 633, 636
export of, 305, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
marketing of, 515–533, 980
indexes of, 365–366
production, 207–208, 363–366, 379–395, 921
indexes of, 365–366
settlement and assistance, 275–276
subsidies, 377–378
Farming, 24–25, 357–395, 811, 921–923, 994–995
arable, 358, 359, 360, 361, 363, 365, 366, 378, 379–385, 389, 921, 994, 995
cattle, 359, 361, 362–363, 365, 366, 390–391, 393, 921, 994
cost price index, 623–624
crops, 358, 359, 360, 361, 365, 366, 994, 995
dairy, 357, 361, 362, 365, 366, 381, 390, 391, 393, 707, 708, 722, 921, 994, 995
occupations, 361–362, 995
sheep, 357, 358, 359, 361, 362–363, 365, 366, 369–370, 381, 389, 390, 391, 392, 707, 708, 722, 922, 995
stud, 361, 363
Fathers, ages of, 89
Federated Mountain Clubs, 277, 282
Federation of Labour, 528, 797, 800, 815–816
Feeding stuff for animals, export of, 576, 578, 579, 590
Female suffrage, 942
Fertiliser—
imports of, 304, 594, 596, 597, 602
industry, 364, 451, 459, 469
land topdressed with, 375–376
research, 208, 209
spread from air, 375–376
subsidy, 377, 378
Fibreboard, 405
Fibres, man-made, 449, 457
Fiction, selected New Zealand, 956–957
Film Commission, 219, 867
Film-hire tax, 682, 986
Finance—
account, capital, 639, 642
companies, 723, 725, 726, 727, 734–735, 736, 763
farm, 273–274, 722, 723, 752–755, 996
Government, 149, 150, 641, 642, 644, 647, 649, 650–651, 652, 653, 671–699, 751, 752–757, 986–991
hospital board, 137
housing, 481, 482, 484–485, 755–757
local government, 317, 318–319, 700–706, 751
Fines, 230, 233, 235
Fire—
calls, 251
insurance, 251, 769–770
prevention in forests, 400
regions, areas, and districts, 250
safety, 251
service, 172, 250–251
Service Commission, 250–251
First births, 90–91
Fish—
acclimatisation of, 418
and fisheries, 411–418, 439
catch, 411, 412, 413, 414–415
consumption and price of, 619, 633, 636
exported, 411, 416, 417, 575, 576
imported, 594
processing, 417, 449, 456
research, 412, 413, 418
retail prices, 619
species, 5, 412, 413–414, 415
value of production, 411, 412, 414–415
Fishery protection, 258
Fishing, 411–418, 753–755, 857–858
big-game, 417, 858
foreign activity, 411, 412, 414, 416
Government financial aid, 413, 753–755, 996
grounds, 411–412
Industry Board, 413
methods, 411–412, 414
persons engaged in, 788, 791
vessels, 411, 412, 414, 753, 754
Vessel Ownership Accounts, 413, 753
Flag, New Zealand, 874
Flats (see Houses and flats)—
pensioners', 475, 483
Floods and flooding, 5, 19, 20, 946
Flour, production and retail price of, 468, 619, 621
Fluoridation, 124
Food—
and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 35, 36, 636
and Drug Act, 118, 119
consumption, 633–636
household expenditure on, 629–631
imports of, 594, 596, 600, 601
inspection and sale of, 116, 119
marketing of, 515–517, 519–522, 524–528, 530–532, 535, 537, 540, 542, 546, 551, 554–555, 981
production, 444, 445, 447, 448–449, 455–456, 468, 763
retail prices of, 619, 621
Standards Committee, 119
Footwear and clothing, retail prices of, 619–620
Footwear industry, 444, 445, 447, 450, 457
Foreign Affairs, Ministry of, 28, 37, 204, 219, 873, 887, 889
expenditure on, 672, 676, 987, 988, 990
Foreign citizenship, 75
Foreign fishing—
activity, 411, 412, 414, 416
Vessel Entry Tax, 682, 986
Foreign policy, 26–40
Foreign travel tax, 674, 682
Forest—
beech, 1, 278, 397, 399
conservation, 267, 269, 398–401
exotic, 396, 397–398, 399, 400, 401–402, 409–410
fire prevention, 400
indigenous, 1, 267, 278, 279, 396, 397, 398–399, 401–402, 409
kauri, 397, 398–399
parks, 261, 400
private, 396, 399, 401, 403
produce exported, 406–408, 574, 576, 578, 590, 932, 983, 992
protection, 399–400, 408
Research Institute, 401, 408
resources, 396–398, 401–402, 409
rimu, 397, 398
Service, 208, 210, 267, 269, 276, 281, 398–401, 405, 408–409, 677, 703, 872, 887, 890, 900, 962, 963, 990
State, 267, 396, 397, 398–401, 403, 409
utilisation, 401–410, 439, 440
Forestry, 1, 396–410, 679, 703, 753, 763, 803, 923, 993
development and future prospects of, 409, 410
employment in, 409
research, 400–401, 408
training, 408–409
Forty-hour week, 822, 943
Franchise, central government, 47, 942, 943, 945
Freehold land, 275, 276, 287, 360
Freight carried by—
air transport, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 979
rail, 309, 920
shipping, 302–306
Freshwater fisheries, 418, 857
Friendly societies, 157
Frost, 16, 18–21
Frozen foods—
consumption of, 634, 635
export of, 576, 577, 635
production of, 468
Fruit—
berry, 386, 387–388, 634, 635
citrus, 379, 380, 386, 387, 634
consumption of, 634, 635
exports of, 306, 576, 577, 579, 930, 983
imports of, 305, 594, 606
industry, 358, 360, 361, 363, 365, 366, 376, 379, 381, 384, 386–388, 995
juices, 606
marketing of, 374, 375, 526, 527
pip, 379, 380, 386, 387, 388, 634, 635
stone, 380, 386, 387, 634, 635
sub-tropical, 379, 386, 387
Fruit and vegetable preserving industry, 380, 383, 449, 456, 468
Fuel, light, and power, household expenditure on, 631
Fuels and lubricants, imports of, 593, 594, 596, 597, 600, 601–602
Furniture industry, 444, 445, 447, 450, 458, 619, 981

G

Gaming and lotteries, 866–867
Gas—
appliances in homes, 487–488
compressed natural (CNG), 495, 498
Council, 509, 900
generation and supply, 419–421, 425–426, 431, 509–514
liquefied petroleum (LPG), 420, 439
natural, 208, 209, 419, 420, 421, 425–426, 433, 439, 491, 493, 495, 497, 501, 502, 503, 507, 509–514, 679, 945, 946
prices, 619
subsidies, 509, 512, 637
General—
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 33, 517, 519, 523, 558, 607–608
Assembly Library, 223
Elections, 41, 46–47, 869–870
Price Index, 621–623, 984
Wage Orders, 797, 798, 801, 993
Geological Survey, 209
Geology, 7–9, 430
maps and publications, 421, 427, 952
Geothermal power, 209, 491, 496, 497, 501, 502, 503
Geysers (see Thermal activity)
Gift duty, 674, 682, 690, 691, 986
Glaciers, 4, 8, 278
Glass and glass products industry, 444, 446, 447, 452, 459
Glasshouses, production in, 384
Gold—
discovery of, 5, 24, 941, 942
mining and production, 419, 420, 426, 427, 430, 431–432
reserve, 717, 719, 739, 933
Government—
departments (see Departments, Government)
employees, 777, 785, 824, 895, 897, 977
finance, 149, 150, 641–642, 644, 647, 649, 650–651, 652, 653, 671–699, 751, 752–757, 986–991
housing, 473, 474, 481, 484–485, 755–757
Life Insurance Office, 699, 765, 771–772, 887, 890, 894
Printing Office, 676, 887, 890, 990
securities, 678, 764, 766, 767, 770
Superannuation Fund, 168–170, 171, 699, 894
system of, 40–51
Governors-General, 875–876
powers, duties, etc., 41, 42, 44, 243, 252, 266, 286, 290, 717, 814
Graduates, university, 188–189, 196
Grain—
crops, 379, 380, 381, 382, 921
milling, 435, 449, 456
Grants (see also Subsidies)—
educational, 173, 174, 175, 187, 191–192, 194, 195, 201–202, 993
from lottery profits, 133, 215, 218, 866–867, 872
research, 211, 214, 215
various, 201, 218, 220–221, 278, 281, 780, 872
welfare services, 117, 129–133, 482–483
Grapes and vineyards, 379, 380, 384, 386, 388, 527
Grass and clover seed, 379, 384–385
exports of, 576, 578, 930
Grasses and grasslands, 357–359, 360, 375, 379, 385–386, 994, 995
Grasslands and grasses research, 207, 212, 375–376
Greenstone, 420, 421, 429
Groceries, retail prices of, 619, 621
Gross—
domestic product, 150, 513, 621, 639, 640, 641, 643–649, 660, 669–670
of Central Government, 675, 695–699, 705, 726, 728, 936, 987, 988, 989
of local government, 704–706, 937
fixed capital formation, 640, 642, 649–653
of Central Government, 675, 695–699, 705, 726, 728, 936, 987, 988, 989
of local government, 704–706, 937
indebtedness—
of Central Government, 675, 695–699, 705, 726, 728, 936, 987, 988, 989
of local government, 704–706, 937
national product, 176, 215, 640, 641, 935
Guardianship of State wards, 161

H

Hail, 15
Halloysite, 428
Handicapped children, 125, 156, 158, 181–182
Harbour boards, 49, 50, 172, 700–702, 706, 784
Harbour Bridge Authority, 315, 705, 784
Harbours (see also ports), 2, 265, 266
Health, 116–146
benefits, 117, 129–133, 148–150
camps, 121, 134
child, 116, 121, 124
dental, 124
Department of, 115, 116–121, 123–134, 135, 138, 143, 148, 149, 272, 613, 887, 890, 893, 897–898, 962, 963
education, 117, 119–120, 122, 123–124, 188
environmental, 116, 118
expenditure, 117, 129–133, 673, 677, 679, 987, 988, 991
family, 116, 120–121
hazards, 120
insurance, 157
management services and research unit, 126
mental, 138, 139–140
occupational, 119–120, 143–145
statistic, 99, 101, 107, 125
Hearing aids, 131
Heart disease, 99, 100–101, 122, 139
Heavy Engineering Research Association, 206, 210, 211, 213
Heavy traffic fees, 317
Heights and weights of children, 145–146
Hides, skins, and pelts exported, 305, 515, 574, 575, 576, 578, 579, 588–589, 931, 983
High Commissions, 905–909
High Court (see also Supreme Court), 45, 168, 169, 228, 229, 232, 245, 289, 885
Judges of, 229, 243, 885
High Priority Activities Scheme, 441
Higher Salaries Commission, 42, 800, 900
Higher School Certificate, 180, 185
Highways, 314, 315, 317, 318, 472, 680, 991
taxation, 316, 317, 673, 674, 680, 682, 684, 986, 988, 991
Hire purchase trade, 556–557, 723, 981
Historic Places Trust, 218, 221, 222, 867
Historic reserves, 279, 280, 281
Historical and biographical works, 958–960
History of New Zealand, 22–28, 941–946, 958–959
Holidays, 822, 871
Home nursing services, 131
Home ownership account, 731
Homes—
accidents in, 107, 142, 832
children's, 148, 158, 159
joint family, 485–486
old people's, 133
Homicide, 106, 141, 233
Honey, 375, 395, 527–528, 635
Honours conferred, 901–904
Hops and hop gardens, 358, 375, 380, 389
Horse racing, 694
Horticulture, 358, 360, 361, 363, 365, 366, 375, 376, 994, 995
Hospital—
accommodation, 135–136, 138
benefits, 129–133, 150, 152–153
Boards, 49, 116–117, 121, 133, 134, 135, 137, 172, 700, 705, 895, 897
districts, 135
employees, 136, 825, 895
expenditure, 137
finances of, 137
indebtedness of, 137
Hospitals (see also Patients), 134–145, 161, 476, 477, 486, 679
beds in, 135–136, 138
deaths in, 139–141, 142, 145
general, 135–136, 138
maternity, 120–121, 130, 135, 138
old people's, 133
private, 130, 132, 134, 136, 138
psychiatric, 125, 130, 135, 138, 143–145, 161
public, 134–145
staff of, 136, 825
waiting lists, 136
Hostels, 476, 477, 484, 778–779
pre-release, 242
Hot springs, 857
Hotel and restaurant trade, 533–534, 545–547, 855–856
Hours of work, 802–804, 822
Hours worked, manufacturing industries, 469, 470, 471
House of Representatives, 41–45, 869, 879, 941, 942
members of, 42–44, 869, 879
Households, 77–80, 486–489, 496
age group of head, 78
employment status of head, 78
expenditure, 629–631
incomes of, 79, 629, 714–715
motorcar ownership by, 323
size of, 77–80, 630, 715
survey, 629–631
type of, 77–80
Houses and flats (see also dwellings), 472–490, 979
census enumerations, 486–489
completed, 475, 979
conversion to flats, 475, 979
finance of, 475, 481, 482, 484–485, 755–757
mortgages, 482
price index, 482
sale of State, 757
State, 473, 474, 481, 484–485, 755–757
Housing (see also Building and construction), 472–490, 679, 755–757, 979
bonds, 731
community, 483
Government capital assistance for, 475
household expenditure on, 629–631
Maori, 483–484
Mortgage Guarantee Scheme, 481
of elderly, 133, 483, 484, 703, 756
rural, 483
Housing Corporation, 472, 475, 481, 482–483, 484–485, 672, 675, 676, 677, 678, 697, 699, 731, 755–757, 887, 890, 900, 979, 990
rental house construction, 484, 485
Human Rights Commission, 860
Humidity, 16–17
Hunting and shooting, 858
Hydro-electric power, 4, 5, 491, 501–502, 503, 506, 507–508
Clutha River Scheme, 503, 679
Manapouri Scheme, 501–502, 506, 945
Tongariro Scheme, 502, 506
Upper Waitaki Scheme, 503, 506
Hydrographic survey, 258
Hygiene, 116–118

I

Ice cream, 448, 456, 468
Ilmenite, 429
Immigration, 23–24, 67–74, 775, 778, 977, 978
ages of migrants, 69
policy, 72–74
Immunisation, 116, 121
Imports, 304–305, 340, 407–408, 558–571, 593–606, 641, 642, 654, 660, 926, 981–983, 992
by air, 340
by end use, 603–604
by ports, 303, 304–305, 604–605
classification of, 593–595
licensing and control of, 571–572
origin of, 559, 563–569, 582
price indexes of, 627, 628, 915, 916
value of, 565–569, 593, 594–595, 656, 658–659, 741, 742, 982–983, 992, 994
value index numbers, 627, 628, 915, 916
volume index numbers, 570
volume of, 600–601, 983
Income—
assessable, 712–713
average and median, 708
company, 708–709, 710–713
earners in each household, 714
industrial classification of, 707–709
national disposable, 639, 641
of household in household survey, 629
of individuals, 710
of self employed, 707–709
Income tax, 673, 674, 681, 682, 684–688, 707, 710, 712–713, 986, 988
Indebtedness (see Debt)
Index numbers of—
consumers prices, 613–618, 620, 798–799, 810, 916, 917
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
employment, 670
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
export prices, 624–627, 915, 916
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
external trade, volume of, 570, 624
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
farm production, value and volume, 365–366
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
farming costs prices, 623–624
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
general price, 621–623
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
gross domestic product, 669–670
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
import prices, 627, 628, 915, 916
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
reproduction, 88
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
retail prices, 613–618, 620, 798–799, 810, 916, 917, 933–984
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
share prices, 628, 916, 917
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
terms of trade, 628, 915
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
urban house property and section price, 482
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
wage rates—
effective, 805–809, 810, 985, 986
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985
wool prices, 529, 980
Indigenous forest, 1, 208, 267, 278, 279, 396, 397, 398–399, 401–402, 409
Industrial—
and Staff Tribunals, 797–801
associations, 818
chemicals, 444, 446, 447, 451, 459, 580, 594, 597, 602
conciliation and arbitration, 813–814, 821, 942, 943
Conciliation Service, 814
Design Council, 442, 861, 900
development, 435–442
disputes, 813–814, 818–821, 918, 943, 944
distribution of population, 787, 788–789
injuries, 830, 831, 832–844
Mediation Service, 814
production, 435–471, 924
relations, 813–825
Relations Council, 814
research, 206–210, 211–212, 214–215, 442
safety, 822, 823, 824, 827, 845–846
stoppages, 813–814, 818–821, 918, 943, 944
unions, 814–818
Industrial accidents, 107, 830, 831, 832–844
deaths from, 107, 834–837, 844
Industries—
bank advances to, 722, 723
aids to development, 440–442
export earnings, 440, 740, 742, 992
Development Commission, 440–441, 571–572
aids to development, 440–442
export earnings, 440, 740, 742, 992
manufacturing, 435–471, 924
aids to development, 440–442
export earnings, 440, 740, 742, 992
overseas investment in, 663
Industry—
environmental protection, 269–270
persons engaged in, 443, 444–445, 448–455, 463–467, 775, 776, 787, 788–789, 924
State aid to, 672, 673, 677, 679, 752–755, 756, 996
wages and overtime (see also Salaries and Wages), 802–804, 985–986
Infant mortality, 103–104, 912
Injuries, industrial, 830, 831, 832–844
Inland Revenue Department, 676, 887, 890, 896, 989
Insects and fungi, control in forests, 400
Instalment credit trading, 556–557, 981
Insurance, 557, 686, 740, 741, 751, 764–773, 789, 803
accident, 328, 767–768
agricultural, 364
earthquake and war damage, 772–773
fire, 769–770
life, 727, 764–767
overseas exchange transactions, 740, 741
sickness, 157, 686
State, 699, 771–772, 887, 890, 894
Integration of private schools, 174, 175
Intellectually handicapped children, 156, 158, 181–182
Inter-departmental Committee on Resettlement, 73
Inter-industry studies, 664–668
Inter-island shipping service, 300, 309
Interest—
controls on rates, 728
bank overdrafts and loans, 721–722
finance company loans, 734–735
mortgages, 939, 993
public debt, 698, 704
on housing loans, 755–756
bank overdrafts and loans, 721–722
finance company loans, 734–735
mortgages, 939, 993
public debt, 698, 704
on local government debt, 704, 705
bank overdrafts and loans, 721–722
finance company loans, 734–735
mortgages, 939, 993
public debt, 698, 704
on public debt, 675, 698, 989
bank overdrafts and loans, 721–722
finance company loans, 734–735
mortgages, 939, 993
public debt, 698, 704
rates on—
bank overdrafts and loans, 721–722
finance company loans, 734–735
mortgages, 939, 993
public debt, 698, 704
savings banks, 729, 730, 732, 733, 938
stock and station deposits, 734–735
Intermediate schools, 178, 184, 996
Internal Affairs, Department of, 218, 676, 677, 866, 887, 890, 896, 989, 990
Internal migration, 83
International—
air services, 334, 337, 338–339
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 35, 211
Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank), 35, 36, 37, 656, 678, 697, 745, 746, 936, 944
Cocoa Agreement, 611
Coffee Agreement, 611
Development Association, 745–746
education, 204
Energy Agency, 30, 35, 494, 499
Finance Corporation, 35, 656, 745, 746, 944
indicators of standards of living, 865
investment income, 740, 741
Labour Organisation (ILO), 35
Monetary Fund, 35, 36, 40, 653, 656, 657, 678, 737–739, 741, 742, 743, 745, 933, 944, 992
relations, New Zealand's, 26–36
Subscriber Dialing (ISD), 346
Sugar Agreement, 610
Wool Secretariat, 372, 518
International comparisons—
birth and natural increase rates, 86, 87
consumption of foodstuffs, 636, 865
dairy produce, 520, 521
deaths of pre-school children, 105
doctors and dentists to population ratio, 127
energy consumption, 500
expectation of life, 98, 971–972
infant mortality rates, 103
libraries, 226–227
life assurance, 764
marriage rates, 109
motor accident death and injury rates, 327
newspapers, 353
population, 55, 84
prices, 620–621
public expenditure on education, 176, 865
research expenditure, 215
sheep numbers, 518
standards of living, 865
telephones, 344, 865
wholesale prices, 621
women in the labour force, 793
wool consumption, 518, 865
wool production, 518
Invalids' benefits, 150, 151, 152, 154, 157
Investment—
and finance, 748–763
in New Zealand, overseas, 660–664, 719
incomes, 762
Pool—National Provident Fund, 171–172
Reserve Bank, 719
societies, 758–760
Unit, 441
Invisible imports and exports, 740–743, 992
Iron and steel—
exports of, 577, 578
imports of, 304, 595, 598, 601, 602, 983
industry, 419, 420, 424, 426, 437, 445, 446, 452, 460
Iron ores and ironsands, 306, 419–420, 426, 439, 576, 578, 579
Irrigation, 271, 376, 753, 754, 995, 996
Islands, 1, 2, 847–852

J

Japan—
exports to, 437, 515, 516, 521, 558–559, 561, 564, 566, 581, 582, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 591
imports from, 596, 597, 598, 599
trade relations with, 30–31, 515, 516, 521, 559, 561, 564, 566, 569, 592, 658, 660
Job programmes, 777, 778–780, 977
Johnson report, 188
Joinery industry, 450, 458
Joint family homes, 485–486, 689
Judges—
District Court, 45, 168
High Court, 45, 168
Judiciary, 45, 228, 229, 233, 885
Juries, 230, 233
Justice, 228–248, 914
Department of, 161, 181, 230, 284, 676, 887, 891, 896, 898, 989, 996
Juvenile—
delinquency, 158–161, 243–245
offenders, 158–161, 243–245
working conditions, 822, 823, 824

K

Kapuni gasfield, 419, 421, 425, 431, 491, 493, 495, 496, 502, 509
Kauri, 397, 398–399
Kermadec Islands, 1, 2, 11, 280, 942
Kindergartens, 182
Kiwifruit, 379, 386, 387
Knitting mills and hosiery industry, 449, 457, 468
Korea, relations with, 437, 561, 566
Kraft paper and cardboard, exports of, 576, 578, 589

L

Laboratory diagnostic services, 130, 133
Labour—
Department of, 116, 119–120, 125, 148, 153, 191, 204, 670, 677, 778–781, 786, 801, 845, 887, 891, 900–901, 918, 990
distribution of, 776, 786–792
educational qualifications of, 794–795
projections, 776–777
force, 443, 444, 445, 448–455, 463–467, 534, 535–536, 539, 540–542, 544–550, 774–778, 787–792, 834–837, 918, 944
distribution of, 776, 786–792
educational qualifications of, 794–795
projections, 776–777
laws and working conditions, 797–801, 813–816, 821–825, 826
Lactose, 367
Lakes, 5–6, 264, 266, 268, 273, 278, 279, 281, 501, 502, 510, 511, 961, 964
Lamb—
consumption, 333
exported, 515, 516, 517, 524, 558, 560, 561, 562, 575, 635, 928, 982
London prices for meat, 531–532
production, 357, 359, 369, 370, 391, 392
retail price of, 619, 621
Lambs, 357, 358, 359, 392
slaughtered, 370
Land—
capital value of, 290–292
classification by farm types, 360, 362–363
conservation, 261–262, 271–272, 961–965
Crown, 274–276
development, 261–292, 485, 652–653, 961–965
drainage boards, 49, 784
freehold, 275, 276, 287
holdings, 360, 361, 362–363, 994
inventory, 263, 269, 272
leasehold, 275–276, 287
marginal lending, 273–274
Maori, 282–283, 285–286, 399
occupied, 360–361
public, 274–282
registration, 284–285, 287–288
resource surveys, 272
Settlement Board, 274–275, 276, 900
settlement promotion, 274–276, 282–283, 286, 698
surveys, 283–284
tax, 674, 682, 689, 986
tenure, 275–276, 284–285, 360
transfers, 284–285, 287–288, 939, 993
use, 261–263, 357–359, 360, 672, 677, 679, 994
Use Advisory Council, 263, 965
Valuation Court (see Supreme Court)
valuation of, 289–292, 700
Lands and Survey, Department of, 210, 263, 274, 275, 276, 280, 281, 283, 433, 677, 754, 887, 891, 900, 962, 963, 990, 996
Landslip claims, 773
Latin America, relations with, 34, 558–559, 561, 567, 659, 660
Law (see Legislation)—
and order, 228–246, 249–250, 672, 676, 914, 987, 989
and the family, 246–248
publications, 949–950
Reform Council, 228
Lawn mowers, 468, 619
Lead and zinc, 427, 428
Leasehold land holdings, 275–276, 287, 360
Leather and leather products, 444, 445, 447, 450, 457, 578, 580, 595
Legal aid, 246
Legal profession, 230, 708
Legal tender, 736
Legislation—
civil aviation, 334–335
in force in January 1980, 880–885
labour and allied, 797–801, 813–816, 821–825, 826, 943, 944
passed in 1979, 880
Legislative authority, 25–26, 41–45, 887, 888
Letters, etc., posted, 342–343, 919
Libraries, census of, 224–227, 996
Library school, 224
Library services, 190, 223–227, 242, 703, 871, 996
Licences—
air service, 334
caterers', 867–868
drivers', 320
hotel premises, 868–869
import, 571–572
motor-vehicle, 320–322, 978
petroleum prospecting, 425
publicans', 868–869
radio and television, 352, 619
restaurant, 868–869
tavern, 868–869
tourist house, 868–869
transport, 320, 322–323
Licensing—
authorities (road services), 322–323
Control Commission (liquor), 867–869, 944
Poll, National, 870
transport, 322–323
trusts, 869
Licensing of—
commercial air services, 334–335
goods and passenger services, 320, 322–323
lotteries and raffles, 866
motor vehicles, 320–322
private hospitals, 134, 138
sale of alcoholic liquor, 867–869
Life, expectation of, 96–98, 966–972
Life insurance, 727, 764–767, 771–772
Life tables, 96–97, 966–972
Lifts, inspection of, 846
Lighthouse service, 306
Lignite, 209, 422–423, 496
Lime—
for agriculture, 377, 378
industry, 452, 460
spread from air, 375, 376
Limestone, 419, 420, 431–433
Linseed, 384
Liquid Fuels Trust Board, 209, 494
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 420, 439, 495, 498, 637
Liqui-Gas, 495
Liquor licensing, 867–869
Literary awards, 220–221
Livestock, 370, 389–395, 994–995
Loans—
Account, 671–672, 677, 678, 680, 695, 698
allocation of, 697, 699
by building societies, 759–760
by finance companies, 734–735
dates of maturity, 699
domicile of, 936
farm, 752–755, 996
forestry, 401
hospital boards, 137
housing, 475, 498, 755–757
of local government, 704–706, 937
on assurance policies, 766, 767
overseas, 695, 696, 699, 936
Redemption Account, 671–672, 675, 677, 680, 698, 991
redemption of, 696–697
rural bank, 754–755, 996
Local Authorities Loans Board, 483, 704–706
Local authorities (see under Local Government and individual names, e.g., Hospital Boards, Counties, etc.)
Local Government, 47–51, 700–706, 891, 901
Act, 47, 48, 264
advances to, 482–483, 756–757
Commission, 47, 48, 944
debt of, 704–706, 937
districts, 47–49, 60–61
employees of, 777, 784, 977
expenditure of, 281, 318, 319, 701, 702, 703, 937
finance of, 317, 318–319, 641, 642, 644, 648, 649, 651, 652, 653, 700–706, 751, 895, 937
franchise, 51
health and welfare responsibilities of, 116, 118, 475, 482–483
housing by, 475, 482–483
investment pool, 171–172
number of local authorities, 49
powers of 50–51
rates, 700–702
revenue of, 317, 318–319, 701, 702, 703–704, 937
roading of, 315, 317, 318–319, 680
schemes, 50
subsidies and grants to, 317, 318–319, 475, 482–483, 680, 701, 702, 703–704
subsidised work with, 777
superannuation, 171, 172
urban transport operated by, 330–333
voting, 51
Locomotives, 310
Logging, 208, 401–403
London prices for meat, 531–532
Lotteries, 866–867, 901
duty on, 682, 866
grants, 133, 215, 218, 866–867, 872
Lubricants and fuels, imports of, 593, 594, 596, 597, 600, 601–602
Lucerne, 385, 994, 995

M

Machinery—
accidents, 839–840, 844
electrical, 436, 445, 446, 454, 461, 468, 578, 580, 595, 599, 601, 602
exports, 578, 580
farm, 362, 378–379, 453, 461, 598, 601, 602
imports of, 304, 595, 598–599, 601, 602, 603–604
industry, 445, 446, 453, 461, 468
safety of, 846
Magistrates' Courts (see also District Courts), 228, 233–237, 245–246
Mail, 342–343, 919
air, 336, 337, 338, 339, 342–343
Maize, 379, 380, 381, 382, 576, 577
Manganese ore, 428
Manufacturing Development Council, 441
Manufacturing industries, 435–471, 707, 708, 709, 803, 924, 979
accidents at work, 834–835
ancillary units, 443, 444–445, 448–455, 463–467
capital expenditure in, 443, 447–448, 455–463, 467, 469, 470, 979
Census of, 442–467
coal consumed in, 424
depreciation, 443, 455–463, 467
development, 435–442
economic indicators, 469–471
employment districts, 466–467
establishments, 443, 444–445, 448–455, 463–467, 924
export earnings, 440, 740, 742
finance, 722, 723, 763
geographical distribution, 463–467
gross domestic product, 643, 644, 645–646
gross fixed capital formation, 649–650
hours worked, 469, 470, 471, 979
index of prices, 622–623
labour force, 443, 444–445, 448–455, 463–467
materials used, 924
net profits, 763
output, 443, 447–448, 455–463, 467
overseas investment in, 663
persons engaged in, 443, 444–445, 448–455, 463–467, 776, 787, 788, 924
purchases and other expenses, 443, 445–446, 455–463, 466, 469, 470, 471, 924, 979
sales, 469, 470, 979
stocks, 469, 470, 979
stoppages, 819–820
turnover, 443, 445–446, 455–463, 466
value added, 443, 447–448, 455–463, 467, 924
wages in, 443, 445–446, 448–455, 463–467, 469, 470, 471, 924, 979
Maori (see also Maoris)—
Affairs, Department of, 162, 282, 283, 483, 677, 873, 887, 891, 900, 990
Appellate Court, 229, 286
birth rate, 86, 87
community officers, 162
community services programme, 162–163
Council, 162, 281
death rates, 94, 103
education, 183, 184, 185, 186, 190, 201–202
Education Foundation, 201, 202
electorates, 46, 879
housing, 483–484
Land Board, 282
Land Court, 168, 169, 229, 282, 285, 286
land, 282–283, 285–286, 399
language teaching, 186, 201–202
life expectancy, 96, 97–98, 968–970
Members of Parliament, 879, 942
population, 1, 54, 64, 66–67, 82
pre-employment classes, 782–783
pupils, 184, 185, 201
Purposes Act 1951, 108
Trustee, 283, 484, 699
wardens, 162
welfare organisations, 162–163
Women's Welfare League, 162
youths, trade training for, 782–783
Maoris (see also Maori)—
births of, 86, 87
children attending schools, 184, 185
deaths of, 86, 94–95, 96, 103
franchise, 46
history of, 22–24
infant mortality of, 103
natural increase of, 86
pre-employment courses for, 782–783
publications on, 951
scholarships for, 174, 201
settled on farms, 282–283
urbanisation of, 63–64
Maps and mapping, 284
factory production, 464, 465
mineral resources, 421, 427
rainfall, 15
Marginal land lending, 273–274
Marine officers certificates, 306
Marine pollution, 273, 307, 964
Marital status, 76, 77, 78, 79, 108, 109
Maritime parks and reserves, 265, 266, 280, 964
Maritime planning, 264, 266, 961, 962, 964
Market gardens, 358, 361, 363, 380, 381, 383–384, 390
Marketing, 515–533
Marriage guidance, 114
Marriages, 108–112, 114
ages of persons marrying, 110–111
celebrants of, 108, 111, 112
dissolution and nullity, 111–114
of minors, 111
rates, 109
Married women in the labour force, 793
Maternal deaths, 104
Maternal welfare, 120–121, 130, 132
Maternity—
benefits, 130, 132, 150
hospitals, 120–121, 130
Maui gasfield development, 209, 222, 419, 421, 425–426, 431, 491, 495, 503, 945, 946
Maui Development Ltd. (MDL), 495
Meat—
consumption of, 633, 636
Export Development Company, 516
export of, 303, 305, 370, 515, 516, 517, 524, 525, 558–562, 570, 574, 575, 577, 579, 584–586, 635, 740, 742, 928, 982, 992
export price index, 625
freezing and preserving industry, 435, 448, 455, 722, 763
Industry Reserve Account, 532–533, 699
Industry Research Institute, 208, 211, 213, 273
inspection of, 374
levy on, 525
marketing of, 515–517, 523, 525–526
overseas exchange transactions on, 740, 742
prices of, 531–532
production, 369–370, 374, 395, 923
retail prices and household expenditure on, 619, 621, 631
Meat Producers Board, New Zealand, 370–371, 373, 516–517, 525
Mediation, industrial, 814
Medical—
advertising, 119
benefits, 129–133, 149, 150
care societies, 157
Council, 126
practitioners, 126, 127, 129–130, 132, 136, 708
Research Council, 117, 124, 126
services, 116–134
Medicine, physical, 125
Members of Parliament, 42–44, 869
salaries of, 42–44
superannuation of, 169
Mental—
diseases, 139, 140, 144–145
health services, 138, 139–140, 143–145
Mercantile marine pensions, 165
Merchant banks, 736
Merchant navy qualifications, 306
Mercury, 427, 428
Mergers, 557
Metal products industry, 445, 446, 453–454, 460–461, 468, 577, 578–579, 722
Meteorological service, 12
observations for year, 18–21
Meteorology (see also Climate), 12–21
Methane, 495
Methanol plant, 439, 495, 946
Metrication, 860
Middle East—
relations with, 30, 609
trade with, 558–559, 562, 567–568, 596, 597
Migration, external, 52, 55, 67–74, 86, 775, 851, 853–855, 911, 941, 942, 946, 977–978
ages of migrants, 69
internal, 83
occupations of migrants, 70–71, 775, 978
Mileage of—
bus, etc., routes, 333
commercial air services, 336, 337, 338, 339
railways, 308
roads, 315
State highways and motorways, 315
Milk—
Board, 369, 527, 530
consumption, 633, 636
dried and condensed, exports of, 576, 577, 587, 929
dried and condensed, production of, 367, 468
levy on, 527
marketing of, 369, 527, 530, 619, 621
production and processing, 366, 368, 369, 448, 456, 468
subsidy, 527, 530, 637
Milkfat, 366, 367, 368, 529, 530, 923
Milking machines, 378, 379
Mineral Resources Council, 419, 430
Minerals and mineral production, 269, 419–434, 444, 446, 447, 452, 459–460, 995
imports of, 594, 595, 596, 597, 600, 601–602
Miners' benefits, 148, 150, 151, 152, 154
Minimum wage, 811
Mining and quarrying, 269, 419–434, 722, 723, 803, 995
accidents, 107, 834
legislation, 422, 823–824
persons engaged in, 424, 432, 788, 791, 995
State aid to, “430, 678
value of production, 420, 432–433, 995
Ministers of each Church, and marriages by, 112
Ministers of the Crown, 42–45, 878
Ministries, successive, 876–877
Minors, marriages of, 111
Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, 119
Molybdenum, 428
Monarch, the, 44
Monetary policy, 725–726
Money orders, 343, 919
Money supply, 724–725, 736
Mortgage guarantee schemes, 753, 756
Mortgages, 482, 733, 748–751, 752–757, 766, 770, 939, 993
building societies, 482, 759–760
discharged, 939
Housing Corporation, 482, 755–757
rates of interest on, 749–750, 939
Rural Bank (RBFC), 752–755, 996
registered, 748–751, 939
sources of finance, 751
Mothers—
ages of, 89, 90, 91, 92
in ex-nuptial cases, 92
issue of, 89–91
Motor cycles, 320, 454, 462
Motor spirits—
consumption of, 316, 321
imports of, 304, 597, 600, 601, 983
price of, 620, 621
taxation on, 316, 497, 498, 673, 674, 680, 681, 684, 700, 702, 937, 986, 988
Motor vehicles—
accidents, 99, 105, 106, 325–327, 837, 838
assembly of, 435, 436, 438, 454, 462, 468
Compensation Fund (ACC), 830–831
drivers' licences, 320
imports of, 304, 599, 601, 602–603, 983
inspection of, 328
numbers of, 315, 320, 865
prices of, 620
registration and licensing of, 320–322, 978
taxation, 316, 320, 673, 674, 680, 682, 684, 991
value of hire purchase sales, 556–557, 981
Motorways, 314, 315, 318
Mount Cook Airlines, 334
Mountaineering, 858, 955
Mountains, 1, 2–3, 7–9
Multiple births, 89
Murder, 106, 141, 233
Museums, 190, 218, 219, 220, 784
Mutton—
consumption of, 633
exported, 515, 516, 524, 558, 561, 562, 575, 635, 928, 982
produced, 369
retail prices of, 619
Mutual Assistance Programme (defence), 258

N

Naphtha, 491, 493
Narcotics, 118–119, 211, 233, 234, 236, 250
Nassella tussock boards, 49, 377, 784
National—
accounts, 638–653
Anthems, 873
Archives, 222
Art Gallery and Museum, 218, 221
Acoustics Centre, 118, 120
Cancer Registry, 101
Council of Adult Education, 173, 202
disposable income, 639, 641, 683
Development Act 1979, 266, 268, 964–965
Development Bonds, 685, 731
Drug Intelligence Bureau, 119
Film Library, 190
flag, 874
Health Institute, 125
Health Statistics Centre, 99, 101, 107, 125
Housing Commission, 473
Land Resource Survey, 284
Library of New Zealand, 175, 190, 223–224, 871, 994
Licensing Poll, 870
Marriage Guidance Council, 114
parks, 262, 266, 277–278, 281, 502, 900
Parks Authority, 267
planning, 262, 264, 293–296
Provident Fund, 168, 170–172, 699, 894, 900, 942
Radiation Laboratory, 120
Research Advisory Council, 213–215, 253, 408, 499
Roads Board, 49, 314, 315–319, 703, 899
Roads Fund, 315–317, 318, 319, 671, 674, 680, 682, 684, 991
Society on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence, 122
superannuation, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 157, 171, 685, 993
Trust, Queen Elizabeth the Second, 281–282, 900
Water and Soil Conservation Organisation (NWASCO), 210, 269, 270, 271, 284, 963
Youth Council, 873
Natural gas, 208, 209, 419, 420, 421, 425–426, 433, 439, 491, 493, 495, 501, 502, 503, 507, 509–514, 679, 945, 946
Natural Gas Corporation, 425, 495, 509, 697
Natural increase of population, 52, 86, 911
Natural resources, 261, 396–397, 401–402, 409, 419–434, 438–439, 961–965
Nature Conservation Council, 268–269, 962–965
Nature reserves, 279–280
Nautical schools, 306
Naval (see also Royal New Zealand Navy)
bases, 255
defence, 254–255
vessels, 254
Navigational aids, air, 335
Navigational aids, sea, 306
Net value added in manufacturing, 443, 447–448, 455–463, 467, 924
Netherlands, immigration from, 72
New Zealand—
Aluminium Smelters Ltd., 437
Apple and Pear Marketing Board, 208, 375, 526, 899
area of, 2, 57, 65, 262,
Army, 255–256
Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 33, 558–559, 562–563, 608, 944, 945
Authors' Fund, 218
Ballet Company, 219
books, 947–960
boundaries of, 1–2
Broadcasting Corporation of, 219, 349, 676, 697, 989
Cadet Forces, 258
Citrus Marketing Authority, 527
constitution, 23, 25–26, 40–41
Council for Educational Research, 201, 898
Council for Recreation and Sport, 282, 872, 901
Dairy Board, 368, 519, 525
Egg Marketing Authority, 527
Energy Research and Development Committee, 494, 495, 499
Export-Import Corporation, 441, 573, 678, 697
Film Commission, 219, 867
Fire Service, 250–251
Fire Service Commission, 250–251
Forest Products Ltd., 403, 437, 439
Forest Service, 208, 210, 267, 269, 276, 281, 398–401, 405, 408–409, 677, 703, 872, 887, 890, 900, 962, 963, 990
Government Stock, 726, 731, 732, 733, 734, 744, 764, 766, 767, 770
Historic Places Trust, 218, 221, 222, 901
in the Commonwealth, 29, 39
international relations, 26–36
Japan Exchange Programme, 204
Listener, 349, 352
Literary Fund, 218, 220
Lottery Board, 866, 872
Meat Producers Board, 370–371, 373, 516–517, 525
Milk Board, 369, 527, 530
Mountain Safety Council, 867, 873
Planning Council, 205, 293–294, 441, 900, 946, 963
population, 52–85
Ports Authority, 298
Potato Board, 526–527
Red Cross Society, 134
register of shipping, 301
representation overseas, 905–907
Shipping Corporation, 300, 301, 698, 849, 945
Standard Industrial Classification, 442, 509, 510, 643
Steel Ltd., 426, 437, 697
System of National Accounts (NZSNA), 621, 638–653
Symphony Orchestra, 219, 349, 351
Technical Correspondence Institute, 174, 178, 179, 198, 200, 203
Water Safety Council, 108, 867, 873
Wheat Board, 382, 899
Wool Board, 371, 372–373, 377, 517, 526, 528–529, 532–533, 899
Newspapers, 353–354
Newsprint—
exports of, 306, 408, 575, 576, 591, 932
imports of, 408
production, 403–404
Niue Island, 11, 23, 29, 31–32, 38, 53, 72, 73, 168, 190, 343, 346, 441, 561, 564, 565, 592, 605, 847, 850, 945
immigrants from, 72
Noise control, 118, 210, 272
Non-ferrous metals industries, 437, 445, 446, 453, 460
Note issue, 717, 718
Notes in circulation, 718, 720
Noxious animals and weeds, 261, 270, 400, 408, 704
Nuclear power, 495
Nursing and nurses, 117, 121, 124, 127, 136, 203

O

Oats, 379, 380, 381, 382, 621, 634, 921
Occupational—
diseases, 120
health, 119–120
safety, 845–846
status, 788, 865
therapy and therapists, 125, 128, 133, 135, 136
Occupational classification of—
bankrupts, 864–865
deceased persons' estates, 693
migrants, 70, 775, 978
population, 787, 790–792
unemployed, 786
Occupied land, 2, 261–262, 360–361
Official Development Assistance (ODA), 37–40
Offshore Mining Co., 495, 697
Oil—
consumption, 491, 492, 493, 507, 511
drilling and prospecting, 209, 419–420, 425, 431, 433, 495
imports of, 304, 491, 492, 493
refineries, 452, 459, 493, 496, 944
usage, 488, 492, 493, 503
Oils and fats, vegetable, 449, 456
Old peoples' homes, 133
Ombudsmen (Parliamentary Commissioners), 45–46, 886
Onions, 379, 384, 619, 634
exports of, 576, 577, 635
Optometrists and opticians, 128
Orchards, 358, 361, 363, 380, 381, 386–388, 390
Orchestras, N.Z. Symphony, National Youth, 349, 351
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 30, 204, 519, 565–566, 655, 658, 659, 660, 945, 965
Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC), 493–494
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 30
Orphans benefits, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 157
Orthopaedic implants (for medical disabilities), 131
Outpatients, hospital, 136
Outward Bound School, 872
Overseas—
Access Service for Information Services (OASIS), 346
Aid Programme, 37–40, 204
companies, 660–664, 711–713, 761
Debt (see Public debt)
exchange transactions, 655, 717, 740–744, 992
Investment Commission, 439
investments, 439, 660–664, 674, 711–713, 719, 744
representatives in New Zealand and New Zealand representatives overseas, 572, 905–909
reserves (banks), 739, 933
students, 180, 193, 195
trade, 515–530, 531–532, 558–611, 900, 926–932
travel allowances, 743
Overtime, 511, 802–804
Oysters, 411, 415, 416, 417

P

Pacific Island Polynesians, 1, 53, 73–74, 82, 180, 195, 201–202, 847–852
Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme (PIIDS), 74, 441
Pacific Islands shipping service, 300
Pacific orientation, 31–33
Paint and varnish industry, 451, 459, 480
Paper and paper products industry, 444, 446, 447, 451, 458, 469, 470, 471, 722
Paper and pulp—
export of, 306, 406–407, 408, 574, 575, 576, 578, 589, 590, 591, 932
import of, 407, 408, 594
Parcel post, 342, 343
Parents—
ages of, 89–90
births to, by duration of marriages, 91
previous issue of, 90
solo, 152, 153–154, 164
Parks, National, 262, 266, 277–278, 281
Parliament, 41–45, 228, 876–878, 879, 880, 941, 942
Members of, 42–44, 869, 879
term of, 870
Parliamentary—
Commissioners (Ombudsmen), 45–46, 886
elections, 41, 46–47, 869–870, 874
functions and controls, 25–26, 41–42, 44–45
procedure, 41–42, 44–45
salaries, 42–44
superannuation, 169
Parole system and boards, 243
Particle board, 405, 437, 480
Passenger services—
railway, 309, 311, 920
road, 309, 313–314, 323
urban local authority, 330–333, 703, 704
Passengers—
buses, etc., 313–314, 332
commercial aircraft, 336, 337, 338, 339, 979
overseas, 67–68, 74, 853–855, 977
railway, 309, 311, 920, 978
Passports, 75
Pasture grasses, 379, 384, 385
Patents, designs, trade marks, 860–861
Patients—
in psychiatric hospitals, 143–145
in public hospitals, 138–143
Paua, 417
PAYE taxation, 685–687, 944
Payments, balance of (see Balance of payments)
Pears, 379, 380, 386, 387, 388, 526
consumption of, 634
export of, 635, 930
marketing of, 375, 526
Peas, 379, 380, 381, 383, 619, 921
export of, 576, 577
Peat wax, 429
Penal institutions, 238, 239–242
Penal system, 230–231, 238, 239–243
Pensions—
social welfare, 147–156.
war, 157, 163–167
Perinatal mortality, 103
Periodic detention, 231, 233, 235
Perlite, 420, 429
Permanent heads of departments, 886–887
Permits, building, 475–479, 979
Personal and household services, 533–534, 548–550
Personal safety, 822, 823, 824, 826–846
Pest destruction boards, 49, 701, 702, 705, 784
Pests and pesticides, 142, 207, 208, 273, 340–341, 364, 377, 400–401, 451, 459, 961
Petrochemical Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Petrochem), 495
Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Petrocorp), 209, 495, 678, 697
Petroleum (see also Motor Spirit)—
exports of, 576, 578, 580
imports of, 594, 596, 597, 600–601, 983
industry, 420, 425, 431, 433, 444, 446, 447, 452, 459, 493
price of, 620
prospecting, 209, 419, 425, 431, 433
usage of, 493
Pharmaceutical benefits, 130, 133, 149, 150
Pharmaceutical chemists, 129, 133
Pharmaceuticals, manufacturing of, 451, 459
Phosphate rock, 429, 596, 600, 601
Physical environment, 205, 210, 212, 261–274, 961–965
Physical medicine, 125
Physical welfare and recreation, 857–858
Physiotherapists, 125, 127–128, 131, 135, 136
Physiotherapy benefits, 131, 133
Pigmeats, 526
consumption of, 633
exports of, 635
prices of, 619, 621
production of, 361, 363, 365, 366, 369, 370
Pigs, 361, 363, 366, 369, 370, 390, 391, 393–394, 921, 995
Pineapples, 527
Pipfruit, 379, 380, 386, 387, 388, 634
Placement service (employment), 778–780
Planing mills, 450, 458
Planning—
Council, New Zealand, 205, 293–294, 441, 946, 963
district, 263, 264, 265–266
maritime, 264, 266, 961, 962, 964
national, 262, 264, 293–296
regional, 48, 49–51, 264–266, 964
town and country, 48, 49–51, 263–266
Tribunal, 266
Plantations, timber, 357, 358, 360, 361, 363, 396, 397–398, 401–402, 409
Plastics industry, 436, 444, 446, 447, 452, 459
Platinum, 428
Play centres, 163, 182, 203
Pleasure craft, 307
Plumbers, gasfitters, and drainlayers, registration of, 128
Plunket Society, 121, 134
Plywood and veneer, 405, 437, 450, 458, 480
Poetry publications, 955–956
Poisons and poisoning, 105, 106, 141, 142
Police, 159, 249–250
Department, 676, 887, 892, 893, 895, 896, 898, 989
superannuation, 168–170
youth aid section, 159
Poliomyelitis, 116, 121
Political parties, 42, 869–870, 874
Polling at general elections and by-elections, 869–870, 874
Pollution—
air, 118, 273, 964
marine, 273, 307, 964
water, 272–273, 961, 964
Polynesian Education Foundation, 201, 202
Population (see also Census), 52–85, 91–1
age distribution, 76, 78, 79–80, 81
birthplaces of, 82
density of, 65
distribution of, 56–65
ethnic groups, 82
growth, 86
increases, 52–54, 86, 911
industrial distribution of, 787, 788–789
intercensal estimates, 53–54, 57–63, 911, 977
international comparisons, 55, 84
Maori, 54, 64, 66–67, 82
policy, 54
Polynesian, 1, 53, 73–74, 82
projections, 55–56
sex proportions of, 65
shipboard, 61
urbanisation of, 63–64, 66
vital statistics, 86–115
world, 84
Pork (see Pigmeats)
Pork Industry Council, 526
Port Agriculture Service, 375
Portfolios of Ministers, 878
Ports—
Authority, 298
exports by, 303, 305–306, 591
fishing, 415
imports by, 303, 304–305, 604–605
of arrival and departure, 302, 304–306
shipping and trade of, 301–302, 304–306
Post Office, 342–348, 637, 672, 675, 678, 679, 697, 699, 887, 892, 895, 919, 993
employees, 348, 895
superannuation of, 168–170
Savings Bank, 481, 719, 725, 727, 728, 729, 730–731, 736, 938
Postal notes, 343, 919
Potato Board, 526–527
Potatoes, 379, 384, 619, 921
consumption of, 634, 635
export of, 576, 577
Pottery, china, and earthenware industry, 210, 211, 444, 446, 447, 452, 459
Poultry, 361, 363, 365, 366, 390, 394–395, 448, 455, 619, 633, 635
Power stations (electricity), 493, 497, 501–504, 506
Pregnancy, diseases of, etc., 140
deaths from, 99, 104, 122, 140
Pre-school children's health, heights and weights, 121, 146
Pre-school education, 175, 177, 178, 179, 182
Preventive detention, 231, 240, 243
Price control, 612
Price index, general, 621–623, 984
Price Surveillance Regulations 1979, 612
Prices, 612–628, 914, 915, 916, 980, 983–984
basic, for dairy produce, 529–530
index of, 613–618, 620, 798–799, 810, 916, 917, 983–984
index numbers, 613–618, 620, 916, 917, 983–984
comparisons with other countries, 620, 621
index of, 613–618, 620, 798–799, 810, 916, 917, 983–984
index numbers, 613–618, 620, 916, 917, 983–984
consumer, 619, 620, 621
index of, 613–618, 620, 798–799, 810, 916, 917, 983–984
index numbers, 613–618, 620, 916, 917, 983–984
export, 528–530, 531–532, 915, 916
index numbers, 613–618, 620, 916, 917, 983–984
export, indexes of, 624–627, 628, 915, 916
index numbers, 613–618, 620, 916, 917, 983–984
farming costs index, 623–624
index numbers, 613–618, 620, 916, 917, 983–984
import, indexes of, 624–627, 628, 915, 916
index numbers, 613–618, 620, 916, 917, 983–984
retail, 619–620, 621
index numbers, 613–618, 620, 916, 917, 983–984
share, index of, 628, 916, 917
stabilisation of, 612
Primary products—
consumption of, 633, 636
by ports, 305–306
export of, 303, 305–306, 340, 515–518, 524, 525, 558–562, 570, 635, 927–931
by ports, 305–306
marketing of, 515–533
research on, 208
Primary school children, heights and weights, 146
Primary schools, 173, 174, 177, 178–180, 182–184, 187, 913, 996
Prime Minister's Department, 676, 887, 892, 989
Prime Ministers, successive, 876–877
Principal events, 941–946
Printing and publishing industry, 444, 447, 451, 458, 763
Prison service superannuation, 168–170
Prisons and prisoners, 237, 238, 239–243, 914
Private—
forests, 396, 399, 401, 403
hospitals, 130, 132, 134, 136, 138
railways, 313
savings banks, 482, 716, 719, 725, 727, 728, 729–730, 731–732, 736
schools, 174, 175, 178, 179, 184, 187, 913
superannuation funds, 727
Privy Council, 229
Probation of offenders, 161, 230, 233, 235, 238–239, 243
Production—
accounts, 642–649
building materials, 480, 923
clothing, 444, 445, 447, 450, 457, 468
dairy, 357, 361, 362, 365, 366–368, 374, 448, 456, 468, 923
farm, 207–208, 363–366, 379–395, 921
fisheries, 411, 412, 414–415
index numbers of, 365–366, 669–670
manufacturing industries, 435–471, 924
meat, 359, 369–370, 374, 923
mineral, 419–434, 995
pulp and paper, etc., 403–405, 437, 439, 444, 446, 447, 451, 458, 469
timber, 402, 403, 404, 923
wheat, 379–382, 921
wool, 357, 365, 366, 371–373, 449, 457, 923
Projections—
labour force, 776–777
population, 55–56
school population, 180
Property speculation tax, 674, 682, 689
Prospecting, 431–433
Protection forest, 399–400, 408
Provident funds, 168–172
Psychiatric health and hospitals, 125, 130, 138, 139, 140, 143–145
Public—
accounts, 681–695, 986–991
external, 674, 695, 696, 698, 699
interest on, 675, 698, 989
internal, 674, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 705
administration, publications, 948–949
external, 674, 695, 696, 698, 699
interest on, 675, 698, 989
internal, 674, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 705
debt, 675, 695–699, 705, 726, 728, 936, 987, 988, 989
external, 674, 695, 696, 698, 699
interest on, 675, 698, 989
internal, 674, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 705
domains, 280–281
finance (see State finance)
health, 116–134
holidays, 871
hospitals, 134–145
lands, 274–282
Public Service, 896–897
employees, 785, 824, 895, 897
superannuation, 168–170
Public Trust Office, 699, 862–863, 887, 892
Public works, 24–25
occupational safety, 846
railway construction, 308
road construction, 314–315, 317, 318, 677, 679, 680, 703
Publican's licences, 867–869
Pulp and paper—
export of, 306, 406–407, 574, 575, 576, 578, 589, 590, 591, 932
import of, 407, 408, 594
industry, 403, 424, 437, 444, 446, 447, 451, 458, 469, 722
Pumice, 420

Q

Quarries, 431–433, 995
mining and quarrying accidents, 834
persons engaged in, 432
safety in, 846
Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, 218, 219, 866
Queen Elizabeth II National Trust, 281–282, 900

R

Race relations, 860
Racing taxation, 674, 682, 694, 986
Radiata pine, 396, 397–398, 405
Radio—
advertising, 350, 352
communications, 346
New Zealand, 348, 349, 352
private, 350
time signals, 870
Radio and television, 348–352, 865
advertising, 349, 350, 352
assembly and manufacture of sets, 438, 454, 461, 468
retail prices of sets, 619
Radioactivity, protection against, 120
Radiology and radiographers, 120, 130, 133, 136
Raffles, 866
Rail traffic—
goods, 309, 311, 978
passengers, 309, 311, 978
Railway construction and engineering, 308
Railway equipment, imports of, 599, 601, 602
Railways, 120, 308–314, 671, 672, 678, 679, 697, 887, 892, 894, 899, 920, 942, 943, 944, 978
accidents, 141, 313, 943, 944
air freight service, 309
capital expenditure on, 312, 678, 679
employees, 313, 824, 895
goods traffic, 309, 311, 920, 978
licensing protection, 322
passenger services, 309, 311, 920, 978
private, 313
revenue and expenditure, 309, 310–311, 678, 679, 920, 978
road-rail ferry service, 300, 309, 311, 312, 944, 945
road services, 309, 311, 313–314, 323, 978
rolling stock, 309, 311, 312
subsidies, 637
superannuation, 168–170
Rainfall, 13–15, 17, 18, 19–21
Rangemaking industry, 454, 461, 468
Raoul Island, 1, 11
Rates, local government, 619, 700–702, 937
valuation for, 289–290, 700
Rates of exchange, 737–739
Re-afforestation, 269, 399
Real gross domestic product, 669–670
Reciprocal tariff and trade, 608–609
Records (gramophone), 468
Recreation, 400, 857–858, 871–873
Recreation and Sport, Ministry of, 873
Recreational accidents, 832
Recreational land, 266–267, 277–282, 400, 964
Re-exports, 574, 581, 592, 982
Refineries, oil, 452, 459, 493, 496, 944
Refrigerators, 468, 577, 579, 619
Refugees, 72–73
Regional—
Authority, 48, 701, 702, 705, 784
Councils, 49, 264, 266
development, 440
government, 48–49
planning, 48, 49–51, 264–266, 964
schemes, 50
Registrars, marriages before, 108, 112
Registration of—
adopted children, 93
apprentices, 781–782
births, 86–87, 92
building societies, 758–760
burials, 98
chemists, 129, 133
child care centres, 159
chiropodists, 128
companies, 940
cremations, 98
deaths, 98
dental technicians, 127
dentists, 127
designs, 860–861
dietitians, 128
electors, 47
employers' unions, 816, 818
ex-nuptial births, 92
friendly societies, 157
land titles, 284–285, 287–288
land valuers, 292
land values, 289–292
marriages, 108, 109
medical practitioners, 127
mortgages, 748–751, 939
motor vehicles, 320–322, 978
nurses, 127
occupational therapists, 128
opticians, 128
optometrists, 128
patents, 860–861
pharmaceutical chemists, 129, 133
physiotherapists, 127–128
plumbers, 128
still births, 93
trade marks, 860–861
trade unions, 814–815, 816–818
trading vessels, 301
unemployed, 785–786
Rehabilitation, 125, 167, 827
League, 125
Religious professions, 80–81
Remuneration Act, 801
Remuneration Authority, 798–799
Rental cars, 320, 323
Rental units, Housing Corporation, 473, 474, 484–485, 757
Rents, 489, 757
Representation Commission, 46
Representatives, House of, 41–45, 869, 879, 941
Reproduction index, 88
Research—
agricultural, 207–208, 212, 375
animal health, 208, 212
Antarctic, 216–218
building and construction, 210, 214
coal, 422–424, 431, 439
dental, 124
energy, 205, 206–207, 209, 214, 495, 496, 499
environmental, 205, 210, 212, 214, 262, 269
expenditure, 214, 215
fertilisers, 208, 209
fishery, 412, 413, 418
forestry, 208, 400–401, 408
grants, 211, 214
grassland and grasses, 207, 212
in building and construction, 210
industrial, 206–210, 211–212, 214–215, 442
logging, 208
manufacturing, 209–210, 214, 442
medical, 117, 126
primary produces, 208
scientific and industrial, 204–218
soil, 212
wool, 208, 211, 213, 273, 373
Reserve Account, 672, 677, 680
Reserve Bank, 657, 699, 716–719, 720, 725, 726–728, 734, 736, 739, 743–744, 761, 943
assets and liabilities, 718–719
discount rate, 727
Reserves—
air force, 257
army, 256
farm industry, 532–533
nature, 279–280
naval, 255
overseas (banks), 739, 933
public or scenic, 279–281
wildlife, 267, 280
Resource conservation, 439–440
Restaurant and hotel trade, 533–534, 545–547
Restaurant licences, 867–869
Retail prices, 619–620, 621
index numbers, 613–618, 620, 798–799, 810, 983–984
Retail trade, 533–534, 540–545, 551–553, 980–981
Retailers, bank advances to, 723
Retention Scheme, Individual Grower Income Levy (wool), 373
Revenue—
broadcasting and television, 352
customs, 610
electric power, 507, 509
Government (see Government finance)
local government, 317, 318–319, 701, 702, 703–704, 937, 991
National Roads Fund, 316, 317, 991
Post Office, 347, 919
railway, 309, 310–311, 920, 978
urban transport, 331
Rimu, 397, 398
River boards, 49, 784
Rivers, 4–5, 264, 266, 273, 279, 287, 399, 501, 502, 503, 961
control of, 270–271
hydro-electric development on, 5, 501–503
Road—
accidents, 99, 105, 106, 141, 325–327, 832, 837, 838
safety, 327–328
services, 330–333
transport, 315, 320–334
User Charges, 680, 684, 991
Roads, 314–319
expenditure on, 317, 318, 319, 677, 679, 680, 703
taxation, 316, 317, 673, 674, 677, 680, 682, 684, 986, 988, 991
Rock lobsters, 411, 412, 415, 416, 417
exports of, 411, 416, 576, 577
Ross Dependency, 1, 2, 11, 216–218, 430, 899, 943
Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society, 277
Royal New Zealand Air Force, 256–257
Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve, 255
Royal New Zealand Navy, 254–255
Royal Society of New Zealand, 211, 277
Rubber and rubber products, 444, 446, 447, 452, 459, 594, 595, 596, 597, 600, 601, 602
Rural—
Banking and Finance Corporation, 271, 274, 413, 440, 675, 676, 678, 698, 699, 731, 752–755, 887, 892, 990, 996
education, 186–188
Electrical Reticulation Council, 505
housing, 483
mail deliveries, 342
population, 63–64
Ryegrass, 385

S

St. John's Ambulance Association, 134
Safety of—
aircraft, 846
boilers, lifts, and cranes, 846
machinery, 845
ships, 307
workers, 797–812, 822, 823, 824, 827, 845–846, 924, 979, 985–986, 995
Salaries and wages, 797–812, 985–986
and social welfare benefits, 151
average, 801–804
effective, 805–809, 810, 985–986
hourly, 802–804
minimum, 811
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985–986
weekly, 801–804
by industry groups, 803–804
average, 801–804
effective, 805–809, 810, 985–986
hourly, 802–804
minimum, 811
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985–986
weekly, 801–804
equal pay, 801
average, 801–804
effective, 805–809, 810, 985–986
hourly, 802–804
minimum, 811
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985–986
weekly, 801–804
hourly average, 802–804
average, 801–804
effective, 805–809, 810, 985–986
hourly, 802–804
minimum, 811
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985–986
weekly, 801–804
in establishments providing services, 534, 548–549
average, 801–804
effective, 805–809, 810, 985–986
hourly, 802–804
minimum, 811
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985–986
weekly, 801–804
in gas industry, 510, 511, 512, 513
average, 801–804
effective, 805–809, 810, 985–986
hourly, 802–804
minimum, 811
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985–986
weekly, 801–804
in hotels and restaurants, 534, 545–546, 547
average, 801–804
effective, 805–809, 810, 985–986
hourly, 802–804
minimum, 811
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985–986
weekly, 801–804
in manufacturing industries, 443, 445–446,448–455, 463–467, 469, 470, 471, 924
average, 801–804
effective, 805–809, 810, 985–986
hourly, 802–804
minimum, 811
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985–986
weekly, 801–804
in retail stores, 534, 540–542, 544
average, 801–804
effective, 805–809, 810, 985–986
hourly, 802–804
minimum, 811
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985–986
weekly, 801–804
in wholesale stores, 534–536, 539
average, 801–804
effective, 805–809, 810, 985–986
hourly, 802–804
minimum, 811
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985–986
weekly, 801–804
legislation, 797–801
average, 801–804
effective, 805–809, 810, 985–986
hourly, 802–804
minimum, 811
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985–986
weekly, 801–804
lost through industrial stoppages, 819–821
average, 801–804
effective, 805–809, 810, 985–986
hourly, 802–804
minimum, 811
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985–986
weekly, 801–804
rates, 797–811
average, 801–804
effective, 805–809, 810, 985–986
hourly, 802–804
minimum, 811
nominal, 804–807, 810, 985
prevailing, 807–810, 985–986
weekly, 801–804
Salaries of members of—
Executive Council, 42–44
House of Representatives, 42–44
Sales in domestic trade, 534, 537–540, 542–550, 551–555
Sales tax, 497, 498, 674, 682, 683, 943, 946, 986, 988, 993
Salt, 420, 430, 619
Sanctuaries, bird and other wildlife, 267, 277, 280, 281
Sand and gravel, 419, 420, 421, 431–433
Sand dunes, stabilisation of, 399
Satellite communications, 346
Satellite, earth resources programme, 263, 273, 284
Sausage casings, export of, 574, 576, 578, 589, 931
Sausage casings, production, 448, 456
Savings—
accounts and bonds (National), 685, 729–733
deposits with, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733
interest accredited, 729, 730, 732, 733
banks, 699, 716, 719, 725, 727, 728, 729–733, 736, 938
deposits with, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733
interest accredited, 729, 730, 732, 733
Sawmills, etc., 402, 435, 450, 458
Scenic reserves, 277, 279, 281
Scheelite, 428
Scholarships—
for Maoris, 174, 201
for Pacific Islanders, 201–202
university, 191, 192
School—
buildings, 177
ages of, 183, 184
duration of attendance, 185
intended occupations of, 185–186
medical examinations of, 116–117, 124
roll numbers of, 178, 182, 183, 184, 913
transport and boarding allowances, 187
camps, 872
ages of, 183, 184
duration of attendance, 185
intended occupations of, 185–186
medical examinations of, 116–117, 124
roll numbers of, 178, 182, 183, 184, 913
transport and boarding allowances, 187
Certificate, 173, 180, 184, 185, 202, 204
ages of, 183, 184
duration of attendance, 185
intended occupations of, 185–186
medical examinations of, 116–117, 124
roll numbers of, 178, 182, 183, 184, 913
transport and boarding allowances, 187
children, 173, 174, 178–179, 183–186
ages of, 183, 184
duration of attendance, 185
intended occupations of, 185–186
medical examinations of, 116–117, 124
roll numbers of, 178, 182, 183, 184, 913
transport and boarding allowances, 187
committees, 173
dental service, 117, 124, 131
inspectors, 185
Library Service, 190, 224, 996
publications, 190–191
teachers (see Teachers)
Schools—
broadcasts to, 350
consolidation of, 186–187
correspondence, 173, 177, 178, 182, 184, 185, 190, 203
curricula, 182–183, 184, 186
denominational, 174, 184
district high, 178, 184–185, 186
free textbooks for, 183, 189
integration of private, 174, 175
intermediate, 178, 184, 996
nautical, 306
primary, 173, 174, 177, 178–180, 182–184, 187, 913, 996
private, 174, 175, 178, 179, 184, 187, 913, 996
roll numbers, 178, 182, 183, 184
secondary, 173, 174, 177, 178–180, 184–186, 187, 203, 913, 996
sizes of classes, 183
special, 181–182
State, 173–174, 177, 178–180, 183–186, 913
technical, 178, 179, 197–200
Science and scientific services, 204–218
budget, 214–215
publications dealing with, 211, 216, 951–952
Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of, 119, 205, 206–212, 213, 214, 253, 269, 273, 384, 408, 429, 430, 677, 887, 892, 899, 990
Search and rescue operations, 258
Secondary education (see Schools, secondary, above)
Secondary school boards and councils, 174
Securities, Government, 678, 726, 727, 731, 732, 733
Security Intelligence Service, 260, 676, 989
Seed certification, 384
Seed sowing, aerial, 341
Seeds, grass and clover, 379, 384–385
exported, 930
Seismic regions, 9–10
Seismology, 9–12
Self employed, incomes of, 707–709
Separation, marital, 76, 77, 79–80, 112, 113, 247–248
Serpentine, 420, 429
Service-coach licences, 320
Services, community and business, 707, 709
Services, personal and household, 533–534, 548–550, 707–709
Sex proportions of population, 65
Sexual offences, 233, 234, 239, 244, 245
Share prices, index numbers, 628, 916, 917
Shearers' wage rates and amenities, 823
Sheep, 389–390, 391, 392, 921, 995
and lambs slaughtered, 370
farming, 357, 358, 359, 361, 362–363, 365, 366, 369–370, 381, 389, 390, 391, 392, 707, 708, 722, 995
skins and pelts exported (see also Hides), 305, 515, 575, 576, 589
Sheepmeats, marketing of (see also Mutton, Lamb), 522–523, 525, 531–532, 982
Sheetmetal-working industry, 453, 460
Shellfish, export of, 416
Ship building and repairing, 454, 462
Shipping, 298–307, 411, 412, 528
Shipping and Seamen Act, 823
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand, 300–301, 678, 698
Ships and boats, imports of, 600
Shooting and hunting, 858
Shops, 534, 540–545, 548–549
and Offices Act, 822–823
trading hours, 822
Sickness benefits, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 157
Silica, 420, 421, 428
Silver, 420, 426, 427
Sixth Form Certificate, 180, 185
Ski-ing, 858
Skim-milk powder, 367, 519, 521, 530, 982
Skins (see Hides, pelts, and skins)
Small Business Agency, 440
Smoking habits, 121–122
Snow, 16, 19
Soap industry, 451, 459
Social Development Council, 295–296
Social sciences publications, 948–949
Social services, expenditure on, 149, 150, 166, 167, 673, 677, 679, 935, 987, 988, 990
Social welfare, 147–163, 943
benefits, 129–133, 147–149, 149–156, 685
Department of, 147–148, 149, 158, 159, 178, 181, 246, 887, 893, 896, 898
reciprocity with other countries, 156–157
Soil conservation, 271–272
Soil erosion, 271–272, 399–400, 408
Soils, 210, 212, 357–359, 375
Solar energy, 209
Solo parents, 152, 153–154, 165
South Pacific—
aid, 37–40
Bureau for Economic Co-operation, 32, 40
Commission, 33, 40
Forum, 32, 561
Medical Research Committee, 126
relations with, 31–33
students from, 180–195
trade training for youths from, 782–783
trade with, 559, 561, 567, 582, 583, 584–586
South-east Asia, relations with, 30–31, 37, 38, 561, 566, 582, 584, 585, 586–591, 592, 596, 597
South-east Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO), 37, 945
Southern Alps, 3, 8, 13, 16, 278
Sovereignty, 23, 44
Special Drawing Rights (IMF), 739, 741, 742, 743, 745, 746, 992
Special education, 175, 181–182
Special Employment Scheme, 204
Special work, employees, 777, 977
Speed limits, 328, 329, 497
Spirits—
consumption of, 635
duty on 610, 993
imports of, 600
production of, 449, 456
Sports, 857–858, 872, 955
accidents, 832
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act, 797–801
Stamp duty, 674, 682, 690
Standard time, 870
Standards Association of New Zealand, 441, 499
Standards Council, 862
Standards of living, international, 865
State—
aid to private schools, 174, 175, 190
accident and fire, 772
earthquake and war damage, 772–773
life, 771–772
Commission, 676, 887, 896–897, 901, 989
coal mines, 424–425, 430, 678, 697
accident and fire, 772
earthquake and war damage, 772–773
life, 771–772
Commission, 676, 887, 896–897, 901, 989
departments (see Departments, Government)
accident and fire, 772
earthquake and war damage, 772–773
life, 771–772
Commission, 676, 887, 896–897, 901, 989
finance, 149, 150, 641, 642, 644, 647, 649, 650–651, 652, 653, 671–699, 726, 728, 731, 733, 751, 752–757, 895, 934–936, 986–991
accident and fire, 772
earthquake and war damage, 772–773
life, 771–772
Commission, 676, 887, 896–897, 901, 989
forests, 267, 396, 397, 398–401, 403, 409
accident and fire, 772
earthquake and war damage, 772–773
life, 771–772
Commission, 676, 887, 896–897, 901, 989
highways, 315, 318, 472, 680, 991
accident and fire, 772
earthquake and war damage, 772–773
life, 771–772
Commission, 676, 887, 896–897, 901, 989
housing, 473, 474, 481, 484–485, 755–757
accident and fire, 772
earthquake and war damage, 772–773
life, 771–772
Commission, 676, 887, 896–897, 901, 989
indebtedness, 675, 695–699, 705, 936
accident and fire, 772
earthquake and war damage, 772–773
life, 771–772
Commission, 676, 887, 896–897, 901, 989
insurance, 699, 771–773, 829, 887, 893
accident and fire, 772
earthquake and war damage, 772–773
life, 771–772
Commission, 676, 887, 896–897, 901, 989
placement services, 778–780
Commission, 676, 887, 896–897, 901, 989
schools, 173–174, 177, 178–180, 183–186; 913
Commission, 676, 887, 896–897, 901, 989
Services, 484, 797
Commission, 676, 887, 896–897, 901, 989
wards, 160–161
Statistical—
areas—
area and population of, 57, 65
cinemas in, 355
industrial production by, 463–466
irrigation by, 376
livestock in, 391
restaurant and hotel trade in, 547
retail trade in, 544–545
services in, 549–550
wholesale trade in, 539
building permits, value of, 478–479
dwelling completions, 478–479
populations of, 57–58
divisions—
building permits, value of, 478–479
dwelling completions, 478–479
populations of, 57–58
Information, Latest, 977–996
publications, 564
Summary, 910–940
Statistics, Department of, 676, 887, 893, 896, 989
Statute of Westminster, 25, 41, 228, 943, 944
Statutes (see Legislation)
Statutory boards and committees, 897–901
Steel and iron, imports of, 304, 595, 598, 601, 602
Steel industry 419, 420, 424, 426, 437, 445, 446, 452, 460
Stewart Island, 1, 2, 14, 62
Still births, 86, 89, 93, 103
Stock and station agents, 723, 725, 733–734, 736, 763, Stock, New Zealand Government, 726, 731, 732, 733, 734, 744, 764, 766, 767, 770
Stocks—
retail, 551, 980
wholesale, 554–555, 981
Stone fruit, 380, 386, 387, 634
Stoppages, industrial, 813–814, 818–821, 918
Stud farming, 361, 363
Students, 178, 993
Community Service Programme, 778, 779
overseas, 38, 180, 193, 195
projected, 180
teachers' college, 178, 188–189, 913
university, 178, 191–197, 913
Studentships, 188–189
Subscriber toll dialling (STD), 344
Subsidies, 278, 281, 637, 639, 641, 945
agricultural, 377–378
coal gas, 509, 512, 637
highways, 317, 318–319, 680, 991
on electrical reticulation, 505
on LPG transport, 737
on milk, 527, 530, 637
Railways, 637
to local government, 475, 482–483, 680, 701, 702, 703–704, 991
to mining, 430
Subtropical fruit, 379, 386, 387
Suffrage, 47
Sugar—
consumption of, 634, 865
imports of, 305, 594, 596, 600, 601
international agreements on, 610
prices of, 619, 621
production, 449, 456, 468
Suicides, 99, 106, 107, 141
Sulphur, 421, 429
imports of, 600, 601
Sunshine, 17, 18–21
Superannuation, 168–172
government, 168–170, 171, 675, 989
National, 148, 150, 151, 152, 153, 157, 993
of Members of Parliament, 169
private schemes, 727
self-employed scheme, 170–171
Superphosphate, 375
Supreme Court (see also High Court), 228, 232–233, 236, 245
Surveys—
employment, 783–784
geological, 209, 430–431
land, 283–284
of shipping, 306
System of National Accounts, New Zealand, 621, 638–653

T

Tallow, 305, 574, 575, 576, 578
Tanning industry, 438, 450, 457
Tariff, Customs, 607–611
Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., 403, 437, 678, 698
Taxation (See individual taxes), 673, 674, 680, 681–695, 707, 709–710, 712–713, 762, 934, 986, 988, 991
direct, 673, 674, 681, 682, 683, 684–691, 986, 988
exemption from, 685, 686–687, 689
incentives, 689
indirect, 639, 641, 644, 673, 674, 680, 681–682, 683, 684, 986, 988, 991, 993
rates of, 685, 687, 688
rebates of, 686–687
Review Authority, 691
system, 684–691
Taxicabs, 322, 323
Tea, consumption of, 635
retail price of, 619, 621
Teacher studentships, 188–189
Teachers, 174, 179, 181, 187, 790, 824
colleges, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179, 182, 188–189, 200, 679, 794–795, 913
kindergarten, 179, 182
primary and secondary school, 179
superannuation, 168–170
training of, 174, 175, 178, 188–189
Teaching aids, audio-visual, 190
Technical Correspondence Institute, 174, 178, 179, 198, 200, 203, 781
Technical education, 174, 178, 179, 197–200, 781–783, 794–795, 913
Technicians Certification Authority, 198–199
Technology, Central Institute of, 177, 197–198
Telecommunications, 345–346, 347, 919
Telegraph services, 342, 345–346, 347, 919
Telephone rental concession, 156
Telephone services, 344, 346, 347, 487, 619, 865, 919
Television and radio, 348, 349, 350–351, 352, 487
assembly, 454, 461, 468
international comparisons, 865
licences, 352, 619
prices of sets, 619
value of sets sold on hire purchase, 556–557, 981
Telex (teleprinter) services, 345, 347
Temperature, 16, 17, 18–21
Tenancy Act, 489–490
Tenure—
of Crown lands, 275–276
of dwellings, 487
of occupied land, 275–276, 360
Terms of trade, 628, 915, 945
Territorial Air Force, 257
Territorial Forces (Army), 256
Tetanus immunisation, 121
Textbooks in schools, free, 183, 189
Textiles—
exports of, 580
imports of, 595, 597, 600–601, 602
production of, 444, 445, 447, 449, 457, 469
Theft, 233, 234, 237, 239, 244, 245
Therapeutic drugs, 118–119
Therapists, occupational, 135, 136
Thermal activity, 1, 3, 857
Thermal generation, 502, 503, 506
Thunderstorms, 15, 21
Timber, 396–410, 450, 458
exports of, 306, 407, 575, 576, 590, 619, 932
imports of, 406, 407
inspection of, 401
output, 480, 923
plantations, 357, 358, 360, 361, 363, 396, 397–398, 401–402, 409, 994
preservation of, 406, 450, 458
resources, 396–410
Timber Preservation Authority, 406
Time service (radio), 870
Tin, 428
Tobacco—
consumption of, 635
duty on, 135, 610, 993
household expenditure on, 630–631
imports of, 594, 596, 600, 601
industry, 358, 361, 375, 380, 389, 390, 444, 445, 447, 449, 456, 469
retail prices of, 620
Tokelau, 23, 31–32, 38, 73, 168, 190, 592, 605, 850–852, 943
Toll service, 344, 919
Tomatoes, 383, 384, 634
Tonnage of shipping and cargo, 301–306
Topdressing, 357, 375–376
Totalisator—
Agency Board, 694, 901
taxation, 694
turnover on, 694
Tourism, 67–68, 74, 679, 853–858, 977
Tourist—
accommodation, 855–856
and Publicity Department, 277, 677, 855, 858, 887, 893, 901, 907, 990
attractions, 857–858
Hotel Corporation, 277, 678, 698, 855
industry, 853–859
Town and country planning, 48, 49–51, 263–266
Act, 263–266, 271, 964
Town districts, 47, 49, 61, 291–292, 705
Town milk supply, 369, 530
Toxic Substances Act, 120
Tractors—
accidents involving, 837
imports of, 598, 601, 602
on farms, 362, 378, 379
Trade and Industry, Department of, 382, 439, 440, 441, 571, 612, 613, 677, 887, 894, 900, 907, 990
Trade courses, 198–199
Trade (domestic), 533–557, 776, 787, 789, 790, 803, 980–981
hire purchase, 556–557, 723, 981
practices, 557
retail, 533–534, 540–545, 551–553, 980–981
training of Maori youths, 782–783
unions, 814–815, 816–817, 818
wholesale, 533, 534–539, 554–555, 981
Trade examinations, 181, 197–200, 781
Trade (external), 515–530, 531–532, 558–611, 900, 926–932
agreements, 516, 517, 519, 520, 522–523, 558–563, 610–611, 981–982
balance of, 564
commissioner service, 572, 907
direction of exports, 565–569, 581, 582, 583–591
diversification of, 515–522, 558–559, 560–563
origin of imports, 596–600
per head, value of, 563
Promotion Council, 572–573
representation overseas, 572, 907
statistics, compilation of, 564–565
terms of, 628
volume of, 570, 575–577, 583–591, 600–601
with Middle East, 558–559, 562, 567–568
with Western Europe, 515–516, 518–524
Trades Certification Board, 197, 200, 781
Trademarks, patents and designs, 860–861
Trading banks, 716, 717, 718, 719–724, 726–727, 728, 736, 751
Traffic—
accidents, 99, 105, 106, 325–327
deaths from, 325–327
air, 334, 336–339
motor, 320
offences, 233, 235–236, 328, 329–330
rail, 920
Training Programme, Young Persons, 779, 780
Transport, 297–341, 492, 495, 528, 673, 677, 679, 707, 708, 709, 857, 978–979, 987, 988, 991
accidents (see Traffic accidents)
boards, 49, 701, 702, 705, 706, 784
equipment, imports of, 595, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603–604
equipment industry, 445, 446, 454, 462, 468, 722
household expenditure on, 630–631
licensing, 322–323
Ministry of, 306, 315, 322, 327–329, 334, 335, 433, 845–846, 887, 893, 894, 896, 898–899
of school children, 187
to work, 323–325
urban, 315, 330–333, 701, 702, 703, 704, 705, 706
Travel—
and tourism, 853–858
publications, 957–958
tax, 674, 682
Trawling, 411, 412, 414
Treasury, 676, 887, 894, 900, 962, 989
Treaty of Waitangi, 23, 26, 40, 52, 285, 941
Trees, forest, 396, 397–398, 402
Tribunals, administrative, 885
industrial and staff, 797–801
Trolley-buses, 332, 333
Trout, 5, 857
Trust Account, 672, 677, 680
Trust (liquor) control, 869
Trustee, Public, 699, 862–863
Trustee savings banks, 725, 726, 732–733, 736, 751
Tuberculosis, 99, 139
Tungsten ore, 420, 427, 428
Tunnels, railway, 308
Twins and triplets born, 89

U

Unemployment, 777–778, 785–786, 918, 946, 977
benefits, 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 157, 785
occupational classification of, 786
UNESCO, 35, 36, 195
Unexercised overdraft authorities, 724
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, trade with, 30, 515, 516, 518, 521, 559, 561–562, 568, 581, 584, 585, 609
Unions—
employers, 814, 816, 817, 818
workers, 814–815, 816–817, 818
United councils, 49, 264, 266
United Kingdom—
communications with, 343, 345–346
consumption of butter and margarine, 524
dairy produce and meat imported into, 524
debt domiciled in, 936
exports to, 515, 518, 522–524, 558–560, 564, 566, 581, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589
imports from 596, 597, 598, 599, 600,
investment in New Zealand, 661–662
New Zealand representation in, 905
relations with, 23, 25–29, 515, 521
representation in New Zealand, 907
shipping to and from, 299
social security reciprocity, 156–157
trade relations with, 515, 516, 518–524, 558–560, 564, 566, 569, 592, 607, 608, 658, 660
visitors and migrants from, 72, 85, 854, 855
United Nations, 34–36, 39, 72, 195, 258
Committee on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 609
Development Programme (UNDP), 36, 39
United States of America—
debt domiciled in, 936
exports to, 515, 518, 520, 558–560, 564, 566, 581, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590
imports from, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600
investment in New Zealand, 661–662
New Zealand representation in, 907
relations with, 33–34
representation in New Zealand, 909
shipping to and from, 299
trade relations with, 33–34, 515, 516, 517, 518, 519, 521, 558–560, 564, 566, 569, 592, 658, 660
visitors and migrants from, 72, 854, 855
Universities, 173, 175, 177, 178, 179, 191–197, 200, 207, 211, 213, 794–795, 913
buildings, 175, 177, 484
bursaries, 180, 192, 194
entrance examinations, 180–181, 184, 185, 191, 204
extension, 202
graduates, 188–189, 196
Grants Committee, 173, 191, 211, 213, 484, 780, 898
scholarships, 191, 192
staff, 197
students, 178, 191–197, 913
Urban—
areas, 57–58, 63–64
building permit values, 478–479
cinemas in, 356
dwelling completions, 478–479
population, 57–58, 63
drainage boards, 701, 702, 705, 706, 784
house and section price index, 482
movement, 63–64, 66
population, growth of, 63–64
Public Passenger Transport Council, 331, 898
renewal, 703
transport, 315, 330–333, 701,702, 703, 704, 705, 706
transport boards, 701, 702, 705, 706, 784
Urbanisation—
effects of, 261–262,
of population, 63–64, 66

V

Vacancies, employment, 786
Valuation Department, 289, 481, 676, 700, 887, 894, 896, 900, 989
Valuation of land, 289–292, 700
Valuation roll, 289, 290
Value added in domestic trade, 534, 537–540, 542–550
Value added in manufacturing (net), 443, 447–448, 455–463, 467, 924
Valuers' Registration Board, 292
Veal—
consumption of, 633
export of, 635
production of, 369
Vegetable growing, commercial, 358, 360, 361, 363, 365, 366, 375, 379, 380, 381, 383–384, 995
Vegetables—
and fruit, canned, 449, 456, 468
and fruit, household expenditure on, 631
and fruit processing industry, 380, 383, 449, 456, 468
consumption of, 634
exported, canned, frozen, or fresh, 576, 577, 579, 983
retail prices of, 619
Venereal diseases, 99, 123, 139
Vessels—
entered and cleared from ports, 301–302
fishing, 411, 412, 414
safety of, 823, 845
wrecked, 307, 941, 942, 943, 944, 945
Vice-regal representatives, 875–876
Vineyards and grapes, 379, 380, 384, 386, 388
Visitors to New Zealand, 67–68, 74, 853–855
Visual aids, in teaching, 190
Vital statistics, 86–115, 911
Vocational guidance, 191, 780
Vocational training, 163, 241, 780–783, 898, 900
Vocational Training Council, 780
Volcanoes, 1, 2–3, 7–9, 10, 217, 942
Voluntary welfare organisations, 122, 125, 133, 134
Voting—
at by-elections, 874
at general elections, 47, 869–870
at licensing polls, 870
qualifications, 47

W

Wage Adjustment Regulations, 797–798
Wages (see also Salaries and wages), 797–812, 985–986
Wages tribunal, 797
Waitangi, Treaty of, 23, 26, 40, 52, 285, 941
Walkways, 282, 964
War—
bursaries for ex-servicemen's children, 165
damage and earthquake insurance, 772–773
pensions, 157, 163–167, 893, 898
veterans' allowances, 165
Warships, 254
Washing machines, 468, 487, 619
Water—
accidents, 105, 107, 108, 141
boards, regional, 49, 270, 272
pollution, 272–273, 961, 964
resources and management, 270–271, 272, 376, 399, 430
subsidies, 703
supply boards, 703, 784
Waterfront industry, 824–825
Commission, 120, 825
Tribunal, 824–825
Weather, 12–21, 857
Weedkiller, aerial spraying of, 340–341
Welfare (See also Social Welfare)—
expenditure on, 149, 150, 166, 167, 673, 677, 679, 866, 935, 987, 988, 990
Maori, 162–163
maternal, 120–121, 130, 132
of children, 158–161
of workers, 821–825
organisations, 122, 125, 133, 134, 484
Pacific Islanders, 162–163
services, 133–134, 162–163
Western Samoa, 11, 27, 29, 31–32, 38, 53, 73–74, 82, 190, 343, 346, 441, 561, 567, 582, 943, 944
Westminster, Statute of, 25, 41, 228
Wetlands, 961, 962, 965
Whales and whaling, 217
Wheat, 379, 380, 381, 382, 621, 634, 921
Board, New Zealand, 382
Research Committee, 382
Whey butter, 367
Whitebait, 418
Wholesale—
liquor licences, 868–869
prices, 621
trade, 533, 534–539, 554–555, 981
Widows and widowers—
benefits, 150, 151, 152, 153, 157
numbers of, 76–77, 79–80
remarriages of, 108, 109
war pensions, 164, 166–167
Wildlife, 205, 217, 279, 280, 281
reserves, 267, 280
Wills administered by Public Trustee, 862–863
Winds, 13, 18–21
Wine, consumption of, 635
Wine licences, 867–868
Winemaking industry, 388, 449, 456, 620
Women—
accident compensation for, 828
criminal charges and convictions against, 237
deaths of, in childbirth, 99, 104
employment in manufacturing, 443, 448–455, 463–467
in Armed Forces, 254
in labour force, 443, 448–455, 463–467, 510, 511, 534, 535–536, 539, 540–542, 544–550, 774, 776, 777, 788–792, 792–794, 795, 796, 811
incomes of, 713
police, 249
Wood and wood products industry, 444, 445, 447, 450, 458, 470, 471
exports of, 306
Wood preservation, 406, 450, 458
Wood pulp—
exports of, 406–407, 408, 576, 578, 579, 590, 932, 983
imports of, 407, 408, 594
production of, 403–405, 437, 439, 469
Wood-chip industry, 403, 578
Wool—
Board, New Zealand, 371, 372–373, 377, 517, 526, 528–529, 532–533
export price index, 529
exports, 303, 305, 515, 517–518, 558–559, 561–562, 570, 574, 575, 576, 578, 583–584, 740, 742, 927, 983, 992
Income Stabilisation Account, 532–533
levy, 372, 528
marketing of, 372–373, 515, 517–519, 526, 528–529, 980
overseas exchange transactions, 740, 742, 992
prices for, 372–373, 528–529, 923, 980
production, 357, 365, 366, 371–373, 449, 457, 923
Research Organisation, 208, 211, 213, 273, 373
scouring, 449, 457
Testing Authority, 373
Woollen mills, 435, 449, 457, 468, 519, 763
Work accidents, 830, 831, 832–844
Work permits, 73
Workers—
Educational Association, 203
safety and welfare, 822, 823, 824, 827, 845–846
unions of, 814–815, 816–817, 818
Working—
conditions, 813–825
hours, 802–804
life expectancies, 795–796
Works and Development, Ministry of, 158, 210, 222, 264, 266, 269, 271, 281, 284, 308, 315, 316, 318, 430, 433, 499, 676, 888, 894–895, 896, 899, 962, 963, 990, 991
Works and trading account, 117, 671, 678, 680, 698
World Bank (see International Bank for Reconstruction and Development)
World Health Organisation (WHO), 35, 36, 98, 102, 103, 125, 195
World population, 84
Wrecks, 306–307, 941, 942, 943, 944, 945

X

X-ray services, 130

Y

Young Persons Training Programme, 779, 780
Youth Aid Section, New Zealand Police, 159
Youth hostels, 483–484, 779, 872
Youth Hostels Association, 872
Youths, working conditions of, 822, 823, 824

Z

Zinc and lead, 427, 428
Zones, Special Character, 265
Zoology publications, 952–953