THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1979


Table of Contents

List of Figures

PREFACE

This year's edition of the New Zealand Official Yearbook has been completely reset on the Government Printer's computer type-setting equipment, a major task in the case of a 1000-page book containing hundreds of tables in addition to the text, and subject to revisions and additions at every stage. Advantage has been taken of the resetting to carry out major revisions to many sections. Among others, the long sub-sections in Section 2, History, Government, and International Relations, dealing with New Zealand's development as a nation and with the New Zealand constitution have been completely rewritten.

Another completely rewritten section is Section 25A, National Income and Expenditure (now renamed National Accounts). This was necessary because of the replacement of the National Income and Expenditure series produced annually since 1948 by the New Zealand System of National Accounts (NZSNA). The new system not only greatly expands the coverage of the previous accounts and provides a general framework for the collection and presentation of all macro-economic statistics, but also (since it is based on United Nations guidelines) the new system places New Zealand's national accounts on a similar conceptual basis to those of most other market economies.

The special feature on Abbrevations, Contractions, and Acronyms first published in the 1978 Yearbook has been reprinted in a slightly revised form in the present Yearbook.

Another special feature, appropriate to the International Year of the Child, is an article on the Child and Learning in a Multi-cultural Society. The International Year of the Child also provides the theme for the photographic supplement.

A point of interest is that the 1979 Official Yearbook is printed on an opaque printing paper developed at Mataura. Previous editions were printed on imported paper.

As always, the aim of the New Zealand Official Yearbook is to present a comprehensive statistical survey of the economy and population of New Zealand, with a background of text aimed primarily at the non-specialist. Efforts are made that the information should be as full, clear, and up to date as limits of space and time allow. Nevertheless, in the nature of things, a Yearbook which takes almost 12 months to produce cannot be completely up to date. Additional and more recent information on many of the subjects mentioned in the Official Yearbook can be obtained from parliamentary reports, from the Information Service releases, Bulletins, and other publications of the Department of Statistics, and especially from the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. With the Official Yearbook to give background and historical perspective, and the Monthly Abstract to supply the latest figures, the student of the New Zealand economy is well equipped.

The Yearbook owes much to the assistance and co-operation of other Government departments, producer boards, the Reserve Bank, and a considerable number of other official bodies, as well as to the compiling sections of this department. I would like to express my appreciation to all the people involved, and especially to the staff of the Government Printing Office, without whose work there would be no Yearbook. The volume was edited by N. G. Killick, B.A. who would also like to express his appreciation of the assistance and co-operation he has received.

E. A. HARRIS,

GOVERNMENT STATISTICIAN.

Department of Statistics,

Wellington,

NEW ZEALAND.

September 1979.

Chapter 1. SYMBOLS

Table of Contents

The interpretation of the symbols used in the tables throughout this publication is as follows:

– nil or zero... not applicable
.. figures not available– amount too small to be expressed
not yet available—space left blankx revised

Chapter 2. METRIC SYSTEM

The conversion of the system of weights and measures used in New Zealand to metric units was substantially completed by the end of 1976.

As far as possible, statistics in this issue have been converted to the metric system, but for various reasons, this has to be a gradual process extending over a number of years.

CONVERSION OF BRITISH (IMPERIAL) AND SI (METRIC) UNITS

Some relationships between common British units and common SI units are shown in the following table.

Length
  1 in.= 25.4 mm
 = 2.54 cm
  1 ft= 30.48 cm
 = 0.305 m
  1 yd= 0.914 m
  1 mile= 1.609 km
  1 mm= 0.039 in.
  1 cm= 0.394 in.
  1 dm= 3.937 in.
  1 m= 39.37 in.
 = 1.094 yds
  1 km= 0.621 miles
Area
  1 sq ft= 0.093 m2
 = 929.03 cm2
  1 sq yd= 0.836 m2
  1 acre= 0.405 hectare (ha)
  1 sq mile= 2.590 km2
 = 259 ha
  1 m2= 10.764 sq ft
 = 1.196 sq yds
  1 da= 0.247 acres
  1 ha= 2.471 acres
  1 km2= 247.1 acres
 = 0.386 sq miles
Volume
  1 cu in.= 16.387 cm3
  1 cu ft= 0.028 m3
  1 cu yd= 0.765 m3
  1 cm3= 0.061 cu in.
  1 m3= 35.315 cu ft
 = 1.308 cu yds
Capacity
  1 pt= 0.568 litres (l)
  1 qt= 1.137 l
  1 gal= 4.546 l
  1 litre= 1.760 pts
 = 0.880 qts
 = 0.220 gal
Weight
  1 oz= 28.35 grams (g)
  1 lb= 0.454 kilograms (kg)
  1 cwt= 50.802 kg
  1 long ton= 1.016 kg
 = 1.016 tonnes (t)
  1 g= 0.035 oz
  1 kg= 2.205 lb
  1 t= 2.204.62 lb
 = 0.984 long tons
 = 1.102 short tons
Velocity
  1 mile per hour (mph)1.61 kilometres per hour (km/hr)
  1 kilometre per hour (km/h)0.621 miles per hour (mph)
Pressure
  J pound per sq in. (psi)6.89 kilopascals (kPa)
  1 kilopascal (kPa)0.415 pounds per sq in. (psi)
  1 ton per sq in. (ton/in2)15.4 megapascals (MPa)
  1 megapascal (MPa)0.0647 tons per sq in. (ton/in.2)
Temperature
  Degree Fahrenheit (°F)9 × °C/5 + 32
  Degree Celsius (°C)5/9(°F–32)

Table of Contents

New Zealand is in the south-west section of the Pacific, that great ocean stretching across one-third of the earth's surface. To the west, beyond the Tasman Sea, is Australia, 1600 kilometres away. From its position on the rim of the Pacific basin, New Zealand is a little over 10 000 kilometres from San Francisco and Panama and a similar distance from Tokyo and Singapore. In area 26.9 million hectares, it is similar in size to the British Isles and Japan.

One of the chief charms of the New Zealand landscape is its infinite variety. Such level lowlands as exist are small in area; contrasts between coastal plain and bordering hard-rock mountains are abrupt. High mountains make up most of the South Island area—often stark and bare or mantled in permanent snow. By contrast, most of the North Island is weak-rock hill country. From Cook Strait to the Bay of Plenty a hard-rock mountain core dominates the North Island scene, forming an effective barrier between east and west; the only low level gap across it is at the gorge cut by the Manawatu River near Palmerston North.

A peculiar and special feature of the North Island is the volcanic country of the interior. Here are the largest North Island lakes and in a line from Ruapehu to White Island, most of the still active volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers.

The most spectacular mountains are in the South Island; high mountains, deep and narrow valleys, swift rivers, and glacial lakes, large and small, give infinite variety to the scene. It is in this high country that ice has left its special mark in glacial troughs and fiords and, above all, the noble southern lakes. There is little weak-rock hill country in the South Island; the lowlands are mainly bordering plains, basin plains, and valley plains. Of these the most extensive are the plains of Canterbury and Southland.

New Zealand has large areas of luxuriant forests which are the delight of trampers, campers, and hunters. Forests cover nearly a quarter of the total land area, of which national parks and scenic reserves set aside as permanent forest or recreation areas form 2.4 million hectares.

The indigenous forests may be grouped broadly into two main formations: mixed temperate evergreen forest and southern beech forest. The former is a mixed community of many species of broadleaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of southern beech. Generally, the mixed temperate evergreen forests are the forests of the north and of the warm, wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes. The beeches form the forests of the south, of the high mountains, and of the drier lowlands. But there are extensive areas where the types mingle in forests of extremely varied composition.

Mountains, forests, lakes, rivers, and beaches have influenced the characteristics of the people. New Zealand society has been shaped and subtly tempered by a number of factors—geographical, historical, social and psychological during more than a century of growth as a nation. New Zealand today represents both an extension and a modification of the European tradition. In addition to its Maori population, New Zealand has experienced in recent years a considerable inflow of Polynesians from its associated territories and elsewhere in the Pacific. Auckland has become the major city of Polynesia, and as such a focal point of the South Pacific. The Polynesian (including Maori) population is of greater significance than its relatively small numbers would suggest. Outside the Pacific area New Zealand may present a basically European face to the world, but the preservation of distinctive life-style by the Maori, together with a close compatibility (extending to frequent intermarriage) between the two races, has doubtless been a determining factor in the evolution of New Zealand society.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION—The islands of New Zealand have been shaped from the projecting crests of earth folds which rise as broad ridges from the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, 1600 kilometres east of the continent of Australia. There are three main islands—North, South, and Stewart separated only by relatively narrow straits—with adjacent islets and a small group called Chatham Islands, 850 kilometres to the east of Lyttelton. Dating from 1842 the administrative boundaries of New Zealand, including the minor islands, extend from 33 degrees to 53 degrees south latitude and from 162 degrees east longitude to 173 degrees west longitude. Inhabited outlying minor islands are Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group, 930 kilometres north-east of the Bay of Islands, and Campbell Island, 590 kilometres south of Stewart Island.

The Ross Dependency, some 2300 kilometres to the south, has been under New Zealand's jurisdiction since 1923 and comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160 degrees east and 150 degrees west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60 degrees south. The land area of the Ross Dependency is estimated at 414 400 square kilometres.

The area of New Zealand can be classified as follows.

AREAOF NEW ZEALAND (1 APRIL 1977)
North IslandArea in Square Kilometres
    Districts11 960
    Counties99 429
    Cities and boroughs (less pt Porirua City in harbour, 2 km2)3 092
    Town districts8
    Adjacent Islands not included in a territorial local authority—
        Three Kings7
        Little Barrier28
        Mayor14
        White4
        Other islands (Browns, Mokohinau, Motiti, Motuhora (Whale), etc.)16
        Reclamations1
        Other offshore islands—Kermadec33
                Total, North Island114 592
South Island
    Counties151 364
    Cities and boroughs602
    Town districts5
    Stewart Island1 746
    Adjacent islands not included in a territorial local authority (Solander, etc.)4
    Other offshore islands—
        Inhabited—Campbell106
        Uninhabited—Auckland (612 km2), Snares (2 km2), Antipodes (22 km2), Bounty (2 km2)638
                Total, South Island154 465
                Total, North and South Islands269 057
    Ross Dependency (land area only)414 400
                Total, including Ross Dependency683 457

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: Coastline—Since the combined length of the North and South Island extends over 1600 kilometres, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 450 kilometres at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coastline in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand land mass lies along a southwesterly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

In the North Island, Whangarei, Auckland, Tauranga, and Wellington are natural harbours which have been developed into ports for extensive use by overseas ships. At Napier and Gisborne artificial harbours have been made. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several other deep and sheltered harbours exist, but production from the hinterland is limited. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and Fiordland form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and the rugged nature of the terrain they have—with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound—little or no commercial utility. By dredging and by breakwater construction, ports capable of accommodating overseas vessels have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff Harbours and on the coast at Timaru. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, although an overseas port has been developed at New Plymouth, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents.

Mountains—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 200 m contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (2518 m), Ruapehu (2797 m), Ngauruhoe (2290 m), and Tongariro (1968 m), they do not exceed an altitude of 1800 m. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe have been particularly active from time to time. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Turakirae Head, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa Ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto Ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group. In the east the Moehau Range parallels the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only area above 1200 m on the west coast of this Island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (3764 m), while 19 named peaks exceed 3000 m. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell Ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa Range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Richmond Ranges, while to the north-east are the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

There are at least 223 named peaks of 2300 m or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 2740 m in the South Island.

Mountain or PeakHeight (metres)
NORTH ISLAND
Ruapehu2797
Egmont2518
Ngauruhoe2290
Tongariro1968
SOUTH ISLAND
Kaikoura Ranges
    Tapuaenuku2884
    Alarm2865
Southern Alps
    Cook3764
    Tasman3500
    Dampier3440
    Silberhorn3279
    Lendenfeldt3201
    Mt. Hicks (St. David's Dome)3183
    Malte Brun3176
    Tones3163
    Teichelmann3160
    Sefton3157
    Haast3138
    Elie de Beaumont3109
    Douglas Peak3081
    La Perouse3079
    Haidinger3066
    Minarets3066
    Aspiring3036
    Hamilton3022
    Glacier Peak3007
    De la Beche2992
    Aiguilles Rouges2966
    Nazomi2961
    Darwin2961
    Chudliegh2952
    Annan2947
    Low2942
    Haeckel2941
    Goldsmith2905
    Conway Peak2901
    Bristol Top2898
    Walter2898
    Grey2893
    Green2836
    Hutton2834
    D'Archiac2828
    Ronald Adair2827
    Earnslaw2823
    Hochstetter Dome2822
    Nathan2804
    Barnicoat2799
    Sibbald2798
    Arrowsmith2795
    Spenser2794
    The Footstool2765
    Rudolf2755
    The Dwarf2751
Darran Range
    Tutoko2756

Glaciers—In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman Glacier has a length of 29 km and a width of 9 km. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (17 km), the Mueller (13 km), the Godley (13 km), and the Hooker (11 km), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 600 m. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 15 km and 13 km respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 200 m and 210 m.

The glaciers are fed by snow brought to the Southern Alps by the prevailing winds off the Tasman Sea. Total yearly snowfalls at the higher elevations (1800–2500 m) vary from 3 m to 6 m. The steeper West Coast glaciers have little moraine (rock debris) carried on their surfaces and have shown a marked terminal retreat in recent decades. The large glaciers on the eastern side of the Southern Alps are mantled with moraine and show some terminal retreat.

In the North Island there are 7 relatively small glaciers on the slopes of Mount Ruapehu compared with more than 360 in the Southern Alps. However, during the ski-ing season the Whakapapa Glaciers, near the Chateau Tongariro, are visited by several thousand people each week.

Rivers—New Zealand rivers, owing to the high relief of the country, are mostly swift-flowing and difficult to navigate. As sources of hydro-electric power the rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. The Waikato and the Rangitaiki in the North Island and the Waitaki Cobb, Clutha, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes.

Following is a list of the more important rivers. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system, whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

RiverLength (kilometres)
*Cook Strait is defined as follows: northern limit is a line between northern point of Stephens Island and Kapiti Island: southern limit is a line between Cape Palliser and Cape Campbell.
NORTH ISLAND
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean
    Piako90
    Waihou (or Thames)175
    Rangitaiki193
    Whakatane105
    Waipaoa (from source, Mata River)121
    Waiapu (from source, Waipapa Stream)113
    Wairoa (from source, Hangaroa River)137
    Mohaka (from source, Taharua River)172
    Ngaruroro154
    Tukituki113
Flowing into Cook Strait*
    Ruamahanga124
    Hutt56
Flowing into the Tasman Sea
    Otaki48
    Manawatu182
    Rangitikei241
    Turakina137
    Whangaehu161
    Wanganui290
    Waitotara108
    Patea143
    Waitara98
    Mokau158
    Waikato (from source, Upper Waikato River)425
    Wairoa (from source, Waiotu Stream)132
    Hokianga (from source, Waihou River)72
SOUTH ISLAND
Flowing into Cook Strait
    Pelorus64
    Wairau169
    Awatere126
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean
    Clarence209
    Conway48
    Waiau-uha (or Waiau)169
    Hurunui138
    Waipara64
    Ashley97
    Waimakariri161
    Selwyn95
    Rakaia145
    Ashburton90
    Rangitata (from source, Clyde River)121
    Opihi80
    Pareora56
    Waihao64
    Waitaki (from source, Hopkins River)209
    Kakanui64
    Shag72
    Taieri288
    Clutha (from source, Makarora River)322
Flowing into Foveaux Strait
    Mataura240
    Oreti203
    Aparima (Jacobs River)113
    Waiau (from source, Clinton River)217
Flowing into the Tasman Sea
    Hollyford76
    Cascade64
    Arawhata68
    Haast64
    Karangarua37
    Cook32
    Waiho (from source, Callery River)32
    Whataroa51
    Wanganui56
    Waitaha40
    Hokitika64
    Arahura56
    Taramakau80
    Grey121
    Buller (from source, Travers River)177
    Mokihinui56
    Karamea80
    Heaphy35
    Aorere (from source, Spee River)72
    Takaka (from source, Cobb River)72
    Motueka108
    Waimea (from source, Wai-iti River)48

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the early economic development of the country.

With the very successful acclimatisation of freshwater fish, notably trout, many rivers now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while some of the larger ones of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, have their own particular beauty. As reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the rivers and streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, Manapouri, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect. A series of narrow man-made lakes have been produced in connection with hydro-electric development along some of the rivers. In 1965 Lake Benmore, New Zealand's largest artificial lake, was created. It lies on the Waitaki River in North Otago and covers 79 sq km in area and consists of two arms, the main arm being 30 km in length and the Ahuriri Arm 18 km in length.

Some particulars of the more important lakes are given in the following table.

LakeLength in Kilometres*Greatest Breadth in Kilometres*Area in Square KilometresDrainage Area in Square KilometresApproximate Volume of Discharge in Cubic Metres per SecondMaximum Height Above Sea Level in Metres (Range in Brackets)Greatest Depth in Metres

*1 kilometre equals 0.621 miles.

†1 square kilometre equals 0.386 square miles.

‡The range in lake levels is not available for all lakes.

NORTH ISLAND       
Natural       
Taupo40.227.46063 289127357 (1.5)159
Rotorua12.09.780526..280 (0.6)26
Rotoiti16.14.83464224279 (0.6)70
Tarawera11.28.9361868299 (0.6)87
Rotoaira4.82.8131297564 (0.9)..
Waikaremoana19.39.75442718614 (13.7)256
Wairarapa19.36.4803 201..820
Rotoehu4.83.2844..295 (1.2)..
Rotoma5.23.61231..316 (1.8)..
Okataina6.44.81065..310 (2.7)..
Okareka2.42.0321..354 (1.2)..
Rotomahana6.42.8970..340 (6.7)..
Rerewhakaitu4.02.88....439 (1.2)..
Tikitapu1.61.21....416..
Rotokakahi4.01.65281396..
Artificial       
Ohakuri33.80.4144 791157287...
Atiamuri6.40.415 128165252..
Whakamaru21.70.885 581174226..
Maraetai7.20.846 190191188..
Waipapa9.70.416 475198127..
Arapuni16.10.8136 876207111 (0.6)..
Karapiro24.10.487 45922154..
Whakamarino0.80.4......274..
SOUTH ISLAND       
Natural       
Rotoiti8.92.81018412616 (1.8)76
Rotoroa14.53.22337627446 (1.5)152
Brunner8.98.939414..85109
Kaniere9.72.01628..131197
Coleridge17.73.236559..510207
Sumner9.72.414337......
Tekapo17.75.6961 42487715 (7 6)189
Pukaki15.38.0831 355128500 (9.1)..
Ohau17.74.8601 19165527 (1.7)..
Hawea30.68.01191 46963345 (16.2)392
Wanaka45.14.81922 543202279 (4.3) 
Wakatipu77.24.82932 978174310 (2.1)378
Te Anau61.29.73443 302276209 (4.6)276
Manapouri28.98.01424 623386185 (6.4)443
Monowai19.31.62827214196 (4.0)..
Hauroko35.42.47158331156 (1.8)..
Poteriteri28.92.4474143029..
Waihola6.42.085 698..(Tidal)16
Ellesmere22.512.91811 930..(Tidal)2
Artificial       
Cobb4.80.42736808 (15.2)..
Waitaki4.80.869 712344230..
Roxburgh32.20.4615 571489131..
Mahinerangi14.51.6213117391..
Benmore—
    Ahuriri Arm18.54.4797 77034036096
    Main Arm29.8

GEOLOGY—The islands of New Zealand are part of the unstable circum-Pacific Mobile Belt. This is a region where volcanoes are active and where the Earth's crust has long been buckling and breaking at a geologically rapid rate. The interplay, in the past, of earth movements and erosion has made the sedimentary rocks that cover almost three-quarters of New Zealand. Land areas that the earth movements have raised have been attacked by erosion, and the sand, mud, shingle, and other debris thus formed has been carried away to the sea, where it has accumulated in great thicknesses to form rocks such as sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, and conglomerate; the shells and other skeletons of sea creatures have accumulated to form thick layers of limestone. Many of the sedimentary rocks are in distinct layers called strata. Earth movements have later raised them above the sea to form land, and the strata have in many places been tilted and folded by pressure. Seas have advanced and retreated over the New Zealand area many times and these sedimentary rocks represent almost every geological period since the Cambrian (see Time Scale). Their age is revealed by the molluscan shells, foraminifera, and other fossils that they contain, as well as by various radioactive techniques.

As well as sedimentary rocks, and volcanic rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure schist, gneiss, marble and other metamorphic rocks, and granite, diorite, gabbro, serpentine, and other intrusive igneous rocks. Most of these metamorphic and intrusive rocks are hundreds of millions of years old. They were formed at depth in the Earth's crust early in New Zealand's history, in the “roots” of ancient mountain ranges, long ago destroyed, and are visible at the land surface today only because erosion has removed thousands of metres thickness of other rocks that once covered them. The metamorphic rocks developed by the action of heat and pressure on the thick sediments (up to tens of thousands of metres) deposited in huge, elongated sea basins (geosynclines), which continued to sink as the deposits accumulated. When these geosynclines were slowly compressed during major mountain-building episodes the deeper sediments were subjected to great pressure and shearing stress, which caused new minerals and structures to develop, changing the sediments into metamorphic rocks. The granites and other intrusive rocks are coarsely crystalline, and are usually considered to have intruded into the outer crust in a molten state during mountain building; some, however, may be the products of an intense metamorphism of sediments.

GEOLOGICAL TIME-SCALE
ErasPeriodsApproximate Time Since Period Began (Years)
CenozoicHolocene (Recent)Quaternary10 thousand
Pleistocene2 million
PlioceneTertiary11 “
Miocene25 “
Oligocene38 “
Eocene60 “
Paleocene70 “
MesozoicCretaceous 135 “
Jurassic 180 “
Triassic 225 “
PaleozoicPermian 270 “
Carboniferous 350 “
Devonian 400 “
Silurian 440 “
Ordovician 500 “
Cambrian 600 “

Geological History—Evidence of the earliest-known events in New Zealand's history is given by ancient rocks in Nelson, Westland, and Fiordland that were formed in the early Paleozoic era, perhaps as long as 600 million years ago (some in Westland may be older). They include thick, geosynclinal sedimentary rocks. This suggests that a large land mass existed nearby at that time to yield the great volume of sediments, but little has been deduced about its shape or position.

The history of the later part of the Paleozoic era, and the Mesozoic era, is rather better understood. For a vast span of time from the Carboniferous period—probably until the early Cretaceous period—an extensive geosyncline occupied the New Zealand region. At first, during much of the late Paleozoic time, huge quantities of submarine lava and volcanic tuff were included in the materials that accumulated in the geosyncline, but in the later Permian and Mesozoic times the sediments were mainly sand and mud, derived probably from some land west of present New Zealand; they were compacted into hard greywacke (a type of sandstone) and argillite (hard, dark mudstone).

In the early Cretaceous period one of the main mountain-building episodes in New Zealand's history took place. Although geosynclinal sedimentation continued through the Cretaceous period in eastern New Zealand the geosyncline elsewhere was compressed, and the sediments were intensely crumpled and broken and raised above the sea, probably forming a large, mountainous land mass. Some of the geosynclinal deposits, now exposed over much of Otago, alpine Westland, and parts of Marlborough Sounds, were metamorphosed into schist and gneiss by high temperatures and the tremendous deforming pressures to which the geosyncline was subjected.

The time that has elapsed since the intense folding of the strata in the New Zealand geosyncline in the mid-Cretaceous period may be considered as the later geological history of this country, embracing roughly 100 million years.

During the early part of this late history, erosion slowly wore down the mountains that had risen, producing a land of low relief. Over these worn-down stumps of the Mesozoic mountains the sea gradually advanced, beginning its transgression earlier in some areas than in others. In the early Cretaceous period it began to submerge land in the region of present North Auckland and the eastern margins of the North and South Islands, and thick deposits of mudstone and sandstone accumulated in some parts of these areas. At the close of the Mesozoic era, and in the very early Tertiary era, land became so reduced in size and relief that little sediment was formed, and only comparatively thin deposits of fine bentonitic and sulphurous muds, and fine, white, foraminiferal limestone accumulated. In some areas New Zealand's main coal deposits accumulated in swamps on the surface of the old land. These became buried by marine deposits as the sea continued its transgression in the Eocene period.

By the Oligocene period, most of the land was submerged, and in shallow waters free of land sediments, thick deposits of shell and foraminiferal limestone accumulated. (Scattered, remnant patches of this Oligocene limestone furnish most of New Zealand's cement and agricultural lime.)

After the Oligocene submergence earth movements became more vigorous; many ridges rose from the sea as islands, and sank or were worn down again; sea basins formed and rapidly filled with sediments. New Zealand's late Tertiary environment has been described as follows: “The pattern of folds, welts, and troughs that developed was on a finer scale than in the Mesozoic ... the land moved up and down as a series of narrow, short, interfingering or branching folds. ... We can think of Tertiary New Zealand as an archipelago ... A kind of writhing of part of the mobile Pacific margins seems to have gone on ...”. The thick deposits of soft, grey mudstone and sandstone that now make up large areas of the North Island, and some parts of the South Island, are the deposits that accumulated rapidly in the many sea basins, large and small, that developed in the later Tertiary.

Very late in the Cenozoic era—in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods—one of the greatest episodes of mountain building in New Zealand's history took place. Earth movements became intense, and slowly pushed up the Southern Alps and other main mountain chains, and determined the general shape and size of the present islands of New Zealand. Much of the movement during this mountain-building period (the Kaikoura Orogeny) took the form of displacement of blocks of the Earth's crust along fractures called faults. The total movements of the earth blocks adjacent to major faults amounted to thousands of metres. It must have been achieved very slowly, probably by innumerable small movements, each less than a few metres. The blocks adjacent to “transcurrent” faults moved not only vertically but also laterally along the faults. The New Zealand landscape today in some regions shows well preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault-scarps—steep faces hundreds or even thousands of metres high. Fault movements continue to the present day, and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century. Many minor but revealing landscape features such as scarplets, fault ponds, and shutter ridges show where movement has been occurring in recent centuries.

Erosion during this time has eaten into the major landscape forms that the earth movements built, carving detailed landscape patterns of peaks, ridges, valleys, and gorges, and the deposition of the debris has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans, and other construction forms. At the coast, waves have driven back the headlands and built beaches, spits, and bars. The Pleistocene period was the time of the Ice Age, and in the high mountains of the South Island glaciers carved deep valleys and carried huge loads of rock, dumping them in the lower parts of the valleys as moraines. The late Pleistocene glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the basins occupied by most South Island lakes; there were small glaciers also on Ruapehu, where remnants survive, and on Mount Egmont and the Tararua Range. Sea-level changes accompanied the formation and later melting of the land ice, affecting the erosion or deposition of the rivers and thus being responsible for the formation of the many prominent river terraces in this country.

Volcanic activity of the past few million years has played an important part in making the rocks and shaping the landscape of parts of the central and northern North Island. Banks Peninsula, a twin volcanic dome in Canterbury, also achieved much of its growth then. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times in New Zealand have been in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty Coast: andesite lava, scoria, and ash were erupted in the Pleistocene period and later to build the huge volcanoes, Ruapehu, Tongariro, and Ngauruhoe. More than 8000 cu km of molten rhyolitic magma was erupted in the form of ignimbrite, pumice, and rhyolite lava, building up the Volcanic Plateau. This is one of the largest and youngest accumulations of acid volcanic rocks in the world.

Mount Egmont is a huge, conical, andesite volcano, with the remnants of two other volcanic cones nearby; all are of Pleistocene age. In the Waikato there are eroded Pleistocene cones of approximately basic andesite composition. The largest is Pirongia, some 900 m high. Auckland city and the area immediately to the south has been the scene of many eruptions of basalt lava and scoria in late Pleistocene and Holocene times; and many small scoria cones can be seen in the locality. Late Tertiary and Quaternary basaltic eruptions in North Auckland have built lava plateaus and many young cones.

EARTHQUAKES: Geophysical Background—An earthquake occurs when energy is suddenly released from a volume of rock within the Earth's outer layers, and is radiated outwards in the form of elastic waves that can be felt at places near the origin, and detected by sensitive instruments at greater distances. Earthquakes are most common in certain geographically limited regions, one of which includes New Zealand. Within these disturbed zones, young fold mountains, oceanic trenches, volcanoes, anomalies in the Earth's gravitational field, and active geological faulting are also usual, and like the earthquakes have their ultimate cause in the internal processes incidental to the major structural development of the Earth, and as yet imperfectly understood.

The seismically active zones define the margins of a system of stable blocks or plates which are not completely inactive, but experience large earthquakes only infrequently, and are thought to be the primary units of the Earth's crust. Two of these units, the Pacific and Indian Plates, abut in the vicinity of New Zealand, forming a triple junction with a third, the Antarctic Plate, south of Macquarie Island. As a result of thermally generated convective movements in the deeper levels of the earth, relative displacement of the plates is occurring and this provides the continuing source of the energy that is intermittently released as earthquakes.

Instrumental records have shown that at the time of an earthquake large shearing movements take place at the source. It seems probable that all major earthquakes are the result of the breakage of rock under strain, but other factors such as the presence or absence of liquid in the pores and fractures of the rock are also of primary importance in determining the time and place at which a shock occurs.

In large shallow earthquakes a rupture may appear at the surface, forming or renewing movement on a geological fault. In regions where the majority of earthquakes are very shallow, such as California, there is a tendency for the earthquake origins to cluster near geological fault traces, but in regions where there is deeper activity, such as New Zealand, this is not so. For example, there is little activity near the Alpine Fault, which stretches for some 500 km from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti, and is considered one of the world's largest and most active faults. Conversely, instances of fault movement that have not been accompanied by earthquakes are known. Practical assessments of earthquake risk must therefore be based upon the statistics of known earthquake distribution and the broader geological setting of the origins.

New Zealand Seismicity—Compared with some other parts of the Pacific margin, such as Japan, Chile, and the Philippines, the level of seismic activity in New Zealand is moderate. It may be roughly compared with that prevailing in California. A shock of Richter magnitude 6 or above occurs on the average about once a year, one of magnitude 7 or above once in ten years, and one of about magnitude 8 perhaps once a century, but in historic times only one shock (the south-west Wairarapa earthquake in 1855) is known to have approached this magnitude.

Other natural disasters and accidents are together responsible for more casualties than earthquakes, the most serious seismic disasters in New Zealand having been the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 1931 in which 256 deaths occurred, and the Buller earthquake of 1929 in which there were 17. The total resulting from all other shocks since 1840 is less than 15 deaths. The last earthquake to cause deaths occurred at Inangahua in 1968, when 3 people died.

Regarded broadly, the zone of seismicity within which New Zealand lies extends continuously from the triple junction south of Macquarie Island to Samoa. When looked at more closely, breaks in continuity and changes in the character of the activity become apparent. There are changes in direction, in the positional relationship of the deeper and shallower activity, and in its association with the other geophysical and geological features of the region.

Within New Zealand itself, at least two separate systems of seismic activity can be distinguished. The Main Seismic Region, which is the larger, covers the whole of the North Island apart from the Northland peninsula, and the South Island north of a line passing roughly between Banks Peninsula and Cape Foulwind. The Southern, or Fiordland, Seismic Region includes southern Westland, western Southland, and western Otago. Less clearly defined activity covers the remainder of the two main islands, and extends eastwards from Banks Peninsula to include the Chatham Islands.

Shallow earthquakes, which are the most numerous, originate within the Earth's crust, which in New Zealand has an average thickness of some 35 km. These shocks are responsible for almost all damage to property, and now and in the past they have been widely scattered throughout the country. In historically recent times, the Main and Fiordland Seismic Regions have been significantly more active than the rest of New Zealand, but neither the Central Seismic Region that lies between them nor the Northland peninsula has been free from damaging shocks. The details of the present pattern are not necessarily unchanging, and could alter significantly after the occurrence of a major earthquake. Because of this, because of the broader geophysical setting, and because of the distance to which the effects of a large earthquake extends, it would be highly imprudent to treat any part of New Zealand as free from the risk of serious earthquake damage.

Many active regions of the Earth have only shallow earthquakes, but in others shocks have been known to occur at depths as great as 700 km below the surface. It is thought that these deep shocks originate within the edges of crustal plates that have been drawn down or thrust beneath their neighbours. Such deep events are common in both the Main and Fiordland Seismic Regions of New Zealand, but their relative positions with respect to the shallow activity and to other geophysical features are rough mirror images. This is believed to indicate that in the North Island, the edge of the Pacific Plate lies below that of the Indian Plate, while in the south of the South Island the Pacific Plate is uppermost and the Indian Plate has been thrust beneath it.

The most important system of deep shocks in New Zealand lies in a well-defined zone beneath the Main Seismic Region, stretching from the Bay of Plenty to Nelson and Marlborough. The maximum depth of occurrence is about 400 km at the northern end, and decreases smoothly to a depth of about 200 km before the southern boundary of the region is reached. Along the whole of the system, there is also a decrease in maximum depth from west to east. In northern Taranaki, near the western limit of this activity, a small isolated group of shocks at a depth of about 600 km has also been recorded. In the Central Seismic Region only shallow shocks are known.

The maximum depth of the earthquakes in the Fiordland Region appears to be only about 160 km, but it is only recently that instrumental coverage has been adequate for a proper study of this area. Here, the deep activity is more concentrated than in the north, lying close to Lakes Te Anau and Manapouri.

Both earthquakes and volcanoes are found in geophysically disturbed regions, but although small earthquakes usually accompany volcanic eruptions, large ones are rare. Regions of active volcanism are also subject to periodic outbreaks of small earthquakes, all of similar magnitude, and very numerous. These events are known as “earthquake swarms”. Although the number of shocks may cause alarm, it is unusual for even minor damage to result. There is not often a simultaneous volcanic outbreak, but swarms do not seem to occur in non-volcanic regions. In New Zealand they have occurred in the volcanic zone that includes Mt. Ruapehu and White Island, in the Coromandel Peninsula, in parts of Northland, and near Mt. Egmont.

Seismological Observatory—Each year the Seismological Observatory, Wellington, a section of the Geophysics Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, publishes the analyses of many hundred earthquakes originating in the New Zealand region, using data obtained from its own network of recording stations, and from stations in other countries. The instrumental data are supplemented by information about felt effects, supplied by a large number of voluntary observers, who complete a standard questionnaire.

The network of recording stations controlled by the Observatory is now one of the world's largest and most extended, covering the main islands of New Zealand, a large part of the south-west Pacific, and the Ross Dependency. The 35 permanent stations now operating are:

Afiamalu, Apia (Western Samoa); Nadi (Fiji); Niue; Rarotonga (Cook Islands); Raoul Island (Kermadecs); Cape Reinga, Onerahi, Great Barrier, Auckland, East Cape, Karapiro, Whakatane, Gisborne, Wairakei, Tuai, Tarata, Chateau, Taradale, Mangahao, Castlepoint, Cobb River, Wellington, Kaikoura West, Kaimata, Christchurch, Chatham Islands, Mount John, Milford Sound, Oamaru, Roxburgh, Monowai, Oban; Campbell Island; Scott Base (Antarctica).

At Afiamalu, Rarotonga, Wellington, and Scott Base the equipment includes instruments of internationally standardised pattern designed to record both local and distant activity. The stations at Karapiro and Roxburgh are also equipped to record both local and distant shocks. At the other stations, many of which record more than one component of the ground motion, the instruments are primarily intended for the study of shocks within about 1000 km. Scott Base and several of the island stations provide preliminary readings by radio, but all final analyses are made at the Observatory in Wellington.

Two networks of more closely-spaced stations, connected to central recorders by radio links or land lines, provide for detailed studies of small earthquakes in particular regions. One, for general research purposes, is centred on Wellington, and the other, near Lake Pukaki in the South Island, is primarily intended to monitor any change in earthquake activity associated with the development of a hydroelectric power scheme. These networks also provide valuable readings of New Zealand and overseas earthquakes. Portable equipment is available for more intensive study of aftershock sequences, earthquake swarms, and micro-earthquakes, and for other research projects. In addition, the Department's Physics and Engineering Laboratory maintains a network of strong-motion recorders intended to provide data on large shocks for engineering purposes.

The information collected and published by the Observatory covers all significant earthquakes in the New Zealand region. It is made freely available to the public and the press, as well as to seismologists, engineers, and other specialists. In addition, a very large number of distant earthquakes are recorded, and readings of these, as well as of the local activity, are regularly sent to international agencies and to overseas seismologists who have a need for them. The Observatory itself carries out a vigorous programme of research into problems of seismicity and earthquake mechanism, and into the structure and constitution of the Earth's crust and its deep interior.

EARTHQUAKES DURING 1978—No important earthquake occurred in the New Zealand region during 1978, making that year and the previous year two of the quietest since modern recording instruments were first installed in the 1930s. There was no significant damage, and only two shocks were felt over wide areas. No shock reached magnitude 6, and there was less than half the usual number of shocks reaching magnitude 5. Although the Seismological Observatory located and assigned magnitudes to some 700 small events, this was about 300 less than in a normal year.

On the morning of May 15 some minor damage resulted from a shock of magnitude 3.9 near Maungaturoto in North Auckland. A hopper at the Ruawai lime-works fell and hit an adjoining building, and in a few places where local soil conditions intensified the vibration, plaster and brickwork was slightly cracked. This part of New Zealand is widely believed by the public to be free from earthquake risk, and it is unusual for damage to result from so small a shock. This may be possibly attributed to the failure of local builders to consider the need for earthquake resistance, and to the unusually shallow origin of the shock.

The largest shock within the New Zealand region proper was a shallow earthquake of magnitude 5.7 on the morning of 18 January. Although it was felt over much of north Canterbury and Westland, the shaking was nowhere severe enough to move goods or cause damage. The only other event of comparable size was a deep event of magnitude 5.6 on 22 September. It was centred some 200 km beneath the western Bay of Plenty and attracted attention in many places from Tolaga Bay to Blenheim. It was not, however, felt in places near the epicentre, the felt area being displaced to the east by the structural peculiarities of the North Island. This is usual with shocks of this kind. Because of the large focal depth, surface intensities were everywhere low.

Of the minor shocks that were felt the most important were shallow earthquakes of magnitude 5.0 and 5.3 in the Te Anau district on 31 January and 21 July respectively, and smaller events near Maruia Springs on 12 June and again on 21 June, in central Hawke's Bay on 4 May, and near Wellington in the early morning of 15 August, when a few light sleepers were awakened. A similar shock occurred south of Blenheim on 1 December.

A shock of unusual scientific interest occurred on 1 July. This was centred on the West Norfolk Ridge, some 350 km to the west of Cape Reinga and 400 km south of Norfolk Island. Earthquakes beneath the deep ocean are rare, but occasional shocks have been felt on Norfolk Island in the past. As the magnitude of this shock was only 4.7, it has been difficult to place accurately, even with the help of Australian stations. Unfortunately the former station on Norfolk Island was closed a few years ago as an economy measure.

Volcanic activity has been limited to intermittent ash and steam eruptions from White Island throughout the year. The volcanoes of the central North Island have been quiet.

WEATHER INFORMATION—The New Zealand Meteorological Service maintains networks of meteorological stations within New Zealand, its island dependencies, at Scott Base and, by arrangement, in Tonga, Tuvalu, and the Cook and Gilbert Islands. The weather observations are transmitted regularly to Wellington for international exchange, for the preparation of weather forecasts and special warnings, for compiling climatological statistics, and for providing a general weather information service for Government departments, industry, and the general public. All weather observations are preserved in the Meteorological Archives, Wellington. The Meteorological Service also has a programme of atmospheric research.

Observations recorded at a few selected stations in 1978 are summarised in tables which follow but for further detailed climatological statistics reference should be made to the annual publications of the New Zealand Meteorological Service; Miscellaneous Publications No. 109 Meteorological Observations, and No. 110 Rainfall Observations. Current statistics appear monthly in the New Zealand Gazette. Special reports are published from time to time to supplement the regular data publications.

Most weather data are now held in computer accessible-data files, and several kinds of computer output are available to provide an alternative means of dissemination of information to the printed publications.

CLIMATE—Situated between 34°S and 47°S the main islands lie within the belt of generally strong westerly winds which encircles the hemisphere south of about latitude 35°S. Just to the north is the high-pressure ridge of the subtropics from which barometric pressure decreases southwards over New Zealand to the deep low-pressure trough located near latitude 70°S.

The weather pattern from day to day is dominated by a succession of anti-cyclones, separated by troughs of low pressure, which pass more or less regularly from west to east across the Australia-Tasman Sea-New Zealand area and beyond. In this region there is no semi-permanent anticyclone such as those found in similar latitudes over the Indian Ocean and eastern Pacific Ocean respectively. The troughs normally have a north-west to south-east orientation and are associated with deep depressions centred far to the south. A typical weather sequence commences with a low-pressure trough approaching from the west. Freshening north-westerly winds prevail with increasing cloud, followed by rain for a period during which winds may reach gale force. The passage of the trough, with its associated cold front, is accompanied by a change to cold south-westerly or southerly winds and showery weather, occasionally with some hail and thunder. Barometers then rise with the approach of the next anticyclone from the west. Winds moderate and fair weather prevails for a few days as the anticyclone moves across the country.

While the sequence just described is very common the situation is frequently much more complex. The troughs are very unstable systems where depressions readily form, some of which develop into vigorous storms that may pass over New Zealand at any time of the year. Occasionally in summer a cyclonic storm of tropical origin passes over or near New Zealand accompanied by gales and heavy rain affecting mainly northern and eastern districts of the North Island. The anticyclones vary in size, intensity, and rate of movement. Their centres, on the average, follow a track across the North Island but individual centres may pass either north or south of the country, the more northerly tracks being favoured in spring and the southerly tracks in autumn. At times when little development occurs within the troughs the anticyclones follow each other at intervals of about 6–7 days.

The other main factors which influence the climate of New Zealand are, first, its position in the midst of a vast ocean, and second, the shape and topography of the country itself.

Hot air masses from the interior of Australia in summer or freezing air masses from the Antarctic, which occasionally reach New Zealand, retain little of their original character after their long ocean passage. Thus, there is an absence of extreme variations of temperature. On the other hand, since abundant supplies of moisture are supplied by evaporation from the ocean, and depressions are frequent and vigorous, the average precipitation is high.

The chain of high mountains, which extends from south-west to north-east through the length of the country, rises as a formidable barrier in the path of the prevailing westerly winds. The effect is to produce much sharper climatic contrasts from west to east than in the north-south direction. In some inland areas of the South Island just east of the mountains the climate is distinctly continental in character, despite the fact that no part of New Zealand is more than 130 km from the sea.

Winds—Winds from a westerly quarter prevail in all seasons, with a general tendency to increase in strength from north to south. However, considerable local modifications to the general air flow occur during its passage across the mountainous terrain. Approaching the main ranges the flow from the west turns towards the north-east and on descending on the eastern side swings towards the south-east. This results in an increased number of south-westerlies in Westland and predominance of north-westerlies in inland districts of Otago and Canterbury, where strong gales from this quarter occur at times in the late spring and summer. Daytime sea breezes usually extend from the coast inland for 30 km or more during periods of settled weather in summer. On the Canterbury coast the wind comes most frequently from the north-east, partly because there is a persistent sea breeze from this quarter, but south of Dunedin south-westerlies predominate. Cook Strait, the only substantial gap in the main mountain chain, acts as a natural funnel for the air flow and is a particularly windy locality afflicted by gales from the south-east as well as the north-west. This “funnel” effect is also in evidence about Foveaux Strait. North of Taranaki the general air flow is more from the south-west, and there is a noticeable reduction of windiness in the summer.

An indication of the variation in the frequency of strong winds from summer to winter and in different parts of the country, is given in the next table. These figures were all obtained by the use of anemographs at airports.

StationAverage Number of Days with Gusts ReachingYears of Data
34 knots or More52 knots or More
Nov-AprMay-OctYearNov-AprMay-OctYear
Kaitaia1632480.71.62.321
Whangarei1626420.81.42.28
Auckland2131520.90.81.79
Tauranga1523380.50.71.222
Rotorua1116270.30.20.59
Hamilton913220.60.68
Gisborne2127480.40.91.329
New Plymouth3348812.14.76.822
Napier1721380.60.51.123
Wanganui3742792.74.47.116
Palmerston North2622481.10.81.918
Wellington909818818.822.741.58
Nelson2014340.50.30.830
Blenheim2315380.70.51.230
Westport1420340.41.01.423
Hokitika1420340.31.31.68
Christchurch3123541.51.32.829
Timaru1512270.70.61.315
Dunedin2832602.62.85.411
Gore2920490.90.95
Invercargill5345985.85.010.827

Rainfall—The distribution of rainfall is mainly controlled by mountain features, and the highest rainfalls occur where the mountains are exposed to the direct sweep of the westerly and north-westerly winds. The mean annual rainfall (see map) ranges from as little as 300 mm in a small area of Central Otago to over 8000 mm in the Southern Alps. The average for the whole country is high, but for the greater part it lies between 600 and 1500 mm, a range regarded as favourable for plant growth in the temperate zone. The only areas with under 600 mm are found in the South Island to the east of the main ranges. These include most of central and north Otago, and South Canterbury. In the North Island, the driest areas are central and southern Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu where the average rainfall is 700–1000 mm a year. Of the remainder, much valuable farm land, chiefly in northern Taranaki and Northland, has upwards of 1500 mm. Over a considerable area of both Islands rainfall exceeds 2500 mm a year but, with the exception of Westland, this is mountainous and unoccupied, much of it being forest-covered.

For a large part of the country the rainfall is spread evenly through the year. The greatest contrast is found in the north, where winter has almost twice as much rain as summer. This predominance of winter rainfall diminishes southwards. It is still discernible over the northern part of the South Island but, over the southern half, winter is the season with least rainfall, and a definite summer maximum is found inland due to the effect of convectional showers. The rainfall is also influenced by seasonal variations in the strength of the westerly winds. Spring rainfall is increased in and west of the ranges as the westerlies rise to their maximum about October, while a complementary decrease occurs at the same time in the lee of the ranges.

Areas which are exposed to the west and south-west experience much showery weather, and rain falls on roughly half the days of the year. Over most of the North Island there are at least 150 rain days (days with at least 0.2 mm of rain) a year except to the east of the ranges where there are, in places fewer than 125 rain days. Those areas of the South Island with annual rainfall under 600 mm generally have about 100 rain days a year. In the far south the frequency of rain increases sharply; in Stewart Island and Fiordland rain days exceed 200 a year. Over most of the country between 55 and 65 percent of the rain days also qualify as wet days (2.5 mm or more). The percentage increases to over 70 in Westland, but in the low rainfall area of inland Otago there are only about 40 wet days a year compared with 100 rain days.

On the whole the seasonal rainfall does not vary greatly from year to year, the reliability in spring being particularly advantageous for agricultural purposes. It is least reliable in late summer and autumn, when very dry conditions may develop east of the ranges, particularly in Hawke's Bay.

The highest daily rainfall on record is 582 mm which occurred at Rapid Creek, Hokitika Catchment, where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 6000 mm. Other areas with considerably lower rainfall are also subject to very heavy daily falls; such areas are to be found in northern Hawke's Bay and in northeastern districts of the Auckland Province. By contrast, in the Manawatu district and in Otago and Southland daily falls reaching 80 mm are very rare.

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL (MILLIMETRES) (1941–70)
StationJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
Kaitaia Aerodrome799484119152157150165122112102941430
Kerikeri76124112142178178183196142114991041648
Dargaville6684791041321501321379710984791253
Auckland (Albert Park)6494861141271351371429410784841268
Tauranga Aerodrome8484114114137132137137107114841041348
Rotorua991141171171501501421371271221041321511
Taupo8194769110912211710984102841121199
Hamilton (Ruakura)718184991121321171179710791891197
Taumarunui8999841091321521351241171371241301432
New Plymouth Aerodrome1071021021171631681631471121351171321565
Masterton (Waingawa)645876711021071029174746976964
Gisborne Aerodrome74619191109112112117747158641034
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)1501401681802111881982261501501471522060
Napier515866618489798151534364780
Wanganui696461748691817658816989899
Palmerston North84697474869991846989791041002
Wellington (Kelburn)8184949713213514012410211284861271
Westport Aerodrome1551681571912011881831701701832011852152
Hokitika Aerodrome2312512392342722292412362392572772342940
Milford Sound5315696305264834193784245385466385546236
Nelson Aerodrome7474818911279919476817474999
Blenheim514351537658666153534851664
Hanmer Forest8681919911799104114899789991165
Lake Coleridge616158767971817974767671863
Christchurch514658588456585346464656658
Lake Tekapo514348535348534856515151606
Timaru585858484836413841485869601
Dunedin (Musselburgh)746176747166564648587171772
Queenstown746676717966646176767664849
Alexandra463838282820151520283330339
Gore766976797679564853698179841
Invercargill Aerodrome897994104911076966748694891042

Figure 3.1. MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL 1941–70

MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL 1941–70

Thunderstorms—Thunderstorms are not numerous. Their frequency is greatest in the north and west where thunder is heard on 15 to 20 days a year; east of the ranges (except in Gisborne) the figure is five or less.

Hail—Hail is most frequent in the south-west where it is reported on about 20 days a year, but for the greater part of the country it occurs on about 5 days a year or less. Most of the hailstones are small, but occasionally large stones cause local damage to glasshouses, and to orchards and market gardens, chiefly in Canterbury and Hawke's Bay.

Temperature—Mean temperatures at sea level decrease steadily southwards from 15°C in the far north to 12°C about Cook Strait, then to 9°C in the south. With increasing altitude, temperatures drop about 2°C per 300 m. January and February, with approximately the same mean temperature are the warmest months of the year; July is the coldest. Some temperature statistics for selected places are included in the table on climatological averages. Highest temperatures are recorded east of the main ranges, where they exceed 30°C on a few afternoons in most summers, usually in association with a north-westerly Föhn wind. The extremes for New Zealand (measured in a standard thermometer screen) are 42°C, which has been recorded in three places: Jordan (Marlborough), Christchurch, and Rangiora (Canterbury); and -19°C at Ophir (Central Otago).

As is to be expected, there is a small annual range of temperature (difference between mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months). In Northland and in western districts of both Islands the annual range is about 8°C. For the remainder of the North Island, and east coast districts of the South Island, it is 9°-10°C. Further inland it exceeds 11°C in places, reaching a maximum of 14°C in Central Otago where there is an approach to a continental type of climate.

Frost—It is well known that local variations in frostiness are considerable, even within quite small areas. On a calm, clear night the cold air in contact with a sloping surface gravitates slowly downhill to collect in valleys and depressions, and it is these “Katabatic” drifts which are mainly responsible for local temperature variations at night. Gently sloping ground with a northerly aspect tends to be least affected by frost. Favourable sites in coastal areas of Northland are free of frost, although further inland light frosts occur frequently in the winter months. At Albert Park, Auckland, the screen minimum thermometer (1.3 m above the ground) has registered below 0°C only once in 65 years, yet up the harbour at Whenuapai Aerodrome there are eight screen frosts per annum on the average. Excluding the uninhabited mountainous areas, the most severe winter conditions are experienced in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains of inland Canterbury, and on the central plateau of the North Island. Even in these areas night temperatures as low as –12°C are rarely recorded. Elsewhere over the North Island the winters are very mild and pastures maintain continuous growth. In both Islands sheep and cattle remain in the open all the year round.

Snow—The majority of New Zealanders rarely see snow except on the mountains. The North Island has a small permanent snow field above 2500 m on the central plateau, but the snow line rarely descends below 600 m even for brief periods in winter. In the South Island snow falls on a few days a year in eastern coastal districts, and in some years may lie for a day or two even at sea level. In Westland it does not lie at sea level. The snow line on the Southern Alps is around 2000 m in summer, being slightly lower on the western side where the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers descend through heavy bush to within 300 m of sea level. In inland Canterbury and Otago, where there are considerable areas of grazing lands above 300 m, snowfalls are heavier and more persistent and have caused serious losses of sheep during severe winters in the past. However, only rarely does the winter snow line there remain below 1000 m for extended periods.

Relative Humidity—Humidity is commonly between 70 and 80 percent in coastal areas and about 10 percent lower inland. It varies inversely to the temperature, falling to a minimum in the early afternoon when temperature is highest and frequently lying between 90 and 100 percent during clear nights. As the following table shows, the diurnal variation is greater than the difference between summer and winter.

StationMean Relative Humidity
JanuaryJuly
3 a.m.3 p.m.3 a.m.3 p.m.
 percent
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)85639074
Gisborne85578769
Ohakea Aerodrome87628972
Wellington89718777
Christchurch83578870
Hokitika94768770
Invercargill87689077

Very low humidity—from 30 percent down to about 5 percent—occurs at times in the lee of the Southern Alps where the Föhn effect is often very marked. In summer the hot, dry “Canterbury Nor'-wester” is generally a most unpleasant wind. Cool south-westerlies are also at times very dry when they reach eastern districts. In Northland the humid mid-summer conditions are inclined to be rather oppressive though temperatures rarely reach 30°C. Dull, humid spells are generally not prolonged anywhere, but their frequency shows a marked increase in the south.

Sunshine—The sunniest places are near Blenheim, the Nelson-Motueka area, and Whakatane, where the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 2350 hours a year. The rest of the Bay of Plenty and Napier are only slightly less sunny. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2000 hours. Even Westland, despite its high rainfall, has 1800 hours. Southland, where sunshine drops sharply to about 1700 hours a year, lies on the northern fringe of a broad zone of increasing cloudiness. Four hundred miles further to the south at Campbell Island the sunshine has the extremely low value of 650 hours a year. A pleasant feature of the New Zealand climate is the high proportion of sunshine during the winter months. To eliminate the effect of varying day-length the summer and winter sunshine at a few selected stations has been expressed as a percentage of the possible sunshine.

StationSummerWinter
 percent
Auckland5447
Hamilton5443
New Plymouth5446
Napier5650
Wellington5341
Nelson5957
Hokitika4645
Christchurch4746
Dunedin4042
Invercargill4135

As these figures indicate, there is a marked increase in cloudiness in the North Island in winter, but little seasonal change in the South Island, except in Southland.

Climatological Averages—The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

StationAltitude (metres)Annual AveragesAir Temperatures (Degrees Celsius)
Rain Days (1.0mm or More)Wet Days (2.5mm or More)Bright Sunshine (Hrs)Days of Screen Frost (min. air temp. less than 0°C)Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumMean Annual
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
Kaitaia Aerodrome801381032 138015.52415158282
Kerikeri731351012 014115.12515136290
Dargaville201471082 011314.6231514729–2
Auckland (Albert Park)491401022 140015.42314168273
Tauranga Aerodrome4118902 285814.2241414529–2
Hamilton (Ruakura)40131992 0541713.2231312329–3
Rotorua307123971 9332512.5231212329–3
Gisborne Aerodrome4113812 224614.0241413432–2
Taupo376123872 0683911.8231111229–4
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)643164131 611.120911328–1
Taumarunui1711401111 7243912.9241312231–5
New Plymouth (Aerodrome)271421162 102013.12113135260
Napier292642 262614.1241314432–2
Wanganui22117872 092413.5221214529–1
Palmerston North34127911 8261513.0221213428–3
Masterton (Waingawa)114123882 0072912.2241211231–4
Wellington (Kelburn)126124952 014012.52011136261
Nelson Aerodrome296722 4034111.9221212128–3
Blenheim484582 4703612.6231212232–4
Westport Aerodrome21691401 937112.11912124250
Hanmer Forest387115881 9238510.12299–232–9
Hokitika Aerodrome391681441 8832511.3191111326–2
Lake Coleridge3649874 7010.121910–131–7
Christchurch785581 9853711.7221112132–4
Timaru1781551 8103911.0211011032–4
Milford Sound3183165 2710.318910225–3
Queenstown32993721 9315310.122810–130–5
Alexandra14164392 0478110.623711–232–8
Dunedin (Musselburgh)2119791 695810.9191011330–2
Gore72137931 6984010.12199031–5
Invercargill Aerodrome01571111 627489.61899028–5

NOTES: (1) Averages of rain days and wet days 1950–70; sunshine 1941–70; mean temperature, mean daily maximum and mean daily minimum 1941–70; other temperature data and days of screen frost, various periods—all exceeding 10 years.

  • (2) For normal monthly and annual rainfall for these stations, see table under subsection on Rainfall.

  • (3) At Hanmer, Queenstown, and Alexandra the possible sunshine is considerably reduced by hills or mountains, by amounts varying from ¾ hour per day at Alexandra to 1½ hours per day at Hanmer and 3¼ hours per day at Queenstown. The reductions in actual sunshine are less than this—mainly between half and three-fifths of the above amounts.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for 1978—The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1978 were made at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time, i.e. 2100 hours Greenwich mean time.

StationRainfall (mm)Rain Days (1.0 mm or more)Bright Sunshine (hours)Screen Frost Days*Air Temperature (Degrees Celsius)
Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumExtremes
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
*Minimum air temperatures less than 0.0°C.
Dargaville122113520140215.023.715.314.27.527.8–1.0
Whangarei139413119850015.625.115.914.77.428.51.0
Auckland97511622320016.024.114.816.68.129.02.6
Tauranga Aerodrome10969522130314.623.914.314.65.430.4–0.7
Rotorua, Whakarewarewa110510022241813.023.912.012.93.229.5–3.3
Taupo8909721114025.411.411.72.230.6–3.6
Hamilton, Ruakura105211320532113.824.813.512.13.628.7–4.4
Taumarunui128312418343813.426.812.212.32.032.8–6.1
New Plymouth Aerodrome136412423220413.822.513.413.15.327.6–2.4
Masterton92411220321513.025.512.012.24.532.5–2.7
Gisborne Aerodrome96910022850714.125.114.312.84.335.1–2.1
Onepoto, Waikaremoana18251520723.510.011.52.830.0–1.4
Napier7348622720924.614.414.55.230.0–2.2
Palmerston North, DSIR8969619350813.723.112.313.15.529.0–1.8
Wellington, Kelburn132111321570013.120.811.713.36.427.41.1
Wanganui79310721430214.122.813.114.26.228.2–0.6
Westport Aerodrome202314519860312.919.713.312.44.925.1–1.2
Hokitika Aerodrome282316019351512.219.012.612.13.724.9–2.6
Milford Sound72741573010.110.92.3–2.9
Nelson Aerodrome8218224141912.822.913.013.02.728.6–4.5
Blenheim6296724631913.425.213.113.52.932.9–3.5
Hanmer Forest151412218528910.624.110.09.4–1.231.0–8.5
Lake Coleridge9861026311.023.39.611.00.430.7–6.2
Christchurch9309420792012.622.411.113.13.134.1–4.0
Lake Tekapo498802271799.622.86.89.5–1.029.5–7.5
Tirmaru8058818142511.722.410.012.02.233.2–4.0
Dunedin, Musselburgh94713016500411.520.310.311.74.331.0–2.0
Queenstown8839119184311.224.88.611.61.432.1–3.9
Alexandra4026620647911.425.88.112.2–1.133.0–8.4
Gore, DSIR105113016983310.120.99.310.12.429.0–5.6
Invercargill Aerodrome87013615744110.220.010.510.02.028.3–7.0

For 1978 the mean sea level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time were: Auckland, 1016.7; Kelburn, Wellington, 1015.2; Nelson Aerodrome, 1015.4; Hokitika Aerodrome, 1005.3; Christchurch, 1014.1; and Dunedin Airport, 1013.6.

Brief Review of 1978—Pressures were appreciably below normal during June and July with a greater frequency than usual of easterly winds. During September, October and November there was a marked absence of strong northwest winds. Districts east of the main ranges in the South Island experienced cloudy wet conditions during the seven months from April to October inclusive.

The drought during the summer of 1978 was one of the most severe that has occurred in New Zealand in at least the last 30 years, second only to the summer of 1972–73 for most regions.

Throughout the North Island the only districts with rainfall above normal were some parts of Northland, Auckland, Taranaki, Hawke's Bay, Wellington, and Wairarapa. Some areas in Bay of Plenty and Poverty Bay were below normal by more than 40 percent, and many districts were below by at least 25 percent.

Most eastern districts of the South Island had 25 percent more rainfall than normal. In coastal regions of Canterbury and Otago some areas were above normal by more than 50 percent. In Nelson. Marlborough and parts of the West Coast, Otago, and Southland the year's rainfall total was below normal by 10 to 25 percent.

Over the whole of New Zealand temperatures were above average. The average departure over the country was 0.5°C above normal. In parts of Wairarapa, inland Canterbury, and central and coastal Otago temperatures were more than 1.0°C above normal. The lowest departures were in Northland, Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay, Hawke's Bay, Taranaki, and parts of Southland.

The only areas with less sunshine than normal were parts of Northland, Bay of Plenty, Nelson, North Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. In some of these districts the deficit was 60 to 90 hours. At Palmerston (Otago) nearly 140 hours less sunshine than normal were recorded. The greatest departures above normal were in Taranaki, Central North Island Districts, Manawatu, Wellington, and parts of Canterbury. At New Plymouth, Ohakea, and Wellington, in excess of 140 hours more sunshine were measured.

Seasonal Notes—During January pressures everywhere were unusually high and there was a predominance of westerly winds over most of the country. The only areas with above normal rainfall were the extreme north of Northland and the West Coast. At Blenheim Aerodrome no rainfall was recorded during the month, and at Motueka only 0.1 mm. Many districts had less than 10 percent of their normal month's total but parts of Westland were above normal by more than 50 percent. Temperatures were above normal over the whole of New Zealand. Apart from the West Coast temperatures were at least 1.0°C above average, and almost 2.0°C above in parts of the central North Island and Otago. The only area that had below or near normal sunshine for the month was Westland, the rest of the country having at least 10 percent above average. Pastures became very dry during the month with negligible grass growth. Stock started to lose condition and on some farms dairy production was down by 20 percent.

In February most of the country experienced dry conditions for the second successive month. Some areas had substantial rainfalls during the month, but these were mainly of very short duration and did little to relieve the drought conditions over the major part of the country. The only areas with above normal rainfall were parts of Northland, Poverty Bay and Hawke's Bay. At Gisborne more than 200 percent above the normal total was recorded. Severe flooding occurred in Gisborne on 5 February when an exceptionally heavy thunderstorm passed over the area. Between 6 a.m. and 6 p.m. more than 140 mm of rain were recorded at Gisborne Aerodrome. Temperatures were above normal by at least 1.0°C throughout most of New Zealand. In parts of Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Central Districts, Manawatu, and Canterbury, temperatures were more than 2.0°C above average. At Christchurch and Hokitika the highest February sunshine totals were recorded since the stations began in 1949 and 1964 respectively. Grass growth was poor during the month and hay was being fed to stock in many areas. Dairy production in some districts was about 60 percent of normal.

March was the third consecutive month with pressures above normal over the whole of New Zealand. The month was sunny, warm and dry in most areas apart from the West Coast and parts of Southland. A state of emergency was declared in the Haast area on 27 March when rivers swollen by flood waters broke their banks. More than 370 mm were recorded at McPherson Camp (Haast) in 24 hours during 26–27 March. Temperatures were above normal over the whole country with the exception of parts of the West Coast. In Canterbury they were above normal by more than 2.5°C. Grass growth improved during the month but the lack of substantial rainfall had a serious effect on the growth of winter feed.

April was a warm but cloudy and wet month in many areas, especially east of the main ranges. Drought conditions were relieved in most districts with substantial rainfalls about the middle of the month. Many parts of Marlborough, Kaikoura and Canterbury had monthly rainfall totals of 200 to 300 percent above normal. At Spotswood (Canterbury) the total for the month was more than 500 percent above normal. On 13–14 April Greymouth experienced the worst flooding the town has had for many years. In a 12 hour period nearly 214 mm were recorded, and people were evacuated when flood waters entered homes and others were endangered by land slips. On 17 April, 52 mm were recorded in a period of 2 hours at Kaikoura. At Reefton the mean temperature for the month was 4.0°C above normal, and in some parts of both Islands temperatures were above normal by more than 3.0°C. The total sunshine hours were below normal over the whole country with the exception of a small area around Auckland. In most districts stock was reported to be regaining condition after the long dry spell.

During May conditions were warmer and drier than usual in most districts, the only regions with appreciably above normal rainfall being Westland, Fiordland and parts of Northland and Southland. Some districts in the Bay of Plenty and Waikato had less than 10 percent of their normal month's total. Widespread flooding occurred on 30–31 May in northern and western districts of Southland. It was reported that the Aparima River rose to nearly 4 metres above its normal level at Dunrobin. During the same period nearly 415 mm of rain were recorded at Milford Sound, this being the heaviest 24 hour total recorded there in any month since 1958. Temperatures were above normal over most of New Zealand for the fifth consecutive month. At Hanmer Forest only 58 hours sunshine were recorded for the month, and this is the lowest in any month since the station began in 1930. Grass growth was reported to be good, but some farmers found conditions too dry and had to irrigate pastures.

June was a cloudy month in most districts east of the main ranges with sunshine well below normal. Winds were predominantly easterly over the whole of New Zealand throughout the month. Conditions were unusually dry on the West Coast. Milford Sound recorded only 30 mm of rain during the month, and this is the lowest total for any month since the station began in 1930. On 21 and 22 June torrential rain along the northeast coast of the North Island caused a large washout on the Auckland-Whangarei railway line near Wellsford. Some districts in Canterbury, Otago and Southland had mean temperatures below normal by more than 2.0°C. The only areas with above normal sunshine were parts of Taranaki, Southland and the West Coast. Stations on the east coast had 60 to 80 percent of their normal sunshine hours. In some areas severe frosts retarded grass growth but stock condition on the whole was good.

Over most of New Zealand July was a wet and relatively mild month. Gale force winds affected many areas in the North Island and parts of the South Island on 18–19 July when a deep depression moved slowly southwards over the country. Winds were gusting to 95 knots at Cape Reinga on 18 July and 61 knots in Auckland City on 19 July. The worst affected areas were the Coromandel Peninsula and Hauraki Plains. At Mount Te Aroha a gust of 120 knots was measured on the morning of 19 July, and more than 100 buildings were damaged in the area. Along the Canterbury and Otago coasts, from Geraldine to Palmerston, many stations had monthly rainfall totals 150 to 300 percent above normal. Mean temperatures were above normal over most of New Zealand with sunshine hours mainly below normal. Most farmers reported that conditions were too wet for good grass growth and that more sunshine was needed to dry pastures before lambing.

In August most of the North Island experienced dry, warm conditions, but in the South Island most regions were wetter than usual. Cloudy conditions prevailed in most areas west of the main ranges. Many stations in South Canterbury, Otago and Southland recorded more than double their normal August rainfall. Snow, followed by exceptionally heavy rainfall in the South Canterbury and Otago regions on 25 August caused widespread flooding over large areas of the Taieri Plains. At Oamaru Aerodrome 58 mm were recorded in 24 hours. Day-time maximum temperatures were about 1.0°C above normal in most places. In areas east of the ranges the total sunshine for the month was between 15 and 30 hours more than normal. There were some lamb losses in Canterbury, Otago and Southland during the wet spell towards the end of the month.

September was a cloudy month, with parts of Canterbury and Otago having their fourth consecutive month with rainfall well above normal. Winds were considerably lighter than usual throughout the month. In the South Island the only areas with below normal rainfall were parts of Nelson, Westland, inland Otago and Southland. In Canterbury, many stations recorded more than 200 percent above their usual September totals and at Methven more than 370 percent more than the monthly total was measured. Temperatures were slightly cooler east of the main ranges, by nearly 1.0°C in Hawke's Bay and inland Canterbury. At Hanmer only 95 hours sunshine were recorded during the month, this being the lowest recorded at this station in September since the station began in 1930. Lambing progressed well in the North Island, but in parts of Canterbury losses were high in some areas because of the wet conditions.

October was a cold month over most of New Zealand, and drier than usual except in parts of the South Island. This was the fifth consecutive month that areas in Canterbury and Otago had above normal rainfall. During the 24 hour period from the morning of 13 October almost continuous heavy rain was recorded in many areas in Southland and Otago. Civil emergencies were declared at Mataura and Riversdale as rivers burst their banks, and extensive flooding and land slips isolated other towns. The town of Kelso and parts of Alexandra were evacuated. The highest 24 hour falls were recorded in an area south of Queenstown to Invercargill. At Tapanui 119 mm were recorded in the 24 hours to 9 a.m. on 14 October. This has never been exceeded in any month since the station began in 1897. Temperatures were below normal over the whole country. Many stations on the west coast of both Islands recorded 40 hours more sunshine than usual. Some heavy stock losses were reported during the period of heavy rain in Southland and Otago.

During November conditions were dry and sunny along the east coasts of both the North and South Islands with temperatures slightly above normal in most areas. This was the first time in six months that Canterbury and Otago had below normal rainfall. On 12 November a state of civil emergency was declared at Ohura (King Country) when the Mangaroa River burst its banks after heavy rainfall. The river rose to 6 metres above normal and floodwater was to a depth of 1½ metres throughout the town. Many homes were evacuated and stock was moved to higher ground in low lying farmland north of the town. At Uruti nearly 270 mm were recorded in the three days from 9 a.m. on 10 November to 9 a.m. on 13 November. At Christchurch Airport 31.0°C was recorded on 28 November and this is the highest measured there in November since 1957. Many areas had between 10 and 25 hours more sunshine than normal. Grass growth was poor in the northern half of the North Island, with ground conditions becoming extremely dry. Stock was in good condition but dairy production was down compared with previous years.

December was the first month since July with pressures below normal over the whole of New Zealand. There was a period of strong northwest winds on 21 and 22 December. Most of the country had warm, dry, sunny conditions, but some areas in the South Island were slightly wetter than usual. Parts of Hawke's Bay and Poverty Bay had less than 50 percent of their normal month's rainfall. In Canterbury and Otago some districts had more than double the usual rainfall for the month. Christchurch Airport recorded their highest December total since the station began in 1943. Snow was reported down to 1300 metres in Central Otago on 10 December, and at Naseby snow was lying to a depth of 7.5 cm. Temperatures were 0.5°C above normal over most of the country. On the east coast of the country maximum temperatures were above normal by 4.0°C to 10.0°C on 18 and 19 December. Haymaking progressed well towards the end of the month after delays by wet weather earlier.

Chapter 4. Section 2; HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Table of Contents

The early history of the people of New Zealand and the coming of the Maoris is shrouded in myth and based on orally-transmitted traditions and the knowledge won from midden heaps, burial grounds, and the sites of early settlements by the spade of the archaeologist. It seems probable that the country was sparsely settled by a Polynesian people, ancestors of the present-day Maoris, by about the tenth century A.D. Certainly, by the thirteenth or fourteenth century there were well-established settlements and the early stages of exploration were over.

It is generally accepted that the ancestors of the Maoris came originally from South-east Asia, whence, as proto-Polynesians, they moved eastwards from island to island until they reached the eastern Pacific, where they settled the islands now known collectively as Polynesia. From Polynesia they sailed south-west in ocean-going canoes to reach New Zealand. These voyages were probably spread over several generations, perhaps several centuries. Oral Maori history and genealogy support the view that there was a final wave of migration of considerable magnitude about A.D. 1350. Adapting themselves to a new physical environment, in isolation from the outside world, the Maoris produced forms of social and economic organisation and material culture which were significantly different from their Polynesian prototypes.

Coming from tropical latitudes, the Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island, and when discovered by Europeans were in a high state of neolithic civilisation, with marked superiority in the arts of wood carving and military engineering. Their principal social unit was the family group, and from combinations of the numerous groups were formed the subtribes and tribes. They had highly developed social and ritualistic customs, and their system of land tenure and methods of cultivation were communal within the subtribes. Inter-tribal and intra-tribal warfare was common, and as individuals Maoris displayed exceptional courage and intelligence.

The introduction of European diseases and firearms, and the impact of European civilisation on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have been reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However, the virility of the race gradually asserted itself, and from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing.

Discovery by Europeans—On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Staten Land, and which later became known as “Nieuw Zeeland”. Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north, he had the misfortune to come into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that, though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain (then Lieutenant) James Cook sighted land on 7 October 1769 near Gisborne. Cook and a party of men from the Endeavour landed at Gisborne on 9 October 1769. On his first voyage Cook spent 6 months exploring the New Zealand coastline, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can best be described by saying “he found New Zealand a line on a map, and left it an archipelago”. Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, 1774, and in 1777. His careful observations made New Zealand known to the western world; the accounts of his voyages were translated into a dozen languages.

The 15 islands forming the Cook Islands group were discovered piecemeal over a period of 240 years, the first by the Spanish explorer, Mendana, in 1595, several by Captain Cook during the period 1773 to 1777, and the last, Nassau, in 1835.

The European discovery of Niue was made by Captain Cook in 1774. It was formerly believed that the first recorded discovery of the Tokelau group was made by the Spanish explorer Pedro Fernandez de Quiros in 1606. However, it is now thought that it was one of the northern Cook Islands that he sighted, and that the first European to visit Tokelau was Commodore Byron. R.N., who sighted Atafu in 1765.

First European Settlements—Whaling stations sprang up along the New Zealand coast from 1792 onwards and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplin to the Governor of New South Wales, was responsible for the establishment of the first mission station in the Bay of Islands.

The growing white population in the Bay of Islands, and the lawlessness of crews of visiting ships led to the appointment by the British Government of James Busby as British Resident at Waitangi in 1833. The Governor of New South Wales in 1837 sent Captain William Hobson, in command of HMS Rattlesnake, from Sydney to the Bay of Islands to report on New Zealand. Among other things, Hobson suggested a treaty with the Maori chiefs and the placing of British subjects under British law. On 29 January 1840 Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands as Governor to proclaim British sovereignty.

By 1840 numerous mission stations had spread through the northern half of the North Island. Conversion of Maori tribes to Christianity was accompanied by the introduction of new crops and methods of cultivation and pacification of the warring tribes.

Early Constitutional Developments—On 29 January 1840 Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived in the Bay of Islands. His instructions from the British Government required him to take possession of the country with the consent of the Maori chiefs, this policy being designed by the Colonial Office, strongly influenced by missionary opinion, to safeguard the well-being of the native people. Hobson read his commission at Kororareka on 30 January and on 6 February 46 chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, a compact whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights were secured to the chiefs and their tribes (with the Crown having the sole right of purchase) and in return the Queen extended her protection and all the rights and privileges of British subjects. Other chiefs throughout both Islands later adhered to this Treaty.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it, provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division of the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and Superintendent. (The provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950.) In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

One aspect, that of Native Affairs, was withheld from the responsible Ministers, and the Governor, as representative of the Crown, continued to act independently of his elected advisors in this sphere. In 1861 Grey attempted unsuccessfully to hand over this responsibility but the Ministers were unwilling to assume responsibility for the cost of the war. Finally in 1864 Sir Frederick Weld instituted the “self-reliant policy” whereby the colony accepted responsibility for the settlement of difficulties with the Maoris and consented to the withdrawal of troops by the Imperial Government.

Colonisation—The first body of immigrants to reach New Zealand under a definite scheme of colonisation arrived at Port Nicholson, Wellington, on 22 January 1840 to found the initial settlement of the New Zealand Company. The colonists were in the main sturdy resourceful people seeking a better future than was offering in nineteenth century industrial England.

The guiding genius of the company, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, aware of the intention of the British Government to annex New Zealand, had earlier (in 1839), dispatched his agents in order to purchase large areas of land from the Maoris before the Crown could assume a monopoly of land purchase.

Wakefield's scheme of colonisation was based on the sale of land to investors or men of wealth for development by labouring class immigrants. With the profit from land sales the company could bring out more immigrants. Wakefield aimed at a balance between landowners and labourers; in effect he aimed to transplant a cross-section of English society. But, ignorant of the system of tribal ownership of Maori land, the company had bought land from individual Maoris; then Hobson provided that all European land titles should derive from the Crown which would be the only purchaser of land from the Maoris. Title to land remained a difficulty for some years and was a cause of distress to the colonists and, combined with a considerable degree of absentee ownership and land speculation, made most precarious the existence of the early company settlements of Wellington, Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson. The company had brought nearly 10 000 persons to New Zealand by 1848. The later settlements of Otago, in 1848, and Canterbury, in 1850, organised under the aegis of the New Zealand Company in co-operation with the Free Church of Scotland and the Church of England respectively, achieved a much greater measure of success owing to the absence of any large Maori population and to satisfactory land purchase arrangements.

The non-Maori population in the main settlements in 1842 totalled 3801 in Wellington, 2895 in Auckland, 2500 in Nelson, 895 in New Plymouth, 380 in Russell, 263 in Hokianga, and 198 in Akaroa. By 1862 the non-Maori population had reached 125 000 (as against 55 000 Maoris) and by 1866 it had jumped to 200 000 with men from Australia joining in the gold rush to Otago. Migration then dropped away until 1874 when there was a high inflow for several years from Britain with the Vogel policy of public works development.

War Over Land—After the death of Hobson in 1842, subsequent governors, through lack of funds and weak administration, found themselves unable to protect the small and helpless settlements from threatening Maori aggression engendered by strong feelings on land ownership. The response of the Colonial Office was to appoint Captain George Grey as Governor and to provide him with adequate funds and troops so that he soon restored order and won not only the confidence of the Maoris but also for a time that of the settlers. Grey, through his chief land purchase officer, Donald McLean, endeavoured to buy up land in advance of the settlers' needs in order to prevent conflict between settlers and Maoris. By 1858 the census revealed that the settlers outnumbered the Maoris who, fearful that they were being swamped by the settlers, became increasingly reluctant to sell their land. At the same time the intensified settler pressure for more land led Mclean to negotiate only with those Maoris still favourably disposed to land sales. This practice alarmed the other Maoris and finally the war broke out in 1860 over a land dispute at Waitara in Taranaki where settler demand for land was strongest. The return of Grey as Governor did not solve the problem for, as an autocrat, he could not work with elected ministers nor could he regain the confidence of the Maoris and finally he quarrelled with the commander of the Imperial troops. Widespread confiscation of Maori land by the settlers' government in order to pay the cost of the war included land belonging to friendly as well as hostile Maoris and aroused further resentment. The war had died down by 1870 and during the term of Donald McLean as Native Minister some measure of reconciliation began. However, although a substantial portion of the confiscated land was subsequently purchased or returned, land transactions remained a source of bitterness and potential hostility between Maori and settler.

Public Works and Farm Development—The absence of hostilities and the discovery of gold had allowed the South Island to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover, with the subsequent agrarian expansion especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self-sufficient agriculturally but began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool.

By 1870 the gold boom had ended in the South Island. To remedy the situation of economic stagnation, Sir Julius Vogel began a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction and for immigrant labour. The results of this policy were to double the population to 500 000 by 1880, to immensely improve transport and communications, and to encourage industry in the towns where most of the immigrants had congregated.

With the introduction of refrigeration in 1882 and steam navigation in the late 19th century, the development of exports of frozen meat and dairy products assured the dominance of the United Kingdom in New Zealand's external trade. These developments, with a continued substantial investment of British capital, particularly in farming and food processing industries, established that degree of specialisation to meet the needs of the British market, which shaped the entire New Zealand economy during its first hundred years.

The depression of the 1880s, a consequence of a fall in world price levels, resulted in unemployment and large emigration but export prices recovered in the nineties. From 1880 onwards the natural increase of births over deaths exceeded the net inflow from migration.

In 1891 John Ballance, as leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier to be followed on his death in 1893 by Richard John Seddon, who remained Premier until his death in June 1906. The Government pursued a vigorous legislative programme in which the main emphasis was on social justice.

The expansion of the exports in dairy produce and frozen meat during the 1890s produced more intensive settlement and the rise of a new farming class in which the “cow-cockie” was the dominant figure. These farmers, having benefited by the spread of prosperity, were in 1911 mainly responsible together with the city businessmen for the overthrow of the Liberal regime. The new Reform Government under William Massey introduced measures to strengthen the primary producer, of which the extension of rural credit was typical.

Three years after the advent of the Reform Party, the First World War, 1914–1918, broke out, leading to a coalition Government and an Imperial commandeer of exports which created the precedent for the establishment after the war of central boards to regulate the exports of pastoral products. War activities were marked by heavy casualties in proportion to the population while the landing at Gallipoli signified the growing awareness of a sense of nationhood.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921–24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reduction, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilise economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and on the administrative side, the period was characterised by extensive public works expenditure, with particular attention to hydroelectric schemes and highways.

Land values rose steeply, accelerated by Government efforts to settle returned servicemen on the land, and between 1915 and 1925 forty percent of the occupied land had changed hands. New Zealand was extremely vulnerable to the overseas price fluctuations of pastoral products. With the advent of the depression by 1930, farmers, despite greatly increased production, were faced with a serious decline in income (over forty percent) together with heavy mortgage commitments on land bought at high prices so that many were faced with foreclosure. In the towns, tradesmen and shopkeepers faced bankruptcy, and wage earners unemployment or reduction in wages. A Coalition Government was formed in 1931 to meet the crisis. Partly as a result of measures taken by this government and partly as a result of a rise in overseas price levels a general economic revival was taking place by 1935. The election of a Labour Government, under the leadership of Michael Savage, in 1935 led to changes in administrative policy and a renewed emphasis on social problems.

War and Post-war—The financial needs of the Second World War from 1939 onwards were met with virtually no overseas borrowing. Financing the war by taxation and internal borrowing also assisted in the achievement of a successful stabilisation policy. Full employment in war was followed by full employment in peace. Expansion and diversification of manufacturing and servicing industries provided avenues of employment for the growing labour force.

At the 1949 election the Labour Government was defeated after holding office since 1936. It was succeeded by a National Government, under the leadership of Sidney Holland.

In 1957, the Labour Party gained a narrow victory at the polls under the leadership of Walter Nash. Budgetary policy to meet a recurrence of the balance of payments crisis proved unpopular and at the 1960 election, the National Party under the leadership of Keith Holyoake was returned to power, as it was in subsequent elections in 1963, 1966, and 1969. At the 1972 election the Labour Party swept back into power under Norman Kirk. Following Kirk's untimely death in 1974 W. E. Rowling became Prime Minister. At the 1975 election there was a dramatic reversal of the position 3 years earlier, and the National Party under Robert Muldoon was returned to power with a substantial majority. The new Government faced growing economic difficulties and rising unemployment as a result of economic recession overseas, steep rises in oil prices, and the loss or shrinkage of traditional markets for agricultural products. At the 1978 election the National Party narrowly retained power with a greatly reduced majority.

Later Constitutional Developments—In 1907, in recognition of an emerging sense of nationality and an increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters, New Zealand had been given the title of Dominion in lieu of Colony.

A further step in the evolution of New Zealand into full nationhood came in 1947, when New Zealand belatedly adopted the Statute of Westminster, which had been passed by the United Kingdom Parliament in 1931. The draft of this statute had been submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing member countries, but it did not automatically apply to Australia or New Zealand. Its operation in the latter self-governing members of the Commonwealth was declared to require specific adoption by the legislatures of those countries.

Some surviving doubts concerning the authority of the New Zealand Parliament over the Constitution were resolved when, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, the United Kingdom Parliament passed a Constitution Amendment Act authorising the New Zealand Parliament to amend any of the provisions of the Constitution Act of 1852.

In 1950 the Prime Minister, Sidney Holland, initiated a constitutional change when the Legislative Council, the “second house” of the General Assembly, was abolished on the grounds that it no longer possessed any effective function.

The present Constitution and recent developments are dealt with later in this section under the heading, “The Constitution of New Zealand”.

DEVELOPMENT OF NEW ZEALAND'S INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS: The Beginnings—The emergence of a distinctive and independent New Zealand foreign policy is usually regarded as dating from 1935, following the election of a Labour Government under Michael Savage. While this did indeed mark a turning point in the development of a more vigorous and assertive New Zealand foreign policy the origins of the foreign service itself can be traced much earlier. Soon after New Zealand became a British colony, following the enactment of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840, the New Zealand colonists, finding themselves excluded from a system of government in which official business with Great Britain was transacted by correspondence between the Secretary of State for the Colonies and a Governor empowered to act as sole representative of colonial views to the Imperial Government, began to appoint their own colonial agents to make representations on their behalf in London.

Charles Clifford, a Wairarapa farmer, was the first such agent. Deputed by the Wellington Settlers' Constitutional Association, he travelled to England in 1848 to press the case for self-government for the new colony. In 1851 he was followed by William Fox, bearing the title “Honorary Political Agent”.

In 1852 the British Parliament enacted legislation providing for a limited form of self-government for the new colony. The provincial councils that were established in New Zealand as a result of this legislation soon found it necessary to appoint their own business agents in Britain for the explicit purpose of “promoting immigration (and) for protecting and advancing in Great Britain the political or other interests of the said Province” (Otago ordinance). These agents, appointed during the 1850s, though few in number and of doubtful political status in the eyes of the British Colonial Office, can be seen in every respect to be the earliest forerunners of today's unified overseas service which, some hundred and thirty years later, actively promotes New Zealand's political, economic, trading, and security interests around the world.

The provincial agents represented the interests of the individual provinces which, being relatively isolated at the time, were still developing along independent lines. The day-to-day interests of the Central Government, sited first in Russell, then Auckland, and later Wellington, were represented by the British Colonial Office itself. From time to time the Central Government felt the need for more direct representation and on these occasions ministerial missions were dispatched to London. The most significant of these early missions was in 1870, undertaken against the background of a popular uprising of anti-British feeling and talk of secession. The Imperial Government had moved to withdraw the last British troops at a time when Te Kooti was still active. Featherston and Bell were given full representative powers under a Colonial Act passed for the express purpose of securing the status of their mission (the New Zealand Commissioners Act of 1870, in some ways the forerunner of the External Affairs Act of 1943) and were sent to London to persuade the Imperial Government to stay its hand. They failed.

The following year the Vogel Ministry moved to consolidate its representation arrangements in London. In 1871 Featherston was sent back to London as a resident Agent-General, a new post designed principally to under-pin the ambitious programme of immigration and public works initiated by Julius Vogel the year before. From 1871 to 1904 a succession of able New Zealanders, amongst them Featherston, Vogel, Francis Dillon Bell, Perceval, and William Pember Reeves, acted as Agents-General, performing all the functions (despite the ambiguity of the title and the nature of the colonial relationship) of diplomatic representatives of a sovereign power.

In 1904 the post of Agent-General was elevated to High Commissioner. In Seddon's eyes, the change was a necessary reflection of the need to ensure the respect and influence due to the New Zealand representative “in the heart of the Empire”. Seddon's definition of the High Commissioner's role, “a diplomat to be in close touch with the Colonial Office, British statesmen, and people, and at the same time financial and commercial representative, ambassador, and courier ... the eyes, ears, and voice of the New Zealand Government in Great Britain ... (able to) simply voice the desire of the people of the colony”, is sufficiently close to the letters of instruction provided to our present-day representatives that in these early beginnings one can clearly see the origins of the New Zealand Foreign Service as it is today.

What of our broader interests? Strictly speaking, a dependent colony can, by definition, have no foreign policy and no international relations. But the colony, even before it was raised to Dominion status in 1907, exercised a vigorous interest in the affairs of the Empire and, on occasions, did not hesitate to prosecute an independent line. For example, from 1870 to the close of the century, New Zealand politicians, (notably Vogel, Stout, and Seddon), as Governor Grey had before them, bombarded London with arguments in favour of annexing territories in the Pacific for the creation of a Pan-Pacific Empire based on New Zealand. In 1883 the New Zealand Parliament, at Grey's initiative, enacted a Bill to enable the colony to establish relations with such Pacific peoples as might desire them. The Bill provided for a Pacific Federation and claimed for the colony the power to annex any unappropriated islands. On the advice of the British Colonial Office, Royal assent was not forthcoming and the Bill therefore failed to become law.

The final collapse of these plans in 1899 (when the British Government renounced its rights in Samoa in favour of Germany and America) and 1900, when Seddon's repeated proposals that the administration of Fiji be entrusted to New Zealand were finally rejected, marked the end of a consistent thread in New Zealand foreign policy that had been elaborated since the 1840s. Though the policy that New Zealand's nineteenth century statesmen had vigorously advocated was perhaps over-ambitious, given the colony's limited resources of manpower and wealth, it did at least have the advantage of resting on a sound appreciation of New Zealand's geographic position.

Following Seddon's death in 1906, and with the collapse of its Pacific vision, interests, and ambitions, New Zealand entered a period in which for a generation it was generally content to have its foreign policy laid down by the Imperial Government: “having lost contact with their own area, New Zealanders no longer had anything unique to contribute to Imperial policy. It is not without significance that the first flowering of New Zealand nationalism had been expressed in terms of New Zealand's place in the South Pacific”. Paradoxically, the opening of this quieter period in the development of New Zealand's international relations coincided with the elevation to Dominion status in 1907.

The passing of Seddon in 1906 marked the end of an era of vigorous self-assertion and the beginning of a relatively quiescent period in the development of an independent New Zealand foreign policy, a period that was destined to continue until the Savage Government came to power in 1935. But in the intervening years, and notwithstanding the prevailing sentiment that where Britain led in the development of foreign policy we would willingly follow, there were some developments of considerable significance to the later history.

Following the end of the First World War, New Zealand participated in the Versailles Conference and was a signatory in its own right to the Treaty of Versailles which came into force in January 1920. A mandate was acquired over Western Samoa. In 1926 a small Imperial Affairs Section, forerunner to the External Affairs Department, was established in the Prime Minister's Department to deal with treaty matters, the League of Nations, and international questions generally. This followed the Imperial Conference of 1926 at which the equal status of members of the British Commonwealth was recognised (the Balfour Declaration). The Imperial Affairs Section remained, however, for some time to come the only practical manifestation of New Zealand's newly acquired freedom to deal directly with other countries: the Dominion took no immediate steps to establish direct relations with foreign governments or—apart from Britain—with other members of the Commonwealth. In 1928 New Zealand entered into its first direct trade agreement with a foreign power, Japan, for all practical purposes the first such occasion in which the negotiations had been conducted directly rather than through the medium of the British Foreign Office.

The contrast between the policies followed in the 1920s and those adopted under the Savage Government from the close of 1935 is most clearly illustrated by the New Zealand attitude to the League of Nations. From the foundation of the League following the Peace Conference at Versailles, Massey and those who followed took the view that the League was no place for a loyal Dominion to voice views that contradicted Imperial policy. With the coming to power of the Savage Labour Government there re-emerged a willingness to take an independent line that had lain largely dormant since the death of Seddon. New Zealand spoke strongly for the principle of collective security and collective police action on a succession of issues (Abyssinia, Spain, China) at a time when the United Kingdom and other powers were following a policy which would later be described as appeasement.

Despite these differences there was, however, no suggestion that New Zealand was departing from its historically close association with Britain. The course it would follow in the event of war was never in doubt. When war broke out the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, expressed New Zealand's position in terms which reflected New Zealand's sovereignty as well as its ties with Britain.

“Behind the sure shield of Britain we have enjoyed and cherished freedom and self-government. Both with gratitude for the past, and with confidence in the future, we range ourselves without fear beside Britain. Where she goes, we go. Where she stands, we stand. We are only a small and young nation, but we are one and all a band of brothers, and we march forward with a union of hearts and wills to a common destiny.”

The Second World War changed the pattern of power in the world. The New Zealand Government established (in effect from 1943) a career foreign affairs service, and made a beginning in stationing its own diplomatic representatives in countries where New Zealand's interests made their presence necessary. In particular, New Zealand sought to foster good relationships with its neighbours in the Pacific and Asia and to increase the measure of security and welfare in these areas.

Woven into post-war policy was the traditional New Zealand belief in the principles of collective security and international justice, which the United Nations was pledged to support. There was also the belief that the international community should give high priority to the welfare and political advancement of dependent peoples and to the elimination of poverty, disease, and other economic and social causes of international tension.

There have been several periods of expansion in the establishment of New Zealand posts overseas. Aside from the three posts set up during the Second World War (Washington, Ottawa, Canberra) to maintain consultations with our closest allies, the first main period of expansion came in the 1950s as a consequence of the recognition that our security was closely bound up with that of South-east Asia. Following the signature of the ANZUS Treaty, which came into force in 1952, and the Manila Treaty in 1954, diplomatic relations were established with a growing number of Asian countries. By the end of the 1950s five New Zealand posts had been set up in Asia and the substance of our bilateral relations had broadened considerably.

A second period of expansion in the 1960s led to the setting up of a number of diplomatic posts in Western Europe in response to the need to defend New Zealand's essential economic and political interests as Britain negotiated its terms of entry into the European Economic Community. At the same time a more gradual expansion was underway in the Pacific. As island states became independent and as the extent of New Zealand's economic and political relations in the South Pacific increased, a number of South Pacific posts were opened. Finally, as the 1970s draw to a close, a fourth phase is now underway—one which is closely related to New Zealand's search for new trading opportunities as the degree of dependence on traditional markets in Western Europe is gradually reduced. The diversification both in the range of goods exported and in markets has led to the strengthening of posts in certain areas—particularly in Asia and the Pacific—and the opening of new posts in the Middle East, Latin America, and Eastern Europe. Posts have also been opened in China and reopened in the Soviet Union and an extensive network of multiple accreditations arranged to allow New Zealand's overseas representatives to cover several countries from the one base.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN RECENT YEARS—The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has the primary responsibility of advising and assisting the Government in formulating and executing decisions in the field of New Zealand's external relations. It is the agency through which other governments and their representatives in New Zealand communicate with the New Zealand Government. It operates New Zealand's aid programmes and maintains New Zealand's diplomatic and consular representation abroad. The ministry's overseas functions are discharged through a network of diplomatic and consular posts consisting of embassies, high commissions, consulates-general, and other permanent missions. At home, the preparation and co-ordination of foreign policy recommendations is carried out in close association with a number of other Government departments.

The ministry has a substantive role in the formulation and execution of New Zealand's economic policies. In Wellington the ministry works closely on these questions with other departments such as the Treasury, Department of Trade and Industry, Customs Department, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Economic activity is as much part of an overseas mission's everyday work as its political, consular, and trade functions. Officers of the ministry have a major responsibility to inform foreign government's of New Zealand's policies, negotiate agreements, and keep the New Zealand Government informed of economic developments in the country to which they are accredited.

The ministry has a special role also as a clearing house for material provided by New Zealand posts overseas for other departments, and through its posts it performs numerous services on behalf of departments without representatives abroad. It must also ensure that overseas posts are kept supplied with up-to-date information about New Zealand.

In the Official Section at the end of this Yearbook the diplomatic and other New Zealand representation overseas is listed.

New Zealand in the Commonwealth—As a member of the Commonwealth, New Zealand is able to consult and co-operate with 38 other countries in a wide variety of activities, both governmental and non-governmental. The value to New Zealand of its Commonwealth links is derived not only from the practical benefits of what the Commonwealth does, but also from the heterogeneous composition of the association. Its 39 members take in the 6 continents and the 5 oceans of the world. The Pacific region is now well represented in the Commonwealth. Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, Papua New Guinea, and the Solomon Islands are now full members along with Australia and New Zealand, and Nauru and Tuvalu have special membership status. The Cook Islands and Niue are not eligible for full membership because of their continuing constitutional association with New Zealand. They cannot therefore attend Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings. They are entitled, however, to participate in Commonwealth meetings dealing with those subjects for which their governments are responsible.

As the Commonwealth has grown and changed, its relationships have taken on a new scope and emphasis. As Commonwealth heads of government affirmed in the Commonwealth Declaration adopted at their meeting in 1971, the association “provides many channels for continuing exchanges of knowledge and views on professional, cultural, economic, legal and political issues among members states. These relationships we foster and extend for we believe that our multinational association can expand human understanding and understanding among nations, assist in the elimination of discrimination based on differences of race, colour, and creed, maintain and strengthen personal liberty, contribute to the enrichment of life for all, and provide a powerful influence for peace among nations.” New Zealand, itself a country where different races live in harmony, sees in the Commonwealth a special opportunity for multi-racial co-operation and understanding.

The value of the association in providing a forum for the exchange of views between a large number of diverse nations, as set out in the Declaration, is illustrated at the Heads of Government Meetings, most recently in 1975 in Kingston, Jamaica, and in 1977 in London. Discussions are frank, informal, and private, ranging over topics which include changing power relationships, trade, monetary and other economic issues, security, nuclear testing, development assistance, foreign investment, international transport, and South African questions. The last two meetings have paid special attention to the world economic situation, especially the problems of developing nations. Periodic meetings of Commonwealth Ministers of Finance, Trade, Health, Law, and Education promote the exchange of views and functional co-operation in diverse fields of national activity. Ministerial meetings are supported by conferences and seminars of officials and professional and technical specialists.

The belief of member countries in the potential of the Commonwealth led to the establishment of a permanent Commonwealth Secretariat in London in 1965 to be the main agency for multilateral communication among Commonwealth governments. The Secretariat promotes consultation and disseminates information on matters of common concern, organises meetings and conferences, and co-ordinates many Commonwealth activities. Prominent among these is the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation. The fund is financed by voluntary contributions from most Commonwealth countries. Its primary purpose is to promote economic development through self-help and mutual assistance.

Besides contributing to the budget of the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, New Zealand provides financial support to a number of other intergovernmental Commonwealth organisations which promote co-operation in specific areas. New Zealand also contributes to the Commonwealth Foundation, which was established at the same time as the Secretariat to promote close links in the professions throughout the Commonwealth. It has sponsored official and non-official Commonwealth professional organisations and strengthened the links between administrators, engineers, lawyers, accountants, scientists, and private individuals in the different Commonwealth organisations. Like the Secretariat it has provided a focus for Commonwealth activities and a basis for extending international co-operation.

New Zealand's Relations with Western Europe—New Zealand's dealings with the countries of Western Europe have tended to concentrate on trade matters and particularly on the question of access to the European Economic Community for New Zealand's agricultural exports, for this is of crucial importance to New Zealand.

However, the wider political and economic aspects of New Zealand's relations with the states of Western Europe, with which New Zealand shares many common interests, have come to assume greater significance, as we have acquired more knowledge and understanding of the issues affecting each other, and especially as the European Economic Community begins to play an increasing role in international affairs.

New Zealand shares a great deal in common with the countries of Western Europe in terms of historical experience, democratic political systems, and lifestyles. New Zealand's membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the International Energy Authority (IEA) underlines the community of broad economic interests. The range of bilateral contacts between New Zealand and individual countries of Western Europe, in all fields, steadily expands, their continued development being one of the main aims of New Zealand's foreign policy.

New Zealand's Relations with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe—New Zealand's relations with the countries of Eastern Europe have developed considerably in recent years, especially in the field of trade. This growth has been reflected in the expansion of New Zealand's diplomatic representation in the area. New Zealand's Ambassador in Vienna is accredited to five East European countries, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, and the German Democratic Republic. New Zealand's Ambassador inRome is accredited to Yugoslavia. Trade is also a major element in New Zealand's relations with the Soviet Union, which is now an important market for New Zealand's exports. The New Zealand Embassy in Moscow was reopened in 1973.

New Zealand and the Middle East—New Zealand has had a long association with the Middle East. The importance of the region in world political and economic affairs is well recognised and New Zealand has followed with close attention recent international attempts to resolve the longstanding conflict between Israel and its neighbours.

Since 1973, when Middle East members of the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) emerged as a major political and economic force, the area has assumed more immediate significance for New Zealand's economic wellbeing. New Zealand's oil imports come overwhelmingly from the countries around the Gulf. Moreover, the growing wealth of the region, resulting from the recent substantial increases in the price of oil, has created a valuable market for New Zealand's exports, especially agricultural exports.

As a result of the growing importance of the Middle East, New Zealand has moved to increase the range of its contacts with Middle Eastern countries. At the same time countries in the Middle East, in assuming wider international interests, have themselves taken a closer interest in the South Pacific and expanded their diplomatic representation in this area. Thus New Zealand established resident missions in Iran and Iraq in 1975, and in Bahrain in 1977. The New Zealand Ambassador in Rome is accredited also to Egypt and Saudi Arabia and he and his staff visit those countries regularly. Both Egypt and Israel have set up embassies in Wellington, and Iran and Iraq have accredited to New Zealand their Ambassadors in Canberra and Jakarta respectively. Developing relations between New Zealand and the countries of the Middle East have also been marked by a growing number of visits each way, by Ministers, officials, and businessmen.

New Zealand and the Asian Area—Since the Second World War, and particularly since 1955, there has been a noteworthy growth in New Zealand's relations with the countries of the Asian/Pacific area. New Zealand has a direct interest in the maintenance of peace and the growth of prosperity in the area. It enjoys a close relationship with Japan, the Republic of Korea, and with the countries which make up the Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN): Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and the Philippines. Since the normalisation of relations with the People's Republic of China in 1972, New Zealand's contacts with China have been increasing. New Zealand also enjoys long-established ties with the countries of South Asia (particularly through the Commonwealth connection) and Burma.

Trade with Asia is becoming more and more important to New Zealand. Private initiative, with Government assistance, has been able to develop new markets, new products, new selling processes, and new economic and commercial relationships. A pattern of regular economic consultations with our main trading partners has been developed; bilateral economic agreements have been concluded.

New Zealand's growing interests and involvement in Asia are reflected in the changing pattern of its diplomatic representation. Prior to 1955, when New Zealand opened a post in Singapore, it had only one diplomatic mission in the region, in Tokyo. Representation has now been established in all of the ASEAN countries, in New Delhi, Peking, Hong Kong, and Seoul. Many of these missions are accredited to other Asian capitals. The network thus created enables New Zealand to assess external events in the light of this country's own interests and needs, and to work directly with other countries in areas of common concern. New Zealand has also developed its political contacts with countries of the area in other important ways. Exchanges of visits by Heads of State and Government Ministers and parliamentarians have increased, and the development of regular bilateral consultations has also been encouraged.

New Zealand has placed particular emphasis on supporting regional organisations for co-operation and consultation in both the political and development fields. It is one of a group of nations closely associated with ASEAN, which it sees as a force for stability and economic development in South-East Asia. It has initiated a number of joint projects with ASEAN for development and trade co-operation. New Zealand is an associate member of the South-east Asian Ministers of Education Organisation (SEAMEO), and a member of the Ministerial Conference for the Economic Development of South-east Asia (MEDSEA), an organisation which is in the process of redefining its role following changes of government in the countries of Indo-China.

The degree of cultural interchange between New Zealand and the countries of Asia has expanded steadily. Where once New Zealanders looked largely to Britain for cultural inspiration and experience, now their horizons have broadened. Increased contacts with Asia have brought with them an awareness of what the cultural background of the countries there can offer New Zealand. Professional bodies, sporting associations, cultural groups, and universities today have links with similar organisations in Asia, as well as with more traditional partners such as Britain and Australia. The development of civil air links, and the concurrent growth of tourism, have also helped to bring a wider range of contacts.

Nowhere within the Pacific Basin has New Zealand's adaptation to changed circumstances been more complete than in its relationship with Japan. Today that association is one of the most important that New Zealand has and it is friendly and rewarding for both sides. Its elements are varied—trade, consultation, co-operation, and a growing range of cultural, educational, sporting, and personal ties. In many ways, the conditions for a developing trading relationship are ideal, for the two countries are located in different hemispheres, their economies are complementary, and each has in abundance some things that the other needs. Despite these advantages, commercial exchanges have not been completely straightforward, and over a number of years New Zealand has pressed (to little avail) for improved conditions of access for certain important commodities, including beef and dairy products. Even so, Japan today is New Zealand's third biggest market and its fourth largest source of supply. For Japan, New Zealand does not occupy so important a place but on both sides there are expectations of continued and expanding trade and of closer involvement together in other settings. Meanwhile, the steady growth in the extent and cordiality of New Zealand's relations with the People's Republic of China further illustrates New Zealanders' changing perceptions of Asia. China is now our third largest market in Asia and is increasingly important to New Zealand as a major power with a leading role in Asia and in the “Third World”.

New Zealand and the South Pacific—New Zealand has a long history of interest and involvement in the South Pacific. In the latter part of the 19th century Prime Minister Richard Seddon harboured ambitions of a South Pacific empire controlled by New Zealand, and as a result of pressure from Seddon the administration of the Cook Islands and Niue, which were British colonial possessions, was handed over to New Zealand in 1901. The number of New Zealand Pacific dependencies increased when, following the establishment of the League of Nations, Western Samoa, which had been occupied by New Zealand troops at the outbreak of the First World War, became a mandated territory under the administration of New Zealand. In 1925 the Tokelau Islands (now known as Tokelau) then part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, were ceded by the United Kingdom to New Zealand.

Despite its geographical situation, the acquisition of overseas dependencies in the South Pacific and the ethnic kinship of the Maori and the Polynesian peoples, New Zealand's present identity as a South Pacific country was slow in developing for a number of reasons. Culturally, New Zealand has been closer to Western Europe than to the Pacific. For many years almost all of New Zealand's exports went to the United Kingdom. Politically, New Zealand's outlook was oriented towards Europe and, more recently, South-east Asia. Also the Pacific Islands were, and in some cases still are, administered by other countries.

But during the 1960s there was a dramatic emergence of new nations in the South Pacific. New Zealand encouraged this development in its own territories.

In Western Samoa, which had become a United Nations Trust Territory administered by New Zealand, political and constitutional development was carried forward in accordance with the wishes of the Samoan people. This culminated in the establishment of the independent State of Western Samoa on 1 January 1962. On 4 August 1965 the Cook Islands became a self-governing nation in free association with New Zealand. In an exchange of letters between the New Zealand Prime Minister, the Right Honourable Norman Kirk, and the Premier of the Cook Islands, Sir Albert Henry, in April 1973 clarifying the special relationship between the Cook Islands and New Zealand, it was agreed that there were to be no legal fetters of any kind upon the freedom of the Cook Islands to make their own laws and control their own Constitution. Although New Zealand has a statutory responsibility for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands, it is intended that the Cook Islands be free to pursue their own policies and interests in these as well as other areas. Cook Islanders remain New Zealand citizens under the Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964.

Niue became self-governing in free association with New Zealand on Constitution Day, 19 October 1974. It is written into the Niue Constitution Act 1974 that New Zealand will continue to be responsible for the external affairs and defence of Niue, that Niueans will remain New Zealand citizens, and that New Zealand will provide necessary economic and administrative assistance.

Tokelau is still included within the boundaries of New Zealand and is administered under the authority of the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 and its amendments. Tokelauans are New Zealand citizens. By agreement with the Government of Western Samoa the Office for Tokelau Affairs is based in Apia and handles Tokelauan transactions with the outside world, especially with New Zealand. Decisions about day-to-day living in Tokelau are made by the village councils.

The developments in New Zealand's territories are part of a wider pattern of political evolution in the region. In 1968 Nauru became an independent republic; in 1970 Fiji became independent; and in the same year Tonga rejoined the Commonwealth. In 1975 Papua New Guinea became fully independent after being self-governing since December 1973. In 1978 the Solomon Islands and Tuvalu (formerly the Ellice Islands) became independent. Independence for the Gilbert Islands is expected in 1979, and for the New Hebrides in 1980.

It is natural that New Zealand and its South Pacific neighbours should have become very closely associated. One important reason has been the movement of Pacific peoples into New Zealand. Cook Islanders, Niueans, and Tokelauans are New Zealand citizens and move freely back and forth. New Zealand's historical association with Western Samoa, which is reflected in the Treaty of Friendship signed in August 1962, and its close association with the Kingdom of Tonga, has resulted in a flow of immigrants and visitors under work permit schemes from both countries.

New Zealand has also played an active role in building up regional co-operation in the South Pacific. A major step in this direction was the creation of the South Pacific Forum, which now comprises the independent and self-governing countries of the South Pacific, Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, and the Gilbert Islands, together with Australia and New Zealand which, at the invitation of New Zealand, met for the first time in Wellington in August 1971. Since then meetings have been held in Canberra, Suva, Apia, Rarotonga, Nukualofa, Nauru, Port Moresby, and Niue.

The South Pacific Forum provides the opportunity for the leaders of the South Pacific states to discuss common problems, exchange information, consider priorities, and plan programmes for mutual and regional benefit. The topics considered include such matters as regional trade, shipping, civil aviation, telecommunications, education, law of the sea, fishing, disaster relief, and nuclear testing.

At the Canberra session of the South Pacific Forum in 1972 members agreed to establish the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation (SPEC) to deal with trade and related matters. The main purpose of the SPEC is to advise Forum members on ways of promoting regional trade and free trade among Island members and to encourage collaboration in areas such as regional transport which will assist the economic development of the Island members. The headquarters of the SPEC are in Suva, Fiji.

The South Pacific Commission, created in 1947 by the Canberra Agreement of which New Zealand is a signatory, is the other major regional body. Representatives from 22 governments and territorial administrations from within the South Pacific Commission comprise the South Pacific Conference. The Conference which meets annually decides the work programme of the Commission. Since its establishment the Commission has helped to build up a sense of regional identity and it has accomplished much in promoting the economic and social welfare of the South Pacific peoples. It is primarily a technical assistance organisation. Its budget in 1978 totalled $4.4 million. The main regular contributors to the budget are the participating governments in the area—the United Kingdom, the United States of America, France, Australia, Fiji, Nauru, Western Samoa, Papua New Guinea, and New Zealand. Each participating government's contribution is levied as a percentage of the annual budget. Other member governments also make contributions on an irregular basis.

The United Nations and its specialised agencies are also an important source of technical assistance in the South Pacific. The independent countries of the region are members of various UN bodies, and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has a regional office in Fiji.

New Zealand and Australia—New Zealand's most comprehensive bilateral relationship is with Australia. Geographical proximity reinforces the important historical, cultural, and Commonwealth ties between New Zealand and Australia that have given rise to this unusually close and mutually beneficial relationship. New Zealand established a diplomatic office in Australia in 1943, very early in its diplomatic history, and in 1944 the Canberra Pact was signed. This paved the way for a tradition of joint consultation and co-operation that reflects the interdependence of the two countries' interests and the goodwill and friendship of their peoples. In matters of foreign policy, in defence and in the economic field, the degree of co-operation also reflects the importance of each country to the other and a need for continuing close working contacts. Regular and increasingly frequent ministerial and official meetings have taken place, with a minimum of formality, to cover almost the entire range of government activity. Moreover, the two countries are bound together by innumerable personal contacts, facilitated by freedom of travel across the Tasman, and by institutionalised links in business, finance, education, the professions, and in nearly all fields of national activity.

New Zealand and Australia share a foreign policy objective in acting to promote stability and development in the South Pacific and South-east Asian regions of their immediate vicinity, as well as a more general interest in co-ordinating their positions on major international political and economic questions of current concern, in the United Nations, the Commonwealth, GATT, and elsewhere. In the economic context, Australia is a major trading partner for New Zealand, Australia's largest single market for manufactured exports. Trade has significantly expanded and the two economies become increasingly related under the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), dating from 1965–66. In the defence field, the former ANZAC partners continue to co-operate closely, both in relation to training programmes and exercises and the provision of equipment and other supplies, and in terms of the broader issues of defence policy, especially in their common membership of ANZUS.

In 1978 the Deputy Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. B. E. Talboys, paid an extensive visit to Australia. During the visit, Mr Talboys and the Prime Minister of Australia made a joint press statement (the Nareen Declaration) which underlined the determination of both Governments to co-operate and consult closely in many fields. The Nareen Declaration also provided for the establishment of an Australia - New Zealand Foundation in both countries to promote the bilateral relationship publicly.

New Zealand and the Americas—Continuing and close contact with the United States is an essential part of New Zealand's foreign policy. The United States remains New Zealand's principal security guarantor, is a major trading partner, and has an important influence on the New Zealand way of life. The two countries share a common English-speaking heritage and a friendship of long standing, both in peace and war.

Since the opening in Washington in 1941 of New Zealand's second diplomatic mission, close consultations have been held with the United States on many bilateral questions and international issues of common interest. Basic similarities in political philosophy and social and economic processes have encouraged the development of close governmental relations, which have been supported by increasing contacts, both official and non-official, across a broad range of activities.

This comprehensive bilateral relationship finds expression in political, strategic, economic, and cultural fields. Under the ANZUS arrangements initiated in 1951, New Zealand looks to the United States for fundamental assistance in the maintenance of its national and regional security. In turn, where national interests coincide, New Zealand is able to offer the United States active support for its constructive international role and to provide a friendly and stable influence in the South Pacific. On the economic side, bilateral trade has expanded to the extent that the United States is now the second largest market for New Zealand's exports and the third largest source of imports. Regular intergovernmental consultations are held to review the trading relationship, which recently has been weighted in favour of the United States. Programmes for scientific and technical co-operation, and academic and cultural exchanges, serve to maintain an awareness of New Zealand in the United States and to promote a vigorous and beneficial interchange of ideas and experience.

New Zealand and Canada, through a common British heritage and long association in the Commonwealth, have traditionally enjoyed a close and special informal relationship, with long-established bonds of friendship between the New Zealand and Canadian people. Since New Zealand established diplomatic representation in Canada in 1942, there have been many ministerial and official exchanges in a broad range of fields in which the two countries' basic compatibility and similarity of attitude have provided invaluable opportunities for bilateral consultation and co-operation. New Zealand and Canada have also built up a record of co-operation on many international issues, particularly in Commonwealth and United Nations contexts. New Zealand's particular interest and involvement in the South Pacific, and Canada's in the Caribbean, have provided a useful basis for the exchange of experience, and both countries share a presence and a direct interest in the affairs of the Pacific Basin.

Canada is one of New Zealand's major trading partners, being at present the second largest market for New Zealand beef and a growing market for lamb. Regular intergovernmental consultations help to keep the trading relationship under review and provide a basis for negotiation on specific difficulties. They also facilitate co-operation on economic and financial policy matters of wider international importance.

New Zealand's relations with the Caribbean have been concerned largely with mutual Commonwealth interests and with a substantial export trade, mainly in dairy products. Since September 1974, the New Zealand High Commissioner in Ottawa has been cross-accredited to Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, Guyana, and Barbados. The sole resident representation is in Port of Spain (Trinidad and Tobago). New Zealand's assistance is being extended to these four Commonwealth countries and to the multilateral Caribbean Development Bank under a modest aid programme.

New Zealand's contacts with the countries of Latin America, limited in the past because of geographical orientation and widely different historical and cultural backgrounds, have developed considerably in the 1970s. A substantial growth in trade preceded the establishment of New Zealand representation in Chile and Peru in 1972, and in 1974 diplomatic relations were entered into with Mexico. In 1978 the resident Ambassadors in Lima and Santiago were accredited to Ecuador and Brazil respectively. Peru has in recent years been New Zealand's largest export market in Latin America, and a major market for New Zealand dairy produce. Other significant Latin American markets for New Zealand dairy produce are Mexico, Ecuador (from which New Zealand has imported bananas), Venezuela, and some of the Central American republics (notably El Salvador and Costa Rica). As part of the continuing process of diversifying its economic relations, New Zealand has recently devoted increased attention to exploring the possibilities for expanding trade with the countries of Latin America. In recognition of the growing political importance of the region as a whole and particularly of the largest countries, Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina, opportunities are also being taken to enhance bilateral relations. Several official visits have taken place in recent years. At the private level, New Zealanders have long been interested in, and frequent travellers through, the countries of South America.

In the field of overseas assistance, New Zealand maintains a modest but important technical co-operation programme in Peru, under which New Zealand experts are helping in the development of key areas of Peruvian agriculture. New Zealand is also assisting in the organisation of the Peruvian National Parks.

New Zealand in the United Nations—Successive New Zealand Governments have strongly supported the development of the United Nations as a major instrument for maintaining peace and security, for developing friendly relations among countries, for promoting international co-operation aimed at solving economic and social problems, and for ensuring respect for human rights.

New Zealand has consequently played an active and prominent role in the various areas of United Nations activity.

International Security—At San Francisco in 1945 the New Zealand Prime Minister, Peter Fraser, argued forcefully but unsuccessfully for the elimination of the Security Council veto and for a strengthening of the collective security provision of the Charter. Since then New Zealand has actively supported the development of the United Nations' capacity for peacekeeping activities and worked consistently for international arms control and disarmament measures. New Zealand contributed forces to the United Nations Command in Korea, military observers to the United Nations Observer Groups in Palestine, Kashmir, and the Lebanon, and a civilian police unit to the United Nations peace keeping force in Cyprus. In recent years New Zealand has been closely involved in moves to promote the cessation of all forms of nuclear testing, as a key step towards halting the nuclear arms race. It has played an active part in international discussions on disarmament at the Tenth Special Session of the General Assembly in May and June 1978.

New Zealand served a 2-year term on the Security Council in 1954–55 and a 1-year term in 1966.

Economic and Social Activities—There has been increasing emphasis in recent years on making use of the United Nations as a forum to help resolve the formidable economic and social problems that face the world. This has been done both in the regular organs of the United Nations, such as the General Assembly, and the Economic and Social Council and its functional and regional commissions, and at special conferences, such as those on the environment (at Stockholm in 1972), population (at Bucharest in 1974), food (at Rome in 1974), the role of women (at Mexico in 1975), water (at Mar del Plata in 1977), and racism (at Geneva in August 1978). During 1974 and 1975 Special Sessions of the General Assembly were held specifically to discuss development issues. The former enunciated the Declaration and Programme of Action on the Establishment of a New International Economic Order.

During 1977 New Zealand served on the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Economic and Social Council, and the Commission on the Status of Women. New Zealand also participated actively in the seventh session of the Conference on the Law of the Sea held in April and May 1978 in Geneva, and in August and September in New York.

Specialised Agencies—New Zealand is a member of all the specialised agencies, and is also a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which, though not strictly a specialised agency, exists under the aegis of the United Nations. New Zealand's contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, which are based for the most part on a scale of assessment similar to that used in the United Nations itself, in total considerably exceed our contribution to the United Nations' regular budget. In 1977, for example, our contributions to the budgets of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the World Health Organisation (WHO), and the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) alone totalled US$1,212,273.

Convinced of the value of the form of international co-operation that the agencies represent, New Zealand participates actively in their work. In the case of the technical agencies, there are direct benefits to New Zealand in membership. Membership of the Universal Postal Union, for example, is essential to facilitate the efficient international movement of mails to and from this country; and the International Telecommunication Union works to promote the most rational and efficient operation of world-wide telecommunications services. The World Meteorological Organisation is the medium for establishing a world-wide network for the rapid exchange of meteorological information, which is of particular value to remote island countries like New Zealand. The ILO is concerned with protecting the basic dignities and freedoms of the wage earner and brings together representatives of governments, employers, and workers to frame international conventions on working and living conditions.

In addition to its contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, New Zealand gives voluntary assistance in the form of further monetary grants, the services of experts to developing countries (for example in agriculture, physiotherapy, police work, forestry, and education) and donations of equipment or commodities. In 1978 New Zealand served on the Council of FAO and was elected to the Executive Board of UNESCO. It also participated in all the major meetings of the agencies.

New Zealand's membership of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Finance Corporation allows this country to participate in international efforts to increase the stability of international trade and promote the economic development of the underdeveloped areas of the world. It also serves to strengthen New Zealand's own economic position by providing access to more varied sources of capital for capital projects or for balance of payments purposes.

New Zealand is also a foundation member of the Asian Development Bank, established in 1967 under the auspices of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) to foster economic growth and co-operation in the Asian/Pacific region.

New Zealand has supported United Nations agency activity which will help the social and economic development of the Pacific Islands. Examples of such projects are the work of WHO in eradicating yaws and tuberculosis; FAO's efforts to control the rhinoceros beetle which ravages much of the islands' coconut crops, and its support for a regional fisheries development agency; the establishment by UNESCO of a curriculum development unit at the University of the South Pacific; the placement in Suva of a development advisory team backed by ESCAP and the specialised agencies; the operation of a telecommunications training school set up under UN Development Programme (UNDP) auspices in Suva; and the joint venture under the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) in conjunction with regional organisations to establish a comprehensive environmental management programme in the region.

New Zealand has in the past served on the governing bodies of UNESCO and the Universal Postal Union (UPU), as well as FAO, and was a member of the Executive Board of WHO from 1972 to 1974.

New Zealand's Defence Policies—After the Second World War the international scene was clouded for many years by the Cold War. New Zealand was affected by the tensions of the period and took steps to provide for its defence in concert with its allies. As a country with limited resources, New Zealand alone could not expect to defend its extensive but isolated territory against aggression by any militarily significant power. It therefore supported efforts to give effect to the provisions of the United Nations Charter which looked to the creation of a universal system of collective security. In the meantime it accepted that it should act in concert with like-minded countries in order to strengthen its security in its own region.

Recent developments in international affairs—especially the ending of the war in Vietnam and the rapprochement between the United States and China—have led to a relaxation of tensions in the region that has lessened the likelihood that New Zealand might be involved in war. Changes in United States policy, which now emphasises that the primary responsibility for long-term stability in Asia rests with the countries of the area, and the large reduction of the British defence presence outside Europe, have given new impetus to regional initiative. The general easing of tension has given New Zealand and other small nations greater freedom of action while reinforcing the requirement for closer collaboration on a regional basis. It has also meant that New Zealand's relations with the countries of South-east Asia are no longer regulated primarily by defence considerations.

By means of staff exchanges, exercises, training programmes, and the provision of facilities under its Defence Mutual Assistance Programme, New Zealand co-operates with several countries in the South Pacific and South-east Asia in building up one another's defence capacity, thereby contributing to regional security. The central objective for New Zealand is the maintenance of stability and peaceful development in the South Pacific, New Zealand's strategic neighbourhood.

ANZUS—There is no direct military threat to New Zealand's security. In the unlikely event of a threat materialising, New Zealand would be able to turn for assistance to its partners in the ANZUS Pact. The tri-partite security treaty between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States came into force on 29 April 1952. It assured New Zealand and Australia of American support in the event of aggression in the Pacific.

ANZUS should be seen as a durable expression of a strongly-based community of interest and attitude among the three democracies that are parties to it. The close relationship among the three countries is reflected in the informality and ease of their consultation under the ANZUS Treaty. Meetings of the Council of Ministers are generally held once a year.

The Five Power Defence Arrangements—The basis of the Five Power Defence Arrangements is not a formal treaty but a statement incorporated in the communique of the meeting of Ministers of the five powers (Britain, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand) held in London in April 1971. At that meeting the Ministers declared, in relation to the external defence of Malaysia and Singapore, “that in the event of any form of armed attack externally organised or supported or the threat of such attack against Malaysia or Singapore, their governments would immediately consult together for the purpose of deciding what measures should be taken jointly or separately in relation to such attack or threat”.

The Australian, New Zealand, and United Kingdom forces stationed in Malaysia and Singapore under the Five Power Defence Arrangements were grouped into an ANZUK Force. The Australian Government decided in 1973 to withdraw its ground forces while retaining two RAAF Squadrons in Malaysia. The ANZUK Force was disbanded in 1974 and the New Zealand contingent based in Singapore became known as New Zealand Force South-east Asia. Later the United Kingdom Government withdrew its forces from Singapore.

The New Zealand Government has decided that, although the Singapore Government has indicated that the Force is welcome to remain, as a matter of principle the Force should return home to New Zealand as soon as practicable. No date has been set however.

SEATO—Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States signed the South-east Asia Collective Defence Treaty, or the Manila Treaty, on 8 September 1954. The South-east Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) established under the treaty, in addition to military planning, undertook activities intended to foster the security and stability of the regional member countries.

The ending of the Vietnam war in 1975 and other developments in the region naturally led Governments in South-east Asia to reassess many of their attitudes and policies. The SEATO Council of Ministers decided at its annual meeting in New York on 24 September 1975 that, while the Organisation had over the years made a useful contribution to stability and development in the region, it should be phased out. This process was completed on 30 June 1977. No move was made, however, to abrogate the Treaty.

Defence Policy Review—In 1978 the New Zealand Government completed a comprehensive review of defence policy objectives. These as summarised in the Defence Review White Paper are:

  • To develop our defence activities with emphasis on the preparedness to respond to low-key emergencies in our own region;

  • To provide practical assistance to the governments of the South Pacific if required;

  • To further strengthen relationships within ANZUS;

  • To work towards an enhanced combined defence capability with Australia, including defence supply;

  • To develop as far as limited resources permit, mutually beneficial military training and exchange programmes with countries of the Pacific and (to a degree) South-east Asia;

  • To supply defence capabilities in support of the needs of New Zealand society.

NEW ZEALAND'S AID AND OTHER RESOURCES FLOWS TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES—During 1977–78 Official Development Assistance (ODA) amounted to $51.1 million or 0.36 percent of GNP—a decline from the previous year's figure ($55.3 million) that reflected the continued restraint on official aid spending. As in the previous year the Government resolved to hold the expenditure of public monies—ODA included—in the light of the country's economic difficulties. Bilateral and regional assistance totalled $43.1 million, with $8 million going to multilateral institutions. The bilateral/multilateral ratio was 84:16.

The South Pacific continued to be the main region of concentration for New Zealand bilateral and regional assistance, accounting for $29.3 million or 68 percent of the total bilateral allocations. South and South-east Asia also received a substantial portion of ODA—$12 million. The total programme involves the skills and experience of hundreds of New Zealanders, together with New Zealand capital and training assistance, all of which are carefully geared to respond to the aid partners' own developmental priorities.

Total Resource Flow—New Zealand's official development assistance, virtually all administered by the External Aid Division of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, forms the major part of the total flow of resources from New Zealand to developing countries—the transfer of goods, services, and capital. The total picture includes private flows and the grants and activities of voluntary agencies. For the year ended 31 March 1978, the total flow of resources was estimated at $75,485,000, comprising:

 $(000)

*Private flow figures are made up of net outstanding export credits backed by EXGO, Overseas Exchange Transactions (assets) data provided by the Reserve Bank, and estimated private non-guaranteed investment.

†Based on a voluntary survey by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Official development assistance51,005
Private flows*18,640
Grants by voluntary agencies5,840
        Total flow of resources75,485

The figure of $75.5 million represented 0.54 percent of Gross National Product (GNP), which compared with the international target of 1 percent of GNP for donor countries' total flow of resources to developing countries.

Bilateral ODA 1977–78—Under its bilateral (government-to-government) aid programmes, New Zealand responds where possible to the developmental needs of selected countries, mainly in the South Pacific and South and South-east Asia, with small programmes also in Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Hundreds of projects are undertaken with inputs of New Zealand expertise and/or material and capital resources. The projects can vary considerably in expenditure and duration, with emphasis on productive sector development such as livestock and pasture improvement programmes and assistance with crops and the development of forestry and fisheries resources. Advisers may be assigned to projects for varying times, from a few weeks to several years. During 1977–78 the bilateral aid programme used 534 advisers on assignments averaging 4½ months. Training within New Zealand or at “third country” insititutions is provided for under bilateral agreements to supplement the transfer of New Zealand expertise to the developing countries. There were about 600 holders of training or study awards in New Zealand in 1977–78. This training is linked with specific requirements in the recipient countries and, increasingly, is related to the maintenance of development projects involving a New Zealand input. Bilateral programmes in the Pacific and South-east Asia are supplemented by programmes promoting regional development co-operation, particularly in the fields of education, transport, and communications. Bilateral assistance also includes commodity and distress relief.

A country breakdown of bilateral ODA in 1977–78 shows the direction and scope of New Zealand assistance:

BILATERAL ODA 1977–78
South and South-east AsiaNZ$(000)
    Afghanistan1
    Bangladesh247
    Bhutan4
    Brunei5
    Burma132
    India777
    Indonesia2,595
    Kampuchea5
    South Korea387
    Laos19
    Malaysia1,321
    Maldives18
    Nepal418
    Pakistan91
    Philippines3,071
    Singapore161
    Sri Lanka231
    Thailand1,745
    Vietnam68
    Regional691
        Total11,987
South Pacific
    Solomon Islands384
    Cook Islands6,253
    Fiji4,956
    Gilbert Islands343
    New Hebrides150
    Niue3,215
    Papua New Guinea2,227
    Tokelau1,049
    Tonga2,314
    Tuvalu29
    Western Samoa3,829
    Regional4,581
        Total29,330
Africa
    Kenya4
    Malawi12
    Mauritius6
    Nigeria2
    Rhodesia29
    Sierra Leone19
    Swaziland3
    Tanzania476
    Zambia2
    Regional66
        Total619
Latin America
    Chile4
    Peru350
    Regional3
        Total357
Caribbean
    Barbados15
    Jamaica112
    Trinidad and Tobago6
    Guyana62
    Regional14
        Total209
Western Asia
    Egypt37
    Malta7
    Iran31
    Iraq9
        Total84
Voluntary agencies243
Halls of residence52
Commonwealth Education Scheme7
Other170
    Total472
    Total Bilateral Aid43,058

Multilateral ODA 1977–78—The multilateral programme enables New Zealand to make a contribution to development work which would usually be beyond the scope of the bilateral aid programme, either in terms of the scale of the projects or in their ability to help countries beyond the regions of concentration of the bilateral aid effort.

Multilateral assistance amounted to $8,022,000 in 1977–78. Major recipients included the United Nations Development Programme ($1,250,000), the Asian Development Bank ($1 million), the World Food Programme ($738,000), United Nations Children's Emergency Fund ($700,000), and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation ($600,000).

MULTILATERAL ODA 1977–78
United Nations Agencies and FundsNZ$(000)
    United Nations Development Programme1,250
    World Food Programme738
    United Nations Children's Emergency Fund700
    United Nations Fund for Population Activities350
    United Nations Relief and Works Agency120
    United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees75
    United Nations Education and Training Programme for Southern Africa16
    United Nations Trust Fund for South Africa8
    United Nations Trust Fund for Namibia5
    United Nations Disaster Relief Office10
                Total3,272
Commonwealth Programmes
    Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation600
    Commonwealth Youth Programmes70
    Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau30
                Total700
South Pacific Institutions
    South Pacific Commission511
    South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation128
                Total639
Development Finance Industries
    International Fund for Agricultural Development350
    International Development Association—
        Fourth replenishment300
    Asian Development Bank—
        Technical Assistance Fund75
        Asian Development Fund1,000
    Caribbean Development Bank200
    I.M.F. Oil Subsidy380
    World Bank capital50
                Total2,355
Other Contributions
    Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research25
    International Planned Parenthood Federation250
    International Committee of the Red Cross25
    Nam Ngum hydro-electric scheme245
    Miscellaneous multilateral institutions111
    ODA proportion of assessed contributions to other agencies400
                Total1,056
                Total Multilateral ODA8,022

Non-official Flows—The Government maintains a close association with private groups and organisations interested in development assistance through bi-monthly meetings with New Zealand voluntary agencies, and through the Advisory Committee on External Aid and Development, established in September 1975 to examine, debate, publicise, and advise on New Zealand assistance, public and private, to developing countries. Under the Voluntary Agency Support Scheme the Government provides a subsidy for approved projects undertaken by New Zealand private agencies in developing countries. Government assistance to voluntary agencies, including grants to CORSO, and Volunteer Service Abroad, amounted to $242,745 in 1977–78. Estimates of private grants overseas made by voluntary agencies for development activities rose slightly to $5.84 million in 1977–78, a figure based on a survey conducted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The figure is probably underestimated, given the difficulty of covering all agencies which meet primary development criteria.

THE CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: Introduction—The history of the present constitution dates back to the declaration of British sovereignty in 1840. By the Treaty of Waitangi, certain Maori chiefs ceded their sovereignty to that of the British Crown in exchange for guarantees contained in the Treaty. Territory not included in the Treaty was claimed on the ground of discovery. Somewhat surprisingly, the constitution was, and is, wholly Anglo-Saxon in its origin and took no account of Maori custom and usage.

From 1840 until the grant of responsible government in 1856 the colony was subject to gubernatorial rule. Attempts to persuade the Imperial government to establish representative institutions bore fruit in 1846 with the enactment of a Constitution Act (never fully implemented) superseded by a further Constitution Act in 1852 which created a bicameral General Assembly with limited powers and 6 provinces each with its own executive and unicameral legislature or provincial council. The system of government was unitary however—the General Assembly could legislate in areas in which the provinces had jurisdiction and could amend or annul provincial ordinances.

The 1852 Act constituted the governor as part of the General Assembly with the power to summon, prorogue, and dissolve it and to assent or refuse the assent to legislation passed by it, but the actual form of the executive government was omitted from the Act and left to the will of the governors and the Colonial Office. Moreover, the Act was silent about the appointment and tenure of the judges, and matters normally contained in a constitutional document were left to be decided by ordinary legislation.

Amendments to the 1852 Act stemming from political development reflect New Zealand's transition from colonial to fully-independent status within the period 1840–1974. Contemporary concern about the constitution centres on the operation of, and the balance between, the legislature and the executive rather than in the broader context of the merits of monarchy or republic. The result of the 1978 General Election has given impetus to the argument for a system of proportional representation in elections for members of Parliament and it seems likely that New Zealanders will concern themselves for some time with the fine tuning of existing political institutions rather than with the system itself.

The Constitution—The constitution is not a single written instrument granted to, or by, the people but a miscellany of statutory and customary law welded together and given coherence by the operation and observance of formal unwritten rules known as The Conventions. The constitutional framework is erected on, and maintained by, the ordinary law as opposed to a supreme or basic law such as that found in most jurisdictions.

Certain statutes and statute-derived law have important constitutional significance. Among the more important are:

Constitution Act 1852—creation of Parliament;

Bill of Rights 1688;

Habeas Corpus Act 1689;

Electoral Act 1956—election of members of Parliament;

Legislature Act 1908—declaration of powers, privilege of Parliament;

Economic Stabilisation Act 1948—wide-ranging powers of the Government to affect socioeconomic activity;

Public Safety Conservation Act 1932—states of emergency, powers of executive;

Letters Patent and Instructions 1917–1919—exercise of prerogative powers by Governor-General.

Such laws exist by force of the ordinary legislative process because of the basic canon of the legislative primacy of Parliament—the legal capacity of the legislature to make and unmake laws and the self-imposed collateral incapacity of any court or forum to impeach the validity of the legislature's exercise of that power when expressed as an Act of Parliament.

Although not as important in New Zealand as they are in the United Kingdom, the personal prerogative powers of the Crown, almost all of which are exercisable by the Governor-General, remain part of constitutional law. A prerogative power may be abrogated only by statute.

On the foregoing basis, it is open to Parliament to change or abolish the constitutional framework on which it rests its primacy, and for a later Parliament to reverse that change, one aspect of the rule being that one Parliament cannot bind its successors. Consequently, the five provisions of the Electoral Act are entrenched by Section 189 in a political, rather than a strict legal, sense. The section could not act as a bar to the repeal of itself by simple majority, and thereafter the repeal or amendment of one or more of the five sections, also by simple majority.

On paper, major changes to the constitutional frame-work could be affected with comparative ease and speed, but constitutional history shows that those changes which have been made reflected shifts in social or political attitudes already evident.

PARLIAMENT AND THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES—The Constitution Act created a bicameral General Assembly empowered to make laws for the peace, order, and good government of New Zealand. Legislative competence was restricted, e.g., laws enacted were not to be repugnant to those of England; laws did not have extra-territorial effect; certain laws needed the Sovereign's assent; and all were subject to Royal disallowance. It was only with the passage of the Constitution Amendment Act 1947 (U.K.) and the Statute of Westminister Adoption Act 1947 (N.Z.) that the New Zealand Parliament obtained plenary legislative power, any residual doubts on the matter having been removed by a further amendment to the 1852 Act in 1973.

Until 1950, Parliament consisted of the Governor-General, the Legislative Council, and the House of Representatives. Despite repeated proposals for reform the council remained an appointive chamber, and the decline in its capacity as a curb on the lower House and the Government was accelerated by the partisan nature of the appointments made. Each ministry sought to ensure that its supporters were in a majority. The council's demise was assured when the National Party, which had campaigned for abolition, was returned as the Government in the 1949 General Election. The necessary legislation was passed by both Houses and the council ceased to exist on 1 January 1951. Although it was intended that the council should be replaced by an elected second chamber nothing came of the idea and it is highly unlikely that New Zealand will revert to bicameralism.

Parliament now consists of the Governor-General (the Queen when resident in New Zealand), and the 92-member House of Representatives. The role of the Governor-General, as part of the General Assembly, is purely formal and for all practical purposes “Parliament” is synonymous with “House of Representatives”.

The principal functions of Parliament are to enact laws, supervise the Government's administration, vote supply, provide a government, and redress grievances by way of petition.

The Constitution Act forbids the House to allocate public funds for any purpose unless first recommended by the Governor-General. Although the reasons for this provision are historic, it is also used by governments to defeat legislation brought forward by individual members which ministers are unwilling to support or adopt. On the other hand, the law forbids the Crown to tax citizens without express parliamentary approval.

Constitutional law includes the law and custom of Parliament, itself derived from a variety of sources. The Bill of Rights saves any proceeding in Parliament from being questioned in any forum, other than the House itself, and the Legislature Act 1908 provides that the powers, privileges, rights, and immunities of the House (and its committees and members) are those possessed by the British House of Commons on 1 January 1865. One aspect of the powers of the House is the ability to make rules for the conducts of its business. Most of these are contained in the Standing Orders although some are made on a sessional, and others on an ad hoc, basis. The traditional three readings given to a bill are part of Standing Orders, but it is open to the House to alter or suspend its rules at any time. The House has retained the right to punish breaches of its privileges, whether by members or citizens, from which there is no appeal (although the courts could be asked to decide whether the privilege claimed is one recognised by law).

Perhaps the most important privilege of the House is that of freedom of speech, guaranteed by the Bill of Rights, and claimed by the Speaker upon confirmation in his office by the Governor-General.

The House meets, as Parliament, in answer to a summons from the Governor-General. Sessions of Parliament are marked by a formal opening (the Government's legislative programme is described in the Speech from the Throne read by the Governor-General) and a closing prorogation by proclamation. Unless the House, by resolution made under the authority of the Legislature Act (1977 Amendment), carries forward business to the next session, all business before the House on prorogation lapses. Parliament is dissolved by the Governor-General rather than have it expire by efflux of time.

Because control of the House's business lies with the Government, many of the rules and customs of the House are designed to ensure that members of the House are given a full opportunity to debate any aspect of a government's proposals. Control of the debates and the conduct of members is vested in the Speaker, whose rulings are binding unless overturned by the House.

Detailed scrutiny of legislation and facets of executive activity, e.g., expenditure of public money, is carried out by select committees consisting of a small number of members, usually 7, which report their findings and recommendations to the House. Not all legislation is referred to committees, but the tendency is increasing. This is intended to enable the public and interested bodies to make submissions, in the expectation that better laws will result.

In the context of the party system, it is very unlikely that the Opposition would be in a position to bring down a government by means of a no-confidence vote—there is one recorded instance of a successful no-confidence vote in the history of the New Zealand Parliament, and that was before the development of the party system as it is now. The strength of the parties, especially that of the National and Labour Parties, is so great that many of the rules and customs of the House are based on their being 2 parties only in the House. The presence of a third party member, as at present, has raised a number of problems in relation to speaking times, membership of select committees, and so forth.

Because of the growth of a largely two-party system and the importance that the parties have assumed within the political framework, the party caucus (a meeting of each party's members of Parliament in closed session at regular intervals, once a week when Parliament is in session) is a primary means of developing policies and tactics. Caucus committees of both the National and Labour Parties travel around the country frequently, investigating issues of interest or concern to them. Although the existence of the caucuses and their committees is not recognised by the law, indirect recognition has been given, e.g., travelling allowances are payable to members when travelling as member of a caucus committee.

In the exercise of their functions and powers, the Speaker and the Chairman of Committees are assisted by permanent officials, headed by the Clerk of the House, charged with the administration of the House and the provision of advice on parliamentary law and custom.

The procedure for fixing the salaries and allowances of members and ministers was changed in 1977. Responsibility now rests with the Higher Salaries Commission established by Act of the same name. The following table lists the salaries payable as at January 1979:

OfficeYearly Rate of Salary Payable On and After 1 April 1978
Members of the Executive$
Prime Minister45,000
Deputy Prime Minister35,000
Each Minister of the Crown holding a portfolio or portfolios (other than the Prime Minister or the Deputy Prime Minister)31,000
Each Minister of the Crown without portfolio25,000
Each Parliamentary Under-Secretary24,000
Officers of the House of Representatives
Speaker of the House of Representatives28,750
Chairman of Committees of the House of Representatives24,750
Leader and Deputy Leader of the Official Opposition
Leader of the Official Opposition31,000
Deputy Leader of the Official Opposition24,000
Whips
Chief Government Whip22,000
Chief Opposition Whip22,000
Junior Government Whip20,500
Junior Opposition Whip20,500
Members of the House of Representatives
Each member of the House of Representatives to whom the foregoing provisions of this Schedule do not apply18,000

The following allowances are also paid:

OfficeYearly Rate of Expenses Allowance
 $
Prime Minister9,750
Deputy Prime Minister4,250
Each Minister of the Crown holding a portfolio or portfolios (other than the Prime Minister or the Deputy Prime Minister)4,000
Each Minister of the Crown without portfolio3,150
Each Parliamentary Under-Secretary3,150
Minister of Foreign Affairs3,500
Speaker3,500
    (Additional allowance as Speaker; plus electorate allowance at appropriate rate)3,200
Chairman of Committees3,500
    (Additional allowance as Chairman plus electorate and day allowances at appropriate rates)1,900
Leader of the Opposition4,000
    (Plus house and travelling allowances) 
Deputy Leader of the Opposition4,600
    (Plus additional allowance as Deputy and electorate, night, and day allowances at appropriate rates)1,600
Members4,600
    (Plus electorate, day, and night allowances at appropriate rates) 

The rate at which an electorate allowance is paid depends on the nature of each member's electorate, e.g., urban, rural, or semi-rural.

In addition to the foregoing allowances, a once-only setting up allowance is paid to members elected for the first time. The current rate is $250.

The Crown and The Governor-General—Constitutional law vests the executive power in the Crown, i.e., the Monarch acting through, or with the advice of, responsible ministers. Primarily because of political developments within the British Empire and, later, the Commonwealth, changes in the substantive law have left the constitutional position, but not the role, of the Monarch in some doubt. By virtue of the Royal Titles Act 1974, the present Monarch is styled “ ... Elizabeth the Second ... Queen of New Zealand ...” which, taken together with changes made to the Constitution Act in 1973, tend to suggest that the Queen of New Zealand is a separate legal entity from that of the United Kingdom, a suggestion which has found support in a 1976 Supreme Court decision. If such is the case, English or Imperial law which was thought to be part of New Zealand's law, e.g., the Regency Act 1937–53, may have ceased to be so.

Although not a viceroy, the Governor-General (appointed by the Monarch on the advice of the New Zealand Prime Minister for a term, normally 5 years) may lawfully exercise most of the Royal powers and functions, whether derived from the general law or statute. The 1917 Instructions, reinforced by a strong convention, require him to accept and act on the advice of his New Zealand ministers, although a reserve power retained by the instructions would enable him to reject advice if he believed that a government was intending to act improperly or unconstitutionally. Recent events in Australia have demonstrated how controversial the use of the reserve powers can be, and it is likely that a Governor-General would seek a political, rather than a legal, solution.

As part of the General Assembly, the Governor-General summons, prorogues, and dissolves Parliament, and his assent to Bills passed by the House is necessary to transform them into Acts. As the Monarch's representative, he is the head of the Executive and his participation, albeit formal in nature, is required to give legal effect to decisions made by the Government or individual ministers.

The Executive Government—The governance of New Zealand is executed by Ministers of the Crown in the name of, and on behalf of, the Monarch. The dual conventions that ministers are responsible to Parliament for their official acts and those of their officials and that the Government is responsible for its acts have been translated, indirectly, into statute. The Civil List Act 1959, Section 6, provides that no person may be appointed or remain a minister or member of the Executive Council unless he is, concurrently, a member of Parliament.

Following a General Election, the leader of the party which has, or is most likely to secure, a majority of seats in the House is invited by the Governor-General to accept the office of Prime Minister and form a ministry. Although the selection process has varied between the two major parties, the respective leaders have final responsibility for the allocation of portfolios. Acting on the new Prime Minister's advice, the Governor-General appoints a number of members of Parliament as ministers with responsibility for one or more areas of government administration (portfolios), although in rare cases ministers are appointed without portfolio. In addition, a few members are appointed as parliamentary under-secretaries to assist ministers in specific areas. Under-secretaries are neither ministers nor members of the Executive Council.

The Executive Council, constituted under the 1917 Instructions, consists of the ministers, any two of whom together with the person presiding (normally the Governor-General) form a quorum. The council is the legal vehicle for the promulgation of a government's decisions which are intended to form part of the law. It is also one of the primary means whereby the Government tenders formal advice to the Governor-General.

The present membership of the council is 19.

Unlike the council, the Cabinet owes its existence solely to convention. Although both institutions have the same membership (the Governor-General is a member of neither), their respective functions differ markedly. It is the Cabinet which determines or approves a government's legislative and administrative proposals and policies and co-ordinates the work of ministers.

To facilitate this process, a number of Cabinet committees have been set up, consisting of ministers whose responsibilities are related to the subject matter covered by the committees. Present committees include those dealing with economic affairs, expenditure, communications, Government works, legislation and parliamentary questions, social affairs, state services, and transport. Each committee has power, within its terms of reference, to make decisions and some are supported by inter-departmental groups of officials.

One important feature of the Cabinet is the informality of its proceedings and their confidentiality, thus allowing for a consensus of views to emerge without the need, in most cases, to take a vote. Cabinet discussion and agreement ensures the Government's support in the House for a minister's legislative or other proposals and supports the convention of collective responsibility.

The Cabinet Office is responsible for the servicing and co-ordination of the Cabinet and its committees to ensure their smooth functioning, as well as providing liaison and advice within the interdepartmental framework. The Secretary of the Cabinet is also Clerk of the Executive Council.

The Judiciary—New Zealand has inherited the strong British tradition of an independent judiciary seen as a bulwark against unnecessary intrusion by the State in the lives of citizens. One means of maintaining that tradition is to provide superior court judges with security of tenure. Accordingly, the law provides that Supreme Court judges are appointed “... during good behaviour ...” and are removable by the Governor-General in answer to an address from the House. Moreover, the salaries of judges cannot be reduced while they remain in office. Supreme Court judges must retire at the age of 72 but may be reappointed for a further 3 years.

Stipendiary magistrates are appointed, as with Supreme Court judges, by the Governor-General on ministerial advice and are removable by him, without the need for an address from the House, for misbehaviour or inability. Although a magistrate's security of tenure is not as entrenched as that of a judge, nevertheless, the convention against arbitrary removal ensures his independence of action in the exercise of his judicial functions.

Judicial officers of specialist courts enjoy the tenure provisions of judges or magistrates depending on the ranking of their court within the judicial structure.

New Zealand courts apply the primacy of Parliament doctrine which, in the judicial context, means that a court will not question the validity of what purports to be an Act of Parliament. However, the doctrine has never prevented them from declaring legislation made by the Executive Council, under delegated authority from Parliament, outside the powers of the council or Governor-General, as the case may be, on the grounds that, in fact, no power to make that particular piece of subordinate legislation exists.

In the constitutional context, the growth and proliferation of tribunals and other administrative bodies as an answer to the complexities of modern administration, and the increasing regulation by successive governments of socio-economic affairs, has challenged the traditional, original, and supervisory jurisdictions of the Supreme Court. In answer to parliamentary attempts to oust or restrict the Court's jurisdiction, the superior courts of many common law countries have dusted off hitherto unused writs and remedies and adapted them to meet modern demands.

The balance between the courts and the administrative agencies has been restored, partially, by the creation in 1968 of an Administrative Division of the Supreme Court to hear appeals or review the law applied by these agencies, and the institution in 1972 of a simplified procedure to obtain judicial review. Conversely, New Zealand still lacks a coherent policy towards the role and ambit of the Supreme Court's jurisdiction in the field of administrative law.

Because the Supreme Court lacks the capacity to declare an Act unconstitutional or beyond the scope of Parliament's powers, the judges have seen their supervisory jurisdiction over administrative acts as an important means of maintaining the balance of competing interests between the citizen and the State, and have taken steps to stem any erosion of that jurisdiction.

OMBUDSMEN—There has been an Ombudsman since 1962 able to investigate, on complaint or on his own initiative, any administrative decision, recommendation, act, or omission of a Government department or related organisation as it affects any individual. Ombudsmen do not have power to reverse departmental decisions, but may make recommendations to the department and to the Minister, and if, in the Ombudsman's opinion, no appropriate action is taken the matter may be reported to the Prime Minister and then to Parliament. Ombudsmen have very wide powers to call for documents and files. The Government cannot refuse information, except in matters relating to the security of the State or to Cabinet proceedings.

Under the Ombudsmen Act 1975 jurisdiction was extended to local authorities and a range of specified national boards, councils, and other organisations. Provision was made for the appointment of a Chief Ombudsman and additional (including temporary) Ombudsmen.

An analysis of complaints made to the ombudsmen and the resultant action is given in the Official section of this Yearbook.

PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS—The law on elections is contained in the Electoral Act 1956 and its amendments. At every census the Chief Electoral Officer is to arrange with the Government Statistician to deliver to every occupier or person in charge of a dwelling forms of application for registration as an elector. This form is to be completed by every adult who is residing in the dwelling on the day of the census. Following the population census (every 5 years) the boundaries of General (formerly known as European) electorates are revised, and the new boundaries come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

The Government Statistician is required to supply population figures to the Surveyor-General as soon as possible after the census.

The term “General population” means total population with the following exceptions:

  1. Maoris—defined in the 1975 Amendment as “a person of the Maori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person who elects to be considered as a Maori for the purposes of this Act”;

  2. Persons residing on board ship, whether as passengers or members of the crew or otherwise;

  3. Persons residing temporarily as guests in any licensed hotel;

  4. Persons residing temporarily in any naval, military, or air force camp, station or establishment;

  5. Persons residing as patients and inmates in any hospital.

After the population figures are supplied by the Government Statistician it is then the responsibility of the Representation Commission to define new General electoral districts. The commission comprises eight members. Five of these are official members; the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer, the Director-General of the Post Office, and the Chairman of the Local Government Commission (who is without voting rights). Two are unofficial members, being persons nominated by the House of Representatives, one nominated to represent the Government and one to represent the Opposition. The eighth member is appointed, on the nomination of the official and unofficial members of the commission or a majority of them, to be the chairman of the commission. The chairman and unofficial members cease to be members on the date on which the first periodical census is taken after the date of their appointment.

The number of General electorates is based on total population under a formula that allocates 25 seats to the South Island. The total South Island population (excluding those on the Maori roll) is divided by 25, and the quota thus obtained for each South Island electorate is then divided into the North Island population (again excluding those on the Maori roll) to give the number of electorates in the North Island.

The number of Maori seats is fixed at four. The total Maori population is the number of Maoris, or persons of Maori descent who have elected to be considered as Maoris, who have chosen to be registered as electors of Maori electoral districts and their children aged 18 years and under.

When the boundaries have been provisionally determined, maps are prepared illustrating the proposed electoral districts, and descriptions of each electoral district are published in the New Zealand Gazette. A time limit of 1 month is given during which objections to the proposed boundaries may be lodged. These objections are then considered by the Representation Commission and a final decision reached on boundaries which then define the new electoral districts.

All general elections and by-elections are held on a Saturday. Polling hours in all electorates are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.

Any member of the Armed Services aged 18 years or over serving overseas is qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which he or she last resided before leaving New Zealand.

Franchise—Since September 1974, persons 18 years of age and over have had the right to vote in the election of members of the House of Representatives. (From 1893 onwards all persons aged 21 years had voting rights and the qualifying age had been lowered to 20 years in 1969.)

Registration of Electors—Registration as an elector is compulsory, although it is not compulsory to vote. To be qualified for registration as a parliamentary elector in New Zealand a person must have attained the age of 18 years and must (a) be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, (b) at some period have resided continuously in New Zealand for at least a year, and (c) except in special cases have resided continuously for 3 months or more in the electoral district in respect of which application for registration is made, and not have subsequently resided for 3 months or more in any other electoral district. Broadly speaking the qualifications restrict the right to vote to permanent residents. Maoris and persons of part-Maori descent may elect to be included on either the General or the Maori electoral roll.

Voting at parliamentary elections is by secret ballot. In general, only those persons whose names are lawfully on the main and supplementary rolls of electors compiled prior to an election may vote at that election.

A vote is normally cast by the elector at a polling booth within his district. An elector may, however, vote as a “special voter”, either at a polling booth outside his district or by post for reasons of distant travel on polling day, sickness, etc.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT: General—The present system of local government in New Zealand has evolved since the abolition of the provinces in 1876. Until fairly recently it has consisted of a structure of territorial local authorities—counties, boroughs, and town districts—and a further structure of special-purpose or ad hoc authorities, such as harbour boards, pest destruction boards, and electric power boards. Major changes were made by the Local Government Act 1974, which provided for the introduction of regional government, and for the establishment of district councils (as a new form of territorial authority) and “communities” (below territorial authority level). The Local Government Act also extended the role of the Local Government Commission in the reorganisation of local government. The Local Government Act as originally enacted has, however, undergone modifications, especially as a result of amending legislation in 1976 and 1977. The present situation is outlined below.

Consolidation and amalgamation of the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, the Counties Act 1956, and the Local Government Act 1974, is proceeding. This process, begun in 1977, is being carried out by way of a series of amendments to the Local Government Act, as the principal Act. When the process is completed there will be one Act containing all the provisions relating to the Local Government Commission and to the constitution, powers, and functions of regional authorities, territorial authorities, and communities.

Territorial Local Authorities—There are four kinds of territorial local authorities in existence:

Boroughs—The Municipal Corporations Act 1876 provided for the incorporation of the 36 boroughs then in existence and for the creation of new boroughs. Boroughs are currently governed in part by the Municipal Corporations Act 1956, but, from 1 April 1978, they have been subject also to the Local Government Act 1974, in consequence of the enactment of the Local Government Amendment Act (No. 3) 1977. Boroughs provide for the needs of concentrated populations and until 1978 there had to be a population of at least 1500, with an average density of population of at least one person per 4000m2, before they could be constituted. A borough containing a population of 20 000 or more may be proclaimed a city, but the corporation remains unaltered.

Counties—Counties were originally constituted by the Counties Act 1876. That Act has been superseded by the Counties Act 1956 and, from 1 April 1978, the Local Government Act 1974. Generally counties are concerned with the needs of rural areas. Initially, there were 63 counties but with increasing settlement this number increased to 129 in 1920. Since then the number of counties has been reduced by mergers and at 1 April 1977 there were 99 counties, of which 98 were actively functioning, Fiord being a sparsely-populated county in which the Local Government Act 1974 and the Counties Act 1956 are not wholly operative.

Town Districts—The town district represents a form of territorial local government intermediate between the county and the borough. It implies a certain concentration of population. There were two types of town district—dependent and independent. On the enactment of the Local Government Act 1974, the four existing dependent town districts became community councils. Independent town districts do not form part of the county within which they are situated, nor are they subject to any county council control. After 1 April 1978 no new independent town districts are to be constituted.

District Councils—This form of territorial local authority was introduced by the Local Government Act 1974 in recognition of the fact that nowadays many territorial authorities are neither “boroughs” nor “counties” in the sense that they are neither wholly urban nor wholly rural. District Councils may now be constituted either by Local Government Commission scheme or by a borough council or county council passing a special order to that effect. The Governor-General may proclaim a district under a district council to be a city if in his opinion it is predominantly urban and it has a population of not less than 20 000. As at 1 March 1978 there were 4 District Councils: Waitomo; Thames-Coromandel; Whakatane; and Waipukarau.

Communities—The Local Government Act provides for the establishment of “communities” within the districts of territorial local authorities. Since 1976 a community may be constituted, by Local Government Commission scheme or by special order of the territorial local authority, only in an urban area within the rural part of a territorial authority district that is predominantly urban in character, or in an urban area within a territorial authority district that is predominantly rural in character, or in the whole of the area of one or more off-shore islands forming part of a territorial authority district. This has brought the position nearer to that existing prior to the enactment of the Local Government Act, which superseded Parts III and IV of the Counties Act 1968 under which county towns and county boroughs were able to be constituted within counties.

Although not local authorities in the true sense, each community has either a “district community council” or a “community council” of not less than 5 nor more than 12 members, elected by residents and ratepayers for a 3-year term.

District Community Councils—By statute, except for certain reserved powers dealing with finance, staff, and planning, a district community council may exercise all the powers and functions of its parent territorial authority. A district community council may be established only in respect of a community having a population of not less than 1500.

Community Councils—These derive most of their powers by delegation from their territorial authority, at its discretion. Once again, powers dealing with finance, staff, and planning cannot be delegated. In addition to exercising such powers as may be delegated to it by the territorial authority, the general purpose of a community council is to co-ordinate and express to the parent territorial authority the views of the community on any matter of concern to it, after consulting and obtaining the consent of the territorial authority to take appropriate action in the interests of the community, and to undertake, encourage, and co-ordinate activities for the general well-being of the residents of the community.

Regional Government—Apart from the Auckland Regional Authority, which was constituted by a local empowering Act in 1963, the regional bodies being established under the Local Government Act will be new to local government in this country. Regions and united or regional councils are being determined by the Local Government Commission and established by Order in Council giving effect to a final regional scheme of the commission.

Towards the end of 1978, five regions with united councils were constituted: Nelson Bays; West Coast; Wairarapa; Marlborough; and Taranaki.

Regional bodies will come to possess their functions through several means. First, every united or regional council will have two mandatory functions—regional planning (under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977) and civil defence. Besides these two mandatory functions, the Local Government Act provides, with qualifications in some cases, that a united or regional council may undertake functions relating to regional reserves, forestry, regional roading, and community services. The commission's regional scheme constituting a united or regional council may provide for the regional body to undertake the functions of any territorial authority or (where a special purpose authority or the appropriate Minister concurs) a special-purpose authority. A united or regional council is empowered to undertake exclusively any new regional function which is not undertaken by any other local authority in the region; the commission, by scheme, can provide that that function may be one that other local authorites are not empowered to undertake under any other statute. A united or regional council may also enter into an agreement with a constituent authority to undertake any function of that authority where, in the opinion of either party, that function would be more effectively and economically undertaken by the regional body. Finally, united and regional councils may enter into agreements with the Crown whereby they may exercise any function or provide any service for or on behalf of the Crown.

Criteria were provided in 1976 as to which type of regional body a region is to have. A region which has a population of not less than 325 000 and which includes one or more cities will normally have a regional council; in other regions—more rural in nature—a united council will be the rule. In either case, however, the converse type of regional body may be established by the commission if two or more territorial authorities in the proposed region (having sufficient weighting in capital value, population and area) so prefer. The membership of both united and regional councils will not be less than 12.

The main differences between the two types of regional body are as follows:

United Councils—These are to be appointed by the constituent (territorial) authorities. To obtain finance they will make levies on their constituent authorities. One of the constituent authorities is to be appointed as the administering authority of the united council, that is, to staff and service the united council. The united council concept is designed to meet requirements of those regions where the range of functions, or the nature of the responsibilities involved, do not justify the setting up of an organisation of the scale implicit in a directly elected regional council.

Regional Councils—These are to be directly elected. They will have direct rating powers. The establishment of a separate organisation is envisaged.

Special-purpose Authorities—Special-purpose authorities differ from territorial authorities in that each is charged with only one major function. The need for the most efficient and economic discharge of the major function being the prime consideration, their boundaries may either extend beyond or fall within those territorial authorities in the same geographical area. Only rarely do the boundaries coincide. Sometimes, as is the case with a number of pest destruction boards and hydatids control authorities, territorial authorities themselves are also constituted as, and perform the functions of, special-purpose authorities. The more important special-purpose authorities are those administering harbours, hospitals, and the retail distribution of electricity. Others are engaged in water supply, urban drainage and transport, soil conservation and rivers control, pest destruction, nassella tussock control, hydatids control, and land drainage.

Fire boards and urban fire authorities went out of existence as special-purpose authorities when on 1 April 1976 their functions and assets were taken over by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission (see section 8B).

Number of Local Authorities—Local authorities actively functioning at 1 April 1978 were as follows:

Territorial Authorities—County councils, 96; borough (including city) councils, 132; town councils (independent), 3; district councils, 4.

Communities—Also within the framework of territorial local government, although not local authorities as such, were: district community councils, 13; community councils, 109.

Regional Authorities—There was one regional authority.

Special-purpose Authorities—River boards (2 boards also have the powers of land-drainage boards), 6; land drainage boards (including 1 territorial authority), 26; urban drainage boards, 4; catchment boards, 13; catchment commissions, 4; regional water boards, 1; water supply board, 1; valley authority, 1; electric power boards (including 1 electric power and gas board), 38; transport board, 1; harbour bridge authority, 1; independent harbour boards, 16; pest destruction boards (separately elected), 63; wallaby board, 1; nassella tussock boards, 2; plantation board, 1; forestry corporation, 1; crematorium board, 1; hospital boards, 29; town hall board of management, 1; museum trust boards, 3. Borough and county councils also functioned as harbour boards in 8 cases, as county pest destruction boards in 36 cases, and as hydatids control authorities in 84 cases. In addition, there were 22 district roads councils of the National Roads Board constituted under the National Roads Act 1953. Although these district roads councils are not local authorities in the strict sense of the term they are intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, providing an advisory service to the National Roads Board concerning the roading needs and the allocation of national roading funds within their respective districts.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT COMMISSION—To promote reform of the structure of local government a Local Government Commission was first established, as a quasi-judicial body, in 1946. The present Local Government Commission, constituted by the Local Government Amendment Act (No. 2) 1977, comprises a chairman appointed by the Minister of Local Government and two other members, one appointed by the Minister on the nomination of the New Zealand Counties Association and the other on the nomination of the Municipal Association of New Zealand. It replaces a commission of five members. Where the commission is to consider a proposal affecting a local authority other than a territorial authority, it may request the Minister of Local Government to appoint a person having special knowledge of the functions undertaken by that local authority, to be a temporary member of the commission.

The commission continues to carry out investigations, prepare schemes, and make recommendations and reports for the purpose of ensuring that the system of local government in any local authority will best provide for the needs and well-being of its residents and the continued development of the district; that local authorities have such district boundaries and such functions and powers as will enable them to provide most effectively and economically essential or desirable local government services and facilities; that local authorities shall have such resources as will enable them to engage adequate services and to obtain and operate adequate technical facilities, plant, and equipment; and that districts shall be of such a size and nature as will promote efficient local government and avoid the necessity of uneconomic expenditure.

The legislation sets out procedures to guide the commission, with emphasis being placed on consultation on proposals at an early stage, prior to formulating a provisional scheme. After the hearing of objections to a provisional scheme, the commission may draw up a final scheme. There are two distinct kinds of schemes which the commission may prepare and issue.

Regional Schemes—A principal task of the commission continues to be the preparation of regional schemes for the constitution of regions and regional bodies (united councils or regional councils) throughout New Zealand by 31 December 1979, or as soon as possible thereafter. The Minister of Local Government may refer a final regional scheme back to the commission for reconsideration of any of its provisions.

Reorganisation Scheme—Consideration of a proposal for a scheme for the union of local authority districts, the constitution or abolition of any district, the adjustment of boundaries, or a transfer of functions from one local authority to another, may be initiated by the commission itself or at the request of the Minister of Local Government or of any local authority. A new feature is provision for the appointment of conciliators by the commission to inquire into and negotiate on a proposal for a reorganisation scheme.

The Local Government Act as originally enacted brought most special-purpose authorities (other than hospital boards and education boards) within the jurisdiction of the commission. An amendment in 1976, however, removed the automatic jurisdiction of the commission in relation to special-purpose authorities so that it may now act only in those cases where the appropriate Minister or the special-purpose authorities concerned agree to their inclusion in a scheme.

GENERAL POWERS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Act under which they are constituted. As mentioned above, the Local Government Act is coming to be the main governing Act for territorial authorities, as it is already for united, regional, district community, and community councils.

There are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976 and the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. Other legislation applicable to territorial, regional, and various other types of local authority includes the Rating Act 1967, the Public Bodies Meeting Act 1962, the Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968, the Public Bodies Leases Act 1969, the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, the Public Works Act 1928, the Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963, and the Joint Council for Local Authorities Services Act 1977.

For most harbour boards there is, in addition to the General Harbours Act, a special Act for each board which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—urban drainage boards, transport boards, the Auckland Regional Authority, the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority, and the Waikato Valley Authority – derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

A local authority has no legislative powers beyond the authority to make bylaws within limits defined in its constituting Act, but it can promote legislation on matters which affect the government of the area under its jurisdiction and which it is not already empowered to deal with. If the subject is transient and not contentious and is approved by Government, it is usually dealt with by the inclusion of an appropriate section in the annual Local Legislation Act passed by Parliament for this purpose. If, on the other hand, the local authority seeks powers of a permanent or major nature additional to those conferred on it by general Acts it must submit to Parliament a special Local Bill. The extent to which the foregoing privileges are used may be gauged from the fact that the annual Local Legislation Act usually contains 20 to 25 sections, while about 15 Local Acts are passed each year.

Franchise—Under the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, local elections are held on the second Saturday in October every third year. They were last held on 8 October 1977. Enrolment of residential electors is compulsory. In a poll on any proposal relating to loans or rates, a ratepaying qualification is necessary.

Apart from a few special-purpose authorities, some of whose members are appointed by other local authorities or by Government, members of local authorities are elected triennially, any qualified elector being eligible to seek election. In general the franchise extends to all persons aged 18 years or over who either possess a rating qualification or who possess a residential qualification in the district of the local authority concerned. The right to vote for members of land drainage and river boards is, however, restricted to those who possess rating qualifications. In the case of regional councils the right to vote is limited to those who reside in the region.

A person who is an alien (other than an enemy alien) may vote in local authority elections but is not capable of election or appointment as a member of any local authority.

Voting Procedures—Under the provisions of the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, any local authority may determine whether an election or poll is to be conducted by personal attendance at a polling booth or by way of postal vote. Since 1970, county councils had been authorised by legislation to use postal voting but other local authorities had been able to employ this method only on approval being granted by Order in Council. Where the franchise is to be exercised by personal attendance at a polling booth, the local authority may decide to conduct the election or poll over a period of not more than 11 consecutive days instead of confining voting to a single day.

Remuneration of Members—The remuneration of members of local authorities is governed by the statutes constituting the various types of local authorities. Most special-purpose authorities pay their chairmen an annual allowance with a maximum fixed for each type of authority. The maximum payable to mayors of boroughs and cities and county council chairmen varies according to the population of the local authority. The chairman and members of a united or regional council may also be paid such annual allowances as may from time to time be approved by the Minister of Local Government with the concurrence of the Minister of Finance.

TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING—The Town and Country Planning Act 1977 provides for the making and enforcement of regional, district and maritime planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1978. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works and Development who may delegate his authority to the Commissioner of Works.

Chapter 5. Section 3; POPULATION

Table of Contents

GENERAL—By world standards, New Zealand's population is small—less than 3.2 million at the end of 1978. Our rate of growth, however, was, until recently, higher than in almost any other developed country. A main cause of this, until recent years, has been the relatively large gains from net migration. Because of the age of our population, our potential for growth will continue to be high for some time after the average family size has become small—as it is expected to do.

New Zealand's first million of population was recorded in 1908, 68 years after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. In 1952, 44 years later, the second million was reached, and the third million late in 1973.

POPULATION GROWTH—Population has two sources of gain—natural increase (excess of births over deaths) and net migration (excess of arrivals over departures). In the early years in New Zealand the bulk of the increase was through migration. From the late 1870s natural increase permanently displaced immigration as the chief contributor to population growth. At the Census of 1881 the percentages of the total population born in New Zealand and born overseas were approximately equal (50.2 percent New Zealand-born to 49.8 percent overseas-born), and each succeeding census until 1961 recorded an increased proportion of New Zealand-born. Since 1961 (when the New Zealand-born made up 86 percent of the population) the proportion has fallen slightly, mainly because increased international travel and tourism have meant that at each census increased numbers of overseas-born tourists and travellers have been included in the population as enumerated on census date. At the 1976 Census 83.3 percent of the population was recorded as having been born in New Zealand.

During the present century, natural increase has accounted for over three-quarters of the growth of population. New Zealand's rate of natural increase is relatively high compared with other countries whose population is predominantly of European origin.

The natural increase rate has, in the main, closely reflected the changes in the birth rate with a low point on 8.63 per 1000 in 1935 and high points of 18 per 1000 in 1947 and 1961. In the 1960s the average rate was less than 14 per 1000, and a further fall, to about 9 per 1000 in 1977, has occurred. Like the low birth rate of the thirties, the fall in the birth rate in the sixties and seventies is a feature that New Zealand shares with a number of other developed countries, and notably with Australia, Canada, and the United States.

The natural increase in recent years is shown in the following table. A 50-year series of vital statistics is included in the Statistical Summary near the back of the Yearbook.

PeriodMarch YearsCalendar Years
Births*DeathsNatural IncreaseBirths*DeathNatural Increase

*Excluding Section 14 birth registrations which are “late” registrations. See Yearbook Section 4B Births.

†Provisional.

 (Thousand) 
1946–1950239.588.0151.5244.588.1156.3 
1951–1955258.193.1165.1263.294.2169.0 
1956–1960294.6101.5193.1300.1102.9197.2 
1961–1965319.4110.5208.9317.3112.1205.2 
1966–1970306.0118.6187.4307.5120.2.187.3 
1971–1975308.6124.8183.9304.4124.8179.6 
1976–1978164.777.187.6160.276.184.1 
    Total 1946–19781890.9713.61177.31897.2718.41178.7 

Migration, however, has continued to add to the population quite substantially except during depression and war periods, the recession conditions of 1968–69, and the latest three years. Gains from external migration since the Second World War are shown in the following table. Movements of the armed forces are not included.

PeriodMarch Years*Migration GainCalendar Years Migration Gain

*March years ended in years listed.

†Excess of departures.

‡Provisional.

 (000)(000)
1946–195027.432.5
1951–195566.669.0
1956–196049.243.9
1961–196563.970.2
1966–19706.06.5
1971–1975107.8116.9
1976–1978–29.5–60.5
Total 1946–1978291.4278.5

In the past, most of the inward migration has been from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the Netherlands. In more recent years increasing numbers have come from the Pacific Islands, notably Western Samoa. A changed economic climate in the country brought a net migration loss to population for the years ended March 1968, 1969, and 1970, but these losses were more than compensated for by relatively heavy gains to the population from net migration during the years ended March 1973, 1974, and 1975. The net gain from migration fell sharply during the year ended March 1976. More recent years have witnessed substantial net outflows. Net losses from migration totalled 13 727 during the year ended March 1977, 22 307 during the year ended March 1978, and 26 906 during the latest year.

POPULATION STATISTICS—Population statistics are based primarily on the five-yearly population census. Intercensal population estimates are based on the most recent census data available, adjusted in accordance with later figures of births, deaths, and migration. Estimates of the populations of particular localities, e.g., cities and boroughs, also take into account local economic developments, housing schemes, the numbers on school rolls, changes in boundaries, and any other factors leading to, or indicating, changes in population.

The basis adopted for the population census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of population physically present in the place of enumeration at the time of enumeration. All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand. Though Tokelau is constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons it is administered separately. The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing but the islanders are New Zealand citizens.

The most recent Census of Population and Dwellings in New Zealand was taken on 23 March 1976.

The figures in the table following are intercensal estimates revised (where necessary) in line with 1976 Census results and exclude members of New Zealand armed forces who were overseas, and also members of the armed forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

YearTotal Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
*Provisional.
Years Ended 31 March
19751,542,3001,546,7003,089,00058 4001.93,047,000
19761,560,2001,564,3003,124,50035 500x1.23,097,500
19771,568,4001,572,0003,140,40015 8000.53,120,700
19781,571,9001,574,0003,145,9005 500x0.23,128,900x
1979*  3,144,600–13003,129,100
Years Ended 31 December
19751,561,4001,566,5003,127,90048 9001.63,087,000x
19761,572,4001,575,9003,148,300x20 4000.73,116,200
19771,574,0001,577,9003,151,9003 6000.13,127,700
19781,572,8001,578,6003,151,400*–5003,129,400*

The following table shows the New Zealand Maori population. The figures for 1975 have been revised in line with the 1976 Census results.

YearNew Zealand Maori Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
Years Ended 31 March
1975132 300130 600262 9007 9003.1258 500
1976135 800134 300270 1007 2002.7266 500
1977138 200136 600274 8004 700x1.8272 400x
1978140 700138 800279 5004 7001.7276 800
Years Ended 31 December
1975135 000133 400268 4008 200x3.1264 500x
1976137 800136 000273 8005 4002.0271 200
1977139 800137 900277 7003 9001.4275 700
1978142 900140 900283 8006 1002.2280 500

INCREASE OF POPULATION—The growth of population has been substantial in each intercensal period. The lowest rates were those of 1926–36, which included some years of economic depression, of 1936–45, which included World War II, and of 1966–71, mainly attributable to a marked change in migration patterns. Totals from the latest 4 population censuses are shown below.

Census DatePopulation*Increase or Decrease
IntercensalIntercensalAnnual Average
*Numbers of persons in New Zealand armed forces overseas are excluded.
 NumberPercent
18 April 19612,414,984240 92211.082.12
22 March 19662,676,919261 93510.852.11
23 March 19712,862,631185 7126.941.35
23 March 19763,129,383266 7529.321.80

POPULATION POLICY GUIDELINES—Early in 1973 an Inter-Departmental Committee on Population Questions was established in recognition of the growing worldwide importance attaching to issues associated with population. Late in 1974 the Government directed the committee to prepare a paper discussing the main issues to be taken into account in formulating a specific population policy for New Zealand. The committee's report, published in September 1975, discussed the world population situation; New Zealand's population situation in relation to fertility and mortality trends and patterns, and both external and internal migration; and the implications of current and projected population trends in New Zealand, taking into account the relationship of population to physical resources, the economy, and society as a whole. It concluded by laying down broad guidelines for a population policy. Because of the need for the co-ordination of population activities within the orbit of the New Zealand Planning Council established in March 1977, a Working Group on Population was formed in June of that year. Since that time the New Zealand Planning Council has had the responsibility for establishing guidelines for a specific population policy in greater detail.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—The annual average percentage increases of population for the period 1971–76, are given in the following table for certain selected countries. (Source: United Nations: Demographic Yearbook, 1975 and Population and Vital Statistics Report, 1977).

CountryAverage Annual Percentage Increase
*1971–76 Intercensal rate of growth.
Australia1.4
Canada1.4
Denmark0.4
France0.6
Germany, West0.1
India2.1
Japan1.3
Netherlands0.8
New Zealand1.8*
Sweden0.3
Switzerland0.4
United Kingdom0.1
United States0.8
U.S.S.R0.9

POPULATION PROJECTIONS—An indication of possible future growth of the total New Zealand population (including Maoris) up to 2011 is given by the detailed alternative projections which follow.

Projections of future population involve an element of uncertainty owing to an incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality, and migration levels. Also, difficulties in forecasting the future behaviour of these components of population change result from rapidly changing trends brought about by varying social, and especially economic, conditions.

It should be understood that, as with all demographic projections prepared by the Department of Statistics, these projections are not strict forecasts or targets, but conditional forecasts based on the stated assumptions. Presentation and use of the projections, therefore, cannot be divorced from consideration of the assumptions adopted.

These national population projections incorporate alternative short-term assumptions involving changing annual levels of net immigration as described in the footnotes to the table.

Age-specific projections, equivalent to those in the table below, are available on application to the Demographic Specialist Studies Section, Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Christchurch.

At 31 MarchProjected Total New Zealand Population*According to the Net Immigration Variant Designated
LowMediumHigh
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*These projections have as base the estimated population at 31 March 1978. They are based on the following assumptions: (a) That future fertility experience will be in accordance with the “medium” variant (see ‡ below); (b) That 1970–72 Life Table mortality rates (total population) apply throughout the projection period.

†(a) The “low” net immigration variant assumes net annual immigration during years ending 31 March as follows: –34 000 (1979), –28 000 (1980), –19 000 (1981), –10 000 (1982), –5000 (1983), zero (1984), and 5000 (1985 onwards); (b) The “medium” net immigration variant assumes net annual immigration during years ending 31 March as follows: –28 000 (1979), –22 000 (1980), –14 500 (1981), –7000 (1982), zero (1983), and 5000 (1984 onwards); (c) The “high” net immigration variant assumes net annual immigration during years ending 31 March as follows: –22 000 (1979), –16 000 (1980), –10 000 (1981), zero (1982), and 5000 (1983 onwards).

‡The 3 alternative fertility assumptions—designated “high”, “medium” and “low”—have been derived by analysis of trends in birth rates within maternal age groups. Extrapolations of “least squares” linear trends, derived from data for the periods 1962–75 and 1971–75, provide the basis for the fertility projections. Various constraints have been imposed on birth rates for some maternal age groups to ensure that total fertility levels remain within demographically acceptable limits. For all fertility variants, projected birth rates are assumed to remain constant from 1982 onwards at the levels projected for the year ended 31 March 1981.

 (Thousand)
1978 (Base)1 5721 5743 1461 5721 5743 1461 5721 5743 146
19791 5681 5693 1371 5711 5733 1441 5731 5763 149
19801 5661 5663 1321 5711 5733 1441 5771 5813 158
19811 5661 5683 1341 5741 5783 1521 5821 5883 170
19821 5711 5743 1451 5801 5863 1661 5921 6003 192
19831 5771 5843 1611 5901 5983 1881 6061 6143 220
19841 5871 5953 1821 6041 6123 2161 6201 6293 249
19851 6001 6093 2091 6181 6273 2451 6351 6443 279
19861 6141 6233 2371 6321 6413 2731 6501 6593 309
19911 6871 6983 3851 7071 7183 4251 7271 7383 465
19961 7601 7713 5311 7811 7923 5731 8011 8133 614
20011 8221 8333 6551 8441 8563 7001 8651 8773 742
20061 8721 8843 7561 8951 9073 8021 9171 9303 847
20111 9161 9313 8471 9411 9563 8971 9651 9813 946

The following diagram presented on a ratio scale shows the growth of actual population from 1882 to 1978 and projections through to 2011.

Figure 5.1. POPULATION

POPULATION

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION—Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census and are published in two parts as Volume 1, Location and Increase of Population, Part A. Population Size and Distribution and Part B. Population Density of the Census of Population and Dwellings.

North and South Islands—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration, and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of NZ Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population of the North and South Islands since 1901.

Census YearTotal PopulationTotalPercentages
North IslandSouth IslandNorth IslandSouth Island
1901431 471384 391815 86252.947.1
1911610 599447 7131,058,31257.742.3
1921791 918479 7501,271,66862.337.7
19361,018,038555 7741,573,81264.735.3
19451,146,315556 0151,702,33067.332.7
19561,497,364676 6982,174,06268.931.1
19661,893,326783 5932,676,91970.729.3
19762,268,393860 9903,129,38372.527.5

The 1976 Census revealed that the population of the North Island continues to increase at a greater proportionate rate than that of the South Island. At the 1976 Census the North Island population was 2,268,393, a 10.6 percent increase on the 1971 total of 2,051,363. At the same census the South Island total was 850 990, an increase of only 6.1 percent on the 1971 total of 811 268. However, between the 1971 and 1976 Censuses, births in the South Island totalled almost 78 000 and deaths over 38 000, giving a net natural increase of approximately 40 000. The fact that the total population increase was nearly 50 000 indicates a net migration inflow to the South Island during the inter-censal period. This is in contrast to the previous inter-censal period (1966–71) when a net migration outflow of approximately 16 000 was indicated.

Statistical Areas—In the following table are shown the areas and the population of the statistical areas at the 1976 Census and an estimate at 31 March 1978.

Statistical AreaArea (Square Kilometres)Population Census 23 March 1976Estimated Population 31 March 1978
Northland12 629107 013107 700
Central Auckland5 594797 406804 200
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty36 760472 083476 300
East Coast10 88048 14747 800
Hawke's Bay11 303145 061146 100
Taranaki9 721107 071107 100
Wellington27 705591 612593 600
    Total, North Island114 5922,268,3932,282,800
Marlborough10 85935 03035 400
Nelson18 04675 56275 900
Westland15 41524 04924 100
Canterbury43 371428 586430 700
Otago37 100188 903188 500
Southland29 674x108 860108 500
    Total, South Island154 465x860 990863 100
    Total, New Zealand269 057x3,129,3833,145,900

Statistical Divisions and Main Urban Areas—Statistical Divisions and Main Urban Areas are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. Statistical divisions are a new concept. The basic criterion for a Statistical Division is a population of 75 000 or more within the area of economic and social interests of a heavily populated centre. Seven Statistical Divisions have been established, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, Napier-Hastings, Palmerston North, Wellington (including Hurt), Christchurch, and Dunedin. The Division, like the Urban Area, does not have any administrative functions, but embraces areas of unified community, economic, and social interests. In addition to the central city or borough, Urban Areas include neighbouring boroughs and town districts and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population. Maps of statistical boundaries are available at Government bookshops. Minor adjustments of Urban Area boundaries have been made because of the peripheral growth of population in some of the urban areas between 1971 and 1976.

The populations of the 7 Statistical Divisions and the 24 defined Urban Areas are as follows:

Statistical Division (S. Div.) and Main Urban Area (U.A.)1971 Population Census1976 Population CensusPercentage Increase 1971–1976Estimated Population 31 March 1978
Auckland S. Div.—
    Northern Auckland U.A.107 977137 42127.3140 100
    Western Auckland U.A.89 948108 13920.2109 900
    Central Auckland U.A.286 785289 1250.8287 000
    Southern Auckland U.A.165 048208 10126.1212 000
    Sub-total, Combined Auckland U.A.s649 758742 78614.3749 000
    Remainder S. Div.48 62454 62012.355 200
                Total698 382797 40614.2804 200
Hamilton S. Div.—
    Hamilton U.A.80 81294 77717.396 800
    Remainder S. Div.55 19459 8298.460 200
                Total136 006154 60613.7157 000
Napier-Hastings S. Div.—
    Napier U.A.43 60150 16415.150 800
    Hastings U.A.45 51250 81411.651 400
    Remainder S. Div.7 8208 0322.78 020
                Total96 933109 01012.5110 200
Palmerston North S. Div.—
    Palmerston North U.A.57 06563 87311.964 600
    Remainder S. Div.23 66724 8515.025 000
                Total80 73288 7249.989 500
Wellington S. Div.—
    Upper Hurt Valley U.A.30 98635 58414.836 100
    Lower Hurt Valley U.A.92 01497 1945.697 600
    Porirua Basin U.A.47 85855 69816.456 100
    Wellington U.A.136 782138 9381.6138 600
    Sub-total, Combined Wellington U.A.s307 640327 4146.4328 400
    Remainder S. Div.16 39222 21435.522 600
                Total324 032349 6287.9351 000
Christchurch S. Div.—
    Christchurch U.A.275 968295 2967.0297 100
    Remainder S. Div.26 64230 41414.230 700
                Total302 610325 7107.6327 800
Dunedin S. Div.—
    Dunedin U.A.111 059113 2221.9113 100
    Remainder S. Div.6 6817 2047.87 140
                Total117 740120 4262.3120 200
Main Urban Areas Not in Any Statistical Division
Main Urban Area1971 Population Census1976 Population CensusPercentage Increase 1971–1976Estimated Population 31 March 1978
Whangarei34 02939 06914.839 600
Tauranga40 34948 15319.348 700
Rotorua39 75246 65017.447 200
Gisborne30 16131 7905.431 900
New Plymouth38 78043 91413.244 500
Wanganui37 98239 6794.539 800
Masterton20 14721 0014.221 100
Nelson37 99442 43311.742 800
Timaru28 95929 9583.430 100
Invercargill50 68153 7626.154 000
    Total, 24 Main Urban Areas1,930,2492,134,75510.62,150,900
    Total, 7 Statistical Divisions1,756,4351,945,51010.81,959,900

Cities and Boroughs—The population of cities and boroughs is now given.

City or BoroughEstimated Population at 31 March 1978Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—
    Kaitaia4 580695x
    Kaikohe3 600544
    Whangarei (city)35 8004 911x
    Dargaville4 6401 133
    Helensville1 250532
    East Coast Bays (city)24 2001 558
    Takapuna (city)63 2008 670x
    Devonport10 950445
    Northcote9 960540
    Birkenhead (city)20 4001 266
    Waitemata (city)81 30037 550
    Henderson7 160517
    Glen Eden8 620503
    New Lynn10 550564
    Auckland (city)149 0007 472
    Newmarket1 35074
    Mt. Albert28 300983
    Mt. Eden19 600598
    Mt. Roskill34 8001 862
    Onehunga16 750768
    One Tree Hill11 150983
    Ellerslie5 630301
    Mt. Wellington20 6001 650
    Howick14 050621
    Otahuhu10 650560
    Papatoetoe (city)23 100907
    Manukau (city)142 20056 549x
    Papakura (city)21 9001 380
    Pukekohe8 8701 405
    Waiuku3 580593
    Tuakau2 000442
    Huntly5 800930x
    Cambridge8 0001 071
    Ngaruawahia4 380450
    Hamilton (city)90 3005 555
    Te Awamutu7 670713
    Taumarunui6 3601 815
    Paeroa3 850574
    Waihi3 440539
    Te Aroha3 2001 126
    Morrinsville4 850476
    Matamata5 130533
    Putaruru4 370395
    Tokoroa19 1501 359
    Mt. Maunganui10 2501 411
    Tauranga (city)34 1003 828
    Te Puke3 890532
    Rotorua (city)37 7002 667
    Taupo13 0501 446
    Kawerau7 8702 174
    Murupara3 000287
    Gisborne (city)29 9002 628
    Wairoa5 510649
    Napier (city)47 7003 021
    Hastings (city)35 3001 949
    Havelock North8 500514
    Waipawa1 830692
    Dannevirke5 650526
    Woodville1 550427
    Waitara6 150575
    New Plymouth (city)38 2002 380
    Inglewood2 660284
    Stratford5 430816
    Eltham2 330647
    Hawera8 560514
    Patea2 000575
    Ohakune1 380841
    Raetihi1 180388
    Wanganui (city)37 5003 392
    Taihape2 800778
    Marton4 970573
    Feilding11 050855
    Foxton2 790306
    Palmerston N. (city)58 6004 302
    Levin14 9501 298
    Otaki4 270666
    Kapiti15 20017 428
    Upper Hutt (city)31 10048 428
    Lower Hutt (city)65 0008 968x
    Petone8 6101 043x
    Eastbourne4 7801 273
    Porirua (city)43 2008 508
    Tawa12 400550
    Wellington (city)139 20026 343
    Pahiatua2 620291
    Masterton19 6001 799
    Carterton4 020512
    Greytown1 920442
    Featherston2 570307
    Martinborough1 380442
        Total, North Island cities and boroughs1,767,400310 387x
South Island—
    Picton3 340426
    Blenheim17 3501 770
    Nelson (city)33 1004 762
    Richmond6 6901 052
    Motueka4 4301 021
    Westport5 000308
    Runanga1 440487
    Greymouth8 3301 068
    Hokitika3 540273
    Rangiora6 100357
    Kaiapoi4 830318
    Riccarton7 280339
    Christchurch (city)172 40010 635
    Lyttelton3 3001 036
    Ashburton14 3501 226
    Geraldine2 060301
    Temuka3 760395
    Timaru (city)29 5002 342x
    Waimate3 370312
    Oamaru13 5501 161
    Port Chalmers3 140410
    Dunedin (city)82 30015 685
    St. Kilda6 460249
    Green Island7 040781
    Mosgiel9 380787
    Milton2 210204
    Kaitangata1 110518
    Balclutha4 750509
    Tapanui940121
    Lawrence570249
    Roxburgh770208
    Naseby12076
    Alexandra4 220987
    Cromwell1 260740
    Arrowtown440134
    Queenstown3 280416
    Gore9 260946
    Mataura2 350515
    Winton1 970231
    Invercargill (city)50 0005 574
    Bluff2 890866
    Riverton1 590403
        Total, South Island cities and boroughs539 60060 198x
        Grand total, all cities and boroughs2,306,900370 585x

Note: Because of rounding, individual figures in this table do not always add to give the stated total.

Districts—A new concept in local government—the district—appears in the 1976 Cesus statistics in the form of the Thames-Coromandel District, constituted on 1 October 1975 and amalgamating the former Thames and Coromandel Counties and Thames Borough. Similar amalgamations occurred between 23 March 1976 and 1 April 1977 resulting in the constitution of three more districts; Whakatane (from Whakatane B. and Whakatane Co.), Waitomo (from Waitomo Co. and Te Kuiti B.), and Waipukurau (from Waipukurau B. and Waipukurau Co.).

DistrictEstimated Population at 31 March 1978Approximate Area in Square Kilometres
Thames-Coromandel16 9502 212
Waipukurau7 8902 031
Waitomo11 3503 407
Whakatane27 2004 310
    Total, North Island63 50011 960
    Total, New Zealand63 50011 960

Town Districts—The population of town districts—i.e., those contained in the following table—is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located.

Town DistrictEstimated Population at 31 March 1978Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—
    Hikurangi1 180389
    Manaia960206
    Waverley1 160202
        Total, town districts3 290797

Communities—The following table lists communities with estimated populations of 1000 or more at 31 March 1978. The parent county, district or city is shown in parentheses. The population of communities (previously known as county towns or dependent town districts) are included in the administrative county populations given in a later table.

CommunityEstimated Population at 31 March 1978Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island
    Kerikeri (Bay of Islands)1 050347
    Moerewa (Bay of Islands)1 37075
    Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)1 660229
    Paihia (Bay of Islands)1 530232
    Raglan (Raglan)1 340372
    Kihikihi (Waipa)1 270212
    Whitianga (Coromandel Div.)1 500293
    Whangamata (Thames Div.)1 240485
    Thames (Thames Div.)6 8401 103
    Waihi Beach (Ohinemuri)1 280209
    Katikati (Tauranga)1 370960
    Papamoa Beach (Tauranga)1 240253
    Mangakino (Taupo)1 540261
    Edgecumbe (Whakatane Dist.)1 680172
    Ohope (Whakatane Dist.)1 620544
    Foxton Beach (Manawatu)1 030397
    Tairangi (Porirua City)7 500..
    Cannon's Creek (Porirua City)11 200292
South Island
    Kaikoura (Kaikoura)2 150283
    Darfield (Malvern)1 040233
    Halswell (Paparua)4 870204
    Pleasant Point (Strathallan)1 010..
    Brighton (Silverpeaks)1 120183
    Fairfield (Silverpeaks)1 710143
    Wanaka (Lake)1 210309
    Te Anau (Wallace)2 460395

District Communities—The following table lists the estimated populations of district communities as at 31 March 1978. The parent county is shown in parentheses. The populations of district communities (previously known as county boroughs) are included in the administrative county populations given in the following table.

District CommunityEstimated Population at 31 March 1978Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island
    Warkworth (Rodney)1 610577
    Wellsford (Rodney)1 690554
    Hibiscus Coast (Rodney)10 4506 210
    Otorohanga (Otorohanga)2 660227
    Ngongotaha (Rotorua)2 300513
    Turangi (Taupo)5 560579
    Bulls (Rangitikei)1 980405
    Ashhurst (Oroua)1 660173
    Waikanae (Horowhenua)4 3501 060
    Shannon (Horowhenua)1 640342
    Heretaunga-Pinehaven (Hurt)5 9104 700
    Wainuiomata (Hurt)19 65026 614
    Total59 46041,954
South Island
    Hornby (Paparua)8 720491
    Sockburn (Paparua)6 3001 066
    Total15 0201 557
    Total, District Communities74 48043 511

Extra-county Islands and Shipboard Population—In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, districts, cities and boroughs, and town districts, the New Zealand totals include shipboard population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised are estimated total of 3920 persons at 31 March 1978.

Counties—The following table gives the estimated population of individual counties at 31 March 1978 together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that “administrative counties” do not include boroughs or town districts, which are independent of county control, but include district communities and communities, which form parts of counties.

Administrative CountyEstimated Population at 31 March 1978Approximate Area, in Square Kilometres
North Island—
    Mangonui7 5502 479x
    Whangaroa2 100622
    Hokianga4 2801 588
    Bay of Islands16 8502 131
    Whangarei15 5502 669x
    Hobson5 2401 929
    Otamatea6 1601 108
    Rodney30 8002 334
    Waiheke Is3 180155
    Great Barrier Is.380285
    Franklin18 4501 477
    Raglan9 6602 411
    Waikato16 8501 655
    Waipa15 5501 129
    Otorohanga9 6301 976
    Taumarunui5 5004 808
    Hauraki Plains5 180603
    Ohinemuri4 580624
    Piako10 9001 168
    Matamata12 8502 602
    Tauranga19 1001 829
    Rotorua19 1502 681
    Taupo13 8007 244
    Opotiki6 6503 124
    Waiapu4 4102 818
    Waikohu3 1502 650
    Cook8 0402 841
    Wairoa5 5304 128
    Hawke's Bay20 2004 838
    Waipawa3 4401 347
    Dannevirke4 4602 211x
    Woodville1 460404
    Clifton2 0801 176
    Taranaki10 750588
    Inglewood2 870521
    Stratford4 9602 157
    Egmont5 510622
    Eltham2 800509
    Waimate West1 930215
    Hawera4 490495
    Patea2 8301 527
    Waimarino1 3302 147
    Waitotara2 8701 226
    Wanganui2 7801 189
    Rangitikei14 8004 486
    Kiwitea1 820930
    Pohangina1 010671
    Oroua5 270492
    Manawatu6 570692
    Kairanga6 270461
    Horowhenua14 5001 420
    Hutt26 200429
    Pahiatua2 130741
    Eketahuna1 830861x
    Masterton4 1102 386
    Wairarapa South2 5601 140
    Featherston3 0102 471
    Total, North Island counties445 90099 420x
South Island—
    Marlborough11 30010 478
    Kaikoura3 6002 344
    Golden Bay4 0102 618
    Waimea16 7007 511
    Buller3 5105 035
    Inangahua2 1702 440
    Grey4 7503 957
    Westland6 03011 440
    Amuri2 7304 273
    Cheviot1 320875
    Hurunui6 1703 717
    Rangiora4 870263
    Eyre3 180459
    Oxford1 690814
    Malvern6 7405 046
    Paparua31 600445
    Waimairi69 400115
    Heathcote8 82034
    Mt. Herbert870171
    Akaroa1 550437
    Chatham Islands580963
    Wairewa690438
    Ellesmere8 3201 200
    Ashburton11 0006 174
    Strathallan9 3702 676x
    Mackenzie8 7107 456
    Waimate5 4303 558
    Waitaki8 8806 315
    Waihemo1 730880
    Silverpeaks12 5003 205
    Bruce3 3801 350
    Clutha5 5002 695
    Tuapeka4 0603 560
    Maniototo2 2803 477
    Vincent4 1207 620
    Lake4 53010 235
    Southland26 3009 580x
    Wallace13 3509 655x
    Fiord707 861
    Stewart Island5101 746
    Total, South Island counties322 300153 116x
    Grand total, all counties768 300252 536x

Urban Concentration of Population—The bulk of New Zealand's population is located in urban areas, where the most rapid growth rates are occurring. This is due largely to the development of both manufacturing and tertiary industries in urban areas, which provide employment for a growing labour force. Other factors, including better social, cultural, educational, and economic opportunities, serve to attract persons to these areas, while the majority of immigrants tend to settle in the larger urban centres. These factors, combined with amalgamation of farms, centralisation of dairy factories, and increasing agricultural mechanisation (resulting in less labour required), combine to produce a noticeable rural-urban drift. Urban concentration features are common to “developed” countries at advanced stages of economic development.

The 1976 Census figures showed that many rural areas and a number of small and intermediate sized towns located outside Main Urban Areas are continuing to decline in population, although there are indications that the rate of urbanisation is stabilising. Forty counties recorded smaller populations than at the previous census in 1971, compared with 72 between 1966 and 1971. Of 54 small towns (1000 to 4999 population) 12 had declined in population between 1971 and 1976 compared with 22 during the previous inter-censal period. Two intermediate towns (5000 to 9999 population) showed decreases in population compared with six at the previous census.

The following table shows the urban-rural distribution of the population. Urban population has been defined as that of the 24 defined Main Urban Areas plus that of all boroughs, town districts, communities, district communities, and townships with populations of 1000 or over.

CensusUrbanRural*
NumberPercentNumberPercent
*Excludes shipping.
Total Population
1926941 10267.1460 57232.9
19361,054,77567.2514 33832.8
19451,217,14271.6482 00328.4
19561,610,15274.2559 46225.8
19662,126,76479.6545 34420.4
19712,341,51081.9515 97518.1
19762,592,68083.0532 44317.0
New Zealand Maori Population
19269 90515.653 71484.4
193614 21217.368 08782.7
194525 41425.773 31074.3
195647 92635.089 15665.0
1966123 77461.677 32138.4
1971160 62470.766 67429.3
1976205 68876.264 26323.8

In the process of urbanisation some centres have grown more quickly than others. There is a tendency towards concentration of population in the largest centres and also a drift of population from the south to the north. Where the two tendencies reinforce each other, as they do in the case of the combined Auckland Urban Areas, the rate of growth has been very rapid. Likewise the Urban Areas of Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, and Rotorua, which had a combined population in 1926 of 40 164, in 1976 comprised 228 649 inhabitants.

The initial reason for the drift to the north lay in the change in emphasis of farming activities in which the development of dairying played an important part. The expansion of dairying in itself called for the development of factory processing facilities and service industries. These farming trends have been reinforced by the growth of forest processing industries in the North Island and compounded further by the general tendency for the large-scale manufacturing units to be located close to the biggest local markets.

In the larger cities a notable feature of recent decades has been a movement of population from the central or “inner” areas to the perimeter or “outer” areas; residential units in the city centres have been replaced by shops, offices, places of entertainment, and other commercial or industrial buildings. More recently, there has been an offsetting movement with the building of multi-storey flats in the inner areas.

The distribution of population by size of centres is shown in the following table.

Population of Centre (City, Borough, Town District, or Community)CensusCensus
19261961197119761926196119711976
 Number of CentresPercentage of Population in These Centres
1 000–2 499634543487.53.02.42.4
2 500–4 999234740396.27.25.04.7
5 000–9 999113435325.99.68.87.4
10 000–24 9991221232513.315.012.812.5
25 000 and over412222524.132.544.650.4
        Total11315916316957.067.373.677.4

In the South Island a higher proportion of the population is rural, that is, outside urban communities, than in the North Island, the proportion being 21.6 in the South Island against 15.2 percent in the North Island, at the 1976 Census of Population.

Males and Females—Statistics from the census of 23 March 1976 showed that females outnumbered males by 5299 in the total population (excluding Armed Forces overseas), there being 1,562,042 males and 1,567,341 females. The changing sex distribution of the population, recorded at successive censuses, is given below.

CensusMalesFemalesFemales Per 1000 Males
1881293 973240 057817
1901429 108386 754901
1926719 642688 497957
1936799 091774 721970
1945832 909869 4211 044
19561,093,2111,080,851989
19661,343,7431,333,176992
19711,430,8561,431,7751 001
19761,562,0421,567,3411 003

The table excludes members of the N.Z. Armed Forces overseas at census date.

There are marked differences in the sex composition of the population of different parts of New Zealand. Females tend to outnumber males in urban areas and to be outnumbered in rural areas. One important reason is doubtless the generally better employment and educational opportunities for women and girls in the larger industrial and commercial centres.

DENSITY OF POPULATION—Density of population refers to the relationship between population numbers and land area, and is expressed in terms of numbers of persons per unit of area. It presents a useful tool for the analysis of population distribution providing it is borne in mind that the land area used is the gross area, and includes mountain ranges, rivers, lakes, forests, and barren country. In the case of cities and towns it includes parks, reserves, roads and streets, and the commercial and industrial districts.

The total area of New Zealand, including inland waters, is 269 057 square kilometres, giving an average population density at the 1976 Census of Population of 11.6 persons per square kilometre. This is low by international standards (for example, the United Kingdom has 229 persons per square kilometre, and the Netherlands, 332) but it must be remembered that in New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, and also large areas of rough hilly country which cannot be closely settled.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The following table provides comparative density figures on a Statistical-Area basis over a 50-year period from 1926 to 1976 population censuses.

Statistical AreaArea in Square KilometresPersons Per Square Kilometre
192619451951x19611971x1976x
Northland12 6294.35.36.06.87.68.5
Central Auckland5 59442.259.368.392.0124.8142.5
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty36 7603.95.66.79.511.512.8
East Coast10 8803.13.53.84.34.44.4
Hawke's Bay11 3036.27.08.110.111.812.8
Taranaki9 7217.47.98.910.310.411.0
Wellington27 70510.112.614.117.120.021.4
        Total, North Island114 5927.810.011.514.717.919.8
Marlborough10 8591.71.92.12.62.93.2
Nelson18 0462.32.63.13.53.84.2
Westland15 4151.41.61.61.61.51.6
Canterbury43 3715.05.86.57.99.29.9
Otago37 1004.03.94.34.84.95.1
Southland29 674x2.22.42.63.23.63.7
        Total, South Island154 465x3.33.64.14.75.35.6
        Total, New Zealand269 057x5.26.37.29.010.611.6

NEW ZEALAND MAORI POPULATION—For statistical purposes, all persons of half or more Maori ancestry have, in the past, been defined as Maoris. This differs from the wider definition introduced in the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1974. That Act states that “Maori” means a person of the Maori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person.

Because of these changes, a two-part question on ethnic origin was introduced at the 1976 Census of Population.

A total of 270 035 persons either specified themselves as being of half or more Maori descent in the first part of the question or (without answering the first part) indicated in the second part of the question that they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand or descendants of such.

It is probable that some of the persons answering the second part of the question only were, in fact, of less than half Maori origin. The inclusion of this unknown number in the total of 270 035 means that this total is not directly comparable with the 1971 Census total of 227 414 persons of half or more Maori origin. It also means that the intercensal percentage increase figures are overstated as a result of the wider definition. It is considered, however, that the inclusion of these 65 582 persons here and in later Maori figures from the 1976 Census with the 204 453 persons who did specify half or more Maori origin will better preserve general comparability with Maori statistics from earlier censuses based on the former definition than would the omission of those who did not specify their degree of Maori origin.

On the wider definitional basis, including all persons of less than half-Maori descent as well as the 65 582 persons who indicated Maori origin but did not specify the degree, the 1976 Census count was 356 847. The 1971 Census count of those who specified some degree of Maori origin was 290 501. Thus, on the broader definition, the increase in the Maori population during the 5 years 1971 to 1976 was 66 346 or 22.8 percent.

The decline in the number of Maoris during the early years of European settlement and throughout most of the nineteenth century is a matter of history. The present century has witnessed a resurgence of vitality among the Maori people which has been reflected in a strikingly high birth rate.

The following table shows the N.Z. Maori population during the present century on the basis of persons of half or more Maori origin. Members of the Armed Forces overseas are excluded.

Census YearNew Zealand Maori Population*Intercensal IncreaseIntercensal IncreaseAverage Annual Increase
*Prior to 1976 comprises persons who specified themselves as half or more New Zealand Maori and in 1976 this group plus those who indicated they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand but did not specify the degree of Maori origin.
 numberpercent
190145 5493 4368.161.59
190650 3094 76010.451.98
191152 7232 4144.800.96
191652 9972740.520.09
192156 9873 9907.531.62
192663 6706 68311.732.24
193682 32618 65629.302.62
194598 74416 41819.941.93
1951115 67616 93217.152.89
1956137 15121 47518.563.46
1961167 08629 93521.834.02
1966201 15934 07320.393.84
1971227 41426 25513.052.48
1976270 03542 62118.743.49

The increasing urbanisation of the Maori population as younger Maoris seek better job opportunities in the cities and boroughs is a population trend of considerable sociological significance. At the 1926 Census the urban N.Z. Maori population totalled 9905 (15.6 percent). By the 1976 Census the comparable figure was 205 688 (76.2 percent), the largest concentration being in the Southern Auckland Urban Area where 29 222 were enumerated in 1976.

Urban population is defined as that of the 24 defined Main Urban Areas plus that of all boroughs, town districts, communities and townships of 1000 or over.

Of the 270 035 Maoris at the 1976 Census, 250 677 were in the North Island.

The Maori population, which until recently was not greatly affected by external migration, is a much younger population than the non-Maori.

The following table for 1976 shows the high proportion (45.3 percent) of Maori children under 15 years compared with the total population (29.7 percent), and the low proportion of people in the older age groups.

Age Group (Years)Percentage in Age Group (1976 Census)
New Zealand Maori*Total Population
*Comprises persons who described themselves as being half or more Maori, plus those who indicated that they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand, but who did not specify the degree of Maori descent.
Under 1545.329.7
15–1912.39.6
20–4430.933.2
45–597.914.6
60 and over3.613.0
    Total100.0100.0

EXTERNAL MIGRATION—In recent years there has been a large increase in New Zealanders going overseas on business, seeking better employment opportunities, on pleasure trips, and on working holidays, resulting in much higher levels of migration. The arrivals include many New Zealanders returning from travel overseas, as well as growing numbers of tourists from overseas countries.

Total migration figures (excluding only movements of armed forces) are shown in the following table for the most recent available 5 years. (A later year is included in the Latest Statistical Information Section at the back of this Yearbook). “Long-term”, as used here, indicates arrivals or departures for an intended stay of 12 months or more. Conversely, “short-term” refers to less than 12 months.

Through passengers, not included in the “All Passengers” totals, are visitors (mainly on cruise ships) who do not make a stay ashore.

ARRIVALS IN NEW ZEALAND
Year Ended 31 MarchLong-term (Including Permanent) ArrivalsShort-term MovementsAll Passenger ArrivalsThrough PassengersCrewsTotal Arrivals
N.Z. Residents ReturningTemporary Visitors Arriving
197469 815210 040318 244598 099101 011172 260871 370
197565 900251 561361 194678 655117 441180 474976 570
197648 460245 618384 586678 664136 927176 379991 970
197737 020249 982380 222667 224140 920183 786991 930
197836 972287 868390 940715 780162 733182 1761,060,689
DEPARTURES FROM NEW ZEALAND
Year Ended 31 MarchLong-term (Including Permanent) DeparturesShort-term MovementsAll Passenger DeparturesThrough PassengersCrewsTotal Departures
N.Z. Residents DepartingTemporary Visitors Departing
197442 338208 314314 280564 932101 011171 851837 794
197543 461249 884356 169649 514117 441179 972946 927
197643 160240 658389 654673 472136 927175 004985 403
197756 092244 998382 404683 494140 920181 2431,005,657
197863 680284 284389 972737 936162 733182 3271,082,996

A summary of arrivals and departures during the latest 5 years by sex is given in the following table. Crews of vessels, through passengers, and members of the armed forces, have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31 MarchArrivalsDeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
*Excess of departures over arrivals.
1974316 681281 418598 099298 474266 458564 93233 167
1975359 067319 588678 655343 489306 025649 51429 141
1976352 980325 684678 664351 950321 522673 4725 192
1977349 324317 900667 224357 650325 844683 494–16 270*
1978378 344337 436715 780388 076349 860737 936–22 156*

From 1968 to 1970 there was an alteration in the net migration flow. This is illustrated in the following diagram which covers all passenger migration, excluding through passengers and crews. The excess of departures over arrivals recorded during the March years 1967–68 to 1969–70 was a migration feature unknown since the depression of the 1930s. It was followed by 6 years of migration gains, but the three latest years, 1976–77, 1977–78, and 1978–79 (not shown here), have each witnessed substantial losses.

Figure 5.2. EXTERNAL PASSENGER MIGRATION

EXTERNAL PASSENGER MIGRATION

Long-term Migration—The following table gives an analysis of long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for March years. (Short-term migration is analysed in Section 37: Travel and Tourism.) In the year ended March 1978 there was a net loss of 26 708 from permanent and long-term migration compared with a loss of 19 072 in 1976–77

Year Ended 31 MarLong-term (Including Permanent) ArrivalsLong-term (Including Permanent) Departures
New Permanent ArrivalsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Arrivals (Immigrants)Permanent Departures of New Zealand ResidentsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Departures (Emigrants)
AssistedSubsidisedTotal (Includes Others)N.Z. Residents Returning*Long-term Visitors*N.Z. Residents Depart'g*Long-term Visitors Depart'g*
*Arrivals: after absence of, or intending to stay, 12 months or more respectively. Departures: persons intending to stay away for, or after stay in New Zealand of, 12 months or more respectively.
19744504 83638 12117 12314 57169 8159 59126 8325 91542 338
19754377 67034 14217 56614 19265 9009 05027 6396 77243 461
19761093 39920 04616 83011 58448 4607 30827 3848 46843 160
197743713 40015 5228 09837 02013 04836 1646 88056 092
197814 18815 6447 14036 97218 33639 4245 92063 680

The countries of origin and destination of these long-term (including permanent) migrants are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarAustraliaCanadaIndiaUnited KingdomCook Islands and NiueFijiWestern SamoaNetherlandsSouth AfricaUnited StatesAll Other CountriesTotal
Immigrants by Country of Last Residence
197420 3192 12926731 8112 2801 1895537438472 4267 25169 815
197521 4861 51721827 4862 2861 3247768607312 0407 17665 900
197618 23496025014 5541 3321 2361 2627406202 0127 26048 460
197713 4409562609 1561 0161 1681 1065325761 5807 23037 020
197812 3528321449 7921 0128609488127921 4327 99636 972
Emigrants by Country of Next Residence
197420 5001 17911610 8634407575836004931 8554 95242 338
197519 3441 34416011 8545507288094605241 7395 94943 461
197618 0901 26011612 1367968621 2324748122 0705 31243 160
197728 2501 25810813 3907148801 1106282882 1667 30056 092
197834 4281 22817214 0647528121 2168521842 5327 44063 680

Ages—The following table gives the age distribution of long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for the year ended 31 March 1978.

Age, in YearsLong-term ArrivalsLong-term DeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Under 153 8883 6967 5845 7685 97211 740–4 156
15–191 5761 6763 2522 7604 2607 020–3 768
20–244 1764 2848 46010 1728 82819 000–10 540
25–448 0086 12414 13212 5528 83621 388–7 256
45–641 2601 2802 5401 9361 6843 620–1 080
65 and over4725321 004392520912+92
    Total19 38017 59236 97233 58030 10063 680–26 708

Occupations—The following table shows permanent and long-term arrivals and departures during the year ended 31 March 1978 by occupation major groups and by those occupations or groups of occupations which were the main contributors to the movement within each major group.

Occupation GroupPermanent and Long-term
ArrivalsDepartures
Professional, technical, and related workers—
    Architects, engineers, and surveyors600852
    Physicians, surgeons, and dentists432440
    Nurses and midwives1 2242 088
    Teachers1 6482 308
    Draughtsmen, and science and engineering technicians, n.e.c.324640
    Other professional, technical, and related workers2 2683 372
                Total in major group6 4969 700
Administrative and managerial workers—
    Administrative and executive officials: Government208156
    Other administrative and managerial workers6041 012
                Total in major group8121 168
Clerical and related workers—
    Bookkeepers and cashiers140212
    Stenographers and typists4761 320
    Telephone, telegraph, and related communications operators132216
    Other clerical and related workers3 0566 872
                Total in major group3 8048 620
Sales workers—
    Commercial travellers and manufacturing agents228396
    Salesmen, shop assistants, and related workers6801 564
    Working proprietors, wholesale and retail trade292548
    Other sales workers40140
                Total in major group1 2402 648
Service workers—
    Housekeepers, cooks, maids, and related workers452896
    Waiters, bartenders, and related workers356696
    Barbers, hairdressers, beauticians, and related workers164336
    Other service workers7841 104
                Total in major group1 7563 032
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters—
    Farmers and farm managers356492
    Farm workers, n.e.c.440768
    Other agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters84264
                Total in major group8801 524
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers—
    Toolmakers, machinists, plumbers, welders, platers, and related workers1 5643 496
    of which Fitters, turners, toolmakers4281 128
    Mechanics4921 088
    Electricians and related electrical and electronic workers464968
    Carpenters, joiners, cabinet makers, coopers, and related workers5001 624
    Other production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers3 2407 764
                Total in major group5 76813 852
Occupation not classifiable or unspecified6761 316
Not actively engaged15 54021 820
                Grand total36 97263 680

These statistics have been adjusted to bring the major groups into line with the revised N.Z. Standard Classification of Occupations operative from March 1976, although individual occupation groupings shown cannot be similarly adjusted.

Origin—The following table shows for the latest 3 years the birthplaces of long-term (including permanent) migrants.

Country of BirthImmigrants*Emigrants
1975–761976–771977–781975–761976–771977–78

*Persons arriving in New Zealand for a period of 12 months or more (including permanent arrivals). Plus New Zealand residents returning after an absence of 12 months or more.

†New Zealand residents departing for a period of 12 months or more (including permanent departures). Plus overseas visitors departing from New Zealand after a stay of 12 months or more.

North America1 8701 4581 5801 6281 5021 572
    Canada522438496590516528
    United States1 2929301 008974930944
South America158190148403652
Europe15 0969 1609 5968 71011 23011 392
    Netherlands790620816370530672
    United Kingdom12 7007 4107 6167 4989 4429 612
Asia2 4341 8902 2721 0401 1921 388
Malaysia876488640378410440
Africa636514788278268348
Oceania28 24023 77222 54031 44841 83048 892
    Australia9 1026 5785 6443 9244 5344 540
    Cook Islands and Niue1 156886808482428460
    Fiji794746548342396540
    New Zealand15 68614 13814 25225 48635 03641 720
Other Countries263648163436
                Total48 46037 02036 97243 16056 09263 680

IMMIGRATION POLICY: Permanent Entry—New Zealand's immigration policy is designed to encourage the entry of skilled labour into New Zealand, and to protect domestic employment opportunities for New Zealand citizens and residents who have the right to reside here permanently. At the same time, strong emphasis is placed on humanitarian considerations such as family reunification and refugee entry.

Occupational Grounds—The New Zealand Government periodically determines the occupational skills in demand in New Zealand which serve as occupational grounds for migration to New Zealand. Business men or women and entrepreneurs who are able to bring into the country both skills and capital may also be considered.

In general, applicants for permanent entry on occupational grounds must be between the ages of 18 and 45 years, of sound mental and physical health, and, if married, have no more than 4 dependent children.

Humanitarian Grounds—Favourable consideration is also given to people applying to enter on humanitarian grounds. The reunification of families which are based in New Zealand is encouraged by the New Zealand Government, so long as the New Zealand family is willing to sponsor the applicant This is the main criterion for the entry of people from the South Pacific region into New Zealand, along with a special arrangement under which a quota of citizens from Western Samoa may enter New Zealand for settlement each year.

Refugees—The admission and resettlement of refugees who come within the mandate of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, has also been an important priority of the New Zealand Government. New Zealand has accepted a significant number of refugees since World War II, the larger groups being as follows:

1944: 755 children and 82 adults were accepted from Poland.

1949–50: 941 displaced persons from Europe.

1950–51: 978 displaced persons from Europe.

1951–52: 2663 displaced persons from Europe.

1956: 1117 Hungarian refugees.

1959: The first 20 families of “hard core” refugees (families with one or more handicapped members) arrived in New Zealand. By the early 1960s, 200 “hard core” refugees had arrived in New Zealand for resettlement.

1965: 50 orphans from Hong Kong for adoption in New Zealand. 80 White Russian Christians from the Sinkiang Province in China.

1968: 100 Czechoslovak refugees.

1970–71: 42 Chinese refugees from Indonesia were accepted. 25 Czechoslovak refugees came from transit camps in Europe.

1972: 244 Ugandan Asians from transit camps in the U.K. and Europe were accepted following their expulsion from Uganda.

1974–78: 289 Chilean refugees in 82 family groups.

1975–78: 61 Russian Jewish families.

1975–76: 45 Vietnamese families comprising 112 persons were accepted.

1977: 70 Vietnamese families, “boat people”, comprising 412 persons were accepted from camps in Malaysia and Thailand after escaping from Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.

1978: 26 Indo-Asians reunited with family members already admitted as refugees.

1979: The Government agreed to accept a further 600 Indo-Asian refugees.

Inter-Departmental Committee on Resettlement—The Inter-Departmental Committee on Resettlement (ICR) constantly reviews the facilities already available to assist new arrivals and considers how best to ensure that existing agencies and services are related in a more direct and co-ordinated way to the resettlement objectives of New Zealand's immigration policy. The ICR, in consultation with other Government agencies and non-Government bodies, works to identify any areas in which steps are not being taken to meet the reasonable requirements of new migrants, and as appropriate to develop proposals to satisfy these requirements.

As part of its programme, the ICR has commissioned the production of an information film for migrants from the countries of the South Pacific, designed to present a realistic picture of the problems, challenges, and opportunities that they may expect to encounter here.

Temporary Entry—Entry permits for people wishing to visit New Zealand on a temporary basis are generally issued for periods of up to 6 months, though visitors may be granted extensions at the discretion of the Immigration Division. With the passing of the Immigration Amendment Act 1977, a distinction has been created between working and non-working entry permits for people visiting New Zealand on a temporary basis. Visitors to New Zealand who wish to work while in New Zealand must now apply for a temporary work permit. Otherwise they will be prohibited from working in New Zealand.

This legislation is designed to protect the New Zealand labour market during the present world wide employment crisis. It does not, however, affect Australian citizens who wish to work while in New Zealand, nor does it affect persons born in the Cook Islands, Niue, or Tokelau who are New Zealand citizens and therefore have unrestricted right of entry into this country.

South Pacific Work Permit Schemes—New Zealand has special work permit schemes in operation for citizens of Tonga, Fiji, and Western Samoa. Under these schemes, agreed upon after negotiations with the respective Governments, workers may undertake employment in response to specific job offers from New Zealand employers. Employers are required to make financial and other commitments to ensure the welfare of Island workers while they are in New Zealand, and the Department of Labour checks that the accommodation offered is of a suitable standard. The maximum period of employment under these schemes is 11 months. The long-term intention is to supplement these schemes with training and employment programmes aimed at improving the reserve of skills in the Island countries concerned, along with programmes of economic development to enable them to provide more local employment opportunities.

The work permit scheme has been extended to provide a small number of employment openings for workers from Tuvalu.

Student Entry—Entry may also be granted to overseas students provided they meet a number of requirements before arrival. The primary intention is to provide opportunities for students from less-developed countries to train in New Zealand.

Formalities—Except for New Zealand citizens, all persons entering New Zealand are required to obtain entry permits under the Immigration Act 1964. This legislation is administered by the Department of Labour. The actual permit to enter is issued at the New Zealand port of entry, usually in the form of an endorsement in a passenger's passport (or any other travel document). All persons intending permanent residence in New Zealand require prior approval before setting out on their journey.

To obtain permission to settle in New Zealand, intending immigrants, other than Australian citizens, should first write to the nearest overseas representative of the New Zealand Government or write direct to the Secretary of Labour, Private Bag, Wellington, New Zealand for the necessary application forms. Each application is considered on its merits.

The requirements for visitors vary according to the nationality of the traveller and the purpose of the visit. The following categories of travellers, however, are exempt from prior authority and entry permit requirements (whether entering permanently or temporarily) under a special exemption:

  1. Australian citizens;

  2. Citizens of other Commonwealth countries and the Republic of Ireland who have been granted the right to reside indefinitely without restriction in either Australia or New Zealand, provided they are travelling direct to New Zealand from Australia.

Visitors from a number of other countries do not require visas or prior entry authorities, provided the purpose of entry is for tourism or to visit family and friends.

These arrangements do not, however, exempt such persons from the provisions of the Immigration Act 1964 relating to prohibited immigrants. The following categories of persons are prohibited from entry to New Zealand whether for permanent or temporary entry:

  1. Mentally disordered persons, or people suffering from tuberculosis, leprosy, or syphilis;

  2. Persons who have been convicted of an offence and sentenced to a term of imprisonment or other form of detention for 1 year or more or to any form of indeterminate detention for which they may be detained for a period of 1 year or more;

  3. Persons who have been deported from New Zealand (except for a certain class of ship deserter), or deported from any other country.

Those within any of the above categories who enter New Zealand without first obtaining special permission to do so commit an offence which requires the Court to order deportation if conviction is entered.

Deportation—The Immigration Act 1964 makes provision for the deportation of the following persons: those convicted of offences against the Immigration Act; permanent residents who are convicted of an offence within 5 years of their arrival in New Zealand for which the Court has the power to impose imprisonment; those who have engaged in, or who belong to organisations which have engaged in, acts of terrorism; and any person who constitutes a threat to national security.

Appeals Against Deportation—Persons who have been convicted of offences against the Immigration Act may appeal in writing to the Minister of Immigration against the deportation order on the grounds that it would be unduly harsh or unjust to deport them. A Deportation Review Tribunal (administered by the Department of Justice) is empowered to hear appeals on humanitarian grounds from permanent residents against deportation orders following convictions for criminal offences.

PASSPORTS—Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1946 and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued and renewed within New Zealand by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington, Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, at Rarotonga and Niue by the New Zealand Representatives, and overseas by the representatives of New Zealand at Apia, Athens, Baghdad, Bahrain, Bangkok, Bonn, Brussels, Canberra, Geneva, The Hague, Hong Kong, Honiara, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Moscow, New Delhi, New York, Noumea, Nuku'alofa, Ottawa, Paris, Peking, Port Moresby, Port of Spain, Rome, San Francisco, Santiago (Chile), Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, Tokyo, Toronto, Vancouver, Vienna, and Washington. United Kingdom, Canadian, Australian, Malaysian, Singapore, and Indian passports are issued and renewed in New Zealand by the respective High Commissioners for those countries.

During the year ended 31 March 1978 there were 75 996 New Zealand passports issued, compared with 71 530 during the previous year.

Entry into New Zealand—Apart from British subjects and the wives of British subjects arriving from Australia, no person 16 years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless he is in possession of a valid passport or other recognised travel document. Exemption from the passport requirements (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Act and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act) may be granted in exceptional circumstances by the Minister of Internal Affairs. A British subject who is a master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives does not need to produce a passport.

With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, every alien landing in New Zealand requires a visa.

Departure from New Zealand—Every person leaving New Zealand, with the exception of a British subject travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

CITIZENSHIP—The current basic law on New Zealand citizenship is the Citizenship Act 1977, which came into force on 1 January 1978. Previously, the relevant law was the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948.

Under the Citizenship Act 1977, New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways: (a) by birth in New Zealand; (b) by descent (i.e. birth outside New Zealand); (c) by grant of citizenship. Those persons who were citizens under the previous Act (whether by birth, descent, naturalisation or registration) at 31 December 1977, retain their status under the current legislation. The current legislation also allows for citizenship by descent through the female line. To be eligible for a grant of New Zealand citizenship a person (other than the spouse of a New Zealand citizen; or a person under 18 years of age) must—(a) have resided in New Zealand for the 3 years immediately preceding the date of application; (b) be entitled in terms of the Immigration Act 1964 to reside in New Zealand permanently; (c) be of full capacity; (d) be of good character; (e) have sufficient knowledge of the English language and of the responsibilities and privileges attaching to New Zealand citizenship; (f) intend to continue to reside in New Zealand or to enter or continue Crown service under the New Zealand Government, or service in the employment of a person, company, society, or other body of persons resident or established in New Zealand.

Under current legislation everyone who acquires New Zealand citizenship by grant must swear allegiance to the Queen of New Zealand. British subjects or Commonwealth citizens whose country recognises Queen Elizabeth II as Head of State are required to take the oath on the application form. Other persons whose country of birth does not give this recognition are required to swear allegiance at a public ceremony. The public ceremonies, at which applicants are presented with their certificates granting them New Zealand citizenship, are held in an atmosphere of dignity and solemnity. During 1977–78 there were 279 ceremonies at which 1874 candidates took the oath.

New Zealand citizens may be deprived of New Zealand citizenship if they voluntarily acquire a foreign nationality by any formal act other than by marriage and have acted in a manner that is contrary to the interests of New Zealand or voluntarily exercised any of the privileges or performed any of the duties of another nationality or citizenship in a manner that is contrary to the interests of New Zealand. Citizenship obtained by fraud, false representation, mistake, or wilful concealment of relevant information may be withdrawn. Under certain conditions New Zealand citizenship may also be validly renounced.

Upon the introduction of the Citizenship Act 1977 the requirement that aliens be registered was abolished.

CENSUS OF POPULATION AND DWELLINGS 1976—The series of tables on the following pages contain statistics from the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings. Where such statistics are not yet available, tables based on the 1971 Census have been retained.

MARITAL STATUS—The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the Census of 1976 is summarised in the following tables.

Age Group (Years)Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedWidowedDivorcedTotal*
*Including persons not specifying status.
Males
16–19118 0822 3202146120 649
20–2483 53346 1351 22744202131 644
25–3440 099177 2745 2962542 610226 515
35–4413 196146 0293 9377222 963167 616
45–5412 541139 4883 4082 3473 825162 327
55–648 974107 5121 9725 2243 324127 471
65–745 60066 2949698 7061 78983 631
75 and over2 40521 65427710 36846635 361
    Total, 1976284 430706 70617 10727 66915 1851,055,214
    Total, 1971250 372632 10811 59826 79811 442937 954
Females
16–19103 77111 703226139115 829
20–2447 89576 1892 965172534127 931
25–3420 651189 0337 3041 0763 872222 123
35–447 379142 3784 9302 9304 310162 112
45–547 789130 4553 5179 6234 636156 252
55–648 86997 1881 95024 6383 972136 943
65–749 01249 26282036 9782 32398 672
75 and over6 81613 16122640 61670361 843
    Total, 1976212 182709 36921 938116 04620 3591,081,705
    Total, 1971186 619637 92214 139104 53314 711959 378
Total
16–19221 85314 0232471715236 478
20–24131 428122 3244 192216736259 575
25–3460 750366 30712 6001 3306 482448 638
35–4420 575288 4078 8673 6527 273329 728
45–5420 330269 9436 92511 9708 461318 579
55–6417 843204 7003 92229 8627 296264 414
65–7414 612115 5561 78945 6844 112182 303
75 and over9 22134 81550350 9841 16997 204
    Total, 1976496 6121,416,07539 045143 71535 5442,136,919
    Total, 1971436 9911,270,03025 737131 33126 1531,897,332

The percentage distribution aged 16 years or over according to marital status is given in the following summary.

Marital Status196619711976
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Never married28.120.826.919.527.119.6
Married66.866.167.866.667.265.7
Legally separated0.81.01.21.51.62.0
Widowed3.110.92.910.92.610.7
Divorced1.11.21.21.51.41.9
        Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

HOUSEHOLDS—There was a total of 923 257 private households living in permanent dwellings at the Census in 1976. The following table analyses the type of household by the number of occupants. A complete one-family-only household consists of a husband and wife with or without unmarried children of any age who are living at home.

Type of HouseholdTotal Private Households*Number of Private Households*with Number of Members
1234567 or More
*Resident in permanent dwellings.
One-family-only—
    Complete547 471..187 63893 395131 47880 56135 04619 353
    Incomplete with children absent30 642..6 9018 2577 2494 2901 9651 980
    Incomplete with one parent absent52 471..24 42814 9377 6763 3241 263843
    Incomplete with one parent and child (ren) absent4 768..1 9931 431706355147136
                Total635 352..220 960118 020147 10988 53038 42122 312
Other-family—
    One family plus other persons (non-family)74 731....20 65516 62615 82810 68410 938
    Multi-family with or without other persons15 578......2 7973 1003 3306 351
                Total90 309....20 65519 42318 92814 01417 289
Non-family—
    Multi-person53 700..36 8189 7884 5611 706564263
    One person143 896143 896      
                Total197 596143 89636 8189 7884 5611 706564263
                Grand Total923 257143 896257 778148 463171 093109 16452 99939 864

In the following table complete one-family-only households at the 1976 Census are analysed by membership and the employment status of the head of the household.

Employment Status of HeadTotal HouseholdsHusband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
 Number of Households
Actively engaged in the labour force—
    Employer46 5469 2287 68313 1869 9284 4342 087
    Own account worker50 30011 4998 31214 0859 8144 5352 055
    Salary or wage earner366 53699 24067 812100 52559 25625 23614 467
    Unemployed2 489747485549305216187
    Relative assisting.15888322396
    Not specified620195105125864960
            Total466 649120 99784 429128 49379 39834 47618 856
Not actively engaged in the labour force—
    Retired74 36163 6027 7972 004564228166
    Student1 18579619311458213
    Household duties2 6521 262421458256138117
    Other2 624981555409285183211
            Total80 82266 6418 9662 9851 163570497
            Grand total547 471187 63893 395131 47880 56135 04619 353

The following table shows the composition of one-complete-family-only households in 1976 analysed by the age group of the head of the household.

Age Group of Head (Years)Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife withTotal Households
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
Number of Households
Under 2066575394821 522
20–2418 7409 9616 0031 0631484335 958
25–4434 55336 57790 67659 91525 55212 980260 253
45–6473 15639 24433 10819 1589 1826 203180 051
65 and over60 5246 8601 59741716412569 687
            Total187 63893 395131 47880 56135 04619 353547 471
Percentage of Age Group
Under 2043.749.56.20.50.1100.0
20–2452.127.716.73.00.40.1100.0
25–4413.314.134.823.09.85.0100.0
45–6440.621.818.410.65.13.4100.0
65 and over86.99.82.30.60.20.2100.0
All ages34.317.124.014.76.43.5100.0

The following 2 tables show, for one-complete-family-only households, the income group analysed by the membership of the household. The income given in the first table is the income of the head of the household, while in the second table the total household income is shown. In a considerable proportion of households, the total household income was substantially above the income of the head of the household, indicating at least 1 other income recipient in the family.

Income of Head*Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife withTotal
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
$Number of Households
Nil24 9603 9141 56670538839331 926
        1–1,99926 0143 8372 0431 01354439133 842
  2,000–3,99923 2209 5219 5175 8542 9922 24753 351
  4,000–5,99950 03930 79138 80022 94310 4856 565159 623
  6,000–7,99933 44323 12238 32422 3079 1074 571130 874
  8,000–9,99914 37610 97020 72912 9275 3862 39666 784
10,000–14,99910 0857 65414 4909 9103 8901 69947 728
15,000–19,9992 1811 4582 7292 1589433409 809
20,000 and over2 0101 3572 3972 0979513929 204
Not specified1 3107718836473603594 330
            Total187 63893 395131 47880 56135 04619 353547 471
Income of Household*Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife withTotal
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
*Estimated income before tax, other than social welfare benefits, for the year ended 31 March 1976.
$Number of Households
Nil21 9621 02242022514813723 914
        1–1,99922 2561 48889943825620725 544
  2,000–3,99916 9855 9295 4933 4071 5621 20334 579
  4,000–5,99925 66118 75923 91913 2845 8313 49590 949
  6,000–7,99922 04818 52029 97916 8536 8773 35997 636
  8,000–9,99922 70514 74323 46914 1755 7392 81983 650
10,000–14,99942 18321 97230 19619 336.8 1794 185126 051
15,000–19,9998 2036 1829 6556 7263 2681 75035 784
20,000 and over3 6013 1965 4204 5572 2681 30420 346
Not specified2 0341 5842 0281 5609188949 018
            Total187 63893 395131 47880 56135 04619 353547 471

The following tables shows persons living alone in 1976 by age, sex, and marital status.

Age Group (in Years)Marital Status
Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedDivorcedWidowedTotal*
*Including those of unspecified marital status.
 Males Living Alone
Under 20982221 008
20–243 5815121502154 287
25–448 3612 3632 1361 25612314 325
45–647 5312 7191 9272 8082 90717 976
65 and over3 1631 9705081 0229 19615 944
                Total23 6187 5864 7215 10712 23153 540
Age Group (in Years)Marital Status
Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedDivorcedWidowedTotal*
*Including those of unspecified marital status.
 Females Living Alone
Under 207684791828
20–241 95738216136122 560
25–444 3498838047842837 139
45–646 2222 3771 4703 28114 29827 708
65 and over6 8052 1595551 73840 76952 121
                Total20 1015 8482 9995 83955 36390 356

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS—The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the 1966, 1971, and 1976 Censuses.

Religious ProfessionNumber of AdherentsPercentage
196619711976196619711976
*Associated Pentecostal Churches of New Zealand.
Anglican (Church of England)901 701895 839915 20233.731.329.2
Presbyterian582 976583 701566 56921.820.418.1
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)425 280449 974478 53015.915.715.3
Methodist186 260182 727173 5267.06.45.5
Christian n.o.d.21 54833 18752 4780.81.21.7
Baptist46 74847 35049 4421.71.71.6
Latter Day Saints (Mormon)25 56429 78536 1301.01.01.2
Ratana27 57030 15635 0821.01.11.1
Protestant n.o.d.46 09037 47533 3091.71.31.1
Brethren23 13925 76824 4140.90.90.8
Salvation Army17 73719 37122 0190.70.70.7
Atheist5 4749 29114 2830.20.30.5
Agnostic4 9609 48114 1360.20.30.5
Jehovah's Witness7 45510 31813 3920.30.40.4
Seventh Day Adventist9 55110 47711 9580.40.40.4
Church of Christ10 3018 9308 0870.40.30.3
Congregational12 1017 7046 6000.40.30.2
Lutheran5 7305 9306 2970.20.20.2
Ringatu5 6055 6356 2300.20.20.2
Assemblies of God*2 0283 5995 5810.10.10.2
Hindu3 5993 8455 2030.10.10.2
Pentecostal*1 1101 8594 8460.10.2
Undenominational3 0693 7094 2220.10.10.1
Eastern Orthodox3 6054 3194 1530.10.20.1
Hebrew4 1043 8033 9210.20.10.1
Union Church2791 1543 0450.1
Apostolic*1 8412 3612 6930.10.10.1
Undenominational Christian1 9681 9032 5540.10.10.1
Buddhist6521 3702 3820.1
Spiritualist8431 0151 7310.1
Christadelphian1 6281 6671 6860.10.10.1
Mohammedan5517791 415
Reformed Church of N.Z.1 2421 6281 3580.1
Society of Friends8879661 074
Humanitarian2415101 060
Orthodox1 1005801 047
All other religious professions19 45116 42834 6260.70.61.1
No religion (so returned)32 78057 485101 2111.22.03.2
Object to state210 851247 019438 5117.98.614.0
Not specified19 300103 53339 3800.73.61.3
            Total2,676,9192,862,6313,129,383100.0100.0100.0

The category “All other religious professions” includes also cases of facetious answers and those which were not specified in sufficient detail to allow precise classification. Figures under “Object to state” represent those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject.

AGE DISTRIBUTION—Census age-group figures are shown in the following table. Estimates of age distribution for inter-censal years are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Age (Years)1971 Census1976 CensusPercentage of Total Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal19711976
*Under 20 years.
0–4151 916145 946297 862151 086145 019296 10510.49.5
5–9158 310151 494309 804159 187152 586311 77310.810.0
10–14154 286147 671301 957163 869156 458320 32710.510.2
1528 39027 28655 67632 68631 57364 2591.92.0
16–19104 726100 387205 113120 649115 829236 4787.27.6
20–24119 447115 512234 959131 644127 931259 5758.28.3
25–2994 62292 690187 312125 668123 472249 1406.58.0
30–3484 18182 509166 690100 84798 651199 4985.86.4
35–3976 99774 192151 18989 71787 380177 0975.35.7
40–4483 25178 445161 69677 89974 732152 6315.64.9
45–4980 87978 488159 36784 16178 717162 8785.65.2
50–5469 14171 658140 79978 16677 535155 7014.95.1
55–5965 26466 919132 18366 54770 639137 1864.64.4
60–6455 59758 260113 85760 92466 304127 2284.04.1
65–6942 70047 91490 61449 80556 643106 4483.23.4
70–7428 46237 22165 68333 82642 02975 8552.32.4
75–7916 75426 61243 36619 94230 13650 0781.51.5
80–849 92317 30127 2249 51118 42527 9361.00.9
85–894 5428 20412 7464 3479 49113 8380.40.4
90 and over1 4683 0664 5341 5613 7915 3520.20.2
            Total1,430,8561,431,7752,862,6311,562,0421,567,3413,129,383100.0100.0
Under 15 years464 512445 111909 623474 142454 063928 20531.829.7
15–64 years862 495846 3461,708,841968 908952 7631,921,67159.761.4
65 years and over103 849140 318244 167118 992100 515279 5078.58.9
Minors*597 628572 7841,170,412627 477601 4651,228,94240.939.3
Adults833 228858 9911,692,219934 565965 8761,900,44159.160.7

ETHNIC GROUPS—The following table displays the broad ethnic origins of the New Zealand population.

Ethnic GroupCensus
196619711976

*Covers persons who specified themselves as half or more New Zealand Maori, plus those who indicated they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand, but did not specify the degree of Maori origin.

†Half or more of given descent group, except for 1966, where figures cover persons of full descent and those of mixed, both European (all degrees) and Maori (where less than half Maori descent).

European2,426,3522,568,5322,693,186
Maori*201 159227 414270 035
Other origins
    Pacific Island Polynesian—
        Samoan11 84219 54027 876
        Cook Island Maori8 66312 91318 610
        Niuean2 8464 1265 688
        Tongan1 3891 4723 980
        Tokelauan 1 1831 737
        Other1 5311 6843 463
        Sub-total, Pacific Island Polynesian26 27140 91861 354
    Chinese10 28312 47014 860
    Indian6 8437 1409 247
    Fijian1 3231 1511 548
    Syrian, Lebanese, and Arab1 099890754
    Other ethnic groups3 5894 1166 424
            Sub-total, others23 13725 76732 833
Not specified71 975
            Total2,676,9192,862,6313,129,383

COUNTRY OF BERTH—From 1945 to 1961 the New Zealand-born population remained at about 86 per cent of the total population: since 1966 the proportion has dropped slightly, mainly because increased numbers of New Zealanders have been overseas at census date and increased numbers of overseas tourists have been in New Zealand. At the 1976 Census, 83.4 percent of those enumerated gave New Zealand as their birthplace, 9.3 percent gave the United Kingdom, 2.0 percent Australia, 1.0 percent the Cook Islands and Western Samoa, and 0.7 percent the Netherlands.

The next table shows the duration of residence in New Zealand of persons born overseas.

Years of Residence1966 Census x1971 Census x1976 Census x
Number Born OverseasPercentage of Specified CasesNumber Born OverseasPercentage of Specified CasesNumber Born OverseasPercentage of Specified Cases
*Includes overseas-born short-stay visitors.
  0–4*103 03026.590 13322.2156 08331.3
  5–956 86114.667 29316.659 05211.6
10–1461 33615.852 96813.164 46712.9
15–1938 93810.055 37813.748 6919.8
20 and over129 21133.2139 43234.4169 79234.1
Not specified5 567 6 752 10 040 
                Total394 943100.0421 956100.0508 125100.0

INTERNAL MIGRATION—The 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings included, for the first time, a question on internal migration. Respondents were asked to state their usual place of residence 1 year and 5 years prior to the census.

The following table gives a summary by Statistical Areas of the percentages of the population who had changed or not changed their residences within the year prior to the 1971 Census. It will be seen that, in New Zealand as a whole, 83.59 percent of the population were living at the same address as a year previous. The greatest mobility of population was found in the two main concentrations—Central Auckland Statistical Area (in which 18.62 percent of the population had moved within the year) and Wellington Statistical Area in which 17.70 percent had moved. (These percentages include cases where residence 1 year earlier was not specified or was given as “No settled abode”.)

Usual Residence on Census Night (1971)Residence One Year Prior to Census (1971)
UnchangedElsewhere* in N.Z.Pacific IslandsOther CountriesNot Specified or No Settled Abode
*Includes persons who changed residence within a statistical area.
 Percentage
Northland S.A.87.4411.560.020.760.22
Central Auckland S.A.81.3814.940.211.931.55
South Auckland–Bay of Plenty S.A.83.9513.790.071.921.28
East Coast S.A.85.8411.450.010.622.08
Hawke's Bay S.A.85.2012.890.030.731.15
Taranaki S.A.87.5511.090.730.63
Wellington S.A.82.3014.640.121.551.39
        North Island83.0914.060.121.401.33
Marlborough S.A.86.7211.150.010.881.23
Nelson S.A.84.9312.450.021.680.92
Westland S.A88.378.72..0.542.37
Canterbury S.A.83.8914.090.031.130.86
Otago S.A.85.8111.960.020.951.26
Southland S.A.85.6112.720.031.020.63
        South Island84.8613.040.031.100.98
        New Zealand83.5913.770.091.311.23

Data based on residence 5 years prior to the 1971 Census indicate that 61.31 percent of the total population were still at the same address in 1971 as they were 5 years previously, but that 38.69 percent—almost 4 in every 10—had moved at least once during the 5 years. In Central Auckland Statistical Area 43.49 percent and in Wellington Statistical Area 41.22 percent of the population recorded that they had been living elsewhere 5 years prior to the 1971 Census.

STATISTICS OF WORLD POPULATION—The area and estimated population of the major areas and selected countries at mid-year 1977 are shown in the following table. (Source: U.N. Population and Vital Statistics Report.).

Major Areas and CountriesAreaPopulation

*World and major area figures are provisional totals for mid-1978.

†Includes Central America and the Caribbean.

Major Areaskm2(000)Million
    Africa30 319436
    America—North24 249360
    America—South17 832236
    Asia27 5802 407
    Europe4 937481
    Oceania8 51023
    U.S.S.R.22 402262
        World total135 8304 205*
Selected Countries
Africa
    Algeria2 38217.9
    Angola1 2476.8
    Egypt1 00138.7
    Ethiopia1 22229.0
    Ghana23910.5
    Kenya58314.3
    Morocco44718.2
    Mozambique7839.7
    Nigeria92466.6
    South Africa1 22126.1
    Sudan2 50617.0
    Tanzania, United Republic of94516.1
    Uganda23612.4
    Zaire Republic2 34526.4
America—North
    Canada9 97623.3
    United States9 363216.8
America—South
    Argentine2 76726.1
    Brazil8 512112.2
    Chile75710.7
    Colombia1 13925.0
    Peru1 28516.4
    Venezuela91212.7
Asia
    Afghanistan64720.3
    China9 597865.7
    Hong Kong14.5
    India3 288625.8
    Indonesia1 904143.3
    Iran1 64834.3
    Iraq43511.9
    Israel213.6
    Japan372113.9
    Jordan982.8
    Korea—North12116.7
    Korea—South9836.4
    Lebanon103.1
    Malaysia33012.6
    Nepal14113.1
    Pakistan80475.3
    Philippines30045.0
    Saudi Arabia2 1509.5
    Singapore0.62.3
    Sri Lanka6614.0
    Syria1857.8
    Thailand51444.0
    Turkey78142.1
Europe
    Austria847.5
    Belgium319.9
    Bulgaria1118.8
    Czechoslovakia12815.0
    Denmark435.1
    France54753.1
    Germany—East10816.8
    Germany—West24961.4
    Greece1329.3
    Hungary9310.6
    Ireland, Republic of703.2
    Italy30156.4
    Luxembourg30.4
    Netherlands4113.9
    Norway3244.0
    Poland31334.7
    Portugal929.7
    Romania23821.7
    Spain50536.7
    Sweden4508.3
    Switzerland416.3
    United Kingdom24455.9
    Yugoslavia, Republic of25621.7
Oceania
    Australia7 68714.1
    Fiji180.6
    New Caledonia190.1
    New Zealand2693.1
    Papua New Guinea4622.9

Chapter 6. Section 4; VITAL STATISTICS

4 A—NATURAL INCREASE

The rate of natural increase (excess of births over deaths) is important to national planning; along with net migration it is the major component of population growth. While in recent years the natural increase rate in New Zealand has fallen, in line with the trend in the majority of developed countries, the New Zealand rate remains higher than for most other countries of predominantly European stock. The following table shows the numbers and rates of natural increase for the last 5 years, and emphasises the high rate for the Maori component of the population.

YearTotal PopulationMaorisNatural Increase Rates per 1000 Mean Population
BirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseBirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseTotalMaori
*Provisional.
197459 33625 26134 0756 9831 2735 71011.2423.09
197556 63925 11431 5256 7781 3335 44510.2121.55
197655 10525 45729 6486 6261 3205 3069.5119.56
197754 17925 96128 2186 7851 4165 3699.0219.47
1978*51 02924 66926 3606 5801 2155 3658.4219.13

In the 5 years to 31 December 1978 New Zealand gained by natural increase of population a total of nearly 150 000

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—An international comparison of birth and natural increase rates for certain countries is made in the following table. The rates, which are for 1977, are taken from the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.

CountryRate per 1000 of Population
BirthsDeathsNatural Increase
New Zealand17.38.39.0
Japan15.46.19.3
Australia16.17.78.4
France14.010.13.9
Italy13.29.63.6
Canada15.57.28.3
Norway12.59.72.8
United States15.38.86.5
Netherlands12.57.94.6
United Kingdom11.811.70.1
Switzerland11.58.72.8
West Germany9.511.5–2.0

4 B—BIRTHS

REGISTRATION—The law as to registration of births is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. A birth is normally registered at the office of the Registrar nearest the place of birth.

Birth statistics are compiled by the Department of Statistics from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year. The figures do not include still births, except where multiple births are discussed. A special classification of still births is given later in this subsection.

Under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, provision is made for births not registered in the ordinary way to be recorded at a later date in a special register kept by the Registrar-General. Such cases include elderly people requiring evidence of age for social welfare purposes. Until 1971 these late registrations were included in published live-birth statistics but they are now excluded. The numbers are normally relatively small; in 1977 they totalled 284.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The following table shows the numbers of births and the rates for the latest 5 years. Late registrations (see above) have been excluded from all these figures. It will be noted that the birth rate, which fell in the early 1960s and then appeared to stabilise at 22 to 23 births per 1000 of mean population in the later 1960s has now resumed the decline.

YearNumbersRates per 1000 of Mean Population
TotalMaoriTotalMaori
197459 3366 98319.5727.21x
197556 6396 77818.3525.62x
197655 1056 62617.6824.43
197754 1796 78517.3224.61
197851 0296 58016.3123.46

REFINED BIRTHRATE—“Crude” rates of the number of births per 1000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age, do not take account of variations in the proportion of women of the childbearing ages. Refined rates are provided by computations of the nuptial birth rate per 1000 married women of 16–44 years of age, or the total birth rate per 1000 of women aged 15–44 years. The following table gives both rates for census years (on the basis of the births registered in that year and the population as at the census) together with the “crude” rate for the year.

Census YearBirth Rate per 1000 Women“Crude” Birth Rate per 1000 Mean Population
Married Women 16–44 YearsTotal Women 15–44 Years
1956191.7128.125.93
1961199.3140.626.99
1966155.5x114.422.44
1971149.2x112.922.51
1976108.5x83.5x17.68

The percentage of married women among women in the child-bearing age groups was 66.8 in 1976 compared with 51.6 in 1926. A study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age composition of married women within the child-bearing ages; as the birth rate varies with age, the change in age composition over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

The period since the Second World War was marked by a high birth rate until 1962, when the level dropped; this experience was also shared by Australia, Canada, and the United States. During the years 1962 to 1966 the crude birth rate fell from 26.16 to 22.37 per 1000 of mean population. From 1966 until 1971 the crude birth rate remained relatively constant, but since 1971 the downward trend appears to have been resumed. In the following table the New Zealand crude birth rate is compared with that of Australia, Canada, and the United States.

CountryBirth Rate per 1000 Mean Population
19701971197219731974197519761977
New Zealand22.022.521.720.419.618.317.717.3
Australia20.621.720.518.918.418.416.716.1
Canada17.416.815.915.515.415.415.815.5
United States18.317.215.715.015.014.814.715.3
(Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics and Statistical Yearbook.).

The following diagram shows numbers of births and deaths and indicates the relatively high rate of natural increase in New Zealand.

Figure 6.1. VITAL STATISTICS

VITAL STATISTICS

Demographers have emphasised the need for further research into the decline in the birthrate, stating that it is important to study demographic variables involved including changes in age distribution of populations, timing of marriage and birth, past success in achieving the desired family size, and changes in the desired number of children. It is important to determine the extent to which smaller families and postponed births are the result of changes in social attitudes and economic goals, and the extent to which they are the result of improved methods and knowledge of birth control having made possible a control of fertility previously considered desirable but largely unattainable.

REPRODUCTION INDEX—The reproduction index is based on the fact that the future size of a population is related to the number of women in the reproductive age groups at any given time. The gross rate is based on the number of female children born, and the average number of girls that will be born to a woman during her reproductive period, while the net rate takes into account fertility rates at different ages and the percentages of female survivors at those ages, obtained from life tables. A net rate of 1.0 indicates zero population growth if the population is closed to migration, and a higher rate a rising population.

Reproduction rates during 6 recent years were as follows.

YearGross RateNet Rate
19721.4681.426
19731.3521.313
19741.2671.231
19751.1791.146
19761.0961.065
19771.0841.053

SEX OF CHILDREN BORN—The numbers of boys and girls born during the latest 5 years are given in the following table.

In each year more boys than girls are born, a disparity “explainable” on account of the higher death rates of males at every age level. The death rate per 1000 live births for babies under 12 months of age in 1977 was 16.91 for boys and 11.37 for girls; for children of from 1 to 4 years of age it was 0.95 for boys and 0.66 for girls; for children aged 5 to 14 years it was 0.44 for boys and 0.35 for girls; and the pattern repeated itself for each age group through adolescence and adult life.

YearNumber of Births ofMale Births per 1000 Female Births
MalesFemales
197430 51128 8251 058
197528 87427 7651 040
197628 54426 5611 075
197727 73826 3911 053
197826 06224 9671 044

MULTIPLE BIRTHS—In 1977 there were 53 649 confinements which resulted in live births; of these 523 cases resulted in all live multiple births, 19 cases where one of twins was still-born, 6 cases where both twins were still-born and 2 cases where one of triplets was still-born.

The likelihood of still births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases.

YearSingle CasesCases of TwinsCases of TripletsTotal CasesStill Birth Rate per 1000
LiveStillBoth LiveBoth StillOne Live One StillAll LiveTwo Live One StillSingleMultipleSingle CasesMultiple Cases
197359 5685265668143260 0945938.840.5
197458 2224705398233258 6925758.057.4
197555 464438568524555 9026027.848.2
197654 045403515118454 4485387.435.3
197753 1053805186195253 4855507.149.1

AGES OF PARENTS—Information as to the relative ages of parents of nuptial living children whose births were registered in 1977 is shown in the following table for the total population.

Registrations of births under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 are excluded.

Age of Mother, in YearsAge of Father in Years
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445–4950–5455–6465 and OverTotal Cases
*Including 5 cases of triplets, all live-born, 1 case of triplets where one was still-born, 5 cases of twins, both still-born, and 15 cases of twins where one was still-born.
Single Births
Under 204541 83832749154112 689
20–241396 2847 0661 1772165729132114 984
25–2957488 9645 5601 0672218229816 684
30–342578223 3431 727383116391416 504
35–391072272749415135382121 714
40–44382254159100346386
45 and over11694223
        Total6008 94017 26010 4233 8291 24547215754442 984
Multiple Births
Under 20314320
20–242535711111126
25–291211066921200
30–341141288189
35–39377542129
40–441326
45 and over
        Total57918412546198211470*
        Grand total6059 01917 44410 5483 8751 26448015955543 454*

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS—The following table gives for 1977 the number of previous issue, i.e., children born alive, in conjunction with the age of mother.

Age of Mother in YearsNumber of Previous IssueTotal Nuptial Cases
0123456–910–1415 and over
*This number represents 42 984 single cases and 470 multiple cases.
Number of Mothers
Under 201 9097287112 709
20–247 0765 7221 866395454215 110
25–295 1266 3143 7721 250310763616 884
30–341 2941 9011 81292837015113526 593
35–39285315367297205114141191 743
40–4458475442584471171392
45 and over3222138223
          Total15 75115 0297 9442 91499039239340143 454*

In the following table the total issue and average issue are shown for mothers by age groups where a birth occurred in 1977.

Age of Mother in YearsTotal MothersTotal IssueAverage Issue
Under 202 7093 6031.33
20–2415 11026 0851.72
25–2916 88436 5262.16
30–346 59318 1452.75
35–391 7436 3033.61
40–443921 8244.65
45 and over231335.78
    Total43 45492 6192.13

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz, the average number of children (including those registered in 1977) born up to the present time to those mothers of nuptial children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years have been as follows: 1973, 2.30; 1974, 2.23; 1975, 2.19; 1976, 2.17; and 1977, 2.13.

FIRST BIRTH—Statistics of nuptial first confinements show that in recent years there have been reduced proportions occurring within 1 year after marriage and within 2 years after marriage.

YearTotal Nuptial CasesTotal Nuptial First CasesProportion of First Cases to Total CasesFirst cases within 1 Year After MarriageFirst cases within 2 Years After Marriage
NumberProportion to Total First CasesNumberProportion to Total First Cases
197351 04217 95835.186 39435.6111 65559.33
197449 49117 84536.065 77832.389 91955.58
197546 73916 70935.755 15330.848 92153.39
197645 07515 83135.124 47228.258 02850.71
197743 45415 75136.244 21326.747 48447.51

The following table gives the duration-of-marriage factor in first confinements over a longer time-series. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern births of non-Maoris only.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197419761977
Under 146.2538.4742.6449.8532.3828.2526.74
126.7926.3030.5626.4223.2122.4620.76
210.2411.2811.5611.4218.4818.1516.98
36.167.885.955.0711.9212.6913.35
43.967.183.302.826.948.519.00
5–95.497.365.053.566.529.4812.39
10 and over1.111.530.940.860.550.450.73
                Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

In the following table first confinements occurring to mothers in different age groups are expressed as a percentage of the total first confinements. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern confinements of non-Maoris only.

Age of Mother, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197419761977
Under 208.907.339.0819.6417.9614.1312.11
20–2440.3941.7947.7152.6748.1446.5144.92
25–2932.7929.5427.7918.2826.7430.2132.54
30–3413.1014.6110.396.005.517.048.21
35–393.795.363.922.571.341.761.80
40–440.991.341.020.810.300.350.36
45 and over0.040.030.090.030.010.010.01
                Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child were as follows: 1924, 26.39; 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; 1954, 25.32; 1964, 23.65; 1974, 23.29; 1976, 23.87; and 1977, 24.22 years.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS—The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the latest 6 years, with the percentage they bear to total births registered, are given in the following table. Comparisons of the ratio of ex-nuptial births to all live births (either on a year-to-year basis or on an international basis) should be made with caution. Some of the difficulties were discussed in supplements to the January 1967 and November 1975 Monthly Abstracts of Statistics. For example, the ex-nuptial ratio as a true indicator of ex-nuptial fertility is of limited value because it is influenced by extraneous factors. Ex-nuptial ratios may change not so much because of changing numbers of ex-nuptial births but because of a change in nuptial fertility experience as measured by nuptial birth numbers. This situation is well illustrated by experience during the 1962–77 period when ex-nuptial births increased from 5227 to 10 265 while nuptial births showed an overall fall from 59 787 to 43 914, resulting in the ex-nuptial ratio exaggerating the “real” rise in the ex-nuptial fertility level. Again, a social factor to be borne in mind is that unmarried mothers are not infrequently de facto wives with comparatively stable relationships.

YearNumberRatio*
*Ex-nuptial births as a proportion of total births.
19739 20615.16
19749 37015.79
19759 40716.61
19769 59717.42
197710 26518.95
197810 25420.09

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movements in the proportion of ex-nuptial births per 1000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. The figures for census years are as follows. Up to 1961 the statistics relate to non-Maoris only; from 1966 Maoris are included.

Census YearUnmarried Women 15–44 Years of AgeEx-nuptial BirthsEx-nuptial Birth Rate per 1000 Unmarried Women
1945156 3261 82511.67
1951130 3431 93514.85
1956129 8772 31017.79
1961138 0183 33224.14
1966183 9966 94037.72
1971199 1478 98145.10
1976224 1859 59742.81

In 1977 the total number of ex-nuptial confinements resulting in live births was 10 195. Of these, 10 121 cases were single births and 69 cases were twins. There were 4 cases of twins where 1 child was still-born and 1 case of triplets where 1 child was still-born. The total number of ex-nuptial live births was 10 265. From the following table, it can be seen that of the 10 195 mothers, 4452 or 43.67 percent, were under 20 years of age.

AgeNumber of Mothers
11
121
139
1445
15306
16729
171 034
181 220
191 108
20971
21766
22592
23539
24–291 975
30–34598
35–39235
40–4466
45 and over1
Total10 195

Reregistration—An ex-nuptial child whose parents have later married may be reregistered from birth by reason of such marriage. Applications for registration must be made within 3 months after the date of the marriage.

The number of reregistrations in each of the latest 6 years were as follows: 1972, 1 619; 1973, 1482; 1974, 1517; 1975, 1433; 1976, 1478; and 1977, 1284.

The Children and Young Persons Act 1974 requires that all ex-nuptial births be notified to a social worker so that inquiries may be made concerning the circumstances of each mother and child for the purpose of offering advice and assistance.

The following table shows the outcome of the inquiries made in recent years. Inquiries relate to some births from the preceding year and do not cover all births in the year stated.

Location of Infants197519761977
No.%No.%No.%
Reregistered after marriage of parents278328033113
Remaining with mother (parents cohabiting)2 758322 764343 59036
Remaining with mother (parents not cohabiting)2 942342 935363 47135
Placed with relatives210320623524
Placed with strangers with view to adoption1 322161 0461399710
Placed with strangers, no expressed wish to adoption321621
In children's home or other institution on a long-term basis3140134
Committed to care of Social Welfare2531361
Not traced839108231096610
Died12928111151
            Total8 5661008 2221009 893100

ADOPTIONS—The following table shows the number of adoptions which have been registered during 4 recent years.

YearMalesFemalesTotal
19741 7371 6293 366
19751 6751 6473 322
19761 4571 4852 942
19771 2851 2382 523

Of the 2523 adoptions registered in 1977, 765 were children under the age of 1 year, 884 were aged 1 to 4 years, 570 were aged 5 to 9 years, and 304 were aged 10 years and over.

In 1972, for the first time for many years, there was a substantial drop in the number of adoption orders made by the Court and this trend has continued. Of the 2523 adoptions finalised in 1977, social workers of the Social Welfare Department were concerned with 2116 or 84 percent. Maori welfare officers handled most of the others.

The following table, which relates only to cases handled by the department, shows the number and status of children adopted over the last 4 years.

Status of Children Adopted1974197519761977
*These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Ex-nuptial2 3912 1061 9021 536
Nuptial506571593537
Not known*79745943
            Total2 9762 7512 5542 116

In 1977, 73 percent of the children adopted were born out of wedlock. Of these children born out of wedlock, 70 percent were aged less than 1 year at the time of placement for adoption. Fifty percent were placed with strangers.

The next table shows the age at placement according to the status of the children adopted in 1977.

AgeNuptialEx-NuptialNot KnownTotal
*These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Under 1 year811 07031 154
1–5 years2340164
6 years and over61016
Not known*42741639882
                Total5371 536432 116

The following table shows the original relationship between adopted children and their new parents.

Relationship1974197519761977
Strangers1 8211 5811 3471 052
One parent and spouse903877913792
Relative or close friend252293294272
                Total2 9762 7512 5542 116

STILL BIRTHS—Although it is compulsory to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. Particulars of causes of still births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one “which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue”. Still births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths. The rate was 7.57 per 1000 births in 1977, when still births totalled 413; and 7.08 in 1978, when still births totalled 364.

4 C—DEATHS

NUMBERS AND RATES—The death rate (by which is usually meant the crude death rate, the number of deaths per 1000 of total mean population) is less subject to fluctuation than the birth rate. In the absence of wars, epidemics, and other large-scale disasters, it changes slowly. The New Zealand crude death rate was 8.53 in 1924 and 50 years later, in 1974, it was 8.33. In between, it had reached a peak of 11.05 in 1942, during the Second World War. In 1978 it reached a record low point of 7.88 deaths per 1000 of total mean population. In contrast, the birth rate (21.63 in 1924 and 19.57 in 1974) had been as low as 17.38 in 1935 and as high as 27.64 in 1947. At present (1978) it is falling below even the level of the 1930s Depression years. Depressions, wars, peace, prosperity, and the popularisation of improved methods of birth control have all left their mark on the birth rate.

Under normal conditions the most important factor affecting the crude death rate is the age structure of the population, which (like the death rate itself) changes slowly. An ageing population will tend to have a high death rate, while a young one (provided that infant mortality is not abnormally high) will have a low one.

The following table sets out the numbers of deaths and the crude death rates per 1000 of mean population. (Maoris are defined as persons with half or more Maori ancestry and the term non-Maori covers all other persons.)

YearNumbersCrude Rate per 1000 of Mean Population
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
197423 9881 27325 2618.584.96x8.33
197523 7811 33325 1148.345.04x8.14
197624 1371 32025 4578.484.878.17
197724 5451 41625 9618.615.148.30
197823 4541 21524 6698.234.337.88

The chief merit of the crude death rate is that it is easily calculated, requiring only the number of deaths and the size of the population “at risk”. However, it is very misleading when comparisons are being made between 2 or more populations with different age-structures, such as the Maori and non-Maori populations of New Zealand. The Maori population is a “young” one, with a high proportion of children and young people in those age groups in which the death rate is normally very tow, and relatively few elderly people in those age groups in which the death rate is normally high. The non-Maori population is older, with a considerably smaller proportion of children and young people and a larger proportion of elderly people. The result is that a comparison of crude death rates gives a false picture of Maori mortality as compared with non-Maori.

In the following table, based on 1973 figures, adjustments made to effect a to... comparison show that mortality for Maoris is relatively higher than for non-Maoris; in addition, a comparison is supplied in age-specific rates for the 2 races in each sex (age-specific rates are the number of deaths per 1000 (or per 10 000, etc.) of the population in the specified age groups).

Ethnic GroupAll Ages Rates per 10 000 Mean PopulationAge-specific Rates per 10 000 of Population at Ages
Crude RateMaori Rate Adjusted to Non-Maori PopulationUnder 5 Years5–14 Years15–24 Years25–44 Years45–64 Years65 Years and Over
Males
Maori68.3152.460.16.529.547.3239.0943.1
Non-Maori95.6 44.14.816.917.3127.9741.9
Females
Maori47.0142.637.34.510.333.1178.3738.2
Non-Maori79.0 32.72.45.610.768.0552.5
Both Sexes
Maori57.0149.648.95.520.040.2209.1843.4
Non-Maori87.4 38.53.611.414.197.8632.9

For both Maoris and non-Maoris the death rate in males exceeds the death rate in females by a considerable margin. The following table sets out the number of deaths and the respective crude death rates for each sex separately for the latest 5 years.

 Deaths of MalesDeaths of FemalesTotal DeathsMale Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths
NumberRate*NumberRate*NumberRate*
*Deaths per 1000 of mean population.
197413 7569.0711 5057.6025 2618.33120
197513 8038.9311 3117.3425 1148.14122
197613 9848.9811 4737.3625 4578.17122
197714 3179.1611 6447.4325 9618.30123
197813 6008.7011 0697.0724 6697.88123

Deaths of Maoris, included in these figures, in 1978 totalled 1215, of whom 698 were males and 517 females.

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR—In 1977 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were May, July, and August with totals of 2349, 2455, and 2538 respectively. Excluding December (a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January), February had the least number of deaths, 1664, followed by March with 1912.

AGES AT DEATH—Deaths registered during the year 1977 are shown according to age in the following table.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
*Excludes adjustments by the National Statistics Centre as a result of analysis and collation of registration forms and death certificates.
Under 1*470300770
  1–411073183
  5–96563128
10–147545120
15–19295111406
20–2427889367
25–2920792299
30–3416595260
35–39184115299
40–44263195458
45–49457297754
50–547114241 135
55–591 0005571 557
60–641 4218402 261
65–691 8831 1393 022
70–742 0981 4443 542
75–791 9221 6303 552
80–841 3651 6793 044
85–898541 4432 297
90–943717541 125
95–99110223333
100 and over133649
        Total14 31711 64425 961

The Maori population is a very young one compared with the non-Maori and as a result there is a considerable variation in the proportions of deaths of Maoris and non-Maoris which take place at various ages. The following table illustrates the position for the year 1977.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total DeathsPercentage of Maori Deaths in Total Deaths per Age Group
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
Under 58101433.3010.0915.00
  5–14210380.852.6815.32
15–246731002.747.0612.93
25–441 1122044.5314.4115.50
45–645 25345421.4032.077.95
65 and over16 48747767.1833.692.81
                All ages24 5451 416100.0100.05.45

In the following table is given a time series for rates of death per 1000 of mean population by age groups. Health measures have achieved an immense saving of young life and a prolongation of life, especially among elderly women.

YearUnder 1*1–45–1415–2425–3435–4445–5455–6465–7475 and Over

*Per 1000 live births in this case.

†Non-Maori figures only as Maori at ages not available for these years.

(Rates per 1000 of mean population in each age group)
Males
190178.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59141.67
192153.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.0646.17128.60
194143.654.391.362.532.933.959.2021.1347.44140.27
196125.861.340.491.281.472.687.3919.6547.33126.31
197615.340.870.421.691.252.507.1619.0147.55130.03
197716.910.940.431.971.622.617.3019.0346.80128.75
Females
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32127.98
192142.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.81120.23
194137.753.841.201.942.443.506.9015.0438.60118.92
196119.501.160.350.530.871.954.5911.2229.89104.74
197612.350.710.260.570.661.874.4810.3925.1894.27
197711.370.650.350.710.821.864.7010.2825.7191.91
Both Sexes
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87135.71
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.90124.84
194139.814.121.282.222.673.728.0218.1643.04129.15
196122.761.250.420.911.182.316.0015.4137.67114.01
197613.900.790.341.140.962.205.8514.5535.43107.32
197714.210.800.391.351.222.246.0314.5135.38105.34

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of the total population by sex is shown in the following table. Prior to 1974 the data relates to the non-Maori population only.

YearMalesFemales
 age (years)
190141.6437.68
192148.4546.97
194158.6559.60
196163.8067.32
197164.7570.04
197364.0670.63
197462.9068.88
197562.8769.00
197663.7869.54
197763.0669.27

The average age of death of Maoris in 1977 was 48.14 and 50.91 years for males and females respectively. The younger age composition of the Maori population is an important factor to be borne in mind.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE—Life tables, depicting the pattern of mortality over the age span of life for particular calendar periods for the non-Maori component of New Zealand's population, have been constructed at regular intervals since 1880. The most recent tables prepared by the Department of Statistics are based on the 1971 population census, together with mortality statistics for 1970–72.

Life tables contain a measure of the degree of longevity of the population called the “expectation of life”. The expectation of life at any age is the average remaining lifetime for persons of this age, assuming that mortality rates at each age continue at the level shown by the life table. The life expectancy at selected ages at the present time, for the non-Maori population in New Zealand, is shown in the table below. The overall longer span of life enjoyed by females, compared with males, is evident. Further details concerning life table methodology and construction and trends in New Zealand life expectancies can be obtained from New Zealand Life Tables 1970–72, obtainable from Government bookshops.

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
069.0975.16
169.2775.15
268.3874.26
367.4573.31
466.4972.35
565.5371.38
1060.6666.49
1555.7861.59
2051.1656.74
2546.5351.89
3041.8047.03
4032.4037.46
5023.5228.37
6015.8219.91
709.8212.48
805.536.76
902.943.29
1001.231.31

The long-term trend since 1880 for non-Maoris has been a steady improvement in life expectancy for both sexes. The improvement has been striking for the younger ages but relatively small for the advanced ages. Progress in medical science, coupled with improved social conditions, has resulted in substantial reductions in mortality for all ages up to middle age. This trend has continued up to 1970–72 for females, but the decline in male mortality between 1965–67 and 1970–72 was not sufficient to offset the increase between 1960–62 and 1965–67, and male life expectancy has not returned to the 1960–62 level. The following table displays the life expectancy for non-Maoris revealed by each life table compiled during the past 60 years for the 3 exact ages of 0, 20, and 60 years.

Life TableLife Expectancy (Years)
Males Aged ExactlyFemales Aged Exactly
0206002060
1911–1560.9647.6115.5463.4849.1416.72
1921–2262.7648.6616.0365.4350.3617.29
1925–2763.9948.9315.7966.5750.9617.23
193165.0449.6116.2267.8851.2817.30
1934–3865.4649.8916.0668.4552.0217.49
1950–5268.2951.1516.1972.4354.6418.53
1955–5768.8851.4416.1973.8855.8719.16
1960–6269.1751.5316.0974.5156.3319.39
1965–6768.6750.8915.8274.8456.4619.68
1970–7269.0951.1615.8275.1656.7419.91

The expectation of life at various ages for the Maori population is shown in the following table. These expectations are taken from New Zealand Life Tables 1970–72.

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
060.9664.96
161.5265.58
260.7964.80
359.8963.88
458.9662.94
558.0261.98
1053.2657.12
2043.9747.54
3035.1538.14
4026.5629.22
5018.9021.14
6012.9614.60
708.729.90
805.045.94

Life expectancy at birth for Maori males decreased by 0.48 years between 1965–67 and 1970–72 while that for Maori females increased by 0.18 years. This is the first time that a decline in Maori male life expectancy has been experienced in the history of Maori life tables—first produced in 1950–52. It can be attributed to increased mortality in most ages resulting from a greater number of fatal accidents and a higher incidence of cancer. A similar decline in life expectancy was experienced by non-Maori males between 1960–62 and 1965–67, while similar trends were evident in some other western countries about this time.

The expectation of life of Maoris is shorter than that of non-Maoris at all except the highest ages. A comparison at age 0 shows that life expectancy is 8.13 years greater for non-Maori males and 10.20 years greater for non-Maori females. For the period 1965–67, the differences were 7.23 years and 10.06 years respectively.

The table below compares the life expectancy at birth for the total population of New Zealand with that for selected overseas countries. Sources: United Nations Demographic Yearbook and Population and Australia.

CountryPeriodLife Expectancy at Birth (Years)
MalesFemales
Australia197268.1974.99
Canada1970–7269.3476.36
Denmark1972–7370.876.3
England and Wales1970–7268.975.1
France197268.674.4
Netherlands197371.277.2
New Zealand1970–7268.5574.60
United States197468.275.9

REGISTRATION OF DEATH, BURIAL, AND CREMATION—Deaths are required to be registered by the funeral director within 3 days after the day of burial. The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Burial and Cremation Act 1974. The registration by local authorities of funeral directors and mortuaries operated by them is provided for in the Health (Burial) Regulations 1946. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision exists for the disposal of the dead. Cremation may be carried out if the deceased is not known to have left any written direction to the contrary.

The rate of cremation for every 100 deaths registered doubled between 1950 and 1970, and has continued to increase. The following table relates cremations to the number of deaths since 1950. Prior to 1970 the statistics concern deaths of non-Maoris only.

YearDeaths RegisteredCremationsRate per 100 Deaths Registered
MalesFemalesTotal
195016 7151 7991 4543 25319.46
196019 5242 9582 5825 54028.38
197024 8405 4184 4749 89239.82
197525 1146 0865 15811 24444.77
197625 457....11 68745.91
197725 9616 7125 50012 21247.03

DEATHS BY CAUSES—The selection of cause of death recommended by the World Health Organisation's International Classification of Diseases is based on the concept of selecting the underlying cause of death.

The certifier's statement largely determines the cause but to obtain more accurate data the nosologists also refer to all autopsy reports received, cancer case registrations, coroners' reports, and hospital case summaries.

Medical practitioners certified 82 percent of deaths registered in 1976 and 18 percent were certified by coroners. Of the deaths certified by doctors, 15 percent were subject to autopsy whilst 92 percent of deaths certified by coroners were subject to autopsy. Overall, 29 percent of all deaths had autopsies performed.

Detailed information about causes of death is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre in New Zealand Health Statistics Report—Mortality and Demographic Data.

The following table is a summary of causes of death, numbers and rates per million of mean population for the years 1974 to 1976.

Cause of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
19741975197619741975x1976
Enteritis and other diarrhoeal disease405331131710
Tuberculosis of respiratory system2632259108
Other tuberculosis including late effects514237171412
Infectious hepatitis131711464
Syphilis and its sequelae935312
All other infective and parasitic diseases809375263024
Malignant neoplasm4 9665 0075 1451 6311 6221 651
Benign neoplasm and neoplasm of unspecified nature323743111214
Diseases of thyroid gland282528989
Diabetes mellitus475472466156153150
Avitaminoses and other nutritional deficiency6811234
Anaemia495848161915
Alcoholic psychosis and alcoholism738171242623
Meningitis3527291199
Multiple sclerosis261820966
Paralysis agitans1069285353027
Epilepsy47294115913
Chronic rheumatic heart disease233240271777887
Hypertensive disease377379344124123110
Ischaemic heart disease7 0786 9657 2402 3252 2562 323
Other forms of heart disease638656789210213253
Cerebrovascular disease3 4583 2353 0741 1361 048986
Diseases of arteries, arterioles, and capillaries801823732263267235
Acute respiratory infections including influenza128152255424982
Pneumonia828888996272288320
Bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma1 0561 0721 138347347365
Other diseases of respiratory system230239244767778
Peptic ulcer165149154544849
Appendicitis131310443
Intestinal obstruction and hernia90106114303437
Cirrhosis of liver165191150546248
Diseases of gallbladder536556172118
Nephritis and nephrosis130117120433839
Infections of kidney676155222018
Hyperplasia of prostate553554181117
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium10136342
Rheumatoid arthritis636062211920
Congenital anomalies33134229610911195
Birth injury, difficult labour, and other anoxic and hypoxic conditions13514997444831
Other causes of perinatal mortality234227182777458
All other diseases782812853257263274
Motor vehicle accidents730689663240223213
All other accidents980989948322320304
Suicide and self-inflicted injury273293291909593
All other external causes896185292027
                Total25 25425 11525 4508 2968 1368 167

PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATH—Heart disease, malignant neoplasms (cancer), and cerebrovascular disease were again the leading causes of death in 1976 (the latest year for which data are available). These 3 causes accounted for approximately 60 percent of all deaths in 1976—ischaemic heart disease accounted for approximately 28 percent of deaths, malignant neoplasms (cancer) for 20 percent, and cerebrovascular disease for 12 percent.

Death rates per million of mean population from leading causes of death are shown in the following table and graph.

Cause of Death19741975x1976
Deaths per million
All heart disease2 7012 6432 749
Malignant neoplasms (cancer)1 6311 6221 651
Cerebrovascular disease1 1361 048986
Accidental causes553533508
Pneumonia272288320

Figure 6.2. PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATH

PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATH

Heart Disease—Heart disease as a group of diseases is still the leading cause of death in New Zealand but death rates from this cause have fallen in recent years. The standardised mortality ratios for all forms of heart disease show that for both sexes the rates have fallen by 8 percent between 1970 and 1976.

The numbers of deaths and standardised mortality ratios for heart disease, excluding acute rheumatic forms and congenital malformations, during recent years are shown below.

YearAll Forms of Heart DiseaseCoronary Heart Disease
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*
*Base years 1950–52 = 100.
19654 7101003 394793 6191542 159163
19704 886993 405724 2281692 560177
19724 784933 515704 2621642 838187
19734 922953 361664 4351682 678173
19744 795913 427664 3201612 758175
19754 84590x3 31562x4 294157x2 671165x
19765 012913 554644 4431582 797166

The standardised mortality ratio shows the number of deaths registered in the year of experience expressed as a percentage of those which would have been expected in that year had there operated the sex-age mortality of a standard period (the 3 years 1950–52 were chosen). The standardised mortality ratio has been adopted to eliminate the distorting effect of the changes which take place over a period in the age-structure of the population.

Coronary (ischaemic) heart disease showed a small increase in the crude death rate in 1976, slowing the declining trend experienced since 1972.

Cancer—In New Zealand 1 death in 5 in 1976 was caused by cancer. The cancer crude death rate has increased in each of the past 4 years (for which figures are available) from 158.1 per 100 000 population in 1973 to 165.1 in 1976.

A detailed report on cancer mortality and morbidity in New Zealand is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. These reports cover mortality from cancer and also survey all cases reported to the National Cancer Registry by hospitals, and by the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the Cancer Society of New Zealand.

A summary of numbers of deaths from cancer, crude death rates, and standardised mortality ratios is provided in the following table.

YearNumber of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100 000Standardised Mortality Ratios*Number of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100 000Standardised Mortality Ratios*

*Base years 1950–52 = 100.

†Provisional.

  Males  Females 
19591 431148.2991 286134.697
19601 724144.31011 566132.592
19702 436173.01262 024143.599
19722 411165.41212 115145.099
19732 567172.31262 141143.899
19742 682176.11292 284150.3x103
19752 726176.9x1292 281147.6x101
19762 815180.81302 330149.4101

A classification of cancer deaths during 1976 according to age and sex is now given. Ninety-two percent of deaths from cancer during 1976 were at 45 years of age or above, and 58 percent were at 65 years of age or above.

Age Group in YearsDeaths of MalesDeaths of Females
NumbersRate per 100 000 of Population at Ages GivenPercentage of Total Deaths at Ages GivenNumbersRate per 100 000 of Population at Ages GivenPercentage of Total Deaths at Ages Given
*All ages crude rate.
Under 596.11.796.32.2
5–143611.226.9185.922.0
15–24258.85.2217.613.4
25–4411729.616.617044.137.6
45–64912317.025.6819282.138.9
65 and over1 7161 443.720.11 290807.115.6
        All ages2 815180.8*20.22 330149.4*20.3

The upward trend of deaths from cancer of the lung among males continued in 1976. There were 1040 deaths from this cause, an increase of 51 deaths over the previous year. One death in 25 registered in 1976 was caused by cancer of the lung. Career of the breast accounted for 19 percent of all female cancer deaths making this the principal primary site of cancer in females.

Other sites for which upward trends were recorded are melanoma of the skin in males, and cancer of the pancreas in females.

The following table shows deaths from cancer (malignant neoplasms) by sex and selected sites, registered in New Zealand during 1975 and 1976.

SiteSexNumbersRates per Million Mean Population
197519761975x1976
Buccal cavity and pharynxM57503732
 F25271617
OesophagusM82825353
 F43532834
StomachM215244140157
 F1351358787
Large intestineM248238161153
 F326336211215
RectumM1431449393
 F1301298483
Bronchus, trachea, and lungM789844512542
 F200196129126
BreastM3221
 F422447273287
Cervix uteriF89915858
Corpus uteriF53563436
Ovary, fallopian tube, and broad ligamentF1511339885
ProstateM265251172161
Bladder and other urinary organsM761044967
 F38372524
Skin, all formsM83835453
 F49573237
BrainM77845054
 F67444328
Lymphosarcoma and reticulum-cell sarcomaM53433428
 F35432328
LeukaemiaM1151057567
 F86815652
All other and unspecified sitesM520541337348
 F432465279298
                Total cancer deathsM2 7262 8151 7691 808
 F2 2812 3301 4761 494

Cerebrovascular Disease—Cerebrovascular disease, the third of the principal causes of death in New Zealand, affects mainly the late-middle-aged and the elderly. In 1976, 3074 persons died of the disease. Of these, only 118 were below 50 years of age, and 2582 were 65 years of age or above.

The World Health Organisation defines cerebrovascular disease as follows:

“Cerebrovascular diseases are diseases of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) of vascular origin. The term covers a wide range of clinical manifestations, varying from subarachnoid haemorrhage resulting from a rupture of Berry aneurysm on the one hand to arteriosclerotic Parkinsonism and dementia on the other.”

The incidence of deaths from cerebrovascular disease over a series of years is shown in the following table. After reaching a peak in 1972 the rate has declined in each year since. The 1976 rate of 986 per million of mean population is the lowest recorded since 1950.

YearDeathsRate*
*Rate per million of mean population.
19612 7381 128
19622 7291 097
19632 1161 092
19642 7571 061
19652 8751 086
19663 0671 143
19672 8251 035
19683 1101 128
19693 0701 104
19703 2131 140
19713 3101 156
19723 4471 182
19733 5131 179
19743 4581 136
19753 2351 048x
19763 074986

INFANT AND PERINATAL MORTALITY—The following table shows New Zealand and perinatal mortality numbers and rates for 1975–76. An infant death is defined as a liveborn infant dying before the first year of life is completed. A neonatal death is defined as the death of a liveborn infant before the 28th day of life; a post neonatal death as the death of a live-born infant between the 28th day and the first year of life. The 1976 infant mortality rate of 14 per 1000 live births is the lowest recorded in New Zealand.

Perinatal Mortality—Perinatal deaths comprise stillbirths and deaths in the first week of life. The late fetal death (stillbirths) and the perinatal mortality rate are calculated per 1000 total births (still births plus livebirths), while the death rate for neonatal and infant death is calculated per 1000 livebirths.

DeathYearMaoriNon-MaoriTotal Population
No.RateNo.RateNo.Rate
Late fetal1975487.04238.44718.2
1976466.93817.84277.7
Early neonatal1975639.34098.24728.3
1976639.53116.43746.8
Perinatal197511116.383216.594316.5
197610916.369214.280114.4
Neonatal19757611.24749.55509.7
19767110.73657.54367.9
Post neonatal1975639.32945.93576.3
19767511.32635.43386.1
Infant197513920.576815.490716.0
197614622.062813.077414.0

In a review of neonatal and postnatal deaths, issued by Department of Heath in November 1976, it was shown that 8 countries, selected on the basis of their having one million or more population and on their reporting of data regarded by World Heath Organisation as complete, had a lower mortality rate than New Zealand. These 8 were Sweden, Finland, Japan, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, France, and Switzerland. The following table shows infant mortality rates for selected countries (including some of the 8) during 1973. The figures represent deaths per 100 000 live births.

CountryAge of Child
Under 1 YearUnder 1 Day1 and Under 7 Days7 and Under 28 Days1 Month and Under 1 Year
 Deaths per 100 000 Live Births
Sweden98533734896203
Japan1 132214367159392
Netherlands1 153277451118306
France1 25899460221478
New Zealand1 620538319120642
Australia1 649694364124468
England and Wales1 688552400161574
United States1 772722421153476
Source: World Health Statistics Annual.

The following diagram illustrates infant mortality rates in New Zealand.

Figure 6.3. INFANT DEATHS UNDER 12 MONTHS

INFANT DEATHS UNDER 12 MONTHS

Causes of Infant Mortality—Deaths from the principal causes of infant mortality, and the rate per 1000 live births, are shown for the latest available 3 years in the following table.

Cause of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per 1000 Live Births
197419751976197419751976
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis1231111032.12.01.9
Gastro-enteritis, diarrhoea, also dysentery1115130.20.30.2
Congenital anomalies2272141863.83.83.4
Neonatal disorders arising from certain diseases of the mother5557320.91.00.6
Birth injury, difficult labour, and other anoxic and hypoxic conditions4344340.70.80.6
Asphyxia of newborn unspecified2939200.50.70.4
Haemolytic disease of newborn5870.10.10.1
Hyaline membrane disease3637230.60.70.4
Immaturity and multiple pregnancy5758561.01.01.0
All other causes3393243005.75.75.4
Total infant deaths92590777415.616.014.0

MATERNAL DEATHS—The Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968 defines a maternal death as “a death that occurs during pregnancy or within a period of 3 months after the date of termination of a pregnancy”. Deaths from complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium numbered 6 in

1976 with a rate of 1.1 per 10 000 live births. Deaths occurring during pregnancy or within 3 months of delivery but not due to complications of pregnancy or childbirth or the puerperium numbered 16 in 1976 with a rate of 2.9 per 10 000 live births.

DEATHS OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN—A review of the mortality of children aged between 1 and under 5 years in New Zealand and in selected countries in 1972 was prepared by the Department of Health in 1976. The data, abstracted from the World Health Statistics Annual, revealed New Zealand as having a relatively poor record in this field among the developed nations of the world. The Department of Health stated that the purpose of the review was “to identify those causes of death which need special study if New Zealand's sorry performance in caring for its preschool children is to be improved”. In all, 25 countries had lower mortality rates for pre-school children in 1972 than did New Zealand.

Principal causes of deaths among New Zealand children aged 1 and under 5 years of age in 1972 are shown in the next table, together with the death rates from these causes in Sweden (which had the lowest child-mortality rate of any country), England and Wales, and Australia.

Cause of DeathNumber of Deaths per 100 000 Children Aged 1–4 years
SwedenEngland and WalesAustralia*New Zealand
*1971.
Infective and parasitic diseases11118
Malignant neoplasm6545
Leukaemia2354
Meningitis11..2
Epilepsy..112
Acute respiratory infections1426
Viral and other pneumonia1786
Bronchitis, emphysema and asthma..112
Spina bifida..2..2
Congenital anomalies of heart4656
All other congenital anomalies5469
Motor vehicle accidents461115
Accidental drowning and submersion63119
All other accidents59911
All other causes1015149
All causes48758795

This review was based upon 1 year's deaths only. The question of how representative the 1972 figures are of each country's mortality experience may be a matter open to discussion. Nevertheless, the difference between the New Zealand and the Swedish mortality rates among pre-school children is so large that some direct comparison is justified. If New Zealand is to approach the mortality rate of Sweden, 5 disease groups could well receive close attention, for each of which the New Zealand rate is substantially higher than that for Sweden. The groups are: infective and parasitic diseases; acute respiratory infections; viral and other pneumonia; motor vehicle accidents; and other accidents.

A more-recent review based on 1974 data gave New Zealand's age-specific mortality rate for children aged 1 to 4 years as 83.3 per 100 000 compared with 95.3 per 100 000 in 1972, and its ranking among countries as twenty-second compared with twenty-sixth in 1972.

A main cause for New Zealand's 'poor showing is the relatively high rate of mortality among preschoolers from accidents and violence (36 deaths per 100 000 population in 1974 compared with 14 per 100 000 in Sweden and 17 per 100 000 in England and Wales). It has been said that a relatively high preschool mortality rate can be expected because of the New Zealand life-style. The argument goes that because abundant natural resources are a challenge to which New Zealanders respond by living adventurous lives, and because children elsewhere are not equally at risk, international comparison cannot properly be made. The basis upon which comparative risk in this context could be quantified is debatable. The fact remains that for whatever reasons New Zealand pre-schoolers are at higher risk of accidental death than pre-schoolers in many other countries with similar standards of living.

The following table shows the number of deaths of pre-school children from accidents and violence in New Zealand during 1976. The leading causes, accounting for 50 of the 77 deaths, were accidents involving motor vehicles and drowning.

Causes of DeathSexAges (In Years)Total
1234
Motor vehiclesM237517
F145111
DrowningM155415
F23117
HomicideM213
F314
FallM123
F11
Mechanical suffocationM112
F22
PoisoningM1113
FireM11
F112
ScaldsM22
Electric currentF112
MachineryM11
Crushed by falling objectM11
                TotalM79201248
F1196329
T1818261577

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES—Accidents, poisonings, and violence caused approximately 8 percent of the total deaths in each of the years 1974 to 1976.

The following table shows deaths from external causes for the latest 3 years. In this table, falls on board ship and from horseback are classified as transport accidents.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
19741975x197619741975x1976

*Includes drowning from water transport.

†Figures not comparable with 1970–1975 because of amendments to classification procedure.

Motor-vehicle accidents730689663240223213
Other transport accidents534160171319
Accidental poisoning26443191410
Accidental falls524496437172161140
Accidents caused by machinery35362911129
Accidents caused by fire and explosion of combustible material384843121614
Accidents caused by firearms11107432
Accidental drowning and submersion*127121161†423952
Suicide and self-inflicted injury273293291909593
Homicide443133141011
All other external causes211223232697274
Total deaths from accidents, poisoning, or violence2 0722 0321 987681658638

An analysis of deaths by the principal external causes during 1976 is given by sex and age-group in the following table and in the notes following it.

Age Group (In Years)Motor Vehicle AccidentsAccidental DrowningsAccidental PoisoningsAccidental Falls
MFMFMFMF
†Figures not comparable with 1970–75 because of amendments to classification procedures.
Under 1542262015372
15–24224474167113
25–3473102332421
35–4443141912252
45–54421710212112
55–6433119312126
65–741723711828
75 and over192222185243
                Total493170131301912153284
Age GroupSuicide and Self-inflicted InjuryHomicideAll Accidents, Poisonings, and Violence*
MFMFMF
*Includes causes other than those shown in table.
Under 1516612270
15–243485137574
25–3431153218248
35–4429121212738
45–542621412650
55–644319212950
65–74231418676
75 and over114138296
                Total1989322111 285702

Motor Vehicle Accidents—Motor vehicle accidents are a leading cause of death in males aged 15 to 24 years, accounting for 46 percent of all male deaths at these ages. In comparison deaths of females in the same age-groups account for 30 percent of female deaths in the 15 to 24 years age-range.

Accidents with tractors are the main feature of fatalities on farms. Later sections deal with statistics of industrial and farm accidents.

Accidental Drowning—During 1976 a review of classification procedures in use at the National Health Statistics Centre was held. This resulted in slight modifications to the coding guidelines for causes such as accidental deaths from falls and drowning. It was decided to give greater weight to drowning. The 1976 figures reflect this decision. It is likely that figures of drownings are a little understated for 1970–1975.

Accidental Falls—There were 437 deaths from accidental falls in 1976. This is one accident area in which the total female mortality exceeds the male. However, as shown in the preceeding table, there is an excess of male deaths over female deaths in each age group under 65 years. At 65 years of age and above the higher life expectancy of females ensures that more elderly women than elderly men are exposed to the risk of fatal falls.

In 1976 the home was the place of occurrence of 44 percent of fatal accidental falls and, in fact, falls are the chief cause of death in home accidents.

Suicide and Self-inflicted Injury—The 1975 suicide rate of 96 per million mean population was the highest rate recorded since 1970. The male rate of 128 per million was exactly double the female rate. The 1976 suicide rate of 93 per million was slightly lower. The previous table shows the lower numbers of deaths by suicide among women at all ages.

Site of Non-transport Accidents—The place of occurrence of fatal non-transport accidents (excluding surgical and medical misadventure and late effects of accidental injury) is shown in the following table. As mentioned previously, falls are the chief cause of accidental fatalities in the home, exacting a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. Accidents occurring at home and in residential institutions (rest homes, hospitals, etc.) accounted for 60 percent of all fatal non-transport accidents in the 3-year period 1974 to 1976.

Place of OccurrenceNumberRate per Million of Mean Population
197419751976197419751976
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)373395356123128114
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)404930131610
Mine and quarry12813
Industrial place and premises494035161311
Place for recreation and sport181110643
Street and highway231929869
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)131516455
Residential institution (homes, hospitals, etc.)163150141544945
Other specified places126149138414844
Place not specified937774312524
                Total899907837295294269

Approximately 42 percent of fatal non-transport accidents occurred in or about the home.

Water Accidents by Location—The following table shows provisional figures of drownings during 1978 by location. Figures of drownings in this table may differ from those shown elsewhere in this section. Figures published by the National Health Statistics Centre show deaths registered as drownings following the results of inquests. The table following, supplied by the New Zealand Water Safety Council, includes persons known (or almost certainly known) to have been drowned although the bodies have not been recovered.

LocationAge in Year
Under 55–1516–3031–50Over 50Total

*Includes victims of unspecified ages.

†All in private swimming pools.

‡Includes 2 in ponds, 1 in a drain, and 2 in farm ponds or dams.

Boating accidents12513731*
Rivers, streams, and other running water96107638
Seas and beaches286319
Scuba diving315*
Harbours12126
Lakes and lagoons112
Swimming pools72211
Other6241114
                Total, 19772416322921126*

4 D—MARRIAGES

GENERAL—Marriage may be solemnised in New Zealand either by a celebrant included in the list of marriage celebrants under the Marriage Act 1955, or before a duly appointed registrar or deputy registrar of marriages. A licence must be obtained from a registrar of marriages before a marriage by a marriage celebrant can be solemnised. Marriage by a marriage celebrant may be solemnised at any time between 6 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a registrar can be solemnised at any time during the hours the office of the registrar is open for the transactions of public business; notice of intended marriage must be given to a registrar of marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage.

The Marriage Amendment Act 1976 extended the right of solemnising marriages to nominated members of approved organisations of a non-religious character.

In the case of a person under 20 years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parents or guardian is necessary. Consent of a Magistrate may be sought in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

Since 1933 the minimum age for marriage has been 16 years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to be void, however, by reason only of an infringement of the minimum age.

Since 1 April 1952 it has been required under the Maori Purposes Act 1951 that every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be solemnised in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a non-Maori.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The numbers of marriages and rates during recent years are shown below. The marriage rate, like the birth rate, has been declining in recent years.

YearNumberRate per 1000 of Population
197326 2748.84
197425 4128.38
197524 5357.95
197624 1547.75
197722 5897.22
197822 4267.17

Comparison with Other Countries—Marriage rates for certain countries for 1977 are given below. (Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.)

CountryRate per 1000 of Mean Population
Australia7.5
Belgium7.0
Canada8.2
France6.9
Germany, West5.8
Italy6.1
Japan7.2
Netherlands6.7
New Zealand7.2
Sweden4.9
United Kingdom7.3
United States10.1

MARITAL STATUS PRIOR TO MARRIAGE—The following table gives marital status prior to marriage for the latest available 5 years.

YearSingleWidowedDivorcedTotal Persons Married
BridegroomBrideBridegroomBrideBridegroomBride
197322 76822 9701 0201 0392 4862 26552 548
197421 70521 9629721 0352 7352 41550 824
197520 86320 9658909582 7822 61249 070
197620 06120 2379411 0213 1522 89648 308
197718 32918 6619831 0363 2772 89245 178

The nature of the marriage according to marital status of persons prior to marriage is given next.

YearMarriages Between Bachelors andMarriages Between Widowers andMarriages Between Divorced Men and
SpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced Women
197321 4262531 0892445262501 300260926
197420 3462501 1092234952541 3932901 052
197519 3382501 2751784362761 4492721 061
197618 4702561 3351884542991 5793111 262
197716 8751951 2591885022931 5983391 340

During the years 1938–40 there were 95 male divorcees who remarried for every 100 female divorcees who remarried. In the period 1973–77 more male divorcees than female divorcees remarried.

The number of widows per 100 widowers who remarried was 67 in 1938–40, but with a changed social outlook the position in 1973–77 was that 106 widows remarried for every 100 widowers.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED—Until recently, the proportion of minors among persons marrying had been increasing over a fairly long period of years but it is now declining slightly. On 1 January 1971 the age of majority was lowered from 21 to 20 years of age. In 1977, 1 bride in every 4 was under 20 years of age, the proportion of grooms being 1 in 18.

Of the persons married in 1977, 6815 or 15.08 percent were under 20 years of age; 20 790 or 46.01 percent were returned as 20–24 years; 8237 or 18.23 percent as 25–29 years; 4932 or 10.91 percent as 30–39 years; and 4404 or 9.74 percent as 40 years of age and over.

The following table relates to the 1977 calendar year.

Age of Bridegroom, in YearsAge of Bride, in YearsTotal Bridegrooms
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and Over
Under 2097324713211 236
20–243 8646 14654177213410 656
25–296142 8711 356247721555 180
30–34916367124001263372 005
35–39261472372741715727939
40–4435310515012311365612
45 and over834931401842271 2751 961
Total brides5 57910 1343 0571 2906984481 38322 589

The following table shows since 1965 the proportions of men and women who married at each age group for every 100 marriages.

PeriodUnder 20*20–24*25–2930–3435–3940–4445 and OverTotal
*Under 21 and 21–24 respectively before 1971.
Males
1965–6915.2344.7921.246.313.462.346.63100.0
19757.6648.9922.427.243.642.347.71100.0
19766.1648.2223.427.803.902.408.10100.0
19775.4747.1722.938.874.152.708.68100.0
Females
1965–6945.3333.629.083.052.101.815.01100.0
197529.2643.9312.524.732.401.845.32100.0
197626.9344.3813.414.922.791.925.66100.0
197724.6944.8613.535.713.081.986.12100.0

The average ages (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females are shown in the following table.

YearAverage Age at Marriage
BridegroomsBrides
197226.3823.54
197326.5423.68
197426.7823.94
197527.0524.16
197627.4524.52
197727.9024.93

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the latest 5 years according to marital status were as shown in the next table.

YearBridegroomsBrides
BachelorsDivorcedWidowersSpinstersDivorcedWidows
Age in Years
197323.7639.2957.4521.3035.1251.39
197423.8439.1557.4521.4435.0651.04
197524.2138.7856.7321.5935.0950.54
197624.2938.5957.4321.7034.9050.93
197724.3438.8557.7021.9134.8151.78

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides in 1977 was 20 years. In the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied and for recent years it has been 21 to 24; in 1977 it was 22 years.

Marriages of Minors—Of every 1000 men who married in 1977, 55 were under 20 years of age, while 247 in every 1000 brides were under 20. Since 1 January 1971 the age of majority has been 20 years. In 973 marriages in 1977 both parties were given as under 20 years of age, in 4606 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 263 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

As already stated, the proportion of minors among persons marrying now appears to be levelling off or even falling. The main reason for this is the changing age structure of the population, with a slowly diminishing proportion consisting of minors of marriageable age.

In the table below figures are given for the last 5 years.

YearAge in YearsTotal Minors and 20-Year-olds
161718192016–20 Years16–19 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16–20 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16–19 Years
Bridegrooms
1973302466791 3182 5354 8082 27318.308.65
1974311916271 2642 4254 5382 11317.868.31
1975371645421 1372 2074 0871 88016.667.66
1976121133909721 9923 4791 48714.406.16
197717903367931 7272 9631 23613.115.47
Brides
19736931 4452 6803 6473 88912 3548 46547.0232.22
19746111 2812 5833 5773 66711 7198 05246.1231.69
19754951 1522 2523 2793 47010 6487 17843.4029.26
19763879492 0323 1363 3819 8856 50440.9226.93
19772787181 8312 7523 0838 6625 57938.3424.69

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES—Of the 22 589 marriages performed in 1977, Anglican clergymen officiated at 5041, Presbyterian at 4730, Roman Catholic at 2951, Methodist at 1544, and clergymen of other churches at 2845, while 5478 marriages were solemnised by registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before registrars in each of the 6 latest years.

ChurchPercentage of Marriages
197219731974197519761977
*Including marriage celebrants other than ministers of religion.
Anglican25.0724.4523.7722.6222.5222.32
Presbyterian22.6521.7321.4521.4921.7620.94
Roman Catholic15.1314.7814.3513.6813.4813.06
Methodist6.857.226.896.716.526.84
Others*7.607.788.359.229.4712.59
Before Registrars22.7024.0425.1926.2826.2524.25
                Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population at the 1976 Census of Population, 29.2 percent were recorded as adherents of the Anglican Church, 18.1 percent Presbyterian, 15.3 percent Roman Catholic, 5.5 percent Methodist, 18.5 percent were of no religion, or objected to stating their religious profession or did not specify any religious profession.

NUMBER OF MARRIAGE CELEBRANTS—The number of names on the list of marriage celebrants under the Marriage Act was 4778 at 1 April 1978. The principal churches to which they belonged are shown hereunder.

ChurchNumber
Roman Catholic Church912
Anglican (Church of England)785
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand682
Methodist Church of New Zealand341
Baptist259
Salvation Army251
Latter Day Saints170
Ratana Church of New Zealand147
Jehovah's Witness129
Brethren103
Assemblies of God95
Ringatu Church84
Seventh Day Adventist55
Associated Churches of Christ52
Apostolic Church35
United Pentecostal Church22
Liberal Catholic Church21
Congregational Church of Samoa21
Other religious bodies417
Other197
                Total4 778

DIVORCE—A petition for divorce may be presented to the Supreme Court on 1 or more of several grounds, which include adultery, desertion, separation by agreement for not less than 2 years, separation by decree of separation or separation order for not less than 2 years, and the parties living apart for 4 years and not likely to be reconciled. Where the parties are separated or living apart 1 of the parties must have been resident in New Zealand for at least 2 years immediately preceding the filing of the petition. The Court is required to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation of the parties to the marriage.

Petitions filed for dissolution or nullity of marriage and decrees granted by the Supreme Court in recent years are shown in the following table.

YearPetitions FiledDecree NisiDecrees Absolute
Number GrantedRate per 100 Marriages During YearRate per 10 000 of Mean Population
19745 3684 6294 45717.5414.64
19756 2305 3984 76119.4115.42
19766 1535 6155 40122.3617.33
19776 2655 4885 38123.8217.20
19786 6586 0145 77225.4918.45

The next table gives the grounds of petitions and decrees during the 2 years, 1977 and 1978.

GroundPetitions FiledDecrees Absolute Granted
Husbands' PetitionsWives-PetitionsHusbands' PetitionsWives' Petitions
19771978197719781977197819771978
Adultery700596537550596570453475
Desertion10888105951019610887
Separation by agreement1 5581 6951 5441 6941 3631 5121 3611 445
Separation by Court Order354524615709305366464580
Having lived apart for 4 years or more341316364346292311306301
Non-consummation1510816141167
Other4312164811
                Total3 0803 2323 1853 4262 6752 8662 7062 906

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year. A decree nisi normally applies for at least 3 months before a decree absolute is granted.

For all years up to and including 1976, living issue of marriage of divorcing couples were tabulated. New procedures effective from 1 January 1977 define “children” as all children of the family who are under the age of 18 at the date of decree absolute, whether or not they are children of the husband or wife. Thus all legitimised and adopted children are included, and the statistics show only those children of an age to be dependent upon parents.

The following table shows the duration of marriage by ages of husbands and wives at the time of marriage, for cases in which decrees absolute were granted in 1977, and 1978.

Duration of Marriage (in Years)Age (in Years) at Marriage
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and Over (including Not Stated)*Total
*Ages were not stated for 81 husbands and 82 wives in 1977, and 83 husbands and 85 wives in 1978.
1977
Husbands (All Petitions)
Under 555208692915730413
  5–9231965251715630921 696
10–14168640206693920331 175
15–198145617862271526845
20 and over616533591093613211 252
                Total5962 9221 063340173852025 381
Wives (All Petitions)
Under 5166148461481021413
  5–9740675105443521761 696
10–1451948480262015311 175
15–19331363743218819845
20 and over34564716749159201 252
                Total2 1012 31747216596631675 381
1978
Husbands (All Petitions)
Under 543225652515646425
  5–92411 0062631045333841 784
10–14152736232623320481 283
15–198048418260251422867
20 and over68774406993111241 413
                Total5843 2251 148350157842245 772
Wives (All Petitions)
Under 515916634159735425
  5–9808690133432619651 784
10–1455454693251411401 283
15–19357392622091215867
20 and over41276716131177181 413
                Total2 2902 56148313475561735 772

Dissolution of a Voidable Marriage—A decree of dissolution of a voidable marriage puts an end to the marriage from the date of the decree. On average there are only about 20 such decrees in New Zealand each year. The principal ground is non-consummation.

MARRIAGE GUIDANCE—A National Marriage Guidance Council was established in 1950 as a voluntary agency to assist with social problems arising from unhappy or maladjusted marriages. From 1959–68 an adviser in marriage guidance was attached to the staff of the Department of Justice. An advisory committee was also set up to keep Government informed and to organise, with the assistance of appropriate professional groups, a programme for the selection, training, and accrediting of voluntary marriage counsellors. Although the training system is kept under constant review, the procedures followed have become well established and administration has now been taken over largely by the national council with the support and advice of the department.

The 24 councils affiliated to the National Marriage Guidance Council provide counselling centres staffed by 175 accredited counsellors. During the past year these people provided skilled professional assistance to 4826 couples who approached the service on their own initiative and in addition assisted the Courts by serving as conciliators under the Domestic Proceedings Act. They dealt with 1988 cases in this way. All in all, 21 397 counselling interviews were provided during the year.

The National Marriage Guidance Council employs a full-time director to organise and co-ordinate the work of affiliated councils. At the local level the work of 554 trained volunteers in the fields of counselling and marriage education is supported and co-ordinated by 7 full-time and 2 part-time local directors, 7 part-time co-ordinators, and 33 receptionists or secretaries. Five of the part-time coordinators mentioned above represent an important extension of marriage counselling services into provincial towns. Supervisors from neighbouring councils are funded 1 day a fortnight to travel to smaller centres in order to stimulate and supervise the development of local volunteers. This has the effect of placing professional counselling and conciliation services closer to the people in rural communities.

Chapter 7. Section 5; HEALTH AND HOSPITALS

5 A—HEALTH AND MEDICAL SERVICES

General—The nation's health is the responsibility of a partnership of Central and local government, private medical practitioners, para-medical workers, charitable and religious organisations and private citizens, with the Central Government providing encouragement, financial assistance and incentives, and assuming final responsibility. This has been a deliberate policy of successive Governments, although emphases have varied from time to time according to political and economic conditions and demands for specific services. Growing urbanisation and industrialisation, with consequent intensification of the problems of pollution of water, air, and land, have in recent years resulted in an increased emphasis on the importance of environmental health.

Public health services have to do with environmental health, communicable diseases and quarantine, occupational health and toxicology, radiation protection, food and nutrition, health education, family health, dental services and certain aspects of nursing. In the case of environmental health the concern of the Department of Health and local authorities is with matters such as the provision and protection of public water supplies, sewage treatment and disposal, food hygiene, and housing standards. Its objectives are the maintenance of a healthy environment by the application of the principles of preventive medicine.

ADMINISTRATION—The functions of local authorities are defined by statute and regulation. Elected local authorities must appoint a sufficient number of health inspectors qualified under the Health Inspectors Qualifications Regulations 1975. Where a local authority is too small to need a separate, full-time inspector, the Act permits two or more to combine to share the cost. In some smaller sparsely-populated districts where a local authority does not employ its own inspector, the departmental inspectors of health do the work and the authority pays for it. Only 25 percent of inspectors are employed by the department.

In each of the 18 health districts, the medical officer of health, who is a medical practitioner with special qualifications in public health, is the adviser to all local authorities in his district; in some cases his approval is required before action can be taken by a local authority, and in others he is the first line of appeal against its decisions. He is required to keep the Director-General of Health and the Board of Health informed of local authority deficiencies in their responsibilities under the Health Act.

Diseases which are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 must be notified by doctors and hospitals to the medical officer of health who is responsible for control measures; within this area the local authority health inspector is subject to his direct supervision and control. New programmes of immunisation are undertaken by the department and, when established, vaccines are provided free to general practitioners who are encouraged in this work. Quarantine arrangements for both aircraft and ships comply with obligations under the International Health Regulations. Medical officers of health administer this service. The broad objective is the control of communicable and chronic diseases in man and the keeping of New Zealand free of quarantinable diseases.

Accident prevention and the health of industrial and agricultural workers is the care of the Department of Health in conjunction with the Department of Labour. The aim is to prevent occupational disease, control toxic hazards, raise standards of first-aid services, and ensure the safe use of agricultural chemicals. Food and nutrition standards aimed at protecting the consumer are laid down. An extensive programme, backed by legislation, governs the packaging, labelling, storage, and sale of poisons. Special environmental problems, such as radiation protection, occupational health, and atmosphere pollution, are also the responsibility of the Department of Health.

The objectives of health education programmes are to increase understanding of the value of health, to inform people of health services available, and to equip them with knowledge and skills they can use to solve health problems.

Family health responsibilities include medical and nursing supervision of infant, pre-school, and school children; inspection of schools and child care centres; immunisation of infants against poliomyelitis, etc.; and the administration of regulations bearing on home safety.

A dental service, directed by dental officers and staffed by dental nurses, provides regular dental treatment for all pre-school, primary and intermediate school children. Arrangements with private dental practitioners ensure similar treatment for adolescents up to the age of 16 years and for dependants up to the age of 18 years. Dental health education is also undertaken.

The Department of Health is responsible for the organisation and control of nursing services to the public in general; in hospitals (public or private); in homes for the aged, incapacitated, or infirm or in any other places where the Department of Health has responsibility. Considerable delegation has taken place, mainly to hospital boards whose chief nursing officer is responsible to the chief medical officer for the administration of the services provided. The department reviews its nursing services and those provided by hospital boards. Basic nursing education is provided in 26 hospital schools of nursing and 6 technical institutes. Formal post-basic nursing education at diploma/degree level is available from Victoria and Massey Universities, and 4 technical institutes have post-basic diploma courses. Short post-basic courses in learning and teaching are available from 2 teachers' colleges, and similar short courses in community health nursing from 4 technical institutes.

Within its public health nursing service, the department employs over 400 well-qualified nurses. Their work includes supervising the health of babies and small children, taking part in child health (including health education) programmes, providing a service to small industries and people in “at risk” occupations, taking part in disease control programmes, and assisting elderly people and people with mental health problems.

The Department of Health works closely with and seeks the advice and help of boards, committees, and councils such as the Board of Health, the Medical Research, Dental, Hospitals Advisory, Pharmacy, Nursing, and Radiation Protection Advisory Councils, the Hospital Works and Medical Services Advisory Committees, and the Dietitians, Physiotherapy, Occupational Therapy, Opticians, and Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Boards. In all, officers of the department serve on over 100 boards, committees, and other organisations concerned with health.

In addition, there are very close working relationships with professional and other associations, voluntary health and welfare agencies, the universities, and other Government departments.

The department is responsible for the administration of a number of Acts dealing with health and social welfare. These will be found listed under Public General Acts in the Official section of this Yearbook.

A detailed report of the activities of the Department of Health is given in the annual report of the Director-General of Health (Parliamentary Paper E. 10).

Expenditure of the Department of Health in the 3 latest years is given in the following table.

Activity Programme1975–761976–771977–78

*Mostly grants to hospital boards.

†Now included in Vote: Housing.

‡From 1 April 1978 all expenditure is funded from Consolidated Account.

 $(000)
Administrative services4,4294,6805,510
Dental services18,22218,22119,764
Hospital services*419,476481,301572,701
Family health services8,6828,9089,667
Medical research2,8253,2834,020
Medical and pharmaceutical services118,123136,357153,580
Public health and environmental protection18,72521,78927,492
Welfare services3,7846,5606,455
Data processing services1,0354,6867,123
Housing for the elderly and youth hostels7,245
Funded from Consolidated Revenue Account602,546685,785806,312
Psychiatric hospital buildings3,4034,3303,168
Public buildings construction455345252
Funded from Works and Trading Account3,8584,6753,420
                Total606,404690,460809,732
                Less departmental receipts7961,3541,279
                Net expenditure605,608689,106808,453

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH: Local Authority Control—The provision and proper maintenance of public water supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, and the hygiene of premises including eating houses in which food is manufactured and sold, are primarily the responsibility of local authorities, but the Department of Health exercises general supervision. In the case of some of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental inspectors on behalf of, and by arrangement with, the local authority. The department undertakes the basic training of health inspectors employed by local authorities and conducts specialist and refresher courses for them.

Department of Health Control—The objectives of the Department of Health in environmental health control are: (a) to create and maintain a healthy environment for the general public by the application of the principles of preventive medicine and the administration of legislation directly and indirectly related to this end; (b) to control air pollution; (c) to provide scientific services and undertake research on all aspects of the use of ionising radiation with special emphasis on the medical applications and public health aspects. To monitor public exposure to radiation from all sources and to take action to reduce this where necessary. To promote general understanding of the nature of the hazards involved in radiation exposure in their current perspective; and (d) to conserve hearing and detect its early deterioration.

Environmental Noise Control—The Department of Health's long-standing responsibilities in the field of occupational noise control have in recent years been extended to environmental noise control. District offices, together with the National Audiology Centre, have undertaken a number of noise surveys for local authorities, and have also advised some of the larger local bodies on conducting their own noise surveys. Training courses dealing with the fundamentals of noise measurement and control have been conducted, and a programme of monitoring has been started where the noise climate in selected cities and towns is being surveyed.

The National Audiology Centre offers a complete noise data analysis system whereby any local authority, district office, or consultant can have noise tapes promptly analysed.

Air Pollution Control—Air pollution, once accepted as the natural accompaniment of city dwelling and industrial production, is now recognised as a health problem. The Clean Air Act 1972 provided for the control of existing and potential sources of air pollution. It placed considerable emphasis on co-operation between Central Government, local authorities, industry, and the public, and in effect placed on the occupier of any premises an obligation to keep air pollution to a minimum. Under the Act, the Clean Air Council was set up to give advice, co-ordinate activities, promote research and evaluate control equipment, and publish reports, advice and information on the prevention and control of air pollution.

A wide range of industrial processes are required to be licensed and are subject to supervision.

The first clean air zone under the Act has been established in Christchurch. A 3-year study of air pollution in Christchurch has shown that the main source of smoke pollution is still the domestic fire, although motor vehicle emissions are an increasingly significant pollutant. This is particularly so where photochemical smog (which has been detected in Auckland and Christchurch) is concerned.

CONTROL OF DRUGS—The definitions of “drug” in the Food and Drug Act 1969 established groups to which differing provisions apply. Therapeutic drugs, that is those substances or mixtures whether used internally or externally for the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of any illness or injury of the human body or for modifying any physiological process or desires or emotions, and chemical contraceptives are required, before being introduced commercially, to be “acceptable”, according to a procedure under the Food and Drug Act 1969. No new therapeutic drug may be distributed in New Zealand without the consent of the Minister of Health, under sections 12 and 13 of the Act.

This Act also requires that any drug which has been changed in any way, in use, strength, or labelling must not be distributed until 90 days after notice of the change has been given to the Director-General of Health, who may consent to earlier distribution of a changed drug if he is satisfied of the drug's safety. If the Director-General considers the change to be of such character or degree that the drug ought not to be distributed without the consent of the Minister, the drug is referred to the Minister and may not be distributed until the Minister's specific consent has been obtained. A therapeutic drug is also restricted to sale from pharmacies only, unless special authority is given for general distribution in a schedule to the Therapeutic Drugs (Permitted Sales) Regulations 1978.

A cosmetic, dentifrice, detergent, disinfectant, or antiseptic does not have to be “cleared” for marketing unless claims in labelling or advertising bring it within the definition of a “therapeutic drug”.

The Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any drug intended for sale. Measures provide for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where drugs are manufactured or packed. Control over medical advertisements is also incorporated in this legislation.

Under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964, certain drugs may not be sold to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. This legislation also requires specific warning statements to be included in the labelling of certain drugs such as the antihistamines, aspirin, phenacetin, paracetamol, and hexachlorophane.

Controlled Drugs—Under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 the import, export, cultivation, production, possession, distribution, supply, and administration of a wide range of narcotic and other drugs is strictly controlled. Except for medical practitioners, dentists, pharmacists, veterinary surgeons, those having the care of patients being lawfully supplied with drugs, the patients themselves, and other specified persons, or those who have been issued with a licence under the Act, the procuration, manufacture, possession, consumption, supply, or offer to supply controlled drugs is a serious offence.

Controlled drugs are divided into three classes. The heaviest penalties are for offences involving drugs in Class A, which include heroin, lysergide, desomorphine, and cantharidin. Offences involving the possession or use of drugs in Class C, which include cannabis plants, fruit, and seeds, are to be punished with fines but not by imprisonment unless by reason of previous convictions or exceptional circumstances.

Illegal dealing in controlled drugs is subject to heavy penalties.

To curb drug abuse, a National Drug Intelligence Bureau has been set up jointly by the Departments of Health, Customs, and Police.

FOOD AND NUTRITION—The Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any articles of food or drink which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food intended for sale. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where food is manufactured or packed. Regulations lay down minimum standards for many classes of food, control additives of all kinds, and deal with labelling of food packages. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with food. Regular sampling of foods is undertaken by departmental inspectors and the samples are analysed in the Chemistry Division (DSIR) or its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity whereby a purchaser of any food would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of that food, whether or not it is standardised by regulations.

A Food Standards Committee, composed of highly qualified persons, meets regularly to discuss the latest technical advances in food production and to make appropriate recommendations for amendments to the legislation.

The nutrition section of the Department of Health provides advice on nutrition and dietetics to dietary departments of hospitals, and food service departments of welfare and other institutions. It is responsible for nutrition education programmes and provides a nutrition information service for Government departments, organisations concerned with production and marketing of food, and the public. The section also carries out dietary research projects, generally in liaison with medical research teams concerned with nutrition research.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY—Since 1957 medical officers of health have had responsibility for occupational health. The objective of the occupational health programmes is to work with labour, management, the medical profession, and other groups to assist in improving the health of workers.

The Department of Labour, which is responsible for accident prevention, hours of work, employment of women, and children etc., calls to the attention of the Department of Health any health problems which factory inspectors may encounter. The Factories Act 1946 gives to medical officers of health or other authorised officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authority as inspectors of factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Act. The suspension of workers on health grounds, approval of respirators and similar protective equipment and the arrangements for medical examinations are undertaken by the Department of Health. A series of regulations deal with hazards, many of them being administered by the two departments, each in its own sphere.

A similar understanding has been established with the Waterfront Industry Commission and New Zealand Railways, and illustrates the general pattern of arrangements between the Department of Health and other Government departments. An occupational health laboratory was established at Wellington in 1964. Teams of specialist doctors, nurses, and scientists reinforce the usual staff available to medical officers of health to investigate particular occupational health problems occurring in districts. These teams also study problems arising in industries, such as forestry, which are to be found throughout the country.

Occupational Diseases—The notifiable occupational diseases are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 and details of diseases notified are published annually in the report of the Director-General of Health.

Commercial, Household, and Agricultural Poisons—The advertising, distribution, use, labelling, and packing of all poisons and toxic substances are controlled under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964. A manufacturer or importer must notify the Registrar of Poisons before importing or putting on the market any new substance which might be toxic, be it a chemical, household preparation, cosmetic, or drug. Special safeguards are provided for certain hazardous chemicals, used in agriculture or horticulture. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. Labels for “Restricted Poisons” must bear statements of the precautions to be taken in use, the symptoms of poisoning and the remedial treatment, and must be approved by the Registrar of Poisons. This legislation is at present under extensive review.

Control of Health Hazards—An increasing number of specific health hazards are formally controlled, namely: lead processes, electroplating, spray painting, sand blasting (siliceous blasting agents in factories are prohibited), fumigation, aerial application of poisons (where, in conjunction with the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport, a special rating is required by pilots), and agricultural chemicals. A number of other specific hazards are currently receiving consideration.

Medical, Nursing, and First-aid Services—Minimal first-aid requirements have been laid down by the Department of Health, which generally endeavours to encourage both the development of medical and nursing services and the raising of first-aid standards throughout industry generally. While there are no statutory obligations on industry to provide medical and nursing services, an increasing number of factories do provide such services. To meet the needs of small plants the department has developed industrial health centres with financial support from the Waterfront Industry Commission in the case of harbour areas, and the Accident Compensation Commission in the case of general industry.

Pre-employment Examinations—Pre-employment medical examinations are required for young workers before entering factory employment.

National Audiology Centre—The National Audiology Centre assists with the early detection of deafness and conservation of hearing. The centre conducts and promotes research into noisy industries, occupational deafness, and other forms of deafness. An advisory service is provided for those working with deaf people and training is given to those responsible for testing groups for hearing loss. Investigations into environmental noise are also undertaken—often to assist local authorities to combat unacceptable noise originating from various sources.

Radiation Protection—The National Radiation Laboratory provides the administrative and technical services required by the Radiation Protection Act 1965 and Regulations 1973 and the Transport of Radioactive Materials Regulations 1973. Prior approval must be obtained for the import or export of any radioactive material. Each owner of irradiating apparatus (source of X-rays) or radioactive material must ensure that they are used only under the control of a person specifically licensed for the purpose.

The laboratory provides the licensees with free monitoring, advisory, calibration, or other services which will assist in achieving radiation safety. Trained officers regularly visit all places where sources of ionising radiation are used. A service is available for measuring the exposures received by radiation workers.

The laboratory advises the requirements for the transport and disposal of radioactive materials and is responsible for monitoring a wide range of environmental samples for natural or man-made radioactivity.

FAMILY HEALTH—Medical practitioners give ante-natal, neo-natal, and post-natal attention under the Social Security Act. Free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with all public maternity hospitals and maternity wards. Ante-natal classes to prepare mothers for the baby's arrival are also being developed, and doctors can refer patients to these to supplement their own ante-natal instructions. In the case of women living far away from the main centres of population, ante-natal work is supplemented by the public health nurses employed by the Department of Health, or by district nurses employed by hospital boards.

Approximately 99 percent of confinements take place in maternity hospitals or in maternity units of public hospitals. The medical care of the mother and child is based on co-operation between the Department of Health, hospital boards, and the medical and nursing professions. All private maternity hospitals are licensed under the Hospitals Act 1957 and the Department of Health has responsibility for ensuring that regulations regarding buildings, equipment, and staff are observed. Medical officers of health, through their senior nursing staff, exercise general supervision over the work of private hospitals in the local areas.

Family Planning—Family planning advice can be obtained from general practitioners, private specialists, and from any one of the 37 clinics operated by the N.Z. Family Planning Association (Inc.) in various centres throughout the country. The Government provides a grant to meet the cost of salaries of doctors, nurses, and health assistants (clinical) employed by the association in approved clinics.

In addition, the Government also provides a grant to the N.Z. Association of Natural Family Planning (Inc.) to meet the payment of the salary of the national coordinator, an initial 1-week residential training course for up to 70 teachers each year, and an annual 3-day training course for up to 100 teachers.

A number of hospital boards have established family clinics within their obstetrics and gynaecology departments to provide additional facilities for the public and training for doctors, medical students, and nurses, and other boards are being encouraged to provide these facilities.

Child Health—The Department of Health offers a preventive child health service. Babies are normally examined at about 6 weeks of age and again at 9 months. Additional examinations are given whenever there is anxiety over physical, mental, or emotional development. Public health nurses undertake supervision of infants and pre-school children although the major proportion of this service is provided by the nurses of the Plunket Society. Where necessary the children are referred to family doctors or medical officers of the Department of Health.

A consultative service is provided for schools, with special emphasis on the health supervision of handicapped children, both in the normal schools and in special education classes. Nursing staff make regular visits to all schools and from pre-school record cards and by consultation with teachers and parents refer children for examination by medical officers. Correspondence School children are kept under health supervision as necessary and any school child requiring treatment is referred to the appropriate family doctor. Vision and hearing testing is carried out by trained staff for pre-school children, and again in Junior I and Form I. Tests are also offered to pupils in secondary schools where it is known that parents of pupils with difficulties are not taking any action.

The Government supports the Children's Health Camps Board which maintains six permanent camps for the short-stay placement of children convalescent after illness, for those whose physical health is unsatisfactory, and for those suffering from minor emotional disorders. Medical officers select children for admission and undertake general health supervision of the camps. Children derive benefit from the ordered routine of camp life which provides a diet designed to improve nutrition and a balance of free activity, rest, and sleep. The Department of Education maintains school classes with emphasis on remedial teaching.

Immunisation Programme—Protection by two doses of the oral vaccine for poliomyelitis is available to all infants. Protection against diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus is a routine procedure and a triple vaccine is used. It is preferable that immunisation be done by the family doctor, and the course of injections should be commenced as soon as possible after babies are 3 months old. Arrangements can be made for mothers who are unable to have the immunisation done privately to attend with her child at a departmental clinic. If necessary in country areas the public health nurse will visit the home to immunise the child. Booster doses (against diphtheria, tetanus, and polio) are given at 18 months and after the child's fourth birthday or as soon as possible after the child commences school. Further booster doses (against tetanus only) are recommended at 10-yearly intervals and on injury. Measles vaccination is available from family doctors for infants from 10 months of age onwards. Rubella vaccination is available from family doctors for pre-school children and women and girls in the child-bearing age groups.

HEALTH HAZARDS AND HEALTH EDUCATION: Alcoholism—In New Zealand alcoholism rates as a major public health problem. There is no accurate measure of the number of alcoholics but experts in the field suggest that there are at least 53 000 chronic alcoholics, and that an average of 10 people (family, friends, and working colleagues) are affected in each case. The figure for chronic alcoholics does not include excessive drinkers, estimated to number from 50 000 to 200 000.

In 1974 slightly over 2500 people (2100 men and 400 women) were treated for alcoholism or alcoholic psychosis in psychiatric and general hospitals, and records of psychiatric hospital patients in particular show a sharply rising rate of admissions. Much valuable work in the provision of treatment, rehabilitation, and support facilities for those with major alcoholic problems is done by church and social welfare agencies, especially the Salvation Army, Alcoholics Anonymous, and the National Society of Alcoholism and Drug Dependence. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that large numbers of problem drinkers remain unrecognised as such, and consequently untreated.

The Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council Act 1976 provides for the establishment of the Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council. The council was created in 1977 and its primary objectives are to encourage and promote moderation in the use of liquor, to discourage and reduce its misuse, and to minimise the personal, social, and economic evils resulting from the misuse of liquor.

Smoking—Smoking, especially cigarette smoking, is an acknowledged public health hazard. It is implicated as an important causative factor in lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema, and it greatly increases the risk of heart disease and certain pregnancy-related and neo-natal disorders.

The following table showing the smoking habits of New Zealanders by sex and age group is derived from the 1976 Census of Population. It is based on the results of a survey that covered more than 2 million men and women of 15 years of age and above. Over 51 percent of male smokers and over 34 percent of female exceeded 20 cigarettes a day.

Smoking PracticeAge Groups (Years)Total
15–1920–2930–3940–5960 and over

*Never smoked cigarettes regularly or never smoked them at all.

†Do not smoke now, but used to smoke regularly (one or more cigarettes a day).

‡Smoke regularly (one or more cigarettes a day).

 Percentage
 Males
Never smoked*61.744.236.427.026.337.5
Not smoking5.312.318.528.037.721.0
Smoking28.441.142.642.231.838.3
Not specified4.62.52.52.84.23.2
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
 Females
Never smoked*61.449.249.951.265.654.8
Not smoking5.611.212.112.812.111.2
Smoking29.237.635.633.016.730.7
Not specified3.82.02.52.95.73.3
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
 Total Population
Never smoked*61.546.743.139.048.246.2
Not smoking5.511.715.320.523.416.1
Smoking28.839.439.137.723.434.5
Not specified4.22.22.52.95.03.2
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

A fuller analysis of the data on smoking habits obtained from the 1976 Census of Population is given below. The census results established that over one-third (35.6 percent) of the population 15 years of age and over were regular smokers and that comparatively more males than females smoked. Against this, almost twice as many males as females were recorded as having stopped smoking. Statistics also indicated a substantially higher level of smoking in the Maori population—particularly amongst Maori women—than is found in the population overall.

The first table shows the incidence of smoking among Maoris and Pacific Island Polynesians as well as in the population as a whole. The precise terminology used in the census question is provided in footnotes to the table.

Smoking PracticeNumberPercentage (Specified Cases)
Total PopulationN.Z. Maori§Pacific Island Polynesian||Total PopulationN.Z. Maori§Pacific Island Polynesian||

*Never smoked cigarettes regularly, or never smoked them at all.

†Do not smoke now, but used to smoke regularly (one or more cigarettes per day).

‡Now smoke regularly (one or more cigarettes per day).

§Comprises persons who specified themselves as half or more N.Z. Maori plus those who indicated they were persons of the Maori race of N.Z., but did not specify the degree of Maori origin.

||Persons of half or more Polynesian descent.

 Males
Never smoked*407 77821 1997 44838.730.644.1
Used to smoke228 6259 1971 64321.713.39.7
Smoke regularly417 16838 8507 81139.656.146.2
Not specified34 3294 2751 053   
                Total1,087,90073 52117 955100.0100.0100.0
 Females
Never smoked *6 10 16420 91411 22956.729.669.1
Used to smoke125 0027 7771 07711.611.06.6
Smoke regularly341 38241 9153 94031.759.424.3
Not specified36 7303 5471 318   
                Total1,113,27874 15317 564100.0100.0100.0

The smoking habits of regular smokers, as measured by the number of cigarettes smoked by respondents on a designated day, i.e., 22 March 1976, the day before census day, are the subject of the next table. The figures exclude 2635 regular smokers (1310 males and 1325 females) who smoked no cigarettes on the day specified.

Age Groups (Years)Number of Cigarettes Smoked DailyTotal (Incl. not Specified)
1–910–1920–2930–3940–4950 or More
Males
15–1912 08414 9169 9601 2791 05349743 256
20–248 65017 91417 7282 7511 98799953 363
25–3412 12728 31036 2176 6124 4261 80695 215
35–447 78618 48527 2665 8994 5381 77970 790
45–547 24018 14926 1725 8654 8961 89270 093
55–646 48914 90416 0603 1032 49196548 655
65 and over8 28712 4207 9171 13182629534 486
        Total62 663125 098141 32026 64020 2178 233415 858
Females
15–1914 93014 9408 2761 01769122242 834
20–2411 40218 65613 3481 6161 01028248 710
25–3417 25630 56724 3263 1861 82944181 765
35–4410 74819 95617 0102 2551 55534955 329
45–5410 35719 93915 0441 8281 35929552 905
55–649 18515 0128 38484254713837 371
65 and over7 6397 5853 0812872326821 143
        Total81 517126 65589 46911 0317 2231 795340 057

Whilst the number of cigarettes smoked varied according to both age and sex of smoker, at least a quarter of both sexes in each age group smoked 20 or more cigarettes per day—the single exception being women 65 years and over (19.4 percent).

Cigarette smoking in New Zealand is probably less prevalent than in the past and the figures compare favourably with those of other countries. However, the high levels of smoking among young people, particularly women, is a major health problem.

The advertising of cigarettes on TV and radio has been banned by the Broadcasting Council. Cigarette manufacturers have an agreement with the Government to restrict the size of newspaper advertisements, ban cinema advertising, and print a health warning on cigarette packets. A survey of the tar and nicotine content of New Zealand-manufactured cigarettes is being undertaken, and the Government has established an Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health to discuss and make recommendations on educational programmes, safety factors, appropriate legislation, research and evaluation.

In 1977 the Government, concerned at the high level of public expenditure caused directly and indirectly by the consumption of tobacco and alcohol, increased the duty on tobacco products and alcoholic beverages other than wine to help sustain the rate of expenditure on health and community health services.

Health Education—It is being increasingly recognised that the individual must be encouraged to take a more active interest in, and responsibility for, his or her own health. This is particularly relevant where alcoholism and diseases arising from smoking are concerned, but it is also relevant in other areas. For example, immunisation, ante-natal care, and venereal disease. All these topics have been covered by the health education programme of the Department of Health.

Medical and dental officers, public health nurses, dental nurses, and inspectors of health all devote some of their time to health education. The health education officer acts as a co-ordinator and stimulates and extends health teaching and health programmes in the district. Health education officers hold the diploma in health education issued by the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health. Advertisements on health subjects are screened on television and published in national periodicals. Leaflets, pamphlets, and posters are available on many health topics from district health offices.

The Department of Health's official bulletin Health has a circulation of over 81 000 and is issued free to the public four times a year. It gives health information and publicises various aspects of the department's work.

Officers are available for lectures and discussions on health with schools and community groups.

DENTAL HEALTH—New Zealand's dental health service combines a school dental service for children, dental benefits for adolescents, and private practice for adults. There are 14 dental districts, three schools for dental nurses in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and the dental school at the University of Otago.

School Dental Service—The objective of the service is to improve the dental health of the pre-school and school children by regular and systematic treatment at 6-monthly intervals, commencing at the age of 2½ and continuing through the highest class at primary or intermediate school.

The school dental nurse, after completing the two-year training course, is posted to a school dental clinic where she provides routine dental care for children. A school dental nurse has a patient group of about 450 in a non-fluoridated area and up to 650 where the water is fluoridated. Regular visits are made to the clinic by the Principal Dental Officer and the Supervising Dental Nurse, who assist the dental nurse to maintain a high standard of performance in all aspects of the work. The School Dental Service Gazette is published bi-monthly as a medium for continuing education.

The dental care comprises examination, cleaning, application of sodium fluoride, fillings in temporary and permanent teeth, extraction of deciduous teeth, and dental health education. Some children are referred to dentists for additional care.

In 1978, 1255 school dental nurses provided dental care for 613 694 children. The treatment included 1,499,874 fillings and 45 780 extractions. Indicators of the success of the service are the acceptance—64 percent of pre-school children aged 2½ to 5 and 95 percent of the primary school children are enrolled, and the small number of extractions.

Adolescent Dental Service—Dental care for adolescents up to 16 years of age and, if dependent, up to 18 years of age is provided by private dentists as a dental benefit under the Social Security Act, the dentist being reimbursed on a fee-service basis. Children who remain at school after their sixteenth birthday and qualify for the extended family benefit, or who are otherwise dependent upon parents for support, continue to receive the dental benefit to their eighteenth birthday.

Eligibility for dental treatment as an adolescent is contingent upon a person's having undergone regular dental care, either at a school dental clinic or from a private dental practitioner.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at 6-monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

At 31 March 1978 a total of 264 548 children were enrolled for general dental benefits. Private practitioners completed 380 539 treatments under the scheme during the year ended 31 March 1978.

Dental Health Education—Dental health education is an integral part of the school dental service and includes activities in the clinics and the classroom. Educational materials are produced by the Department of Health for the school dental service and for general use in the community. Materials specifically for dentists are produced by the Dental Health Committee of the New Zealand Dental Association.

Dental Research—The Dental Unit of the Medical Research Council carries out research in a wide range of dental problems. Further research is undertaken by the Dental School of the University of Otago and there is also a small research unit within the Division of Dental Health of the Department of Health.

Fluoridation—Approximately 64 percent of all persons living in water-reticulated areas are drinking fluoridated water, which reduces the need for dental treatment. This represents approximately 54 percent of the population of New Zealand.

REHABILITATION OF DISABLED CIVILIANS—The rehabilitation of disabled and handicapped persons has received increasing emphasis over recent years in New Zealand. Public hospitals are the hub for development of an adequate medical rehabilitation service, with co-operation from Government and voluntary agencies in furthering the medical, social, and vocational welfare of the disabled.

Rehabilitation centres for the treatment of the severely disabled are established at Otara, under the Auckland Hospital Board's administration, and Palmerston North under the Palmerston North Hospital Board's administration. For the rehabilitation of persons suffering from spinal injuries and paraplegia, specialist spinal injury centres are in course of development at Auckland and Christchurch. Rehabilitation activities are also being carried out in the physical medicine departments of most general hospitals, at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Rotorua, and in many of the psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

The Rehabilitation League is the principal agent of Government in vocational rehabilitation. The main function of the League is to provide facilities for work assessment and work experience for the disabled. Policy is decided by a central board of management and district committees administer the centres which are established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Napier.

A National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, comprising representatives from the Departments of Labour, Social Welfare, Health, and Education, and the Accident Compensation Commission, advises the Government on steps to co-ordinate and promote rehabilitation in New Zealand.

PHYSICAL MEDICINE—Physical medicine is concerned with potentially disabling conditions such as rheumatic diseases, cerebral palsy, and other disorders of the locomotor system.

The national centre for the treatment of rheumatism is established at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, which has approximately 100 beds set aside for diagnosis, research, and treatment of these diseases. Full physiotherapy and occupational therapy facilities are provided and active steps towards rehabilitation of patients are carried out. A large number of outpatients are referred from all parts of New Zealand and a few from overseas are seen every year.

Physiotherapists and occupational therapists work together in preventing and controlling deformity, and teaching people how to overcome their disabilities. Social workers assist in bridging the gap between rehabilitation and vocational and social resettlement.

A cerebral palsy unit is situated at Queen Elizabeth Hospital providing residential accommodation for 20 children. At this unit the activities of a team of physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists are co-ordinated by the supervisor of the unit working under a physician. Patients can be referred by their doctors to the physician in charge of the unit for assessment only, or for admission and treatment. Cerebral palsy visiting therapist services are operating under hospital boards. Post-graduate courses are given to physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists.

Cerebral palsy day schools have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Parents of cerebral palsy cases who seek their children's admission first apply to the appropriate medical officer of health or education board. The schools are administered by the education boards, but close liaison exists between the schools, the Rotorua unit, and the visiting cerebral palsy therapists.

HEALTH STATISTICS—The National Health Statistics Centre is responsible for the annual publication of Health Statistics Reports on mortality, morbidity, mental health, cancer, and hospital management as well as the publication of Trends in Health and Health Services every 2 years.

The Centre also prepares special statistics for the various divisions of the Department and for research workers in difficult fields both in New Zealand and overseas. A constant liaison is maintained with the World Health Organisation (WHO), which is supplied with statistical material giving a picture of health trends in New Zealand. In addition, from time to time, special statistical investigations are made into important aspects of public health and diseases that warrant specific study.

Since July 1975 the Centre has been monitoring the incidence of selected congenital malformations reported by medical practitioners to the Department of Health.

NATIONAL HEALTH INSTITUTE—The Institute is the Department of Health's centre for the scientific study of public health problems. It contains an epidemiology section and public health laboratories (microbiology, virology and environmental health).

The epidemiology section conducts field research into matters of public health interest.

The public health laboratories provide diagnostic and reference services in bacteriology and virology for medical officers of health, hospital and private laboratories, and general practitioners, as well as for the other sections of the institute. The Institute is the national centre for those reference services which are organised on an international basis, such as salmonellosis, leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis, influenza, and staphylococcal phage typing.

Public health laboratories have been established at 5 public hospitals in the main centres to assist the department with the examination of food, milk, and water and of public health specimens.

MANAGEMENT SERVICES AND RESEARCH UNIT—This unit provides health services administrators and managers with a quantitative basis for making decisions on the utilisation of health resources.

Survey research undertaken provides the means by which needs and demands can be identified, as well as a basis for the promulgation of alternative proposals to meet those needs and demands. The unit is actively involved in health planning at national, local, and community levels encouraging both providers and consumers of health care to participate in the development of their own services.

The health services manpower resources were quantitatively assessed in 1974 and the data have been continuously updated since then. Using this data base, workshops on medical manpower (1976) and nursing manpower (1977) have been held. The outcome of these workshops provided a basis for manpower planning in these fields. Additionally the unit has been involved in a variety of projects throughout the health service aimed at improving existing and developing new structures.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL—The Medical Research Council of New Zealand has the following functions:

  1. To initiate, foster, and support medical research;

  2. To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons and organisations concerned with medical research;

  3. To collect and disseminate scientific information, including the publication of reports.

At the end of 1978 research was in progress in most fields of medicine including the pre-clinical, clinical and para-clinical sciences. Increased emphasis was also being placed on the fields of social medicine and community health, and on research into health services, and the earlier work of the council on medical research in the South Pacific through its South Pacific Medical Research Committee was being continued.

The council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by private medical research foundations and societies such as the Cancer Society of New Zealand, and regional medical research foundations established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Palmerston North, Hawke's Bay, Otago, and Southland.

The council administers the Medical Research Endowment Fund, from which an annual expenditure of $4.3 million is incurred in supporting research projects at the medical and clinical schools, and other university departments, and at the institutions of the Auckland, Wellington, North Canterbury, and Otago Hospital Boards.

The council employs a staff of about 50 full-time workers. A further 260 workers are employed by other institutions under project grants from the council.

The council awards scholarships and fellowships to selected graduates and undergraduates who wish to engage in medical research.

The council is empowered to receive bequests and donations to the fund for furthering the objects of the council as set out in the Medical Research Council Act 1950.

MEDICAL COUNCIL—The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, consists of the Director-General of Health, the deans of the faculties of medicine in the Universities of Otago and Auckland, and eight registered medical practitioners appointed on a representative basis.

The council deals with all applications for registration under the Act. Until an applicant is able to satisfy the council that he has obtained house officer experience, in a resident medical capacity, of not less than 12 months or has otherwise obtained comparable experience, registration is on a conditional basis. Persons registered conditionally may practise only in an approved hospital. A medical education committee responsible to the council exercises general supervision over the training of persons conditionally registered. The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30 June 1978 was 7395, but not all are in active practice in New Zealand.

The Medical Council is vested with certain disciplinary powers. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided.

DOCTORS AND DENTISTS—The following table, based on figures in the World Health Statistics Annual 1977, shows for selected countries the number of inhabitants per doctor and per dentist. Most of the data refer to 1974 or 1975.

CountryInhabitants
Per DoctorPer Dentist
New Zealand7502 950
Australia7202 460
England and Wales7603 460
Denmark6201 310
Sweden6201 140
France6802 090
Netherlands6303 140
West Germany5201 960
Canada5802 560
United States6101 970
Japan8602 700
U.S.S.R.3502 510
Iran2 57016 410
India4 10065 720
Kenya16 300192 030
Brazil1 6603 120

The definition of doctor (physician) used in compiling this table included all graduates of a medical school or faculty actually working in a country in any medical field (practice, teaching, administration, research, laboratory work, etc.). A similar definition referring to graduates or qualified personnel of a dental faculty or school applied to dentists.

In New Zealand, between 1959 and 1972 the population per active general practitioner increased from 1780 to 2256. During the period 1972 to 1976 there was some improvement; population per active practitioner fell to 1968. In 1977 there were 1651 doctors in active general practice, giving a ratio of general practitioners to population of about 1 to 1880.

While there has been some improvement in recent years in the distribution of doctors in rural and semi-rural areas, the position in many urban areas remains unsatisfactory. There remains the intra-urban maldistribution, where well-established, middle-class areas tend to be relatively overprovided with general practitioners, while some other areas suffer from a shortage of general practitioners.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDS: Dentists—Under the Dental Act 1963 there was constituted a Dental Council, the functions of which are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists.

The number of practising dentists holding annual practising certificates at 31 May 1978 was 1149. Under provisions of the Dental Technicians Regulations 1968, a Registration Board for Dental Technicians was constituted. In 1978 there were 409 registered dental technicians.

Nurses—The Nursing Council of New Zealand was constituted under the Nurses Act 1971. Its functions include making recommendations on nursing programmes to be undertaken by candidates for examinations in relation to minimum standards required for registration; the conduct of examinations; the granting of approval of Schools of Nursing, subject to Ministerial concurrence; the enrolment and registration of overseas nurses; and the exercise of disciplinary powers.

The Nurses Act 1977, effective from 1 January 1978, repealed the 1971 Act and 1975 Amendment Act and removed the minimum age for the sitting of State Examinations for all classes of students except those for enrolment. It also required male students to undertake the obstetric part of the general and obstetric programme and enabled male persons to undertake midwifery training.

The 1977 legislation also altered the titles of nurses: community nurses are now known as enrolled nurses. A roll of nurses was created in addition to the existing register. The names of all persons previously known as community nurses were transferred to this roll. Other changes in title were that general/maternity nurses became general and obstetric nurses; general nurses/midwives became general and obstetric nurses and midwives; maternity nurses became obstetric nurses; male nurses became general nurses; persons holding the general and obstetric registration and the psychiatric or psychopaedic registration were designated registered comprehensive nurses; and persons holding the general and obstetric midwifery registrations and the psychiatric or psychopaedic registration were designated registered comprehensive nurses/midwives.

Programmes currently provided for registration or enrolment are as follows: 3-year student-based courses at six technical institutes leading to comprehensive nurse registration; 3-year hospital-based courses leading to either general and obstetric, psychiatric, or psychopaedic nurse registration; 18-month hospital-based courses leading to enrolment as nurses; 6-month hospital-based obstetric courses for general nurses leading to general and obstetric nurse registration; 6-month hospital-based midwifery courses for general and obstetric nurses, leading to general and obstetric nurse and midwifery registration; 2-year hospital-based programmes for nurses holding a basic qualification; and 40-week student-based bridging programmes.

These programmes lead to either general and obstetric nurse, psychiatric, or psychopaedic nurse registration. In this instance the further qualification entitles the nurse to comprehensive registration.

The Nurses' Regulations 1973 remain in force until replaced by new regulations following the 1977 Act.

During the year 1977–78 there were 25 545 registered and enrolled nurses holding a valid annual practising certificate; the council's total register/roll exceeds 90 000; of these, 505 are registered comprehensive nurses and midwives.

Of students gaining registration in 1978, 145 (5.1 percent) obtained entry to the comprehensive nurse part of the register.

Physiotherapists—The New Zealand Physiotherapy Board is constituted under the Physiotherapy Act 1949. The board's functions are the examination and registration of candidates for physiotherapy practice, the issuing of special licences, and the conduct of those registered under the Act.

The training period for physiotherapists is 3 years. Full-time training is conducted at the Physiotherapy Department, Auckland Technical Institute, and at the School of Physiotherapy, Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin. From 1 February 1976 the control of this school was transferred from Otago Hospital Board to Otago Polytechnic Council. All students are required to pass the State Examination in Physiotherapy to qualify for registration.

During 1978, 244 physiotherapists were registered, bringing the total on the register (which includes some no longer practising) to 3068.

Occupational Therapists—The Occupational Therapy Board is constituted under the Occupational Therapy Act 1949. The board is concerned with the registration and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy.

The Central Institute of Technology, Wellington, conducts the 3-year course of training and clinical experience is gained at hospitals. Students who successfully complete the course are awarded a diploma in occupational therapy and then registered. There are some 400 occupational therapists in active practice.

Dietitians—Under the Dietitians Act 1950 is constituted the Dietitians Board, which is concerned with the training, examination, and registration of persons engaged in the practice of dietetics.

The training period for a dietitian is, in the case of the holder of a degree of bachelor of home science conferred by the University of Otago or of the holder of a diploma in home science of the University of Otago, 12 months in a hospital training school. In 1978 there were 581 registered dietitians.

Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians—The Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Act 1976 provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of four registered optometrists to be appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Optometrical Association Incorporated, one registered optometrist who is actively engaged in teaching optometry to be appointed on the nomination of the Council of the University of Auckland, two registered dispensing opticians to be appointed on the nominations of the Association of Dispensing Opticians and Optical Dispensers of New Zealand Incorporated, two ophthalmological specialists who are registered in respect of that speciality under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, to be appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Medical Association, and one other person being an officer of the Public Service employed in the Department of Health.

Three hundred and one Annual Practising Certificates were issued for the year ended 31 March 1979. This included optometrists and dispensing opticians.

Chiropodists—The Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966 provided for the constitution of a Chiropodists Board. The Chiropodists Regulations 1967 specify that the board shall consist of one officer of the Department of Health, and three persons entitled to registration as chiropodists who have been nominated by the New Zealand Society of Chiropodists, and a medical practitioner who has been nominated jointly by the Medical Association of New Zealand and the Executive Committee of the New Zealand Orthopaedic Association. The board's functions include the promotion of high standards of education and conduct among persons engaged or intending to become engaged in chiropody, the exercising of disciplinary powers in accordance with the Act in respect of registered chiropodists and the conducting of special examinations. The board also deals with all applications for registration under the Act.

There are approximately 248 registered chiropodists, but not all are engaged in active practice. A significant number of those in active practice work only part time. In pursuance of the Government's policy, a number of hospital boards are establishing community-oriented chiropody services, principally intended for the elderly.

Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers—The Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Board consists of 13 member/representatives from the Municipal and Counties Association, the Gas Association, the New Zealand Drainlayers Association, an engineer employed by a local authority or drainage board, the Master Plumbers Society (2), the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Related Trades Industrial Union of Workers (2), Department of Labour, Department of Education, Department of Health, and one other person, to be appointed by the Minister.

The board is concerned with the registration of plumbers, gasfitters, and drainlayers. It issues annual licences to craftsmen and registered plumbers and gasfitters, and limited certificates. It has also authority and responsibility for disciplinary action against craftsmen plumbers and gasfitters if it is established they have done unsatisfactory work.

Drainlaying may be carried out only by registered drainlayers, and gasfitting may be carried out only by craftsmen gasfitters or by registered gasfitters and holders of limited certificates working in the employment, or under the supervision, of craftsmen gasfitters.

Except in specially exempted areas, all sanitary plumbing defined in the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Act 1977 can only be performed by craftsmen and registered plumbers and holders of limited certificates working in the employment or under the supervision of craftsmen plumbers.

Specifications and standards of workmanship and materials in plumbing work are prescribed in the provisions of the Drainage and Plumbing Regulations enacted under the Health Act.

Pharmacists—In 1978 there were 2811 names on the Pharmaceutical Register in New Zealand. All registered pharmacists, except those who notify the registrar that they have conscientious objection to membership, automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the society's affairs being managed by a council constituted by the Pharmacy Act 1970.

The council consists of 12 members, 11 being pharmacists, and 1 a barrister appointed by the Minister of Health. Seven members are elected on a district basis by registered pharmacists who are proprietors of pharmacies and four by members of the Pharmaceutical Society who are not in the previous category. The main function of the council of the Pharmaceutical Society is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the public interests.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all times maintained under the immediate, supervision and control of a registered pharmacist.

The present system for pharmacy education requires a minimum of 3 years' attendance at the School of Pharmacy, Central Institute of Technology, Upper Hutt, at which the diploma in pharmacy is obtained. There is also a 4-year degree course in pharmacy at the University of Otago. Graduates from both courses are required to gain 12 months' pre-registration experience before becoming eligible for registration as pharmacists.

Any pharmacist or company in which not less than 75 percent of the share capital is owned by a pharmacist or pharmacists may establish one pharmacy. Unqualified persons or companies in which less than 75 percent of the share capital is pharmacist-owned must, however, secure the consent of the Pharmacy Authority, set up under the Act, before commencing business, and in all cases the establishment of more than one pharmacy under the same ownership, or the holding of an interest in more than one pharmacy by any person, is subject to the consent of the authority. All pharmacies must be registered with the society. There are about 1155 pharmacies in New Zealand. A survey in 1973 showed that on average there were 1.56 pharmacists per pharmacy; about 250 pharmacists work outside community pharmacies in hospitals, Government departments, and the pharmaceutical industry.

MEDICAL, HOSPITAL, AND OTHER RELATED BENEFITS—Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, administered by the Department of Health and dealing with medical and like benefits, is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Medical Benefits—Medical benefits apply to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, these being principally:

  1. Medical services in maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading.)

  2. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate.

  3. Medical services other than anaesthetic services, involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner.

Every medical practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services is entitled, on behalf of the patient, to receive from the Department of Health a fee of $1.25 for a service provided in normal hours and up to $4.00 for a service rendered at night or on Saturdays, Sundays, or holidays; for social welfare beneficiaries, pensioners and their dependants, and for patients approved as “chronically ill”, the benefit ranges from $3 to $7; in the case of all children and young persons up to their sixteenth birthday, and those for whom family benefit continues to be paid, the benefit ranges from $4.75 to $8. For initial consultations with recognised psychiatrists, paediatricians, neurologists, and neuro-surgeons and general physicians, the Department pays a benefit of $20; with all other specialists, the benefit paid for children and young persons is $10, and the benefit paid for all other patients is $5. These rates apply only to the first occasion on which a patient is referred by a general practitioner to a specialist, and, in the case of an inter-specialist referral, with prior concurrence of the original doctor. For subsequent visits, the fee paid by the Department reduces to $1.25 for each visit, except in the case of Social Welfare beneficiaries and pensioners and their dependants, and the “chronically ill” for whom the fee is $3, and $4.75 in the case of children and young persons. In designated rural areas, an incentive bonus is payable. In 1977, the immunisation benefit was increased to $2.25 when the vaccine is administered by the doctor or a registered general nurse in his employ and under his direction. The immunisation benefit is in full settlement and no extra charge should be made. Most doctors make a claim directly from the Department of Health and ask patients for the balance of their fees. A minority require their patients to pay the whole fee and make personal claims on the Department of Health.

The Department of Health states that the number of medical practitioners providing general and specialist medical services in 1977 was 4257, and the cost per head of population in the year ended 31 March 1978 was $11.44. The average population per active general practitioner in 1977 was 1902.

Phamaceutical Benefits—Persons receiving medical attention under the Act are entitled, generally without cost to themselves, to those medicines, drugs, approved appliances, and materials, prescribed by their medical practitioners and which are included in the Drug Tariff.

Prescriptions passed for payment in the year ended 31 March 1978 totalled 23,690,000 or 7.6 per head of population. The average cost per prescription was $4.12, the cost per head of population $31.22.

Hospital Benefits—Treatment is provided free by public hospitals where a patient is entitled to hospital benefits under the Act. In the case of private hospitals and other approved institutions benefits paid are in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients. The rates from 1 April 1979 are as follows:

  1. For surgical treatment $18.00 a day, with a minimum of $36.00.

  2. For medical (including psychiatric) treatment $14.00 a day.

  3. For geriatric treatment $16.00 a day.

  4. Hospital treatment for maternity patients $18.00 a day.

Free treatment is accorded outpatients at public hospitals; this also covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses, hearing aids, artificial limbs, surgical footwear, wheelchairs, orthopaedic implants in private hospitals, ileostomy and colostomy appliances, and urinals. It does not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. In respect of surgical footwear, part payment by the patient is required.

Psychiatric Hospitals—Treatment of patients in public psychiatric hospitals is also free. A licensed (private) psychiatric hospital may be recognised and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment are payable accordingly.

Maternity Benefits—Maternity benefits cover ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere. Recognised specialists may make a charge on the patient over and above the benefit. Licensed maternity hospitals are entitled to receive fees of $12.00 in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding 14 days.

X-ray Diagnostic Services—These X-ray diagnostic services on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, attract a health benefit:

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen.

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs.

  3. The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance, visas, emigration permits, and examinations for the sole or primary purpose of obtaining medical certificates for production to some other person, are not included in the free services. Eligible X-ray examinations at public hospitals are free, but those undertaken by private radiologists are limited to a specified benefit. Additional charges are the patient's responsibility.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services—The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and associated medical services.

The following services are not included:

  1. Examination of specimens for public health.

  2. Post-mortem examinations.

  3. Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life insurance.

  4. The preparation of sera and vaccines.

Physiotherapy Benefits—Physiotherapy treatment afforded by contracting physiotherapists is the subject of a benefit under the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The standard benefit is $1 for each recommended treatment, but a higher rate of $1.50 is payable for beneficiaries and their dependants who qualify for the higher medical benefit. Where patients are treated in groups the universal benefit is 40 cents per patient.

To qualify for the benefit, physiotherapy treatment must in all cases be recommended by a registered medical practitioner. Treatment is limited to 6 weeks on a single recommendation but in the case of certain specified illnesses the Director-General of Health may extend the period of treatment on any one recommendation up to 6 months.

Home-nursing Services—Under the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1944, home-nursing services are provided free where the services are afforded by a registered nurse, midwife, or maternity nurse in the employ of the Department of Health, a hospital board, or an organisation recognised for the purpose.

Domestic Assistance—Monetary assistance is given to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic help in the home, where it is required because of age and infirmity, or to support family situations in which the mother is incapacitated or needs help on account of family commitments.

Dental Services—The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960 provide for free dental treatment. These benefits are confined to persons who are under 16 years of age or under 18 years if still attending school or otherwise dependent. Treatment may be provided in a State dental clinic, by a contracting dentist for whom there is a prescribed scale of fees, or in the dental department of a public hospital.

Artificial Aids—The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids, such as artificial limbs, hearing aids, and contact lenses.

Breast Prostheses—Women undergoing a mastectomy on or after 29 July 1976 are entitled to a benefit of up to $30 to meet the cost of an initial breast form. Patients entitled to the benefit are issued with a certificate of eligibility prior to discharge from hospital for presentation to the supplier.

Contact Lenses—These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities; (a) conical cornea, (b) high myopia, where the degree of myopia present in the greatest axis of the better eye is not less than—10 diopters, (c) monocular aphakia, if the restoration of binocular vision is highly desirable by reason of the patient's occupation or other circumstances and binocular vision cannot be restored without the use of contact lenses. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an approved ophthalmologist.

Lenses may also be supplied in respect of any other ocular condition which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacles; in these cases recommendation by two ophthalmologists is necessary.

Hearing Aids—A free aid may be supplied, or a subsidy of $45 is payable towards the purchase of a hearing aid, where the patient suffers a hearing loss which renders the use of an aid necessary.

Eligibility on medical grounds for the provision of a hearing aid is to be determined by an otologist employed or engaged by a hospital board or the Department of Health.

Normally a patient will be eligible for the payment of the full benefit only once every 5 years. However, if in the opinion of the authorising otologist, a patient's existing aid is inadequate after less than 5 years from the date of its issue, and a new aid is required to improve hearing ability, the hearing aid benefit at full rates is to be payable.

Artificial Limbs—The free supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1956 or under the provisions of the Accident Compensation Act 1972.

  2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an approved orthopaedic surgeon.

  3. The limb is of an approved type and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopaedic adviser, be satisfactorily fitted.

For the purposes of the regulations “artificial limb” includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes limb socks for such limbs and for female amputees, replacement understockings.

Orthopaedic Implants—Artificial hips and similar implants also qualify for benefit under the arrangements for artificial aids.

Wheelchairs—Manually operated wheelchairs are available through hospital boards on a free loan basis to disabled persons who require them on medical grounds. Motorised wheelchairs are the subject of a 50 percent benefit towards their cost. The balance of the cost may be assisted with grants from lottery funds.

Acrylic Artificial Eyes—A benefit of up to $50 is available to all patients who have had an eye removed on and from 22 July 1977. For adults, the benefit is available towards the cost of the initial prosthesis only. Children and young persons will also be entitled to a benefit of up to $50 towards the cost of replacement eyes prior to their sixteenth birthday.

Wigs—A benefit of up to $100 is available to meet the cost of wigs required on cosmetic grounds by patient suffering from: (a) congenital dystrophy of the skin; (b) alopecia areata, severe and longstanding; or (c) in cases of illness or treatment of illness where baldness is not permanent but is likely to be prolonged. For adults the benefit is available towards the cost of the initial wig obtained. Children are entitled to “reasonable” replacements at intervals considered suitable by the medical officer of health.

The following table gives details of expenditure on the various classes of health benefits during the 5 latest financial years.

Item1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78
 $(thousand)
Maternity benefits—
    Medical practitioners' fees3,2694,8325,1484,8664,892
    Medical practitioners' motor vehicle allowance101145152139156
    Obstetric nurses' fees2481719
 3,3724,9815,3085,0225,067
Medical benefits—
    General medical services17,37819,90228,18028,39429,449
    GMS motor vehicle allowance137128125118124
    Specialist medical services2,1482,2532,6352,6683,008
    Rural practice bonus and other incentives545425587594606
    Immunisation benefit407433457496540
    Practice nurse subsidy2696491,2572,257
    Social workers in general practice2
 20,61423,41032,63333,52735,986
Private practice and post-graduate grants2738214032
Special area and other arrangements—
    Section 117, Social Security Act153161152129198
 180199173169230
Hospital benefits—
    Treatment in private hospitals—maternity benefits388368336351281
    Treatment in private hospitals—medical, surgical, and Karitane7,5416,7083,2614,1203,935
    Treatment in private hospitals—geriatric benefit2,3848,58911,72812,599
    Treatment in approved institutions7006878251,1991,282
 8,63010,14713,01117,39818,097
Pharmaceutical benefits—
    Drugs supplied—
        By chemists44,39755,72768,91683,65496,362
        By medical practitioners and Department of Health207148164140149
        To institutions and private hospitals5626047871,0571,202
 45,16656,47969,86784,85197,713
Supplementary benefits—
    Dental services3,1354,4045,3345,1585,316
    Laboratory services7,8609,16910,72812,13613,483
    Artificial aids2435377665
    Physiotherapy services2516131,0011,2381,347
    Radiological services1,1841,6001,7061,7521,810
    Specialist services (neurosurgery)2
    Breast prostheses720
 12,45715,82118,80620,36822,042
                Total90,418111,037139,798161,336179,134

WELFARE SERVICES—Government assistance is offered to religious and voluntary organisations and local authorities in providing housing, accommodation, and services for elderly people and others whom it is considered are in special need. Under this partnership with Government, the social service agencies of all the major religious bodies, as well as other welfare organisations, have established additional accommodation for the aged, frail, and sick who need residential care in either an old people's home or a geriatric hospital. Where it is not possible to meet the need of elderly people through these agencies, the provision of residential care for the aged becomes a hospital board responsibility. At 31 March 1977 religious and welfare organisations provided 7832 home and hospital beds for the elderly. Hospital boards maintain 868 old people's home beds.

Other measures which are of importance in assisting elderly people to remain in their homes as long as possible are receiving increased attention. Chief amongst these are the provision of district nursing services, home aid, meals-on-wheels, laundry services, and occupational therapy. In general the services are provided by hospital boards with voluntary organisations and old people's welfare councils assisting in various ways. The importance of old people's clubs and social centres, with an adequate range of services, is also receiving increasing recognition. Government lottery funds are being used to assist in providing suitable premises and assisting welfare councils with administrative costs. At 31 December 1976 the number of meals delivered daily by the meals-on-wheels service was 5022; the service is operated by 28 hospital boards.

Old People's Homes and Hospitals—Subject to maximum subsidies of $16,000 per bed for old people's homes and $19,000 for geriatric hospital beds, and certain other conditions, religious or welfare organisations providing accommodation for old people may be granted 100 percent of the approved building cost. Since October 1974, the policy has been widened to provide an 80-percent subsidy towards the cost of approved improvements and the upgrading of existing accommodation, and 100 per cent for fire protection work as required by the local authority. The administration of policy is a Department of Health's responsibility.

During the year 1976–77, subsidies amounting to $6,833,761 were approved to assist in the provision of accommodation for 537 old people. From April 1950 to 31 March 1977 subsidies totalling $51,452,070 have been approved, and buildings erected as a result will accommodate 7635 old people.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANISATIONS—Over the years voluntary welfare organisations have made valuable contributions to certain aspects of the field of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from the public funds. Among the more important are the Royal N.Z. Society for the Health of Women and Children (Plunket Society), the Children's Health Camps Board, the New Zealand Red Cross Society, the St. John's Ambulance Association, the New Zealand Crippled Children Society, the New Zealand League for Hard of Hearing, the Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind, the New Zealand Family Planning Association, the Neurological Foundation, the Rehabilitation League, the Laura Fergusson Trust for Disabled Persons, the New Zealand Society for the Intellectually Handicapped, the Cancer Society, and the National Heart Foundation. A fuller list of voluntary organisations in the field of health was published in the 1976 and earlier editions of the Yearbook.

5 B—HOSPITALS

GENERAL—The Hospitals Act 1957 requires the Minister of Health to ensure the provision and maintenance by hospital boards of hospitals and hospital services and to encourage the provision and maintenance of private hospitals. The Department of Health advises the Minister on, or determines in respect of boards, the extent and standard of hospital and allied services, the building requirements to provide these services, the numbers and levels of the main groups of professional staffs to be employed, the appropriate annual financial grants, the salaries and conditions of employment of about 60 percent of staff, and the measure of financial assistance to be given to private hospitals, including loan finance. The department also licenses and supervises private hospitals, inspects the work of all hospitals, and compiles financial and statistical data about them. There are 29 hospital boards and 158 private hospitals.

Since 1 April 1958, the cost of hospital treatment in public hospitals has been borne entirely by the State. Private hospitals, which provide about one-sixth of the available beds, receive payment from the Government for hospital treatment of patients; additional fees may be claimed from the patients. Hospital and home nursing services involve the Department of Health in establishing and assisting to maintain minimum standards of nursing service in general hospitals, in homes for the aged, etc., in advising, inspecting, and reporting on such services in hospitals; and generally advising the Minister on nursing.

Experience has been that, generally speaking, boards, committees, and councils play a most valuable part in helping to formulate health policies and programmes, and, in certain cases, in administering policies or programmes laid down by Government. The setting-up of such agencies enables the Minister and the Department of Health to draw upon expert advice and wide experience and ensures that non-departmental people with up-to-date knowledge, day-to-day working experience and responsibility in particular areas of health play a worthwhile part in health administration. A partnership of this kind is particularly important in the case of public hospitals, which are run by democratically elected boards. Recognition of this is seen in the requirements of the Hospitals Act that the Minister of Health may not act in certain public hospital matters without a recommendation from the Hospitals Advisory Council.

The department's objectives in the case of physical medicine and rehabilitation are to stimulate interest and co-ordinate treatment of diseases such as chronic arthritis, poliomyelitis, and cerebral palsy; to promote and maintain a unified rehabilitation service and to maintain and develop physiotherapy and occupational therapy services. It supervises physiotherapy and occupational therapy training, licensing and services, and supervises the provision of rehabilitation services in public hospitals. (See Section 5A.)

A major development affecting hospital boards during the year ended 31 March 1978 was the injection of special funds from receipts of alcohol and tobacco duty to assist them in moving their services out into the community. This should eventually have a significant effect on the level of provision of beds by the larger hospital boards.

The welfare services involving the department include the medical and social care and general welfare of the aged. The department advises the Minister on subsidies to be paid to religious and welfare organisations which provide homes and hospital beds for the elderly, and administers legislation governing the standards and oversight of old people's homes.

The major piece of legislation affecting the Department of Health which was passed during 1977 was the Contraception, Sterilisation, and Abortion Act 1977.

HOSPITAL BOARDS—General and psychiatric hospitals (except for Lake Alice Hospital) are controlled by locally elected hospital boards. A hospital board of 8 to 14 members is elected every 3 years for each hospital district. It is the duty of every hospital board to provide, maintain, and staff such institutions, hospital accommodation, and medical, nursing, and other services as the Minister of Health considers necessary.

In recent years there has been a pressure of activity, replanning, and development in all medical services for which hospital boards are responsible. This replanning of medical services has been undertaken against a background of sharp population increases in most urban areas. More rapid and comfortable transport is encouraging the build-up of specialist diagnostic and therapeutic resources in regional centres.

The Director-General of Health is authorised to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint assistant inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act.

Hospital boards are required to operate their own ambulance services unless they enter into some arrangement with a subsidised voluntary agency. In this regard the Order of St. John and organisations such as the Wellington Free Ambulance perform valuable services.

A National Ambulance Officer's Training School was opened in Auckland in August 1977. A consultant's report on the organisation and structure of ambulance services in New Zealand is currently being studied.

HOSPITAL ACCOMMODATION: Public Institutions—The number of beds in public institutions available at 31 March 1978 and the average number occupied during the year are set out in the following table. These statistics relate to patients and inmates in all institutions (general, maternity, special hospitals, old people's homes, and psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals) including institutions under the control of the Department of Health.

Type of BedBeds AvailableAverage Number of Occupied Beds per Day
NumberProportion per 1000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1000 of Population
General15 0704.811 4363.6
Maternity2 6660.81 3220.4
Psychiatric and psychopaedic9 1922.97 9042.5
Total hospital beds26 9288.620 6636.6
Non-hospital beds8530.38250.3
                Total27 7818.821 4876.8

In addition to the 26 928 hospital beds in public institutions at 31 March 1978 there were 5119 beds (5008 general and 111 maternity) in the 158 licensed private hospitals. If the beds in licensed private hospitals are included, the ratio of beds per 1000 of population becomes 6.4 for general beds and 0.9 for maternity beds.

The average number of occupied hospital beds per 1000 of population in hospital districts varies from 4.1 to 18.3. This variation can be accounted for in the main by the fact that many hospitals to a varying extent draw patients from other districts. Other factors which influence the figures are the availability of medical practitioners and their habits in sending patients to hospital or retaining them for home treatment, the availability of private-hospital beds, housing facilities, domestic assistance, private or district nursing assistance, and the efficiency of the outpatient departments.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public institutions for the year ended 31 March 1978 was 192, comprising 103 general hospitals, 55 maternity hospitals, 18 old people's homes, and 16 psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

A total of 392 688 persons were treated or maintained in public hospitals or similar institutions during the year ended 31 March 1978. This figure, which included persons in maternity beds, psychiatric and psychopaedic beds, and non-hospital beds in old people's homes but not hospital outpatients, was equivalent to 12.5 percent of the population. The 1975–76 figure was 386 395, and the 1976–77 figure, 392,930.

Outpatient attendances at public hospitals (including dental but excluding X-ray, laboratory, and pharmacy) totalled 3,580,286 during the year ended 31 March 1978, compared with 3,250,875 the previous year.

Waiting Lists—At 31 March 1978 there were 36 704 names on waiting lists for admission to public hospitals, a rate of 11.67 persons per 1000 residents.

STAFF—All Hospitals—The number of staff employed by hospital boards hospitals as at 31 March 1977 and 1978 were as follows:

Category of StaffAs at 31 March
19771978
*Note changes in category of staff.
Professional staff—
    Medical2 1212 153
    Dietitians138130
    Laboratory technicians567575
    Occupational therapists220333
    Physiotherapists394422
    Radiographers364347
    Other1 114939
Social workers196352
Nursing staff14 88715 668
Students8 4108 356
Administration/managers*1 730
Clerical support services*2 254
Clerical4 202*
Domiciliary908*
Other13 39914 569
            Total46 92047 828

FINANCE: Loans—Boards have been authorised by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme. The position of loan liability is set out in the following table.

YearAmount UpliftedRepayment*Balance Owing
*Includes payments from sinking funds.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
1975–7641,32715,787204,376
1976–7752,76613,893242,996
1977–7863,65514,762292,928

Payments—Hospital board expenditure is subject to control by the Minister of Health. The sum provided by Government for public hospital maintenance expenditure is allocated to the individual hospital boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of known increases in salary and wage rates and prices plus an allowance for growth. A portion of the total is, however, held in reserve, to enable allocations to be made to boards having to meet the cost of commissioning major capital works reaching completion during the year. Additional grants are also made, when necessary, for general wage increases which may be approved after the basic allocation has been made. Grants for minor capital works and equipment are made to boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of price increases plus an allowance for growth. In general, major works over $20,000 are financed by loans raised by hospital boards, interest and principal repayments being met by Government grants.

Expenditure for both public and psychiatric hospitals during recent years was as follows:

Grants to hospital boards—1975–761976–771977–78
    Capital—$(000)$(000)$(000)
        Special capital689349163
        Health centres533330390
        Repayment of loan principal and payments to Sinking Fund14,52413,72313,779
        Works and equipment7,8188,93511,465
            Total23,56423,33725,797
Operating costs—
        Basic operating costs367,249x422,238x500,328
        Interest on loans10,17312,74816,921
        Commonwealth medical co-operation scheme214035
        Special items556x385x771
        Geriatric hospital patient assistance scheme142,463
        Family health counselling service71
        Community care development2,085
            Total377,999435,425522,674
            Grand total401,563458,762548,471

PRIVATE HOSPITALS—At 31 March 1978 there were 158 licensed private hospitals, providing a total of 5 119 beds. Private hospitals are shown by type and by number of beds in the following table as at 31 March of the years stated.

Type of HospitalNumber of HospitalsLicensed Beds
197619771978197619771978

*Included with other entries.

†Beds for psychiatric patients in Calvary Hospital, Christchurch.

Maternity1077178146111
Medical and surgical3634341 5571 5391 542
Medical971031092 7262 9343 247
Medical and children's (Karitane)666210200208
Maternity, medical, and surgical332***
Psychiatric22333311
                Total1541551584 7044 8525 119

Hospital benefits are paid to patients in licensed private hospitals according to the nature of the treatment given; for surgical and maternity treatment $18 per day and for medical (including psychiatric) treatment $14 per day. The benefit for geriatric patients is $16 per day, and a new long-stay medical benefit of $11 per day for patients under 65 years of age was introduced with effect from 1 July 1978. To qualify the patient must have been in hospital for a period of 90 continuous days.

A subsidy is also payable to assist geriatric patients in private hospitals where the patient could not be placed in a public hospital bed. The patient is responsible for making a contribution of all net income, and the subsidy, payable by the hospital board, is based on this contribution.

The Government also assists private hospitals by the provision of loan money for new hospitals and the upgrading and extension of existing hospitals. Amounts paid under this scheme during the last 3 years were as follows: 1975–76, $201,203; 1976–77, $37,559; and 1977–78, $96,189.

PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—The total expenditure on psychiatric hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions) and particulars of receipts during 5 recent financial years are shown in the next table. This expenditure was incurred by the Department of Health until 31 March 1972, since which date psychiatric hospitals, with the exception of the Lake Alice Hospital, have become the responsibility of hospital boards. From 1 April 1978 the funding of psychiatric hospitals was fully integrated with that of public hospitals, and therefore separate data will not be available for future years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal ExpenditureReceiptsNet ExpenditureAverage Cost per Occupied Bed
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$
197442,28943141,8584,625
197548,54080247,7385,582
197661,8161,04460,7727,381
197772,6701,35771,3139,018
197884,3411,09683,24510,830

PUBLIC HOSPITAL PATIENTS: Principal Diseases and Disabilities—Detailed statistical information is supplied to the Department of Health about every patient, except normal maternity cases, discharged from or dying in public hospitals in New Zealand.

The following summary shows the principal diseases and injuries treated, together with the number of deaths and the fatality rate percent of total cases, in public hospitals in 1975. The disease headings are the subtitles of the International Classification of Diseases. More detailed information is available in Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data, Health Statistics Report.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in mortality statistics. Congestive heart failure, for instance, is comparatively highly ranked in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some underlying disease, which would take precedence over congestive heart failure in the statistics of causes of death. Hospital returns show each disease for which the patient was treated while in hospital, but the classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which the patient was admitted, regardless of what other unrelated diseases may have been present or developed during the stay in hospital. In mortality statistics, on the other hand, the underlying cause of death is of paramount importance. In the summary below a patient admitted on account of an injury is classified according to the nature of the injury. Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the injury, e.g., motor-vehicle accident, accidental fall, etc.

DISEASES AND DISABILITIES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1975 (INCLUDES READMISSIONS)
Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsDeaths in Public HospitalsFatality Rate Percent
Intestinal infectious diseases3 604351.0
Tuberculosis1 114282.5
Zoonotic bacterial diseases31
Other bacterial diseases572529.1
Poliomyelitis and other enterovirus diseases of central nervous system35741.1
Viral diseases accompanied by exanthem87291.0
Arthropod-borne viral diseases7322.7
Other viral diseases1 946130.7
Rickettsioses and other arthropod-borne diseases23
Syphilis and other venereal diseases15610.6
Other spirochaetal diseases93
Mycoses10432.9
Helminthiases12354.1
Other infective and parasitic diseases30541.3
Malignant neoplasm of buccal cavity and pharynx4154510.8
Malignant neoplasm of digestive organs and peritoneum3 20482125.6
Malignant neoplasm of respiratory system2 47664125.9
Malignant neoplasm of bone, connective tissue, skin, and breast3 5602136.0
Malignant neoplasm of genito-urinary organs3 88242110.8
Malignant neoplasm of other and unspecified sites3 12871422.8
Neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue2 76733612.1
Benign neoplasms5 029170.3
Neoplasm of unspecified nature37761.6
Diseases of thyroid gland918141.5
Diseases of other endocrine glands3 5501775.0
Avitaminoses and other nutritional deficiency54550.9
Other metabolic diseases834222.6
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs1 998392.0
Psychoses3 2531384.2
Neuroses, personality disorders, and other non-psychotic mental disorders5 089340.7
Mental retardation24452.0
Inflammatory diseases of central nervous system436327.3
Hereditary and familial diseases of nervous system1291410.9
Other diseases of central nervous system4 0162817.0
Diseases of nerves and peripheral ganglia1 50140.3
Inflammatory diseases of the eye90210.1
Other diseases and conditions of the eye5 35380.1
Diseases of the ear and mastoid process4 4061 
Active rheumatic fever48481.7
Chronic rheumatic heart disease957899.3
Hypertensive disease2 2191145.1
Ischaemic heart disease11 2871 57614.0
Other forms of heart disease4 52767614.9
Cerebrovascular disease6 2241 99232.0
Diseases of arteries, arterioles and capillaries3 10345614.7
Diseases of veins and lymphatics, and other diseases of circulatory system7 0311291.8
Acute respiratory infections (except influenza)4 858170.3
Influenza42151.2
Pneumonia5 22657411.0
Bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma7 8683634.6
Other diseases of upper respiratory tract10 4222
Other diseases of respiratory system1 5881187.4
Diseases of oral cavity, salivary glands, and jaws2 3851
Diseases of oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum3 1731284.0
Appendicitis5 978140.2
Hernia of abdominal cavity5 795440.8
Other diseases of intestine and peritoneum4 8441673.4
Diseases of liver, gall bladder, and pancreas5 0832034.0
Nephritis and nephrosis1 190998.3
Other diseases of urinary system4 378661.5
Diseases of male genital organs3 930401.0
Diseases of breast, ovary, fallopian tube, and parametrium3 31020.1
Diseases of uterus and other female genital organs11 4375 
Complications of pregnancy2 46930.1
Urinary infections and toxaemias of pregnancy and the puerperium1 23610.1
Abortion5 126
Delivery1 38410.1
Complications of the puerperium67120.3
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue3 09630.1
Other inflammatory conditions of skin and subcutaneous tissue97760.6
Other diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissue1 78620.1
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever5 0981012.0
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bone and joint5 844250.4
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system2 94480.3
Congenital anomalies7 0811812.6
Certain causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality4 7372314.9
Symptoms referable to systems or organs16 010130.1
Senility and ill-defined diseases2 7291585.8
Fracture of skull, spine, and trunk4 6851382.9
Fracture of upper limb4 286120.3
Fracture of lower limb7 7593354.3
Dislocation without fracture1 34720.1
Sprains and strains of joints and adjacent muscles1 33430.2
Intracranial injury (excluding those with skull fracture)9 181961.0
Internal injury of chest, abdomen, and pelvis1 018646.3
Laceration and open wound of head, neck, and trunk2 00540.2
Laceration and open wound of upper limb2 47330.1
Laceration and open wound of lower limb1 82130.2
Laceration and open wound of multiple location21810.5
Superficial injury40010.3
Contusion and crushing with intact skin surface2 66360.2
Effects of foreign body entering through orifice1 01850.5
Burn1 985241.2
Injury to nerves and spinal cord59310.2
Adverse effect of medicinal agents3 341200.6
Toxic effect of substances chiefly non-medicinal as to source1 180201.7
Other adverse effects2 520190.8
Special admissions without sickness9 788140.1
                    All conditions305 90612 5394.1

Duration of Stay in Public Hospitals—The average duration of stay in public hospitals in 1975 was 13.6 days. Among sufferers from specified diseases and disabilities, the longest average stays were made by those with cerebrovascular disease (64 days), followed by patients with other diseases of the nervous system (49 days), psychoses (42 days), and patients with tuberculosis (41 days).

Accident Cases—A summary is given below of accident cases treated as inpatients in public hospitals during 1975 (figures include readmissions).

Type of AccidentTotal CasesPercentage of All Accident CasesAverage Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay (Days)Aggregate Slay as Percentage of Total
Transport—
    Railway750.127.62 0680.3
    Motor-vehicle traffic10 90420.512.3134 11821.3
    Motor-vehicle non-traffic4990.910.15 0400.8
    Other road vehicles1 9093.65.29 9071.6
    Water2060.48.11 6780.3
    Aircraft690.116.11 1090.2
                Total transport13 66225.611.3153 92024.3
Non-transport—
    Accidental poisoning1 7953.42.13 8390.6
    Accidental falls12 74423.918.3232 82236.8
    Other accidents13 80125.97.8107 59417.0
                Total non-transport28 34053.212.1344 25554.4
Surgical and medical complications and misadventures4 7088.814.969 99111.0
Late effects of accidental injury1 9863.721.141 8396.6
Suicide and self-inflicted injury2 6104.94.712 3482.0
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons1 6643.15.69 2621.5
Legal intervention43.514
Injury undetermined whether accidentally or purposely inflicted3140.64.81 4950.2
Injury resulting from operations of war1210.4125
                Grand total53 300100.011.9633 249100.0

The largest group comes under the heading “Non-transport—Other accidents”, which includes accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments, machinery, falling objects, fire and hot objects, and so on.

About a quarter of all accidents came in this group. The 2 next largest groups comprised accidental falls and motor-vehicle traffic accidents. Victims of accidental falls also had the longest aggregate stay in hospital. This was because of the long period spent in hospital by elderly people who have sustained fractures of the femur in falls. Almost 1 in every 4 patients had been injured in a fall of some kind.

Motor-vehicle traffic accidents comprised the third largest group and had the second largest aggregate stay. Traffic accidents on roads are analysed in tables in Section 12 D Roads and Road Transport.

Accidents in the Home—A high percentage of non-transport accidents, especially those involving young children and elderly people, occur in the home. Accidents in the home in 1975 are included by type of accident in the previous section, but they are not separated out from accidents sustained elsewhere. The following table shows the number of patients discharged from, or dying, in public hospitals after treatment for accidents sustained in the home. It includes only inpatients in public hospitals; not, of course, the large numbers of home accident cases treated in outpatient departments, doctors' surgeries, and in the home itself.

Cause of AccidentTotal PatientsAggregate Duration of Stay in Hospital (Days)
Accidental poisoning by—
    Drugs and medicaments7601 758
    Petroleum products and other solvents298524
    Pesticides, fertilisers, and plant foods140234
    Noxious foodstuffs and poisonous plants6891
    Other solid and liquid substances260424
    Gases and vapours26249
Accidental falls5 432113 213
Struck by falling objects1261 680
Accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments1 5407 604
Accidental burns92215 058
Accidents caused by foreign bodies5801 239
All other and unspecified accidents2 24619 875
                Total12 398161 949

Deaths in Public Hospitals—The percentage of deaths in public hospitals to all deaths are shown in the following table.

YearDeaths in Public HospitalsTotal DeathsPercentage of Deaths in Public Hospitals to Total Deaths
197012 29124 84049.5
197112 27324 30950.5
197212 44524 80150.2
197312 79725 31250.6
197412 56325 26149.7
197512 53925 11449.9

Age and Sex of Patients—The age and sex of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1974 are shown below. This information was not available for 1975 at the time of going to press.

Age GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1 year8 8266 51015 336
  1–4 years12 6388 64821 286
  5–9 years10 8797 83318 712
10–14 years8 5826 47215 054
15–19 years11 27311 53022 803
20–24 years9 55613 16222 718
25–29 years6 83212 43719 269
30–34 years5 3849 85415 238
35–39 years4 9508 07713 027
40–44 years5 5587 85413 412
45–49 years6 7337 93914 672
50–54 years7 5647 80615 370
55–59 years7 8526 44714 299
60–64 years9 0987 13616 234
65–69 years8 8946 92015 814
70–74 years7 9926 46814 460
75–79 years5 0835 41110 494
80–84 years3 2564 1247 380
85 years and over2 3133 5505 863
Total143 263148 178291 441

PATIENTS IN PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—Under the Mental Health Act 1969 the control of psychiatric hospitals (with the exception of Lake Alice Hospital, Marton, which continues to make national provision for security patients) was transferred from the Department of Health to local hospital boards from 1 April 1972.

A detailed report Mental Health Data is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. The report contains administrative and clinical data about first admissions and readmissions (including replacements from leave), transfers, discharges, and deaths for all inpatients under psychiatric care. The report also presents information about psychiatric disorders in terms of age and sex, domicile, race, and length of stay.

The following table gives the annual averages and the rates per 100 000 mean population for those in psychiatric hospitals and public hospitals. Final summary figures for 1976 and provisional figures for 1977 are included. More detailed figures for these years were not available at the time of going to press.

YearResident in Psychiatric HospitalOn leave from Psychiatric HospitalTotal for Psychiatric HospitalsPatients in Public Hospitals
Average NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRate
*Provisional.
All Patients
19739 140307.71 65855.810 798363.51635.5
19748 930294.51 80159.410 731353.91846.0
19758 475274.51 70955.410 184329.92006.5
19768 171262.21 80557.99 976320.12056.6
1977*7 877250.81 77456.59 651307.32678.5

Admissions and Readmissions—The provisional total of admissions to psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals during 1977 was 8982, compared with 9224 during the previous year. This total was made up of 2881 first admissions and 6101 readmissions (comparable figures for 1976 were 3117 and 6107). These figures exclude psychiatric units in general hospitals, The Bridge (Wellington), and Rotoroa Island.

A readmission is a person admitted as an inpatient for psychiatric care who has previously received psychiatric care in a New Zealand hospital.

The readmission rate is not necessarily an indication of therapeutic failure and may in many respects be a more accurate index of therapeutic vigour. It is still possible to encounter grossly over-simplified ideas with regard to the operations of psychiatric hospitals. For example, it is sometimes assumed that discharge from hospitals is, or should be, an indication of final and complete cure.

In certain respects the long-established practice of publishing readmission rates for psychiatric hospitals (no similar figures appear for general hospitals) seems to perpetuate this misconception. Readmission figures are sometimes quoted as evidence that psychiatric hospitals “do not actually cure people”. As with many other types of illness, psychiatric disorders may require more than one hospital admission before the condition is stabilised.

Admissions to psychiatric hospitals for alcoholism and drug addiction under the Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act 1966 during 1977 are shown in the following table. The figures are provisional.

HospitalSection 8Section 9Total
Carrington181937
Oakley61016
Kingseat17825
Tokanui271946
Porirua55
Sunnyside91019
Cherry Farm233154
Rotoroa Island421052
The Bridge (Wellington)362359
        Total178135313

Readmissions are not included in the above table.

Admissions under section 8 of the Act are made as a result of applications from the patients themselves; applications under section 9 are a result of applications made on the patients' behalves by reputable persons. Rotoroa Island and The Bridge, Wellington, are conducted by the Salvation Army.

General Trend—The average number of occupied beds in psychiatric hospitals in 1977 was about 2.5 per thousand of population. This is the lowest figure recorded since 1882. No absolute conclusions can be drawn from a low bed-occupancy rate; but a consistently falling rate, despite substantial admission rates, can fairly be assumed to indicate an active philosophy of treatment and successful therapeutic programmes.

Discharges—There are 3 principal ways of being discharged from psychiatric hospital: (a) outright discharge, which means being formally discharged at the time of leaving hospital; (b) discharge on leave; and (c) discharged “not committed”, which means being discharged from a psychiatric hospital on the grounds that the patient's mental condition does not warrant his being detained. All people discharged from a psychiatric unit of a public hospital are discharged outright.

There were 7193 outright discharges from psychiatric or psychopaedic hospitals during 1977, compared with 7082 during 1976. An additional 923 patients were discharged or died while on leave.

Diagnoses—Numbers and rates of first admissions, readmissions, and discharges of patients under psychiatric care during 1974 are shown by diagnosis in the following table. This information was not available for later years at the time of going to press.

DiagnosisFirst AdmissionsReadmissionsDischarges
No.Rate*No.Rate*OutrightLeaveNot CommittedTotal
*Per million of mean population.
Senile and pre-senile dementia2558410835134381173
Alcoholic psychosis752513444118584180
Other organic psychoses20868255842791123394
Schizophrenia and paranoid states6112012 2687451 942970182 930
Depressive psychosis5801911 0223361 51610941 629
Other functional psychoses224747032317341696909
Depressive neurosis8122678212701 5383761 581
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders2407919765430144448
Alcoholism6112011 6965571 830407202 257
Other personality disorders5601849893251 1991611681 528
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children22975135443192313355
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition1043412541151438202
Mental retardation26687894294882217101 109
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)2177115049260192353
                All cases4 9921 6409 4973 12011 3322 35935714 048

Deaths—During 1977, 478 patients died in psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals, compared with 474 in 1976.

5 C—HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTS OF NEW ZEALAND CHILDREN

GENERAL—In recent years increased interest has been shown in the physical development of New Zealanders—adults as well as children. Medical and health experts have formed the impression that the heights of persons in New Zealand have increased significantly over the past 50 years. It is likely that weights have also increased.

Most recent New Zealand figures certainly show that the above impression is justified, at least as far as school children are concerned. They also show that maturity, judged by the development of secondary sex characteristics in both girls and boys, occurs on the average at an earlier age.

Surveys of the heights and weights of primary school children in New Zealand were made in 1913, 1925, 1934, 1954, and (most recently) in 1969. In 1973, for the first time, a survey was made of the development of pre-school children.

The various surveys of New Zealand school children have revealed a pattern of growth similar to that of children in other developed countries. The growth spurt appears between 11 and 12 years in girls and between 12 and 14 years in boys, and in both sexes is associated with early maturation. Causes of earlier physical development are likely to have been multifactorial and to include better housing and education, improved nutritional standards, fewer debilitating diseases, and the effects of measures taken to prevent deficiency diseases.

New Zealand figures suggest that significant changes in height, which have been a feature of the past half-century, will not continue. There is reason to believe that the continued weight increases are indicative of an emerging problem of overweight for height at all ages. This suggests that in New Zealand obesity may become the main nutritional problem. In view of its relationship to cardiovascular and other diseases in the adult, obesity requires greater attention when the health and physical development of New Zealand children are considered.

PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN—In early 1973 the Department of Health joined with the Plunket Society in the first national survey of the growth and development of pre-school children. Supine height, weight, chest, and head circumferences were measured. The age groupings consisted of 1 group for each month in the first year of life, and 1 group for each quarter year of life following. The sample consisted of 4951 girls (of whom 570 were Maoris and 114 Pacific Islanders) and 5161 boys (of whom 593 were Maoris and 123 Pacific Islanders).

As a general statement, it can be said that the pattern of physical development of pre-school children in New Zealand was shown to be virtually identical with that observed in children in affluent communities in other countries. Most authorities now agree that little difference exists between the height-weight patterns of well-nourished children regardless of their ethnic origins.

A comprehensive report on this 1973 survey was published by the Department of Health in its special report series under the title Growth of New Zealand Pre-School Children.

PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN—Each successive survey of primary school children has shown general increases over the preceding survey in heights and weights at all ages, in some decades more marked than others. The 1969 survey showed that the very marked gain in both heights and weights which occurred between 1934 and 1954 tends to be slowing down, especially at the lower age levels, although a significant gain in weights at the higher age levels still seems to be continuing.

In the 1969 survey the total number of school children included in the sample was 24 852, taken from 19 health districts in proportion to the populations of the districts. Approximately equal numbers, about 2000, were sampled from each age group from 5 to 15 years. Roughly one-sixth of the children were Maoris and five-sixths were, in the main, Europeans but included small numbers of Indians, Chinese, Samoans, and other Pacific Islanders of the same Polynesian stock as the Maoris themselves. The number of Maoris was chosen again in relation to the total Maori population in each district.

As previous surveys had shown little significance in the difference of heights and weights between urban areas and rural districts no attempt was made during the 1969 survey to obtain separate figures for geographical groupings although, in selecting schools, allowance was made in the choice so as not to overload the figures in the direction of either urban, rural, or socio-economic groups.

A detailed report on the 1969 survey was published in the special report series of the Department of Health entitled Physical Development of New Zealand School Children 1969.

International Comparison—In height New Zealand school children of 1969 compared very closely with Canadian children of the same year; the only marked difference was that New Zealand girls weighed consistently more than their Canadian counterparts. American children in 1963 do not appeal' to have differed greatly in height from New Zealand children in 1969, but were heavier, the difference being greater in boys. Comparison with the United Kingdom 1965 figures showed only slight differences in weight but New Zealand girls tended to be heavier.

Chapter 8. Section 6; SOCIAL WELFARE

6 A—SOCIAL WELFARE AND SOCIAL WORK

GENERAL—Social services and the whole concept of state-supported or state-subsidised social welfare are continually evolving in response to the changing needs of society and the greater recognition of the responsibilities of that society towards its less-fortunate or more-vulnerable members.

The New Zealand social welfare system has grown pragmatically to meet local needs, and in the light of local experience, rather than under the influence of social or political theories. Even the 1938 Social Security Act, rightly regarded as a landmark in the history of social welfare in New Zealand, did not introduce any sweeping theoretical changes, and since then ideas have been refined and enlarged rather than radically altered.

Nowadays the Department of Social Welfare, formed in 1972 from an amalgamation of the Social Security Department and the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education, is the main Government agency in this field.

Also involved in social welfare are the Departments of Health, Education, Justice, Labour, and Maori Affairs.

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE—The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are to:

  1. Administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Children and Young Persons Act 1974; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; the Rehabilitation Act 1941; and the Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies for New Zealand.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Minister may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities in Government or voluntary organisations.

  5. Maintain close liaison with and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among any organisations and individuals (including departments of State and other agencies of the Crown) engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

  7. Provide administrative services to boards, councils, committees, and agencies.

The objects of the department's administrative services are to provide such administrative support, advisory, training, and research services as necessary for the efficient and effective administration of the department's functions. The department is a principal adviser to Government on matters of social welfare policy. It also has particular responsibilities to private and voluntary organisations. Units with special responsibilities for liaison with such organisations and for publicity and information have been established so that the public are kept abreast of developments.

The objectives of the policy for benefits and pensions are:

  1. To safeguard individuals in the community against loss of income or reduction in income brought about by age, incapacity, widowhood, orphanhood, unemployment, or other circumstances by providing income security at a level which will enable them to belong and participate in the community; and benefits for children as a contribution towards their maintenance.

  2. To provide assistance towards housing finance for families of moderate means by way of an advance of family benefit.

  3. To provide additional benefits for those whose income and financial resources are insufficient to meet their living costs and other commitments.

  4. To provide pensions on the death or disablement of members of the forces as recompense for physical loss, at a level reviewed and set each year at 1 April in accordance with movements in the Consumers Price Index; and to provide other allowances and concessions according to the nature and extent of disablement.

  5. To provide and maintain a service to ensure the rehabilitation and resettlement in civil life of former members of the forces.

The objectives of the policy for social work services are:

  1. To make better provision for the maintenance, care, and control of children who are under the protection of the State and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, maltreated, and delinquent children.

  2. To establish and maintain institutions, or arrange foster homes, for the care and control of children committed to the guardianship of the State.

  3. To promote and maintain a preventive work, social work, and general counting service for persons and families facing social and economic difficulties.

  4. To promote and maintain an effective rehabilitation service to ensure that disabled persons are given encouragement, counselling, and assistance to restore them to a fuller and more meaningful life.

The social work services involve individual and family casework and general welfare work. Emphasis is given to the care and control of children including those with emotional or behavioural problems.

The residential programme includes the inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and the licensing and supervision of child care centres in order to ensure satisfactory standards are maintained. This division also has a responsibility for children in licensed foster homes.

Added emphasis is to be given in the programme to the rehabilitation of disabled persons. Co-ordination with other agencies which also have responsibilities in this work, such as the Department of Health and Department of Labour, is achieved through representation of the department on the National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, which also acts as an advisory body to the Government on rehabilitation.

MAIN FEATURES OF SOCIAL WELFARE SYSTEM—The present system cannot be characterised according to any single principle, theory, or formula. As already stated, it has evolved from changing needs and experience in dealing with them. For example, it looks like a form of community insurance, but is not financed, funded, or administered on an insurance basis. It is financed from general taxation; but a person's benefit bears no relation to his tax contribution. While basically income-tested and selective as to need within classes of benefit, it is also universally applied without regard to other income or means in 3 main cases (national superannuation, family, and medical benefits) and in the lesser miners' benefit. It transfers income from the more to the less affluent mainly on the basis of greatest help for those in greatest need. It reflects the traditional humanitarian, egalitarian, and pragmatic approach of New Zealanders and, most importantly, reflects an acceptance of community responsibility for social welfare.

The main features of the system are:

  1. Eligibility for benefits (other than emergency) is based on residence for varying qualifying periods and not on the amount of tax paid.

  2. Benefits (other than family, miners', national superannuation, and medical benefits) are subject to an income test with the amount of benefit being reduced if other income is over a prescribed level. Emergency benefits and additional benefits are subject to tests of both income and property.

  3. In paying national superannuation and family benefit without any tests of income or need it is assumed that for everybody over 60 years of age, and for all families with dependent children, a community-financed income supplement is necessary and desirable, irrespective of actual financial need or resources. Miners' benefit is not income tested, on the accepted assumption that if a person is disabled by disease arising from mining he needs to be compensated for losing income and enjoyment of life and that the income loss does not require to be established or tested.

  4. The concept of the family as the fundamental economic and social unit is recognised by the payments made in respect of the otherwise ineligible but dependent wife and children of a beneficiary; and the taking into account of the income of the husband or wife (legal or de facto) of a beneficiary when assessing the amount of those benefits subject to an income test.

  5. Contribution under a graduated income tax system and payment of benefits at a flat rate irrespective of contributions (that is, taxes paid) distinguishes the New Zealand system from many of those of other countries.

  6. The cash and medical benefits give a comprehensive coverage of need.

  7. Beneficiaries are given incentives to self-help and to work. From the start, amounts payable from standard benefits have been set below the average wages of low-earner groups; and small incomes, and most property, have been disregarded in assessing an individual's benefit. Conversely, national superannuation for people over 60 years, and the benefits for widows and domestic purposes beneficiaries with dependent children, or over a prescribed age, recognise these people's right to stop working if they want to.

  8. Funding is through taxation. The right to “contract out” on the grounds that the individual may not need, or qualify for, public aid is denied in the community interest, as it is with other State services such as education, defence, and police.

  9. The Social Security Commission has wide discretionary power to grant, withhold, or reduce benefits, and a general power of direction is given to the Ministers of Health and Social Welfare.

  10. With certain exceptions no person is entitled to more than one analogous benefit from either New Zealand or overseas.

  11. Standard rates with supplements, rather than differential rates according to the class of benefit, relate benefits to need rather than to the cause of need.

ADMINISTRATION—The Social Security Commission in the Department of Social Welfare administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Welfare, Part I of the Social Security Act 1964 dealing with cash benefits, while matters concerning medical, hospital, and other related benefits are administered by the Department of Health under the direction of the Minister of Health (see Section 5A).

The War Pensions Act 1954 is also administered by the Department of Social Welfare, which likewise handles ex-servicemen's rehabilitation.

Child welfare activities are governed by the Children and Young Persons Act and other legislation detailed later in this section.

FINANCIAL PROVISIONS—From 1 April 1964, when the Social Security Fund was absorbed into the Consolidated Revenue Account, the payment of medical benefits has been made by the Department of Health from money appropriated by Parliament for this purpose. From 1 April 1958, the cost of public hospital administration has been borne directly by general taxation; treatment in public hospitals is free. Details of medical benefits are set out in Section 5A—Health and Medical Services.

Payments—The New Zealand system has developed the following types of social welfare assistance.

Cash benefits as of right for those eligible by category, residence, and income, paid at flat standard rates (plus allowance for dependants) without regard to taxes paid.

Emergency benefits for those who need help but who are not, for any reason, eligible for standard benefits.

Additional benefit is available to beneficiaries who have limited income and assets.

Medical and pharmaceutical benefits for all members of the community; free public (and subsidised private) hospital care.

Universally applied benefits (with no means test) for dependent children, and for those over 60 years of age.

Particulars of payments under the Social Security Act during the last 5 financial years are contained in the following table.

Item1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78

*Expenditure for emergency benefit now included in expenditure for related benefit.

†Expenditure on additional benefit which replaced supplementary assistance from July 1975, is included with expenditure for the related standard benefit.

‡National superannuation came into effect from 9 February 1977. The amount shown is for the period 9 February to 31 March 1977. Expenditure on superannuation and age benefits which were replaced by national superannuation is for the period 1 April 1976 to 8 February 1977.

Cash benefits—$(000)
    National superannuation114,980926,506
    Superannuation135,681140,950165,781159,432
    Age169,583224,853311,795326,879
    Widows24,82127,96734,42839,04541,949
    Domestic purposes30,15648,90380,774111,793
    Orphans295381400516596
    Family160,103153,175164,695156,614183,148
    Invalids11,71013,66518,14623,13028,392
    Miners92848597115
    Unemployment3,4625,1558,49313,42919,865
    Sickness14,59015,88618,46724,41426,352
    Emergency19,526****
    Benefit on death2,5983,9543,359
Supplementary assistance3,9125,4202,045
Advances for repairs to homes101180276272273
Aid to families caring for disabled persons8164325
Employment subsidy for disabled civilians46323
Capitalisation of family benefit7,1146,3298,1614,7703,674
                Total cash benefits550,994624,207784,284948,4721,346,351
Health benefits—
    Maternity3,3724,9815,3085,0225,067
    Medical20,79523,60932,80633,69736,214
    Hospital8,63010,14713,01117,39818,097
    Pharmaceutical45,16656,47969,86784,85197,713
    Supplementary12,45715,82018,80520,36822,042
                Total medical benefits90,418111,037139,798161,336179,134

About one-half of the total expenditure on cash benefits (including supplementary assistance advances for repairs to homes, and employment subsidy for disabled civilians) is paid without an income test.

The following table summarises social welfare expenditure according to type of benefit and per head of mean population, and also relates expenditure to gross domestic product (GDP).

Year Ended 31 MarchGross Domestic ProductExpenditure*
Health BenefitsFamily BenefitsOther BenefitsTotalPer Head of Mean Population
*Excluding capitalised family benefits.
 $(million)$
Amount
19749,25790.4160.1383.7634.3212.40
197510,010111.0153.2464.7728.9239.22
197611,443139.8164.7611.4915.9295.70
197713,625161.3156.6787.11,105.0354.09
1978 179.1183.11,159.51,521.8486.37
Percentage of Expenditure to Gross Domestic Product
1974 0.981.734.146.85 
1975 1.111.534.647.28 
1976 1.221.445.348.00 
1977 1.181.155.788.11 

Government expenditure on social services (including health and education) is shown in relation to total Government expenditure in a table in the Statistical Summary at the back of this Yearbook.

Benefits and Pensions in Force—The total number of social welfare cash benefits in force at 31 March 1978 was 937 383. Particulars of the various social welfare benefits in force at 31 March for the 5 latest years were as follows:

Class of Benefit19741975197619771978

*Figures for emergency benefit now included with related benefit.

†Supplementary assistance was replaced by additional benefit from 2 July 1975. Figures are included with related benefits.

‡Replaced by national superannuation from 9 February 1977.

 Number in Force
National superannuation371 697387 439
Superannuation119 025114 834111 738
Age160 137174 514188 459
Widows'16 85416 73816 72616 21116 103
Domestic purposes17 23123 04728 40131 465
Orphans'387376411420382
Family445 040452 389463 006464 156465 485
Invalids'9 1309 4149 91710 70711 365
Miners'5245413734
Unemployment4832 8945 1273 65117 484
Sickness7 3057 8309 0778 3677 626
Emergency14 661****
Supplementary assistance18 26019 480
                Total791 334815 745827 549903 647937 383

Relationship to Wages—In the following table, based on one compiled originally for the Royal Commission on Social Security 1972, standard weekly benefit rates are related to nominal award wages and average weekly earnings.

YearStandard Benefit Rate*Percentage of Nominal Award WagePercentage of Average Weekly Earnings
UnmarriedMarriedUnmarried BenefitMarried BenefitUnmarried BenefitMarried Benefit

*Standard rate includes widows, miners, invalids, sickness, and unemployment benefits (except that a lesser rate is payable to unmarried invalids and sickness beneficiaries under 18 years and unemployment beneficiaries under 20 years).

†Relates to adult males only up to and including 1977 and to all adults from 1973. It is the average of a comprehensive survey of the wages of occupational groups used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index compiled by the Department of Statistics. The average is determined after occupations are “weighted” according to their relative importance in the survey.

‡In the half-yearly survey, weekly wage payout and hourly earnings relate to all employees, males and females, adult and juvenile combined. Salaried executives are included but no working proprietors. Earnings include overtime, bonuses, and all allowances and special payments.

§From 1978 onwards the all adults survey gives a slightly higher level of average wage rates than the previous survey covering adult males only.

 $$%%%%
197323.7039.5032.954.731.652.7
197426.8544.7032.654.430.350.5
197530.7551.2632.954.932.153.5
197636.2260.3634.256.933.656.0
197741.3068.8434.3x57.2x33.856.3
197846.3777.2833.6§60.0§34.056.6

CASH BENEFITS—The rates of benefits have been increased from time to time, mainly as a result of the increased cost of living. More recent increases for age, invalids', widows', and miners' benefits are shown in the following table.

Date of IncreaseAmount of Increase per Week
Married CouplesUnmarried Beneficiaries
*Does not include age benefit. This was replaced by national superannuation from 9 February 1977.
 $$
14 Jan 19764.072.45
28 Jul 19765.043.02
12 Jan 19773.64*2.18*
27 Jul 19774.84*2.90*
11 Jan 19784.96*2.98*
27 Jul 19783.48*2.09*
10 Jan 19794.00*2.40*

The list below gives a summary of the weekly rates for cash benefits. The term Unmarried includes those widowed or divorced. Later rates may be included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

BenefitWeekly Rate
11 Jan 197827 Jul 197810 Jan 1979

*Any of the above benefits with dependent children

†National superannuation is not subject to an income test but is taxable.

Invalids* and sickness*
    Unmarried—$$$
        18 and over44.2846.3748.77
        Under 18 without dependants33.7535.3037.10
    Married—
        Husband or wife separately36.9038.6440.64
        Husband (wife included)73.8077.2881.28
Widows*44.2846.3748.77
Domestic purposes—
    Solo parent or woman alone44.2846.3748.77
    Caring for sick or infirm—
        Unmarried and 18 or over44.2846.3748.77
        Unmarried and under 1833.7535.3037.10
        Married36.9038.6440.64
Unemployment*
    Unmarried person—
        Twenty years and over44.2846.3748.77
        Under 20 years without dependants33.7535.3037.10
    Married man (wife included)73.8077.2881.28
    Solo parent and 1 child70.8074.2878.28
    Solo parent and 2 children73.8077.2881.28
        Increased by $104 a year ($2 p.w.) for each subsequent child
    Married couple with 1 child76.8080.2884.28
        Increased by $104 a year ($2 p.w.) for each subsequent child
Miners—
    Unmarried person44.2846.3748.77
    Married man (wife included)73.8077.2881.28
    Miner's widow42.6844.7747.17
Orphans22.0523.0524.20
Family—
    Each dependent child3.003.003.00
Additional benefit is available to beneficiaries with limited incomes and assets and may include an allowance in respect of accommodation costs and any special needs.
Emergency Benefits—According to circumstances.
National superannuation(2 Mar 1978)(31 Aug 1978)(27 Feb 1979)
 $$$
    Married person44.0052.2856.26
    Single person53.2863.4667.52
    Married couple88.00104.56112.52

Payment Whilst in Hospital—Married couples benefit is continued at the current rate during the period of hospitalisation where one party of a married couple is admitted to hospital.

Unmarried person benefit is continued at the current rate for the first 13 weeks of hospitalisation. The benefit is then reduced to $9 a week for a further 13 weeks, but this may be increased, if necessary, to meet continuing expenses.

Entitlement to benefit following a period of 26 weeks is dependent on the beneficiary's financial and personal circumstances, his or her needs, and the capacity to appreciate and understand any payment that may be made.

In general, where the beneficiary has no income or commitment, apart from the usual expenses or comforts, the rate of benefit is $4.50 a week.

Basic Income Exemptions—The basic income exemptions at the end of 1978 were as follows: Widows', invalids and domestic purposes benefits, $1,300 a year.

Sickness, and unemployment benefits—$25 a week (but see below regarding unemployment benefits and personal earnings).

Orphans benefit—$260 a year.

National superannuation is taxable and is paid to qualified persons, regardless of income. If the inclusion of a non-qualified spouse is sought, an income test applies. The income exemption in this case is $1,300 a year.

Family and miners benefits are paid regardless of the financial circumstances of the beneficiary.

Adjustment of Benefit for Income Above Exemption—Invalids, widows, and domestic purposes benefits are reduced by 40c for every complete $1 a year of income over the appropriate income exemption of $1,300 a year and up to $2,080 a year, then 50c for every $1 a year.

Sickness benefits are reduced by 8c for every 20c over $25 a week up to $40 a week, then 16c for every 20c a week of income.

Unemployment benefits are reduced by 10c for every 10c of the net personal earnings in excess of $10 a week. The first $10 a week of personal earnings (if any) is added to other income and the benefits are reduced by 8c for every 20c of other income over $25 a week up to $40 a week, then 16c for every 20c a week.

Orphans benefits are reduced by $3 for every complete $4 a year of income over $260 a year.

National Superannuation—National superannuation, for persons aged 60 or over, replaced age and superannuation benefits from 9 February 1977. It is subject to a 10-year residence test and is taxable, but is not subject to an income test unless payment is claimed for unqualified spouse. There are no special contributions required as national superannuation is financed from ordinary government revenue.

The rates of national superannuation represent a percentage of the average ordinary-time weekly wage. At the introduction of the scheme on 9 February 1977 the rate was 70 percent of the average ordinary-time weekly wage and rose to 80 percent from 30 August 1978. The single rate is 60 percent of the married rate. Rates are adjusted every 6 months in line with the results of a survey carried out by the Department of Labour. The review dates for national superannuation are different from those for other social welfare benefits.

Widows' Benefits—Subject to an income qualification every widow who is the mother of one or more dependent children under 16 years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of a dependent child under 16 years of age who satisfies certain conditions is also entitled to the benefit.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' benefits in force at 31 March 1978, according to the number of dependent children. (Deserted wives are also included.)

Number of Dependent ChildrenWidows' Benefits
Nil9 959
13 126
21 684
3775
4347
5 or more212
                Total16 103

Domestic Purposes Benefits—Persons who qualify for domestic purposes benefit are:

  1. A woman with a dependent child or children who is living apart from and has lost the support of, or is inadequately maintained by, her husband, or who is divorced from her husband, or whose husband is a prisoner;

  2. An unmarried mother of one or more dependent children;

  3. A father of one or more dependent children who has lost his wife by death, divorce, or some other cause.

  4. Women without dependent children who come within the definition of “a woman alone”, which is a woman who has never been married or who has lost the support of her husband, and who has cared for dependent children or for incapacitated relatives.

  5. Other persons qualifying for the domestic purposes benefit are those required to give full-time care and attention at home to a person who would otherwise have been admitted to hospital.

In the case of both a solo parent and a woman alone de facto marriages are considered as marriages.

Orphans' Benefits—A benefit in respect of orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under 16 years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was ordinarily resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than 3 years preceding the date of his or her death.

The number of benefits in force at 31 March 1978 was 382 (in respect of 516 children).

Family Benefits—The rate of the benefit is $3 a week for each child, until he or she reaches 16 years, or, if a full-time school pupil, the end of the year in which 18 years is reached.

A family benefit or portion of a family benefit may be paid in a lump sum in advance for a period not exceeding 52 weeks in respect of the first child or a child who has commenced his first year of intermediate or secondary education.

A family benefit may be paid in cash, or to the credit of a bank account of the mother. The number of family benefits being paid to bank accounts at 31 March 1978 was 270 335. The total number of benefits in force at 31 March 1978 was 465 485 covering 1,017,203 children, compared with corresponding figures of 464 156 and 1,031,499 at 31 March 1977. At the end of the 1977 school year there were 81 200 children over 16 at school in respect of whom benefits were being paid.

The average number of children in respect of whom benefits were paid was 2.18 per family at 31 March 1978.

Under the provisions of the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964, family benefits may be capitalised and paid in advance to assist parents with the erection or purchase of house properties, whether previously occupied or not, additions or alterations to existing homes, or in certain circumstances the repayment of mortgages and other obligations on family homes. In outline, the measure provides for the capitalisation of up to $3.00 of the weekly family benefit in respect of each of 1 or more children from the age of 1 year up to the age of 16 years, provided that the total of the advance or advances in the case of any one family is not less than $400 nor more than $3,000. The maximum income limit for eligibility is $125 a week for a family with 1 child, rising by $5 a week for each additional child.

Details of family benefit capitalisation in recent years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchApplications for Capitalisation ApprovedCapitalised Value of Benefits
  $(000)
19745 9807,114
19756 5656,329
19767 8168,161
19772 6634,770
19782 7643,673

Invalids' Benefits—An invalid's benefit is payable if a person aged 15 years or over—(a) is totally blind; or (b) is permanently and severely restricted in his capacity for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

In computing the income of any blind person no account is taken of his personal earnings. In addition, the benefit of a totally blind person may within certain limits be increased by up to 25 percent of his personal earnings. The personal earnings of a severely disabled beneficiary may be disregarded in whole or in part in computing his benefit.

Miners' Benefits—A miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted pneumoconiosis or any other occupational disease and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, provided that compensation in respect of the same disability is not being received.

Unemployment Benefits—An applicant for unemployment benefit is required to satisfy the commission: (a) that he is unemployed; (b) that he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work; (c) that he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment; (d) that he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months at any time. A person is not entitled to an unemployment benefit if he is a full-time student, or if he is not employed because of a strike either by him or by fellow members of his union at the same place of employment.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first 7 days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. The commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding 6 weeks, the commencement of the benefit if the applicant: (a) has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason; or (b) has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker. The benefit may be terminated if the beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit—e.g., national superannuation.

If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a wife, an allowance may be paid in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

Benefits were granted to 28 255 persons in 1975–76 and 25 601 persons in 1976–77.

The following table shows the position regarding unemployment benefits and emergency unemployment benefits during the year ended 31 March 1978. Emergency benefits may be granted on grounds of hardship to persons who do not qualify for the ordinary unemployment benefit. The average duration of unemployment benefits (not including emergency benefits) which ceased during the 1977 calendar year was 8.3 weeks (7.5 weeks for men and 9.4 weeks for women).

 UnemploymentEmergency Unemployment
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
*Numbers obtained from a monthly count of benefits in force.
Benefits granted31 38919 19950 5881 6849412 625
Applications declined15 7278 16623 893558430988
Benefits in force at 31 March 19789 0636 69015 7531 0257061 731
Average number in force during year*4 1392 6326 7719326731 605

Sickness Benefits—A person over the age of 15 years who is incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and as a result suffers a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, may apply for a sickness benefit.

The number of persons granted sickness benefit was 34 900 in 1976–77, and 31 900 in 1977–78.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1977 are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit (based on a 10 percent sample of the estimated 31 900 benefits which ceased).

Period on Benefit (Weeks)Number of Benefits
MalesFemalesTotal
Up to 55 9902 6908 680
  5–84 2602 5506 810
  9–122 3601 7904 150
13–253 0904 1907 280
26–381 0101 5402 550
39–51530190720
52–77520230750
78–10323070300
104 and over480180660
            Total18 47013 43031 900

Benefit on Death—As from 1 April 1975 a lump sum benefit is payable following the deaths of persons under 60* years of age, who leave dependants not entitled to lump sum payment under the Accident Compensation Act. A dependent widow or widower (including a party to a de facto relationship) will receive $1,000, and subject to a maximum of $1,500 for children, each dependent child will be paid up to $500.

Emergency Benefits—An emergency benefit may be granted on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit other than family benefit.

Additional Benefit—Additional benefit is available to social welfare beneficiaries and others who have limited income and assets.

Married couples may receive up to $10 a week, and single persons may receive up to $6 a week. Either may receive up to a further $6 a week for accommodation costs, and up to $2 a week for special needs (e.g., costs associated with health). Under special circumstances, lump sum payments may be authorised.

Since 1973 a telephone rental concession equal to one-half of the amount of the rental may be granted to persons in receipt of invalids', widows', or related benefits. Since 1 January 1975 a concession equivalent to one-half of a television licence fee has also been available for these persons.

Disability Allowance—A disability allowance of up to $8 a week was introduced from 10 October 1975 for disabled persons receiving an income tested benefit or for persons whose income is such that they could qualify for an income tested benefit. The allowance can also be paid in respect of the disabled wife or child of such a person. The purpose of the allowance is to meet special expenses arising from the person's disability, such as transport costs, special diet, domestic help, or medicines not on free list, etc.

Handicapped Child's Allowance—From 18 October 1978 legislation provided for the payment of a nontaxable allowance of $8 a week to the parents of seriously physically or mentally handicapped children other than those already being cared for in full-time residential institutions.

Reciprocity with Australia—The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948 provided for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1 July 1949. (A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.)

For the purpose of any application for a benefit (except the New Zealand miners, orphans, or domestic purposes benefits) residence in Australia or birth in Australia is regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for invalids' or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive national superannuation unless he has attained the age of 65 years and, if under 70, he will be required to establish that he would have been able to qualify on income grounds for an Australian age pension had he remained in Australia. The act also provides that the department shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1978 comprised 580 national superannuation benefits; 36 widows' benefits; 51 invalids' benefits; and 2 sickness benefits—a total of 696 compared with 663 a year earlier.

Reciprocity with United Kingdom—The Social Security (Reciprocity with United Kingdom) Act 1969 provides for reciprocity in a comprehensive range of benefits between New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The general principle of the agreement is that persons migrating from one country to the other will be taken into the social security scheme of the receiving country and paid benefits by the receiving country under the laws and conditions applicable to other residents of that country. No male person applying for national superannuation under the agreement is entitled to receive payment unless he has attained the age of 65. The qualifying age for women is 60 years.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1978 comprised 13 717 national superannuation benefits; 182 widows' benefits; 4 orphans' benefits; 118 invalids' benefits; 1 sickness benefit; and 10 unemployment benefits—a total of 14 035 compared with 13 655 a year earlier.

*Reduced to 60 from 65 years of age from 1 October 1976.

New Zealand Residents in the United Kingdom—In the United Kingdom the agreement applies to former residents of New Zealand who claim retirement pensions, widows' pensions, widowed mothers' and guardians' allowances, family allowances, sickness and unemployment benefits under the National Insurance Act.

The qualifying age for retirement pensions under the National Insurance Act is 60 years for women and 65 years for men.

It is to be noted that, although a man may have been in receipt of national superannuation when he left New Zealand, he is not entitled to retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless he is 65 years of age. Special provisions apply to married women arriving in the United Kingdom from New Zealand as far as entitlement to the United Kingdom retirement pension is concerned.

Persons in receipt of social security benefits in New Zealand otherwise than by virtue of the Reciprocal Agreement, who leave New Zealand wholly or mainly for a visit to the United Kingdom, will normally have their benefits suspended on departure, but if they return to New Zealand within 24 months they will be paid arrears of their social security benefits for some period of their absence.

Statistics from Census of Population 1976—In addition to the traditional census question on taxable income, information was sought for the first time at the 1976 Census of Population on the type of social welfare benefits held by persons aged 15 years and over. Respondents were required to specify the nature of all cash welfare benefits or pensions received during the year ended 31 March 1976. A summary of the results is given below. The figures apply only to persons normally resident in New Zealand, i.e., temporary visitors have been excluded. Total recipients of each type of welfare benefit have been shown.

The table indicates that 40.0 percent of the population aged 15 or over—or 2 in every 5—were in receipt of at least 1 social welfare cash benefit in the year ended 31 March 1976.

Class of Benefit or PensionTotal Beneficiaries*Percentage of Total Population 15 years and overt
MaleFemaleTotalMaleFemaleTotal

*Each beneficiary is included under every type of benefit or pension held.

†Excludes cases where benefit(s) was not specified.

‡Includes War Veterans' Allowance.

No benefit or pension882 121435 6921,317,81381.339.260.0
Family8 778436 604445 3820.839.320.3
Age70 619125 536196 1556.511.38.9
Universal superannuation51 57256 022107 5944.85.04.9
War pension29 44414 35543 7992.71.32.0
Sickness22 15710 31232 4692.00.91.5
Additional/Supplementary assistance7 24417 42924 6730.71.61.1
Domestic purposes59619 59220 1880.11.80.9
Widows..18 90418 904..1.70.9
Unemployment7 2515 48812 7390.70.50.6
Invalids'5 1304 5759 7050.50.40.4
Other (e.g., emergency)2 6204 9647 5840.20.40.3
Not specified2 7242 8295 553......

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES—Friendly societies or lodges had a membership of 56 000 in 1977 compared with 113 000 in 1938 before the introduction of social security. They provide sickness and death benefits for members. The funds of the lodges totalled $46.2 million as at 31 December 1977.

Specially Authorised Societies—The majority of new societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act in recent years have been specially authorised societies in the form of credit unions; the number of such societies registered is now 233 and their funds totalled $34.9 million in 1976.

Medical Care Societies—The provisions of benefits to provide part or all of the costs of medical or surgical attendance in return for voluntary contributions may be administered through a separate fund of a traditional friendly society or through a society providing only such benefits, including the costs of private hospital treatment. The latter type of society may be registered under the Friendly Societies Act 1909, but at least 2 are known not to be so registered. It is, therefore, not possible to give comprehensive statistics of either membership or funds related to such benefits. The number of individuals covered for such benefits is approximately 459 000 in societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act solely for the purposes and could be in excess of this figure in respect of traditional societies.

SOCIAL WORK—The establishment of the Department of Social Welfare from 1 April 1972 resulted in a widening of the scope of social work formerly undertaken by the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education and the Social Security Department. Although much of it is still concerned with the care, protection, and control of children and young persons, it now includes counselling work with the mentally and physically disabled, solo parents and their children, and the aged. The department now maintains a team of social workers and other staff who provide a general, individual, and family welfare counselling and guidance service for all age groups as well as undertaking general field investigation and inquiry work.

Services for Community Care—Assistance is given to community organisations providing care and training in the community for the handicapped, both physically and mentally, and for socially deprived children and pregnant women.

Financial assistance is given by way of subsidy to establish and operate residential homes, day care centres, and sheltered workshops. At 1 April 1978 the range and levels of available subsidies were as follows:

  1. Socially deprived children (i) 66⅔ percent of capital cost of establishing residential accommodation and $25 per week for each child in residence, (ii) 66⅔ percent of capital cost of establishing day care centres and $7.30 per week per child attending.

  2. Mentally handicapped persons: $5.40 per day for each child in residence.

  3. Physically and/or mentally handicapped persons: 66⅔ percent of capital cost of establishing day care, sheltered workshop, and training facilities and 75 percent of cost of staff salaries.

  4. Unsupported pregnant single women, and women with young children: 70 percent of capital cost of establishing residential accommodation (with a limit of $2,500 per bed).

  5. Field services: Annual grants to organisations providing field services, particularly for preventive work with children at risk.

Other assistance to organisations in this field include:

  1. An advisory service covering a wide range of activities from forward planning to details of administration and design;

  2. The engagement of Ministry of Works and Development in the search for, inspection of, and purchasing of suitable properties, on behalf of any organisation wishing to establish a subsidisable social welfare facility.

Standards of care and training are set by regulations, requiring residential and day care centres to be registered, and by periodic inspection to ensure that the standards are being maintained.

Social Work with Children and Young Persons—Besides clerical officers, social work services involve 536 social workers and 577 institutional workers. Casework duties include preventive work; investigations and reporting for the Children's and Young Persons Courts; supervision of children in their own homes; foster home, institution, and work placement; adoption and ex-nuptial birth inquiry work; the licensing of foster parents defined in the Act; reporting to courts on matrimonial proceedings affecting custody of children; registration of child care centres; inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and examination of requests made by them for financial subsidies; and the oversight of immigrant and refugee children. Social workers receive assistance in many of these duties from about 600 honorary social workers, who are people of integrity and local standing in their communities.

Institutional care facilities include long-term training centres for difficult and delinquent children, short-term facilities providing classification, emergency, and temporary care for both infants and older children, and family homes which provide care for children of all ages either on a short-term or long-term basis.

Social workers undertake a wide variety of miscellaneous investigations and inquiries concerning the welfare of children. Cases may be referred by neighbours, police, teachers, employers, doctors, solicitors, etc., or by parents themselves who are seeking advice and guidance. Some of these cases will respond quickly to help. Others may need preventive oversight and guidance over several months or even 2 or 3 years. Financial help can be given in special cases. In a relatively small number of cases preventive help is not sufficient and court action is the outcome of inquiries.

Social workers, on receiving from the registrars notifications of ex-nuptial births, make confidential inquiries and assist the mother as necessary in making provision for her child. From figures in the Births section of this Yearbook, it will be seen mat about 74 percent of children born ex-nuptially remain with their mothers, whether or not she is living with the father, and only 11 percent are made available for adoption. Placements in adoption homes are made by social workers for those children (about three-fifths) for whom placements have not been made by private persons and other organisations. The smaller proportion of children being offered for adoption is thought to reflect the beginnings of a changing pattern in society, with an increase both in de facto liaisons and in the proportion of mothers wanting to undertake the sole care of a child.

Under the Adoption Act 1955 a social worker must give prior approval to the placement for adoption of a child or young person under 20 years of age, or alternatively, the applicants must apply for an interim order of adoption from the court. The court is required to obtain a social worker's report on such a placement before granting an order. A waiting period of at least 6 months is normally required, during which the placement is supervised by a social worker, before a final order can be made.

Any person who is not a close relative and who undertakes to care for a child under the age of 6 years apart from its mother for a period of more than 28 consecutive days for payment or reward must have her home licensed by a social worker. At 31 December 1977 social workers were visiting 100 children so placed.

Inspecting children's homes operated by private organisations and administering schemes of Government financial assistance to these homes is another important social welfare function. Financial assistance is given by payments of $12.60 per week for each child in care and subsidies of up to 66⅔ percent on expenditure for extension or replacement of buildings or additions to facilities. A similar capital subsidy is available for private organisations to help in providing accommodation for unmarried mothers and their children.

Regulations for the registration and licensing of child care centres (e.g., day nurseries, creches, etc.), have been in force since 1961.

The Department of Social Welfare has built up a considerable body of knowledge on new trends and methods in the fields of both residential and day care for children. As a result it has become an important point of reference for information and advice.

Children and Young Persons Proceedings—The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, which came into effect on 1 April 1975, introduced substantial changes in the procedures under which the department carries out its functions in relation to juvenile offending and other problems concerning the welfare of children.

The main thrust of the Act is to extend the provisions for young offenders to be dealt with through care, protection, and control proceedings rather than through criminal prosecutions and to provide for such proceedings to be dealt with by newly-created children's boards rather than by courts.

Prior to the new Act, children or young persons coming to the notice of the police for offending were dealt with either by the Youth Aid section of the New Zealand Police or by prosecution in the Children's Court. Children and young persons considered to be in need of care, protection, or control were generally dealt with by way of complaint to the Children's Court under the provisions of the Child Welfare Act 1925.

Under the provisions of the Children and Young Persons Act 1974, a legal distinction is made between children (defined in the Act as persons under the age of 14 years) and young persons (defined as persons aged 14 years but less than 17 years).

Where a young person comes to notice for offending, the matter may be dealt with by the Youth Aid section of the New Zealand Police by way of consultation between the police and a social worker.

Children's Boards deal with children coming to official notice either for offending or because they are considered to be in need of care, protection, or control.

The Youth Aid section and the children's boards can deal with cases coming to their attention in several ways. These include warnings by the board or Youth Aid section, oversight by a social worker or Youth Aid officer, counselling of the child or young person, and counselling of the parents or guardian.

Both the Children's Boards and the Youth Aid section have the option of referring any matter to a Children's and Young Persons Court.

Children's and Young Persons Courts—The Children's and Young Persons Courts were established by the Children and Young Persons Act 1974. These Courts began operation on 1 April 1975. Figures in the following table are for the year ended 31 December 1977.

Children's and Young Persons CourtsNumber of Appearances
Appearances involving complaint under Children and Young Persons Act 19742 781
Appearances involving charges for offences10 105
            Total appearances12 886

Total Cases Coming to Notice—The table below gives total numbers of cases coming to official notice each year during the period 1973 to 1977.

YearYouth Aid Cases Not Referred to Court or Children's BoardsChildren's Board Cases Not Referred to CourtCourt AppearancesTotal NumberPercentage Increase on Previous Year
197311 570..12 97124 541–4
197412 588..13 28725 8755
197512 6792 25112 76027 6907
19765 293x3 07212 88921 254x–23
19775 1783 15712 88621 230

The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, by making legislative provision for the Youth Aid scheme and by creating the Children's Boards, has increased the range of formal provisions by which cases can be resolved without court action. It might be expected, therefore, that virtually all disposals not involving court action will now appear in the statistics while in the past there were undoubtedly a number of informal disposals which escaped the statistical net. Thus, even in the absence of any increase in the number of cases being dealt with, the new procedures might be expected to produce an increase in the statistics for disposals not involving the courts. This in fact is what is observed; while the number of court appearances remains essentially static (12 889 for 1976 compared with 12 886 for 1977) the number of non-court disposals at first increased, going from 12 588 in 1974 to 14 930 in 1975. The latest figures, however, show a decline. Non-court disposals decreased from 8365 in 1976 to 8344 in 1977.

Appearances finalised in the Children's and Young Persons Court up to 31 December 1977 numbered 12 886.

Decisions of the Children's and Young Persons Court during 1977 are summarised in the following table.

DecisionNumber
Discharged, or admonished and discharged3 075
Admonished with some other penalty (fine, costs, restitution, forfeiture of driving licence, etc.)3 271
Admonished and returned to the care of Director-General323
Placed under supervision of a social worker3 194
Placed under guardianship of Director-General925
Referred to Magistrate's Court or Supreme Court for decision or sentence1 529
Other order made569
                Total12 886

It can be seen from the table that the Children's and Young Persons Court resulted in a total of 925 children and young persons being placed under the guardianship of the Director-General during 1977. The corresponding figure for 1976 was 1038. Further, 3194 children and young persons were placed under the supervision of a social worker compared with 3758 in 1975.

State Wards—State wards are children and young persons who, for a variety of reasons, have been subject to an order made by the Children's and Young Persons Court placing them under the guardianship of the Director-General of Social Welfare, The events leading to the making of such orders are as diverse as the people concerned, but they can be roughly divided into 2 broad categories. The first is parental inability or failure to provide a stable, permanent home or to meet a particular child's special needs. This would include cases of neglect, ill-treatment, and desertion as well as serious family problems beyond parent's control.

The second category is that of seriously disturbed or anti-social behaviour on the part of children and young persons which is beyond the capacity of their parents to amend or control.

The placement and oversight of wards is a major responsibility of social workers acting on behalf of the Director-General, and it is no light task. In addition to children placed under the Director-General's guardianship or in his temporary custody by court order, there are increasing numbers coming into care by way of voluntary agreement with parents. Such children are treated in almost every way as though they were wards. Parents seeking the department's help in this way do so for a variety of reasons, such as their own serious ill health, family break-up, and other pressures within the family or their desire to seek special care for a disturbed or difficult youngster. In 1977 there were 6051 state wards and 650 children in care under voluntary agreements.

At 31 December 1977 a total of 7214 children and young persons were under care and control of the department. The reasons for their being placed were as follows:

Placed under guardianship of the Director-General by court order6 051
Under control by virtue of an agreement with parents650
On court remand, postponement, warrant, etc.513
            Total7 214

Children and young persons may come into care at any time from soon after birth to the age of 16 years. (Guardianship orders under the Children and Young Persons Act 1974 are not made in respect of young people over the age of 17 years.) Wards are automatically discharged at the age of 20 years but in practice, and depending on their circumstances, most are discharged with the approval of the Director-General at a much earlier age. Many return, after a period way from home, to the care of parents or members of their extended family and are discharged as soon as the Director-General is assured that they are no longer in need of supervision.

The majority of wards are cared for in the community and in 1977, 53 percent were living in foster homes, departmental family homes, or in the homes of relatives and friends. Fourteen percent were with their own parents as a trial to possible discharge. Of the remainder, 10 percent were at work.

A proportion of wards, especially those in older age groups, come into care because of anti-social, even criminal, behaviour. With help and guidance, some of these settle in the community but some have to be admitted to the department's various training institutions, usually after assessment and trial in boys' and girls' homes. A proportion go on to institutions under the control of the Department of Justice. In all, 22 percent of the wards in care are in institutions.

Details of children and young persons under the control and supervision of the department at 31 December 1977 are shown in the following table.

Placement of ChildrenNumberPercentage
In foster homes2 96841
Placed with parents for trial period1 02914
Living with and supported by relatives1712
In employment (excluding those with relatives, etc.)69910
In residential colleges961
Receiving tertiary education20
In Government short-stay homes5167
In Government family homes69410
In private institutions4246
In Department of Education special schools411
In hospitals26
In psychiatric hospitals771
On probation341
In Social Welfare and Department of Justice residential training centres3996
Absent without leave5
In police custody5
                Total7 214100

COMMUNITY SERVICE FOR MAORI PEOPLE AND PACIFIC ISLAND POLYNESIANS—The legislative basis of the Maori community services programme is the Maori Welfare Act 1962 and the aim is the social and economic advancement and the promotion and maintenance of the health and general well-being of the Maori community and the facilitation of full integration of the Maori race into the social and economic life of the country. An important feature of the programme is that it does not seek to impose standards from without; rather, it calls upon the Maori people to exercise control and direction of their own communities in the essentials of good citizenship and civic responsibility.

The Maori organisations consist of 2 statutory groups and various voluntary groups. The statutory groups are:

  1. Maori associations comprising the New Zealand Maori Council, the district Maori councils, Maori executive committees, and the Maori committees. All are democratically elected and work independently of the department.

  2. The Maori Affairs Department, which works closely with all Maori groups as it realises that its main objectives cannot be achieved without full acceptance and participation by the people themselves.

The Maori Affairs Department, through the activities of its community services division in particular, collaborates with and gives Maori associations and other groups such assistance and advice as may be necessary or helpful so that the members themselves may find and apply their own solutions to their problems and develop and achieve the utmost satisfaction from their own culture. The department also collaborates with appropriate social welfare agencies, State and voluntary, in helping individuals and families who are experiencing difficulties in adapting themselves to their social and economic environment, accepting the full responsibility where a need is not being met. The department actively encourages these State and voluntary organisations to understand and to communicate successfully with the Maori so that they can work more effectively with the Maori people.

The Maori Affairs Department, again primarily through its community services division, assists Pacific Islanders of New Zealand nationality to adjust to the New Zealand situation and provides advisory services to individuals or groups facing difficulties.

The primary function of the New Zealand Maori Council is to encourage Maoris as individuals and in groups to take the initiative in matters affecting their own welfare and that of their kinsfolk, to be a forum of discussion in which they can crystallise their ideas and gain the co-operation of others in actively pursuing mutually agreed objectives and eventually achieving progressive improvement in the various spheres of welfare. By its own request it is charged with the duty of maintaining and promoting harmony between Maori and non-Maori.

Maori wardens carry out special functions. They are appointed by the Minister at the initiative of Maori committees to whom they are responsible. Their function is to assist in the maintenance of order and in stamping out mischief before it becomes crime. Wardens do not usurp the duties of the police but are an influence among the people in maintaining law and order.

The Maori Women's Welfare League was formed in 1951 and has branches throughout the country. Its membership approximates 3000. Special tribal groups, social, sports, and cultural clubs, church groups, and women's organisations are some of the many other groups which have their own spheres of action promoting and furthering the physical, social, spiritual, and moral well-being of the people.

The primary function of the Maori Women's Welfare League is to educate the mothers of the race to an appreciation of higher standards of attainment on the home front. It also interests itself actively in education, particularly at the pre-school level.

The Act provides for subsidies to be paid on moneys raised by Maori people through their associations for the promotion of community services.

An inter-departmental committee fosters and finances research into social and educational aspects of Maori and Pacific Island well-being.

Maori community officers are intended to carry out quite a different range of functions from those of other social workers. They are not intended to replace child welfare officers, probation officers, truant officers, and so on. Although they are available when other social workers encounter problems which are peculiarly Maori, their primary functions is to work with groups rather than individuals. For example, it is not strictly a Maori community officer's duty to deal with a Maori child playing truant from school, but if truancy is a common problem amongst Maori students in any locality, it is the community officer's duty to hold discussions with parents and try to convince them of the importance of ensuring that their children attend school regularly. A great deal of time of the community services staff is occupied in informing Maori and Island parents of vocational opportunities open to their children, in recruiting and organising vocational training groups for school leavers, stimulating the formation of play centres and other pre-school groups, and in dealing with youth problems in the cities.

6 B—WAR PENSIONS AND REHABILITATION

GENERAL—The war pensions programme is largely the outcome of New Zealand participation in 2 world wars in which large numbers of citizens served as members of the forces. It applies also to service in Korea, South-east Asia, and in any emergency, including obligations undertaken under the charter of United Nations and service with the Regular Force prior to 1 April 1974.

The war pensions scheme has developed from one which initially gave limited compensation for those returned from active service to one of comprehensive coverage for ex-servicemen who are disabled or incapacitated at any time of their lives as a result of their service, and for their dependants and also for the dependants of those who have died as a result of service.

The war pensions legislation is designed to provide (a) basic pensions to compensate for disablement or death, which provide for physical loss and are therefore compensatory in character, and (b) supplementary pensions, in appropriate cases, to meet loss of income. The latter depend on the means of the pensioner and are economic in character, acting as income maintenance and being therefore similar to social security benefits.

ADMINISTRATION—For many years social security monetary benefits and war pensions have been administered by the same department.

The authority for paying war pensions is vested in the War Pensions Board, an independent body appointed by the Minister in Charge of War Pensions, with a chairman, a medical member, and a representative of the members of the forces appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Returned Services Association. The administration of the War Pensions Act is, however, the responsibility of the Secretary for War Pensions who acts under the general direction and control of the Minister.

It is laid down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted then or within the first 2 months of service. This presumption does not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The boards are not bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

RATES AND ALLOWANCES—The list below summarises the rates of war pensions and allowances. The pensions for war disablement and war widows are now adjusted annually on a cost of living basis.

PensionWeekly Rate
11 January 197826 My 197810 January 1979

*Adjusted annually at 1 April in relation to movements in the consumers price index. The increase at 1 April 1976 was $3.80, at 1 April 1977 $3.55, and at 1 April 1978 $4.35 for total disablement pension.

†Subject to means test on income.

 $$$
Disablement pension*
    Total disablement29.4533.8033.80
    Special additional pension for blindness or serious disablement.17.7020.3020.30
Economic pension†—
    Unmarried person44.2846.3748.77
    Married person36.9038.6440.64
Wife's pension36.9038.6440.64
War widow's pension—
    Basic pension*21.7524.9524.95
    Economic pension44.2846.3748.77
    Mother's allowance—
        One dependent child26.5227.9129.51
        Two dependent children29.5230.9132.51
            Increased by $2.00 a week for each subsequent child
Orphan's pension23.1024.1025.25
Child's pension3.003.003.00
Widowed mother's pension (totally dependent)—
    Basic pension*21.7524.9524.95
    Economic pension44.2846.3748.77
Widowed mother's pension (partly dependent)—
    Basic pension*4.004.004.00
    Economic pension42.0344.1246.52
War service pension and war veteran's allowance
    Unmarried44.2846.3748.77
    Married male36.9038.6440.64
    Married female36.9038.6440.64
    Age supplement (each)1.501.501.50
    Gratuity (veteran's widow)66.0371.3273.72
Dependent children (replacing the rates shown where there are dependent children)
    Solo parent and one child70.8074.2878.28
    Solo parent and two children73.8077.2881.28
    Increased by $2.00 a week for each subsequent child
    Married couple and one child76.8080.2884.28
    Increased by $2.00 a week for each subsequent child

Economic pensions, war service pensions, and war veterans' allowances are subject to a means test on income and are reducible if income from other sources exceeds $25 a week or $1,300 a year. In the computation of a wife's pension, the income of the husband only is taken into account.

Travel grants and other concessions may be made to severely disabled persons.

The social security legislation permits basic war disablement and war widows' pensions to be paid concurrently with any social security benefit and to be entirely disregarded for income tests.

Pensions for Dependants—From 1 April 1971 wives' pensions have not been payable in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 unless such pension was already payable at that date. From 1 April 1971 the wife of a member of the forces pensioned for total blindness in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 may receive a war service pension but not an age supplement. In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family.

Economic Pensions—An “economic pension” is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension a War Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property, the cost of living, and other relevant matters.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disablement do not receive economic pensions.

Servicemen pensioned in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 have not, from 1 April 1971, been eligible to receive an economic pension unless already in receipt of an economic pension at that date. At 31 March 1978 there were 3551 economic pensions in force.

War Veterans' Allowances—These make provision on economic grounds for ex-servicemen, mainly of the First World War, who have become unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical incapacity. At 31 March 1978 there were 5788 allowances in force.

War Service Pensions—From 1 April 1971 the war service pension is payable on economic grounds in respect of overseas service in the Second World War or any subsequent war or emergency in which members of the New Zealand forces have served. Payable subject to an income test, the pension is designed for disabled or prematurely retired ex-servicemen who saw service overseas after 3 September 1939. Ex-servicemen of other Commonwealth countries may also qualify for the pension.

An applicant must also fulfil one of the following conditions: (a) be in receipt of a war disablement pension of not less than 70 percent of the maximum pension payable for total disablement; or, (b) being in receipt of a war disablement pension of less than 70 percent satisfy the War Pensions Board he is unable by reason of physical or mental infirmity to undertake permanent employment or (c) not being in receipt of a disablement pension and not having attained the age of 65 years, satisfy the War Pensions Board he is unable by reason of physical or mental infirmity to undertake permanent employment.

There are residential qualifications of 5 years for an ex-member of New Zealand forces, or an ex-member of other Commonwealth forces, who was a bona fide resident of New Zealand at the commencement of the war or emergency in which he served, and 20 years for other applicants.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pension in determining the amount of the basic war service pension. A war service pension cannot be paid concurrently with a social security benefit other than a family benefit.

The war service pension will ultimately be the only war pension paid for economic reasons. The rates and income exemption for this pension are similar to social security benefits and, by agreement with the War Pensions Board, the same general rules of treatment of income and assets are applied. In most respects, therefore, the war service pension is similar to its civilian counterparts, the sickness or invalids' benefit as appropriate.

Where any war service pensioner and/or his wife has attained the age of 65 years, an age supplement of a maximum of $78 a year each is added to the basic war service pension. At 31 March 1978 there were 6315 war service pensions in force.

EMERGENCY RESERVE CORPS PENSIONS—These pensions are payable where death or disablement was suffered by a member of the Emergency Reserve Corps in the course of service (including training), or was directly attributable to such service.

MERCANTILE MARINE PENSIONS—Pensions and allowances are paid in respect of death or disablement of members of the mercantile marine which are directly attributable to the Second World War.

ADDITIONAL BENEFIT—Additional benefit, which replaced supplementary assistance from 2 July 1975, is available to recipients of income-tested pensions and allowances, on a similar basis to social security additional benefit. At 31 March 1978, 4885 additional benefits were being paid to recipients of war pensions.

WAR BURSARIES—Bursaries for educational purposes are available to children of ex-servicemen in receipt of war service pension or 70 percent disablement pension and of deceased ex-servicemen in respect of whose deaths war pensions are paid.

During the year ended 31 March 1978, 788 bursaries were granted, expenditure being $115,400 for the year.

WAR PENSIONS MEDICAL RESEARCH TRUST BOARD—When a pensioner dies, any unpaid pension money not paid to dependants in the normal way may be paid to the War Pensions Medical Research Trust Fund for research into mental disorders or other fields of medical research beneficial to former members of the forces. This Medical Research Trust Fund is administered by a trust board which ensures that the money is applied to research beneficial to former members of the forces.

STATISTICAL REVIEW OF WAR PENSIONS, ALLOWANCES, ETC.—During the year ended 31 March 1978 the department dealt with 2921 applications for war pensions. Of these, 1866 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, war veterans' allowances, war service pensions, and pensions in respect of peacetime forces. The total for the previous year was 3300. Of these, 1102 were in respect of the applicant's own disability.

The number of appeals to the War Pension Board dealt with in 1977–78 was 248, of which 89 were upheld.

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force, except peacetime forces and war service pensions, at the end of March in each year and the expenditure during the years given.

Year Ended 31 MarchFirst World War (1914–18)Second World War (1939–45)K ForceWar VeteransSouth African WarMercantile MarineEmergency Reserve CorpsSupplementary Assistance*Total
*Supplementary assistance has been replaced by additional benefit from 2 July 1975. Expenditure for additional benefit is included in expenditure for the related standard benefits.
Number in Force
19765 35922 2852337 5802204...35 483
19774 84722 1692476 6421194..33 929
19784 36221 7772665 7881194..32 217
Expenditure $(000)
19767,77623,84912118,623320518050,577
19778,60535,92215421,1404286..65,859
19788,80638,65418619,7784298..67,465

The foregoing figures of expenditure include the following:

  1. Travelling allowances of $3.50 a week, paid to 656 pensioners at 31 March 1978

  2. Clothing allowances, of which 1026 were being paid at 31 March 1978

  3. Gallantry awards, of which 175 were being paid at 31 March 1978.

The following are not included.

  1. Costs of certain medical treatment not available under social security, amounting to $253,386 in 1977–78

  2. Railway and bus concessions to pensioners with severe disablement and locomotive disabilities, costing $80,917 in 1977–78

  3. Funeral grants, which cost $97,365 in 1977–78.

Administration costs in connection with war pensions and allowances are included in the administration costs of the Department of Social Welfare which are given in Section 6A.

Pensions paid in respect of all wars and types of service are shown by class in the following table.

At 31 MarchDisablement PensionsDependants of Disabled Ex-membersOn Account of DeathTotal
WidowsParents and Other Dependants
First World War, 1914–18
19772 1881192 53644 847
19781 856882 41534 362
Second World War, 1939–45
197719 3062452 48013822 169
197818 9092092 53412521 777
K Force
1977240331247
1978258341266
Vietnam Force
1977181 32186
197819712200
Peacetime Forces
19771 181462121 259
19781 233463101 310
Other
197742112156
197841111154

All forms of rehabilitation assistance available to ex-servicemen of the Second World War and K Force ceased on 31 March 1965.

Resettlement assistance is available to men who have served in South-east Asia for 6 months prior to 1 April 1972 and for 12 months after that date.

Application for housing loans, which attract a 3 percent concession rate of interest, must be lodged within 5 years from the date of return to New Zealand after qualifying service or 2 years after discharge from the forces whichever is the later. Application for interest-free furniture loans of $800 must be lodged within 5 years of date of return to New Zealand after qualifying service.

Applications for subsidised trade training and education assistance must be lodged within 2 years of return to New Zealand. Limited preferences in farm ballots are also available to ex-servicemen with a farming background.

Special provisions exist to ensure that rehabilitation assistance will continue to be available to all ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be interrupted or become necessary as a result of disability arising from service.

Expenditure—Rehabilitation expenditure (including loan authorisations) for the 3 latest years ended 31 March was as follows:

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197619771978
*Now administered by the Housing Corporation.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowance18108
Trade training—
    Salary subsidy8128
    Training of blinded ex-servicemen202528
Loans—
    Interest concessions842**
    Loans authorised6,9506,6135,946
Reserve Fund contribution121**
            Total7,9596,6605,990

6 C—SUPERANNUATION AND PROVIDENT FUNDS

GENERAL—For many years the Government, local authorities, and increasing numbers of private employers have operated superannuation schemes to enable employees to make provision for their retirement in addition to the benefits provided under national schemes.

The Government Superannuation Fund in its present form was established on 1 April 1948, amalgamating funds which had been in existence since the early 1900s. Its revenues consist of members' contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated Revenue Account, trading departments, and other bodies, and interest earned on investments. The National Provident Fund was established on 1 March 1911, with the object of providing a superannuation scheme for the general public. It also provides superannuation for the employees of local authorities and other approved bodies, and maintains an investment pool in which local bodies invest their surplus funds and which provides an important source of their loan finance.

A scheme under which National Superannuation is payable to all New Zealanders over 60 years of age who meet a 10-year residential qualification was introduced from 9 February 1977. More details of this scheme are given in Section 6A—Social Welfare and Social Work.

GOVERNMENT SUPERANNUATION FUND—The Government Superannuation Fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as statutory chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury as deputy chairman, the Chairman of the State Services Commission, the General Manager of Railways, the Directors-General of Education and the Post Office, the Commissioner of Police, and 5 members appointed on the nomination of various employee organisations and one on the nomination of the Minister of Defence.

Membership—All State employees may belong to the fund and this covers those in departments under the control of the State Services Commission, the Education Service, the New Zealand Railways, and the Post Office. Membership is compulsory for permanent members of the armed forces, the Police, the Prison Service, judges of the Supreme Court, Maori Land Court judges, magistrates, members of Parliament, and members of the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau public services. In addition, from 1 January 1964 membership has been compulsory for permanent employees of the Government, except married women, from age 17 to age 24 years.

Contributions—Deductions are made from basic salary on a sliding scale according to the age from which membership of the fund dates. These are at the rate of 6 percent to age 29 years increasing by 1 percent steps each succeeding 5 years of age until a maximum rate of 11 percent is payable from age 50 years. From 1955 contributors have been able to elect to contribute at 60 percent of normal rates and be eligible for only that proportion of the standard benefits.

Credit may be purchased in certain circumstances for periods of Government service not currently ranking and for full-time study or periods of training outside Government service and which resulted in a qualification being gained. Certain intervals in Government service may also be purchased for superannuation purposes. The costs of buying credit for these periods varies according to age and salary at the time of purchase.

Benefits—The principal objective of the fund is the payment of an allowance on retirement, which is usually between ages 60 and 65 years, but may be earlier with the consent of a contributor's controlling authority and of the board where retirement is because of medical unfitness for further duty. Standard retiring allowances are calculated at one one-hundred-and-twentieth of the average of a contributor's salary over the final 5 years of service, for each year of contributory service, plus an equal amount for the first 40 years of service. In some cases of short service the average of the salaries over the final 3 years of service is used. Up to a quarter of the annual allowance may be surrendered on retirement in return for a cash payment of 9 times the amount commuted. Those reaching normal retiring ages may also elect to receive a higher rate of allowance to age 65 years in return for a lower rate thereafter.

On death before or after retirement an allowance at the rate of half the allowance a contributor would have received had retirement occurred on the date of death, or half the allowance actually being paid at the time of death, is payable to any surviving spouse, for life or until remarriage. To this is added $78 a year for children to age 16 (or 18 years where schooling is extended) or possibly to a higher age in the case of inability to earn a living because of physical or mental reasons.

All allowances are paid in advance in instalments each 28 days and no recovery is made where an entitlement ceased during a benefit period.

A cost-of-living adjustment scheme was introduced in 1969 providing for allowances to be increased relative to movements in the Consumers Price Index. Existing and future contributors pay an extra 1 percent of their salaries to participate but those already retired at the time the scheme was introduced receive an ex gratia adjustment based on 70 percent of price movements. Those who were already contributors in 1969 receive the basic 70 percent adjustment plus the proportion of the remaining 30 percent that the period paying the extra contributions bears to their total superannuation service. The adjustments reflect price rises that occur from age 60 years for superannuitants and age 55 years for widows.

Special Conditions—Armed forces contributors may qualify for a retiring allowance after completing their engagements with not less than 20 years' service, whatever their age at the time. In 1972 a special variation of the cost-of-living adjustment scheme was introduced allowing this group to pay an additional 0.7 percent of salary additional to the rates payable under the main adjustment scheme, in return for which they now receive adjustments after age 60 years for price movements since retirement.

Female contributors who were employed before the introduction of equal pay for women in the State Services in 1962 still retain some special conditions related to the former entitlement of women to retire on completion of 30 years' service or on reaching age 55 years, but those joining the fund since 1962 have the same conditions as males.

Judges of the Supreme Court contribute at the rate of 8 percent of their salaries and their retiring allowances are based on a varying formula which produces a maximum of two-thirds of the final salary after 20 years' service. They normally retire on attaining 72 years of age and with service up to 10 years they are paid the appropriate proportion of an allowance of a quarter of their salary. Each year of service beyond 10 attracts an addition to the allowance of one twenty-fourth of salary up to 20 years. A widow of a judge receives half her husband's entitlement with a minimum of 15 percent and a maximum of 25 percent of his final salary.

Magistrates and judges of the Maori Land Court contribute at the rate of 9 percent of their salaries for retiring allowances based on one thirty-sixth of their final salary for each year of service, up to a maximum of two-thirds after 24 years' service. They normally retire at 60 years of age and the widow's benefits are calculated as for judges.

Members of Parliament contribute at the rate of 11 percent of an ordinary member's salary for an allowance based on one thirty-second of an ordinary member's salary at the point of retirement for each year of service, up to a maximum of two-thirds after approximately 21 years' service. They qualify for an allowance from 50 years of age on retiring from Parliament after not less than 9 years' service or not less than 8 years if this covers the duration of at least 3 sessions. The standard provisions for spouses and children apply.

Police and Prison Service contributors are obliged to retire at 60 years of age and to enable older entrants to attain additional superannuation service their service is counted as 1 year and one-seventh if they join the fund after the age of 25 years. A lesser fraction is added for those joining between 20 and 24 years of age. Increased rates of contributions are payable by those whose service is scaled up. The standard benefits apply.

Statistics—As at 31 March 1978 there were 129 643 contributors to the Government Superannuation Fund who paid $66,127,011 into the fund during the year. At 31 March 1978 there were 32 367 superannuitants who were entitled to $77,294,403 a year, made up as follows:

Qualifications for AllowanceMalesFemalesTotalAnnual Allowances
 Number$(000)
Retired for age or length of service17 6613 42721 08864,335
Medically unfit8521901 0421,955
Total retiring allowances18 5133 61722 13066,290
Widows..9 0529 05210,912
Children6345511 18592
        Total allowances19 14713 22032 36777,294

Total assets at 31 March 1978, which amounted to $456,636,243, included investments in Government stock, $445,486,600.

The average effective interest earning of the fund for the year ended 31 March 1978 was 6.17 percent.

As at 31 March 1978, contributors to the Government Superannuation Fund were distributed as follows:

Branch of ServiceNumberPercentage of Total
Armed Services12 2229.43
Education Service35 51727.40
Police4 7653.67
Post Office21 45616.55
N.Z. Railways11 9829.24
Public Service40 36531.14
Other employers3 3362.57
        Total129 643100.00

The following table gives a summary of financial statistics, together with the numbers of contributors, for the latest available 3 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of ContributorsAnnual Contributions*Interest Received From InvestmentsSubsidy From Government Trading Departments and OthersAnnual Value of AllowancesAccumulated Fund at 31 March

*Includes transfers from National Provident Fund.

†Based on retiring and other allowances at end of year. Actual total paid during year ended 31 March 1978 was $74,609,186, plus $15,885,470 for retiring allowances capitalised.

    $(000)  
1976133 83454,52517,93547,25650,539357,618
1977130 17658,99121,80356,12164,976401,665
1978129 64366,12725,63572,82777,294453,993

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND—The National Provident Fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as statutory chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and up to three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The fund now provides services in a number of separate areas:

  1. Public Fund—The 2 oldest pension schemes have catered for the general public on an individual basis, sometimes with encouragement from their employer or as members of a group.

  2. Local Authorities Superannuation—Three schemes cover employees of all local bodies, quasi-government and other approved organisations, firemen, and nurses.

  3. National Superannuation Schemes—Two employer-subsidised schemes are available, one for farm employees and the other for any employees of companies, firms, Government departments, or local authorities willing to become contributing employers. A further scheme is available for the self-employed.

  4. Local Authorities Investment Pool—This ancillary activity enables local authorities to invest surplus funds at interest.

The State guarantees the benefits payable under all the schemes and meets all administration expenses. There are some elements of State subsidy in the public fund and local authority schemes, and a guarantee of minimum interest earnings in the national schemes.

Public Fund—Membership was available to any resident of New Zealand over the age of 15 years.

The first scheme of the fund, the Level Premium Scheme, available since 1911 and now closed to new members, enables contributors to purchase a pre-determined weekly pension from age 60 years by paying fixed regular contributions according to age on joining. For the first $20 per week a State subsidy of 25 percent is built into the contribution rates and after 5 years' membership contributors qualify for incapacity, widows', and dependent children's allowances.

The Annual Single Premium Scheme, which has been available to individuals and the self-employed since 1958, accepts contributions of any amount from members at any time. The contributions paid during each year are applied at the end of that year towards the purchase of a pension from age 60 years according to the contributor's then age. Only the first $1,000 contributed each year attracts State subsidy and this ceases once the aggregate pension purchased reaches $20 per week. There is a widow's benefit.

These 2 schemes, along with the Post 60 Scheme introduced in 1965, are now being phased out in favour of the Cash Accumulation Scheme introduced in 1975.

Cash Accumulation Scheme—This scheme is being very widely used by individuals. It enables them to pay when and whatever amount of contribution they so desire, and also allows them to choose their own date of retirement on superannuation. It is based on a cash accumulation principle and is highly regarded as the ultimate retirement benefit since it reflects the significance of changing interest rates and the impact of inflation. This scheme now provides the vehicle for superannuation previously provided by the Annual Single Premium, Level Premium, and Post 60 Schemes.

Additional Benefit Plan—This provision was introduced in 1975. It allows an existing contributor to one of the fund's schemes to increase the estate or spouse benefit otherwise provided in the scheme by such amount as is required by paying an extra stipulated contribution. Most of the fund's schemes limit the benefit payable in the event of the contributor's death to a level no greater than the equity in the fund. This usually means that in the earlier years of a contributor's membership, the estate or spouse benefit could be much less than a prudent man would require. The Additional Benefit Plan satisfies this need.

National Superannuation Scheme—An employer-subsidised superannuation scheme was introduced in 1964 for farm workers, and in 1969 was expanded and made available to other employee organisations. It is now the largest single scheme in the fund. In 1975 more than 200 000 employees used it as an alternative to the New Zealand Superannuation Scheme for compulsory superannuation purposes, and although many withdrew when the New Zealand Superannuation Act 1974 was repealed, the scheme is still flourishing. It has useful and simple provisions, is easy to understand and requires simple accounting and administrative procedures. During periods of non-employment it provides for the holding of credits and contains the modern facilities of portability. The National Superannuation Scheme for the Self-employed is similar to the national scheme, except that contributions of any amount may be made at any time and there is, of course, no employer subsidy.

Local Authorities Superannuation—The National Provident Fund continues to provide for superannuation for local authorities, and for employees of quasi-government organisations, and charitable and religious institutions. Under section 44 of the Act all local authorities are deemed contributors to the fund on behalf of their permanent employees who, qualified by age, elect to become contributing employees. Under section 58 of the Act other approved bodies are accepted under similar conditions by completing a special agreement with the board. The Standard Scheme is the main scheme, but variations thereof with special terms and conditions are available for use by firemen, nurses, harbourmasters and harbour board pilots, and aircrew employees of Air New Zealand. Contributory service is transferable between these schemes and with the Government Superannuation Fund, because of their great similarity.

Investment Pool—The Local Authorities Investment Pool continues to be the main avenue for the temporary investment by local authorities, and other approved bodies, of surplus loan moneys and reserve funds. During the year a deposit of 75 million Swiss francs ($33.836 million) made by an overseas bank was received into the investment pool. The balances of the pool account as at 31 March of 3 recent years are shown below.

As at 31 March$(million)
1976156.7
1977218.9
1978273.0

Investments by Fund—The fund's lending to local authorities in recent years is shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchNo. of ApplicationsAmount Considered $(million)Amount Approved $(million)
1976876134.6117.5
1977676117.2108.7
1978607111.4109.8

Approvals to the various local authorities during the year ended 31 March 1978 were as follows:

Class of Local AuthorityApplicationsAmount Applied ForAmount ApprovedAmount Deferred or Declined
 No. $(thousand) 
Cities and boroughs24028,05927,134990
Counties663,1492,784300
Electric power boards8915,54115,541..
Fire service3480480..
Harbour boards525,7635,463300
Hospital boards9644,98944,989..
Sundry local authorities6113,42613,426..
        Total607111,407109,8171,590
1976–77 figures676117,273108,7368,538

In 1977–78 few local authorities made application in advance of their needs, and accordingly the amount deferred was less than for the previous year.

Comparative Survey—The following table provides a survey of financial and other statistics of the National Provident Fund for 3 recent years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197619771978
*Fall in number includes many 1976–77 withdrawals of contributors who joined the National Scheme as an alternative to the New Zealand Superannuation Scheme for compulsory superannuation purposes.
New contributors during yearNo.123 73613 8677 163
Total contributors at end of yearNo.235 082244 148123 094*
Local authority scheme—
    ContributorsNo.20 03618 89517 354
    Contributions$(000)28,57128,73631,185
Public Fund—
    ContributorsNo.215 046225 253105 740*
    Contributions$(000)28,77324,66325,202
Pensions and allowances at end of yearNo.9 91610 54411 288
Income—
    Contributions$(000)57,34453,39956,388
    Interest$(000)19,75924,22330,658
    Government subsidy$(000)6,0426,0036,927
            Total income$(000)83,14683,62593,972
Outgoings—
    Pensions and allowances$(000)9,48711,27814,691
    Other benefits$(000)4,50214,2239,780
            Total outgoings$(000)13,98925,50224,472
Investment pool at end of period$(000)156,671218,932273,046
Funds at end of period$(000)338,822396,521466,021

Chapter 9. Section 7; EDUCATION, SCIENCE, AND THE ARTS

7 A—EDUCATION

Public discussion of education has often been spirited and controversial. What people care about they are prepared to argue about. But on one matter of fundamental importance there has been broad, if often implicit, agreement. It has long been accepted by New Zealanders of all ages and in all walks of life that, whatever else it should or should not do, the public system of education should provide opportunity for all children, regardless of background, ability, and promise, to develop their abilities so that their lives may become personally satisfying and socially useful. The continuing thrust of policy has been towards the creation of opportunity through education (Public Education in New Zealand, Department of Education, 1973).

GROWTH OF EDUCATION—For a period of 30 years from 1945 education in New Zealand was marked by rapid growth. In 1945 school, college, and university enrolments combined were 328 000 or 19.3 percent of the population but by 1977 the combined enrolments had risen to over 990 000 or almost 32 percent of the population. This growth is accounted for by increased births for the major part of the period; a marked tendency for pupils to stay on longer at school and also to undertake further education after leaving school; and the development of new educational services. In the last 25 years the number of pupils in primary schools has almost doubled and pupils in secondary schools have increased almost fourfold, while the number of students in universities has more than trebled and students receiving technical education quadrupled.

At the same time education has grown more intensive and education expenditure has expanded from 6 percent of total Government expenditure in 1945–46 to 15.9 percent in 1976–77.

The strongly egalitarian temper of New Zealand society—a product of historical, geographical, and economic factors—is reflected in education administration by the policy of making education at all levels freely available. In few other countries is there closer approximation to equality of educational opportunity—and few countries have a larger proportion of their population in schools, colleges, and universities.

ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION—The Education Act 1964 provides for free and secular education in State primary and secondary schools. For all children between the ages of 6 and 15 years, education is compulsory. University education is provided under the Universities Act 1961, and funds for universities are distributed by the University Grants Committee.

The central administrative body directing education is the Department of Education, whose permanent head is the Director-General of Education. The department consists of professional and administrative officers with its head office in Wellington. To bring administration closer to schools and institutions in the system the department has regional offices in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, each under the control of a superintendent.

The Department of Education, in discharging its responsibility to the Minister of Education for the administration of the system, advises the Minister on policy and development, controls the expenditure of money voted, ensures that schools are built and equipped when and where required and that teachers are recruited and trained, checks that standards are maintained in all schools (both State and private), and assesses the efficiency of teachers. An important professional function of the department is to conduct curriculum revision and development and to recommend curriculum changes to the Minister.

The control and management of State primary schools is the responsibility of the 10 education boards, and local secondary school boards control State secondary schools. These boards are responsible for the schools in their area. They are the employing authorities of the teachers. They disburse the grants received from the Department of Education for the maintenance of schools and building of new schools and for equipment and teaching materials. No local rates are levied for education either by municipal or local education authorities.

The Department of Education directly administers the Correspondence School and State special schools. It controls the inspectorate, supervises the staffing of schools, and conducts the School Certificate Examination. All State and registered private schools are visited regularly by inspectors who give assistance and guidance to teachers in educational matters. The department also administers the capital expenditure voted for school buildings.

The Department of Education has official contacts with the National Council of Adult Education and the University Grants Committee but the universities are independent in their educational activities.

Education Boards and School Committees—The members of education boards have in the past been elected solely by members of school committees on a ward system, but provision has now been made for the appointment to each board of a teacher to represent all teachers employed by the board.

Each State primary school controlled by an education board has its school committee elected by the parents of pupils and adults resident in the school district. It is a statutory body charged with management of property and other matters on behalf of the board. The members of school committees form the electorates for electing education board members.

A school committee's essential function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide, along with voluntary parent-teacher associations, a focusing point for local opinion on educational matters.

Secondary School Boards—Secondary schools are controlled and administered by their own boards of governors. The local boards controlling secondary schools (either singly, or several schools in the same town) are made up of representatives of the parents of pupils, of the education board of the district, and of other local groups and organisations, and provision has recently been made for the election of teacher representatives. The boards are constituted by the Minister and published in the New Zealand Gazette. In some metropolitan areas, groups of secondary schools have been linked together for administrative purposes under secondary school councils, but each school still retains its own board of governors which has a large measure of autonomy in the control and management of its own school.

Technical Institute Councils—Technical institutes, including the Technical Correspondence Institute, are controlled by councils with members representing business and industry, local authorities, the universities, and governing bodies of secondary schools.

Community Colleges—Amendments to the Education Act in 1974 created a new category of institution, Community Colleges, designed to meet continuing education needs particularly in provincial centres. They are governed as technical institutes. The first community college was opened in Hawke's Bay in 1975. Early in 1978 community colleges were established at Whangarei and Rotorua, and Southland Polytechnic changed its status to Southland Community College.

Teachers College Councils—Teachers college councils have the usual administrative functions, combined with some professional responsibility for the training of teachers. They include representatives of education boards, of the Department of Education, the universities, and of the teachers' organisations.

Private Schools—There are a substantial number of private primary and secondary schools conducted by religious bodies or private individuals. These schools are required by the Education Act 1964 to comply with defined standards of accommodation and teaching as a pre-requisite for compulsory registration under the Education Act. Financial assistance is provided by the State subject to certain conditions. Academic bursaries, secondary school bursaries, and Maori scholarships may be tenable at private secondary schools. Assistance for transport by rail and road and (in some cases) a boarding allowance may also be given to pupils attending private schools, whether primary or secondary. School publications are supplied to private schools. From February 1970 the Government has made grants to independent schools on the basis of teachers' salaries. For the first year the proportion was 20 percent and the estimated cost $2.5 million; the proportion rose by stages to 50 percent in 1976. Associated government controls are applied before new independent schools can be built, and there is a requirement that after a transitional period, new teacher entrants to independent schools must possess certain minimum qualifications.

In October 1975, the Private Schools Conditional Integration Act was passed to enable the voluntary integration of private schools into the State system. Four schools have now become integrated and other private schools are entering into negotiations. All Roman Catholic schools have expressed their intention to integrate.

Co-education—Co-education applies at all stages of the school system. All State primary schools and some private primary schools teach boys and girls together. At the secondary level all district high schools and three-quarters of the State secondary schools have both boys and girls on their rolls, whilst the remaining quarter of the State secondary schools and nearly all of the private secondary schools are single-sex schools. A comparison of the total enrolment of all secondary schools (State as well as private) shows that, over the last 2 decades, there has been a trend toward the provision of more co-educational than single-sex schools.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION—The following table shows the net expenditure from public funds on each branch or service of education for the latest March years.

Item1976–1977 Net Expenditure1977–1978
Net ExpenditurePercentage of Total
Programme—$(000)$(000) 
    I—Administration and general9,95410,9031.4
    II—Pre-school education8,89911,4651.4
    III—Primary and secondary education—
              Administration and support services29,37334,9634.3
              State primary education195,843226,97328.1
              State secondary education131,040157,34119.5
              Assistance to private schools19,00521,0142.6
              Integration of private schools1,7190.2
              Special education8,30410,4961.3
                    Sub-total—Programme III383,565452,50656.0
    IV—Higher education—
              University education94,130111,63113.8
              Teacher training43,56246,5835.8
              Senior technical education35,17642,5355.3
              Community education1,6831,8890.2
                    Sub-total—Programme IV174,551202,63825.1
    V—National Library3,9365,2040.6
    VI—Research1,3130.2
Total—Programmes I to VI—Funded from Consolidated Revenue Account580,905684,02984.7
    VII—Education buildings—
              Primary and secondary schools68,18877,2929.6
              Universities28,52628,7803.6
              Teachers colleges6,5795,8550.7
              Technical institutes/community colleges.15,21511,5811.4
Total—Programme VII—Funded from Works and Trading Account118,508123,50815.3
                    Total699,413807,537100.0

The following table gives Government net expenditure on education and relates it to total Government expenditure in national accounting terms. The share of public expenditure devoted to education has increased significantly in relation to other forms of Government expenditure in recent decades (although there has been a decline since 1974). Much of the increased spending in earlier years was a direct consequence of roll growth.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet Education ExpenditureAs Percentage of Total Government Expenditure
Current (Salaries, etc.)*BuildingsTotalCurrent Education ExpenditureTotal Education Expenditure
*About 66 percent of current expenditure is on salaries of teachers and other staff.
  $(million) percent
1976505.3121.7627.012.615.8x
1977580.9x118.5x699.412.7x15.3x
1978684.0123.5807.512.114.2

The following figures relate Government net expenditure on education to gross national product and mean population.

Year Ended 31 MarchExpenditure from Public FundsExpenditure as Percentage of Gross National ProductExpenditure per Head of Mean Population
 $(000)percent$
1973376,8394.7x128.51
1974440,2074.8x146.96
1975526,6305.3x172.08
1976627,0055.5x202.42
1977699,413x5.1x224.12
1978807,5375.4258.09

An international comparison of public expenditure on education as a percentage of gross national product is given in the following table for selected countries. Educational expenditure in many countries has been rising twice as fast as national income. These figures are taken from the U.N. Statistical Yearbook 1977.

CountryYearPublic Expenditure on Education as Percentage of G.N.P.
*As percentage of net material product.
Australia19756.3
Austria19755.7
Canada19757.9
Denmark19758.3
France19744.7
Germany, West19744.5
Italy19755.0
Japan19755.5
Netherlands19737.9
New Zealand19755.3
Switzerland19755.1
United States19756.2
United Kingdom19705.9
USSR19757.6*

International comparisons need to be treated with reserve because of the differing education systems and measures of expenditure.

SCHOOL BUILDINGS—During the year ended 31 March 1978 a total of 9 new primary schools were opened. Two new intermediate schools were opened, and 1 new secondary school.

The lower birth rate and increased emigration of recent years have resulted in a decreased demand for new schools and additional classrooms. This will release more funds for the urgent replacement, remodelling, and upgrading of facilities at older schools.

Building expenditure for 1977–78 was as follows:

 $(m)
Universities (including equipment)28.7
Education buildings78.1
Technical institutes11.6
Teachers colleges5.9
Pre-school buildings2.5

Pre-school—Successive governments have given considerable priority to the provision of financial assistance to pre-school organisations for the establishment of buildings. A building code specifying the architectural and educational requirements of pre-school buildings was issued by the department in 1976. Education boards are now involved in the planning and maintenance of pre-school buildings, many of which are being sited on primary school grounds.

Primary—As a result of the falling total primary school roll experienced in recent years, the remodelling and replacement of existing primary school buildings, rather than the provision of additional school accommodation, occupies increasing prominence on current education board building programmes.

New primary school buildings continue to reflect the development and adaptation of the “open plan” concept to meet current educational needs. Many attractive and innovative designs have been developed by education board architects in concert with the teaching staff and the inspectorate.

Secondary—For some years the $68 standard plan has been the principal design used for new secondary schools, but the department is developing a series of other standard secondary school plans. These include a school based on the Whanau design, the first block of which was completed during 1976 at Penrose High School. The design of a relocatable secondary school was also commenced during 1977. This will be used in areas where the long-term need for a school is uncertain.

A new standard building design, the Leeston plan, is now coming into use for secondary and tertiary education. It is in modular form and caters for specialised teaching accommodation as well as classrooms. The first building will be erected at Leeston.

Tertiary—The Government approved, as from 1 April 1978, the establishment of new community colleges at Northland (Whangarei), Rotorua, and Southland (Invercargill) and, as from February 1978, senior technical divisions of secondary schools at Tauranga Boys College, Gisborne Boys High School, Wanganui Boys College, and Timaru College. A programme of new buildings and alteration work was commenced during 1977. A programme of major work for technical institutes continued during the year. The major capital works programme for teachers colleges is nearly completed.

Major capital works undertaken in recent years have included 2 new primary teachers colleges (North Shore and Hamilton) and major additions made to the existing permanent colleges following the introduction of 3-year training for primary teachers. A college for the secondary division of the Christchurch Teachers College has been built on a new site adjacent to the University of Canterbury. Senior technical education has also required substantial new buildings or additions to existing buildings, the biggest single project being the Central Institute of Technology at Trentham near Wellington.

University Buildings—Building and other capital requirements of universities are handled through the University Works Committee. This committee prepares for the approval of the Government an annual programme of projected expenditure on university capital works—buildings, land purchase, furniture and equipment, and subsidies on halls of residence. Expenditure in recent March years has been: 1974–75, $19.8 million; 1975–76, $26.4 million; 1976–77, $28.5 million; and in 1977–78, $28.8 million.

Correspondence School—The specially designed building for the correspondence school in Wellington is now completed after considerable delays, and was opened in 1979. After working in 12 different locations around Wellington, the school was reunited for the first time since 1970.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS—The numbers of scholars and students receiving instruction in educational institutions are shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers at 1 July.

Type of Institution197619771978

*Previous figures included children on the roll under 2 years of age.

†Includes 337 kindergarten trainees in 1978 and 398 in 1977.

Pre-school
    Playcentres22 80121 39619 401*
    Kindergartens34 07535 56036 812
 56 87656 95656 213
Primary
    Primary schools under board control390 350391 696388 458
    Intermediate schools77 31574 33474 096
    Forms 1 and 2 at Form 1 to 7 schools5 6155 5745 830
    Chatham Islands schools146170169
    Correspondence school1 0211 2091 399
    Departmental special schools482430360
    Department of Social Welfare schools89112129
    Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind959697
    Private primary schools49 89949 30948 893
 525 012522 930519 431
Secondary
    State secondary schools193 894195 770198 127
    District high schools and area schools2 8562 7932 831
    Correspondence school762728920
    Departmental special schools109151218
    Department of Social Welfare schools291292322
    Private secondary schools32 37932 28132 287
 230 291232 015234 705
Technical
    Technical Correspondence Institute21 71222 02226 404
    Other technical institutes and community colleges—
    Full-time students4 2604 7295 760
    Part-time students35 15131 80134 282
    Technical classes at other institutions—
    Full-time students253217200
    Part-time students62 49764 68875 124
 123 873123 457141 770
Teacher training
    Teachers colleges7 5216 8376 234
    Kindergarten training centres
 7 5216 8376 234
University institutions
    Full-time internal students28 37429 13029 677
    Part-time internal students11 52211 71912 158
    Extra-mural students6 3116 099x6 488
    Agricultural short courses173212173
    Medical short courses401815
 46 42047 178x48 511
            Total989 993989 373x1,006,864

The movement in school and university student population is illustrated by the diagram below, which is drawn on a logarithmic scale.

Figure 9.1. SCHOOL POPULATION

SCHOOL POPULATION

TEACHING STAFF—Statistics of full-time teaching staff at all educational institutions are shown in the following table.

Institution19771978
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
*Includes 651 manual training assistants employed at manual training centres in 1977 and 679 in 1978.
Kindergartens31 0261 02931 0821 085
Primary—
    State7 56711 54119 1087 54611 65419 200
    Private3111 4831 7943751 5351 910
 7 87813 02420 9027 92113 18921 110
Secondary—
    State*7 2864 54011 8267 4254 66712 092
    Private7516951 4469007521 652
 8 0375 23513 2728 3255 41913 744
Technical institutes and New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute1 4152911 7061 5163561 872
Teachers colleges480147627425127552
University institutions2 5772872 8642 6092982 907
        Total20 39020 01040 40020 79920 47141 270

The levelling-off in the growth of primary school rolls which, on the basis of known births, is expected to continue until at least 1982, combined with a higher retention rate of teachers in the service, has resulted in a favourable staffing situation in primary schools. This has enabled all primary schools from 1977 to be staffed on a ratio of 1 teacher to every 31 pupils.

Improved pupil-teacher ratios have also been implemented for secondary schools.

Overseas Students—Overseas students attending New Zealand institutions at 1 July 1977 totalled 4047 of whom 1128 were from the South Pacific area (excluding Australia) and 2452 from South-east Asia.

Projected Students—A projection of education rolls, made in 1977 by the Department of Education and based on policies and trends at the time, is set out in the following table.

PeriodRolls
KindergartenTotal PrimaryTotal Secondary
Actual197735 600522 900232 000
Projected—198042 000514 800233 500
198548 000471 300239 400
199054 00451 600218 100

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS: School Certificate—A School Certificate Examination conducted by the Department of Education is taken by the majority of pupils at the end of 3 years of secondary education. The course of each candidate must include English, history or geography or a foreign language, mathematics or science. A candidate may enter the examination in any number of subjects up to 6 and is credited with passes in the individual subjects in which he or she is successful.

Sixth Form Certificate—These are awarded to pupils who have satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year on a single-subject basis—to a maximum of 6 subjects—beyond the level of School Certificate.

University Entrance—Pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a 4 years' secondary school course. Pupils not accredited for entrance to university may qualify by passing the University Entrance Examination which is conducted by the University Entrance Board.

The University Bursaries Examination and the University Entrance Scholarship Examination, taken by secondary school pupils usually in Form 7, are also conducted by the University Entrance Board; they are competitive examinations for supplementary awards for study at a university.

Higher School Certificate—Higher School Certificates are awarded after a 5-year course to pupils who have been accepted for entry to the Sixth Form and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 2 years; and to pupils who have obtained a qualification recognised by the University Entrance Board for admission to a university in New Zealand and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year.

Examination passes at other than university examinations are set out in the following table.

YearSchool Certificate*OtherUniversity EntranceUniversity Entrance ScholarshipUniversity Bursaries A and B

*Includes Certificate of Attainment.

†The number includes Trained Teachers Certificate, Diploma of Teaching, Technical Teachers Certificates, City and Guilds of London Institutes Examination. Technological, Engineers, and Surveyors Assistants and Public Service Shorthand Typists Examinations are not now administered by the Department.

‡Includes both accredited passes and passes by examination.

197552 34684415 3341383 858
197654 88080416 6561594 269
197754 5701 11817 6221704 477
YearTechnician Certificate 3-year CourseN.Z. Certificate 5-year CourseCertificates Issued
Intermediate*FinalTradeAdvanced TradeIndustrial Practice
*The issuing of the Intermediate T.C.A. certificate has been discontinued from 1977.
19753187529742 241621125
1976386x620x1 088x1 475647229
1977630*1 0812 132653437

Comparative figures for the number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination and the number of passes by accrediting and by examination are given in the following table.

YearCandidatesPasses
AccreditedBy Examination
197524 40712 5162 318
197628 32913 5913 065
197730 08514 0453 577

A total of 170 university junior scholarships and 4477 bursaries were awarded for undergraduate study in 1977.

SPECIAL EDUCATION—Whenever possible, handicapped children are enrolled with other children at ordinary pre-school services and in ordinary classes at their local primary or secondary school. When necessary, buildings are modified, special equipment is provided, and ancillary staff are appointed to assist their teachers, who are advised on suitable teaching programmes by the Department of Education inspectors of schools and psychologists, and by other specialist advisers.

A comprehensive range of special education services has been developed for those handicapped children whose special needs cannot be met in ordinary classes through these measures. Small part-time groups for handicapped pre-school children are attached to selected kindergartens and playcentres. Education boards provide special classes and resource centres at primary schools or separate special schools for pupils who are backward (mildly or moderately mentally-retarded), intellectually handicapped (more seriously mentally retarded), deaf, visually handicapped, physically handicapped, or maladjusted.

The education boards also administer special classes in hospitals, special schools in psychiatric hospitals, speech clinics and reading clinics; and employ itinerant teachers to assist children in ordinary classes who have a hearing handicap or serious reading difficulties.

Special classes for deaf, backward, and maladjusted pupils are provided at selected secondary schools.

The Department of Education itself administers 6 residential schools—2 for deaf children (which also admit day pupils), 2 for backward children and 2 for maladjusted children. The Department also provides the teaching services in Department of Social Welfare institutions for socially maladjusted children, and the education service in penal institutions administered by the Department of Justice.

This network of special schools and classes is supported by 3 specialised guidance services which also assist children in ordinary classes. The Hearing Assessment and Guidance Service offers guidance to the parents and teachers of deaf children. The Visiting Teacher Service provides liaison between teachers and the parents of pupils whose progress at school may be hampered by home difficulties. The Psychological Service provides a comprehensive diagnostic and advisory service for children who have learning or social difficulties. It maintains a close liaison with all secondary school guidance staff and with all health, education, and welfare services for children. These 3 services assisted approximately 35 000 pre-school and school age children in 1977.

In 1977 some 1460 teachers were employed in the special education and guidance services. A total of 11 193 children were enrolled in special classes and schools, and 6905 children were enrolled at speech or reading clinics.

In addition, 423 male and 222 female adults received full-time special education in 1977.

The Department of Education co-ordinates the administration and development of the special education services for handicapped children through the district senior inspectors of primary and secondary schools.

GroupBoysGirlsTotal
Visually handicapped12478202
Visually and hearing handicapped8715
Hearing handicapped495404899
Speech handicapped4 7202 1856 905
Physically handicapped197149346
In health camps188128316
In hospitals428272700
Intellectually handicapped8356011 436
Backward1 6838672 550
Pre-school10414
Maladjusted6764451 121
Educationally retarded1 6718212 492
Others7343681 102
        Total11 7696 32918 098

The above table shows the number of pupils receiving full-time special education at primary and secondary schools (including intermediate, correspondence, and special schools) and pre-school pupils receiving part-time special education at 1 July 1977.

PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION—Children below the age of 5 are not enrolled in State primary schools except in a few areas. Pre-school education is provided mainly by 2 national voluntary organisations which receive support from the State. Some assistance from the Government is also available to voluntary educational organisations for handicapped pre-school children, and to voluntary social welfare agencies for children needing full day care. Other institutions include informal family play groups, private and community kindergartens, and playcentres which operate independently and receive no direct Government financial assistance.

The Government pays the full cost of new sites for free kindergartens and recognised playcentres, a subsidy of $4 to $1 for buildings, and a subsidy of $2 for $1 for equipment. The maintenance of the buildings is the financial responsibility of the Government. In areas of special need, the cost of building and equipment may be met in full by the Government. Grants are made available to both organisations for administration and day-to-day running costs.

In July 1977 there were 35 560 children enrolled at 441 free kindergartens and 23 205 children (including 1809 under 2 years of age) at 702 recognised playcentres. Just over 13 000 children below 5 years of age were enrolled in other pre-school groups.

Kindergarten teachers are now trained in 7 of the teachers colleges and the Government gives training and student allowances on the same basis as primary and secondary teachers. Playcentre supervisors are trained part-time within their own associations and work on a part-time voluntary basis.

PRIMARY EDUCATION—Entry into a primary school is compulsory at 6 years of age, but it is the common practice for children to start formal schooling at the age of 5 years. If living in an isolated area, a child must be enrolled with the primary department of the Department of Education's Correspondence School. The top 2 years of the primary course, Forms 1 and 2, may be taken at an intermediate or a Form 1–7 school. On completing instruction in Form 2, usually after 8 years' school attendance, a child normally enters Form 3 of a secondary school, or alternatively the secondary department of a district high school. All children are required to attend school until they reach the age of 15 years.

The curriculum of the primary and intermediate schools, as set out in the syllabuses of instruction, covers oral and written language (including reading and handwriting), mathematics, social studies, art and crafts, science, physical education (including swimming), health education, music, and, for some children in Forms 1 and 2, French. At the Forms 1 and 2 levels, creative crafts such as woodwork, metal work, homecraft, and sewing are available to both girls and boys.

Teachers have the assistance of specialist teachers in a variety of fields, including science, physical education, art and crafts, reading, mathematics, music, Maori language programmes, and language programmes for Maori children. Itinerant specialists are also available to help teachers in small rural schools and teachers of infant classes. Specialist assistance in helping children with special needs is provided by the psychological service, speech therapists, visiting teachers, and advisers on deaf children.

The Basic Equipment Grant enables all schools to build up an adequate supply of teaching equipment and is supplemented by free textbooks, basic primer readers, art, craft, and physical education equipment. Schools also receive a book grant to purchase additional textbooks and other reading materials.

State Primary Schools—The figures set out in the following table refer to all pupils in State primary schools and intermediate schools and departments, including Chatham Islands schools, but exclude special schools.

YearSchools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments)Pupils at 1 JulyPupils at 30 SeptemberPupils at End of Year
19752 215467 915484 058498 434
19762 194467 811483 807494 722
19772 149466 200481 584490 839

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the State primary schools, Chatham Islands schools, and Forms 1 and 2 at intermediate schools at 1 July in each of the years shown.

Age, in Years19761977
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
*Includes 1295 under 5 years of age.
531 11129 86460 97531 21129 69260 903*
629 56827 96457 53230 33529 10759 442
729 39428 13257 52628 38026 62755 007
828 96027 80856 76830 05728 56558 622
928 37627 31755 69329 32728 16357 490
1027 95226 83354 78527 83327 20255 035
1127 26125 61152 87226 47725 19751 674
1227 16325 69052 85325 55124 33449 885
1310 2987 44917 7479 5157 25916 774
14380218598548363911
151087818611074184
16 and over137139276141132273
    Total240 708227 103467 811239 485226 715466 200

Size of Classes—The sizes of classes at State primary schools at 30 September are shown in the following table.

YearPupils in Class
19 or less20–2425–2930–3435–3940 or moreTotal
19752 1192 2623 7976 0472 8614917 135
19762 1152 6774 0386 1882 4364017 494
19771 7942 0684 4316 8421 9623117 128

NOTE—Prior to 1970 special classes were excluded from this table, but from 1970 onwards special classes are included in the official size of class statistics. The table includes intermediate schools and departments and Chatham Islands schools.

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1977 there were 76 896 Maori children attending State primary schools and 3268 attending private primary schools. Staffing is more Liberal in schools with a large proportion of Maori or other Polynesian children.

Intermediate Schools—Pupils on the rolls of the 141 intermediate schools and 1 intermediate department at the end of 1977, numbered 74 334. Of all children in Forms 1 and 2 at State primary schools at 1 July 1977, 68.1 percent were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1 July of each of the latest 3 years were as follows:

Age, in Years197519761977
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
10 and under284401685361402163279412691
1112 62813 47326 10112 46813 26025 72812 79213 31026 102
1219 23417 99537 22919 27718 25337 53018 07617 20735 283
137 3855 57112 9567 4605 47912 9396 6325 13711 769
14184144328209127336290193483
151071710616336
16 and over213
        Total39 72537 59177 31639 78737 52877 31538 07236 26274 334

Private Schools—The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools, including primary departments in private secondary schools.

YearNumber of SchoolsPupils atTeachers (Full-time)
1 July30 SepEnd of YearMaleFemaleTotal
197532850 74552 02552 6262701 4171 687
197632749 89951 20151 8342961 5431 839
197732449 30950 63351 2812891 4551 744

The majority of the schools are Roman Catholic Church schools.

SECONDARY EDUCATION—The secondary syllabus is based on a common core, consisting of English, social studies, general science, elementary mathematics, music, arts and crafts, and physical education, to be followed by a degree of specialisation within a wide range of subjects that may be taken to the School Certificate stage. All types of secondary schools are required to give all pupils during the first 2 years of their secondary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the common core subjects.

The following table shows the number of secondary schools for each of the latest 3 years (figures exclude the secondary department of the Correspondence School).

YearState Secondary SchoolsSecondary Departments of District High Schools and Area SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsTotal
197524142109392
1976x24839108395
197725437107398

District high schools are State primary schools with a secondary “top” and the basic course is academic, as in the normal secondary school. Where staffing and equipment allow, special courses are provided in agriculture, commercial practice, and domestic science. In 1977, 27 of the State secondary schools enrolled only boys and 23 schools only girls, with 204 schools co-educational. Most of the private schools are single-sex schools. There were 96 State secondary schools with over 1000 pupils.

The inspection of secondary schools is carried out by inspectors of secondary schools attached to the Department of Education. In 1977 there were 64 inspectors. The entitlement is 69. The numbers of each sex attending schools providing secondary education at 1 July 1977 were: State secondary schools, 99 805 boys and 95 965 girls; secondary departments of district high schools, area schools, and reorganised district high schools, 1363 boys and 1430 girls; private secondary schools, 15 983 boys and 16 298 girls; full-time pupils in the secondary department of the Correspondence School numbered 189 boys and 539 girls. In addition, 258 boys and 185 girls received secondary education in 18 special schools.

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1977, 27 793 Maori pupils were receiving secondary education. This number comprised 25 583 pupils attending State secondary schools (including secondary departments of district high schools) and 2210 pupils attending private secondary schools. An additional 152 Maori boys and 108 Maori girls received secondary education at the 18 special schools.

About 1 in 8 secondary pupils in the North Island is now Maori. There is a steady improvement in the number of Maori pupils passing the School Certificate Examination and progressing to Forms 6 and 7.

Secondary School Hostels—In 1977 there were 44 hostels for State secondary schools. A programme for 5-day hostels at certain rural secondary schools is being developed to strengthen rural secondary education.

Attainment Levels of State and Private Secondary Schools—The following table gives particulars of pupils who left schools providing secondary education, classified according to years of attendance and attainments.

Year of AttendancePupils
19761977
First1 022787
Second6 7465 762
Third18 35016 940
Fourth20 09420 771
Fifth11 97312 901
Sixth and over540440
        Total58 72557 601
AttainmentsPupils
19761977
University scholarship166174
University bursary4 0794 262
Higher School Certificate3 1333 237
University Entrance8 2668 826
Sixth Form Certificate8 0407 832
School Certificate (three or more subjects)6 4456 312
School Certificate (one or two subjects)7 3146 999
No attainments21 28219 959
        Total58 72557 601

Probable Destination of State and Private Secondary Pupils—An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils who left secondary schools during 1977 is contained in the next table.

Probable DestinationBoysGirlsTotal
Further full-time education at:
    University3 7642 3566 120
    Teacher training:
        Attending university full-time141281422
        Others (including kindergarten)130830960
    Technical institutes9802 5393 519
    Other full-time education137323460
To join labour force:
    Professional, technical and related workers—
        Technicians8774371 314
        Health services932 6632 756
        Others401321722
    Clerical work1 6965 8997 595
    Sales work1 1232 4623 585
    Service work (including Armed Forces)—
        Entering apprenticeships2 5425093 051
        Others1 1309112 041
    Agriculture, fishing, hunting—
        Entering apprenticeship9071181 025
        Others2 7935543 347
    Production, transport equipment operators, and labourers—
        Entering apprenticeships3 3762053 581
        Others3 1041 2804 384
No occupation or unknown6 1616 55812 719
                Total29 35528 24657 601

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT—The principal functions of the development division are to prepare, co-ordinate, and revise curricula and syllabuses at all school levels; to provide handbooks and resource materials for teachers; to initiate pilot schemes of new courses and methods; to bring new or revised methods to the attention of teachers; and to assist teachers themselves in developing curricula at the local school level. Professional officers in the division have responsibility for development in areas including science, mathematics, English, social studies, Maori language and studies, foreign languages, music, libraries, audio-visual media, drama, physical education, reading, and examinations and tests.

MAORI LANGUAGE TEACHING—During 1977 a total of 153 secondary schools taught Maori to more than 13 000 pupils. Some 2000 pupils sat the School Certificate Examination in Maori. A further 21 Maori language teachers completed training as secondary teachers of Maori in 1977, and 19 began training in 1978.

Thirty itinerant teachers of Maori, first appointed in 1976, have given guidance to teachers in developing programmes of Maori language and studies in primary schools. A survey conducted during 1976 revealed that 240 primary and intermediate schools were teaching the Maori language to more than 45 000 pupils.

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools—In order to give children in country districts the advantage of special equipment and more specialised teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been a feature of the last 30 years. Composite schools have been developed in recent years to bring together larger concentrations of children from Form 1 and above. These are known as Form 1 to 7 schools and area schools.

The first Form 1 to 7 school was opened in 1962 and by 1977 there were 38 of these schools. This type of school usually developed from the translation of the secondary department of a district high school with the addition of Form 1 and 2 pupils from neighbouring primary schools. They receive improved staffing, accommodation, and equipment in the endeavour to promote equality of educational opportunity for country children.

However, a large number of Form 1 and 2 children remain in the country districts too small to support a Form 1–7 school. In these districts, area schools have been established. The area school is a unified school providing education from the infant stage to Form 7 for all children in the immediate vicinity, and from Form 1 upwards for children from contributing schools over a wider area. The first area school was opened in 1969, and more recently a number of district high schools have been reorganised and are operating on the same basis. At 1 July 1977 there were 26 of these schools.

Transport and Boarding Allowance—In recent years school transport facilities have been steadily developed until now over 16 percent of the total school population receive assistance in one form or another. Most of these pupils are conveyed by buses under contract to education boards or operated by the Department of Education.

The trend towards consolidating small country schools and improving educational facilities in larger rural centres has been paralleled by the continuing movement of families into provincial towns and cities. These factors are resulting in only a relatively small increase in transport services.

Pupils carried by the school transport services have increased from almost 113 000 (including rail transport) in 1971 to 117 521 in 1977, while the number of separate transport services has increased from 2550 to 2983. These services covered a total of over 40,000,000 kilometres for the year, at a cost of over $16 million.

School boarding bursaries were increased in 1977 from $400 to $500 a year. The number of pupils receiving boarding bursaries decreased to 3411 in 1977 compared with 3671 the previous year.

The next table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding allowances as at 1 July 1977, according to the type of school attended.

Type of SchoolPupils on RollPupils Transported to SchoolPupils Receiving Boarding Allowance
State primary schools466 03064 40969
State secondary schools (including district high schools)204 13750 6501 964
Private primary schools49 3091 429118
Private secondary schools32 2811 0331 260
                Total751 757117 5213 411

Correspondence School—Correspondence classes are conducted for the education of children in very remote areas and for those unable to attend school because of lengthy illness or other causes. A corporate school spirit is developed through the school badge and uniform, daily radio lessons, club activities, the publication of a school magazine, periodical exhibitions of work, and by parents' and ex-pupils' associations. The personal link between the pupil and the school is strengthened by a number of teachers visiting pupils in their homes. At a district level, school day and school week gatherings are held in order to enable pupils to gain the opportunity of social education by working in the classroom.

Young persons in employment, including uncertificated teachers of small State primary schools, inmates of Department of Justice institutions, pupils of secondary schools who require examination subjects which their own schools cannot provide, officers of Government departments, and others who are unable to attend classes at secondary schools, also receive tuition as part-time students of the Correspondence School. In addition, the school enrols teachers for the Diploma in Teaching courses.

In 1977 the total roll of the Correspondence School was 12 753, made up of the following: 204 preschool, 1005 primary, 728 full-time secondary students; 1151 students were enrolled part-time from other schools. The Home Training Section had 297 students and the Individual Programme Section had 124 primary, 72 secondary, and 485 adult students. There were 6558 adult students enrolled part-time. Teachers training courses had the following enrolments: 1372 studying for the Diploma in Teaching and service increment courses, 205 studying for the Trained Teachers Certificate, 52 in training for the Teaching the Intellectually Handicapped Certificate, and 500 taking the retraining of teachers course.

The total staff was 303 and of this number 190 were secondary teachers, 47 primary teachers, 6 preschool teachers, 7 were tutors, 5 resident teachers, and 48 administrative staff.

Agricultural Clubs—More particularly in rural schools, practical interest in agriculture has been stimulated by the widespread formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The pupils undertake projects in livestock rearing and crop growing which are judged annually on the club field day, usually held at the school or local centre.

The agricultural instructors and advisers on school science employed by the education boards play an important part in the formation of the clubs, and by giving technical advice do much to assure the successful completion of the various projects. The clubs receive active support from parents, teachers, and the fanners' organisations.

HEALTH SERVICES—Information on the medical and dental inspection of school children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5A (Health and Medical Services) of this Yearbook.

HEALTH AND SOCIAL EDUCATIONGrowing, Sharing, and Learning, the report of the Committee on Health and Social Education (the Johnson Committee), presented in August 1977, has been extensively circulated for public comment. It put into context the wide range of issues set out in the committee's brief and focused on the roles of the community, of parents, and of schools. The report placed special emphasis on six major themes, namely the importance of ensuring a well-balanced, all-round development of children; greater involvement of parents and community with the school; the important influence of the climate of human relationships in a school; expanded teacher education; the need for more physical and human resources; and the greater availabilty of support services. It also comments on the nature of teaching and on the possible content of programmes. Meanwhile, developments of existing programmes in health and in social education continue, with significant assistance being given by parents and community agencies, both inside and outside normal school programmes. The Johnson report also drew attention to moral and values objectives within other subjects, particularly social studies, where teaching objectives and resources have been built up over the past decade. Departmental officers are acting in a consultative and advisory capacity, assisting the public and teachers to clarify the role of the schools in health and social education, including human development and relationships.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS—In 1977 there were 9 teachers colleges (North Shore, Auckland, Auckland Secondary, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch (Primary and Secondary), and Dunedin), with staffs totalling 627 (480 males and 147 females). At 1 July 1977 there were 8669 students in training. This number includes 1548 holders of secondary teacher studentships (Division U) and 234 holders of primary teachers studentships (Division S) who were attached to teachers colleges while attending universities as full-time students as part of their training for teaching, and 716 graduates undertaking training for secondary teaching.

The minimum entry qualification for admission to primary teacher training (Division A) and for entry to the secondary 3-year commercial course and the 3-year home-economics course, is Sixth Form Certificate with acceptable grades in four subjects. University Entrance is required for the 3-year Division B course in general secondary subjects and the 1-year Division C course is for graduates. Other specialist secondary training courses of 1 year's duration for adults include woodwork and metalwork, commercial, music, and Maori language and these courses have various minimum entry requirements.

The following table shows the number of students in these three divisions at 1 July.

YearDivision ADivision BDivision C
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
19751 4144 186244195319409
19761 3064 188213189332344
19771 0703 929161202357359

The normal course of training for Division A students is a period of 3 years at a teachers college, followed by a further period of 1 year as a probationary assistant attached to a State primary school. The primary teachers' studentship scheme which was introduced in 1965 enables a number of selected students to attend university full time as part of the primary teaching course. Specialist studentships are available to selected students who wish to become speech therapists or teachers of deaf children.

Although the normal period of training for teaching is 3 years, courses may be shortened to 2 years for students partway through degree courses and to 1 year for university graduates and specialists courses such as are mentioned above for secondary teaching as well as those courses for speech therapists or teachers of the deaf or children with handicaps.

A concurrent secondary teacher training course (Division B) was introduced in 1966. The course provides for up to 3 years of concurrent training at a university or a technical institute and at a teachers college, and is available at Auckland Secondary Teachers College and at the secondary division of Christchurch Teachers College.

Successful Division B students may complete the teachers college course with 6 units of a degree or equivalent and apply for a Teachers University Studentship for a year of full-time university study in order to complete a degree. Under the provisions of this concurrent course a successful student may commence his career of teaching as a teacher-trained university graduate in 4 years. This is the same period of time taken by students who are awarded a studentship for 3 years full-time university study (Division U) followed by the 1-year course of teacher training for graduates in Division C.

The ages and classification of students at teachers colleges at 1 July 1977 are shown in the following table. Division E students are included in this table; Division E is a 2-year course for kindergarten student teachers.

CourseAge of Students (in Years)TotalTotal
Under 171718192021–2425 and over
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMFCombined
Division A—
    First year2135691480741273646373519682781 1181 396
    Second year1184143811257876151917932643531 3181 671
    Third year1113343999516184248641133801 3271 707
Specialist3131153201816226789
Graduate (1 year-course)13206916273799136
        Total6223641329322191 1572137313354511492881 0703 9294 999
Division B—
    First year121012115516442372663
    Second year510198511957344579
    Third year14624719513790131221
        Total12101821281930881082216161202363
Division C total15262672768556357359716
Division E—
    First year32611281515171168169
    Second year16370191432303226229
        Total33124198341582474394398
Other courses176359491440586172289361
        Total 19776234161421 1372411 3432378707059333164681 6645 1736 837

NOTE—In addition the following students on studentships and bursaries were enrolled at teacher colleges in 1977.

 MFT
Division S (primary teacher studentship)72162234
Division U (secondary teacher studentship)7797691 548
Division B (secondary bursar studentship)272350
Secondary teacher bursaries

FREE TEXTBOOKS IN SCHOOLS—Free textbooks are supplied to all primary and secondary pupils in both State and private schools. Under the free textbooks scheme, the books remain the property of the school controlling authorities and are issued on loan to pupils. The school authorities have a wide discretion in their choice of suitable books.

SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE—This service, which is financed by the Department of Education and administered by the National Library of New Zealand, aims at giving children access to the best literature. Books for children and young people are sent on repository loans or on exchange to approximately 2588 schools. The schools served are primary (both public and private), intermediate, and district high schools. Pupils of the Correspondence School also receive books regularly.

All schools, including secondary schools, receive additional books on request. Some 2,034,391 requests were filled during the year ended 31 March 1977.

AUDIO-VISUAL TEACHING AIDS—A varied series of programmes linked with the curriculum are broadcast each school day from all national radio stations. Special lessons are also broadcast each day for Correspondence School pupils.

National Film Library—The National Film Library was founded in 1942 at the Government Film Studios, Miramar, by combining the libraries of the Tourist and Publicity Department, the Department of Education, the High Commission for Great Britain, and the High Commission for Canada. It remained under the control of the Tourist and Publicity Department until 1945, when the full stock of the Army Educational Welfare Services was incorporated into the National Film Library and the responsibility for the National Film Library was handed over to the Department of Education.

In January 1955 a branch was opened in Auckland and in January 1966 a further branch was opened in Christchurch. Films are now distributed to the north half of the North Island by the Auckland branch, to the South Island (excluding the Nelson Education Board area and Marlborough north of Kaikoura) by the Christchurch branch, and to the remainder of the country by the Wellington branch. In addition, the Wellington office also offers a service to the Chatham Islands and to Western Samoa, Tokelau, Niue, Pitcairn, and the Cook Islands.

Each year the library spends substantial amounts on films, and stocks have been further augmented by valuable gifts from many of the diplomatic missions, from other Government departments, from various organisations, and from commercial enterprises. In fact, the National Film Library now holds most of the diplomatic film libraries, which are supplemented by the embassies as they deem necessary.

In its 16 mm film section the library has over 44 000 prints of some 11 000 titles, and each week over 12 000 films are issued to some 3000 educational institutions and over 4000 community organisations. In addition to films, the Wellington branch also offers a record and cassette loan service, an audio-tape reel/cassette copying service, and a sample sheet music service. These services at present are limited to educational institutions only.

The record library has in stock some 10 000 records, comprising 6000 titles. Issues during 1977 totalled 11 300. In 1977 the record library also commenced a cassette loan service. The tape duplicating section each year issues 40 000 copies of the 3000 masters at present held by the library and sells recorded cassettes to schools at cost. The library also holds full copying rights on a further 25 000 masters.

Museums—To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers college in each of the 4 main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

School Publications—The School Journal, an illustrated magazine, is published in 4 separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. Parts 1 and 2 are published 5 and 6 times a year, while Parts 3 and 4 for the senior classes appear 4 times a year. Bulletins dealing mainly with literature and language, social studies, science, history, and geography (particularly of New Zealand) are published every year for primary and secondary schools. These and other publications are prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education and issued free to all primary and intermediate schools, both State and private.

A wide range of syllabuses, textbooks, and handbooks is published for secondary and primary schools.

Te Wharekura, a bulletin in the Maori language published 3 times a year, and Te Tautoko a supplementary reader, are issued free to secondary pupils studying the Maori language. Te Purapura is a publication for primary pupils who are learning Maori.

The Education Gazette is published by the department twice a month. It is a medium for the dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State and private schools.

Education, a magazine for teachers, is published 10 times a year, as is Education News, a publication designed mainly for parents and administrators.

A number of publications are issued for the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand to accompany the broadcasts to schools, and the department also publishes occasional reports and studies.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE—On 1 April 1978 the Vocational Guidance Service was transferred to the Department of Labour and so became part of the new Employment and Vocational Guidance Service created to provide an educational, social, and occupational guidance and counselling service available to students and adults throughout the country (See Section 32—Employment).

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION—There are 6 separate universities and a university college of agriculture. These are the University of Auckland, the University of Waikato (at Hamilton), Massey University (at Palmerston North), the Victoria University of Wellington, the University of Canterbury (at Christchurch), and the University of Otago (at Dunedin), with Lincoln College a constituent agricultural college of the University of Canterbury.

At the centre there is the University Grants Committee, which functions under the Universities Act 1961. The primary function of the University Grants Committee is to advise the Government of the needs of New Zealand for university education and research. It determines the allocation of grants of money which it recommends for appropriation by Parliament to meet these needs, and reviews the expenditure by the universities of money appropriated by Parliament. The University Grants Committee is also responsible for the award of scholarships, and through its statutory sub-committee, the Research Committee, for the distribution of a Government grant for research. Another statutory subcommittee of the University Grants Committee, the Curriculum Committee, has responsibility in respect of regulation of courses for degrees and diplomas. In the performance of its duties it is required to have regard to the comparative equivalence of courses.

The Universities Entrance Board was established on 1 January 1962 to maintain a common educational standard for admission to the universities. The board prescribes the conditions of examinations for University Entrance, Entrance Scholarships, the University Bursaries Examination, and Fine Arts Preliminary.

The special problems of legal education are the province of the Council of Legal Education which prescribes the examination requirements of candidates for admission as barristers and solicitors of the Supreme Court.

The test which applies for entrance to university is not financial but achievement at secondary school. In a country where equality of opportunity for self-improvement still counts for much, the right to a university education is conferred by qualifying for University Entrance. It is true that the relatively open system of admission entails some uncertainties about student numbers and planning university facilities for them. It also leads to higher failure rates arising from the mixed quality of the first-year intake; but this situation is improving in some respects without depriving the universities of their characteristics of open entry. Seventh Form work is now taken by the majority of entrants to the universities, and the fees charged and bursaries paid are now more closely geared to successful study after entry. It is likely, too, that the strengthening and diversifying of courses offered in the technical institutes will enable them to cater better for some students and improve the efficiency of tertiary education as a whole. In the meantime, however, relatively ready access to university education associated with flexible degree structures meets the national needs well and at a cost which is modest by overseas standards.

Apart from the income from students' fees and the relatively small amounts now available to some of the universities from endowments, the block grants from the Government determine the income of the universities to meet their running costs for each 5 years. Under the block grant system, grants have been calculated and approved 5 years in advance to enable the universities to plan their activities ahead in the knowledge of what their income from the Government will be. They are block grants in the sense that they are not itemised and their detailed calculation is not disclosed to the universities. This has the effect of making the governing bodies—the university councils—not only responsible for arranging their budgets within their incomes, but also free to make their own decisions about the allocation of new expenditure among the many competing academic proposals which arise within the institutions. With these grants the university councils have an obligation to expand existing classes as necessary where student numbers increase and, subject to the scrutiny of the Curriculum Committee, to offer such courses as they see to be warranted by the demands put on them by the students and by the New Zealand community in which they exist.

The universities in Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago, besides offering courses in the faculties of arts, science, commerce, law, and music, specialise in certain fields. The University of Otago provides courses in medicine and dentistry, mineral technology, home science, and physical education; the University of Canterbury provides courses in engineering (mechanical, electrical, civil, agricultural, and chemical) and fine arts; the University of Auckland provides courses in architecture, fine arts, engineering (mechanical, chemical and materials, electrical, engineering science, and civil), and medicine; and the Victoria University of Wellington provides courses in architecture, public administration, and social science. Massey University provides courses in agriculture, horticulture, food technology, and veterinary science, as well as courses in arts and science, and also provides extramural tuition in a number of subjects to students throughout New Zealand. The University of Waikato offers courses in the schools of humanities, social sciences, and science and, in association with the Hamilton Teachers College, offers courses in its School of Education leading to a Diploma in Education and the degree of Bachelor of Education.

Free University Education: Scholarships—The most important awards for those entering university are the University Junior Scholarships. These scholarships are tenable for 3 to 6 years, depending upon the minimum time in which the holder, studying full-time, could complete the recognised course taken under the scholarship. The University Junior Scholarship provides a scholarship allowance of $300 a year and is tenable with a tertiary bursary (see Bursaries below). These scholarships together with private endowed scholarships, are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

Scholarships awarded during degree courses include Senior Scholarships awarded by the individual universities and Lincoln College (and of a value to be determined by them). The various university institutions also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. Scholarships awarded at the end of the university course are listed in full in the university calendars. Most of the postgraduate scholarships and post-doctoral fellowships are tenable in New Zealand.

Bursaries—A new system of bursaries for students entering upon a university course was introduced in 1976.

Fees Bursaries are awarded to students following part-time or full-time courses who have qualified for entrance to the university. These bursaries provide payment for tuition fees.

Tertiary Bursaries are awarded to students who hold University Entrance and Higher School Certificate, or certain Sixth Form qualifications, and are tenable for any recognised course at a university in each year of the bursary. Also, a student who is credited with 2 units in any year or 3 units over a period of years will qualify for a tertiary bursary.

A tertiary bursary may be held with a fees bursary. It allots $30 per week for a full-time student, increasing to $33.50 a week in the fourth and subsequent years. The allowance is abated by $11 if the student is not required to live away from home to attend university. Special rates are available for married students with dependants, and in 1978 and 1979 a hardship allowance was approved for those students who can show hardship or impairment of holiday earnings.

The tertiary bursary is also tenable for full-time courses at technical institutes and teachers colleges.

Supplementary Allowances of $150 or $100 a year are awarded to students who gain A or B passes in the University bursaries examinations.

All these bursaries are subject to strict rules as to terms and suspension. A student who in any year does not pass in a prescribed number of units or subjects will have his bursary suspended and it will not be reinstated unless in a subsequent year of study he is credited with a prescribed number of passes.

Further details of the amounts payable and other conditions for these bursaries are available from university liaison officers and from the Head Office of the Department of Education, Wellington.

Students—In 1977 there were 40 849 students actually in attendance at the 7 universities; 4579 were graduates, 37 535 undergraduates (1265 were enrolled in more than 1 course). In addition, there were 6099 students attached to the various universities, but exempt from lectures, and 230 students who were taking short courses. Comparable figures for the latest 3 years are given in the following table. Students now exceed 1.5 percent of the population.

YearStudents Attending LecturesExempt StudentsTotal
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
197523 13013 8012 4772 71442 122
197624 43715 4592 8833 42846 207
197724 69516 1542 7823 31746 948

The following table gives particulars of internal students who were taking definite courses at universities, including Lincoln agricultural college, during 3 recent years.

Course197519761977
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Agriculture1 8082722 0801 6533201 9731 6203231 943
Architecture599115714588142730628172800
Arts and music4 7596 88211 6414 9867 47812 4644 6867 38612 072
Commerce3 5126914 2033 6458444 4894 2001 0555 255
Divinity461359501573571572
Education7611 4962 2578171 7472 5647781 8262 604
Engineering2 160432 2032 328642 3922 357652 422
Fine Arts369330699149156305147146293
Technology176642403687644443290522
Home Science198198119219313261274
Law2 0686582 7262 0077252 7322 1018812 982
Medicine and Dentistry1 4255681 9931 3876142 0011 5827192 301
Physical Education168148316151140291149136285
Science4 7061 8586 5644 4561 6906 1464 4781 7806 258
Surveying135111461951521082284
Veterinary Science15760217317133450300123423
Others1 1877921 9792 2171 5543 7711 9641 5603 524
        Total24 03614 19938 23525 32315 90541 22825 57416 54042 114
Adjustment for students enrolled in more than 1 course9063981 3048864461 3328793861 265
        Total23 13013 80136 93124 43715 45939 89624 69516 15440 849

Students on the books of the university institutions in 1977 are shown in the following table.

 AucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Universities
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMF
Internal students—
    Full-time4 8222 5881 1729272 3071 2522 7801 6703 5101 6081 0231883 1892 09418 80310 327
    Part-time1 6841 4254306034847721 4401 1231 0331 21891187306685 8925 827
    All internal students6 5064 0131 6021 5302 7912 0244 2202 7934 5432 8261 1142063 9192 76224 69516 154
External students—
    Taking courses at Massey University9113117292 1572 749113136646752582 4943 170
    Taking courses at own university932863353510614475288147
    All external students18415923322 1572 74914817174731961332 7823 317
    All students6 6904 1721 6251 5624 9484 7734 3682 9644 6172 8991 1142064 1152 89527 47719 471
    Overseas students included in total565156126612458349322749315392202301152 244815

Internal students by years of university study in 1977 are shown in the following table.

Year of University StudyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Internal StudentsOf These, Overseas Students Numbered
MFTotalMFTotalMFTotalMFTotal
First4 9732 9827 9558081 7262 5345 7814 70810 489370182552
Second4 1612 5556 7166571 1431 8004 8183 6988 516472198670
Third3 4852 1765 6615287331 2614 0132 9096 922413168581
Fourth2 5911 2133 8047146711 3853 3051 8845 189359114473
Fifth1 7126742 3869696481 6172 6811 3224 00325265317
Sixth or later1 8817272 6082 2169063 1224 0971 6335 73037888466
        Total18 80310 32729 1305 8925 82711 71924 69516 15440 8492 2448153 059

The ages of internal students at universities in 1977 are shown in the following table.

Age in Years at 1 JulyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Internal Students
MenWomenTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenTotal
Under 18375486861542352894297211 150
183 0082 1695 1772106188283 2182 7876 005
193 4672 1845 6512656028673 7322 7866 518
203 1311 8574 9882894147033 4202 2715 691
212 6441 1573 8014874159023 1311 5724 703
221 7556192 3745283588862 2839773 260
231 2284131 6415462698151 7746822 456
247822291 0114042436471 1864721 658
25–291 5585662 1241 4268942 3202 9841 4604 444
30–344462877337435971 3401 1898842 073
35–391951623573784408185736021 175
40 and over2141984125627421 3047769401 716
        Total18 80310 32729 1305 8925 82711 71924 69516 15440 849

Holders of bursaries in 1976 and 1977 are shown in the following table.

Bursary19761977
*Fees and allowances boarding bursary.
Fees bursaries (part-time)6 0077 441
Fees bursaries (full-time)2 5062 132
Abated tertiary bursary8 8899 118
Unabated tertiary bursary*11 66512 396
Marriage allowance*185125
Supplementary allowance $1507 6867 989
Supplementary allowance $1004 9925 059
Teachers university165206
Secondary teachers bursary2174
Teachers bursary1 19578
Teachers college students3 2842 973
State service study awards126145
Other2
                Total bursaries34 02434 790

The nature of residence of full-time students at universities in 1977 is shown in the following table.

Nature of ResidenceAucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Full-time StudentsOf These, Overseas Students Numbered
MFTotalMF
Living at home4 2055524931 8112 0771731 1036 7303 68410 4147217
In halls of residence5474401 0144387912921 4053 1821 7454 927405198
Boarding53416122815026071881 0294631 49219180
Sharing flat or house with others1 9239221 6201 0651 9066752 5916 9473 81510 7621 204375
Other or not known2012420498624969156201 5357034
                Total7 4102 0993 5594 4505 1181 2115 28318 80310 32729 1301 942704

Occupations of part-time university students in 1977 are shown in the following table.

OccupationMalesFemalesTotal
No occupation other than study561314875
University staff570349919
Teacher5685131 081
Teachers college student6131 7712 384
Government employee9335401 473
Local body employee266155421
Private employment1 8977332 630
Self-employed person22284306
Housewife or housekeeper51 1081 113
Full-time student at technical institute172744
Other occupations240233473
                Total5 8925 82711 719

Total of assisted overseas students at New Zealand universities in 1977, by the nature of the assistance, are shown in the following table.

Nature of AssistanceMalesFemalesTotal
*Includes MARAC, bilateral aid, ASPAC, and Commonwealth Education Scheme.
Assisted by the New Zealand Government—
    Colombo Plan27658334
    Island Territories Scholarships11213
    Commonwealth Scholarships24731
    Aid to Africa Scholarships1717
    Others*516
 33368401
Other assistance from—
    Fijian Government28230
    Other Governments (Malaysia, Perak, Hong Kong)10111
    WHO, UNESCO, Fulbright, CES628
    Lee Foundation21122
    Other32739
 9713110
    All assisted overseas students43081511

Graduates—The numbers of degree graduates from New Zealand universities for the year ending with the graduation ceremony in 1976 and 1977 are shown in the following table.

CourseFirst DegreePost Graduate
1976197719761977
Arts1 6921 748416496
Music454574
Law3513582216
Science1 1491 025249238
Commerce5746281642
Philosophy1143177
Divinity37811
Architecture5286
Engineering:
    Civil1601734149
    Electrical11495
    Mechanical7385
    Chemical4235
    Science66
    Agricultural612
Agriculture3247
Horticulture66
Forestry Science15241
Agricultural Science821172714
Horticultural Science291621
Medicine and Surgery16720075
Medical Science6
Dental Surgery515513
Veterinary Science454811
Social Science801022222
Home Science2621
Pharmacy22273
Technology39392
Education120126728
Fine Arts101421
Others121266
        Total5 0095 1589801 119

Time Taken to Complete First Degrees—The following table shows the time taken to complete first degrees for the year ending with the graduation ceremonies in 1977.

DegreeMinimum TimeMinimum Time + One YearMinimum Time + Two YearsMinimum Time + Over Two YearsAll Students
TotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomen
Bachelor Honours
    Arts/Music4830135316436
    Law4418814626221
    Science12446103113549
    Engineering135410121475
    Agriculture/Horticulture2421252
    Other301053510
            Total40511046109182468123
Bachelor
    Arts/Music7774344312252051133301691 743941
    Commerce2315017330105191097618106
    Law125211092234828529656
    Science4991652377589196514890273
    Engineering158365225112595
    Medical/Surgery2205354106228263
    Agriculture/Horticulture12411494913118517
    Education21152516166642012657
    Social Sciences66402011868310260
    Other139383410729118951
                Total2 3608301 1974055041746292204 6901 629

Staff—The staffing of university institutions in 1977 is shown in the following table.

PositionFull-time StaffPart-time Staff
MFTotalMFTotal
Teaching posts—
    Full professor37273792121
    Senior lecturer, associate professor, reader, lecturer-in-charge1 3551071 46210911120
    Lecturer65410976323725262
    Junior lecturer, assistant lecturer14252194731285
    Instructor and demonstrator, engaged in teaching541266800156956
        Total, established teaching posts2 5772872 8641 2402041 444
Other staff—
    Technician, research assistant, and other technical staff not engaged in teaching8872551 14295564
    Library staff943074013588123
    Administrative staff, clerical and office staff3329351 26713130143
    Groundsmen, tradesmen, cleaners etc.46016262276180256
        Total, non-teaching staff1 7731 6593 432133453586

Of the full-time teaching positions, there were 47 positions filled temporarily and 112 not filled, and of the part-time positions 6 were filled temporarily and 23 not filled.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION—In 1945 technical education was a variant form of secondary education. It was provided by separate technical high schools and technical departments in other secondary schools, and was avowedly vocational in purpose. During the past 15–20 years technical education has been transferred from the secondary to the tertiary sector of the educational system. Technical high schools as such no longer exist. Vocational education and training is now provided by 14 technical institutes and 4 community colleges supported by apprentice and other tertiary vocational courses provided in 6 secondary schools.

This transformation is the result of a number of policy decisions which have created a demand for types of education and training in the post-secondary phase of a person's career.

The passing of the Apprenticeship Act 1948 made it compulsory for apprentices to undertake technical classes; the establishment, in 1949, of the Trades Certification Board and of national trades examinations gave point and direction to apprentice studies; the passing of the Technicians Certification Authority Act 1958 and the introduction of New Zealand Certificates gave encouragement to technician studies; the approval by the Government, in 1969, of the establishment of technical institutes in centres where there is sufficient technical work to occupy 10 tutors full-time advanced the opening of minor institutes in provincial centres by several years; the approval by the Government, in 1972, of the establishment of community colleges allows traditional technical education to be provided in conjunction with other educational services meeting the specific circumstances of the local community, particularly in the non-metropolitan provincial centres. There has been increasing investment in technical institute buildings: more than $14.7 million was spent in the 1975–76 year alone. Technical institute bursaries, which were introduced first in 1965, have now been discontinued and from 1976 technical institute students on full-time year-long courses are eligible, along with university students and teacher trainees, to receive the Standard Tertiary Bursary.

Technical education in New Zealand is still developing and expanding at a very rapid rate. It is being developed through national and regional technical institutes as well as smaller technical institutes or community colleges in provincial centres. The Central Institute of Technology, which gives a predominantly national block course service but also provides some special courses of a national character such as pharmacy, chiropody and occupational therapy, opened in 1960. In 1972 the institute moved to its permanent accommodation at Heretaunga. Technical institutes have been opened in the 6 main centres of population, and, with the opening of Manukau Technical Institute in 1970, the first of a number of suburban institutes was opened to serve the Greater Auckland area. The second, Carrington, opened in 1976. Since 1971, institutes have also been opened in the provincial centres, Invercargill, Nelson, and New Plymouth.

The full list of technical institutes is as follows; Auckland, Manukau, Carrington, Waikato, Taranaki Polytechnic, Palmerston North, Central Institute of Technology, Petone Technical Institute, Wellington Polytechnic, Nelson Polytechnic, Christchurch, Otago Polytechnic, and the New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute. In addition, Hawke's Bay Community College was opened in 1975 and both the Northland Community College and the Waiariki Community College at Rotorua opened in 1978. Also, in 1978 Southland Polytechnic changed to a community college. More community colleges or technical institutes are likely to be opened in the next 10 years in Porirua, Wanganui, Timaru, and Tauranga.

A standing committee on relationships in tertiary education has been set up to consider the problems of placement of courses and the rationalisation of tuition in the technician, semi-professional, and professional fields.

Trade and Technician Courses—The beginnings of technician training date from the early 1950s and were a result of the efforts of the engineering profession to specify a role for a highly-trained person whose qualifications were derived, not from study in a university school of engineering, but from theoretical studies taken in conjunction with industrial experience. The New Zealand Certificate of Engineering was introduced in 1954. This led, in 1960, to the establishment of the Technicians Certification Authority to prescribe courses and syllabuses and conduct examinations for technicians, and to grant diplomas or certificates.

The term “technician” covers a wide field, but national New Zealand Certificate courses have been devised for engineering, draughting, draughting (architectural), science, building, land surveying, quantity surveying, and commerce. In addition, there is a certificate in garage management, and courses leading to technicians' certificates in radio telegraph and telephone engineering, surveying, automotive engineering, electricity, and civil draughting, and for forest rangers and hospital officers. The instruction for New Zealand Certificate courses is part-time, or by regular intermittent periods in full-time classes, or by correspondence from the Technical Correspondence Institute supplemented in science and workshop subjects by short practical courses at an institute. In a few cases, study can be taken at full-time courses in a technical institute, but for the first 2 or 3 years only. All New Zealand Certificates require students to be suitably employed during the last 2 stages of the course.

During the last 15 years there has been a spectacular increase in the range of technician courses and the number of students studying for New Zealand Certificates. New Zealand Certificates awarded annually have increased from 29 in 1960 to a provisional total of 1081 in 1977.

Apprenticeship training accounts for over 40 percent of the enrolment load of technical institutes. Examination prescriptions for a full range of trade courses and shorthand typing are prescribed by the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, which conducts 2 qualifying and trade certificate examinations for apprenticeship, and usually an advanced trade certificate examination to be taken at about the end of the apprenticeship. Up to 31 March 1977, this board has issued 45 488 New Zealand Trade Certificates and 12 435 Advanced Trade Certificates.

Apprentices in almost all trades are obliged to spend at least 3 years in vocational part-time studies. However, the long established pattern where apprentices attend evening theory classes and short block or day release courses for practical training, is undergoing a radical change. An incentives scheme, approved by Government in 1974, subsidises the wages of apprentices on block training and encourages the adoption of lengthened block courses, particularly in the first year of training.

In addition to the national trade and technician courses, there are a large number of courses available which have been organised regionally to meet local demands. These include courses in commerce, work study, electronic data processing, journalism, and in industrial and commercial design. In addition, instruction is given on the examination syllabuses devised by independent organisations such as the New Zealand Society of Accountants, the Chartered Institute of Secretaries, and the New Zealand Institute of Valuers.

Statistics of students taking full-year courses in technical education at 1 July 1977 are shown in the following table. Courses are classified according to the International Standard Classification of Education.

Full-time Courses: As at 1 July 1977MalesFemalesTotal Students
Level 3
    Fine or applied arts169118287
    Commercial and business321 5191 551
    Medical and paramedical38441479
    Trade, craft, and industry304245549
    Other courses114152
Level 5
    Commerce and business studies264176440
    Science382866
    Medical and paramedical182630812
    Engineering2872289
    Surveying49857
    Draughting8429113
    Trade, craft, and industry503080
    Other courses7596171
        Total1 5833 3634 946
Part-time Courses: As at 1 July 1977Students takingTotal Students
Day or Day and Evening CoursesEvening Courses OnlyCorrespondence CoursesMalesFemalesTotal
Level 3
    Technicians' Certification Authority courses178741 6171 7361331 869
    Apprentice4 05510 60011 40724 9911 07126 062
    Vocational2 27719 1025 34210 49916 22226 721
Level 5
    Technicians' Certification Authority courses4 7701 2942 9697 2611 7729 033
    Professional and advanced technical3 7323 7923 9628 9502 53611 486
Level 9
    Non-vocational3 64148 8582 77313 91841 35455 272
        Total18 65383 72028 07067 35563 088130 443
Block Courses Held During 1977Student-weeksTotal Students
MalesFemalesTotal
Trade courses80 12821 07196622 037
Technicians Certification Authority courses and N.Z. Certificate courses19 3872 9564003 356
Other courses19 7183 4646694 133
        Total119 23327 4912 03529 526

New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute—The Department of Education established the Technical Correspondence School (now the Technical Correspondence Institute) in 1946, and from small beginnings, with a staff of a half dozen or so, this institute now employs over 450 full-time staff.

With over 22 000 students on the roll, the Technical Correspondence Institute is easily the biggest single educational institution in the country. It teaches one-third of all students enrolled at technical institutes in New Zealand. The institute writes, illustrates, and prints the material for all the courses offered by it, as well as writing and publishing authoritative textbooks on technical subjects with accent on New Zealand law, practice, and conditions. The 8 text books at present in print are widely used not only by Technical Correspondence Institute students but also by all other technical teaching institutions, tradesmen and technicians, and even the general public.

The Technical Correspondence Institute parallels the teaching standards of other technical institutes, and also provides instruction in many subjects not taught elsewhere. Of the apprentices who sit the annual examinations of the Trades Certification Board, some 40 percent are directed to enrol at the Technical Correspondence Institute.

The institute also prepares a large percentage of candidates for the Technicians Certification Authority examinations in engineering, building, commerce, draughting, and science as well as for other professional and industrial examinations. Voluntary students studying for advanced trade, technician or professional qualifications comprise about two-thirds of the roll. The Technical Correspondence Institute offers over 900 subjects, from ladies' hairdressing, plumbing, and agriculture to airline pilots' licence and professional accountancy. To enrol at the Technical Correspondence Institute students must be engaged in the vocation relevant to their course of study, hence their correspondence studies are supported by practical experience. In some cases, laboratory work or practical instruction is required as part of the course. In such cases students attend short block courses at the Central Institute of Technology or other institutes.

NEW ZEALAND COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH—The Carnegie Corporation of New York was instrumental in founding the New Zealand Council for Educational Research in 1933 and supported it with grants for 10 years. Since 1945 the council has been supported principally by State funds, the remainder coming from contributions from educational bodies, philanthropic foundations, business organisations, and its own trading operations. It has remained, however, under independent control as provided for in the New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1945 (updated in 1972).

In its research programme, the council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and its main publications (55 research reports and 25 shorter studies in education) include critical surveys of major policy issues in New Zealand education and accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. These have brought about or helped reshape major developments in such areas as secondary, university, and adult education, intermediate schools, consolidation of rural schools, and care of children with special needs. The council also publishes a number of periodical publications, newsletters, the New Zealand Journal for Educational Studies, and a special research information package for teachers.

Since the 1930s, the council has served as the main source of supply for overseas and locally standardised educational and psychological tests used by universities, Government agencies, hospitals, business firms, and schools. In 1965 the council established a special Test Development Division to produce achievement tests designed specifically to suit the curricula of New Zealand schools. Known as the Progressive Achievement Tests, they are now used extensively in schools throughout this country, and also in Australia.

The council employs its own permanent research staff as well as temporary research fellows or project assistants, and it also assists honorary research workers in other institutions such as universities, teachers colleges, and schools. Its current research programme includes major projects related to educational planning, the supply of qualified people in the community, teaching practices, Maori and pre-school education, and services for children with special needs. The council also acts as a clearing house for information on educational matters and maintains 8 local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Palmerston North, Hamilton, Manukau, and Suva (Fiji).

EDUCATIONAL ATTENDANCE LEVELS OF ADULT POPULATION—The 1976 Census of Population included a question on the post-primary places of learning attended by those 15 years of age and above. An analysis of data obtained is set out below in 2 separate tabulations. The first gives details of attendance at general educational establishments including teachers colleges and technical institutes. The second table covers the remaining vocational institutions. Each person has been included in only 1 category in each table, although in some instances they may appear in both tables. The figures include those currently attending the institutions. Cases of nil or not specified post-primary attendance have been omitted.

InstitutionMalesFemalesTotal
Secondary school only603 641705 6241,309,265
University82 89935 574118 473
Technical institute143 86942 806186 675
Teachers college10 11938 75848 877
University and technical institute14 9333 64118 574
University and teachers college15 82722 94638 773
Technical institute and teachers college3 3951 8885 283
University, technical institute and teachers college1 4771 3502 827
      Total876 160852 5871,728,747
Vocational InstitutionMalesFemalesTotal
*Not hobby class.
Nursing school2 07339 73641 809
Vocational training centre10 1951 40511 600
University extension, W.E.A. course*4 7195 56310 282
Armed forces school6 8523647 216
Business college1 8664 8876 753
Theological college, seminary3 5251 3794 904
Professional institute4 3323824 714
Dental nursing school94 0934 102
Secretarial, etc., school1083 5073 615
Music, art, drama school7921 9212 713
Other tertiary9 4836 93916 422
        Total43 95470 176114 130

MAORI EDUCATION FOUNDATION—The Maori Education Foundation Act 1961 established the Maori Education Foundation for the general purpose of promoting and encouraging the better education of Maoris and of providing financial assistance for that purpose. The capital resources of the foundation are $2,304,000. The principal purpose for which the Board of Trustees is empowered is to apply the income of the foundation to the educational and vocational training of Maoris. This includes the provision of bursaries to assist Maoris attending secondary schools or any New Zealand or overseas university, agricultural college, or institution of similar status; the provision of post-graduate scholarships for Maoris holding university degrees or diplomas; and the making of special research or study grants to Maoris undertaking special research or study projects. The bulk of the foundation's income is expended on grants to individuals. During the 1978 academic year, assistance totalling $508,700 was granted. Of this total, $51,700 was for tertiary awards, and $428,000 was for grants, towards the cost of board and tuition of secondary boarding school pupils. In a number of cases, foundation grants are a necessary supplement to other scholarships and awards.

POLYNESIAN EDUCATION FOUNDATION—In 1972 a Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation was set up on similar lines to the Maori Education Foundation. The aim is to assist New Zealand resident Pacific Islands families to further the education of their children. In 1978 the foundation granted 62 awards.

EDUCATION OF MAORI AND PACIFIC ISLAND CHILDREN—In 1970 the National Advisory Committee on Maori Education, which was set up to advise the Minster of Education on all aspects of Maori education, made recommendations to the Minister concerning curricula, staffing of schools, pre- vocational and vocational training, teacher training, adult education, and early childhood education. The committee's report, published in 1971, stated that to achieve equality of opportunity for Maori children, measures that were unequal had to be taken. It was further stated that Maoritanga—the sense of Maorihood and of traditional Maori culture and values—had to be recognised as a worthy study for teachers and for all New Zealand children, Pakeha and Maori alike. This has led to a far-reaching recognition in schools of Maori culture and traditions.

At the end of 1977 the committee met to evaluate progress and to determine further lines of development. A report was made to the Minister in April 1978.

Policies have been introduced to meet the recommendations in the original report, especially through teacher training. All teachers colleges now have courses in Maori language and Maori studies, and a special 1 year course to train Maori-English speakers to teach Maori in secondary schools began in 1974. Recently emphasis has been placed on educational provision for Pacific Islanders living in New Zealand. The establishment of a Pacific Islanders Educational Resource Centre, an English language teaching unit, and a supplementary training course for Pacific Island-trained teachers are evidence of this.

The educational performance and progress of Maori and Pacific Island children as a whole group has not equalled that of other New Zealand children for a variety of complex reasons, largely linguistic and cultural. Generally, Maori and Pacific Island children have not stayed on as long at secondary school and relatively few of those doing so have continued their education at the tertiary level. In some cases, this has not been possible economically. Strenuous efforts have been made, particularly in recent years, to encourage Maori children to continue their education by increasing the appreciation of their problems on the part of teachers, by creating school situations conducive to a desire for further education, and by involving parents more closely in their children's education. Practical assistance has been given by increasing the number and value of scholarships awarded each year by the Department of Education. The Maori Education Foundation and the Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation have also given valuable help to Maori and Pacific Island students, particularly at the senior levels of education. The importance of, and the opportunities available in, vocational education beyond the secondary school level have been brought to the notice of young Maori and Pacific Islanders, through the schools and through vacation courses. Special trade training courses have been set up and extended.

If the efforts to upgrade the education of Maori and Pacific Island children are measured solely in terms of the proportion who pass subjects in the School Certificate examination, who obtain a trade certificate or a New Zealand certificate at the technician's level, or who complete a university degree, it is obvious that there is still much room for improvement. But it is fair to state that a good deal has been achieved at all levels of education and that there is a greater awareness of the value of education on the part of children and parents. In the whole country, too, there is a better informed appreciation of Maori and Pacific Island society and culture and of the need for special measures so that all children of these races in New Zealand receive the maximum benefit from the opportunities offered them.

CONTINUING EDUCATION—As already stated, there are now 4 community colleges—Hawke's Bay, Whangarei, Rotorua, and Southland.

National Council of Adult Education—The functions and powers of the National Council of Adult Education are set out in the Adult Education Act 1963. The council advises the University Grants Committee, the Director-General of Education and other bodies on adult education, co-ordinates and conducts pilot projects and experiments, maintains a national library and documentation centre on adult education, and publishes occasional papers and reports as well as a periodical entitled Continuing Education in New Zealand

University Extension—Although full responsibility and control of their continuing education activities rests with the universities, they use various systems to ascertain the views of (and in some cases to seek advice from) various community interests.

The typical extension department in each university has a director in charge and a staff of lecturers in a range of academic disciplines. In addition to teaching, the lecturers may plan and develop sections of the department's programme or have special responsibility for a geographical area and its programme. All 6 universities now carry out extension work, and show marked differences in their approaches and systems of organisation. A large number of part-time lecturers supplement the activity of the full-time staff (numbering about 40). The work is carried out by various methods—lecture courses, study conferences, seminars, schools of varying length (both residential and non-residential), and correspondence courses. While most universities continue to provide substantial extension programmes of liberal studies for the general public, there has been a rapid increase in programmes designed for specialised groups, largely occupational. Some of these are national in scope.

Secondary Schools—Most organised adult education is being done by evening classes in secondary schools. Since the revision of the School Certificate regulations to allow single subject passes, there has been some increase in adult classes leading to the School Certificate Examination, but there is a very wide range of other examinable and non-examinable courses. A new provision to the Education Act in 1975 allowed adults to return full-time or part-time to secondary schools, in day classes. There has also been an increase in the number of technical institutes which cater for a wide variety of education interests.

Correspondence Education:—Main agencies are the Correspondence School (over 6000 adult students) the extramural studies of Massey University (6099), and the Technical Correspondence Institute (22 022 in 1977).

Voluntary Agencies—Many voluntary organisations make some provision for continuing education. For most of them, such as the Play Centres Federation, continuing education is incidental to other purposes. The following 2 organisations, however, have continuing education as their primary purpose.

Workers' Educational Association—District councils of the Workers' Educational Association exist in Auckland, West Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, and are now funded annually through the Department of Education. In Auckland and Canterbury there is a full-time organising tutor provided by the technical institute. District councils, in their own right, organise additional courses, summer schools, public forums and seminars. The co-ordinating body is the New Zealand Workers' Education Association which also publishes the WEA Review, and operates a postal book discussion scheme on a national basis. It also, jointly with trade unions and the National Council of Adult Education, conducts a postal education scheme for trade unionists and their wives.

Countrywomen's Co-ordinating Committee—This national liaison committee of the Countrywomen's Institute and the Women's Division of Federated Farmers has regional committees at Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin and over 50 district committees. The organisation co-operates with other adult education organisations and also arranges classes of special interest to women.

Community Centres—Community centres on an experimental basis were opened some 20 or more years ago at Feilding, Christchurch, and Westport. These centres received some assistance, directly or indirectly, from public funds. A new “Community Action Programme” in the Wairarapa region is being supported by the Government under the provisions for community centres.

INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION—The Directorate for International Education provides technical advice to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on education activities under New Zealand's Overseas Aid Programme in South-east Asia and the Pacific and in Commonwealth countries outside that region. It provides advice to the Government on academic questions affecting the education and training of private overseas students in New Zealand. It also provides advice on New Zealand participation in the activities of international educational organisations, including the Commonwealth and the South-east Asian Ministers of Education Organisation.

In the Pacific, the directorate on request fills about 70 teaching and educational administrative positions. Officers and teachers serving in the islands have their service, grading, and superannuation rights protected. Advisory visits are made to most of the islands and supplies of resource material and apparatus are sent regularly to some countries. The directorate is continuing to print books in the vernacular for some areas.

The directorate operates a scholarship system giving island students education and training not otherwise available. In 1977, 299 students attended New Zealand schools, trade centres, teachers colleges, universities, Government departments, private firms, and technical institutes. In 1977 there were 9390 candidates from 109 island schools for the New Zealand School Certificate compared with 8510 from 91 schools in 1976, and 2 370 candidates from 46 schools for the New Zealand University Entrance Examination compared with 1862 from 41 schools in 1976.

The directorate is responsible for bi-lateral educational and cultural exchanges programmes such as the New Zealand-Japan Exchange Programme. The latter is funded by the New Zealand and Japanese Governments and provides financial and administrative support for a wide range of activities for school teachers, artists, and scholars. Since the programme began operation in 1975, a primary objective has been the development of Japanese language learning and teaching in New Zealand. It is serving as a model for the development of programmes with other countries.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development—Membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1973 enabled New Zealand to participate in the activities of its Education Committee. In 1975 New Zealand also became a member of OECD's Centre for Educational Research and Innovation and the programme on educational building.

7 B—SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC SERVICES

“Recent congresses of ANZAAS have grappled with the expanding scope of science and how science affects the community. The uneasy conflict between the protagonists and antagonists of science and technology continues. Indeed it is being sharpened by the pressure of economic changes, the social impact of unemployment, and an uncertainty about future directions. Some see technological innovation as a cure; others see it as a growing curse.

We must still aim at keeping ANZAAS as a forum for what science is—meaning knowledge in its widest sense—as well as how it is to be used by society. ANZAAS can and should give opportunity to reflect the attitudes and aspirations of all who take part in science and not only the few gifted individuals who are more usually consulted by governments.”

(Dr K. L. Sutherland, O.B.E., President, ANZAAS 49th Congress, Auckland 22–26 Jan 1979.)

The biggest-ever event in New Zealand science was the 49th Congress of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science (ANZAAS), held at Auckland University in January 1979. In fact, it was a big event for subjects normally included under “the arts”, too. Perhaps in an attempt to undermine the phenomenon of “two cultures” (i.e., independent development of the arts and sciences), the congress organisers included sessions on education, history, and musicology, and invited groups to sponsor general symposia on Economic and Social Planning, New Zealand's Language Future, Arts Administration, Survival and Solvency in the South Pacific, and a wide variety of other topics. The general symposia were considered particularly important because they were addressed to the broad theme of Directions for the Future. The organisers assumed that the time was ripe for new paths in science to be sought and new objectives established.

Another vital aspect was to try to bring together scientists, decision-makers, and the general public, to bring scientists out of their ivory towers and get them to take a broader view of the implications of their work. It is arguable that the organisers were successful. There were over 4000 participants, and more than 30 of the 1000 or so speakers were distinguished guests from outside Australia and New Zealand, so the conference was successful from this point of view. However, it received poor press coverage in New Zealand; perhaps this was because of the number of papers to choose from, with a great many being presented contemporaneously.

In some of the previews the topics of most interest seemed to be energy and food. At the congress it was considered that there were now several alternatives to oil for transport fuels and there was some argument in favour of using electricity as a source of transport power. Possible use of wastes in fermentation processes to produce fuels such as methane gas was discussed. It was emphasised that alternative forms of energy must be economically viable. It was no good expecting to use wood as a raw material for transport fuels when it fetched a far better price for pulping.

Some of the nutritionists were in favour of formulating national food policies because of the large problems of obesity and associated costly ailments such as heart disease in New Zealand. Another speaker supported some use of “junk foods” in the diet because of their convenience in many family situations, but believed that guidance was needed as to balanced complements to such a diet. Yet another speaker believed that the problems were exaggerated and considered that freedom of choice was important. Australians and New Zealanders are heavy consumers of alcohol, again often to the detriment of health, and the lobby for a diet policy was strengthened by scientists specialising in study of alcohol intake. Because aspects of human behaviour, values, education, and advertising were all covered in the food section of the conference, tacit recognition was given to the view that suitable nutrition is the foundation of health and that great benefits are to be gained from study of how to persuade people to have a healthy diet.

Similar aspects were considered in a symposium on smoking, organised by the Psychology section. There are regional differences in smoking habits, least-heavy smoking being confined to the north half of the South Island (which includes New Zealand's tobacco-growing areas) and most in Southland and the east coast of the North Island. It is a “drag” on the country's finances, as a newspaper headline commented, but it is difficult to dissociate the underlying psychological factors of loneliness and underconfidence, desire for sociability and sexual success, etc., from the habit, and difficult to replace the finance for sport, government, etc., obtained through the production (and taxation) of tobacco.

Some concern was shown over professionalism of scientists. In all these public-interest science topics it was considered by some scientists that some of their colleagues were issuing public statements before their results had been properly assessed and recognised as valid by the scientific community; they deprecated this. One distinguished guest was reported as being gratified by the lively debate engendered by papers in the symposium on Social Responsibility in Science, organised by New Zealand Association of Scientists. At least some scientists were concerned as citizens about their involvement in the systems and changes associated with advances in technology. On the whole, those who expressed this concern seem to have been reported. For example, in the Zoology section, the only reports to have excited much publicity were those concerned with “genetic engineering”, while numerous other topics that might have been supposed to be of interest to the public, ranging from corals to opossum habits to the song of starlings, went unnoticed. Of course, papers dealing with such erudite topics as supralittoral amphipods were confined to discussion by a few experts.

The bulk of the congress consisted of similar unfamiliar terms: optical bistability, the transverse Zeeman effect, pulse radiolysis, late Cainozoic volcanism, and so on. Evidently, the organisers of future conferences will have to work extremely hard on scientists if the “attitudes and aspirations of all who take part in science” are to be truly reflected. Or does such a narrowness of outlook in fact characterise most scientists?

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH: Agricultural Production and Processing—Whatever progress is made in industrialisation in New Zealand, agriculture will remain the foundation of economic well-being. Although agricultural industry has shown its ability to adapt to changes induced by market forces, it would be much less painful to design and prepare for change rather than simply adjust to external pressures. The difficulty, of course, is to forecast correctly the direction of change and to be ready to adopt any plan for change. One possibility is to construct mathematical models of systems, so that possible alternative changes can be charted.

The seasonal production of agriculture not only is difficult to manage but also has serious disadvantages in terms of under-utilisation of plant, high labour turnover, and uneven cash flow. Research emphasis is moving towards an integrated approach, so that, for example, breeding programmes for plants and animals would take processing and marketing into account as well as prevention of disease and raising of yields. An example is some of the work on forage crops being done at Plant Physiology Division. In an evaluation of crops and intensive systems of animal production ("feedlots") designed to even the production of animals for slaughter so that the meatworks season is extended, the quality composition and amount of feed are adjusted by computer to the weight-gain requirements for the animals.

Another aspect of agricultural research in which DSIR has been involved is economising on the energy input. Primitive societies gain as much as 10 times the food energy from their agriculture that they expend in producing this food, whereas some technologically advanced societies produce, as food, as little as one-tenth of the energy expended in fuel. Work is being done on means of reducing this energy expenditure, as fuel for farm machinery, for manufacture of fertilisers, for transport from the farm, for processing, and for final distribution to the customer. It has to be reduced without incurring financial and/or production losses. DSIR last year organised a conference about plant nutrition and fertiliser use.

The major emphasis in Grasslands Division's pasture research programme is to study the management of pasture ecosystems in the major regions and to achieve both maximum production and utilisation of pasture through farming systems in which pasture production is closely matched to animal requirements, and inputs of energy, fertiliser, and labour are minimised. For Northland pastures, for example, where soil fertility is often low and rainfall erratic, rotational grazing and split lambing improve management flexibility, reduce stress on pasture during critical periods, and provide a better spread of stock supply for the freezing works. Lotus is being tested as a better adapted legume than clover. For hill pasture studies, a pasture management experiment of 10 self-contained farmlets has been established at Ballantrae. For dryland pastures in Canterbury, research has concentrated on pasture species that survive without irrigation, and considerable work has been done on production of grass seeds and on pollination of red clover. High country pastures in the Mackenzie Basin are being subjected to oversowing trials, and effects of ground cover on seedling establishment are being assessed. Finally, the cool temperate pastures of Southland have problems of poor winter growth and inadequate nitrogen mineralisation in winter, both leading to a strongly seasonal production. DSIR work is showing that suitable seed mixtures can spread yields and that low-cost all-grass systems can give high animal production.

A legume species that has come into favour in recent years is lotus. It grows well on difficult infertile soils, has less need for fertiliser than clover because its phosphorus metabolism is more efficient, it does not cause bloat in cattle grazing it, and it contains feeding deterrents against 2 of the worst pests of pastures, grass-grub and black beetle.

Because pasture productivity in New Zealand depends on legumes converting nitrogen from the atmosphere into fertiliser, considerable effort goes into improving the efficiency of this process. Different strains of Rhizobium, the bacterium associated with legume root nodules in which the process takes place, are tested for effectiveness with different species. Often when a new legume variety is bred, e.g., some lotus hybrids, a new Rhizobium is needed for efficient nitrogen fixation.

It has been estimated that losses in primary production because of damage to pasture by insects amount to over $50 million each year. The main pests are grass grub, black beetle, and porina. Although lucerne, which is resistant to attack by the first 2 of these, has increased in popularity, it has been attacked by 2 pests recently introduced accidentally, a weevil and an aphid. The research effort on pasture pests is the largest on any problem in New Zealand, and involves the Entomology Division, other Government departments, and the universities all working through a national coordinator. Although a short-term substitute for DDT has been provided by organophosphate pesticides, the long-term solution being sought will involve a minimum of toxic chemicals integrated with changed management systems, use of resistant plant species such as lucerne and lotus, and use of predators, parasites, and pathogens of the pasture insects.

Breeding of new varieties of plants with improved resistance to pests or diseases or with improved yields can result in big increases in production without the need for greatly increased input, and this is a major objective of Crop Research Division. Some success has been had in producing varieties of peas resistant to wilt, and ryecorn resistant to rust, and work continues on brassicas resistant to aphids and viruses, and potatoes resistant to viruses. Several high-yielding cereals have been produced, for example, varieties of barley, maize, and semi-dwarf wheats. Sorghums and various subtropical grasses are being evaluated as forage crops. Increased emphasis is placed on crops for processing and work is being done on potatoes for canning, instant mash, and crisps, and on peas and tomatoes that can be harvested mechanically. New types of oilseed crops are being evaluated for a vegetable-oil industry, peppermint is being developed for its essential oil, and wild Solanum species are being developed as a new drug-producing crop.

Soil-borne diseases of crops are difficult to control, and, as well as breeding for resistance, work is being done at Plant Diseases Division on other means of overcoming these diseases. Work is also being done on fruit, both with a view to preventing problems such as bitter pit in apples and frost damage to apricots, and on developing less well known fruits such as kiwifruit and tamarillos for overseas markets.

As well as giving high yields, wheat varieties must have improved milling and baking qualities. At the Wheat Research Institute fundamental work on the milling process is being done, partly with the aim of simplifying testing for milling quality.

The nutritive value of the proteins in foods and feeds is investigated at Applied Biochemistry Division, particular emphasis being given to leaf protein concentrate as a food for animals and, ultimately, for humans. Special effort is devoted to the flavour of mutton. Studies also include the possibility of using other natural resources such as seaweeds and wood wastes.

Most of the other agricultural processing work is done in support of work at research associations to which DSIR contributes finance, such as the Dairy Research Institute, the Meat Industry Research Institute, the Wool Research Organisation, and the Leather and Shoe Research Association. A noteworthy project at the Dairy Research Institute has been the attempt to produce a butter that will spread easily when taken from the refrigerator, and the low-melting butter that has been marketed in New Zealand is being superseded by an improved type with more of the spreading characteristics of margarine. At the Meat Industry Research Institute work is being done both on speeding up conditioning time by high-voltage stimulation immediately after slaughter and on improvements to tenderness by hanging carcasses in the squatting position. Expansion of facilities and staff, for studies on hygiene of meatworks and diversification of products and markets, is completed.

Part of the work of the Wool Research Organisation has been devoted to improving the acceptability of New Zealand crossbred wool for yarns. A range of acceptable semi-worsted hand-knitting yarns has been produced, and the self-twist spinning machine has been found to be adaptable to these slightly coarser wools.

At the Leather and Shoe Research Association, Palmerston North, studies are continuing on the prevention of grain defects in sheepskins.

Other Primary Production—Other work on forestry is done, in consultation with the Forest Service, by Ecology Division and Soil Bureau, both dealing with aspects of the ecology of native forests. Ecology Division's main interest in this respect is in the food and population changes of opossums in the Orongorongo Valley.

Staff at Chemistry Division are investigating the chemical composition of radiata pine wood and bark, and the possibility of commercial production of tall oil, and the Physics and Engineering Laboratory is studying wood structure using the scanning electron microscope and has produced original and attractive books on the subject.

The Logging Industry Research Association undertakes research into all aspects of logging, from extraction from the forest to semi-processing and transport to the factory or dockside.

Geological Survey has intensified the search for exploitable industrial minerals and rocks (see Minerals section). The survey is also the permanent repository for all earth science information, including oil prospecting done by private groups.

In collaboration with the Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association, considerable work is being done on means of producing usable fertilisers from Christmas Island “B” and “C” phosphates, although the “A” phosphate, being the one currently used, has been the most systematically investigated as a convenient source of plant nutrients.

Energy—The department deals with all aspects of prospecting for coal, natural gas and oil, and geothermal steam. Mathematical models of the extent of the geothermal resources and suitable rates of exploitation have been developed, and gas fields are also modelled to give a closer idea of the extent of resource available. In addition, sources of uranium, such as phosphate fertilisers, have been investigated.

As well as production of energy sources, advice on conversion and distribution of energy is given, mainly to other Government departments and local authorities. For example, advice is given about corrosion prevention in turbine and other equipment in geothermal power stations, in electrical conductors, and in underground gas pipelines. Mathematical assistance has been given in computer modelling of the electricity supply system, and geological advice has been given on the siting of power stations, a topic with heightened emphasis in the fact-finding that is being done on the potential for nuclear power in an earthquake-prone country.

There has been a resurgence of interest in using geothermal energy for power generation and for so-called low grade heat. It is also possible to use geothermal energy for refrigeration. Most of the potential of about 2000 megawatts of geothermal energy for electricity generation is untapped and, if lesser known fields, the possibility of recharge, and the ability to use low-temperature geothermal energy are included, the total potential is many times that for electricity generation.

One of the most productive lines of research is on district heating schemes. More energy is lost in cooling water that is discharged as “waste heat” from thermal power stations than is generated in electricity, a considerable proportion of which is used to heat domestic water to the same temperature as that discharged from the power station to pollute the adjacent waters. The department is hoping to transfer overseas technology to New Zealand conditions. It is also looking into the possibility of recharging geothermal sources with a waste hot water.

A research group containing a representative of DSIR has been set up by the Energy Research and Development Committee. It will look into the possibility of using trees for production of transport fuels rather than for pulp, and of converting agricultural land to forestry or growing sugar beet, grass, or other crops such as potatoes, as sources of alcohol for liquid fuel. A plant which is likely to be looked at is a form of spurge from which hydrocarbons related to petrol can be extracted direct.

The Dairy Research Institute and the Meat Industry Research Institute are both running pilot studies of means of economising on energy in their respective industries. Hitherto, little note has been taken of energy consumption, and the installation of meters to assess fuel usage and boiler efficiency and regular recording of readings will show how much of this growing item of manufacturing costs can be reduced.

The Coal Research Association has redoubled its investigation into the handling and marketing of coal, and improvements in efficiency of domestic and commercial coal-fired boilers. Useful work has also been done on briquetted coal.

In DSIR, an improved wood burner has been designed so that the first stage of combustion involves the production of combustible gases, which then are burnt to give a maximum thermal efficiency. Other studies have dealt with the wood gasification process.

One of the most urgent needs is for assurance of supplies of liquid fuels for motor vehicles. The concept of “energy farming”, that is, production of energy sources from crops, is promising, and both methyl alcohol for addition to petrol and petroleum hydrocarbons themselves can be obtained from wood. Oil production from coal is being investigated, as is the extraction of liquid fuels from municipal wastes.

The Physics and Engineering Laboratory has patented a domestic solar heater which subsequently has been licensed for commercial production. Heat pumps, which are like a refrigerator in reverse, giving about 3 times as much domestic space heating energy as is put into the pump from the electricity supply, are also being tested, together with combined solar heater/heat pump and solar heater/district heating schemes.

Manufacturing—The number of laboratories registered under TELARC, the Testing Laboratory Registration Council, has been increasing and there is now a good network of Government and private laboratories able to provide testing facilities. This enables companies to adhere more closely to standards of machining strength, safety, and so on required of exported manufactured goods. The standards of any laboratory must be calibrated periodically against the national standards held at the Physics and Engineering Laboratory. The need for making accurate and reproducible measurements becomes greater as industrial technology increases in sophistication.

The Auckland and Christchurch Industrial Development Divisions and the Physics and Engineering Laboratory (in Wellington) between them provide an extensive liaison for all kinds of industry in all parts of New Zealand. Each has it own staff of liaison officers who make contact and pass on information about industrial needs to appropriate expert consultants in their industrial division or in other industrially oriented divisions, such as Chemistry Division and Institute of Nuclear Sciences. In all the help to industry, close collaboration is maintained between several divisions, the research associations, and university engineering departments.

The Physics and Engineering Laboratory has a management advisory service, consisting of scientists with direct working experience in industry who advise on production control and costing so that technical advice offered is used most effectively. The group advises firms on use of computers, and has published a directory of all known computer installations in New Zealand.

Other experience with computers, in control of laboratory experiments, is also being applied in industry, for example in process control for milk-powder drying and in electronic weighing and grading of sheep carcasses.

Advice has been offered on various aspects of automation, particularly on numerical control of machine tools, a procedure well suited to short-run production of precision equipment.

Equipment now in use at Auckland Industrial Development Division enables production machining problems to be reproduced in the laboratory, and there is a “quick-stop” facility so that equipment is used to show where improvements can be made in minimising cutting forces, in optimising tool type and drill speeds, in lubrication, and so on. A widespread cause of lowered machine performances is incorrect balancing and excessive vibration, and advice on routine balancing has been successfully applied in industries ranging from papermaking to power generation.

This division has designed and built a carbon dioxide laser primarily in response to industrial inquiries about the use of lasers for cutting and drilling materials that are difficult to deal with by conventional methods.

Apart from standard testing and advisory work, the Christchurch Industrial Development Division has designed and built prototype industrial machinery, for example a knotting machine for producing string loops for holding lamb carcasses in position in the freezer, and a hydraulically operated wool-coring machine for extracting samples from the highly compressed wood-hard bales used in recent years. Another development has been a sheep-skinning machine, which, when tested in a meatworks chain, produced carcasses more quickly and hygienically than hitherto.

Apart from pilot-plant and other studies towards development of new products in the way of minerals, fertilisers, and fine chemicals already mentioned and work on aspects of energy production, especially from geothermal sources, Chemistry Division is involved in helping industry control its undesirable byproducts. A noteworthy project, in combination with the Wool Research Organisation, is the cleaning of woolscour effluents; this has the added advantage that the lanolin removed from the effluent is marketable. The Institute of Nuclear Sciences also is actively involved in pollution control studies and uses radioactive tracers and mathematical models to simulate tidal motion and predict sewage dispersion.

Building and Construction, Transport—Most of the work of DSIR in these spheres is done in support of various research associations and other Government departments. A wide variety of building materials, such as paints and wood finishes, adhesives, and plastics, metal, plaster, and stone components is tested for suitability for the job, strength, permanence, and the presence of undesirable chemicals.

A special study in DSIR is the design and construction of buildings to resist earthquake damage. A design in which load-bearing and vibration-damping structures are separated, leading to more efficient functioning of each, has been patented. The Building Research Association has been studying timber house framing with a view to revision of the code of practice, and has done considerable work towards preparation of a New Zealand code for fire resistance of buildings.

The Concrete Research Association, in collaboration with Chemistry Division, has been studying the behaviour of aggregates in relation to dimensional stability of concrete, and the use of pumice as a concrete aggregate. Work at the Pottery and Ceramics Research Association has dealt with bond strength between mortar and brick, and the testing of structural strength of brick masonry walls.

A problem that is becoming increasingly recognised is that of noise, the main source of which is road traffic, and DSIR has surveyed various urban and suburban areas to help specify requirements for insulation against noise. Studies have also been made of airport noise.

The Physical and Engineering Laboratory has constructed a portable light-meter for use in assessing the influence of inadequate street lighting on traffic accidents.

Natural Environment—A large part of DSIR's work concerns provision of information about the environment, and this work has been extended by the need for specialised comment on environmental impact reports. The information should help to minimise environmental deterioration and be a guide to the wise management of natural resources. Many projects are handled in co-operation with other Government departments, and several are done on a contract basis by university departments.

Mapping is the basis for further studies in the earth sciences. Geological coverage of New Zealand at a scale of 1:250 000 was complete by 1968; in recent years work has concentrated on regional mapping to produce maps to a scale of 1:50 000. Special maps, e.g., for coalfields at a scale of 1:15 840, are also produced. Gravity and magnetic maps, which are almost complete for the whole country, show up the large forces resulting in deformation of the earth's crust.

Assessment of geological history is particularly difficult in a geologically active country like New Zealand, which has had complex movements of rock types because of volcanic and earthquake activities. Geological Survey still devotes considerable effort to clarifying this, using fossils and (in collaboration with the Institute of Nuclear Sciences) radioactive dating.

A recent grant from the Golden Kiwi Lottery has enabled Geophysics Division to upgrade its instrumentation on Mt. Ruapehu. The new measurements, taken with those made during the last 20 years, will help scientists correlate significant readings with eruptions in the hope of finding some measurements that will enable eruptions to be predicted. A search for possible accumulation of magma which could erupt violently continues. Recent experiments have led scientists to believe that earthquakes can be predicted from changes in the ground near the expected shock. Physics and Engineering Laboratory is recording earth strain at various localities, Geological Survey is recording minute changes in shape of the earth's surface, and Geophysics Division regularly assesses the traces of radon, a radioactive gas associated with earthquake activity, in water supplies.

A network of stations attached to Physics and Engineering Laboratory studies various aspects of the upper atmosphere, such as its physical properties, and electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation streaming through. They also provide information to help correlate conditions in the ionosphere with meteorological phenomena. In a joint project with the Meteorological Service, acoustic radar equipment has been built to provide knowledge of changes in structure of the lower atmosphere. This will also provide information about atmospheric “inversions” that trap gaseous pollutants over industrialised areas. Precise measurements are being made of the increases in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere resulting from combustion of fossil fuels.

The Oceanographic Institute is well on the way to completing its survey of the ocean floor around New Zealand on a scale of 1:1,000,000 and is carrying out more detailed seismic and magnetic surveys. Studies are being made of the sediments on the continental shelf and the slope, a practical outcome of this work being provision of guidance on the siting of oil and gas pipelines and power cables on the sea floor. The off-shore sea current circulation has been defined in general terms, and detailed surveys of particular areas such as the Foveaux Strait - East Cape region have begun. Marine minerals, such as manganese nodules, have been investigated with a view to commercial exploitation. Bathymetric surveys of major lakes have been made.

Additions to the series of monographs on the marine fauna of New Zealand are continually being produced as a basis for ecological studies concerned mainly with fish that feed on the sea floor and with all species in the food chain. A great deal is known now about diatoms and copepods in the plankton, which forms the first part of the food chain on which all life in the sea depends, but studies continue on the effects of variability of the environment and productivity of species themselves.

Part of Ecology Division, based at Lake Taupo, has started detailed studies of the lake and its catchment area and of other lakes in the Rotorua area. A complete registry of the nutrient status of lakes is being compiled. Ecology Division is also mapping the distribution of birds, lizards, frogs, and bats, and making complete studies of the ecology of various islands, e.g., Campbell Island and the Auckland Islands. Effects of birds and mammals on agricultural land and their ecology in forests are being studied.

Botany Division is completing a survey of all reserves and some national parks. Volumes 3 and 4 of Flora of New Zealand, dealing with grasses and monocotyledonous weeds respectively, are being compiled and work continues on production of publications in the series Chromosome Atlas of the New Zealand Flora.

Work in the Antarctic is described in Section 7C, Scientific Research in the Ross Dependency.

Scientific Services—A special service developed in recent years by Auckland Industrial Development Division in collaboration with Auckland hospitals has been in design of medical instruments. A miniature transmitter has been developed for industry to market for coronary patients to enable them to be continuously monitored without being confined to bed. Another device enables the heart rate of unborn children to be monitored while the mother is awaiting childbirth. For patients receiving artificial respiration, a humidifier has been devised that ensures that the air delivered to the lungs is at a suitable temperature and moisture content.

Chemistry Division's branches at Auckland, Christchurch, and Lower Hutt continually assess a variety of products for the preventive medicine programme of the Department of Health. Regular checks are maintained on quality of pharmaceuticals, foods, and water supplies.

A considerable amount of support is given to the police through the forensic services of DSIR. Chemistry Division routinely tests blood samples for alcohol content and also analyses illicit drugs. Staff from relevant divisions are called as expert witnesses at coroners' inquests and other inquiries.

Geophysics Division is responsible for the New Zealand Time Service.

The Science Information Division edits and publishes all the DSIR publications and maps mentioned and many others, and offers a publication service to all New Zealand scientists in its research journals, New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, New Zealand Journal of Experimental Agriculture, New Zealand Journal of Botany, New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, New Zealand Journal of Science, and New Zealand Journal of Zoology.

The department's reputation for expertise and standards of service is high with the general public and overseas, as well as in scientific circles in New Zealand. Its activities, achievements, and organisation are described in its annual report to Parliament, available from the Government Printer.

Grants paid in 1977–78 to research and allied institutions by DSIR are shown in the following table.

InstitutionAmount
 $(000)
Universities (Auckland, Canterbury, Lincoln, Massey, Otago) and University Grants Committee364
Research associations—
    Building Research Association425
    Coal Research Association199
    Concrete Research Association86
    Dairy Research Institute759
    Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association150
    Launderers, Drycleaners, and Dyers Institute36
    Leather and Shoe Research Association97
    Logging Industry Research Association73
    Meat Industry Research Institute626
    Pottery and Ceramic Research Association79
    Wool Research Organisation529
New buildings83
Overseas institutions—
    Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux87
    International Atomic Energy Agency114
    Others28
New Zealand institutions—
    Carter Observatory88
    Cawthron Institute226
    Royal Society of New Zealand148
    Testing Laboratory Registration Council92
            Total4,290

Staff numbers and expenditure by DSIR for 1977–78 in scientific activity classifications are given in the following table.

ActivityStaff as at 31 March 1978Departmental ExpenditureGrantsTotal
 No.$(000)$(000)$(000)
Agriculture—Production77710,86638211,248
Agriculture—Processing761,1122,0383,150
Energy2072,9122753,187
Manufacturing2804,0053074,312
Natural environment4056,5783346,912
Other activities3835,9559546,909
Public building construction2,0172,017
                Total2 12833,4454,29037,735

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—Almost all agricultural research within the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is now conducted by the Research Division, which has a staff of approximately 260 scientists and 540 technicians.

Some servicing activities are carried out for farmers and farm-advisory personnel. Chief among these is soil-testing. Each year in two soil-testing laboratories about 60 000 samples of soil from farms and experimental areas are analysed for pH and major elements as a basis for fertiliser recommendations by farm advisers.

Research is carried out at 7 main stations, at some smaller experimental stations and areas, and on farmers' properties throughout the country. Major work areas of the 7 stations are: animal and plant production (Invermay); animal production and some local diseases (Ruakura Animal); animal health (Wallaceville); hill country (Whatawhata); soil fertility and plant production (Ruakura Soil); irrigation (Winchmore); and horticulture (Levin). In addition, field research staff investigate local problems throughout the country and test, on experimental areas and farms in a range of environments, the findings of the research stations. A biometrics unit provides statistical services for research workers.

A major administrative change took place early in 1979 when the country was divided into 4 regions for research purposes, each region under the control of a regional director. At the same time, the director of agricultural research moved his headquarters from the Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre to Wellington. The 4 regional offices are at Ruakura (Hamilton), Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Invermay (Mosgiel).

Major Agricultural Research Projects—Because of the vital importance of fertilisers to agricultural production, considerable work continues to be done on the fertiliser requirements of soils throughout New Zealand. Most major soil groups are being studied in detail. There are few, if any, soils or areas where it has not been possible to establish pastures satisfactorily with suitable fertilisers, seed, inoculants, and in some cases drainage. Problem areas such as sands, peats, gumlands, pakihi soils, and high country (up to about 900 m above sea level) have been successfully and profitably improved, using specialised techniques and often specialised equipment.

From animal production research, targets have been set which are acting as a spur to producers. Six hundred to 700 kilograms of milkfat or beef per hectare; 340 kg of lamb and over 110 kg of wool—these are the levels of production which have been achieved from selectively-bred animals grazed on productive, well-utilised pastures. Studies of different classes of sheep in relation to beef cattle have provided valuable information on the most profitable type of stock to run.

Major sheep and cattle breed evaluation and improvement projects, in which both local and exotic stock are represented, fall into two groups: collaborative studies on properties administered by other Government departments, and integrated breeding studies on research stations in both the North and South Islands.

Animal health research is concerned with the diseases which afflict sheep and cattle. Internal parasites, mastitis, salmonellosis, facial eczema, bloat, brucellosis, hypomagnesemia and others are being investigated with the aim of finding more effective methods of prevention and control.

As farming becomes more intensive, diseases can have much greater effects, and science must continue to find answers to existing problems, and to new ones as they arise.

OTHER GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries are responsible for about 73 percent of the total Government science expenditure. An increasing number of other departments do, however, undertake or sponsor research. The departments concerned and the expenditure involved are listed later in this section and more details of their research activities are contained in the appropriate departmental sections.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH OUTSIDE GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—The bulk of university funding comes direct from the Department of Education's Vote but university research is funded through the University Grants Committee. A number of Government departments are, however, substantially increasing their contact with the universities by granting research contracts for specific programmes of research.

There are 11 industry research associations which are funded jointly by Government and the industry they serve. The present associations are the Building Research Association, the New Zealand Coal Research Association, the New Zealand Dairy Research Institute, the New Zealand Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association, the Research Institute of Launderers, Drycleaners and Dyers, the New Zealand Leather and Shoe Research Association, the Logging Industry Research Association, the Meat Industry Research Institute of New Zealand, the New Zealand Concrete Research Association, the New Zealand Pottery and Ceramics Research Association, and the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand. The total cost of the government funding for 1977–78 was $3,049,800. A new scheme which involved the classification of the associations into categories, with differing dollar-for-dollar subsidies, was introduced from 1 April 1975.

The only major endowed research organisation in New Zealand is the Cawthron Institute at Nelson which was established in 1920 with a bequest of $500,000 under the will of Thomas Cawthron. As the value of the investment of the bequest has declined the institute has received increasing income from other bequests, chemical services earnings, and from a Government grant which comprises about 44 percent of the institute's income.

The organisation of medical research is described in Section 5A, Health and Medical Services, under the headings Medical Research Council and National Health Institute.

THE PRESENT ORGANISATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH—Decisions on national scientific policies are made by the Minister of Science and Technology and the Cabinet, subject to the guidance and control of Parliament during the annual consideration of the Estimates.

Scientific research in New Zealand is carried out by the research divisions of Government departments, universities, joint Government/industry-funded research associations and private organisations, including the Cawthron Institute, which receive government assistance. Accurate statistics on proportionate expenditure on research are not yet available but means of obtaining the necessary information are being studied, as the data are needed both for internal use and for OECD comparative purposes. It is certain, however, that the majority of research in New Zealand is funded by Government departments, of which 73.3 percent is expended by DSIR and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Advising the Government on a co-ordinated national policy for scientific research, which takes into consideration the work of all these agencies, is the role of the National Research Advisory Council (NRAC), which was established on 1 April 1964 to advise the Minister of Science and Technology on:

  1. the promotion and development of scientific research in New Zealand;

  2. the planning and co-ordination of scientific research and services in New Zealand, including:

    1. the determination of priorities among activities of Government departments having regard to research done by other organisations;

    2. the provision of scholarships and fellowships and the promotion of the training of research workers;

    3. the association of Government with industry in the promotion of fundamental and applied research, including the promotion of research associations;

    4. the collection and dissemination of scientific information including the publication of reports and journals;

  3. the promotion of co-operation with the governments of, or organisations in, other countries, or with international organisations, in scientific matters;

  4. any other matters that are appropriate for the carrying out of any of the above-mentioned functions, or that are referred to it by the Minister.

The National Research Advisory Council Act 1963 provides for 6 to 9 members, including the chairman, to be appointed by the Governor-General and for 3 ex-officio members, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Director-General of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Secretary to the Treasury. The council is assisted by 4 advisory committees (each chaired by a council member), covering the fields of primary production, manufacturing and processing, environmental and energy, and social services research.

By Government directive, all departmental proposals involving the establishment of new scientific activities or the major expansion, reduction, or modification of existing activities are referred to the council for evaluation, as are proposals likely to make substantial demands on scientific manpower or other scientific resources.

The following tables show the Government expenditure and manpower by department and scientific activity. Expenditure on public buildings is excluded.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY DEPARTMENT
DepartmentGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants*
1975–761976–771977–781975–761976–771977–78
*Included in gross expenditure in previous columns.
  $(000)  $(000) 
Agriculture and Fisheries15,47317,24920,727671695751
Defence1,2151,3061,87412
Education1,1897531,2971,0846281,136
Electricity70691946105
Energy Resources824
Forest Service5,2175,5046,727526536
Internal Affairs5075939054
Justice49898412820
Labour2913054126637
Lands and Survey29321562932156
Maori Affairs44
DSIR26,72129,90635,3543,2913,9803,926
Social Welfare1341221439107
State Services Commission686980
Transport5,2345,4576,11847
Works and Development1,9372,1312,55823222645
                Total58,13863,59376,4785,4265,6826,170
GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY SCIENCE BUDGET ACTIVITIES
ActivityGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants*
1975–761976–771977–781975–761976–771977–78

*Included in expenditure in previous columns.

†New activity from 1 April 1976, including elements from other activities such as Manufacturing and Minerals.

  $(000)  $(000) 
Agriculture24,75627,38132,5042,5692,8252,993
Forestry5,5545,7946,79673103117
Fisheries1,7172,0042,4432524
Minerals1,680786860193267
Manufacturing3,4423,6394,266230311262
Building and construction2,0871,3761,657677476582
Transport9349561,177467
Natural environment13,79414,83417,572440544553
Social sciences1,0371,1522,0833794321,201
Human health9941,0521,317333236
Energy2,7913,478547270
Other scientific services2,1431,8282,325803356142
                Total58,13863,59376,4785,4265,6826,170

NOTE—The Government expenditure on buildings solely for scientific use is not included in the above tables. The figure for 1975–76 was $5,301,792, for 1976–77 was $4,767,853 and for 1977–78 was $3,681,971.

SCIENCE BUDGET MANPOWER: STAFF CEILINGS
Activity1976–771977–78
Agriculture2 0542 050
Forestry491469
Fisheries117120
Minerals6359
Manufacturing282280
Building and construction105106
Transport7882
Natural environment1 0411 045
Social sciences90101
Human health8383
Energy165218
Other scientific services151138
                Total4 7204 751
GOVERNMENT RESEARCH EFFORT
Year Ended 31 MarchGross Expenditure on Science*Percentage of Total Government ExpenditureTotal Staff Employed
*Including expenditure on public buildings for science.
 $(000)  
197663,4391.174 635
197768,3601.174 725
197880,1601.184 751

The figures on Government expenditure are not complete. They include expenditure on scientific, technical, and support staff of the main science units within the Public Service; grants by these departments to research associations and other agencies; and expenditure on the science buildings and equipment of these departments. They do not include expenditure on scientific research and servicing in the trading areas of the State services such as New Zealand Railways and the Post Office or by the Reserve Bank; in the universities; the grants made to the non-government sector by the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee; the assistance to industry for research provided by the Development Finance Corporation ($1,978,040 in 1977–78); the allocation of Golden Kiwi lottery funds for scientific research ($250,000 in 1977–78); and the revenue foregone through taxation concessions to individuals and companies expenditure on research or donations to research foundations (Income Tax Act 1976).

In the most recent study undertaken, OECD has calculated civilian research and development expenditure as a percentage of gross national product to give the following country comparison. (This omits military and defence expenditure which inflates the expenditure unevenly for many countries.)

Source: OECD Member Countries, 1976.
CountryYearPercent of GNP
Australia19741.2
Austria19721.0
Belgium19731.2
Canada19741.1
France19731.7
Japan19741.7
Netherlands19741.8
New Zealand19730.9
Norway19721.1
United Kingdom19732.1
United States19732.4
West Germany19732.0

7 C—SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH IN THE ROSS DEPENDENCY

The Ross Dependency comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160° east and 150° west longitude, together with the islands between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60° south.

Within these boundaries there are an estimated 400 000–450 000 square kilometres of land and 330 000 square kilometres of permanent ice shelf. Apart from the mountainous regions and some coastal areas, the land is entirely covered by ice. The only human population consists of scientific and support personnel involved in research programmes.

By Order in Council of 30 July 1923 under the British Settlements Act 1887 (Imp.) the territories of the Ross Dependency were brought within the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Government. From time to time laws for the dependency have been made by regulations promulgated by the Governor-General of New Zealand. The Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977 makes provision for the implementation of a 200-mile EEZ in the Ross Dependency by Order in Council.

Administrative powers are vested in the Governor-General of New Zealand. Since 1956 the leader of the New Zealand Expedition at Scott Base has been vested with the powers of Magistrate, Justice of the Peace, and Coroner. The officer in charge has jurisdiction over all New Zealand nationals in Antarctica and is responsible for the implementation of the Antarctic Research Programme as directed by Antarctic Division, DSIR.

The Ross Dependency Research Committee formulates the annual scientific programme for approval by the Minister of Science and Technology, and the Antarctic Division, DSIR, then has the responsibility for the detailed planning and implementation of this programme.

The division employs staff and obtains supplies and equipment for all Government projects. University projects are financed and equipped from university sources. The operation and control of all projects is directed by the Antarctic Division through the officer in charge, Scott Base.

New Zealand's international relations on Antarctic affairs are conducted at the political level by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Whilst scientific contact with other countries and institutions engaged in Antarctic research is maintained at all levels, the primary channels are the Ross Dependency Research Committee, which reports to the Minister of Science, and New Zealand's National Committee on Antarctic Research (NCAR).

Antarctic Treaty—In 1959 New Zealand was one of the 12 nations to sign the Antarctic Treaty which requires that Antarctica be used for peaceful purposes only, and promotes international co-operation, freedom of scientific investigation, and exchange of information and scientific personnel. The treaty specifically provides that it does not prejudice existing territorial claims in Antarctica. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Parties, increased to 13 by the accession of Poland in 1977, meet regularly in full consultative meetings to consider questions of mutual interest within the treaty framework. Questions of resource management have assumed considerable significance in recent years and a series of special meetings has been convened to discuss these issues which pose a significant challenge to the stability of the treaty. Several countries, not all members of the Antarctic Treaty, are already harvesting the protein-rich krill, and there is considerable interest in the hydro-carbon potential of Antarctic waters.

The Antarctica Amendment Act 1970 provides means of enforcing the regulations contained within the Antarctic Treaty (known as the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora) and the prevention of pollution to the Antarctic continent and surrounding waters.

New Zealand Bases—Scott Base, located at Pram Point near Cape Armitage on Ross Island, was established for the first New Zealand expedition which was involved in the Antarctic Scientific Research programme during the International Geophysical Year 1957. Since then Scott Base has been continuously occupied by support staff and scientists. Over the past 10 years, the New Zealand scientific programme has been progressively expanded. In order to adequately provide for the increasing numbers of personnel participating in research activities, a base rebuilding programme was commenced in 1976, which includes construction of a new laboratory, power house, and administration and accommodation facilities. This project is expected to be completed in the early 1980s.

Up to 12 staff members stay over the winter at Scott Base to sustain important continuous scientific observations. The base is one in a chain of international observatory stations used for the study of the upper atmosphere and earth sciences. At nearby Arrival Heights, studies are maintained in auroral physics, micropulsations, and ionospheric absorption.

Vanda Station, situated near the shores of Lake Vanda in the Dry Valleys region, is the only New Zealand Station on the Antarctic continent. Operated only during the summer season, Vanda Station functions as a support base for field parties conducting research activities in the Dry Valleys and as a centre for meteorological, hydrological, and glaciological studies designed to further understanding of the peculiarities of the region.

Cape Bird, situated 100 kilometres north of Scott Base on the northern tip of Ross Island, serves as a summer base for biological field parties conducting annual projects in terrestrial and marine biology.

Emergency huts, fully provisioned, are also maintained at Lake Fryxell, Asgard Range, Lower Wright Valley, Cape Evans, and Cape Royds.

Scientific Programme—For the past 21 years New Zealand has been a direct participant in Antarctic scientific research. Each summer season, October to February, expeditions involving scientists from Government departments and New Zealand universities conduct research programmes involving such disciplines as geology, geomorphology, geochemistry, biology, glaciology, hydrology, and volcanology. The Dry Valleys region continues to attract the close attention of scientists, both national and international, and valuable environmental investigations are conducted in this ice-free area. From Vanda Station, studies are made in co-ordination with Scott Base programmes in upper air physics and earth sciences. Synoptic weather observations are made and other meteorological data collected at the base and at satellite stations in the Wright Valley. Geological surveys of little-known areas such as Marie Byrd Land, the Darwin Mountains, and Northern Victoria Land are features of current and planned research programmes.

International co-operation is today a major feature of the New Zealand Antarctic Research programme. Co-operative examples include the Dry Valleys and Ross Ice Shelf drilling projects, Mt. Erebus gas and lava sampling expeditions, and biological and geological projects which have been carried out together with scientists from West Germany, France, Japan, Australia, and the United States of America.

Biological studies continue each year at various locations where scientists conduct population census counts and tagging of seals and penguins. Marine plankton sampling takes place near Scott Base and further marine research is being concentrated in the Cape Bird area. Studies are also continuing of penguin and skua gull behaviour at Cape Bird and Cape Royds.

Whaling—Regulation dated 24 October 1929 prohibit whaling in the territorial waters of the Ross Dependency without licence. New Zealand is a member of the International Whaling Commission, which enforces conservation of whale stocks.

Transportation—New Zealand is one of the few remaining countries involved in the Antarctic to continue with the limited use of dog teams and sledges for transportation within the immediate vicinity of Scott Base.

However, the main transport requirements of the New Zealand research programme rely on a logistics support agreement jointly operated by the United States and New Zealand, utilising C141 Starlifter and C130 Hercules aircraft and helicopters. Bulk cargoes for the New Zealand operation are shipped via the U.S. supply vessel which annually visits McMurdo Sound.

Flight time between Christchurch and McMurdo Sound is usually between 6 to 10 hours, depending on the type of aircraft being used. During the 1978–79 season, RNZAF Hercules aircraft contributed 12 flights to the US/NZ logistics pool. During the same year Australia also participated in the flight programme from Christchurch under a tripartite agreement allowing Australian personnel to be transported by US ski-equipped Hercules C130 aircraft from McMurdo to the ANARE Casey Station.

Within Antarctica, movement and support of field parties is usually facilitated by helicopter and motorised toboggans. With the formation of metal- and snow-compacted roads around Scott Base and McMurdo, conventional wheeled vehicles are now able to operate satisfactorily.

Under the terms of the logistics agreement with the United States, New Zealand provides facilities and RNZAF cargo handling services at Christchurch International Airport.

Since 1977 Air New Zealand has been providing a limited number of 1-day tourist flights, non-stop, by DC10 to Antarctica. These flights have been well patronised by New Zealanders with a keen interest in the frozen continent and by foreign tourists.

The Future—Whilst basic scientific studies continue in the Antarctic there is developing emphasis being directed toward meeting the more specialised demands of man's increasing knowledge of the region and the balanced utilisation of resources.

Antarctica has retained its IGY status as a unique natural laboratory from whence man can study the earth and surrounding space. Equally important, the continent continues to be the last relatively undisturbed area on earth from which may also be monitored the effect of man on the remainder of our global environment.

7 D—SUPPORT OF THE ARTS AND CULTURAL ACTIVITIES

The quality of life depends not only on economic and material considerations and a pleasant unpolluted environment, but also on social and cultural advances. In other words, on the development and appreciation of literature and the arts.

Patronage has always been part of the history of the arts. In less egalitarian times it was usually royalty or a wealthy aristocracy that provided this; in modern times it is the State that must increasingly provide assistance if the arts are to flourish.

In New Zealand, as in most other countries, both the Government and local authorities have recognised the importance of the arts in the life of the community and have provided increasing support.

The traditional sources of assistance to the arts in New Zealand are the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, which had its origins in 1947 as a cultural fund; the New Zealand Literary Fund, administered by the Department of Internal Affairs, which was established in 1946; the New Zealand Historic Places Trust; and the National Art Gallery and Museum. More recently established are the New Zealand Authors' Fund, which compensates authors for the loss of royalties through having their books loaned out by libraries; a fund to assist art galleries and museums; and a lottery profits scheme to assist art organisations with capital projects. All 3 are administered by the Department of Internal Affairs.

The following table shows grants made in 1978–79 by the Government and from the lottery profits scheme.

GroupGovernment AssistanceLottery Grant
 $$
Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council2,105,000600,000
New Zealand Literary Fund75,00031,200
National Art Gallery and Museum319,00030,000
New Zealand Historic Places Trust135,000300,000
New Zealand Authors' Fund194,000
Cultural facilities400,000
Art Galleries and Museum Scheme175,000
                Total3,003,0001,361,200

The Department of Education has also played an important role in the support of cultural activities, giving new impetus through community colleges and such schemes as “Performers in Schools”, which is operated jointly with the Arts Council. Another major contributor to cultural activity in New Zealand is the Broadcasting Corporation, the most notable contribution being made by the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra.

The financial contributions made to arts organisations through the Ministry and Council of Recreation and Sport are also a significant item.

In addition, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is involved in fostering the arts through its Cultural Exchange Programme, which was established in 1974. Much more attention is being given in present-day conditions to cultural exchange as an arm of foreign policy, reflecting the increasing interdependence of the world as well as detente. Modest in financial terms, the programme's objective is to facilitate exchanges in all branches of the arts, including music, theatre, painting, crafts, sculpture, and writing, so as to enable New Zealanders to gain a closer first-hand knowledge of the culture of other countries. At the same time, it is hoped that the programme will stimulate the already active cultural scene in New Zealand and through tours and exhibits abroad extend overseas knowledge of New Zealand's cultural achievements. In planning and implementing the programme the Ministry of Foreign Affairs works closely with such organisations as the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, art galleries, and other groups and individuals.

Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council—To commemorate the visit of Her Majesty the Queen to New Zealand in 1963, the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council was formed the following year. The Arts Council was charged to encourage, foster, and promote the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, to make accessible to the public of New Zealand all forms of artistic and cultural work, to improve the standard of execution of the arts, and to foster and maintain public interest in the arts and culture of New Zealand.

In pursuit of its principal objective of raising the standard of both the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, the council assists individuals working in the arts, and incorporated and non-profit-making organisations, which have the capacity to work at a consistent level of artistic achievement so as to maintain sound standards of management and promotion, and which can offer career opportunities to trained and gifted people. Activities which are professional in character and standard thus receive priority of consideration for financial support.

During 1977–78 the council assisted over 140 individuals, as well as organisations or programmes. This assistance included training awards, maintaining training schools, annual grants for theatre, ballet, and orchestral activity, film projects, assistance with touring exhibitions, aiding arts festivals, fostering experimental work in the arts, and assisting national arts organisations. The council maintained its policy of encouraging professional activity in the arts as a matter of priority. With this assistance, the country's professional theatres continued to maintain their high standards of performance; the New Zealand Ballet Company continued to tour throughout the country; and the council was able to assist in the development of orchestral activity of a high standard in each of the main centres.

The Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council Act 1974 provides for greater emphasis on regional development of the arts through 3 regional arts councils and through community arts councils.

New Zealand Film Commission—The New Zealand Film Commission Act came into force on 13 November 1978. It will receive grants from the New Zealand Lottery Board for the first 3 years amounting to $500,000 a year.

ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS—In 1973 a fund was set up to subsidise capital works of art galleries and museums. Subsidies are made available by the Minister of Internal Affairs on the recommendation of an advisory committee. A small proportion of the fund is made available each year to the 6 major metropolitan art galleries and museums in Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, to enable them to assist smaller art galleries and museums in their areas with approved non-capital expenses.

AWARDS IN LITERATURE AND ARTS—The following awards are available:

  1. New Zealand Literary Fund—This fund is financed by a yearly appropriation on the vote of the Department of Internal Affairs. Assistance from the fund is granted by the Minister for the Arts, who is advised by the Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

  2. Scholarship in Letters—The scholarship of $6,000 is awarded annually to an established New Zealand writer by the Minister for the Arts, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. Applications are made to the Secretary, New Zealand Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

  3. Victoria University of Wellington Writer's Fellowship—Funded jointly by the New Zealand Literary Fund and Victoria University, the fellowship is to enable a writer to work on a literary project at the university for 12 months. Details on the fellowship are available from the Registrar, Victoria University of Wellington, Private Bag, Wellington.

  4. Robert Burns Fellowship in Literature—This fellowship in literature is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. The fellow shall be resident for the academic year. The fellowship is open to New Zealand writers, preferably under 40 years. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

  5. Maori Writers' Awards—The Maori Purposes Fund Board annually makes available one award of $1,000 for creative writing in the English language, and another of $1,000 for creative writing in the Maori language. Applications from persons of Maori descent should be sent to the Secretary of the Maori Purposes Fund Board, Box 2390, Wellington.

  6. New Zealand Book Awards—Annual awards of $2,000 are made by the Minister for the Arts with the support of the Literary Fund and the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, for the best books published each year in the categories of poetry, prose fiction, and prose non-fiction.

  7. Award for Achievement—The Award for Achievement, of $500, recognises the contribution of one person to New Zealand literature. The award is granted each year by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

  8. Esther Glen Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually to the author of the most distinguished children's book written by a New Zealander. (Applications are not called for.)

  9. Russell Clark Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually to the illustrator responsible for the most distinguished illustrations for a children's book. The illustrator must be a citizen or resident of New Zealand. (Applications are not called for.)

  10. Hubert Church Prose Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, is available annually for the best first book of prose writing by a New Zealand author. (Applications are not called for.)

  11. Jessie Mackay Poetry Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund is available annually for the best first book of poetry written by a New Zealand author. (Applications are not called for.)

  12. Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award—The Bank of New Zealand, in association with the New Zealand Women Writers' Society (Inc.), sponsors a biennial prestige memorial award for the short story.

  13. Bank of New Zealand Young Writers' Awards—Concurrently with the Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award, the Bank of New Zealand sponsors 2 awards for young writers. These are the senior award, for entrants aged 24 years and under; and the junior award for secondary school students. Both awards are for short stories.

  14. Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship (Winn-Manson Menton Trust)—The fellowship is to allow a New Zealand writer to write and study at Menton in the South of France. Applicants must be serious writers who would use the fellowship to further their literary studies and endeavours. For 1978 the fellow will receive $4,000, return airfares, and a contribution towards living expenses. Applications should be made to the Hon. Secretary, Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship, P.O. Box 10–256, Wellington.

  15. Young Writer's Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, the New Zealand Book Council, and the Department of Education, is available annually for writing by people under 20 years of age. There are categories for prose and poetry. Applications should be made to the Secretary, P.O. Box 2283, Wellington.

  16. James Wattie Book of the Year Award—This award is made each year by Wattie Industries Limited. Full conditions of entry for the James Wattie Book of the Year Award, which is aimed mainly at encouraging the growth of publishing in New Zealand, are available from the Secretary, NZBPA, C/-P.O. Box 11005, Wellington.

  17. One-act Playwriting Competition—In this annual competition the winning play is workshopped and produced with the Theatre Federation assistance. Applications should be made to the Secretary, New Zealand Theatre Federation, P.O. Box 6158, Wellington.

  18. Biennial Playwriting Competition—This competition is for full length plays. Applications should be made to the Secretary, New Zealand Theatre Federation, P.O. Box 6158, Wellington.

  19. Professor J. C. Reid Annual Award for Excellence in Arts Criticism—The Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council of New Zealand sponsors an annual award to journalists for excellence in arts criticism in conjunction with the New Zealand Journalists' Union. The competition is administered by the New Zealand Journalists' Union, Box 6545, Te Aro, Wellington 1.

  20. Frances Hodgkins Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand painters and sculptors, preferably under 40 years. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

  21. Mozart Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand musicians who are serious composers. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Applicants should be at least 27 years old. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

  22. I.C.I. Writers' Bursary—The bursary of $5,000 is jointly funded by I.C.I. New Zealand Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. Its purpose is to enable a writer with potential, but not necessarily with a well established publication record, to work full time for up to 1 year on a particular project. The bursary effectively replaces the writing bursary offered by the Literary Fund in previous years, but the advisory committee is prepared to recommend that a second bursary, valued at $4,000, be offered entirely from the Literary Fund allocation should the standard of applications received warrant this.

  23. A.H.I. Literary Research Award—The award of $7,000 is jointly funded by Alex Harvey Industries Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. The award is offered annually to writers for research towards the publication of literary, historical, or critical works.

  24. Choysa Bursary For Children's Writers—The bursary of $5,000 is jointly funded by Quality Packers Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. The bursary is offered annually to writers of imaginative work for children.

  25. Canterbury University Writer-in-Residence—Value $6,000. Funded jointly by the New Zealand Literary Fund and Canterbury University, the scheme is to enable writers to work for 6 months at the university. Details of the Writer-in-Residence scheme are available from the Registrar, Canterbury University, Christchurch.

PROTECTION OF ANTIQUITIES AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES—The Antiquities Act 1975, which came into force on 1 April 1976, includes provisions controlling the sale of Maori artifacts within New Zealand, and all artifacts found after 1 April 1976 are deemed to be prima facie the property of the Crown. In addition, there are export controls on a wide range of items of historical significance: Maori artifacts; chattels relating to the European discovery, settlement or development of New Zealand; certain written and printed matter; certain works of art, reproductions, prints, films and sound recordings; type specimens of animals, plants and minerals; meteorites; remains of extinct fauna; and certain items of shipwreck.

Whereas the Antiquities Act is essentially concerned with “portable” objects, a companion measure, the Historic Places Amendment Act 1975, deals more specifically with the protection of archaeological sites. This also came into effect from 1 April 1976. From that time, it is necessary to obtain the consent of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust before damaging, destroying, or modifying any archaeological site or undertaking a scientific archaeological investigation of any site.

To enable the purchase of Maori artifacts and historic paintings, the Government continues to make grants to the National Museum and to the National Art Gallery.

NATIONAL ARCHIVES—The Archives Act 1957 established a National Archives to provide for the custody and preservation of the public archives of New Zealand. The Chief Archivist, appointed under the Act, has certain statutory powers, No public archives, as defined in the Act, can be destroyed without her approval and she has powers of inspection and direction in respect of the keeping of public records. Government records of permanent value are deposited with National Archives, and are widely used for original research by scholars, students, officials, and the public. As well as the public archives (i.e., public records out of current use) there are small holdings of semi-official and private papers of Governor Sir Thomas Gore Browne and some political figures, including Sir Frederick Weld, W. P. Reeves, Sir James Allen, W. Lee Martin, C. F. Skinner, and T. P. Shand. The papers of the New Zealand Company, R. J. Seddon, Sir Walter Nash, and Norman Kirk provide larger collections. The Nash collection is one of great significance covering his life and times. Some of the more note-worthy public documents are to be found amongst the archives of the Governor, Colonial Secretary, Maori Affairs Department, Samoan administrations, the armed forces (both in peace and war) and Legislative Department papers, 1854–1969.

National Archives has a records centre in Lower Hutt and one in Auckland. These provide storage for semi-current Government records as well as public archives. The total staff, including that of records centres, is 18. Officers of the National Archives collaborate with departmental records officers and occasionally with the State Services Commission on assignments on the management of current records. Some public archives of regional interest are deposited with certain non-government repositories approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs, such as the Hocken Library in Dunedin, the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch, the Hawke's Bay Art Society Gallery and Museum in Napier, the Auckland Institute and Museum, the New Plymouth Public Library, and the Marlborough Historical Society Museum in Blenheim.

During 1974 the Government approved the transfer of Cabinet Office papers to National Archives on a regular basis. The regular transfer of this group of papers is considered to be of great significance for the future of archives and historical research in New Zealand.

National Archives and the Alexander Turnbull Library have joined in establishing a War History Documentation Centre to gather and preserve documentary material about New Zealand's part in the two World Wars.

National Archives publishes an annual Summary of Work, including a list of new accessions to its holdings. A cumulative list of holdings to 1 April 1976 was published in 1977.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST—The New Zealand Historic Places Trust was created by the Historic Places Act of 1954 to foster public interest in places and objects of national or local interest, and to assist and undertake their preservation, maintenance, and restoration. The trust consists of 15 members, and has the support of a growing associate membership (6462 at 31 December 1978). It operates locally through regional committees.

The trust's main concern is to preserve sites and buildings. It has restored a number of properties and has also assisted in preserving many others by financial grants and technical advice. Twelve properties which are open to the public are administered; the Mission House at Waimate Norm, Kemp House at Kerikeri, Pompallier House at Russell, Clendon House at Rawene, the Mission House of Mangungu, Alberton, Ewelme Cottage and the Melanesian Mission Museum at Auckland, Hurworth House at New Plymouth, Old St. Paul's in Wellington, Hayes Engineering Works at Oturehua, and the Post Office at Ophir. The trust also owns other properties and is involved in the administration of some which are owned by other organisations.

The trust has marked many historic places with plaques and noticeboards, and historic sites are sometimes protected by some form of reservation (although this is not yet on a scale to satisfy the trust). The accelerated loss of New Zealand's early historic heritage has always worried the trust, and the Historic Places Amendment Act of 1975 is now doing much to protect archaeological sites. No person may lawfully investigate, damage, destroy, or modify any archaeological site more than 100 years old except under a permit from the trust. The trust collaborated with the Ministry of Works and Development to survey areas affected by the Clutha power development, and the Maui gas pipeline, and to rescue and record the field monuments threatened by these projects.

The trust publishes booklets and leaflets, usually about buildings and sites in which it has been actively interested. It also has a growing photographic collection.

7 E—LIBRARIES

GENERAL—In general, New Zealand is well served with libraries and the book stocks and circulation figures compare favourably with those of other English-speaking nations. In most centres the local authority maintains a public library.

Under the auspices of the New Zealand Library Association, a comprehensive system of inter-library co-operation has been developed, particularly in the use of resources by means of inter-library loans.

NATIONAL LIBRARY OF NEW ZEALAND—By the National Library Act 1965, the Alexander Turnbull Library, the General Assembly Library, and the National Library Service were combined to form the National Library of New Zealand.

A comprehensive collection of New Zealand material within the requirements of the Act is maintained by the Alexander Turnbull Library.

The National Library is responsible for maintaining and developing a central reference and lending collection, and for making its resources available to other libraries. On 31 March 1978 this collection comprised over 436 000 volumes together with 74 000 volumes of periodicals.

The library also acts as purchasing agent for most Government department libraries operating within the Public Account and provides a cataloguing, reference, and library advisory service for departments.

The library has facilities for the preservation and restoration of items of intrinsic value. Microfilming and photographic programmes ensure preservation of items primarily of information value.

General Assembly Library—The General Assembly Library was established in 1858 and provides library services for Parliament. The chief librarian is guided by a committee of members of Parliament headed by the Speaker.

Since 1903 the library has been the depository for books, periodicals, etc., published in New Zealand. It receives regularly copies of all New Zealand newspapers and about 1700 New Zealand periodicals. Back files of both are very extensive. It also has one of the largest collections in the country of books or pamphlets relating to New Zealand. Several New Zealand newspapers are indexed daily.

The library has its strongest collections in subjects necessary to provide information for members of Parliament in their legislative duties. These include economics, politics, administration and law, biography, and history. It has a good collection of Government documents, mainly from English-speaking countries—particularly parliamentary papers and debates—as well as publications of international organisations such as United Nations and its subsidiary organisations, the OECD, and the EEC.

During the parliamentary recess, the library, which holds about 400 000 volumes, is open to the public on the recommendation of a member of Parliament.

Alexander Turnbull Library—The Alexander Turnbull Library is a research library responsible for maintaining a comprehensive collection of library material relating to New Zealand, together with other specialist research collections. The original collection of 55 000 volumes bequeathed by Alexander

Horsburgh Turnbull (1868–1918) has been increased to approximately 200 000 volumes of books and periodicals, 1800 metres of manuscripts, 23 000 pictures of which 17 000 are original paintings and drawings, 18 000 maps, 300 000 photographic prints and negatives, and 10 000 reels of microfilm. The collections are augmented regularly by purchases, bequests, and donations from individuals and organisations.

The Trustees of the National Library in 1966 designated the Turnbull as the national collection of printed materials relating to New Zealand, and the library now receives all New Zealand publications under the compulsory deposit provision of the Copyright Act and prepares the current and retrospective New Zealand National Bibliography. Supporting the collections of printed books, periodicals, and newspapers are extensive collections of private papers and archives, paintings, drawings and prints of historical and topographical interest, maps, photographs, and sound recordings. The library also possesses research collections on the Pacific and the Antarctic with particular emphasis on history, early voyages, and ethnology. The general collections are strong in English literature, early printed books, and the development of the art of printing. The collection on John Milton and the mid-seventeenth century, a particular interest of Alexander Turnbull, is of international standing.

Extension Division—This division has 2 parts:

  1. Country Library Service—The Country Library Service, founded in 1938, has been extended through regional centres in Hamilton, Palmerston North, and Christchurch for closer contact with participating libraries. Bulk loans of books are made free of charge to libraries controlled by local authorities, both borough and county, which operate a free library service locally and maintain it at a reasonable standard of efficiency. To towns where the population is less than 15 000, loans are made from book vans, special subject collections are sent, and thousands of books are supplied in response to requests for information and for individual titles. Libraries in towns with a greater population, excluding the main centres, also receive assistance. Their bulk loans are made direct from regional centres instead of, or in addition to, loans from book vans. Outside the boundaries of boroughs and town districts, groups of people may have books at the rate of $10 for 50 changed at regular intervals. Nine specially equipped vans, each carrying over 2000 books, travel over the whole territory.

    Libraries obtaining books from the Country Library Service on 31 March 1978 included the following: local body free public libraries, 163; small community libraries and groups, 743; other libraries and institutions, 157. The number of books lent to these libraries totalled 408 219 and 146 042 books were lent on request and in loan collections during the year.

  2. School Library Service—The School Library Service, established in 1941, is responsible for providing a wide and varied choice of books of high imaginative quality or technical excellence for children at all levels of ability and stages of development. The book stock at 31 March 1978 totalled 2,713,844.

General exchanges of books for recreational reading are made by 13 district centres to State and private primary schools from Standard 1 upwards. An information and request service is available to teachers and pupils of primary and secondary schools. Public libraries which give free service to children and young people also receive circulating loans of books. Services to pre-school groups are given through local public libraries or direct from district offices.

For the year ended 31 March 1978, books in exchanges and repository loans totalled 777 761 and 1,254,805 books were provided through the information and request service.

Library School—Since 1946 the New Zealand Library School has offered to university graduates a full-time, 1-year course. It leads to a diploma and to library posts at the professional level. Some 808 students had successfully completed the course by the end of 1977 and in 1978 there were 39 New Zealand students. Students doing this course receive the same allowances as do students at teachers colleges. The school also conducts the block course for library assistants with University Entrance leading to the New Zealand Library Association Certificate and to library posts at the intermediate level. Students attend on a full-time basis, usually on leave with pay from their libraries, for 3 blocks of tuition spaced at intervals of about 9 months and each taking 4 weeks.

The courses held in 1979 are the last to be given by the school. From 1980, library education will be given by 2 schools at Victoria University of Wellington and at Wellington Teachers College.

CENSUS OF LIBRARIES, 1974—The 5-yearly census of libraries for the year ended 31 March 1974 covered a total of 1703 libraries, including 268 public libraries (of which 77 were suburban branches), 34 tertiary education libraries, 1067 school libraries, the National Library, 98 libraries of learned societies and major commercial interests, and 76 libraries of government departments and associated organisations.

Tertiary education libraries comprised the libraries of the 6 universities and 3 libraries closely associated with them; libraries of 9 teachers' colleges; 1 agricultural college library; 6 libraries of theological colleges; and 9 libraries of technical institutes. Book stocks increased by 50 percent in tertiary establishments between 1969 and 1974.

In the period 1969 to 1974, public library membership increased by 21 percent and circulation by almost 17 percent—a sign of renewed interest in the library services despite a marked increase in the sale of television sets in the same period. In the public libraries there were 4.48 books to each member and, on average, these books circulated 4.79 times annually. The numbers of public library staff remained almost constant between censuses but the numbers holding library qualifications rose by 39 percent.

School libraries were last surveyed in 1938 when a total of 114 district high and secondary schools were included. The average number of books per user was 7. In 1974, 360 district high and secondary schools were surveyed and the average number of books was 10 per user. The book stocks available increased by 51 percent. Primary (581) and intermediate (126) schools were also surveyed and library stocks surveyed for all schools included tapes, cassettes, gramophone records, films, and film strips as well as books.

A new survey held in 1974 was a census of bookshops or commercial libraries which numbered 159. Book stock numbered 487 365 and membership was 43 833—an average of 11 books a member. Of these libraries, 109 were in the North Island and 50 in the South Island.

The following tables summarise the results of the 1974 Census. The full results are given in a report Census of Libraries 1974 available from the Government Printer.

SPECIALIST LIBRARIES
Class of LibraryBook Stock at 31 March 1974Circulation During Year Ended 31 March 1974
Number of LibrariesBooksPeriodicalsTotalItems lent outside LibraryItems lent to other LibrariesItems borrowed from other Libraries
*Excludes armed forces and penal institutions which are included under public libraries.
 (000)
National Library14 0262194 2452 761183
Libraries in universities, etc.342 1396042 7431 5382633
Other libraries—
    Learned societies and commercial interests987224431 165171813
    Government departments and associated organisations76*4759121 3871772929
                Total2097 3622 1789 5404 6478178
PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AT 31 MARCH 1974
Class of LibraryNumber of Library SystemsOwn StockTotalFor Reference Only (Included in own stock)Country Library Service Stock
AdultJunior
RentalFree FictionFree Non-FictionFiction and Non-FictionAdultJunior

*Incorporates 15 Christchurch suburban libraries.

†191 library systems covering 268 libraries.

In centres with an estimated population served of—    (000)    
    50 000 and over9*3223471 2245052 39974132
    20 000–49 9991824311335421692736358
    10 000–19 999331098917916254065916
    5 000–9 999359972969636252911
    3 000–4 99925622328321451207
    Under 3 00045924620221791277
            Sub-total1659286891 9021 0334 55312318350
Armed forces and penal institutions261861253107181
            Grand total1919467501 9271 0374 66012419152
PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOKS: CIRCULATION AND USE
Public LibraryNumber of LibrariesIssues from Own StockIssues from Country-Library Service StockInter-library Loans
AdultJuniorTotal
RentalFree FictionFree Non-FictionPeriodicalsAdultJuniorLent to Other LibrariesBorrowed From Other Libraries

*Incorporates 15 Christchurch suburban libraries.

†191 library systems covering 268 libraries.

In centres with an estimated population served of—     (000)     
    50 000 and over9*5 0022 0671 0381581 98710 25211310
    20 000–49 999182 1827439461601 4755 5061083913
    10 000–19 999331 0086566531021 0693 4882066024
    50 00–9 99935607333354655611 9201194618
    3 000–4 999252511091017159627842416
Under 3 00045213703029340855237
                Sub-total1659 2633 9793 1224935 34422 201583192478
Armed forces and institutions26415622112132937
Grand total1919 3034 0353 1444945 35622 333593195486

NOTE: Because of rounding, totals in the previous 2 tables may differ slightly from the sum of the individual items.

International Statistics on Libraries—The following tables compiled from published UNESCO and other statistics show New Zealand's position in relation to other English-speaking countries as regards library resources, borrowers, and book circulation.

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, SPECIAL AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation in Year of Library Census (million)YearType of DataLibrary Category
NationalUniversitySpecialSchool

*In 1961.

†Federal Government only, in 1965.

New Zealand3.01974Libraries1341741 067
Volumes (000)4 2452 7432 5524 829
Australia11.61966Libraries115....
Volumes (000)1 0004 241....
Canada21.81971Libraries1269580*3 271
Volumes (000)20128 4185 61312 513
South Africa22.91968Libraries347244..
Volumes (000)........
United Kingdom53.71963Libraries34781 177..
Volumes (000)11 00027 68814 850..
United States208.81971Libraries32 535354..
Volumes (000)23 603371 38926 794..
PUBLIC LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation in Year of Library Census (million)YearNumber of LibrariesBook Stock, Number of VolumesBorrowersCirculation, Number of Volumes

*191 systems covering 268 libraries.

†519 systems covering 660 libraries.

‡Public library systems with over 400 000 service points including school libraries (18 199), hospital and prison libraries, but not including 327 book mobiles or 131 gramophone record libraries.

    (000)(000)(000)
New Zealand3.01974191*4 6601 03221 839
Australia11.619665229 5471 888..
Canada21.8197173226 160..62 162
South Africa22.91968519..1 2756 450
United Kingdom53.7196356277 200....
United States208.8197150 479191 079..421 236

Chapter 10. Section 8; LAW AND ORDER, AND PUBLIC SAFETY

8 A—JUSTICE

SOURCES OF LAW—The law of New Zealand consists of the common law, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament, statutes of the New Zealand Parliament, and regulations, bylaws, and other forms of subordinate legislation made under statutory authority.

The Common Law—The common law, sometimes referred to as case law or judge-made law, has been built up over the centuries by the courts in England and, later, in New Zealand and other countries where it was introduced. Like any living law, the common law continues to develop.

In New Zealand the policy of the courts has been to preserve uniformity with the common law in England. This is partly for reasons of convenience and partly because of the assumption prevailing in New Zealand that there is a single common law, the law of England, and that there are not separate, though similar, common laws in different countries.

United Kingdom Statutes—United Kingdom statutes in force in New Zealand comprise those passed before 1840 which were applicable to the circumstances of the colony at that date, and those passed between 1840 and 1947 which extended to New Zealand expressly or by necessary implication. Many of these statutes have, of course, since been repealed.

New Zealand Statutes—In 1947 New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster, and our Parliament has since been the sole authority with inherent power to legislate for the country. There are no constitutional restrictions on the laws Parliament can pass.

LAW REFORM—In any progressive society the law requires alteration from time to time if it is to reflect the life of the community and adequately give effect to the needs of the people. As in other countries in modern times, legislation is by far the most important means by which the law of New Zealand is adapted to changing circumstances. The responsibility for bringing before Parliament proposals for the revision of the common law and that part of the statute law not administered by other departments of State is in the hands of the Minister of Justice. The Minister is assisted in carrying out his responsibilities by 5 standing committees, each specialising in a particular area of the law. These committees consider topics referred to them by the Minister and report thereon to him. Until recently the Law Revision Commission, a large advisory body, also assisted the Minister of Justice. In 1975 it was replaced with a smaller and more informal Law Reform Council. The council comprises the Minister of Justice, the chairmen of the 5 standing committees, and the permanent heads of the State agencies involved in law reform. Its aim is to provide a means of communication among the committees and with those involved in the implementation of their reports.

Public Acts and regulations are drafted in the Parliamentary Counsel Office.

COURTS—The hierarchy of courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Courts. All exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, particular magistrates are appointed by the Governor-General to exercise the domestic jurisdiction of the Magistrates' Courts and, in practice, almost all magistrates have been so appointed. The Children and Young Persons' Courts hear cases against those under 17 years of age.

As constituted by the Judicature Amendment Act 1957 the Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice by virtue of his office as head of the judiciary and of a president and 3 judges of the Court of Appeal appointed by the Governor-General. An additional judge or judges of the Supreme Court may be nominated by the Chief Justice to sit on the Court of Appeal. The judges of the Court of Appeal are also judges of the Supreme Court, but have seniority over all other judges of that court except the Chief Justice or the acting Chief Justice.

The Court of Appeal may from time to time appoint ordinary or special sittings or may sit in divisions and may make rules in respect of places and times for sittings and similar matters. This court, unlike other courts, exercises an appellate jurisdiction only. In addition to ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings in inferior courts may, on an order from the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. The Court of Appeal also determines criminal appeals under the Crimes Act 1961.

All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final except where an appeal lies to Her Majesty in Council (the Privy Council). In cases where the amount at issue exceeds $5,000 there is an appeal as of right. In other cases leave to appeal is required. This leave may in most cases be granted either by the Court of Appeal or by the Privy Council itself. The Privy Council thus remains the final court of appeal in almost all civil cases and may also occasionally hear appeals in special criminal cases.

The Supreme Court, which was first established by the Supreme Court Ordinance 1841, is now constituted under the Judicature Act 1908. The members of the court are a Chief Justice and 21 other judges, the number being fixed by statute. An additional judge or judges may be appointed whenever the Governor-General deems it necessary by reason of absence or anticipated absence of any of the judges on leave prior to retirement, each appointment being a permanent one from the time when it is made. The fixing of the number of judges, together with the provision that the salary of a judge shall not be diminished during his term of office, is an important safeguard for the principle of judicial independence. Judges, who must retire at 72 years, are appointed to hold office during good behaviour and may be removed only by the Queen upon an Address by the House of Representatives.

In 1968 a separate administrative division of the Supreme Court was created. It consists of not more than 4 judges of the Supreme Court assigned to the administrative division by the Chief Justice. The administrative division determines disputes over the valuation of land and hears claims for compensation when land is taken for public purposes. It hears appeals from administrative tribunals under the following Acts: War Pensions Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Cinematograph Films Act, Animal Remedies Act, Land Act, Medical Practitioners Act, Pharmacy Act, Nurses Act, Commerce Act, Distillation Act, Mining Act, Coal Mines Act, Town and Country Planning Act, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, and Clean Air Act. Other classes of applications may be referred to it by the Chief Justice.

Magistrates' Courts are set up under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 and possess an extensive jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases and domestic proceedings. The jurisdiction of the court is exercised by stipendiary magistrates, whose number is limited by statute to 65. Justices of the Peace can sit as a Magistrate's Court to hear a limited number of minor criminal charges. Justices of the Peace now deal with many prosecutions brought under the minor offences scheme. This is limited to offences that do not carry any liability to imprisonment, nor to a fine of more than $500.

Stipendiary magistrates must have been qualified as barristers and solicitors of the Supreme Court for at least 7 years. They are appointed by the Governor-General, and may be removed by the Governor-General for inability or misbehaviour only. They retire at 68 years of age.

Apart from these courts of general jurisdiction there are in New Zealand several courts with specialist functions. These include the Maori Land Court and Maori Appellate Court, which have jurisdiction in respect of questions relating to Maori land.

There are also numerous administrative tribunals excercising functions of a judicial nature and performing an important and increasing role in the legal system.

JURIES—The institution of the jury is regulated in New Zealand by the Juries Act 1908. Subject to certain exceptions, every British subject between 20 and 65 years of age and resident within 30 km of a Supreme Court centre is liable to serve on a jury. The former right of women to exemption on request was removed in 1975, but there is a new exemption available to persons with continuous responsibility for the day-to-day supervision of a child under 6 years of age.

The list of exempted persons is contained in the Juries Amendment Act 1951. The following is a summary of the persons now exempted from jury service:

Members of the Executive Council and of the House of Representatives; judges of the Supreme Court; judges and members of the Arbitration Court; judges and commissioners of the Maori Land Court; magistrates; visiting prison justices and members of parole boards; coroners; the chairman of the Local Government Commission; the chairman and members of the Licensing Control Commission; officers of Parliament; clergymen; members of religious orders; persons wholly engaged in teaching and school inspectors; barristers and solicitors; medical practitioners, nurses, ambulance drivers, and dentists; registered chemists; members of the armed forces; Police and traffic officers; pilots, masters, and crews of vessels; members of fire brigades; certain Civil Defence personnel; members of an Inland Revenue Board of Review; and certain officers of the Department of Justice, including those engaged in court or prison work, and wives of prison officers.

Special juries are provided for in section 71 of the Juries Act. That section provides that in a civil action in the Supreme Court triable by jury either party may, by leave of the court or a judge thereof, procure trial by a special jury instead of a common jury. Except with the consent of all the parties, however, no action may be tried with a special jury unless in the opinion of the court or a judge difficult questions in relation to scientific, technical, business, or professional matters are likely to arise.

LEGAL PROFESSION—In December 1978 there were 3771 members of the New Zealand Law Society holding practising certificates.

PENAL SYSTEM—The penal system exists to protect the community against those who would break the laws which are laid down so that citizens may live harmoniously together and the common good be promoted. This purpose is achieved principally through the processes of deterrence and reformation; in modern times in New Zealand as in other countries emphasis is placed wherever possible on the rehabilitation of the offender.

The paramount policy is to ensure first that those who, by reason of the nature of their offences or character of their offending, are a serious danger to society are removed from the community. Subject to that, the goal is to deal with offenders within the community wherever possible—that is, to impose sanctions that do not involve imprisonment. Where prison or other forms of detention are necessary the aim is to do as much as possible during the sentence to rehabilitate the offender and to bridge the gap between institution and free society. The interest of the community as well as of the offender is promoted by his reformation.

Treatment of Offenders Within the Community—The principal penalties available to the courts in dealing with offenders outside a prison are fines, probation, and periodic detention.

Fines—Fines are by far the most common sentence imposed by the courts in New Zealand, even if traffic offences are not taken into account. For very minor offences the imposition of a fine is the only sanction available to the courts, but even where there is power to sentence the offender to a term of imprisonment the courts often content themselves with fining him.

Probation—The legislation on probation is contained in Part I of the Criminal Justice Act 1954. The Court may release on probation any offender guilty of an offence punishable by imprisonment either on indictment or summarily. Probation is a conditional suspension of punishment and provides the opportunity for an offender to rehabilitate himself in the community. An offender may be released on probation for a period of not less than 1 year or more than 3 years and during this time he must accept the supervision of a probation officer and observe conditions imposed regarding employment and residence, associates, and general behaviour. These conditions are automatic, but the courts have power to impose further conditions at their discretion on granting probation. This power makes probation a very flexible type of treatment and it is coming to be more freely and imaginatively used. Where the offence consists of the destruction or damage of property, restitution of the whole or part of the loss is commonly required as a condition of probation. Some courts have in suitable cases made it a condition of probation that the offender do particular work of value to the community in his spare time. The probation method is widely used.

Persons on probation at 31 December of recent years were as follows: 1973, 6305; 1974, 6602; 1975, 7268; 1976, 7299; and 1977, 7349. In December 1976, of all offenders on probation and in penal institutions, 78 percent were on probation.

Periodic Detention—The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1962 made provision for sentences of periodic detention. Pursuant to this legislation residential work centres have been set up in Auckland, Otahuhu, Hamilton, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. These are available for offenders under 20 years of age. Where the Act applies, any person of the ages specified who is convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment or who wilfully refuses to pay a fine may be sentenced to periodic detention for any term up to 12 months. Under the sentence the offender is required to attend a work centre on a certain number of occasions each week and while in custody must attend classes or groups, undergo physical training, or perform work either in the centre or outside it. Work outside a centre may be at a hospital or school, at the home of an elderly or infirm person, or on Crown or local authority property. Work centres for young people provide sleeping accommodation as well as other facilities, and in practice such offenders sentenced to periodic detention are usually required to attend during the whole of a weekend. Non-residential centres have been opened at Auckland, Christchurch, Hamilton, Lower Hurt, New Plymouth, Otahuhu, Papakura, North Shore, Taupo, Hastings, Levin, Masterton, Wellington, Whangarei, Tokoroa, Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Palmerston North, Wanganui, Tauranga, Nelson, Dunedin, and Invercargill. At 31 March 1978 there were 2068 detainees reporting.

Other Powers of the Court—Although not sentences in the strict sense, various other means are available to the courts in dealing with offenders whose offences are not serious. They include conviction and discharge, the effect of which is that the offender has a conviction recorded against him but no sanction is imposed, and conviction coupled with an order that the offender come up for sentence if called upon within a specified period. This is a suspension of punishment conditional upon good behaviour but is not subject to the positive conditions of a probation order.

Finally the court, although it may find an offender guilty, may discharge him without conviction if it considers the offence to be of a trivial or technical character.

Detention in Penal Institution—The sentences of detention which the courts may now impose are as follows:

  1. Borstal training, which means detention in a borstal institution for an indefinite period not exceeding 2 years. The offender must be at least 17 years (in special cases 15) but under 21 years. The time of his release is decided by the appropriate Borstal Parole Board, which must consider his case from time to time. After his release he is on probation for 12 months.

  2. Detention in a detention centre, the term fixed by statute being 3 months. The offender must be at least 16 but under 21 years of age, and he may earn up to 1 month's remission of his sentence by good conduct. After his release the offender is on probation for 12 months.

  3. Imprisonment for a stated number of years or for life. An offender sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term may earn remission of up to one-quarter of his sentence, or, in exceptional circumstances, up to one-third.

  4. Preventive detention, which means detention in prison for an indefinite term to be decided by the Prisons Parole Board, but in any event not less than 7 years. This sentence may be imposed on conviction for certain sexual offences if the offender has been convicted for a sexual offence on at least one previous occasion. The offender must be 25 years of age or over. After serving 7 years of his sentence the offender may be released on probation on the recommendation of the Parole Board, provided the board is of opinion that he is not likely to resume his criminal career. The period of probation in each case extends for life. Preventive detention was restricted to sexual offenders by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967. Hitherto, it had been available for persistent offenders in a number of other cases.

Restrictions on Imprisonment—The policy is to restrict the use of detention of offenders in an institution as far as is practicable, consistent with the protection of the community from dangerous criminals. In particular, short-term imprisonment is usually open to objection on several counts. The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967 accordingly provided that no court was to sentence any person to imprisonment for a term of less than 6 months unless, having regard to the nature of the offence and all the circumstances of the case, the court was of the opinion that no punishment other than imprisonment was appropriate. This provision was replaced in 1975 with one having wider application. A court in dealing with any one convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment is now required in each case to have regard to the desirability of keeping the offender in the community so far as is practicable and consistent with the safety of the community.

In 1975 a further restriction on detention was introduced which prohibits a sentence of detention (other than a sentence of periodic detention) being imposed on any person not legally represented at some time before conviction unless he had the means to pay for legal representation but declined to employ a solicitor, or he was offered legal aid and refused it.

CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: Court of Appeal—The law relating to criminal appeals from the Supreme Court is contained in the Crimes Act 1961.

If it allows an appeal, the Court of Appeal may quash the conviction, vary the sentence, or order the case to be retried in the Supreme Court.

Applications filed in criminal cases and the results of the appeals are shown in the following table.

YearApplications FiledSentence VariedAppeal Dismissed or Disallowed
197314919130
19741011883
197513227105
197616442122
197716852116

Supreme Court—Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of 2 classes—those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the Magistrate's Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence or has been committed for trial and subsequently changed his plea to guilty, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender and this serves to explain the distinction between total cases and distinct persons.

YearTried in Supreme CourtSentences in Case of Committal for SentenceTotal SentencesTotal
Indictments and InformationsConvictions
MFMFMFMF
Total Cases
19731 3337381041393141 203551 258
19741 39716286248745101 607581 665
19751 9562011 227124387931 6142171 831
19761 8841391 26488616101 880981 978
19771 7972171 106148481131 5871611 748
Distinct Persons
197345229296201511244732479
1974587444283577550540545
1975749585473283763039669
19767425956637100766644710
19777046152645113363948687

Of the 765 distinct persons indicted during 1977, 571 were convicted, 6 were still awaiting trial at the end of the year, 117 were acquitted, 6 were found insane, and the prosecution was not proceeded with in the remaining 65 cases.

The next table summarises the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years.

YearTotal Convictions and SentencesDistinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced
Offences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, and ForgeryOther OffencesTotalOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, and ForgeryOther OffencesTotal
1973472694921 25824217463479
19744341 0791521 66526220875545
19754741 0912661 831270223176669
19765511 1882391 978306260144710
19774551 0162771 748282235170687

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years classified according to the principal types of offences.

Type of Offence19731974197519761977
*Includes persons charged with murder but convicted of manslaughter.
Murder9581313
Attempted murder3213
Manslaughter*1015152516
Traffic offences involving death or injury82351
Assaults and wounding117113153149174
Sexual offences861167710474
Other offences against the person1281291
Burglary, breaking and entering, and stealing from the person5679759572
Theft, receiving, and fraud90114126148141
Other offences against property2613191218
Forgery and uttering22354
Drug offences26x28x90x83x103
Other offences3747866167
                Total479545669710687
Per 10 000 mean population1.611.792.172.282.20

Sentences imposed in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

Sentence19731974197519761977
*Also includes persons committed into the care of the Department of Social Welfare.
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)5289607161
Ordered to come up for sentence2812201819
Discharged104582
Fined6272939195
Imprisoned267284383422381
Detention centre (includes periodic)*3859656899
Borstal training2017332923
Preventive detention121
Detained in mental institution161036
                Total479545669710687

In 1961 the death sentence for murder was abolished. On conviction for murder a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment is imposed.

Magistrates' Courts—Magistrates deal with the majority of indictable offences. They have jurisdiction over all crimes against property and all but the most grave of other crimes, such as treason, homicide, rape, and perjury. A magistrate may, however, decline to deal with an offence summarily, in which case the accused is committed for trial in the Supreme Court in the ordinary way. The accused person has, moreover, the right to claim jury trial if he is charged with any offence, indictable or summary, punishable by imprisonment for more than 3 months.

A defendant may be prosecuted at a court hearing for several charges of one or more offences. All are included in “total charges”, which will therefore exceed the number of persons charged. The principal charge (i.e., that for which the heaviest sentence is imposed), for each person at each court appearance is selected to arrive at the “distinct case” classification. As a person may appear before a court on more than one occasion during the year, the number of distinct cases will not necessarily correspond with the number of individual persons involved.

The following table classifies the convictions in Magistrates' Courts into more common offences or groups of offences for the latest 5 years. The figures refer to total charges, with the corresponding number of distinct cases following the totals in each year. There were 45 425 convictions against females in 1976 out of a total of 353 699 convictions, and 39 397 females were included in the 290 010 distinct cases.

Type of Offence19721973197419751976

*Excludes driving with excess blood alcohol. This is included in Other offences against good order together with convictions for failing to take breath or blood tests. Convictions for these offences totalled 9162 in 1975.

†Excludes offences of negligence or drunk in charge causing death or injury; conversion; drunk in charge including excessive blood alcohol; failing to take breathalyser or blood tests; failing to stop after accidents involving injury.

‡From 1 April 1969 excludes overparking offences and from 1 July 1971 some speeding offences, both handled by traffic controlling authorities and previously dealt with as court cases.

§Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with 2 or more offences.

Common assault3 4053 7613 6433 7193 516
Sexual offences693704628576534
Other offences against the person1 8742 5572 8543 4703 593
Theft7 4567 8458 3759 46110 544
Wilful damage1 7512 0222 1272 1952 336
Other offences against property (including forgery)12 32111 88412 27215 80418 336
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, etc.)*3 1113 0214 4886 1397 210
Offensive conduct or language, and vagrancy5 3285 4446 7407 5817 221
Other offences against good order7 4728 7959 69011 12010 803
Breach of probation819811819951908
Offences relating to narcotics5321 0961 6411 9481 911
Other offences relating to administration of justice, drugs, etc.1 1231 5361 5921 4902 111
Failing to furnish return and making false return of land and income3 3023 6822 1591 5662 473
Unlawfully on licensed premises and other breaches of Licensing and Sale of Liquor Acts7 0286 2937 0806 8538 628
Deserting merchant ships5237384221
Other offences7 4977 6887 2778 1439 489
                Sub-total65 27468 47772 76282 65591 675
Minor traffic offences166 457193 886219 395231 368262 024
                Total231 731262 363292 157314 023353 699
                Distinct cases§190 019213 945238 572257 208290 010
Rate per 10 000 mean population for convictions, excluding minor traffic offences224.2230.6240.0267.8294.2

The next table classifies the result of hearing in all distinct cases heard in 1976.

Result of HearingOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, Forgery and CurrencyOffences Against Good OrderOffences Affecting Administration of Justice, etc.Other OffencesTotal

*Minor traffic offences accounted for 211 105 of the cases where fines were imposed.

†Mostly orders made.

Committed for trial or sentence331377531089878
Imprisonment6121 6041 093520493 878
Detention in detention centre92332100792605
Periodic detention4171 7191 292215413 684
Detention in borstal institution, etc.11554179721808
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)5692 4518662471084 241
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence if required370695337284501 736
Fined*3 8337 403233 9512 29215 019262 498
Convicted and discharged (or pay costs)1894709 00244870810 817
Suspended imprisonment (maintenance cases)1 1221 122
Miscellaneous345940235266634
Dismissed, withdrawn, or struck out1 2222 30724 6312 6722 33533 167
Discharged under section 42 of Criminal Justice Act2376481 394832602 622
Total distinct cases8 02118 606272 8388 37718 848326 690

Traffic Offences—Traffic offences form a large proportion of summary convictions. The most frequent traffic offences dealt with are breaches of parking regulations and excessive speed. Since 1 April 1969 parking infringements which result merely from overstaying a time limit have been dealt with outside the criminal law and from 1 July 1971 some local authorities and the Ministry of Transport have imposed speeding infringement penalties.

The following table analyses all traffic convictions dealt with in Magistrates' Courts for the latest 5 years. A list of traffic offences resulting in convictions reported by officers of the Ministry of Transport will be found in section 12 D Roads and Road Transport.

Offence19721973197419751976
*Excludes trailers and caravans.
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing death981089111495
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing injury215221240301351
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing death91914611
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing injury620202516
Failing to stop motor vehicle after accident involving bodily injury242349303236147
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use1 8981 8791 8782 2462 458
Driving, or in charge of, motor or other vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs6 6367 8978 7029 5899 381
Exceeding speed limits32 80839 06842 51155 96859 525
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle33 13835 76139 16534 15538 586
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of other vehicle11189838979
Incorrect lighting of vehicles5 8416 0546 5185 9576 138
Offences relating to the registration, etc., of motor vehicles9 68511 90612 83911 08813 654
Offences relating to driver's licence17 59720 56123 36325 68328 287
Breaches of parking regulations34 07239 25343 90243 28548 858
Other traffic offences33 20541 19451 01455 14366 897
                Total175 561204 379230 643243 885274 483
Convictions per 1000 of mean population60.3068.8276.0879.0188.09
Convictions per 1000 motor vehicles*130.14142.13152.20154.90168.27

The previous table excludes charges for which persons were sent up from the Magistrates' Courts to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence. In 1976 there were 8 such charges for driving offences causing injury or death, 66 for converting a motor vehicle, and 24 for other traffic offences.

Disqualifications of drivers by length of disqualification are shown in the following table.

Period for which Driver Disqualified19721973197419751976
*Amended procedures for the processing of 1975 and 1976 data have resulted in more accurate statistics. Short-term disqualifications for earlier years have been overstated.
Under 3 months2 1183 1923 6871 9841 160
3 months and under 6 months4 6386 8776 4443 3282 594
6 months and under 1 year5 4117 2307 6177 7857 786
1 year and under 2 years5 0267 0997 3767 4508 107
2 years and under 3 years1 1281 3921 8671 9821 524
3 years and under 4 years408431553488449
4 years and under 5 years3431515353
5 years and over140162213173177
                Total disqualifications18 90326 41427 80823 243*21 850*

Drunkenness—The following table shows the number of convictions for all types of drunkenness (except driving with excess blood alcohol), together with the rate per 1000 of mean population, for each of the latest 5 years. Children and Young Persons' Courts, in which there were 84 convictions for drunkenness in 1976, are not included in this table.

YearConvictions for DrunkennessPer 1000 of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19722 9441673 1112.020.111.07
19732 8891323 0211.940.090.97
19744 2832054 4882.810.131.47
19755 8333066 1393.780.201.99
19766 8183927 2104.380.252.31

Repeated (or duplicate) convictions against the same person are included in the statistics shown in the preceding table.

In 1976 there were 7944 distinct case convictions for driving with excess blood alcohol concentration compared with 8319 cases in 1975. In addition 619 distinct case convictions were recorded for failing to take blood tests.

Offences by Women—Of the 404 526 charges dealt with in the Magistrates' Courts in 1976, 51 464 or 12.72 percent, were preferred against females. This figure showed an increase of 10 467 from the 1975 total of 40 997.

Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against women are of a relatively trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations.

Convictions for more serious offences are set out in the following table.

Offence19721973197419751976
Common assault134138141151155
Drunkenness167132205306392
Burglary, breaking and entering, etc.109157141147226
Theft1 8842 0552 2242 4732 569
Fraud and false pretences4628017031 1201 457
Offensive conduct or language245257333448386
Vagrancy14880809280

Women received into prison under sentence during 1977 numbered 246, the same as the previous year.

The more prevalent offences were (with the previous year's figures in parentheses); aggravated assault and assault with intent to injure, 8 (3); burglary, breaking and entering, 32 (30); theft, 49 (43); fraud and false pretences, 39 (32); forgery and uttering, 10 (10); breach of probation, 10 (12); and idle and disorderly, 8 (8).

Assessment of Crime—One important index of crime in the community is the number of those who are convicted of offences. This gives a useful guide to the amount of crime, providing the proportion of crime reported and the proportion of known crime whose perpetrators are detected remains more or less constant. This, of course, may not be a justified assumption. A greater number of court convictions might mean merely more efficiency by the police and a greater willingness on the part of the public to report offences that previously went unreported. Care should therefore be taken to avoid reading too much into figures for court convictions.

Over the 10 years 1967 to 1976, the number of convictions in the Magistrates' Courts (excluding minor offences), increased from a rate of 17.4 per 1000 mean population to a rate of 29.4 per 1000. Most categories of serious crime show an upward trend. Total convictions for offences against the person (of which common assault and assaulting, resisting, or obstructing the police form the major proportion), increased by 96 percent, property and forgery convictions increased by 95 percent.

History and current experience alike testify that crime almost invariably flourishes in large cities, particularly those that are growing rapidly and drawing large numbers of young people from a less sophisticated environment. This is less a penal problem than a social one. In New Zealand it has occurred to a marked degree only in recent years.

The following table gives an annual comparison by ages of the persons sentenced to penal institutions. In 1967, 33 percent of persons sent to penal institutions were 20 years of age or younger; in 1977 the proportion had risen to 42 percent. Similarly, 67 percent of those imprisoned in 1967 were under 30 years of age, in 1977 the proportion had risen to 81 percent.

Age in Years1965197019731974197519761977
1528568284606456
16117223289301309299278
17228380430440454459473
18267454532437486534421
19241427403423393467434
20238437426369444410357
21–247221 0449799331 0911 2041 138
25–29459600667590686744679
30–34313387384348363369327
35–39271253252278242216211
40–44227222194222179170118
45–49158196137173145158111
50–5412695127113888467
55–5968584960445551
60–6438162622331918
65–69121291313119
70 and over7143453
            Total3 5204 8614 9904 8095 0345 2684 751

PROBATION—The following figures show the number of persons placed on probation during each of 6 recent years.

YearNumber
19714 274
19724 687
19735 311
19745 647
19756 769
19766 569

The next table gives the number of offenders in each age group placed on probation during 1976, together with the period of their probation.

Age in YearsPeriod of ProbationTotal
MonthsYears
1214–151823
Males
Under 1724465233743619
    17–1847364246962881
    18–206911404449151 371
    20–25810984378361 434
    25–3027528163413510
    30–4023131131416440
    40–501081446344206
    50 and over555217391
Total males2 8874451 721467325 552
Age in YearsPeriod of ProbationTotal
MonthsYears
1214–151823

*Includes 12 males on less than 12 months probation.

†Includes 40 males and 1 female on 16 or 17 months probation.

‡Includes 7 males and 2 females on 20 or 21 months probation.

§Includes 2 males and 2 females on 2½ years probation.

Females
    Under 174614414105
    17–1893551251175
    18–201151265202214
    20–251551758322264
    25–3067632184127
    30–40395271586
    40–502129133
    50 and over111113
Total females5474828712691 017
Total, both sexes3 434*4932 00859341§6 569

PRISONS AND PRISONERS—The New Zealand prison population is accommodated in 26 institutions comprising 17 prisons, 4 borstals, 3 detention centres, and 2 police jails. Any person serving a sentence of not more than 8 days may be detained at any police station, which is also deemed to be a prison for that period.

The prison population during the year 1977 is shown in the following table.

CategoryMalesFemalesTotal
Persons in prison at 1 January 19772 747962 843
Receptions during the year (including multiple receptions of the same person, but excluding transfers)9 3605579 917
Discharges during the year (including multiple discharges of the same person, but excluding transfers)8 5325359 067
Persons in prison at 31 December 19772 7401202 860
Daily average number of prisoners2 7071132 820

Not all prisoners received were actually persons undergoing sentence on conviction for criminal offences. Many, for example, are in custody awaiting their trial. In 1977, 129 debtors were released after being detained or imprisoned for non-payment of debt following a court order, and 27 persons were transferred to mental institutions.

Of the 9917 receptions, 4700 referred to persons who were remanded in custody pending a court hearing and who were later released after acquittal, a sentence not involving custodial detention, or a successful application for bail.

Persons received into penal institutions under sentence during 1977 are shown by age group and type of offence in the following table.

Age, in yearsOffences Against the PersonBurglary, Theft and Fraud*Conversion, Wilful Damage, etc.DrunkennessOther OffencesTotal
Sexual OffencesViolent OffencesOther

*Includes forgery and currency offences.

†Includes all other property offences.

‡Includes driving with excess blood alcohol concentration.

Under 213225723911323174562 019
21–24291851040888543641 138
25–29199672362267232679
30–39326141521278199538
40–49182616464470229
50–59563614129118
60 and over3479730
Total138635451 8144523101 3574 751

The next table gives particulars of ages and length of sentence of distinct persons received into penal institutions under sentence during 1977.

Age in YearsLength of Sentence
Under 1 Month1 Month and Under 3 Months3 Months*and Under 12 Months1 Year and Under 3 Years3 Years and Under 5 Years5 Years and OverOtherTotal

*Includes detention in a detention centre.

†Includes life imprisonment.

‡Includes borstal detention and preventive detention.

Under 217014186116332117412 019
21–2491192510294381211 138
25–29671432591692714679
30–397813120699168538
40–494850744962229
50–59283531213118
60 and over67592130
    Total3886991 946804122497434 751

The special types of detention (or imprisonment) imposed during 1977 are included in the previous table. The following table gives these special types of detention by age of detainee at the time when received into custody.

SentenceAge in Years
15161718192021–2425–5455 and OverTotal
Borstal training—
    Males48109210161121161666
    Females81825166376
Detention centre14517713677121548
Preventive detention11

Of the total of distinct persons received into penal institutions in 1977, 81 percent had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, and 55 percent had been convicted more than 6 times.

The number of prisoners received to serve a sentence imposed during the year 1977 for criminal offences was 5043 but deducting multiple receptions of the same prisoner, the number of distinct persons was 4751 (4505 males and 246 females). The corresponding total for 1976 was 5715, and there were 5268 distinct persons (5022 males and 246 females).

An analysis is given below for the 5 latest years of distinct persons received into penal institutions according to nature of sentence.

Nature of Sentence19731974197519761977
Imprisonment3 7063 4993 6113 7943 460
Detention centre558545585600548
Borstal training725763837874742
Preventive detention1211
Total4 9904 8095 0345 2684 751
        Rate per 10 000 of mean population16.8015.8616.3116.9115.19

The next table shows the number of persons in prison at 31 December in each of the latest 5 years.

At 31 DecemberPersons in PrisonProportion per 10 000 of Population as at 31 December
Undergoing SentenceOn Remand and Awaiting Trial, etc.TotalUndergoing SentenceTotal in Prison
19732 3711962 5677.868.51
19742 2951452 4407.457.92
19752 5931592 7527.978.80
19762 7131302 8438.719.12
19772 7111492 8608.679.14

Classification—The key to successful penal work lies in understanding the individual prisoner, and in order to assist the prisons administration to this end classification boards operate in the main reception prisons (Mt. Eden, Wellington, and Christchurch) and at Auckland Prison. Similar boards also function at the main reception borstal institutions.

Special emphasis has been placed on the treatment of people in prisons for the first time. If it is considered that they are likely to reoffend, then they are transferred to Wi Tako Prison where individual treatment programmes and specialist attention can be focused on their needs.

A census of convicted persons under the jurisdiction of the Department of Justice was taken as at midnight on 4 July 1972. This included persons sentenced to probation, periodic detention, and all forms of custody (borstal, detention centre, and prison).

The census revealed that a high proportion of persons included had had previous penalties. As would be expected this was most marked among prisoners. Seventy-two percent of male prisoners and 42 percent of females had been in penal custody before the present sentence. (Penal custody included prison, borstal, or detention centre.) Comparable figures for males in other treatment categories were 31 percent of borstal trainees, 24 percent of probationers and parolees, 23 percent of periodic detainees, and 2 percent of detention centre detainees.

The great majority of persons in the census were aged 24 years or less—72 percent of the total.

In general the level of education reached by the persons in the Department of Justice census was low. Only 22 percent of male and 24 percent of female sentenced persons remained at school beyond Form IV.

An ethnic breakdown of sentenced persons showed that of the males 57 percent were New Zealand born of non-Polynesian stock, 35 percent were Maoris, 2 percent were immigrant Polynesians, and 6 percent were other immigrants. The figures for females were 51 percent New Zealand born of non-Polynesian stock, 42 percent Maoris, 2 percent immigrant Polynesians, and 5 percent other immigrants. Of those males in penal custody, 50 percent were New Zealand born of non-Polynesian stock, 41 percent were Maoris, 2½ percent were immigrant Polynesians, and 6 percent were other immigrants.

Measures Employed in Treatment: Vocational Training—Prisoners are put to work on some form of constructive employment, whether it be industrial production in a secure institution or food production on a prison farm. In addition, and particularly for the younger offender, an attempt is made to teach some particular skills.

Non-vocational Training—A variety of evening activities have been introduced into the prisons and training benefit is derived from these activities, whether they be recreational, educational, cultural, individual, or collective.

There are 18 full-time teachers serving in Auckland Prison, Mount Eden Prison, Christchurch Prison, Tongariro Prison Farm, Waikune Prison, Christchurch Women's Prison, Rolleston Prison, Wellington Prison, Wi Tako Prison; Waikeria and Waipiata Youth Institutions; and in Arohata and Invercargill Borstals. Part-time teachers provide a service for all other institutions. Teachers seek to help those prisoners whose educational attainment is such that they are disadvantaged in the community. They also assist those who are undertaking further education or technical courses either by correspondence or in prison classes. Such courses may be at any level ranging from illiteracy to university degree work. The interest thus shown by prisoners is encouraging, as in many cases it gives a prisoner better social and employment skills thereby reducing the chances of further offending.

All institutions receive at regular intervals a supply of well-chosen books from the National Library Service and, in addition, inmates are permitted a free use of the library's request service.

Psychological Services—Psychologists from the department's Pyschological Services are available to provide assessment and treatment and to assist the administration with decisions relating to an inmate's rehabilitation.

Not all assessments lead to psychological treatment. Of those that do, some will result in direct treatment by the psychologist in the form of counselling, psychotherapy, group therapy, or behaviour therapy. Others are dealt with by the combined efforts of the institution staff and psychologist to improve the offender's behaviour.

Referral may be through a classification or other committee of which a psychologist may be required to be a member but many inmates seek referral themselves.

Professional staff may be required to assist in developing programmes dealing with groups of offenders and in the psychology in-service training courses for prison officers.

Earnings—All prisoners are credited with modest earnings based on a system of marks assessed according to diligence. A portion of the earnings may be spent on tobacco, confectionery, and toilet necessities in a prison canteen, and this provides an incentive to good work and conduct. At the same time the loss of this privilege is a useful disciplinary measure. The balance of the earnings is paid to the inmate upon his or her release to help meet financial commitments during the first few days of freedom.

Punishments—An inmate charged with one of the less serious offences against discipline appears before the superintendent, who may impose a penalty or in his discretion refer the case to a visiting justice or to the court. A visiting justice may deal with all cases of offences against discipline and must deal with those which are outside the jurisdiction of the superintendent, unless he thinks they should be brought before the court. His powers of punishment are wider than those of a superintendent. The provisions as to offences and punishments are the same for both prisons and borstals.

Pre-release Hostels—The setting up in 1961 of the first pre-release hostel at Invercargill for male borstal inmates was an important step forward toward the goal of bridging the gap between the wholly controlled life of the penal institution and the responsibilities and temptations of free society. Further pre-release hostels have been established for male borstal inmates at Auckland, Hamilton, and Wellington, and at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch for adult male inmates. Selected inmates are sent to these hostels during the last part of their sentence. They live at these hostels and spend their leisure time there under supervision while working in the community. A pre-release hostel for women has been established in Auckland.

Release to Work—Inmates may be released during the day to engage in private employment. The selection of inmates for this privilege is made on the recommendation of the superintendent of a penal institution, by a special committee chaired by a magistrate. The inmates are required to contribute part of their wages towards the cost of their maintenance in the institution and part may also be withheld in satisfaction of outstanding fines or debts. The balance is made available to their dependants or is held by the Department of Justice for payment upon final release.

Post-release Care—Offenders serving a sentence of borstal training, preventive detention, or imprisonment for 12 months or more are discharged on probation. For a period of time they must be under the supervision of a probation officer and, during any part of that period falling within the maximum period they could have been detained in an institution, are subject to recall if their behaviour on release is not satisfactory. Offenders sentenced to detention in a detention centre are also subject to probationary supervision for 12 months following release. The period of supervision has a dual purpose—it is the protection of the community against further offending and it is at the same time an aid to the prisoner to re-establish himself. The step from custody to freedom is a difficult one for prisoners, many of whom require assistance, advice, and guidance during this period.

An offender serving a sentence of imprisonment of less than 12 months is on probation after release if the sentencing court so orders.

Parole System—The introduction of types of sentences designed to encourage the rehabilitation of an offender or to protect society against the hardened criminal, rather than merely to inflict punishment for an offence which has been committed, has created the need for a procedure to enable a person serving one of these sentences to be released as soon as he shows that he is fit to be returned to society.

This need is filled by the parole boards which have the responsibility of reviewing the cases of all persons sentenced to borstal training, preventive detention, or life imprisonment, and of recommending, or in the case of borstal trainees directing, release on probation at the appropriate time.

There are at present 5 parole boards: the Prisons Parole Board, which deals with all offenders except those sentenced to borstal training, and 4 Borstal Parole Boards which between them have jurisdiction over all borstal trainees. The Prisons Parole Board is now required to consider the case of every offender sentenced to a finite term of imprisonment for 5 years or more (thus excluding those sentenced to preventive detention or to life imprisonment, whose cases are dealt with under separate provisions) after the offender has served one half or 3½ years of his sentence (whichever first occurs) and annually thereafter until the offender is released.

The Prisons Parole Board consists of a judge of the Supreme Court as chairman, the Secretary for Justice, and at least 1 but no more than 5 other members, all except the Secretary for Justice being appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and being eligible for reappointment.

Each Borstal Parole Board consists of a magistrate as chairman, the Secretary for Justice, the superintendent of the local borstal institution in respect of which the board is appointed, and 2 residents of the locality in which the institution is situated. All the members except the Secretary for Justice and the superintendent are appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and are eligible for reappointment.

Categories of persons whose cases were considered by the Prisons Parole Board and the Borstal Parole Boards during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

YearBorstal DetentionImprisonmentPreventive DetentionLife ImprisonmentPersons on ParoleTotal
19731 73287512111 847
19741 71089716281 850
19751 897148818382 109
19761 944128917662 164
19771 817981124321 982

Of the cases coming before the boards in 1977, there were 884 recommendations made for release on probation and 16 persons on parole were favourably recommended for discharge.

JUVENILE OFFENDERS—Children's Courts were originally established in New Zealand under the Child Welfare Act 1925. The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, which came into force on 1 April 1975, renamed these Children and Young Persons Courts.

All offences, except murder or manslaughter on the one hand, and certain traffic offences not punishable by imprisonment on the other, committed by children under 17 years are dealt with in Children and Young Persons Courts, the procedure and rules of which differ widely from those of the ordinary courts. In addition, when an offender between 17 and 18 years comes before a regular court, the court may order his case to be heard in the Children and Young Persons Court.

Unless no other suitable room is available, sittings of the Children and Young Persons Court are not held in a courtroom. Proceedings in Children and Young Persons Courts are not open to the public and no report of them may be published except with the consent of the presiding magistrate.

When a child is brought before a Children and Young Persons Court and charged with any offence, it is not necessary to record a conviction even if the charge is proved. The court has power without recording a conviction to impose any penalty or make any order as if a conviction has been recorded.

In the tables which follow, “Distinct Cases” relate to court appearances, the most serious or most heavily penalised of all charges for 1 person at 1 court hearing being selected as the distinct case.

The cases heard by Children's Courts and Children and Young Persons Court in the latest 3 years resulted as follows:

DecisionTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
197419751976197419751976
*Includes periodic detention.
Dismissed or withdrawn1 7952 1922 1649761 1751 148
Admonished and discharged5 3864 3543 5902 9002 5462 176
Committed to care of Social Welfare Department2 8772 1171 6341 102896911
Placed under supervision7 4156 1625 8663 2092 8862 927
Committed to an institution*2 7332 4282 947739700797
Fined4 6854 4494 0913 2423 2993 065
Otherwise dealt with3 1263 4863 4371 3971 5661 513
                Total cases28 01725 18823 72913 56513 06812 537

The following table shows the number of cases dealt with in Children's Courts and Children and Young Persons Courts during each of the latest 5 years. It is shown in 2 ways: i.e., total charges (meaning each offence counted once irrespective of the number with which a person is charged at the one time); and distinct cases (meaning only 1 charge, the most serious, is counted irrespective of the number a person is charged with at the time). All the Children's Court and Children and Young Persons Court tables are shown in this way.

YearTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
197222 1664 27626 44210 3422 63212 974
197322 8144 18326 99710 9942 61013 604
197423 6034 41428 01710 8382 72713 565
197520 6794 50925 18810 3372 73113 068
197619 5174 21223 7299 8712 66612 537

Detailed statistics for Children's Court and Children and Young Persons Court cases during each of the latest 5 years are as follows:

Type of Offence19721973197419751976
*Includes forgery and uttering.
Total Charges
Sexual offences153182196161162
Assaults8181 0601 012964833
Other offences against the person678511372147
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering6 2526 2946 2075 3434 785
Theft, receiving, and fraud8 1627 5127 8927 0236 371
Unlawful conversion3 9604 2864 5793 7363 600
Wilful damage9041 0221 150836772
Other offences against property*255295319370252
Offences against good order2 2662 5922 9362 8352 764
Indigent or delinquent child1 5901 5721 4411 6292 187
Other offences2 0152 0972 1722 2191 856
Total26 44226 99728 01725 18823 729
Sexual offences113130146113114
Assaults678851841759685
Other offences against the person57778053117
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering2 6082 6082 5652 1932 104
Theft, receiving, and fraud3 5603 4233 6133 1342 935
Unlawful conversion of vehicles1 3051 5761 4761 5131 233
Wilful damage436461476420358
Other offences against property*8183989953
Offences against good order1 3641 5881 6661 7881 739
Indigent or delinquent child1 4371 4591 2551 4381 950
Other offences1 3351 3481 3491 5581 249
                Total12 97413 60413 56513 06812 537

CIVIL JURISDICTION: Supreme Court—The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is twofold, original and appellate. It has by statute a general jurisdiction to administer the laws of New Zealand. One important aspect of this original jurisdiction is an inherent power to control inferior courts and judicial tribunals through the writs of certiorari and prohibition. This is essentially a power to determine the limits of jurisdiction of other courts and is to be distinguished from its appellate function by which the Supreme Court reviews a case which was properly heard and determined by a lower court. An appeal to the Supreme Court lies only where it is provided for by statute. With certain exceptions, all cases determined in the Magistrates' Courts are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court.

The next table shows the number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the amounts for which judgments were recorded in the civil jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the latest 5 years.

YearNumber of Actions CommencedCases TriedJudgments Recorded (Entered or in Cases Tried)
With JuryWithout JuryNumberAmount ClaimedAmount of Judgments
     $(000)$(000)
19733 8651002923874,1762,527
19744 571713404655,0963,142
19755 056713965287,8935,392
19763 602634356165,5964,006
19773 956674206919,7626,153

Court of Appeal—During the 5 years 1973 to 1977 there were 327 civil appeals, of which 116 were allowed.

Magistrates' Courts—Magistrates' Courts may now hear all claims up to $3,000, but if the parties agree in writing that the court shall hear their case it has jurisdiction whatever the amount claimed. In the exercise of this jurisdiction it may grant the same remedies, legal and equitable, as the Supreme Court.

The following table shows the number of plaints entered, cases disposed of, amounts sued for, and amounts for which judgment was recorded in the Magistrates' Courts during the latest 5 years.

YearPlaints EnteredCases Disposed of
NumberTotal Amount Sued for $(000)NumberTotal Amount Claimed $(000)Total Amount for which Judgment Entered $(000)
1973115 30519,66270 2679,5718,450
1974125 19224,11775 95111,1459,459
1975144 93829,92479 66313,57112,072
1976144 00533,85184 38815,89114,331
1977144 30945,05782 05920,89318,056

The average amount claimed in each plaint, cases disposed of, was $85 in 1967 and $255 in 1977.

COMPENSATION FOR VICTIMS OF CRIME—The Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963 introduced the first statutory scheme in the world for compensation by the State to persons injured by crimes of violence and to the dependants of persons killed by such acts. The scheme is now administered by the Accident Compensation Commission by virtue of section 12(4) (a) of the Accident Compensation Amendment Act 1974 in place of the Crimes Compensation Tribunal.

The availability since 1 April 1974 of compensation under the Accident Compensation Act 1972 has had a significant impact on the criminal injuries scheme, which should phase itself out. The accident compensation scheme caters for all personal injury by accident in New Zealand, and thus covers the whole range of listed criminal injuries, including pregnancy by rape and criminal infection with disease. The accident compensation scheme is designed as a fund of first resort and in practice the 2 schemes have merged in all but the residual area of property damage caused by escapers. In 1978 awards totalling $5,386 were made in 4 cases.

LEGAL AID—The Legal Aid Act 1969 introduced from 1 April 1970 a scheme of legal aid in civil proceedings for persons of small or moderate means, and gave effect to the principle that no persons should be prevented by lack of means from having their grievances heard and determined fairly by the courts of the land. The scheme applies to practically all civil proceedings other than divorce. In order to receive legal aid the applicant must have a sufficiently meritorious case. Except in special cases of hardship, every aided person is required to make a contribution of $15 towards the cost of proceedings, and he will be liable to make an additional contribution proportionate to his income and capital resources.

Of the applications received by the 19 district legal aid committees during the year ended 31 March 1978, 10 397 applications were granted, 1253 were refused, 294 were withdrawn, and 1251 lapsed.

The amount paid out in legal aid in the year ended 31 March 1977 was $1,334,427. Set off against this were contributions of $261,682 from legally aided persons and recoveries of cost of $80,241. The net cost was $992,504.

Comparatively few problems have been presented to district legal aid committees. Such problems as do arise are referred to the Legal Aid Board which gives advice or makes a ruling as required in the particular case.

The Department of Social Welfare is responsible, in accordance with the Act, for investigating the resources of persons applying for legal aid; for assessing their “disposable income” and “disposable capital” within the statutory limits and reporting to district committees on the maximum contribution, if any, that applicants should be expected to pay towards the cost of the proceedings in respect of which legal aid is sought.

THE LAW AND THE FAMILY—The work of Magistrates' Courts used to be classified as civil and criminal. Domestic proceedings were procedurally and administratively an uneasy appendage of the criminal side. Following the passing of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, the domestic side of the work of Magistrates' Courts ranks as a separate division alongside the civil and criminal divisions. There is, for instance, a separate domestic record book, separate domestic statistics, and, wherever practicable, special courtrooms designed for the hearing of domestic cases. The aim here is to achieve a procedure which, though informal, still preserves dignity.

Domestic Proceedings—The basic objects of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968 are fourfold—

  1. To empower the court to ensure that a greater measure of justice is received by parties to domestic proceedings. The court is given much greater powers to ascertain the truth. It may call any person as a witness, and may require a lawyer to be provided—at public expense—to assist the court.

  2. To encourage by all practicable means the reconciliation of married couples. A duty is imposed on the court, and on the lawyers acting for each spouse, to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation, and to take all proper steps towards assisting a reconciliation. It is now possible to institute special legal proceedings for conciliation, quite separately from the other proceedings under the Act. On the other hand, the Act acknowledges as a fact of life that reconciliation procedures may fail, or be obviously hopeless. In such circumstances, separation orders are made available on broad and untechnical grounds. Legal recognition (in the form of a separation order) is now given to the fact that a relationship has actually and permanently broken down.

  3. To ensure that parents have an equal legal responsibility to provide for all their children, whether born in or out of wedlock. As an extension of this principle, the Act for the first time places on the father of ex-nuptial children a limited legal responsibility to maintain their mother. He may be required to maintain her for up to 5 years after the birth of such a child—in other words, till the child reaches school age. Previously, such men were liable to maintain the children only, leaving the mother to fend for herself.

  4. To deal with the perennial problem of maintenance, in such a way that both husbands and wives are dealt with as fairly as possible, and also to ensure that the person liable to pay such maintenance does not escape that obligation.

The basis for the making of maintenance orders has been much simplified and the courts have been given clear guidelines on the principles to be followed when making them. Also, the procedure for enforcing maintenance orders has been considerably tightened up.

The following tables give statistics for the year ended 31 December 1977 of applications and orders made under the provisions of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968.

Nature of OrderApplicationOrders Made

*Custody, 2569; guardianship, 2; Custody order in favour of mother, 2244; in favour of father, 211; in favour of other parties and divided, 114.

†Maintenance also granted in 1479 cases, 1343 of these in conjunction with a paternity order.

Separation6 0272 564
Maintenance7 3573 239
Custody or guardianship6 1352 596*
Non-molestation2 680308
Tenancy561149
Matrimonial home3 459749
Paternity3 0411 549
Consent to marry3118
Minor's contracts52

The following were the grounds for the separation orders: serious disharmony, 2389, defendant's conduct, 85, disharmony and assault or defendant's conduct, 90. One hundred and fifty-six of the applicants were husbands.

Relative ages of parties when separation orders were made in 1977 are given below.

Age of Husband (in Years)Age of Wife (in Years)
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and OverNot knownTotal
16–1912416
20–2452264301347
25–29625531330921616
30–3444204179265458
35–39113714614727368
40 and over519611784461710
Not known15114149
          Total70584608417361481432564

The next table shows, in the case of separation orders for 1977, the age of wife at separation and duration of marriage.

Duration of Marriage (in Years)Age of Wife (in Years) at Date of Separation Order
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and OverNot knownTotal
Under 1343111
12028823667
226652375152143
3211071810983176
41185015961199
51144413693189
691829441191
73710012953166
81780221110140
974375121129
10–1411722783429478
15–1961180883332
20–24331272162
25 and over1482150
Not known392411231
            Total70584608417361481432564

Numbers of children involved in custody orders granted in 1977 are shown below.

ItemNumber of Children InvolvedTotal
123456789 and Over
Numbers of orders750946515217913310612569
Total children75018921545868455198704895835

8 B—POLICE AND FIRE SERVICE

NEW ZEALAND POLICE—New Zealand's national police service dates, as a civil law-enforcement body, from the passing of the Police Force Act in 1886. Previously police work had been in the hands of the New Zealand Armed Constabulary raised in 1843, and again in 1867, and provincial police forces.

The Armed Constabulary were raised to fight in the Maori–Pakeha Wars as well as to maintain civil order. The abolition of the provincial police forces because of a requirement for centralised control coincided with the demise of the Armed Constabulary and pre-dated the introduction in 1886 of the New Zealand Police as a civil force.

Today the Police service is a national one and is controlled under the Police Act 1958. This Act amended the title to New Zealand Police, the word “force” being discarded.

Organisation—The national administrative and operational control of the Police service is vested in a Commissioner who is responsible to the Government through a Minister of Police.

For operational purposes New Zealand is divided into 16 police districts. Auckland District, by virtue of its greater population, is controlled by an assistant commissioner. Other districts, because of their varying size, are commanded by officers ranging in rank from chief inspector to deputy assistant commissioner. Police district commanders are responsible for the general preservation of peace and order, for the prevention of offences, and for the detection of offenders in their areas of command.

Policing is maintained by a system of mobile patrols and foot “beats” co-ordinated by an effective communications network which permits cohesion and direction of operations.

In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the Police Offences Acts, there are various statutes of a regulatory nature which the members of the Police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Gaming Act, Misuse of Drugs Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers Act, and the Secondhand Dealers Act. They also undertake certain inquiries and other duties on behalf of other departments of the Government service.

Police in country districts in some cases hold additional appointments such as registrars and bailiffs at Magistrates' Courts, probation officers, and honorary fishery officers.

Recruiting—Recruit applicants for the Police who enter as constables must be between 19 and 34 years of age. Cadet applicants must be between 17½ and 19 years of age. All applicants must meet strict educational, character, physical, and medical standards designed to ensure only the best and most suitable personnel are recruited.

On appointment, recruit trainees attend a 14½-week training course and cadet trainees undertake a 12 month course at the Police College, Trentham, where they receive instruction in their powers and responsibilities as police officers.

Examinations for promotion to non-commissioned and commissioned ranks are aimed at selecting members who have shown the necessary potential to become effective supervisors and administrators.

Members who show a particular aptitude for the various specialist sections within the Police receive additional training at the Police College and in the field.

Strength—The effective strength of the Police at 31 March 1978 was 4700 sworn personnel, including 187 policewomen who have equal status and opportunity with their male counterparts. In addition to these members the department employed 630 civilian staff.

Transport—At 31 March 1978 the Police vehicle fleet totalled 795, including 626 cars, 106 vans of various types and landrover-type vehicles, estate cars, omnibuses, trucks, motorcycles, and other vehicles.

Crime Situation—Since 1968 the number of offences reported to the police during the year has increased from 139 737 to 255 663.

Today's criminal takes full advantage of modern technology, organisation, and transport in the commission of crime and also in circumventing detection.

Crime statistics do little to reveal the very substantial profits the criminal element extracts from the community by way of illegal drug trafficking or in the promotion of vice or in gambling. Profits from these sources provide the base for highly organised and lucrative criminal ventures. Again, where large amounts of money are the prerequisite to the successful criminal operation, there are those in the community who are prepared for large profits to make finance available, providing their remoteness from the more obviously criminal aspects of the activity is assured.

Coincidental with the duties crime imposes upon the police, the ebb and flow of quite normal public activity produces added pressure for police services. A decade ago a more leisurely social pace required a concentration of police effort mainly in major centres. Today, the need for police service is far more widespread and general. Rural areas which were formerly free from the scourge of lawbreakers can no longer accept with certainty their remoteness as a guarantee against offenders.

Police presence is required at holiday resorts, at numerous sporting fixtures such as cricket, football, boxing, car rallies, horse racing, motorcar and motorcycle events, and at pop concerts and many other promotions. Roving gangs must be kept under surveillance and public demonstrations need to be supervised.

The pattern of criminal behaviour in New Zealand is changing.

So called “white collar” crime has escalated in recent years, calling for new dimensions in police professionalism to deal with it. This aspect of police work is occupying more and more time.

To all these and other criminal activities must be added the overt challenge that violence and some “bikie” and kindred gang activities pose to social peace and tranquility.

Crimes and Offences During 1977—Crimes and offences reported to the Police during 1977 totalled 255 663, a 5.1 per cent increase on the previous year's total of 243 348. Offences against property, a category which includes thefts, wilful damage, burglaries, unlawful taking of vehicles, and thefts from vehicles, contributed 186 806 to the total of 255 663.

OffencesCalendar Year
19761977
Offences against the person11 56411 515
Offences against rights of property170 217186 806
Offences against morality and public welfare5 0024 918
Offences against public order15 53514 449
Offences affecting the administration of justice1 2191 181
Threatening offences660719
Drug offences2 6393 042
Traffic and motoring offences17 91416 230
Liquor and licensing offences11 0689 420
Gaming offences448477
Shipping and seamen offences19293
Offences against Arms Act2 1421 939
Other offences4 7484 874
                Total243 348255 663

General—To ensure that they keep abreast with developments in other law enforcement agencies throughout the world the Police continuously review and experiment with new policing concepts and organisational changes. Technological improvements such as computerisation ensure that the New Zealand Police can be confident in their future ability to maintain a high standard of law enforcement.

NEW ZEALAND FIRE SERVICE—The Fire Service Act 1975, which came into force on 1 April 1976, established an integrated fire service controlled directly by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission in place of the multitude of fire authorities that had previously existed. One of the main aims of the integration was the removal of the fire service's greatest problem—divided control spread unevenly over 277 fire districts administered by almost as many diverse local authorities, fire boards, and fire committees. However, the retention of the volunteer system is a central feature of the reorganisation.

The New Zealand Fire Service is organised in a 4-tier structure as follows:

  1. The New Zealand Fire Service Commission: The successor of the Fire Service Commission has 3 members, one (the chairman) with a special knowledge of administration, while the other 2 have senior operational experience in the fire service. The term of office is not to exceed 5 years, but Commissioners may be re-appointed.

  2. Fire Regions: There are 6 administrative regions based on Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Their primary task is to co-ordinate their operational units to work in a close-knit organisation.

  3. Fire Areas: The fire regions are divided into fire areas, of which there are 22 in all. They are responsible for developing the fire fighting resources of their areas and for the training and operational efficiency of the 277 brigades.

  4. Fire Districts: Every united urban fire district, urban fire district, and secondary urban fire district which existed immediately prior to the commencement of the Fire Service Act 1975, was declared a fire district under the new Act.

The New Zealand Fire Service Since 1 April 1976—From 1 April 1976 the operation and administration of the New Zealand Fire Service became the total responsibility of the New Zealand Fire Service Commission dealing through duly appointed commanders of regions, areas, and districts. Twenty-five of the 277 fire districts are served mainly by permanent firemen but with a leavening of nearly 1000 volunteers. The remaining 252 fire districts are manned by volunteer firemen who are an essential integral part of the New Zealand Fire Service.

The assets taken over by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission comprised some 376 fire stations, 375 houses and flats, and 743 assorted fire appliances deployed throughout New Zealand.

The Fire Service Act 1975 revised the apportionment of costs for the annual estimates of the New Zealand Fire Service between the insurance industry (including the levy on fire insurance policies) and the Government in the ratio of almost 3:1.

Fire Safety—Under Part II of the Fire Service Act the Fire Service Commission is required to take an active and co-ordinating role in the promotion of fire safety. To advise on this, the Commission has appointed a Fire Safety Advisory Committee, the membership of which includes representatives of the Accident Compensation Commission, the fire protection industry, the Building Research Association, the Insurance Industry Council, and the professional associations of architects, engineers, and master builders.

Fire Calls—The total number of calls attended by brigades throughout New Zealand during 3 recent years are shown below.

 197519761977
False alarms, non-malicious3 9823 6533 976
False alarms, malicious2 0942 0702 249
Accidental2 1072 5042 281
Defective apparatus4 0844 9985 574
    Total all false alarms12 26713 22514 080
Special services6 0115 9696 625
Chimney fires2 2342 8443 626
Gorse, grass, rubbish7 6036 9117 518
Property fires10 4659 93210 313
Assistance calls to property fires788374760
                Total calls39 36839 25542 922

Loss of Life—Forty-one lives were lost by fire during 1977 compared with 47 the previous year and 59 in 1975. The most common known causes were cars igniting as result of accidents, which resulted in 8 deaths, and careless disposal of smoking materials, which resulted in another 5 deaths.

Properties Involved in Fires—A summary of the types of properties involved in fires in recent years is given below.

Type of Property197519761977
Dwellings—
    Private dwellings3 6193 6023 674
    Private detached buildings572710745
    Residential flats472502496
    Boardinghouses322927
    Holiday cabins152913
    Hospitals11010311
    Hostels271819
    Hotels747866
    Motels192022
    Caravans321730
    Buildings under construction or being demolished412420
    Other119109274
                Total5 1325 2415 397
Places of Public Assembly—
    Schools789298
    Clubs281419
    Cinemas and theatres9118
    Churches131412
    Public halls7168
    Other134136105
                Total269283251
Shops and Offices—
    Multiple office buildings3738111
    Multiple stores341724
    Restaurants272923
    Takeaway food bars393143
    Fish and chip shops53340
    Butchers231917
    Groceries121810
    Dairies29816
    Other271224205
                Total477417489
Manufacturing and Industrial Properties—
    Building trade (carpentry and joinery)574849
    Engineering works343231
    Furniture and upholstery241320
    Metal processing222519
    Motor vehicle assembly212229
    Motor vehicle servicing, garages, etc.225332
    Pulp and paper11969112
    Sawmills and timber mills66111126
    Wallboard725068
    Other455505461
                Total892928947
Bulk Stores and Warehouses1253235
Transport—
    Private cars1 7361 6131 760
    Earthmoving machinery473522
    Motor cycles and scooters1078576
    Passenger transport vehicles (buses, etc.)193420
    Tractors445743
    Trucks14399192
    Other256401323
                Total2 3522 3242 436
Agricultural Buildings, etc.—
    Farm buildings (not dwellings)391620
    Implement sheds471622
    Hay barns789699
    Other1409699
                Total304224240
Miscellaneous buildings—
    Power distribution (sub-stations, transformers, poles, etc.)149129168
    Other8412592
                Total233254260
Miscellaneous—
    Fences and hedges11686112
    Wharves232319
    Other88112127
                Total227221258

Chapter 11. Section 9; DEFENCE

Table of Contents

DEFENCE POLICY—The maintenance of defence forces and a defence potential in New Zealand are related to the support of broad national objectives. Some of these objectives are relatively fixed because they reflect unchanging basic factors, such as resources, geographical remoteness, and dependence on overseas trade. Others are the products of history or circumstances. The objectives of New Zealand's defence policy may be summed up as the preservation of national security and control of our own area, including the Exclusive Economic Zone, and the promotion of security in the region around us. The most recent review of defence policy was published by the Government in November 1978. Earlier reviews of defence policy are contained in parliamentary papers A. 19 in 1961, A. 8 in 1966, and A. 5 in 1972. International relationships are discussed in Section 2 of this Yearbook.

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION OF DEFENCE—The Governor-General as Commander-in-Chief is empowered to raise and maintain the Royal New Zealand Navy, the New Zealand Army, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. These forces, together with public servants appointed under the State Services Act 1962, constitute the Ministry of Defence, which is responsible under the Minister for the central control of the whole field of national defence.

The Secretary of Defence is permanent head of the ministry and principal civilian adviser to the Minister, responsible in particular for co-ordinating the business of the ministry as a whole, including long-term financial planning as well as supervision of defence expenditure. In accordance with the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1978, the Secretary of Defence prescribes the pay, allowances, expenses, and other conditions of employment of all servicemen.

The Chief of Defence Staff is principal military adviser to the Minister; he is convenor and chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and conveys its advice to the Minister. Like the Secretary of Defence, he carries out inspections of the services and reports to the Minister.

Defence Council—The Defence Council is responsible for the administration and, through the officers appointed for the purpose, the command of the New Zealand Armed Forces. The Defence Council consists of the Minister as chairman, the Secretary of Defence and the Chief of Defence Staff as deputy chairmen, and the Chiefs of Staff of the 3 services. The Secretary to the Treasury and the Secretary of Foreign Affairs are associate members. In addition, the council may from time to time co-opt officers of other departments of State. Without limiting the duties of the Secretary of Defence or the Chief of Defence Staff, the Defence Council assists the Minister in formulating defence policy or recommendations thereon.

MISSIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND ARMED FORCES—To achieve the objectives of New Zealand's defence policy, the armed forces have the following missions:

  1. To provide forces capable of quick response to any threat to New Zealand itself, of controlling the Exclusive Economic Zone, and at the same time of upholding New Zealand's wider national interests in the area of prime concern—the New Zealand region and the South Pacific.

  2. To demonstrate the force of New Zealand's commitment to ANZUS by participating effectively alongside allied units in military exercises.

  3. To maintain trained, mobile, and self-sufficient forces to provide, on request, military assistance, technical aid, surveillance of outside activities, search and rescue, and disaster relief services in the South Pacific.

  4. To maintain a capability for limited support of national research and other interests in Antarctica.

  5. To undertake limited joint training and exercises by invitation in South-east Asia, as a demonstration of continuing interest in stability and security in that region, and to continue to respond to requests from the ASEAN and South Pacific countries for limited military training in New Zealand.

  6. To provide a capability to contribute to international peacekeeping operations.

  7. To provide assistance to the New Zealand community.

CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—To facilitate exchanges on military matters New Zealand defence liaison staffs are maintained in London, Canberra, Washington, Kuala Lumpur,

Singapore, Jakarta, and Bangkok. In addition, some members of these staffs are duly accredited to other countries. The United Kingdom, Australia, and Malaysia have service representatives attached to their respective High Commissions in Wellington and there are service attachés on the staffs of the French, Indonesian, and United States Embassies in Wellington. Several other countries have service attachés accredited to, but not resident, in New Zealand.

DEFENCE SCIENCE—The Defence Scientific Establishment is at Auckland and is particularly involved in research in fields of concern to the Royal New Zealand Navy and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. The establishment also carries out metallurgical and other specialised studies related to the adaptation of equipment to the New Zealand environment.

Co-ordination of defence science policy is achieved through the Ministry of Defence, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the National Research Advisory Council. Commonwealth and allied co-ordination is achieved by membership of specialised bodies.

The Defence Scientific Establishment has been responsible for useful savings of foreign exchange, both in the rejection of faulty equipment as a result of metallurgical testings, and in enabling tasks previously carried out overseas to be undertaken in New Zealand. Electronic equipment produced by the Defence Scientific Establishment which has commercial potential has been made available to New Zealand industry for development and production and the work of defence scientists could result in the introduction into industry of new techniques bringing more economical production.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY FOR THE ARMED FORCES—The principal statute governing the armed forces is the Defence Act 1971. The present Acts dealing with the maintenance of discipline in each Service will be repealed when the Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971 comes into force and provides the Services with a common disciplinary code.

DEFENCE EXPENDITURE—Expenditure on defence in the 3 latest years ended 31 March was made up as follows.

Item1975–761976–771977–78
 $(m)$(m)$(m)
Personnel114.19125.03142.32
Travel, transport, and communications6.708.1810.60
Maintenance, operation, upkeep, and rental12.4813.6218.71
Materials and supplies32.2037.6945.55
Services3.384.515.43
Other operating expenditure1.391.472.09
Grants, contributions, subsidies0.160.190.20
Capital works5.995.545.39
Capital equipment16.9818.6021.88
                Total193.47214.83252.17

About 75 percent of the Defence Vote is spent within New Zealand, mainly on Salaries, capital works, servicing, and general operating costs, so that there is an important feedback into the economy. Attempts are being made to become more self-supporting logistically.

Defence expenditure is related to Government expenditure and gross national product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchDefence ExpenditurePercentage of Government Expenditure*Percentage of Gross National Product
*Excludes repayment of public debt.
 $(m)percentpercent
1974140.514.71.6
1975166.854.51.7
1976193.474.11.8
1977214.834.21.7
1978252.174.11.8

STRENGTH OF ARMED FORCES—The following table gives the strengths of the regular forces of the 3 services over the last 6 years.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceTotal
19732 9725 4984 31912 789
19742 8455 5534 23212 630
19752 8505 5234 29712 670
19762 7345 4324 25412 420
19772 7265 4414 28912 456
19782 8255 7224 21712 764

Armed Forces Pay—The Armed Forces pay code was restructured and implemented in August 1978. The major features of the review, the first since 1965, were the linkage of military pay rates to those of the State Services, the reward for skill and qualification rather than length of service, and the expression of salary as a comprehensive annual salary rather than the previous daily rate made up of numerous pay elements. The opportunity was taken to incorporate many of the previous skill allowances into the military scales.

Armed Forces pay has now been properly aligned with State Service rates and there is provision for reviewing and updating the pay to keep it in line with State Service pay movements.

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY—The Government in New Zealand has since the earliest days made provision for naval forces in its defence measures. Royal Navy vessels regularly visited New Zealand waters, but these were soon supplemented by a number of Government-owned vessels, the first of which was the Australia, a schooner purchased from India in 1842. In addition, in 1877 the New Zealand Government began regular financial contributions towards maintaining Royal Navy ships in New Zealand waters. In 1921 the naval forces became the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy, and in 1941 they became the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Naval Staff exercises command and control of the Royal New Zealand Navy assisted in the performance of his functions by the Naval Staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

State of the Navy—Seagoing ships:

*On loan from U.S. Navy.

†Two 27-metre inshore survey craft to replace the present survey motor launches are under construction by Whangarei Engineering Co. Ltd.

Frigates (Leander class)Waikato 
Canterbury 
Frigates (Otago class)Otago 
TaranakiResource Protection/Training
Survey shipMonowai 
Research shipTui* 
Patrol craftHaweaResource Protection
Taupo
Rotoiti
Pukaki
Survey motor launchesTakapu 
Tarapunga 
RNZNVR motor launchesKoura 
Haku 
Paea 
Manga 
Kuparu 
Diving tenderManawanui 
Dockyard service craftArataki 

Shore Establishments—The naval base at Devonport, Auckland, consists of the office of the Commodore Auckland (the administrative authority of the RNZN), HMNZS Philomel (the naval barracks and base support establishment), HMNZS Tasman (specialist training schools), the Royal New Zealand Naval Hospital, the Naval Supply Depot, and the Dockyard.

The Dockyard is under the charge of a Captain Superintendent and is capable of refitting all units of the RNZN. The RNZN Armament Depot is situated at Kauri Point and the RNZN Hydrographic Office is at Takapuna.

HMNZS Tamaki is the new entry seamanship and artificer apprentice training establishment for the Navy and is located at Narrow Neck, Devonport, Auckland.

HMNZS Irirangi is the naval radio receiving and transmitting station and is situated at Waiouru.

HMNZS Wakefield is the administrative unit for RNZN personnel in the Wellington area.

Strength of the Navy
CategoryAt 31 March 1976At 31 March 1977At 31 March 1978
Regular Forces
    Officers (male and female)309296295
    Ratings (male and female)2 4252 4302 530
                Total2 7342 7262 825
Non-regular Forces
    Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve (officers)5465
    Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve (all ranks)287304347
    Royal New Zealand Naval Fleet Reserve (ratings)2 7032 8981 315

Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service—The Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service was first formed in 1942 as a wartime service and in 1949 became a permanent part of the Royal New Zealand Navy. It was disbanded on 29 July 1977 and its personnel absorbed into the appropriate branches and trades of the RNZN as part of the implementation of the Government's policy on the employment of women.

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve—There is a division of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve in each of the 4 main centres—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—where reservists are given the basic elements of naval training.

THE NEW ZEALAND ARMY—The Army is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the Defence Act 1971, and the policy outlined in the Defence White Paper 1978. It comprises a Regular Force, Territorial Force, and the Army Reserves.

New Zealand has maintained militia forces since the passing of the Militia Act of 1845. The first regular forces were the Armed Constabulary formed in 1846. The oldest continuously serving unit in the Army traces its history to February 1864.

Formed Army units have been dispatched overseas on active service in the Boer War, World War I, World War II, occupation forces in Japan, plus Korea, Malaya and Borneo and subsequently Malaysia, and Vietnam. Units have been stationed in Malaysia and subsequently Singapore since the termination of active service in Malaysia in 1966.

Personnel are posted to one of the following corps: Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery; Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps; Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers; Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals; Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment; New Zealand Special Air Service; New Zealand Army Air Corps; Royal New Zealand Corps of Transport; Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps; Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps; Corps of Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers; Royal New Zealand Dental Corps; Royal New Zealand Chaplains Department; New Zealand Army Pay Corps; New Zealand Army Legal Service; Royal New Zealand Provost Corps; Royal New Zealand Army Education Corps; or the Royal New Zealand Nursing Corps.

Command and Administration—The Chief of General Staff exercises command and administration of the Army, assisted in the performance of his functions by the General Staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—To meet the requirements of the 1978 Defence Review, the New Zealand Army is structured to provide a force capable of rapid deployment for low-level military operations or civil assistance tasks; and a broad range of both Regular and Territorial Force units, based on the framework of an infantry division, to provide the basis for expansion when required.

In New Zealand the Army is organised into one command—New Zealand Land Forces. Headquarters, New Zealand Land Forces, is responsible for the day to day command of the Army in New Zealand and for the implementation of Army General Staff policy. New Zealand Land Forces consists of 4 formations which are geographically oriented and responsible for all functions and command within their allotted region.

Units and staff deployed overseas remain under national command.

Strength of the Army
CategoryAt 31 March 1976At 31 March 1977At 31 March 1978
Regular Forces
    Officers (male and female)721677768
    Other ranks (male and female)4 7114 7644 954
                Total5 4325 4415 722
Non-regular Forces
    Territorial Force (all ranks)6 1715 8615 852
    Officers Reserve561520520
    Class A ReserveOther ranks121111
    Class B Reserve1 7531 5401 416

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE—The Royal New Zealand Air Force was constituted as a separate armed service by the Air Force Act 1937 and its administration was vested in an Air Department which was reponsible for military aviation and the regulation of civil aviation in New Zealand. With the passing of the 1964 Defence Act the Air Department was absorbed into the Ministry of Defence.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Air Staff exercises command and administration of the Royal New Zealand Air Force assisted in the performance of his functions by the air staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—The RNZAF in New Zealand is divided into 2 Groups and 1 independent base; in addition, 1 support unit with rotary winged aircraft forms part of the New Zealand forces based in Singapore. Operations Group, with Headquarters at RNZAF Base Auckland, is reponsible for all operational functions and advanced pilot flying training, and Support Group, with Headquarters at RNZAF Base, Wigram, is responsible for all formal individual training (except advanced pilot training) and certain support functions. RNZAF Base, Shelly Bay, acts as the supporting administrative and domestic base for all RNZAF personnel assigned to Wellington for duty in Air Staff and Defence Headquarters.

The RNZAF provides support for the search and rescue organisations in New Zealand and the South Pacific area, and for the New Zealand civil defence organisation. In addition, the RNZAF provides support to civil and government agencies, which cannot be provided by civil aviation facilities.

The operational units of the RNZAF comprise: a utility helicopter support unit based in Singapore as part of the New Zealand Force, South-east Asia; maritime, long- and medium-range transport and helicopter squadrons based at RNZAF Base Auckland; and offensive support and medium-range transport communications squadrons at RNZAF Base, Ohakea. Flying training units are located at RNZAF Bases Wigram and Ohakea, while ground training is carried out at RNZAF Bases Auckland, Woodbourne, and Wigram.

Engineering—Direction of RNZAF engineering services is co-ordinated by Air Staff, Defence Headquarters. Specific levels of aircraft maintenance are assigned to bases and squadrons. A range of overhaul and repairs and some manufacture of aeronautical equipment is carried out at No. 1 Repair Depot, RNZAF Base Woodbourne. A proportion of repair and overhaul work is contracted to civil industry in New Zealand and overseas.

Strength of the Air Force
CategoryAt 31 March 1976At 31 March 1977At 31 March 1978
Regular Forces
    Officers (male and female)682677655
    Airmen and air women3 5723 6123 562
                Total4 2544 2894 217
Non-regular Forces
    Territorial Air Force146148158
    Active Reserve357487757
    General Reserve725625534

ARMED FORCES OVERSEAS: Five Power Defence Arrangements—The Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement, under which New Zealand had maintained forces in Malaysia as part of a Commonwealth Strategic Reserve was terminated in October 1971. It was replaced by the 5-power defence arrangements, effective November 1971, by which Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom separately concluded agreements with Malaysia and Singapore. Within the framework of these arrangements, and at the request of the governments of Malaysia and Singapore, the 3 first-mentioned nations agreed to station elements of their armed forces in these countries. These elements were initially grouped into an ANZUK force, but the decision by Australia in 1973 to withdraw a substantial portion of its ground forces from the region led to New Zealand and the United Kingdom's deciding to establish separate national command arrangements. Accordingly, with effect from 31 January 1974, command of the New Zealand elements of the ANZUK force was transferred to the Commander, New Zealand Force South-east Asia. This New Zealand contribution to stability in the area currently comprises a frigate on station for a part of each year, an infantry battalion, a utility helicopter support unit, a headquarters, periodic deployment of RNZAF strike aircraft to the area, and sundry supporting units. The withdrawal of British Forces from the area was completed in 1976.

United Nations Observers—At the request of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, New Zealand provided military observers in United Nations truce supervisory operations in Kashmir in 1951 and in the Middle East in 1954. The number of observers in Kashmir was 4, except for the period of hostilities in mid-1965 when, for a short time, New Zealand provided 9 officers. The number of observers in the Middle East has varied between 2 and 7. During 1976 New Zealand withdrew all observers from Kashmir and reduced the number of observers in the Middle East from 5 to 4.

MUTUAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME—Since 1973 bilateral military assistance and co-operation activities, which had been conducted with several countries over a number of years, have been developed and administered as a mutual assistance programme involving all the ASEAN countries (Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia) plus Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and Tonga. The main aim of the programme is to help the countries concerned to improve the capability of their armed forces and at the same time to provide New Zealand with training experience and deployment opportunities in the countries concerned. Activities within the programme include training in New Zealand for personnel on an individual basis, or for small groups or, upon occasion, for units up to company size. Courses given range over a wide spectrum of military training limited only by the availability of places on particular courses and by the requirements of the countries to whom the assistance is available. Small numbers of New Zealand personnel are sent to these countries as instructors or on appointments arranged by way of interchange with officers coming to New Zealand. Senior officers are invited to this country on familiarisation and planning visits, and as opportunity offers, gifts of equipment are made.

Antarctica Support—New Zealand activities in Antarctica rely heavily on logistic support co-ordinated with the United States. The main defence contribution is related to the provision of RNZAF transport flights to McMurdo assisted by a mobile air movements team and army cargo handlers. Helicopter aircrew are also assigned for duty with the United States forces and 4 physical training instructors have been assigned to Scott Base to assist in Antarctic survival instruction to both US and NZ personnel.

COMMUNITY ASSISTANCE: Hydrographic Survey—The RNZN's new survey ship, HMNZS Monowai, commenced survey work in 1978 in the western Bay of Plenty. The 2 survey motor launches have been engaged in minor surveys around the coast of New Zealand, including Tory Channel and the Firth of Thames.

Fishery Protection—The introduction of the 200-mile exclusive economic zone on 1 April 1978 increased the need to maintain a surveillance and policy effort. The 4 patrol craft employed full time on fishery protection patrols are being supplemented by increased RNZAF surveillance flights and the use of a frigate for extended patrols.

Search and Rescue—All 3 services support the civil defence and search and rescue organisations. During the year 1 April 1977 to 31 March 1978 there were 7 major oceanic searches; 32 incidents involving Army manpower, vehicles, stores, equipment, and rations; and the RNZAF located and carried to safety 54 people from 74 incidents.

Miscellaneous—Other assistance provided to the community ranges from airborne surveillance of foreign fishing vessels to fire-fighting and co-operative tasks with the Forest Service, NZR, NZED, and Meteorological Service; explosive ordnance disposal; assistance in civil emergencies; and participation in ceremonial occasions.

NEW ZEALAND CADET FORCES—The Defence Act 1971 established the New Zealand Cadet Forces, in their own right and not as parts of the Armed Forces as before.

The Act authorises the Defence Council to raise and maintain elements of the sea cadets, school cadets and air training corps and also to allocate funds exclusively for the support of cadet activities. Civil sponsoring bodies for the cadet forces recognised by the Act as sharing responsibility for the corps with the Ministry of Defence are the Navy League of New Zealand, the Air Cadet League of New Zealand, and the Dominion Council of the Returned Services Association.

The New Zealand Cadet Forces in 1978 comprised 885 Sea Cadets led by 92 officers in 15 town and 4 school units; 4206 School cadets led by 88 officers in 17 school units; and 2347 Air Training Corps cadets led by 174 officers in 44 town and 4 school units.

STRENGTHS OF ARMED FORCES IN WAR: South African War—Approximately 6500 troops from New Zealand served in the South African War.

First World War, 1914–18—A total of 124 211 persons (including 91 941 volunteers) were called up for overseas and home service prior to 12 November 1918. Of these, 100 444 went overseas.

Second World War, 1939–45—The net intake of men to the armed forces—i.e., exclusive of transfers between the services and of re-entries—during the Second World War was 194 000, equivalent to 67 percent of the male population between the ages of 18 and 45 years. In addition, approximately 10 000 women served in the forces. It is estimated that approximately 140 000 persons served overseas.

CIVIL DEFENCE—In 1959 a Ministry of Civil Defence was established within the framework of the Department of Internal Affairs, and 3 regional commissioners were appointed to implement Central Government policy within their regions. For civil defence purposes, the North Island was divided into 2 regions and the South Island formed a third region.

The Civil Defence Act 1962 formulated the concept and machinery of a national civil defence scheme. It provided for community self-help making the best use of resources and volunteers in each local community, and supporting these with the resources of Government departments and other agencies. The authority to declare local civil defence emergencies rests with local authorities who assume considerable powers once a state of emergency exists.

Each local authority is required to maintain an operative civil defence plan and organisation for its district or to unite with neighbouring local authorities in doing so for the combined districts. Regional and United Councils which are established under the Local Government Act have the responsibility for the co-ordination and, in an emergency, the control of civil defence measures in their constituent local authorities. At present there is only one regional authority civil defence organisation (Auckland Regional District) and 115 local and combined civil defence organisations.

In a declared regional emergency, local authority civil defence measures would be co-ordinated and controlled by Regional Commissioners in Auckland, Palmerston North and Christchurch, who in turn would be responsible to the Director of Civil Defence. In a national emergency, civil defence operations would be directed from the National Civil Defence Operational Headquarters located in the executive wing of Parliament Buildings.

The participation and co-ordination of Government departments in civil defence is effected by the National Civil Defence Committee, comprising representatives from 14 Government departments. This committee has the general function of advising and assisting the Minister and Director in the planning and implementation of measures for the establishment, maintenance, and effective operation of civil defence. Members of this committee are represented on the 4 Regional Civil Defence Committees.

The Civil Defence Act authorises the Minister of Civil Defence to appoint national civil defence planning committees, responsible to him for drawing up plans covering different aspects of civil defence. These committees include representatives from a wide range of Government departments, local authorities, and public organisations. Once approved by the Minister, the responsibilities and functions set out in these national plans are binding on all the parties concerned.

Training of volunteers for local civil defence organisations is the responsibility of local authorities aided by the Ministry of Civil Defence, which provides subsidies and training handbooks, and assists in conducting courses for key personnel.

SECURITY INTELLIGENCE SERVICE—The New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969 gave statutory recognition to the New Zealand Security Service, which was established on 28 November 1956.

Subject to the control of the Minister in Charge of the Security Intelligence Service, the functions of the service are to obtain, correlate, and evaluate intelligence relevant to security; to advise Ministers on security matters; to co-operate as far as practicable and necessary with State Services and other public authorities in New Zealand and abroad in the performance of its functions; and to inform the New Zealand Intelligence Council on any new area of potential espionage, sabotage, terrorism, or subversion in respect of which the Director has considered it necessary to institute surveillance.

It is not a function of the Security Intelligence Service to enforce measures for security or to institute surveillance of any person or class of persons by reason only of his, her, or their involvement in lawful protest or dissent.

There is a Commissioner of Security Appeals, to whom complaints may be made in writing at the office of the Supreme Court in Wellington.

Chapter 12. Section 10; LAND DEVELOPMENT AND USE

10 A—PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

GENERAL—Planning for economic development and growth is the concern of a wide range of sectors, including agriculture, manufacturing, transport, forestry, building, mineral development, and energy production. New Zealand is at present undergoing complex structural change with high resource costs and pressure on financial resources, and therefore a need for more careful selection of investment, even though demand has slackened. Within the urban areas themselves, competing demands for industrial, commercial, residential and recreational land have arisen as proponents of each particular use have sought their most suitable available location. Left unchecked, these conflicts of interest could lead to unsatisfactory and uneconomic patterns of development. This has necessitated a planning framework within which competing demands can be resolved.

In recent years, world opinion has had forced upon it an appreciation of the damage to the environment, in the form of pollution and the destruction of natural resources, that can result from uncontrolled economic development. New Zealand, during the early years of the last century, suffered what is now recognised to have been irreparable damage from the destruction of native forests and wildlife. However, during the last decade New Zealand has taken warning from the unfortunate experiences of some more highly developed countries. Concern for possible future effects of economic growth on the environment led to the holding of the Physical Environment Conference in May 1970 and has resulted in the enacting of what is, by world standards, advanced environmental legislation.

LAND USE—With almost 27 million hectares of land and a population of just over 3 million, New Zealand has not in the past been conscious of the problems of resource utilisation experienced in the more densely settled countries. An extensive coastline (approximately 15 000 km), great variety of landscape and responsive soils, and a generally favourable climate at lower altitudes are some of the assets which, because of the small population, have been utilised without any serious detrimental effects on the social and economic fabric. In retrospect, however, it is apparent that some of the land and other resources have been wastefully exploited. Maori settlement brought significant ecological changes, largely through fires and hunting. The impact of European settlement was much greater, measured by the large areas of indigenous forest cover destroyed, the extensive native grasslands burnt for sheep grazing and ploughed for crops and sown pasture, the wetlands drained and reclaimed, the unsightly tailings left after gold mining, the increase in soil erosion, and the general loss of wildlife habitats.

The growth and changing distribution of the population have been strongly influenced by the distribution of the most productive soils. In the nineteenth century, when the population was small, the ultimate results of preferential settlement of the best agricultural land were not appreciated. Generally, the most productive areas became the most prosperous when the towns within them grew, and it was at the expense of the most productive soils. Later, manufacturing and tertiary industries tended to be located in these towns because of the labour, markets, and services they offered.

Between 1949 and 1964 urbanisation claimed about 15 800 hectares of good farming land, and expansion up to 1984 will require another 30 000 hectares of land. Considering that the total area of good farming land includes approximately 8 300 000 hectares of first-class pastoral land and 500 000 hectares of first-class cropping land and that agricultural production derives benefits from urbanisation, this is not considered a serious problem on a national scale. In certain localities, however, unrestricted urban expansion could have serious limiting effects on agricultural production in the future. The problem is most acute around Auckland, the population of which is now over 800 000. It is not possible to reverse the historical factors that have determined the present population distribution, but a national policy for the protection of the soils potentially most productive may be necessary. In the past, economic growth has been pursued with scant regard for its impact on the environment. Single and immediate use rather than balanced long-term use of resources has been the common practice, and has tended to place the advocates of exploitation and protection in opposing camps.

The problem now is how to combine the economic and social pressures on soil, water, plant, and fauna resources with the maintenance of ecological and aesthetic qualities.

In New Zealand the provision of extensive national parks and smaller reserves has done much to preserve (at least in selected areas) the characteristic beauty of the landscape, and to make it accessible to the general public for recreation and enjoyment.

Development schemes causing modification of natural features can, in the planning stage, make provision for restraint, restoration, and even the addition of compensating amenities. The rate of development in New Zealand must make this an essential ingredient of planning. But it must be stressed that there will be no more completely unmodified or true wilderness country. Once it is destroyed, wilderness is gone forever. Wilderness is extremely fragile, and soil erosion, degradation of vegetation, and destruction of animal species can come about through any alteration of the environment, even the most innocent access road.

Scientific investigations and research have reinforced the validity of the beliefs based on sentiment and aesthetics that there are dangers in any disturbance of natural equilibrium of air, water, soil, plants, animals, and stabilised land-forms, or in the pollution of any of them. Changes in the balance of dominance of even obscure organisms or a slowly declining water-table can be factors in the deterioration of countryside. It is essential to retain reference areas from which the changes in soils, plants, and animals resulting from man's activities can be assessed. A whole catchment will usually be the desirable minimum effective area.

Conservation, however, means much more than the preservation of scenic and scientific values. It implies the maintenance without diminution of the basic land resources on which New Zealand's economy and way of life are so largely based. Of these resources the most important are soil, water, and vegetation, the last both natural and introduced, and both forests and grasslands. The concept of conserving soil, water, forest, and grassland resources is dynamic rather than static, and embodies the principle of preservation through wise use.

The problems are capable of solution provided there is a sufficient understanding by administrators and by the public of the importance (and often the interdependence) of the different values involved and of the ecological implications of any decision affecting land use. Conflicts between different demands on the countryside are inevitable, but with adequate planning and management they are mostly capable of resolution. For example, an agriculturally productive landscape can provide such rich and satisfying contacts with the diversity of nature that in many ways the man-made landscape based on agriculture or forestry need be little less interesting and satisfying than the wild one. Likewise, soil conservation practices not only restore vitality and health to the soil but also create pleasing patterns in the landscape.

The total area of New Zealand, excluding the Ross Dependency in the Antarctic, but including minor islands, is estimated to be 26,906,000 hectares.

The broad grouping of land use is shown in the following table.

Land UseHectares (million)

*Including some areas of State Forest land.

†Includes relatively small areas in cities and boroughs.

Occupied farm land—
    Improved grassland9.23
    Tussock and other native grassland used for grazing4.71
                Total grassland13.94
    Land in field crops, gardens, and orchards0.41
    Plantations of exotic trees0.70*
    Land in fern, scrub, and second growth5.90*
    Standing bush
    Barren and unproductive land
    Native timber
                Total occupied farm land20.94
Land in cities and boroughs0.37
National parks, reserves, and domains2.67
Other land, including waste land such as mountains, bare rock, water surfaces, roads, etc.2.93
                Total land26.91

Land Use Advisory Council—The Land Use Advisory Council was established in 1972 with the task of developing criteria on which sound land use decisions can be made; and its order of reference requires it to have regard to physical, ecological, economic, social, environmental, and other relevant factors, and to determine means by which these factors may be more precisely defined.

Members of the council represent Maori, departmental, farming, scientific, and geographic interests. As its name implies, the council is an advisory body to Government. In the first instance its findings were intended to guide the use of lands of the Crown but it is probable that the criteria and guidelines formulated will assist all who are required to make land use decisions.

The council has studied urban sprawl and its effect on rural land, the protection of prime agricultural and horticultural land, the availability of basic land resource data for planning purposes, and the measures adopted by the Government for determining the use of its land. The experiences of a number of overseas countries in planning land development, use, and management have been studied. Consideration has been given to the various legitimate uses of the nation's land, including such nonproductive use (in terms of food or goods) as recreation, soil conservation and water management, the preservation of wildlife, and historic and ecological management; and some thought has gone into the means for determining which use shall take priority in the event of there being two strong competing claims.

During 1979 and 1980 the council will be involved in sponsoring a series of “educational” meetings aimed not just at policy makers but also at encouraging wider community awareness of the physical, biological, economic, social, and environmental values which do or should influence rural land use decisions.

Land Inventory—The Department of Lands and Survey is building up a land inventory. The object of the inventory is to identify land tenure, land use, and land cover; and for other contributing agencies to produce more detailed data relating to other basic issues such as soils and geology as will enable a more realistic appraisal of the resources of an area to be achieved. The existence of these data should enable both local and national Government to plan with greater confidence.

The regular coverage of aerial photography by the Department of Lands and Survey provides a useful monitoring tool for changes in land use. New Zealand is also participating in the Earth Resources satellite programme. The 5-yearly 1:100 000 urban flying programme will also assist local authorities to keep abreast of development.

FRAMEWORK FOR PLANNING—New Zealand's principal planning legislation, the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, provides a process by which needs, opportunities, and issues relating to land and water use can be identified and appropriate objectives and policies formulated. Measures can then be implemented and embodied in regional, district, and maritime planning schemes.

The purpose of planning is defined in the Town and Country Planning Act 1977 as being “the wise use and management of the resources, and the direction and control of the development of a region, district, or area in such a way as will most effectively promote and safeguard the health, safety, and convenience, and the economic, cultural, social, and general welfare, of the people and the amenities of every part of the region, district, or area”.

Opportunities for public participation in town and country planning were enhanced by the 1977 Act. The third-party rights of objection now include “ any body or person representing some relevant aspect of the public interest”.

The revision of the Town and Country Planning Act also provided an opportunity for greater emphasis on environmental matters, and for the implementation of the Government's policy of integrating the procedures laid down in the various “environmental” statutes such as the Reserves Act, the Forests Act, and the Historic Places Act.

Matters to be dealt with in district schemes in particular include (to quote the Schedule to the Act):

“The preservation or conservation of—

  1. Buildings, objects, and areas of architectural, historic, scientific, or other interest or of visual appeal;

  2. Trees, bush, plants, or landscape of scientific, wildlife, or historic interest, or of visual appeal;

  3. The amenities of the district."

In the administration of district planning schemes, there must be regard to section 3 of the Act which includes specific reference to the protection and enhancement of the environment as a matter of national importance.

In considering appeals against any public work the Planning Tribunal is required to have regard to criteria whether the site is suitable for the proposed work, and the economic, social, and environmental effects of the proposal.

All public bodies, including the Crown, are now required to adhere to the provisions of any approved regional planning scheme. All public works are subject to the procedures laid down in Part VI of the Act, which requires that all Crown proposals which are not in conformity with the provisions of the relevant district scheme are to be advertised and to be subject to rights of objection and appeal. In the case of Crown works, the Minister of Works and Development can (as an alternative to an appeal) request the tribunal to conduct a public inquiry which must take into account the “economic, social, and environmental effects of the proposal and such other matters as the Ministry may determine”.

National Planning—In the preparation, implementation, and administration of regional, district, and maritime planning schemes the following matters, which are declared to be of national importance, must be recognised and provided for:

  • the conservation, protection, and enhancement of the physical, cultural, and social environment;

  • the wise use and management of New Zealand's resources;

  • the preservation of the natural character of the coastal environment and the margins of lakes and rivers, and the protection of them from unnecessary subdivision and development;

  • the avoidance of encroachment of urban development on, and the protection of, land having a high actual or potential value for the production of food;

  • the prevention of sporadic subdivision and urban development in rural areas;

  • the avoidance of unnecessary expansion of urban areas into rural areas in or adjoining cities;

  • the relationship of the Maori people and their culture and traditions with their ancestral land.

The first 2 and the last 2 of these considerations were introduced under the 1977 Town and Country Planning Act.

Regional Planning—Regional planning is concerned with establishing policies and programmes at all levels of government which reflect the needs and desires of the people of each region, and which are reconciled with the national interest and competing demands for national resources. Urban centres and rural areas cannot be planned in isolation from each other or from the nation as a whole.

Under the 1977 Town and Country Planning Act regional planning has four main features all of which are new.

  1. Regional planning is the responsibility of united and regional councils.

  2. Regional planning schemes are to be approved by the Government before they come into operation.

  3. Approved regional planning schemes must be adhered to by the Crown and every local and public authority.

  4. District and maritime planning schemes must conform with approved regional planning schemes.

Matters to be dealt with in regional planning schemes have been greatly expanded under the new Act to embrace social, economic, and environmental policies. Reference is made for example to “natural resources and environment—the identification, preservation, and development of the regions' natural resources including water, soil, air and other natural systems, farmlands, forests, fisheries, minerals ... and areas of value for the enjoyment of nature and the landscape”.

Under the Local Government Act 1974 regional or united councils are being established for all regions of New Zealand, and these will all have regional planning responsibilities and powers given under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977. The combined effect of these Acts is likely to emerge as a major constitutional innovation. The regional planning process offers a means by which local and Central Government, representing the regional communities and the national interest respectively, can reach agreement on development and welfare policies and priorities for the allocation of resources for each region. Agreement can be expressed in the regional planning scheme, and changes of policy can be worked out within the process of changing the scheme.

The new system does not introduce another tier of government, rather it is aimed at giving a regional dimension to Central Government programmes and a common policy base to local government activity.

Regional Planning Process—The key provision of the new legislation will be the requirement that once regional schemes have been agreed to by the Central Government, all public authorities, both central and local, will be required to give effect to their provisions. The significance of this step lies in the practical necessity it creates for local and Central Government agencies to take a constructive part, along with the regional community, in the formulation of the objectives, policies, programmes, and other provisions of each scheme. Responsibility for initiating regional planning action lies with the regional and united councils, which will operate through regional planning committees that include a representative of the Crown.

What the new regional planning legislation aims to provide is a process that allows for the public evaluation of options and alternatives—the determination of objectives and policies, and the adoption of a programme of implementation that is related to community priorities and the resources available.

National policies, or changes in policy, on such matters as energy development, transportation, afforestation, or housing finance can have marked regional implications and significantly affect regional prosperity and well being. It is important therefore that expressed regional preferences and priorities are considered as an integral part of national policy formulation, and that the regional consequences of national policies are understood before they are adopted. Two way communication between the Central Government and the regions must be a vital element in any new process. The new regional bodies and the regional planning system provide the opportunity for this, and for expressing agreed measures in regional planning schemes.

District Planning—Every district scheme under the Act is required to have as its general purpose the wise use and management of the resources of the district, and the direction and control of its development, in such a way as will most effectively promote and safeguard the economic, cultural, social, and general welfare of the people and the preservation of the amenities of the district. It must also recognise and provide for matters of national importance defined in the Act. Every city, borough, and county council or other authority responsible for the general administration of a district must provide and maintain a district scheme unless exempted by the Minister of Works and Development. Any such exemptions are likely to apply only to districts of small population where little change is expected. Almost the whole country, in terms of population or area, is covered by district schemes prepared under the previous Act of 1953, although not all such schemes have passed through all the legal stages necessary to be made operative.

Councils are now beginning to recognise the potential of the district planning scheme as an effective instrument for bringing about innovative change not only in land use control but also in environmental management and local administration in general. The key to this is the greater emphasis being placed on the scheme statement as a means of expressing policies which have been subjected to the formal approval procedures, including objection and appeal, that the Planning Act provides. A renewed concern for a more humane basis to planning has focussed on the destruction of areas of natural beauty near urban areas, the loss of historic areas of cities, and the destruction of neighbourhood communities as past errors which must not be repeated. With this in mind, a number of councils have recently made provision for Special Character Zones. These are zones which have a special character derived from the age, condition, or character of the buildings or general layout. In these zones the aim is to preserve the special character (using controls where necessary) by encouraging new buildings designed in sympathy with the existing environment, and by more liberal approaches to the rehabilitation and use of existing properties. Currently there are also moves towards allowing far greater social and economic diversity in rural areas.

The need to plan for areas below mean high water mark, which are subject to increasing pressures from various demands, led to the introduction of maritime planning under Part V of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977.

The provisions provide a statutory procedure to establish maritime planning areas on the joint recommendation of the Minister of Works and Development and the Minister of Transport; and to appoint maritime planning authorities.

If the maritime planning area is within harbour limits, the appropriate harbour board becomes the authority, unless it declines the appointment.

The authority is required to set up a maritime planning committee with representation on it from the regional or united council, the regional water board, territorial local authorities, and the Central Government. Maritime planning schemes are not expected to cover the whole of the coast, but only those areas where there are problems of conservation and management or conflict between the use of the water and adjacent land areas. This will have the effect of requiring all public bodies involved in managing these areas to adhere to the regional planning scheme.

In addition, under Part I of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, the Minister of Works and Development may extend regional boundaries to include adjacent water areas and this provides for the planning of land and water to be brought together under the same administration.

RECREATIONAL LAND—Existing national parks and reserves are, for the most part, close to the centres of greatest and most rapidly growing population. Until recently little was done to secure in public ownership those areas where most New Zealanders take their holidays—by the water. Along the north and north-east coasts, where the climate is best and the population densest, many of the most desirable areas of coastline have already been subdivided, notably on the North Auckland, Bay of

Plenty, and Coromandel coasts. Besides limiting public access, this can destroy scenic values. Similar considerations apply in respect of lakes, rocks, and offshore islands. In recent years the Crown has purchased a number of islands or parts of islands for reserve purposes. Some of these are grouped in the Hauraki Gulf and Marlborough Sounds Maritime Parks. Moves are being made to control subdivision in coastal and lakeshore areas.

Access along rivers 3 metres wide, lakes in excess of 8 hectares, and foreshores has usually been provided: on all alienations of Crown land since 1886, on private subdivision for towns near rivers or the sea coast since 1923, and on partitions of Maori land in counties since 1967.

The Land Act has provided since 1948 that around every lake with an area of 8 hectares or more there shall be laid off a strip not less than 1 chain in width.

New Zealand has some 24 percent of its land under forest. It is important that a forest cover should be maintained wherever it constitutes the most desirable form of land use. Forests meet a wide range of basic human needs—social, recreational, and spiritual, as well as economic.

New Zealand is fortunate in that a large area of native forests was set aside in the early days in reserves of various types (State forests, climatic reserves, scenery preservation reserves, reserves for the preservation of flora and fauna, and reserves for the growth and preservation of timber). As a result New Zealand is well endowed with forested wilderness and with other native forests having scenic, recreational, and wildlife values. Per head of population New Zealand probably has a larger area of forests of this type than any other developed country. Early land administrators laid the basis for a national park, a forest park, and a protection forestry system which is widely envied.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for leisure pursuits in surroundings of great natural beauty—for the study of wildlife (plant and animal); for walking and tramping; and for shooting and fishing. Most of the attractive forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation; recreational use can be allowed in almost all such protection forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting can be of benefit through its contribution in destroying wild animal pests. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes the improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining shelter huts, assets also of use to Forest Service personnel. Entry is unrestricted except that, in the interests of safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

In order to avoid the mistakes inherent in haphazard development, the National Parks Authority has for some years been encouraging national park boards to prepare management plans for their respective parks. These plans establish concepts and guidelines for the preservation and use of national parks, and afford the means by which park use and management can be reconciled with the preservation in perpetuity of the park's scenic beauty, and natural and historic features.

The older exotic forests also offer the attractions that only a sylvan setting can provide and have the advantage of accessibility. In many places, walks and picnic spots have been prepared for use by the public, and selected areas will be preserved from felling for their scenic value.

A related topic is the protection and conservation of bush and trees within urban areas. Not only do trees and areas of bush provide beauty and additional amenities in urban surroundings, but they provide habitats for birds and other wildlife, encourage the cycling of water and nutrients, and assist with erosion control. Local authorities have the power to require that, when land is subdivided, trees and bush areas shall be preserved.

Environmental Agencies—In addition to the Government departments with responsibilities for administering the diversity of legislation for the protection of the physical environment, there are several authorities with responsibilities for the physical and social environment. Some of the more prominent of these are discussed below.

COMMISSION FOR THE ENVIRONMENT—The ministerial portfolio for the environment and the Commission for the Environment were established in 1972. The Minister's responsibility is to ensure that the Government has before it the best information available on the environmental aspects of projects and policies under consideration and on the possible effects of current trends on the future environmental well-being of the country.

The commission functions as a small investigatory and advisory agency without executive or management responsibility. It undertakes studies for the Minister and investigates and makes recommendations on the environmental implications of proposed Government projects. It often has an initiating and co-ordinating role on environmental issues which are assuming new importance in a changing society, or for which responsibility is shared by several management agencies. The commission's overall role is to assist in the development of policies designed to promote sound physical and social environmental management.

A major responsibility of the commission is to audit environmental impact reports. These are written appraisals of the environmental consequences expected from new developments or policies. The Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures which have been in force since 1 March 1974 require environmental impact reports for all major projects of the Central Government and for all other projects that need Government approvals or funds. Power stations, harbour reclamations, and forestry developments have been among the projects so far reported on. More than 70 such reports have been subject to commission audit since the procedures came into being.

The procedures which the commission administers provide for the critical examination of environmental effects expected from the projects or alternatives to them and include provision for public submissions to the commission, which produces a written audit of the environmental impact report and the project. The audit is sent to the authority promoting the project and is published before a decision is taken on the proposal.

Aside from its role under these procedures, in which it is largely reacting to the proposals of others, the commission also initiates studies aimed at drawing attention to important environmental questions facing the country. This brings it closely into contact not only with other Government departments but also with statutory bodies and citizen environmental groups. The commission is now involved in a wide range of work of this nature. Some of the more significant recent examples of this are the scope for the local development of small hydro-electric schemes and other future energy options; the role of small scale/high value industry; the possible environmental effects of the use of new technologies and toxic chemicals; the protection of sections of wild water in the river systems of the country; and community noise.

The Commission for the Environment also services the independent guardian groups established to advise the Government on the ways in which areas of important environmental interest should be safeguarded. Three such groups have been appointed—the Guardians of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, the Guardians of the Rotorua Lakes, and the Guardians of Lake Wanaka (for the latter there is statutory authority in the Lake Wanaka Preservation Act).

The commission's staff covers a wide range of environmental disciplines but an important feature of its operations is collaboration with other agencies with the expertise required for the evaluation of particular aspects of projects under study.

The commission has a close working relationship with the Environmental Council and is developing a similar relationship with the newly established Commission for the Future and the New Zealand Planning Council.

ENVIRONMENTAL COUNCIL—The Environmental Council was established in 1970 following the Physical Environment Conference held in May of that year. It reports to the Government through the Minister for the Environment.

The constitution of the council provides for 16 members, including the chairman who is not a serving Government official. Five Government departments are represented—Treasury, Health, New Zealand Forest Service, Works and Development, and Lands and Survey. Three positions are drawn from those with experience in municipal and county local government, and regional planning; the remaining positions are filled by private citizens with knowledge and experience in environmental matters or appropriate qualifications.

The council has no executive powers. Its terms of reference are:

  1. To advise the Minister for the Environment on such matters as he may refer to it and on such matters as the council may raise itself on the state and trend of the environment and on measures to be taken to manage it.

  2. To publish from time to time such information upon environmental problems as the council considers necessary to serve the public interest.

  3. To co-operate with other sector councils in matters of mutual interest; in particular, to provide the Planning Council with information, forecasts, and data arising from the above, and requested by the council to enable it to carry out its functions.

The main role of the council is to advise on general matters of policy and principle rather than to examine the environmental consequences of specific projects. It has, however, alluded to specific developments to illustrate its concerns. Examples of the policy issues in which the council has been involved are the need for national policies on the subdivision of coastal land, the use and management of coastal waters and the seabed, and the use and preservation of wetlands. Currently, the council is involved in questions relating to the formulation of a population policy and the environmental effects of energy production. It has produced an Urban Objectives Report which is designed to provide guidelines for use by local and Central Government in the planning and development of urban areas.

NATURE CONSERVATION COUNCIL—The Nature Conservation Council was set up by statute in 1962. It can enquire into the effects of any proposed public or private works in areas of scenic, scientific, or recreational interest, and it makes recommendations to the Government through the Minister of Lands. The council's concerns include electric power schemes, location of power and telephone lines, roading, harbour reclamations, native forests, mining applications, air and water pollution, recommendations for reserves, and aspects of town and country planning. Although it has access to Government information, it speaks with an independent voice, and is able to make public any of its reports or recommendations.

The council frequently advises non-Government conservation groups and co-ordinates their views. It also keeps the general public informed through its environmental publications, and through its sponsorship of the National Conservation Week each year.

CONTROL OF MINERAL EXPLOITATION—Mining has in the past left small portions of the landscape so scarred that their visual impact today suggests that mining in general produces only perpetual devastation. In fact most areas where mining has ceased need show no sign that they were ever mined.

To ensure that the land is maintained in a suitable condition, the Minister of Energy is empowered under the Mining Act 1971 to impose whatever conditions he thinks fit on a mining licence, and he may impose or vary these conditions at any time, even after the grant of the licence. Over public reserves and foreshore a condition may be attached in exchanging a prospecting licence for a mining licence that the licensee should provide a contribution towards a community asset.

Problems can occur where mineral exploitation takes place on freehold land. Local authorities have the necessary power to make regulations to control these activities, and they may use this power to maintain the long-term quality of the environment.

RE-AFFORESTATION MEASURES—In recent years Government-sponsored loans and grants have encouraged afforestation on private land, which has assisted in restoring the balance of forests on induced grasslands. In addition the Forest Service has embarked on a programme of revegetating eroded upland areas in important river catchments and also establishing dual-purpose forests where production of wood may be complementary to the protective nature of forests, for example, in East Cape - Poverty Bay where over 100 000 hectares will be planted over the next 40 years.

The New Zealand Forest Service prepares regional development plans for major timber supply regions throughout New Zealand, covering both State and private forestry. These plans set out the potential of the regions. For those forests under State control the Forest Service prepares regional management plans which describe and prescribe State forest activities in both indigenous and exotic production forests as well as protection forests in the mountains.

SCIENTIFIC STUDY—About one-fifth of the staff of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is engaged on research on physical environment matters including ecological studies of national parks, investigations into beech forest ecosystems, and identification of marine animals and plankton. The department has undertaken bathymetric studies of lakes and the ocean floor around New Zealand. Basic geological, soil, and botanic surveys provide information for the land use surveys which guide urban development. Further information is given in the Science and Scientific Services Section.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION BY INDUSTRY—Statistics of expenditure on environmental protection have been obtained in the integrated economic census of manufacturing and are shown in the following table for 1975–76. The expenditure shown below is that incurred directly on processes or operations which are for the benefit or protection of the general public, such as the disposal, eradication, or cleansing of effluents, wastes, poisons, vapours, or similar obnoxious matter; protection from radiation; land stabilisation or beautification; the replacement of overburden; and similar work designed to protect or restore the environment. The total relates only to manufacturing establishments employing 10 or more persons engaged full-time, and excludes ancillary units servicing more than one manufacturing industry.

New Zealand Standard Industrial ClassificationExpenditure on Environmental ProtectionPercentage Environmental Expenditure of Value Added
 $(000)percent
Major Division 3—Manufacturing (Total manufacturing industries, excluding single-establishment enterprises employing less than 10 people, and ancillary units servicing more than one manufacturing industry)6,3810.27

PROTECTION OF WATER RESOURCES—New Zealand uses about 400,000,000 gallons of water a day but requires even more to cope with the increasing demands of population and industrial growth.

Industrial use far exceeds domestic use: about 1400 gallons of water are required to make steel worth $1, and 200 gallons are needed to produce paper worth $1. In order to get the large quantities of water demanded by our present way of life water supplies may need to be reused. Wastes must be so treated and purified before discharge into a river that the diluted effluent conforms to the standard required by water users closer to the river mouth.

The deterioration of the natural quality and the disturbance of the natural pattern of flow of water could limit utilisation for some purposes. To ensure that the quality of natural waters is maintained as a source of supply for human and animal consumption and as wildlife habitats and recreational areas, it is necessary that sedimentation, pollution, and eutrophication be minimised. These problems have been particularly noticeable in the Taupo area. Preservation of the quality of water is crucial to the Taupo fishery, and to recreational and scenic values of the lake surroundings. In recent years, large-scale land development and increased population in the Taupo basin have sharply accelerated the rate of eutrophication of the lake. In an effort to reduce the nutrient inflow to a minimum, large reservations of peripheral land in natural cover have been proposed and generally accepted. As a further means of countering erosion and the inflow of nutrients, studies are being undertaken to establish guidelines for farming, forestry, and other users.

The National Water and Soil Conservation Authority is a central policy-making body and, with the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council and the Water resources Council, comprises the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation. The authority is responsible for formulating general policy guidelines concerning conservation and each council has certain functions delegated to it.

Representation on the authority and council includes counties and municipalities, catchment authorities, regional water boards, drainage and river boards, farming, manufacturing, and recreational interests, and appropriate Government departments.

Regional water boards and catchment authorities have been formed over much of the country. These local government bodies are responsible for putting the authority's policies into action. The allocation of water is the responsibility of the authority and the water boards. Broadly, the authority's functions involve developing and co-ordinating a national policy to ensure that the greatest local and national benefits are obtained from the use of the water.

The Water Resources Council, established in April 1972, is responsible for maintaining the quality of water at a satisfactory level. The council is classifying all rivers and coastal waters throughout New Zealand. These classifications are declarations of the minimum standards of quality at which the water is to be maintained in order to promote the conservation and best use of the water in the public interest.

The high rainfall and run-off factors in New Zealand have created drainage problems in many areas, particularly in low-lying sections of valleys, where river gradients are flat, and coastal areas. Drainage works are often carried out in conjunction with river-control schemes, in which case they must be properly co-ordinated with the river works, and may include floodgates and pumping stations. In the North Island, particularly, there are large areas of peat swamps that pose a special problem in development because of the danger of excessive shrinkage with overdrainage.

The topography and soils over most of the country generally favour high run-off as shown by both total annual river flows and peak flood discharges. There are, however, some areas in the North Island where flood peaks are greatly reduced by porous pumice soils, while on some river systems natural lake storage in headwaters helps to control flooding.

Since 1941, with the setting up of catchment authorities with their specialist staff, great progress has been made with river-control work throughout the country. Action was naturally focused first on the major river valleys where there has been a history of severe flood damage and where the property owner, have been able to meet their share of the cost. Schemes are now in hand, or planned, for controlling the lower reaches of most of the major problem rivers.

There are still many rivers in New Zealand where major control schemes cannot be justified at the present time, but where a great many smaller, individual works are being carried out. Such works primarily serve to hold the river in check and prevent serious deterioration until such time as more comprehensive planning can be justified. Many schemes have been advanced or are being prepared for more comprehensive soil conservation and water management measures over whole catchments.

Most river-control works are carried out by catchment authorities or river boards, but some smaller works are also carried out by Ministry of Works and Development, counties, and drainage boards. The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council seeks to develop complete catchment control schemes where possible, to integrate river control work with water and soil conservation practice on the land area on individual river catchments.

The effective use and control of water depends on the availability of accurate long-term data on water movement. A regional system for collecting comprehensive data was initiated in 1959. The country is divided into 91 regions, based on similarity of slope, rock type, and precipitation. The data are collected and published by the representative catchment and the information is then used when applications for water rights are being considered.

The problem is one of restoring an erosion-resistant and water-absorbent combination of soil and vegetation, while ensuring that maximum permanent production is maintained or achieved under various systems of land use.

CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION—The changes in vegetation consequent on land development have been reflected in disturbed soil conditions in many parts of New Zealand. The protective, stabilising, and water-controlling combination of vigorous native vegetation, litter, and spongy soil has given way to a shallow-rooted, less protective carpet of grass on a compacted, impervious, and often exhausted soil. Soil erosion now occurs on more than 8 million hectares of hill country and mountain land, about one-third of the total area of New Zealand.

Successful techniques that have been developed to control erosion include spelling, control of burning and animal pests, oversowing, topdressing, strict grazing control, soil conservation, fencing, stock-water ponds, gully control, contour ploughing, terraces, grassed waterways, and open and close tree planting. Cost-sharing rates are available to farmers carrying out these control practices.

Land classification is extensively used in New Zealand. Initially this technique involves making an inventory of the physical factors of slope, soil type, climate, vegetation, and erosion types and severity existing, either over a whole catchment or over an individual farm. This basic information then allows soil conservators to recommend the best treatment (conservation practices) and use of particular areas of land so as to ensure maximum permanent production from any one area.

Water and soil conservation farm plans are a vital means of helping landowners make the best use of their land and water resources. These plans involve the integration of conventional farm practices with those recommended under the land classification system.

A plan is formulated by a soil conservator and then discussed with the landowner concerned. The plan may then be adjusted to suit the landowner's ability to carry it out over several years.

A valuable aid in promoting water and soil conservation practices on farms has been the setting up of reserves and demonstration areas throughout the country. These areas are used to show local farmers in particular just how their problems can be overcome by the use of correct practices. Many of these areas also serve as research centres.

POLLUTION—Public concern for the preservation of the environment and for the recycling and conservation of resources has grown noticeably during recent years. Along with this the awareness of pollutants which affect the enjoyment of both the urban and rural areas has also increased. The problems of water pollution are being tackled by the Water Resources Council and the regional water boards; those of air pollution are being met by the provisions of the Clean Air Act 1972, while many local authorities have introduced bylaws to control noise problems in their areas. Within the territorial sea and harbours the Marine Pollution Act 1974 controls the discharge or dumping of oil or any other substance declared a pollutant.

Pollution of our rivers and lakes can be caused by soil erosion, farm run-off, industrial waste, or municipal sewage. The Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967, provides for the control of waste discharges but other forms of pollution require different approaches such as through changing land use practices. Sewage and farm run-off add nutrients to the water which, in some lakes, slow rivers, or sheltered estuaries, have caused the excessive growth of microscopic and larger plants to the detriment of the water quality.

Waste disposal from cities, forestry, and the meat industry are the major contributors to pollution of the land. Urban waste disposal is largely by the sanitary land fill technique and most major cities are establishing tip sites planned to last up to 50 or 100 years several miles from the closest housing areas. Until recently large amounts of wood were left in the forest during logging or dumped near sawmills. Now much of this waste wood is chipped for use in pulp mills either within the country or overseas. Some effort is made to transform the waste from the 35 million livestock slaughtered each year into fertiliser but considerable quantities of it are still buried.

Organic chemical pesticides and herbicides are widely accepted as essential for efficient agriculture. Some 80 different herbicides and fungicides and 40 insecticides are in common use in New Zealand. The use of DDT on pastures has been banned and in 1973 the restrictions on the use of 2,4,5-T tightened in areas where there could be a danger of exposing the public to it.

Several divisions of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research are concerned with monitoring pollution. The Chemistry Division conducts surveys of mercury contamination of fish and water, arising from geothermal outflows. Nitrate concentration in ground waters, and insecticides in water are measured, and checks are kept on heavy metals in foods. The Oceanographic Institute traced the biological effects of heated water discharges from thermal power stations. The Physics and Engineering Laboratory participates in the Earth's Resources Technology Satellite programme. The department also assists such organisations as the Dairy Research Institute, the Meat Industry Research Institute, the Wool Research Organisation, and the Leather and Shoe Research Association, which are industrial research groups all supporting projects to reduce pollution and increase the use of by-products from their industrial processes which have in the past been wasted.

New Zealand's geographical shape and location is favourable to the dispersal of air pollutants. Some areas, such as Christchurch, do suffer from air pollution problems. The Clean Air Act 1972, the first part of which came into effect on 1 April 1973, established the principle of air pollution control on industry by the best practicable means. Provision was also made for the establishment of smokeless zones. The first clean air zone under the Act has been established in Christchurch.

The Clean Air Council was established under the Clean Air Act 1972 to advise the Minister of Health on all aspects of air pollution. It advises local authorities on their work under the Act and co-ordinates the work of control authorities and voluntary organisations. It can publish reports from time to time, and is undertaking research work through four committees studying respectively clean air zones and domestic heating, motor vehicles and air pollution, rural pollution, and planning co-ordination.

MARGINAL LANDS LENDING—The purpose of the Marginal Lands Act 1950 is to assist fanners to restore, maintain, and increase production on properties that are not economic but are potentially so. The Marginal Lands Board fulfils its role as a last resort lender by providing finance where it is not available through normal private lending institutions. The board finances development work, purchase of livestock and chattels, purchase of additional land for amalgamation to make farms economic units, and refinancing of existing securities where the need is most critical. Also, arising from an amendment to the Act in 1977, the board is now empowered to lend to landless farmers for the purchase of uneconomic ("stepping stone") farms to enable young men to be established on their first unit that can either be built up to an economic level with outside income from related farm work and board assistance or sold when developed to provide a deposit for an economic property.

The board comprises the Minister of Lands (chairman), the Director-General of Lands (deputy chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and 4 private persons with a farming background appointed by the Minister.

To assist the board in undertaking its activities, local committees have been established in each land district consisting of a representative of the Department of Lands and Survey (chairman), the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, and a private farmer selected and appointed for each district by the board.

The pattern of the board's lending over the past 3 years is illustrated by the figures in the table below:

Purpose of LoansYear Ended 31 March
197619771978
 $(000)
Development (including stock, plant, and seasonal)8189911,084
Purchase of additional land1,2771,4271,667
Refinance926305316
    Total3,0212,7233,067

In total, to 31 March 1978, the board has assisted 1897 farmers to the extent of $46.5 million.

10 B—PUBLIC LANDS

CROWN LAND—There are 5.7 million hectares of Crown land which are held under lease or licence by individuals for farming or other purposes. Land permanently set aside for national parks and public reserves comprises 2.67 million hectares. The Department of Lands and Survey is also developing 0.67 million hectares of land of which 0.46 million hectares is intended for subdivision and settlement as individual farms.

Administration—Crown land is administered under the authority of the Land Act 1948. The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands. New Zealand is divided into 12 land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands.

The central authority under the Land Act is the Land Settlement Board consisting of the Minister of Lands (chairman), the Director-General of Lands (deputy chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Valuer-General, a representative of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation, the Deputy Director-General of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, and not more than 4 other persons appointed by the Minister.

The Land Settlement Board is required to appoint one or more land-settlement committees for each land district, and 20 of these committees have been set up. Each committee consists of 3 members with the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as chairman and 2 private farmer members.

The Land Settlement Board, through the Department of Lands and Survey, disposes of Crown land for farming, residential, commercial, and industrial purposes. The demand for this land, particularly farm land, is considerable.

DISPOSAL OF CROWN LAND—Crown land is normally offered to the public at valuation and the successful applicant decided by ballot, although in exceptional circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Any land may, however, be offered for disposal by tender at an undisclosed minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an upset price.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:

  1. Farm land, urban land, commercial, or industrial land—(a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) on deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee simple. Annual rent is reviewed at 11-yearly intervals.

  2. Pastoral land—(a) On pastoral lease for term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding 21 years, with no right of renewal or of acquiring the fee simple.

  3. Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding 5 years.

Selections—The following table shows details of selections during the year 1977–78.

TenureNumber of SelectionsTotal Area SelectedPurchase Price or Annual Charges
  hectares$(000)
Freehold2717 4211,126
Renewable leases3811 69662
Pastoral leases and licences27 100
Deferred-payment licences7713 148233
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)297844
Licences to occupy45510 105235
Leases of endowment and other lands1141 2183
                Total 1977–7898651 4721,663
                Total 1976–771 28553 0651,598

Leases and Licences—The following table shows the total number of leases and licences current as at 31 March 1978.

TenureLeases and LicencesAreaAnnual RentAnnual Instalments*
*Including improvement loading.
 No.hectares$$
  (000)(000)(000)
Renewable leases7 0597731,11122
Leases in perpetuity6 1194943761
Pastoral leases and licences5172 9701964
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)75511232812
Deferred-payment licences12 3691 0606,533
Misc. leases and licences77623
Licences to occupy4 316148578
Leases of endowment and other lands2 8221502528
                Total 1977–7834 7335 7092,8446,580
                Total 1976–7735 8125 7542,6785,737

Freeholdings—The following table shows the number of leases and licences freeholded, either for cash or on deferred payments.

Method of PaymentCrown LandsEndowment and Other LandsAreaPurchase Price
 No.No.hectares$(000)
Cash22636 321496
Deferred payments482491 66510,098
                Total 1977–78708797 98610,594
                Total 1976–777424103 2657,539

Further details on leases and licences may be obtained from the annual report of the Department of Lands and Survey, Parliamentary paper C.1.

LAND DEVELOPMENT AND SETTLEMENT—The Land Settlement Board was constituted in 1948 and is responsible for the administration of land policy and the development and settlement of Crown land through the Department of Lands and Survey. The development of land in preparation for ultimate subdivision and settlement of farm units involves clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, the erection of essential improvements, and the installation of water supplies under a development programme undertaken annually. As at 31 March 1978 some 457 490 hectares was under development by the Department of Lands and Survey. It is expected to yield an estimated 1074 farms for settlement by landless farmers. The major development districts as at 31 March 1978 were Southland with 136 168 hectares; Rotorua-Taupo district, 59 000 hectares; North Auckland, 66 718 hectares; Te Kuiti, 49 785 hectares; and Otago, 30 204 hectares.

Despite the state of the economy and the need to reduce expenditure, the Government has maintained a settlement programme over recent years and consequently there is a growing shortage of undeveloped Crown land available to enable the department's operations to be maintained. Where possible the department is purchasing suitable private land for medium- or long-term development in conjunction with adjoining Crown land. With the acceleration of the rate of settlement, the Government has recognised the need to maintain the pool of settlement land. This has resulted in funds being made available for the purchase of sheep and cattle properties capable of being converted to dairying and fully settled within a period of 1 to 3 years.

From the inception of the settlement programme in 1941 to 31 March 1978 a total of 4406 ex-servicemen and civilian settlers have been settled on farms of their own. The aggregate area of the farms has totalled 663 838 hectares.

The Department of Lands and Survey is continuing to pursue its policy of heavy culling of stock to improve stock quality and breeding programmes aimed at the establishment of flocks and herds of top class with stock of proven genetic background. The main concentration on breeding is at Waihora Farm Settlement near Rotorua where results to date have been impressive. High fertility rams are now being made available for use in the department's development programmes in other districts. This large scale programme is the biggest of its kind in New Zealand and the department's involvement in this field is of interest to the farming industry generally both in this country and overseas.

The Department of Lands and Survey in association with the New Zealand Forest Service has established joint farm forestry ventures in North Auckland, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury and Otago. This is a relatively new concept in New Zealand, involving the grazing of stock among widely spaced trees. Indications are that it could be a profitable one.

Over recent years the Department of Lands and Survey has been continuing to diversify its farming operations. The fields in which it is currently involved include Angora goat farming, exotic sheep and cattle breeding, citrus fruit growing, grape growing, raising olive trees, and similar operations.

NATIONAL PARKS AND RESERVES: History—From the founding of the colony, land has been the raw material used in the creation of a basic economic and social structure which forms part of our way of life. Royal Instructions issued to New Zealand's first governor—Captain William Hobson—who reached this country in 1840, included the concept of reserving land for public use and enjoyment. Under various pieces of general and special legislation a progressive policy of preserving and maintaining open natural and recreational areas for the people has been a facet in the land use policy and administration of the Central Government. Natural areas retained at a time when much of the country was relatively unmodified are still available today in the form of national parks, and scenic and allied types of reserves.

National Parks—The national park system in New Zealand had its origin in 1887 when Te Heuheu Tukino and other Maori chiefs gifted to the Crown the summits of their sacred mountains of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The gifted area provided the nucleus of our first national park—Tongariro—which was formally constituted by Act of Parliament in 1894. Special legislation in 1900 established Egmont as our second national park, while Fiordland had its beginning in 1905 with the reservation of over 800 000 hectares as a public reserve for “a national park”.

General legislation for national parks was incorporated in the Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act 1928, but following World War II, increased interest by a growing population in national parks and outdoor recreation generally, paved the way for one general law governing the administration of all national parks—the National Parks Act 1952.

The 1952 Act established the National Parks Authority as an independent statutory body comprising 11 people representative of both Government and private organisations. Six of them are ex-officio members—the Director-General of Lands (who is chairman), the Deputy Director-General of Lands (who is deputy chairman), the Secretary for Internal Affairs, the Director-General of Forests, the General Manager of the Department of Tourist and Publicity, and the General Manager of the Tourist Hotel Corporation. The other 5 members are appointed by the Minister of Lands for terms of 3 years on the recommendations of the Royal Society of New Zealand, the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society, and the Federated Mountain Clubs, plus 2 to represent the 10 national park boards. The authority is serviced by the Department of Lands and Survey.

Each national park is under the control of a National Park Board, chaired by the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district most concerned. Boards comprise up to 8 other members appointed by the Minister of Lands on the recommendation of the authority, one of whom is a nominee of the Federated Mountain Clubs and the New Zealand Ski Association where the nature of the park is such that the authority considers it desirable for mountain climbers and skiers to have representation. Egmont and Tongariro retain historical variations in board membership. Where the Tourist Hotel Corporation administers land, or controls any tourist facility on land in or adjacent to a park, an additional member is appointed to the board by the Minister of Lands on the recommendation of the Minister of Tourism. Salaried rangers in the Public Service are responsible for development, protection, interpretation, and management in each park and their work (chiefly in the area of park protection) is supplemented by the voluntary help of suitable persons appointed by boards as honorary rangers.

The status of National Park land cannot be changed except by Act of Parliament.

Description—New Zealand's 10 national parks, covering 2,152,123 hectares (or one-thirteenth of the country's land area) of beautiful or unique natural features and scenery, steeped in Maori legend, offer many alternative opportunities for enjoying open air recreation and the contemplation of nature and wildlife. Mountains, glaciers, forests, lakes, rivers, fiords, and beaches offer opportunities for people to tramp, climb, ski, fish, hunt, camp, and picnic. There are pleasant drives for motorists, short nature walks, alpine gardens, visitor centres and, during holiday periods, nature programmes. Accommodation, transport, and other services in or near the parks are provided by park boards, Government agencies, private enterprise, and voluntary organisations. Although the National Parks Act provides for freedom of entry and access by the public, this is subject to conditions and restrictions “necessary for the preservation of the native flora and fauna or for the welfare in general of the parks”. Access to “special areas” constituted under the Act is (if the circumstances warrant) by permit only. The Act also requires parks to be administered and maintained so that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state; that their value as soil, water, and forest conservation areas is maintained; and that as far as possible, native flora and fauna are preserved and introduced flora and fauna exterminated.

Development permitted by the National Parks Act includes the erection of houses for rangers and park staff, the provision of camping grounds, huts, hostels, accommodation houses and other buildings, ski tows and similar facilities, parking areas, roading and tracks. In “wilderness areas”, established in terms of the Act, development is restricted to foot-track access. Authority policy and park management plans provide guidelines and criteria for the extent of acceptable development in national parks.

Virtually all the finance for national parks is provided by the Government but cash donations by private individuals and organisations are encouraged: these earn a $2 for $1 subsidy from the Government.

Of the 10 national parks, the first 3 listed below are in the North Island and the remainder are in the South Island.

Urewera National Park (206 523 hectares, established in 1954), surrounds the beautiful Lakes Waikaremoana and Waikareiti. As the traditional home of the Tuhoe, “the Children of the Mist”, it is rich in Maori folklore. The park protects the largest remaining area of native forest in the North Island and provides a home for many species of native birds.

Tongariro National Park (76 198 hectares, established in 1894), includes the three active volcanic cones of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. Ruapehu's snowfields are the winter playground of the North Island. Lake Rotopounamu, still free from exotic fish, and Mount Pihanga are two other focal points of the park.

Egmont National Park (33 532 hectares, established in 1900), contains one of the world's most symmetrical mountains, known to the Maoris as “Taranaki”, and preserves magnificent scenery and vegetation within a 9-kilometre radius of the summit. Dominating Taranaki province in the west of the North Island, the near perfect cone varies from heavily-forested lower slopes to the bare scoria, rock, snow, and ice at the upper levels.

Abel Tasman National Park (22 257 hectares, established in 1942), with a broken coastline and rich in historical significance, has numerous tidal inlets and beaches of golden sand fronting Tasman Bay. Botanically, the park is unique as its bush-clad slopes show a blending of the natural cover of both the North and South Islands, a phenomenon of nature not found elsewhere in the country.

Nelson Lakes National Park (57 470 hectares, established in 1956), is named after the chief focal points for visitors, the beautiful lakes Rotoiti and Rotoroa. These nestle in rugged mountainous country with extensive beech-forest clad lower slopes. The Mount Robert area, with its magnificent views, provides visitors with winter recreational opportunities on its ski fields.

Arthur's Pass National Park (98 408 hectares, established in 1929), is a rugged and mountainous area straddling the main divide of the Southern Alps. It is an area of high peaks (at least 30 over 1800 metres), snowfields, deep-cut valleys, snow-grass clad ridges, forest-clad hillsides, high waterfalls, wide shingle riverbeds, and rushing torrents, all providing endless scope for physical endeavour or quiet appreciation.

Mount Cook National Park (69 957 hectares, established in 1953) and Westland National Park (88 760 hectares, established in 1960), share a common boundary along the main divide of the Southern Alps. Their magnificent alpine scenery, containing almost all of the 27 peaks over 3050 metres in height, includes New Zealand's highest mountain, the 3764-metre Mount Cook, known to the Maoris as

“Aorangi”—freely translated as “Cloud Piercer”. Their attractions are as varied as their altitude, ranging from well known glaciers such as Tasman (at 29 km long one of the longest outside polar regions), Franz Josef, and Fox, to hot springs, placid lakes, and the sub-tropical luxuriance of the rain forests.

Mount Aspiring National Park (287 153 hectares, established in 1964), is a complex of impressive glaciated mountain scenery which includes the headwaters of seven major rivers. The park's distinctive character is enhanced by bush covered mountainside and pleasant river flats and valleys. Its focal point, often referred to as the Matterhorn of New Zealand, is the 3036-metre Mount Aspiring, a 4-ridged peak rising from the Bonar Therma-Volta ice shelf, and the country's highest peak outside Mount Cook National Park.

Fiordland National Park (1 212 000 hectares, established in 1952), is one of the largest national parks in the world, and is renowned for the rugged grandeur of its scenery which includes fiords, mountains, forests, waterfalls, and lakes. The better known lakes are Manapouri, backed by snow-capped peaks, and Te Anau. The park is the only known habitat of two flightless birds, the takahe (notornis) and (except for a small colony on Stewart Island) the kakapo.

RESERVES—The main pieces of current legislation providing for the setting aside of land for public use, e.g., for the preservation of flora and fauna, scenery preservation, or recreation, are the Land Act 1948, the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, and the Counties Act 1956. The Land Act enables land owned by the Crown, including foreshore areas, to be reserved for any purpose desirable in the public interest, while under the latter 2 Acts local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision is made for public reserves on subdivision of land.

The current legislation governing the administration, management, and control of reserves is the Reserves Act 1977. This Act established 7 distinct categories of reserves, each with its own management requirements. The 7 categories are: recreation, historic, scenic, nature, scientific, Government purpose, and local purpose. In addition there is provision to declare any reserves or class of reserves which contain values of national or international significance to be New Zealand reserves or even New Zealand reserves meriting special protection in which case revocation can only be effected by Act of Parliament. All reserves will be classified according to their principal or primary purpose into the above categories. The classification process will take some time to complete but considerable progress has been made. Until finally classified, all reserves shall be held and administered for the purpose of their existing reservation.

Scenic Reserves—Scenic reserves, of which there are 1102 with an overall area of 303 643 hectares, are set aside to preserve qualities of scenic interest such as native forest, limestone and glow-worm caves, thermal areas, sea coasts, lakes, rivers, waterfalls, scenic vantage points, and forested areas with considerable conservation value. Some of these reserves are mainly of local or regional significance while many of the larger ones, which are in the nature of junior or mini national parks, are of national importance. Public use of scenic reserves varies greatly, ranging from off-road parking and picnicking to camping, tramping, and hunting (subject to written permit).

Scenic reserves in excess of 2000 hectares include Lewis Pass, Wanganui River, Buller Gorge, Rakeahua, South Cape (Stewart Island), Lake Kaniere, Gouland Downs, Glenhope, Lake Brunner, Rahu (Reefton), Mangamuku Gorge, Tangarakau, Te Tapui (Cambridge) and Waioeka Gorge.

Improved maintenance, management, and control of scenic reserves has been accomplished through the classification of their principal values and most appropriate usage. The appointment of salaried reserves rangers in the Public Service to ensure that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state “in the public interest” and for the “benefit, enjoyment, and use of the public” has also been of considerable assistance. In addition, native trees and shrubs are being propagated at the Department of Lands and Survey's Taupo Nursery to promote scenic restoration activities in reserves throughout the North Island but with particular emphasis on the Taupo basin in the wake of power scheme works. A nursery has also been established at Home Creek in Southland to service requirements for the South Island.

Land with acceptable scenic interest, while remaining in private ownership, may receive the benefits of preservation and protection of the Reserves Act 1977 through being declared private protected land. Areas which have received such protection include White Island in the Bay of Plenty, where petrels and gannets nest in large numbers annually, and a large area of the Pukeiti Rhododendron Trust property, near New Plymouth, and adjoining Egmont National Park, which is in native bush.

Historic Reserves—One hundred and one areas of historic interest totalling 1761 hectares are set aside as historic reserves and the Department of Lands and Survey co-operates closely in the administration and investigation of historic sites with the New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Historic reserves mark the landfall and landing places of early voyagers such as Tasman and Cook, the site of missionary Samuel Marsden's first sermon on New Zealand soil, sites of early fortifications, of engagements during the Maori wars, and buildings of historic value. (The Treaty House area at Waitangi, administered by the Waitangi National Trust, is not a historic reserve in the strict sense.) Sites of Maori rock drawings and places of significance in New Zealand's early constitutional history are also preserved.

Nature Reserves—Land is reserved for bird sanctuaries, for the preservation of flora and fauna, or some similar purpose in cases where the land provides a habitat for bird or plant life of such importance that some control on public access is desirable. In all there are 87 reserves in this category with a total area of 191 776 hectares. Some of them are mainland areas, but most are off-shore and outlying islands. Major areas of particular public interest include Little Barrier Island in Hauraki Gulf, the only known habitat of the stitch bird, and now part of the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park; Cape Kidnappers gannet colony in Hawke's Bay; Kapiti Island off Wellington's west coast; the white heron colony in South Westland; and Taiaroa Head albatross colony near Dunedin.

All of New Zealand's subantarctic islands, except for a small area surrounding the meteorological station on Campbell Island, are reserved for nature purposes and provide a habitat for marine mammals and millions of sea birds. As well as Campbell Island, the reserves include the Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, and Snares Islands. To the north of New Zealand, most of the land in the Kermadec Islands is similarly reserved.

Access to these reserves is by permit only, a policy followed solely in the interests of preservation of the plant and animal life to ensure an absolute minimum of human interference to anything living and growing naturally there. The reserves are administered by the Department of Lands and Survey.

Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park—This park was established under the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act in 1967. The park may include reserves of any type on or off the east coast of the North Island from Whangamata Harbour to Home Point at the northern end of Bland Bay. It includes such well-known islands as Motuihe, Rangitoto, Browns, Motutapu, Motuora, Poor Knights, Little Barrier, and part of Kawau containing the historic Mansion House. The park is administered by a board of 10 members.

Marlborough Sounds Maritime Park—This park was established under the provisions of the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 and is administered by a 13-member board. The park provides for co-ordinated management of existing scenic, historic, recreation, and other public reserves located within the coastal region stretching from Cape Soucis in the west to Rarangi in the south-east. Appropriate island reserves are also included.

Bay of Islands Maritime and Historic Park—Arrangements are now in hand to establish a new park under the provisions of the Reserves Act 1977 encompassing the many reserves already in existence on the mainland in and around Kerikeri and Russell and on many of the adjacent islands. The park will be administered by a board of 9 members.

Wildlife Reserves—There are 3 classes of wildlife reserves, namely wildlife sanctuaries, wildlife refuges, and wildlife management reserves. The first 2 classes may be proclaimed over land of any tenure, and any such proclamation prohibits only certain actions in respect of wildlife but does not affect the land ownership. Any of the 3 classes may however be declared in respect of lands of the Crown, or on lands specially acquired by the Crown. In such cases the declaration is made pursuant to the Land Act 1948, thus conferring upon the lands public reserve status pursuant to the Reserves Act 1977.

Wildlife Sanctuaries—The role of these is protecting fragile wildlife habitats from the effects of entry by humans or animals; or protecting wildlife species which are low in numbers regionally or nationally, or are confined within a small number of habitats which are sensitive to disturbance.

The major administrative and management objective is the total or partial exclusion of the public from such areas. Written permits to enter a sanctuary are required from the Secretary for Internal Affairs.

At present there are 12 wildlife sanctuaries, all but one of which are on off-shore islands.

Public Domains—Domains, of which there are 859 covering 22 745 hectares, provide districts with land for the recreational needs of the people as a whole. Many domains are designed primarily to provide for organised sport but there are a large number which preserve for public use attractive natural areas, particularly along the coastline, and provide facilities for camping. Some outstanding examples of coastal domains are Orewa, near Auckland, Ohope Beach, near Whakatane, Queen Elizabeth Park, near Wellington, Momorangi Bay in the Marlborough Sounds, Kaiteriteri and Pohara in the Nelson district, and Waikuku Beach in Canterbury. Universally known city domains are the Auckland Domain and Hagley Park, Christchurch. Native bush is protected on domain land.

Summary of Areas Reserved—The following table records the main classes of reservations at 31 March 1978.

Type of ReservationNo.Hectares
*Includes 17 scenic and historic reserves totalling 240 hectares and 2 historic and recreation reserves of 5 hectares.
National parks102,152,123
Scenic reserves (public)1 102303 643
Historic reserves (public)101*1 761*
Reserves for the preservation of flora and fauna (public)87191 776
Public domains85922 745

QUEEN ELIZABETH THE SECOND NATIONAL TRUST—The Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust was established by Act of Parliament in December 1977 to encourage and promote the provision, protection, and enhancement of open space for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of New Zealand. The formation of the trust commemorates the Silver Jubilee of Her Majesty the Queen.

The trust was set up to fill a growing need for an independent body to oversee the development of an overall open space plan and policy.

The main specific functions of the trust are to advise the Minister of Lands, other ministers, Government departments, and other bodies on all matters concerning open space; to investigate, identify, and classify potential reserves and recreation areas as to their significance; to promote research into open space; to co-ordinate the activities of interested Government departments and other bodies or persons; to negotiate open space covenants; and to acquire open space in its own name.

The trust is administered by a board of 10 directors, 3 of whom (including the chairman) are appointed by the Minister of Lands, 2 by election by the members, and 5 by the minister after consultation with Federated Farmers of New Zealand Inc., the New Zealand Maori Council, the New Zealand Counties Association Inc., and the Municipal Association of New Zealand Inc.

Board meetings are attended by the permanent heads of the Departments of Lands and Survey, Internal Affairs, Maori Affairs, the New Zealand Forest Service, the Ministry of Works and Development, and the Commission for the Environment.

An essential part of the trust is the membership. A list has been opened for individual, corporate, and life membership of the trust. As well as electing 2 directors, it is hoped that the members will form an integral part of the trust's operation, particularly on a local level.

Present Activities—A major task is the preparation of a data base of the open space resource, including land, rivers, lakes and coastline. Associated with this is a study of the regional demand for open space.

The promotion of open space covenants is an important aspect of the trust's work. Three types of covenant are being negotiated. The first type is providing a service for farmers with areas of native bush or other important landscape on their property that they wish to see preserved. A covenant ensures the preservation of an area in perpetuity without the landowner losing title to the land.

The second type is to secure access for the public to areas of open space, particularly near urban centres. The third type requires a series of covenants with all landowners in an area to preserve a major landscape such as a peninsula or river valley.

The trust may purchase land in its own right when a need is recognised. Local Authority grants and other donations to the trust for the purchase of land attract a $2 for $1 Government subsidy.

The trust is taking a special interest in ensuring the preservation of wild and scenic rivers of national and regional significance.

The trust will make its position known and recommend appropriate action when deficiencies in the existing system for provision of open space come to its attention. The trust sees its role in this respect as ensuring that all aspects of open space are adequately taken into account by the proper authorities. As a general rule the trust will adopt this role of broad oversight and consultation rather than become the initial or principal advocate for particular causes.

The trust will encourage existing bodies to acquire or set aside open space where the need by the user is seen to be greatest, e.g., in or close to areas of greatest population density.

NEW ZEALAND WALKWAYS—The purpose of the New Zealand Walkways Act 1975 is to establish “... walking tracks over public and private land so that the people of New Zealand (can) have safe, unimpeded foot access to the countryside for the benefit of physical recreation, as well as for the enjoyment of the outdoor environment and the natural and pastoral beauty and historical and cultural qualities of the areas through which they pass.”

To promote, supervise and co-ordinate this development, the Act constituted the New Zealand Walkway Commission and charged it with the responsibility for walkway administration, with power to delegate duties to 12 district walkway committees, one for each land district constituted under the Land Act 1948, and also to other controlling authorities. In recognition that public, local authority, and Government agency lands would be used for walkways, the composition of the commision was structured accordingly, with the members of the commission being the Director-General of Lands (chairman), and the Director-General of Forests, and a representative each of the Municipal Association of New Zealand, the Counties Association of New Zealand, the New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport, the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand, and the Federated Farmers of New Zealand. Similar representation composes each district walkway committee. Although only 3 walkways, having a total length of 23.8 km, had been gazetted as at 31 December 1978 a further 14 sections of walkway are presently open throughout the country. Together, the total length of those areas open for public use is 141 km. There are numerous urban walks which have been established by local authorities but which have not been brought under the provisions of the New Zealand Walkways Act 1975.

10 C—MAORI LANDS

USE OF MAORI LAND—The term Maori land is a technical one, denoting land that has always been owned by Maori people. Such land is usually held by right of succession to tribal ancestors. All except an insignificant portion of it is owned by defined people in defined proportions. All sales and some leases of such land still require ratification by the Maori Land Court.

In 1975 it was established that the area of land in New Zealand still designated Maori land comprised some 1,323,404 hectares. In addition, many Maori people own homes in urban areas and others own farm land purchased from non-Maoris that is designated, for record purposes, as “General” land.

The Maori Land Board was constituted under the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1974 to promote greater involvement in, and identification of the Maori owners with, land development activities. The board is assisted by district Maori Land Advisory Committees.

MAORI LAND DEVELOPMENT—Although owners of Maori land have access to usual lending institutions, it is not easy to borrow money for land development unless mortgage security can be given, and multiplicity of ownership often prevents this. Under the Maori Affairs Act 1953 the Maori Land Board, through the Department of Maori Affairs, may lend money for the development and settlement of Maori land. This procedure does not affect the legal ownership, but the rights of the owners are suspended and the board has the right to exclusive occupation of the land.

Loans can also be made on the security of livestock alone.

Policy is directed towards the settlement of Maori farmers on farms which will provide an adequate standard of living. Seventeen farmers were settled in the year ended 30 June 1977.

At 30 June 1977 there were 106 973 hectares on stations farmed by the department, of which 67 308 hectares were in grass.

The total annual grassing programme is approximately 1200 hectares.

The original objective of Maori land development was to subdivide developed blocks for settlement by Maori farmers. Recent trends have shown a preference by the owners to form incorporations or trusts to assume control on their behalf when properties are sufficiently consolidated and have attained financial stability.

Over the past decade afforestation of Maori land has become a popular alternative to development for traditional pastoral farming.

MAORI TRUSTEE—The Maori Trust Office was originally created to take over from the Public Trust Office the administration of certain Maori reserves and the administration of the estates of deceased

Maoris and those under disability. The Maori Trust Office now forms part of the Department of Maori Affairs and is headed by the Maori Trustee, comparable in status and functions with the Public Trustee. The control of most Maori Trustee activities has been decentralised by the delegation of wide powers to the district officers of the Department of Maori Affairs, who deal primarily with all Maori Trustee matters in their districts.

The following table is a summary of the assets and liabilities of the Maori Trustee as at 31 March in the last 3 years.

ItemAs at 31 March
197619771978
Assets—$(000)
    Cash5601,9221,147
    Investments—
        Government securities2,2452,2451,700
        Local authority debentures3,6983,5534,537
        Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft6,4835,9275,551
    Land, buildings, and miscellaneous359329345
                Total13,34513,97613,280
Liabilities—
    Amounts held for beneficiaries and sundry depositors8,2088,4117,815
    Reserves and Appropriation Account4,6834,9135,078
    Sundry creditors, etc.454652387
                Total13,34513,97613,280

10 D—SURVEYS

GENERAL—The Department of Lands and Survey is the national survey and mapping organisation. Its major functions include the extension of the survey control system, examination of all land title surveys, regulations of survey standards, provision of the survey planning and aerial photograph requirements of the Government, and the publication of all topographic, cadastral, and special maps of New Zealand.

SURVEYING—The New Zealand survey control system, in the form of triangulations and other geographically located stations, provides for the effective integration of surveys executed by all sectors for the purposes of land title definition, land development and utilisation, engineering project and communication constructions, mapping production, and navigational aids fixation.

Examination by the department of all land title surveys ensures the security of tenure essential to development, and the maintenance of all survey records on a microfilm system provides for ready access and utilisation of data. The control of survey standards, maintenance of discipline, and training of professional surveyors is effected through the statutorily constituted Survey Board under the chairmanship of the Surveyor-General.

Other departmental services provided to Government include surveys for land title, land development, navigational purposes, earth deformation studies, administration of justice, and land and environmental planning.

The practising surveyors in the private sector play a major role in surveys of private lands under the Land Transfer Act 1952, the planning and development of housing projects, and the execution, under contract, of some government surveys.

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY—Extensive use is made of aerial photography in the production of photogrammetric mapping and in the annual provision of basic physical resource and planning data.

Photography is undertaken by private aerial survey firms under contract to Department of Lands and Survey which maintains a complete library of air photos for all national purposes and general public usage.

Under agreement with the authorities in the USA the department now receives and holds multispectral imagery collected by earth resources satellites for use in studies associated with land use and management, regional planning, and scientific research in New Zealand.

MAPPING—Both the mile to an inch maps and the basic metric topographical and cadastral maps now under production provide a reliable inventory of physical resources and an up-to-date identification of land parcels and legal situations. They are in heavy demand for housing, constructional and farm planning and development, extension of public and social services, protection of the environment, the general use and guidance of the public, and the administrations of central and local government.

Regularly updated street maps cover all towns.

The Department of Lands and Survey also produces and publishes a wide range of other maps for various purposes including recreational maps, maps of National parks, and miscellaneous and general maps of New Zealand, the Pacific, and Antarctica. In addition, as the mapping agency for Government in New Zealand, the department produces maps needed to service the activities of other departments, particularly aeronautical charts for military and civil use, meteorological maps and charts, maps for the Ministry of Works and Development and the New Zealand Forest Service, etc.

Project and special mapping produced by photogrammetric methods and also by using Orthophotographs is executed at larger scales to provide an essential base for investigation and design of energy, irrigation, forestry, and communications projects.

Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices except Wellington and at the Head Office of the Department of Lands and Survey. In addition, a large number of private selling agents have been appointed throughout New Zealand and overseas. All maps for sale are listed in the Catalogue Of Maps published by the department.

10 E—REGISTRATION OF TITLES AND TRANSFER OF LAND

REGISTRATION OF LAND OWNERS—Title to land in private ownership in New Zealand is a matter of public record. The keeping of these records is the function of the Land and Deeds Division of the Department of Justice.

Almost all privately owned land in New Zealand is held under the land transfer system, presently embodied in the Land Transfer Act 1952. The system was introduced to New Zealand by the passing of the Land Transfer Act 1870. This Act was based on legislation enacted in South Australia in 1858, largely at the instigation of Sir Robert Torrens. Today the principles enunciated by Torrens are the basis of land registration throughout Australasia. The principal features of the system are registration of title and guarantee of that title by the State.

The objects of the Land Transfer Acts since 1870 have been to provide security of title by means of state guarantee, simplicity by use of standardised forms: in language readily understood by the layman, accuracy by the use of precise survey data, the reduction of costs by simplification of conveyancing procedures, expedition by streamlining and constantly revising recording procedures, and suitability to circumstances by relating our land registration system directly to our social and economic structures.

Under the land transfer system, land and interests in land do not pass by the execution of an instrument of transfer but by the registration of that instrument. A person acquires a legal interest in land not because he has entered into an agreement to purchase the land, but because he has registered the instrument of transfer and it is recorded on the register that he is the owner.

The certificate of title is the pivot on which the whole land transfer system turns. A certificate of title is issued under the hand and seal of the District Land Registrar which guarantees to the registered proprietor of the land described in that certificate his rights of use, occupation, and enjoyment, the extent and position of his boundaries, and the nature of any encumbrances or interests affecting his land, such as mortgages or rights of way. Two copies of the certificate of title are issued; one copy forms the Land Transfer register, and the duplicate is held by the owner. This duplicate must be presented to the Land Registry Office for noting whenever documents affecting the estate for which it was issued are submitted for registration. Any change in the registered proprietorship which occurs through transfer, death, or other devolution, and the encumbrances to which the land is subject may be entered on the register by the registration of the appropriate documents in the manner prescribed by the Land Transfer Act.

Interests in, and charges against, land arising from many other statutes may be noted against the Land Transfer register. Successive governments have charged the Land and Deeds Division with duties of surveillance under the laws relating to the subdivision and aggregation of land, disposition of public reserves, anti-slumming requirements of local authorities, and many other aspects of land use and occupation.

Certain leases and licences of Crown land may be registered under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act, and Maori land when vested in any person for a freehold estate comes automatically under the land transfer system.

Settlement of matrimonial homes as joint family homes has been a widely used procedure since its inception almost 30 years ago and since that time there has been a steady increase in the number of settlements registered (see section 19).

Certificates of Title Issued—The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the latest 6 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal
197344 779
197445 932
197552 196
197657 008
197753 196
197849 516

MAORI LANDS—Before European settlement, all land was held by the various groups and tribes of the Maori people in accordance with their traditional customs and usages, and the land so held was described as Maori customary land. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown. Almost all of the land which was formerly Maori customary land has now been converted to other forms of title by one or other of the following processes:

  1. Purchase or other acquisition by the Crown (from whom in turn the European colonists obtained land for farms, etc.).

  2. The issue of a Crown grant to a Maori owner on the recommendation of the Maori Land Court.

  3. The issue of a freehold order by the Maori Land Court in favour of the Maori or Maoris found entitled upon an investigation of title. This process was used instead of processes (b) after the introduction of the land transfer system into New Zealand.

Land which was included in titles issued under processes (b) and (c) became known as Maori freehold land.

Maori freehold land becomes Crown land if all interests in it are purchased or otherwise acquired by the Crown, or becomes General land when bought by a non-Maori, or declared by the Maori Land Court to be General land.

Maori Land Court—The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other judges as the Governor-General may from time to time appoint. It is a Court of Record and its general function is to deal with problems peculiar to multiple ownership of Maori lands including the partitioning and combining of titles for better utilisation, the effecting of exchanges, directing the holding of meetings of owners, and confirming or disallowing resolutions passed by such meetings, confirming sales, and making other miscellaneous orders including, in certain cases, determining entitlement and vesting in persons entitled, and the beneficial interests of deceased owners, in Maori freehold land.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any 2 or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that 2 Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the court. With certain exemptions, the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

During 1977–78 the Maori Land Court conducted 88 sittings throughout New Zealand and dealt with some 5600 applications, from which a total of 11 457 orders were made.

On 7 August 1978, His Excellency the Governor-General appointed a Royal Commission to inquire into the structure and operation of the Maori Land Court and the Maori Appellate Court. The Royal Commission is to report its findings by 31 December 1979.

Acquisition of Land—Safeguards have been made for long-term planning in the use of land, whether publicly or privately owned, in order to ensure that it and its resources are used to the best advantage of the community as a whole. Legislation introduced in 1968 and 1969 (by amendment to the Land

Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952) prevents, where there is an operative regional planning or proposed or operative district scheme, the acquisition by overseas interests of land of 4000 sq metres or over designated or zoned as reserves for recreation or other purposes, and all islands or parts of islands within 150 kilometres of the mainland, and the Chatham Islands. The legislation covers rural and farm land of 2 hectares or over. Here a purchase may be approved if specified conditions, directed to ensuring beneficial use of the land from a national viewpoint, or permanent future residence, are met.

The court shall grant its consent where the purchaser or lessee is a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand, i.e., who has resided in New Zealand for 2½ years and the court is satisfied that he intends to continue to reside in New Zealand. Where the purchaser or lessee is not a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand or is an overseas company, the court shall not grant its consent unless it is satisfied that the land is not required for any reserve purpose and that the land is not an island or forms part of the Chatham Islands. In the case of farm land, the court must be assured that the purchaser or lessee intends to conduct experimental or research work on the land which will benefit agricultural industries in New Zealand or the community generally, or that the land will be used for purposes other than agricultural with greater advantage to the community, or in the case of an individual that he intends to reside permanently in New Zealand and farm the land exclusively for his own use and benefit and has the ability and means to do this.

Part I of the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act authorises the Minister of Lands to take in certain circumstances any farm land that is suitable for settlement, and is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production.

Part II deals with the control of sales and also leases (for 3 years or more) of farm land to prevent undue aggregation. The consent of the court is required unless the purchaser or lessee owns no farm land, has no interest in any estate or trust owning farm land, has not since the passing of the Act transferred any farm land to any person as trustee or created any trust in respect of farm land, and has entered into the transaction solely on his own behalf.

The Act prevents the purchase of farm land, without the consent of the court, by a trustee for any person under the age of 17 years, or the purchase by a company or trustee for a company to be formed where the shareholders are fewer than 10 in number and any member of such company is under the age of 17 years (or where shares will be held in trust for any person under that age at the date of the transaction).

LAND TRANSFERS—The following table shows property transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during the latest available years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal TransfersTotal Consideration
NumberPercentage Change*AmountPercentage Change*
*On the previous year's figures.
   $(m) 
1974125 796+19.62,133.0+59.2
197597 334–22.62,135.1+0.1
197698 003+0.72,202.8+3.2
1977101 968+4.02,691.6+22.2
197885 705–16.02,538.6–5.7

The continued rise in both the numbers of land transfers and the total consideration involved which characterised the early 1970s reached a peak in 1973–74, when there was an increase of nearly 20 percent in the number of transfers and one of nearly 60 percent in the consideration involved. The following year witnessed a sharp fall in the number of land transfers, although the consideration involved was almost the same. A moderate increase in the number of transfers (and a considerably larger increase in total consideration) during the year ended 31 March 1977 has been followed by a significant decline in numbers and a small decrease in total consideration during the 1977–78 year.

The following table shows all land transfers by consideration group for the year ended 31 March 1978. The division into freehold and leasehold demonstrates the relatively small percentage of land transfers involving leasehold property.

Consideration GroupFreeholdLeaseholdAll Transfers
NumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage Consideration
$ $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000)
Under 2,0002 5742.81.11330.11.12 7072.91.1
2,000–2,9991 2623.02.3610.12.31 3233.12.3
3,000–3,9991 3324.53.4490.23.31 3814.63.4
4,000–9,99912 35086.17.02411.56.312 59187.77.0
10,000–19,99916 582243.714.74246.415.017 006250.114.7
20,000–49,99940 3281,192.329.693426.528.341 2621,218.829.5
50,000–199,9998 453714.284.529126.290.18 744740.484.7
200,000 and over666221.2332.1259.9395.5691231.1334.4
            All groups83 5472,467.729.52 15870.932.985 7052,538.629.6

Land transfers by size groups during 1977–78 are shown in the following table for both Islands and for New Zealand as a whole.

Size Group (hectares)North IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
  hectares  hectares  hectares 
  (000)$(m) (000)$(m) (000)$(m)
Under 254 35361,385.422 5813507.976 93491,893.3
2 and under 61 546665.9675224.82 221790.8
6 and under 11567428.526429.7831638.1
11 and under 20516827.219737.37131034.5
20 and under 501 2694293.84371321.31 70656115.1
50 and under 756083661.22181315.48264976.6
75 and under 1003282735.01961617.15244452.1
100 and under 2004916953.74636347.0954131100.7
            200 and over61730588.137917249.4996477137.5
    Total60 2955041,838.725 410286699.985 7057902,538.6

This table includes both urban and rural land transfers. The majority of the urban transfers will be in the Under 2 hectares size-group, which includes 90 percent of the total number. Besides normal residential properties, this size-group will include many business, commercial, and industrial properties, and high-density residential properties (such as blocks of flats) in urban centres.

A final table shows all land transfers during the 2 latest available years by land registration districts. The urban areas of Auckland are in the North Auckland Land Registration District.

Land Registration District1976–771977–78
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
  hectares  hectares 
  (000)$(m) (000)$(m)
North Auckland31 84883.3887.125 54276.6769.5
South Auckland15 947113.5434.613 988113.0451.9
Gisborne1 07663.929.599751.636.4
Hawke's Bay4 07752.8108.03 40073.2110.8
Taranaki3 02749.083.82 49439.870.9
Wellington17 836117.8482.713 874149.4399.2
Marlborough1 28920.830.91 05820.727.5
Nelson2 55922.460.82 47829.164.0
Westland6315.38.45675.29.2
Canterbury13 75578.5348.513 112107.7380.5
Otago6 35866.3130.95 23665.6129.4
Southland3 56560.286.22 95957.789.4
                Total101 968733.72,691.635 705789.62,538.6

Figures of average consideration, and indeed all land transfer data, should be used with caution owing to the great diversity of property transactions covered by the figures. These transactions include, for example, sales of residential properties, farms and farmland, all classes of commercial, industrial, and business properties, sections, and parcels of land bought for such purposes as large-scale manufacturing, forestry, recreation, reserves, and later sub-division. Movements in prices of individual types of properties are better indicated elsewhere. The Building and Construction section of this Yearbook includes an urban house property and section index, compiled by the Department of Statistics and designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for house properties and sections sold during each half-year. Recent annual figures from a farmland sale price index, compiled by the Valuation Department, are shown below. Family sales are excluded, as are sales of land having a significant potential for urbanisation or any purpose other than farming. The base is calendar year 1960 (= 1000).

Year Ended 31 DecemberIndex NumberPercentage Change from Previous Year
19743478+48:2
19753999+15:0
19764404+10:1
19774951+12:4
19785420+9:5

10 F—VALUATION OF LAND

GENERAL—Equitable land values are a basis for many of the relations of the Central Government and local authorities with the individual. In particular they are required in connection with the following: (a) the levying of land tax; (b) the apportionment of rating levies over contributory local authorities; (c) the levying of rates by local authorities; (d) the advancing of money on mortgage by Government departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act; (e) the assessing of stamp, estate, and gift duties; (f) the fixing of prices payable to the Crown or by the Crown for transfers of land.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE—The Government Valuation of Land Act 1896 set up a separate Government department charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the Central Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act 1951, and in the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by district valuers and valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate (a) the value of the land; (b) the value of the buildings (if any) and other improvements (if any) upon such land; and (c) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, not to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law, the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local authority expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, is incorporated in the “land value”. “Improvements” on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land. With the introduction of land value in 1970 (in place of unimproved value) the term “improvements”, correctly speaking, includes only those items of work done or material used which result in structural additions to the property.

The “capital value” is, broadly speaking, the unencumbered market value of the land at date of valuation, and the “value of improvements” is the added value given by the “improvements”.

THE VALUATION ROLL—A valuation roll is prepared for each district over which a territorial local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth the ownership, description, and valuation of each property, including rates postponement and special rateable values where these are required to be determined.

Revision of Rolls—District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at intervals of not more than 5 years unless for good reason he decides otherwise.

The Supplementary Roll—There is, in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes—e.g., the granting of loans by Government departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and estate duties—form the supplementary roll.

Objections to Valuations—In the case of a revision of a district valuation roll, the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any valuation thereon. Where a particular property only is revalued, the owner and any local authority affected by the alteration in the valuation have a right of objection. If, after the Valuer-General has reconsidered the matter, the objector is still dissatisfied he may ask for the objection to be heard by the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court.

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION OF THE SUPREME COURT—The Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948 as amended in 1968 and 1977 provides for objections under the Valuation of Land Act to be determined by the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court. In addition to its jurisdiction under the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948, the division hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act 1928 and determines values under the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952. Land valuation tribunals for particular localities operating under the general jurisdiction of magistrates' courts exercise prime jurisdiction in all matters except those where provision is made for them to be heard in the first instance by the Administrative Division. There is a right of appeal from a tribunal's decision to the Court with a further right of appeal to the Court of Appeal in certain cases.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Court's order, he may, within 14 days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Court at less than the capital value, he may, within 14 days after the sealing of the Court's order require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within 30 days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING—The district valuation roll, so long as it continues in force, is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the land value is framed.

The third major rating system is the annual (rental) value system, where the annual values are assessed by valuers appointed by the local authorities concerned. The Valuer-General may be so appointed. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would let from year to year reduced by 20 percent in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 percent in the case of land, but it may not be less than 5 percent of the value of the fee simple. A new valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or triennially.

Parts IV and V of the Rating Act 1967 provide for local authorities to grant applications for rates postponement in respect of certain residences in commercial and industrial zones and for farmlands in counties with valuations reflecting potential use for urban development. Rates postponement values are determined either under the Valuation of Land Act or the Rating Act, according to the system of raring in force. Special rateable values for non-conforming commercial or industrial land in residential or rural zones are also provided for in order that these classes of properties will not enjoy a rating advantage. Likewise special rateable values may be determined for rural or residential land or commercial or industrial areas, for single or double unit dwellinghouses in areas where values are influenced by demand for multi-unit housing, and for “existing use” properties, i.e., properties used for any purpose for which the owner or occupier is entitled to use the land pursuant to section 90 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1977.

Part VI of the Rating Act provides for rating relief for farmlands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town councils, and county councils in respect of communities. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farmlands lower than the normal rateable values.

Equalisation of Values—The Rating Act, Part DC, provides for an equitable adjustment of rates and of levies based on rateable values as between the several constituent districts comprising the district of an ad hoc local authority where those constituent districts have been revalued by the Valuer-General at different times. Provision is also made for equalisation to be done where the several ridings of a county have been revalued at different dates.

CAPITAL VALUE AND VALUE OF LAND—The figures in the following table show valuations over a period of years for the whole of New Zealand; they are gross values and include the value not only of rateable properties but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating. Valuation figures back to 1878 were given in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

As at 31 MarchCapital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*

*Included in previous column.

†Includes the districts revalued after 1 March 1971 on the “land value” basis provided for by the Valuation of Land Amendment Act (No. 2) 1970, which came into effect on that date. Earlier figures are on the basis of unimproved values only.

 $(million)
19616,497.41,905.7
19626,945.72,061.1
19637,373.62,212.1
19647,760.42,345.8
19658,459.22,644.5
19669,085.02,865.5
19679,836.13,184.2
196810,631.63,487.0
196911,349.73,705.2
197012,515.64,170.7
197113,305.74,489.0
197214,331.35,046.3
197315,657.25,704.1
197417,871.76,778.3
197524,383.510,433.6
197630,011.513,386.7
197735,575.215,981.5
197841,228.718,696.5

In the following table the gross values and net values for the latest years are analysed in more detail. Net values include all rateable property and all properties on which local authorities recover grants in lieu of rates. In interpreting these figures it is essential to realise that substantial boundary changes take place from time to time.

As at 31 MarchGross ValuesNet Values
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*
*Included in previous column.
$(million)
Counties
197610,189.65,645.59,465.65,445.5
197712,264.56,896.911,465.56,659.6
197814,715.88,232.613,753.77,938.9
Cities and Boroughs
197619,784.27,731.418,307.17,096.0
197723,269.29,073.721,501.88,364.7
197826,481.910,457.724,493.09,658.9
Town Districts
197637.09.533.58.8
197741.510.937.710.2
197831.06.228.05.8
Grand Totals
197630,011.513,386.727,806.312,550.4
197735,575.215,981.533,005.015,034.5
197841,228.718,696.538,274.717,603.6

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up-to-date has the effect in the preceding tables of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes.

With the present resources at the Valuation Department's disposal, an up-to-date revaluation of all properties in New Zealand would be an impossible task but by using the principle of valuation equalisation mentioned earlier, it is possible to compile up-to-date gross values by local body districts for the whole country. The gross capital value figures shown below have been compiled on the level of values as at 31 March 1978.

Territorial AreasGrass Capital Value
 $(million)
Counties18,794.3
Cities and boroughs31,007.7
Town districts40.2
 49,842.2

A comparison of these figures with the gross values shown for the year ended 31 March 1978 given previously, illustrates the point that valuation statistics tend to have the effect of delaying the appearance of current movements in the property market.

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 31 March 1978, and of rateable property values between the different types of local authority districts, also as at 31 March 1978.

Local Authority DistrictAreaPopulationNet Property Values
Capital ValueValue of LandValue of Improvements
*Balance made up of persons on shipboard and extra-county islands.
 Percentage Distribution
Counties98.525.335.945.128.1
Cities and boroughs1.473.864.054.871.8
Town districts0.10.10.10.1
                Total100.0100.0*100.0100.0100.0

Particulars of values for each county, borough, and town district in considerable detail are contained in the annual report, Local Authority Statistics, published by the Department of Statistics.

VALUERS' REGISTRATION BOARD—The Valuers Act 1948 provides for the registration of land valuers and for some control of their work. There is a Registration Board under the chairmanship of the Valuer-General, which issues certificates for registration to all valuers and annual practising certificates to public valuers. The main objects of the Act are to secure a high standard of valuation work throughout the country and to encourage competent valuers. Of the 1306 valuers registered as at 31 March 1978, 443 have taken out annual practicing certificates for the current year. The majority of the remaining 863 registered valuers are either employed in Government departments or do not make valuations for members of the public and thus are not required to hold annual practising certificates.

Chapter 13. Section 11; NATIONAL PLANNING

Table of Contents

DEVELOPMENT OF CONSULTATIVE PLANNING—New Zealand has now had several years of experience with a form of consultative planning, instituted as a result of the National Development Conference in 1968. The need for long-term planning in order to achieve a faster, more balanced, economic growth rate coupled with a proper consideration for environmental, social, and other non-material factors first came to the fore in the early 1950s.

During the 1950s and 1960s, “key sector” conferences were held on housing and on industrial, export, and agricultural development. These conferences reflected a changed attitude regarding the Government's role in growth and development. As a result of the work of the Agricultural Development Conference, in particular, medium- and long-term projections were accepted as the basis for planning and targets were set for agricultural production up to 10 years ahead. Another feature was the formation of continuing machinery after two of the conferences. This took the form of a Trade Promotion Council and an Agricultural Production Council.

Other sectors became interested in this approach to planning within sectors. Preparations were being made by the end of 1967 for conferences on forestry and tourism to be held in early 1969. One drawback of this type of action was that each sector tended to view its problems and future in isolation. The Government decided therefore to hold a National Development Conference, with plenary sessions in August 1968 and May 1969, to set economic planning on a national basis. The outcome of the conference was the adoption of national and sector growth targets and a large number of recommendations, many of which were later implemented.

THE NDC SYSTEM—The NDC planning structure, which succeeded the National Development Conference, consisted of a National Development Council and eventually 16 sector councils, including 7 bodies already in existence before the conference. The National Development Council, which was chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister, was designed to oversee and co-ordinate the work of the sector councils and to provide a direct link between the NDC system and the Government. The council was served by a Targets Advisory Group (TAG) chaired by the Governor of the Reserve Bank. A planning secretariat, located in the Treasury, served both the council and the Targets Advisory Group.

Considerable changes were made during succeeding years (for example, the National Development Council was abolished and its functions taken over by the Cabinet Committee on Policy and Priorities, and the Targets Advisory Group was renamed the Planning Advisory Group), but by the mid-1970s there was a general feeling that momentum had been lost and a major overhaul or replacement of the central planning organisation was necessary.

During 1976 the Government established a task force on social and economic planning under the chairmanship of Sir Frank Holmes. The objectives were to review past planning activities in New Zealand, to advise on major trends and issues, and to recommend a planning mechanism that would assist in the development of New Zealand's economy and society. The task force completed the exercise in October 1976, and issued its report entitled New Zealand at the Turning Point in December (the synopsis from this report was reprinted as a special article in the 1977 Yearbook). As a result of its recommendations a New Zealand Planning Council was set up in March 1977 as a first step towards the development of a national planning system as envisaged by the task force.

THE NEW ZEALAND PLANNING COUNCIL—In selecting the council members the Government was influenced by a task force recommendation that membership should reflect wide experience in many fields rather than represent particular sectional interests. Other notable departures from the NDC experience include a full-time chairman and secretariat, and the presence on the council of a senior Minister of the Crown with portfolio responsibilities directly relevant to the council's work (the Minister of National Development). Sir Frank Holmes, who had led the task force, was appointed the council's first chairman.

Although the council had been in operation since April 1977 a Statute (the New Zealand Planning Act, 1977) was enacted in December 1977 to formally establish the council and to set out its functions and powers. These include:

  1. To advise the Government on planning for social, economic, and cultural development in New Zealand;

  2. To assist the Government to co-ordinate such planning;

  3. To comment to the Government on programmes for social, economic, and cultural development in New Zealand, and to recommend the priorities that should be accorded to them;

  4. To act as focal point for a process of consultative planning about New Zealand's medium term development;

  5. To foster discussion among those agencies (Government and private) concerned with planning particularly in the economic, environmental, social, and cultural fields;

  6. To submit advice to the Government on links between planning at the national and regional levels;

  7. To prepare reports on any matter affecting the economic, social, or cultural development of New Zealand.

It may submit any reports prepared by it to the Minister of National Development, recommend that these be placed before Parliament and publish documents on planning topics which in its view merit wide consideration and debate.

Before the establishment of the New Zealand Planning Council, the Government was assisted in long-term economic planning and the development of natural resources by the Planning Advisory Group and a number of councils with a wide coverage of the economic, social, and cultural life of New Zealand. These councils, most of which were originally sector councils under the National Development Council, were the Agricultural Production Council, Manufacturing Development Council, Forestry Development Council, Mineral Resources Council, Tourist Development Council, Trade Promotion Council, Building Industry Advisory Council, Transport Advisory Council, Distribution Council, National Research Advisory Council, Education Development Council, Environmental Council, Social Development Council, Nature Conservation Council, Land Use Advisory Council, Vocational Training Council, the Committee on Women, and the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council. It is intended that such sector councils shall have close links with the Planning Council, but not be part of its formal structure.

As part of its desire to consult as widely as possible, the council issued a document in August 1977, entitled A Moment of Truth. This was designed to secure a response from a wide cross-section of the community to assist it in the preparation of its first major report. This report, entitled Planning Perspectives 1978–1983, was published in March 1978.

Throughout the latter half of 1978 and the first few months of 1979 the council devoted considerable efforts to a detailed study of Government expenditure, with special emphasis on social policies. This report was scheduled for publication about June 1979.

In February 1978, the Monetary and Economic Council was disbanded and its role in monitoring economic trends and policies was assigned to the Planning Council. The formation of a new independent group charged with monitoring current economic trends and policies, to be known as the Economic Monitoring Group (EMG), was announced by the chairman of the Planning Council in April 1978.

The Economic Monitoring Group issued its first report, entitled New Zealand's Economic Trends and Policies, in September 1978.

Planning Council Publications—Between August 1977 and July 1979 the New Zealand Planning Council had published or issued the following documents.

No.1. A Moment of Truth1977
No.2. Regional Options1977
No.3. Town and Country Planning Bill1977
No.4. Planning Perspectives 1978–19831978
No.5. Taxation Reform. By Donald T. Brash and Graeme Thompson1978
No.6. Income Maintenance and Taxation: Some options for reform. By Paul Bevin, Avery Jack and John Jensen1978
No.7. Working Together1978
No.8. New Zealand and the European Community1978
No.9. The Future for New Zealand Agriculture: Economic Strategies for the 1980s. By Ian McLean1978
No.10. Australian Relationships with New Zealand1978
No.11. Economic Strategy: 19791979
No.12. The Welfare State?: Social Policy in the 1980s1979
No.12a. Public Expenditure and its Financing: 1950–19791979

COMMISSION FOR THE FUTURE—The New Zealand Planning Act 1977 gave statutory recognition to both the New Zealand Planning Council and the Commission for the Future, which had been established in September 1976.

The principal general functions of the Commission for the Future are to study the possibilities for the long-term economic and social development of New Zealand; to report to the Minister of National Development on these possibilities; and to publish the information and stimulate further public discussion. In carrying out these general functions the commission is required to give special attention to the long-term implications for New Zealand of new or prospective developments in science and technology, and to have regard to prospective trends, policies, and events in New Zealand or overseas which could have important consequences for the country's future. The membership of the commission consists of not more than 7 members appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of National Development, a Minister of the Crown, a Member of Parliament nominated by the Leader of the Opposition, a member of the Planning Council, and the Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

The commission co-ordinates its activities closely with those of the Planning Council to avoid duplication of effort and to ensure the most efficient use of available resources.

This year the commission is presenting its first major study, New Zealand in the Future World, to be published in booklets pertinent to international relations, the environment, and the social area, concluding with the options for New Zealand. This will be followed by scenario work on possible futures for New Zealand, to encourage further public debate on the options.

THE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL—The Social Development Council is a planning and advisory body responsible to the Minister of Social Welfare. The council has 6 members representing Government departments, and 12 private members, selected for their personal qualities and general or particular experience in the social field, but not as direct nominees of particular interest groups. The secretariat for the council is provided by the Department of Social Welfare.

The Social Development Council had its origins in the National Development Conference which was set up in 1968 to review New Zealand's resources, and to indicate broad lines for economic development over the subsequent decade. As a result of criticism that the conference's first session had been preoccupied with purely economic matters, the examination was broadened to include the development of a better social environment.

Among the recommendations to come from the National Development Conference was that for a permanent planning structure to be set up to continue the work of the conference. The National Development Council was established as the central body of the planning structure. A framework of sector councils was established and among these was the Social Council, whose task was to focus on the social aspects of development including those arising from the targets and programmes of other sector councils. The Social Council met for the first time in August 1971.

In December 1972, the functions of the National Development Council were transferred to the Cabinet Committee on Policy and Priorities. The Social Council continued to function with a change of name to the Social Development Council and altered terms of reference.

Under its present terms of reference, the council keeps under review social aspects of development and social policies needed to bring about a desirable quality of life. The council has a brief to initiate social development proposals for submission to the Minister of Social Welfare and to advise the Minister of Social Welfare and other Ministers through him of changes required in social policies, social needs arising from economic development, and any related aspects. It co-ordinates with other planning and advisory bodies and maintains contact with organisations concerned with social research.

Social Goal—The ultimate goal of the Social Development Council is a society in which the direction of development and social change is towards providing the maximum opportunity for each person to achieve happiness, and thus a society in which:

  1. Each person is able to create and belong to family or other intimate groups where a secure and happy environment is provided for children and dependent adults;

  2. Each person is regarded as having dignity and being worthy of respect, has the maximum freedom of choice and action without encroaching upon the rights of others, and is not disciminated against by reason of sex, race, culture or other distinguishing characteristics; and in which;

  3. Each person is able to contribute towards the identification and achievement of objectives for a multicultural community and is encouraged to understand and appreciate the religious, political and cultural attitudes, beliefs and customs of other persons and groups and to act responsibly within the community.

Specific Objectives—The following more specific objectives are considered to be important at the present time for helping progress toward the ultimate goal. An advantage of these is that the extent to which they are achieved can be measured by data available or obtainable:

  1. Each person has access to employment and vocational opportunities which are satisfying and within his or her capabilities.

  2. Each person has the maximum opportunity to be as physically and emotionally healthy and fit as his or her potential allows, and has ready and adequate access to necessary health and social welfare services.

  3. Each person has equal and effective access to opportunities to learn knowledge, skills, and attitudes, which will enable the development of the person and of his or her contribution to the well-being of the community.

  4. Each person or family group is housed adequately according to their needs in keeping with currently accepted standards.

  5. No person has his or her participation and enjoyment in the community restricted by an inadequate income.

  6. The hazards of injury, accident, and crime are kept to a minimum, and each person has adequate access to processes of law and equal rights before the law, is aware of his or her obligations under the law, and does not experience any avoidable hardship through being the victim of injury, accident, or crime.

  7. Each person has the right to leisure and the opportunity to participate in leisure-time activities including social, intellectual, artistic, cultural, and physical pursuits.

  8. Each person has the opportunity to participate in community decision-making and is encouraged to accept his or her responsibilities to the community.

OTHER PHASES OF NATIONAL PLANNING—Other phases of national planning are dealt with in other sections of this Yearbook. Land development and use, and the sometimes-conflicting claims of economic growth and the preservation of the natural environment, are discussed and described in Section 10A—Physical Environment and Economic Growth. Energy planning comes into Section 20—Energy Resources; industrial planning into Section 18—Manufacturing; and the scientific, agricultural, and industrial research that provides the essential background information for meaningful planning is briefly described in Section 7B—Science and Scientific Services. The question of finance for development comes into the Finance sections, especially Sections 29 and 30.

Chapter 14. Section 12; TRANSPORT

12 A—GENERAL

Throughout the world the social and economic significance of transport has established a strong public interest in the industry. This interest has frequently been reflected in extensive Government participation in transport operations.

New Zealand has become increasingly dependent on good communication links. Transport as a service industry is the largest single expenditure element in our economy. Since early colonial days transport has always been a major area of Government responsibility. Harbour construction and the building of roads and railways were carried out and transport services operated not only as part of the process of colonisation and development but also because there were no private agencies capable of undertaking the work. There was either inadequate finance available, or the services were likely to be unattractive to private investors due to unprofitability, although they were considered desirable for economic or social purposes. The State then, either directly or through subordinate agencies, builds and maintains the roads, harbours, airports, and railways network which decide the nature and extent of the transport available to the people of New Zealand; it operates road, rail, sea, and air services itself; it regulates competition within and between the various modes of transport; and it imposes and enforces detailed and extensive safety regulations.

New Zealand, as a nation dependent on overseas trade and geographically remote from many of its trading partners, relies more heavily on transport than do many other countries. During recent years its transport industry has been the subject of a comprehensive examination and review by the Government. Transport has far-reaching effects on the economy, on society, and on the environment, and it was the recognition of the close link between transport and the general welfare of the community that highlighted the need to establish a transport policy as an integral part of New Zealand's broad development strategy.

Transport in New Zealand is complicated by the geographic configuration of the country, the separation into 2 main islands, the location of the main urban areas, the number and situation of the main ports, the seasonal nature of much of the production, and the large proportion of one-way loading in the internal transport system. In its overseas trade the country is mainly dependent on overseas shipping companies to carry its exports to distant markets and bring in imports.

TRANSPORT AND THE ECONOMY—The significant influence of transport on all sections of the economy can be shown in a number of ways.

Relationship with Industry—Transport is also an integral part of the production process. It supplies the factories with raw materials, and carries away the manufactured goods. It supplies the transport services by which the men and women who work in the factories travel to and from their homes. The efficiencies which have been achieved as a result of the greater concentration of industrial plant in recent years can to a certain extent be attributed to the development of technologically advanced and efficient transport services.

The priority given today by the international financial institutions to transport development in the less economically advanced countries of the world is further recognition of the importance of an adequate transport system as one of the foundations for national development.

Relationship with Economic Development—One of the key elements in the attainment of a high standard of living in this country has been the development of an efficient internal transport system. There is no doubt that the establishment of rail and road links from the interior to the coastal ports was a prerequisite to the large-scale development of New Zealand's primary industry during the last century, and that it was the growth of international sea-transport and of a fast, regular service of refrigerated cargo ships that enabled New Zealand to evolve from a subsistence economy to one of the world's major exporters of meat and dairy produce.

Relationship with Distribution—Transport, as a key means of the mass distribution of goods, ensures that ample supplies and a wide variety of goods are readily available within all centres of population. The standard of living enjoyed by people living in the ever-growing urban concentrations that are a feature of developed countries depends ultimately on efficient national and international transport systems. Additionally, ready transport availability from the point of production to the points of consumption reduces the need for large warehouse holdings of goods. The reduction in warehouse costs can assist in the lowering of retail prices.

Relationship with Costs—Transport costs make up a substantial part of the price of a product. The cost of transport as a portion of the total cost of a product varies from a small percentage to the major portion. Obviously, transport costs make up a greater proportion of the cost of a bulky raw material than of a sophisticated manufactured item.

Relationship with the Economy—It is estimated that the transport industry provides employment for over 9 percent of the labour force, and that the cost of moving goods and people is over $2,000 million each year. This figure provides an indication of the substantial sums spent on transport annually by private motor-vehicle owners, road carriers, bus operators, rental vehicle firms, taxi proprietors, freight forwarders, shipping companies, and aircraft operators as well as the considerable amount of expenditure on our roads, ports, airports, and railways by both central and local government. In addition, the Central Government, through its ownership of Air New Zealand Ltd., Safe Air Ltd., the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand, and the New Zealand Railways Department, has acquired fixed assets valued at over $550 million in transport services in this country. As well as contributing to the provision of transport facilities through the payment of certain road, air, and sea user charges, the transport industry, through the payment of income tax, customs duties, sales tax, local body rates, the local authority petroleum tax, and various registration and licence fees, contributes a significant amount to the annual taxation revenue of the country. Furthermore, transport is a major consumer of industrial goods. It utilises large portions of the country's rubber, lead, zinc, steel, copper, and aluminium needs, for instance, and its high consumption of imported oil products has been a matter of national concern in recent years. Finally, as a major consumer of industrial products and as a means of distributing exports to our distant and diverse markets, transport has a significant effect on the country's balance of payments.

Relationship with the Physical Environment—The roads, airports, ports, railways, and pipelines of this country have an effect on the communities surrounding these facilities. They affect the location of manufacturing, retailing, and the distribution industries and influence the character of an area. On the other hand, they can divide communities and create noise and aesthetic problems as well as problems of pollution. Environmental and aesthetic considerations have received increased attention in recent years. For example, the environmental aspects of major reading schemes are carefully considered in relation to their purpose, need, design, benefits, and detractions.

TRANSPORT AND SOCIETY—Apart from the various considerations outlined in the previous paragraphs which closely affect the quality of life in this country, transport has numerous other effects on our society. For instance, the availability, type, and extent of transport can influence the character of a city or suburb. A city or town can be dominated by its port or its rail facilities just as a suburb can become, owing to its transport system, largely a “dormitory” suburb of a distant commercial area.

An efficient network of roads and other transport services both serves to knit together a community and discourages narrow parochialism by providing the means of cheap, convenient, and comfortable travel by which mental horizons are widened and the bonds of family or friendship kept strong. If the economic life of a country is heavily dependent on its transport system, so too is its social and cultural development.

The effect on a community of a change in transport policy must therefore be carefully evaluated by those responsible for running the country.

12 B—SHIPPING

In recent years the development of the container ship, the unitised cargo ship, the roll-on roll-off ship, and barge-carrying systems such as the “lash” (lighter aboard ship) system have brought about a world wide revolution in the handling of maritime cargoes, and a new concept of the co-ordination of transport through the substitution of capital-intensive for labour-intensive operations. New Zealand is fully involved in this technological change.

A cargo-handling co-ordination committee serviced by the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport is affiliated to an international association with a control office in the United Kingdom.

PORT DEVELOPMENT—To ensure the control of harbour development a New Zealand Ports Authority has been established. Amongst its several functions is the fostering of an efficient and integrated ports system and, to that end, the preparation of a national ports planning system.

Under this plan, harbour authorities must obtain the authority's approval for major capital projects, e.g., container cranes, storage sheds, and tugs. Consents granted during the year ended 31 March 1978 involved developments costing $25 million.

A feature of port development in recent years has been the acquisition of container cargo handling facilities. As a result of the containerisation of New Zealand's major export trades, New Zealand's 4 container ports—Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, and Port Chalmers—have all invested substantially in container cranes, straddle carriers, storage sheds, and ancillary facilities.

To date both Auckland and Wellington are operating 2 container cranes and Lyttelton and Port Chalmers 1 each. It is expected that Auckland, Wellington, and Port Chalmers will each have a further crane in operation by 1980.

CARGO TRAFFIC—Since the introduction of a container service to the United States in August 1971, and to the United Kingdom in September 1972, container traffic has steadily increased. During the year ended 31 December 1978 cellular container ships working at container terminals made 372 ship voyages and handled 160 439 containers. This compared with 265 voyages and 94 306 containers during the previous year.

U.K./Europe Trade—Associated Container Transportation (ACT), in conjunction with the Australian National Line (ANL), operates 6 vessels which serve both Australia and New Zealand. Similarly, ANZECS (Australia–New Zealand–Europe Container Service), a consortium comprised of 5 shipping lines, operates 12 container vessels between New Zealand, Australia, and Europe. The Shipping Corporation of New Zealand (SCNZ) is a member of ANZECS, and in September 1978 introduced its container ship, New Zealand Pacific, into the trade.

In addition, Scan Carriers provide a 2-ship containerised roll-on roll-off service calling at Timaru, Napier, and Auckland.

East Coast-North America Trade—This trade is almost completely containerised. ACT and ANL have combined to form the PACE Line which operates 5 vessels (3 ACT and 2 ANL) in similar fashion to their combined U.K-Europe service. The Columbus Line operates 5 vessels which call at Auckland, Wellington, and Port Chalmers. Farrell Lines operate 4 vessels which call only at Auckland and Wellington.

West Indies and U.S. Gulf Trade—In 1980 a 3-ship container service operated jointly by Shaw Savill Line, Bank Line, and the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand is to be established. The Shipping Corporation will be providing 1 of the 3 ships for the joint service. Columbus Line already operates a 3-ship container service to the West Indies and the U.S. Gulf calling at Auckland and Wellington.

West Coast-North America Trade—This trade is also served by cellular container vessels. The Columbus Line operates 4 vessels on the trade and they call at Auckland and Wellington; and Farrell Lines operate 3 container/"lash" vessels which call at Auckland. Star Line Limited entered the West Coast-North America trade in February 1978 with 2 container vessels calling as Lyttelton, Wellington, and Auckland.

Japan Trade—This trade has now become almost fully containerised following the introduction of a 2-vessel container service in late 1976 by the 5 member lines of the New Zealand Eastern Shipping Committee. New Zealand ports of call for these vessels include Auckland, Wellington, and Port Chalmers.

Middle East—In October 1978 Blue Star Line established a 2-ship container service with calls at Port Chalmers, New Plymouth, and Auckland.

Trans-Tasman—The Union Steam Ship Company operates 4 roll-on roll-off (ro-ro) vessels calling at Auckland, Tauranga, Wellington, Nelson, Lyttelton, and Dunedin.

The Union Steam Ship Company also manages and operates the Tasman Enterprise and the Tasman Venture, 2 purpose-built bulk carriers used to transport timber products to Australia for the Tasman Pulp and Paper Company.

Pacific Islands—The Shipping Corporation of New Zealand has recently extended its Cook Islands – Niue service to Tahiti and has purchased 2 unit-load vessels, the Tiare Moana and the Fetu Moana, to operate the extended service. This service, which commenced operation in February 1978, was necessitated by the withdrawal of the Luhesand (which formerly traded to Tahiti) on the expiry of her charter to the Union Steam Ship Company, and also the growing need to rationalise and increase the efficiency of services in the region. The other New Zealand vessel employed in the Pacific is the Union Steam Ship Company's roll-on roll-off vessel Marama which serves the Fiji–Samoa–Tonga trade.

The Pacific Forum Line was established in June 1977 as a South Pacific regional shipping line controlled jointly by member countries of the South Pacific Forum. Managerial services for the line have been established and services commenced in May 1978, with the vessels Tauloto 2 and Toa Moana serving ports in New Zealand, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, the Gilbert Islands, the Solomon Islands, and Papua-New Guinea. New Zealand contributed Toa Moana to the line.

Inter-Island and Coastal Services—A regular ferry service across the Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton, at the head of the Marlborough Sounds, is provided by rail ferries operated by the Railways Department. The ferries Aramoana and Aranui, which carry passengers and freight, normally make 25 round trips per week throughout the year. Two other ferries, Arahanga and Aratika, were designed to carry freight but, in addition, to have limited accommodation for truck drivers and others whose vehicles were being carried. The Aratika has now been converted to carry passengers and freight. The conversion has given the vessel a capacity of 800 passengers and 70 motor vehicles in addition to the normal rail freight capacity. The Aramoana was extensively refitted during 1977. The Aranui also underwent a refit in 1978.

During the year ended March 1978 the 4 ferries in service carried 690 126 ordinary passengers; 34 116 excursion passengers; 148 228 passengers' motor vehicles; 9387 trucks, vans, or trade cars; and 1,612,268 manifest tonnes of other goods. Gross revenue from the ferry service amounted to $28,513,803, resulting in a surplus of revenue over expenditure of $1,646,226.

In September 1976 the inter-island passenger service between Wellington and Lyttelton was terminated because of financial losses and a decreasing demand for service. A freight-only service operated by the Shipping Corporation's Coastal Ranger was introduced between the 2 ports but terminated early in 1978 owing to financial losses. A service is now provided by the Union Steam Ship Company's trans-Tasman vessels.

Most of the ships engaged in the coastal trade are relatively small, exceptions including the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand's Coastal Trader, and the coastal voyages of the Union Steam Ship Company's trans-Tasman vessels carrying cars, sugar, or other cargoes. Coastal shipping trade includes the shipment of coal from Westport to Portland, the movement of newsprint from Mount Maunganui to the South Island, the cartage of cement, the Onehunga-Nelson trade, and shipping bulk cargoes out of Nelson.

Additional information on port, cargo, and shipping statistics may be found in the Report on Transport Statistics, an annual publication of the Department of Statistics, and in an annual bulletin issued by the Department entitled Shipping and Cargo Statistics.

SHIPPING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—In 1974 a Government-owned shipping corporation was set up to establish and operate shipping services as empowered by the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973. Initially the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand formed a subsidiary called the New Zealand Line which (from, and in conjunction with, the Shaw Savill and Albion Company) purchased 2 ships of 12 227 tons, known as N.Z. Waitangi and N.Z. Aorangi, which carry 24 and 18 containers on deck respectively. These were engaged in the New Zealand–United Kingdom trade, but their role in this trade has now been taken over by the Shipping Corporation's new container ship New Zealand Pacific, which operates under the auspices of the ANZEC consortium.

The corporation itself operates a number of ships engaged in the coastal and Pacific Islands trade. They include the Coastal Trader, a roll-on roll-off vessel on the Auckland-Lyttelton-Dunedin run; the Tiare Moana and the Fetu Moana, both trading with the Pacific Islands; and the Bulknes, carrying aluminium ore for the Bluff smelter. In addition, the corporation acts as managing agents for Shaw Savill's New Zealand-West Indies-U.S. Gulf Service. In 1980 it is due to provide and operate one of the 3 new container ships to be introduced to this trade under a joint venture with Shaw Savill Line and Bank Line.

During 1975 a new company (Container Terminals Ltd), in which the Shipping Corporation has a majority shareholding, was formed to operate the Wellington container terminal. The minority shareholders comprise the other shipping lines which use the terminal.

In addition to entering the U.K. trade, the corporation has become, or is looking to become, involved in a number of other areas. It has already entered the Japanese container trade (April 1977) under slot-chartering arrangements with other ship operators, and is currently investigating the possibility of involvement in other trades between New Zealand and areas such as South-east Asia, West Africa, North America, and the Arabian Gulf.

SHIPPING ON NEW ZEALAND REGISTER—At 31 December 1977 there were 1152 snips on the New Zealand register, the total gross tonnage being 250 872 and net tonnage, 125 540. (Gross tonnage is defined by Lloyds as the capacity in cubic feet of spaces within the hull and of the enclosed spaces above the deck available for cargo, stores, passengers, and crew, with certain exceptions, divided by 100. Thus, 100 cubic feet of capacity is equivalent to 1 gross ton. Net tonnage is derived from gross tonnage by deducting spaces used for the accommodation of the master, officers, crew, navigation equipment, propelling machinery, and fuel.)

Most of the vessels on the register are relatively small. Vessels not exceeding 15 net tons, employed in trade solely on the coast or inland waters, are not required to register under the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952. These small trading vessels, along with yachts and other pleasure craft, may be registered at the request of the owners.

The following table shows registered trading Vessels. Ships in overseas trade are mainly engaged in trans-Tasman and Pacific Islands trading movements.

YearNumber of VesselsNet Registered Tonnage*Number of Crew
*1 ton equals 2.83 cubic metres.
Coastal Trade
19771543 125x565
19781543 843538
Overseas Trade
19771985 322637
19781884 577526

PORT STATISTICS—Demands made on ports by overseas and coastal vessels are illustrated in the following table, which gives the total number and tonnage of all calls made each year.

YearOverseas VesselsCoastal VesselsTotal
Number of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet Tonnage
  tons (000) tons (000) tons (000)
19763 76220 8867 77811 30311 54032 189
19773 40022 3177 63911 17811 03933 495
19783 25123 1346 74110 5069 99233 640

All Calls of Overseas Vessels—The following table shows for 3 recent years the number of calls and net tonnage of overseas vessels arriving at New Zealand ports, either direct or coastwise.

Port197619771978
Number of CallsNet Tonnage of VesselsNumber of CallsNet Tonnage of VesselsNumber of CallsNet Tonnage of Vessels
  tons (000) tons (000) tons (000)
Bay of Islands2218215131896
Whangarei1131 5741031 4861191 569
Auckland1 1366 1559706 6398986 683
Onehunga331547254331
Taharoa252092824021308
Tauranga4692 1784332 4444492 557
Gisborne2011616731838
Napier215967207990178955
Taranaki1095647540884507
Waverley143111563314701
Wellington4603 0334233 2574293 571
Picton22121191021174
Nelson136553152639162675
Westport995412
Greymouth115433
Lyttelton4272 0333702 0133922 299
Timaru14268011053586444
Otago2241 1642141 5851711 645
Bluff1851 0201931 108159979
                Total3 76220 8863 40022 3173 25123 134

CARGO STATISTICS—With cargo statistics it should be noted that the term “tonne” does not invariably denote a weight of 1000 kg. It is practicable to obtain the actual weights involved for only a portion of the goods handled. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulas as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, etc., to the tonne. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, is recorded in measurement tonnes, 1 cubic metre of space being regarded as the equivalent of a tonne. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in measurement tonnes, direct comparisons of tonnages of imports and exports are not always valid.

The following table gives a summary of the tonnage of cargo passing through all ports for the latest 3 calendar years.

YearInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

*Excluding transhipments.

†Transhipments included twice.

 Manifest tonnes (000)
19768 33110 0381497 9778 21934 863
19778 40310 1971458 0869 06836 044
19787 7039 6091477 28610 22835 120

With the rise of ports handling specialised cargoes and major ports mechanically handling bulk loads and goods in containers on and off cellular container ships, the pattern of cargo movements has changed rapidly. Technical developments in packaging (containers, pallets) and transport (bulk loading) has tended to concentrate mechanised handling of cargo through a few ports with the consequent displacement of the manual labour of waterside workers.

The total tonnage of cargo handled by waterside workers in the year ended 30 September 1977 amounted to 13.2 million tonnes, an increase of 1.0 million over the 12.2 million tonnes handled in the previous 12 months. This was due to an increase of 791 000 tonnes of overseas cargo, and an increase of 170 000 tonnes in coastal and trans-Tasman cargo.

There was a substantial reduction of 680 287 tonnes in overseas conventional general cargo unloaded during the year ended September 1978, while bulk sulphur and phosphates increased 120 379 tonnes and other bulk cargoes unloaded increased 80 710 tonnes.

The total cargo unloaded and loaded by cellular container ships increased substantially from 1,639,946 tonnes in 1976–77 to 2,095,326 tonnes in 1977–78, an increase of 455 380 tonnes or 27.8 percent. This increase followed an even larger growth in container cargoes in 1976–77, when 639 415 tonnes or 63.9 percent more cargo was handled than in the previous year. Total cargo handled on cellular container ships has therefore increased more than 100 percent in the last 2 years.

A summation of cargo movements through ports shows that total tonnage throughputs of New Zealand ports have more than doubled since 1962 largely as the result of the double handling of oil to and from the refinery, and the growth of exports of forest products. Tonnages of farm produce—butter, cheese, meat, wool, and fruit—have remained stable over the years but have dropped from 8.1 percent of total throughput in 1964 to 5.2 percent in 1978. The figures and percentages for different types of cargo are given in the following table. Transhipments have been included. It should be noted that cargo figures shown in this and other tables refer to calendar years, and that the “tonnes” are “manifest tonnes”.

Item197619771978
*Mostly refrigerated, except wool.
 tonnes(000)tonnes(000)tonnes(000)
Inward cargo18 51818 74517 459
Outward cargo16 34517 29917 661
    Total throughput34 86336 04435 120
Some Principal Farm Products*
    Butter180165153
    Cheese678965
    Meat, frozen902894867
    Wool380365383
    Fruit, fresh329298349
    Total, farm products listed1 8581 8111 817
    Percentage of throughput5.35.05.2
Forest Products
    Total—timber only1 5391 7811 746
    Percentage of throughput4.44.95.0
Bulk Commodities
    Cement1 3571 0851 100
    Coal and coke257199139
    Grain407333328
    Fertilisers1 5981 7571 980
    Sand, shingle, and shell2 7593 2323 811
    Total, bulk commodities6 3786 6067 358
    Percentage of throughput18.318.321.0
Oil Products
    Total, oil products12 15412 44011 512
    Percentage of throughput34.934.532.8
Other Cargo
    Total, other cargo12 93413 40612 685
    Percentage of throughput37.137.236.1

The next table shows for each port the total inward and outward cargo in 1978. Loadings of bunker fuels are not included. A large proportion of the coastal movement concerns oil tankers working from the Whangarei refinery, while the movements of cars by tourists build up the Wellington and Picton tonnages.

PortInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

*Excluding transhipments.

†Transhipments included twice.

manifest tonnes
Parengarenga5 59461 42267 016
Houhora4 1874 187
Awanui5 4573305 787
Mangonui3 0013 001
Whangaroa455455
Bay of Islands4 2484 248
Whangarei788 4722,840,4373,072,634104 2326,805,775
Mangawhai1 5201 520
Auckland1,412,8012,533,32419 160191 0171,272,2645,447,726
Onehunga112 46813 865527 28764 532218 162
Raglan25 41025 410
Taharoa2,017,2272,017,227
Tauranga731 284585 29925 2291,892,2693,234,081
Gisborne20 35826121 72142 340
Napier298 833409 992458 8651,167,690
Taranaki251 936290 026749 92068 3801,360,262
Waverley1,522,6001,522,600
Wanganui61 26361 263
Wellington1,597,9381,126,599106 4181,360,705855 1485,153,226
Picton1,120,4291,083,41424 4822,228,325
Nelson176 52043 07025 262472 913717 765
Tarakohe210 234210 234
Westport10171173 439173 611
Greymouth5 5782 0317 609
Lyttelton536 818748 92021 424151 867330 4081,810,861
Chatham Islands10 2123 44313 655
Timaru170 99964 27532 813209 333477 420
Otago208 878251 24428 559672 9331,161,614
Bluff148 879701 80078 653239 0701,168,402
Half Moon Bay6 0362 2028 238
                Total7,702,5779,609,183147 0077,285,52810,228,40835,119,710

Inward Overseas Cargo—The following table shows the tonnage of some major items of inward overseas cargo handled in 1978. Transhipments are included.

PortIron and SteelMachineryFertilisersMotor Spirit, KeroseneOil, Other MineralsMotor Vehicles and PartsGypsum, Plaster of Paris
manifest tonnes
Whangarei180 4722,656,1333 788
Auckland320 56981 325204 621417 79934 172180 78670 361
Tauranga46356 83754 312
Napier6 2511 031354 90312 260411
Taranaki4 7041 987280 60910
Wellington58 73828 460790265 24542 728174 478
Nelson6816010 6494 6766 00015 362
Lyttelton26 23019 430148 062201 1291 77626 04021 578
Timaru2 8492 73545 1292373
Otago3 78619973 35524 6901 3214 093
Bluff943159206 97255 838
All other ports911015137
                Total424 193135 5961,862,4141,035,9492,734,832389 256115 182
PortFresh FruitGrainSugarTextilesAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tonnes
Whangarei442,840,437
Auckland96 4377 637146 36574 455915 6792,550,206
Tauranga1313 930170 043585 299
Napier3 52031231 304409 992
Taranaki2 716290 026
Wellington3 12220122 381554 8391,150,982
Nelson6 15543 070
Lyttelton30 063344 86521 119257 050757 376
Timaru2 7339610 63764 275
Otago12143 788251 244
Bluff437 888701 800
All other ports1 5221 94010 46914 202
                Total137 52811 802153 170118 3752,540,6129,658,909

Outward Overseas Cargo—In the section dealing with the export trade it is pointed out that pastoral products make up over 70 percent by value of New Zealand's exports. The following table shows how the various ports participated in the handling of the volume of the main items in the outward overseas cargo, including transhipments, during 1978.

PortButterCheeseOther Milk ProductsFrozen and Preserved MeatsHides and SkinsTallowWool
manifest tonnes
Whangarei18 50941938 7382 9422745
Auckland49 04719 069201 061185 85029 04324 03055 063
Onehunga409352 5532 381148
Tauranga51 1361 289166 0731 6576 5415 312
Gisborne1 2121494
Napier43 66045 3775 12415 48317 458
Taranaki21 0553 42213 83411 656342 3711 081
Wellington13 19538 50158 517374 36846 6552 125222 060
Picton
Nelson7479111991 74783
Lyttelton63912 42058 67612 95710 33945 192
Timaru28466 6611 4838 832
Otago902 493712 9144 202
Bluff59 10285014 37013 298
All other ports
                Total153 35563 748497 603813 28696 44480 068373 120
PortFresh FruitBeans and PeasPaper, Newsprint, etc.Timber, SoftwoodIron–sandAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tonnes
Whangarei4 26139 291104 232
Auckland28 1512 97815 74710 052666 9101,287,001
Onehunga20671 50982856 58764 537
Taharoa2,017,2272,017,227
Tauranga538289 8391,047,455322 4291,892,269
Gisborne20 01421 721
Napier90 44811270 609210 590458 865
Taranaki14 92768 380
Waverley1,522,6001,522,600
Wellington5 0803 5171 4341 899169 832937 183
Picton13 49910 98324 482
Nelson79 962380 6368 628472 913
Lyttelton2520 3394848 309129 153338 097
Timaru82758 67072 576209 333
Otago5 6565745651 809605 068672 933
Bluff1012 720138 720239 070
All other ports1 3886432 031
Total209 88028 424308 6331,702,1353,539,8272,466,35110,332,874

PORTS AND SHIPPING IN THE FUTURE—The effect on New Zealand of the revolution in cargo handling must be a major rationalisation of ports and shipping services. Containerisation involves major changes through the whole chain of cargo transportation and handling, and in road, rail, and port facilities and capabilities. It means fewer ships, but much bigger and faster ones carrying much greater tonnages. In the U.K. trade, about 70 percent of northbound refrigerated cargo and 10 percent of general cargo will be containerised. On current planning the shipping lines envisage that from 1979 onwards there will be an average service frequency of one ship every 5 days, each calling at 2 or 3 ports.

Larger, faster ships will require further expansion of ports and land-based facilities. Present indications are that Auckland and Wellington will each require 2 container berths and 3 cranes. During 1977 Port Chalmers received approval to acquire a second container crane, and this is expected to come into operation in late 1979. It has been estimated that loaded container volumes in the trade between New Zealand and U.K.-Western Europe in 1979 total over 90 000 per annum. Total container movements, involving loading, unloading, and the restowage of containers, greatly exceed these figures and are estimated at about 250 000 per year.

MERCHANT NAVY QUALIFICATIONS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport conducts regular examinations for merchant service personnel who wish to obtain certificates of competency as master, mate, or engineer. There are different standards of certificates for foreign-going, home trade, and restricted limits ships. The foreign-going certificates as master, first mate, second mate, and first-and second-class steam and motor engineer, are valid in most Commonwealth countries. Examinations are also conducted for skippers and mates of deep sea, coastal, and inshore fishing boats. Voluntary examinations are held for yachtsmen.

NAUTICAL SCHOOLS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport maintains nautical schools in Wellington and Auckland. Courses leading to the examinations for all grades of masters and mates certificates are available. Courses are also held for able seamen and ordinary seamen, for yachtsmen, and in radar.

SHIP SURVEY STATISTICS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport carries out the survey of ships as required by the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, and 1128 certificates of survey were issued in 1977. The department is also required to issue certificates to vessels engaged in international voyages in accordance with the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960, to which New Zealand is a signatory. Also special surveys are made for seaworthiness after damage, for efficiency of equipment, and for tonnage measurement.

LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE—On headlands, capes, reefs, and shoals around the 6968 kilometres of coastline and the waters in harbours and lakes controlled by the Ministry of Transport mere are 271 navigational aids. These aids comprise 19 manned lighthouses, 117 automatic lights, 104 day beacons, 18 navigational buoys, 1 fog signal, and 13 radio beacons. Their provision, maintenance, and servicing is a responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport, and involves an expenditure of approximately $1½ million annually. Lighthouse tenders, aircraft, helicopters, and road transport, along with a number of workshops, are used to provide this service to give the mariner reliabable ....ational aids. Light dues collected from overseas and coastal ships meet most of the running costs of the service.

The beacon light on Tiritiri Matangi Island, the main coastal approach to Auckland Harbour, is of 11-million candlepower, and is one of the most powerful in the Southern Hemisphere.

WRECKS—In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Transport, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, or in any river or lake, the Receiver of Wreck for that district has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

Shipping Casualties—During the 1977 calendar year 149 shipping casualties were reported to the Ministry of Transport. The table below shows the type of vessels involved and the nature of the casualty.

Type of ShipMachinery Breakdown and MiscellaneousCapsizing and CollisionStranding and GroundingFounderingFireTotal
Passenger1225
Cargo34512
Fishing1012147346
Dredges, tugs, etc.,1236
Pleasure3028118380
            Total454635158149

Fishing boat accidents on the New Zealand coast resulted in the loss of 12 vessels and 17 lives. As a result of pleasure boat accidents, 21 deaths were recorded.

Casualties involving serious damage, injury, or loss of life were investigated and preliminary inquiries were carried out in 20 cases. No magisterial inquiries into any of the casualties were conducted.

SAFETY OF SHIPS—A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, administered by the Ministry of Transport, is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960 and the International Load Line Convention 1966, to both of which New Zealand is a signatory. Both conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters.

MARINE POLLUTION—The Marine Pollution Act 1974 gives effect to a number of international conventions relating to oil pollution. The most important of these is the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1954, as amended in 1962 and 1969. The Act prohibits the discharge of oil within the territorial sea and restricts the discharge of oil elsewhere to insignificant amounts. A contingency plan has been developed to deal with a major spillage of oil in the vicinity of New Zealand and a considerable quantity of oil pollution control equipment and oil dispersant is being stockpiled in New Zealand to deal with such an eventuality.

PLEASURE CRAFT—The Census of Population and Dwellings 1971 revealed that 77 529 households (9.7 percent of all households) had one or more pleasure boats. Of such households, 50 971 were in main urban areas.

Means of propulsion of the 77 529 boats enumerated were as follows: outboard motor 35 101; inboard motor 18 651; inboard jet motor 1494; sails and engine 1180; sails 9413; oars and paddles 10 645; other means and not specified 1045.

12 C—RAILWAYS

RAILWAYS DEVELOPMENT—A network of railways extending over 4500 km links almost all the principal centres of population in New Zealand. Almost all the railways services in the country are provided by the New Zealand Government Railways Department, using the title New Zealand Railways for trading purposes. The department also operates road services over more than 10 000 route kilometres of highway, and a rail and road vehicle and passenger ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton. Over 21 000 people are employed by the department.

Recent years have seen notable progress in development of the system and a steady increase in the carrying capacity of its main lines. Extensive use is being made of the latest developments in railway-transport technology, including diesel and electric traction, transistorised equipment for centralised traffic control, mechanised equipment for freight handling and track-maintenance work, and electronic data-processing machines to assist with accounting and statistical operations. Many new types of goods wagons have been and are being introduced, and numerous station buildings, goods sheds, bridges, etc., are being replaced by up-to-date structures in a continuing programme.

In 1971 the Te Rapa marshalling yard, near Hamilton, was opened. This 30-hectare yard is the only one in New Zealand to have a semi-automatic hump-shunting system, while the electronic equipment makes it the most advanced of New Zealand Railways' marshalling yards.

During 1978 the Kaimai deviation was opened. The deviation, which includes an 8.9-km tunnel, substantially shortened the railway distance between the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty.

Under construction is the 9-kilometre Mangaweka deviation between Mangaweka and Utiku. This deviation which includes 3 tall bridges with a total length of 610 metres will eliminate a difficult section of the main trunk line which is very expensive to maintain and replace it with a low-maintenance, all-weather, high-speed route.

A brief history of the first hundred years of railway development in New Zealand was included as a special article in the 1963 edition of the Yearbook.

EXTENT OF THE SYSTEM—The total route length of railways vested in the New Zealand Government Railways Department and open for traffic at 31 March 1978 was 4595 kilometres—2585 kilometres in the North Island and 2010 in the South Island. In addition, the Railways Department was working traffic over a further 7 kilometres of railways owned by other Government departments. Double line was worked over a total of 254 route kilometres, of which 208 kilometres were in the North Island. A total of 100 route kilometres of railways electrified on the 1500-volt direct current, overhead contact system was in use at 31 March 1978.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND ENGINEERING—In most instances, Government railways in New Zealand were constructed by the Public Works Department, now the Ministry of Works and Development, and handed over to the Railways Department upon completion. Recent practice has been for the Ministry of Works and Development to construct the earthworks, bridges, tunnels, and buildings, and for the Railways Department to lay the tracks and install signals.

Track—All track is laid to a gauge of 1067 mm. The major routes are laid with rails 85 or 91 lb per yard (42.2 or 45.1 kg/m) but these lines will be progressively relaid with rails weighing 50 kg per metre Secondary and branch lines have generally been laid with rails weighing 55, 70, and 72 lb per yard (27 34.7, and 35.7 kg/m) and the practice is to relay these lines with heavier rails from the main line. Treated Pinus radiata sleepers, laid about 1480 per kilometre, have gradually replaced Australian hardwood sleepers, and locally manufactured concrete sleepers are also being used on selected areas on the main routes. Track with fishplates and bolts at every joint is progressively replaced with rails welded at the joints on all major routes and on some secondary lines.

Bridges—To carry the railways across gorges, rivers, and streams in New Zealand, about 2600 bridges and viaducts have been built with an aggregate length of 90 kilometres. The longest railway bridge is that over the Rakaia River, 55 kilometres south of Christchurch. Completed in 1939 to replace an original timber structure of the 1870s, it is 1743 metres in length.

The highest viaduct is the Mohaka, completed in 1937 to carry the Napier-Gisborne railway 97 metres above the bed of the Mohaka River. Twenty-one New Zealand railway viaducts carry the rails more than 33 metres above the streams they cross.

Tunnels—There are 183 railway tunnels in New Zealand. The 3 longest tunnels are Kaimai (8.9 km), between Tauranga and Hamilton; Rimutaka (8.8 km), between Wellington and Masterton; and Otira (8.5 km), between Otira and Arthur's Pass.

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service—An air freight service across Cook Strait was commenced in February 1947. In recent years this service has been considerably affected by the alternative service offered by the rail ferries, and has operated at a loss.

Cook Strait Rail/Ferry Service—Three ferries carrying road and rail vehicles and passengers are operated by the Railways Department between Wellington and Picton. Two of the vessels, Aramoana and Aranui, can carry 30 rail wagons, about 55 cars, and 800 passengers. A third vessel, Aratika, was converted from a freight-only ship in 1976 and now carries 50 rail wagons, about 70 cars, and 800 passengers. A fourth vessel, Arahanga, carries 50 rail wagons and 40 road freight vehicles.

In 1977 Aramoana was extensively refitted and in 1978 Aranui received a similar but less extensive refit.

ROLLING STOCK: Wagons—The Railways Department's fleet of goods and livestock wagons at 31 March 1978 totalled 30 151 with a total carrying capacity of 493 060 tonnes. In recent years thousands of new wagons have been introduced, including long, covered bogie wagons with wide doorways for mechanical loading of palletised freight, for use on express goods trains. Special-purpose wagons include those designed for log traffic, packaged timber, and bulk commodities such as cement, flour, plaster, heated tallow, sulphuric acid, and aluminium sulphate, and wagons for coal traffic for the Mission Bush steel mill. Many bogie flat-top wagons have also been built or modified for the ever-increasing volume of container traffic. In addition to the wagons owned by the department, another 247 privately-owned wagons are also in use, mainly for petrol and cement traffic.

PASSENGER SERVICES—In addition to the normal suburban services, New Zealand Railways run 4 prestige passenger trains. These are the Silver Fern, Northerner, Southerner, and Endeavour.

The Silver Star (recently withdrawn) was an all-sleeper train, with roomette and twinette cabins, which ran 6 nights a week, between Auckland and Wellington. The train was air-conditioned, licensed, and had a dining car.

The Silver Fern express railcar runs in daylight, 6 days a week, between Auckland and Wellington. This service is licensed, air conditioned, and has hostesses.

The Northerner express runs nightly between Auckland and Wellington, and has both day and sleeping cars. The train, which has a licensed dining car, stops at many of the smaller towns not served by the Silver Star and Silver Fern.

The Southerner runs 6 days a week between Christchurch and Invercargill. This train has hostesses and a buffet car. The Endeavour, which runs daily between Wellington and Napier, is similar.

Most provincial passenger services are run by Railways' Road Services following the withdrawal of railcars, many of which were worn out. However, on routes where there are geographical and social considerations, refurbished railcars, with their motors removed, have been placed in service. These cars, known as “Ac” cars, are hauled by diesel-electric locomotives.

The following table sets out the numbers of rail passenger journeys and the corresponding receipts.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of JourneysPassenger Revenue
SuburbanNon-suburbanTotalSuburbanNon-suburbanTotal
 (000)(000)(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
197618 1481 88720 0353,4095,5908,999
197717 1891 28918 4784,3485,5779,925
197815 3961 00616 4024,6955,85210,547

GOODS TRAFFIC—The following table shows the volume of goods traffic in tonnes and tonne-kilometres, and the revenue received from goods and parcels traffic consigned by rail.

Year Ended 31 MarchGoods Carried (Excluding Parcels)Total Revenue from Goods and Parcels Traffic
TonnesNet Tonne-kilometresNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal
*Revenue from rail parcels traffic was $3,585,000 in 1975–76, $4,703,000 in 1976–77, and $4,735,000 in 1977–78.
 (000)(million)$(000)$(000)$(000)
197613 1933 649.088,63736,547125,184*
197713 6013 723.5135,96553,246189,211*
197812 5773 401.7143,57755,062198,639*

MOTIVE POWER—Dieselisation of New Zealand Railways began in 1949 and was completed by 1971. Today, the only steam locomotives in service are 2 “Ab” class locomotives used on the Kingston Flyer tourist train.

The most powerful diesel-electric locomotives in service are the 49 American-built 2050 kW “Dx” class.

Thirty-five of the 1063 kW “Da” class locomotives, which first entered service in 1955, are being rebuilt. This work, being carried out in Australia, involves rebuilding about 60 percent of the locomotive, providing a new cab and new motor with an increased rating of 1110 kW. The rebuilt locomotives are class “Dc”.

Six new diesel-electric shunting locomotives, for use in the Auckland area, have arrived and are now in service. These locomotives are class “Dh”.

Twenty 1119 kW diesel-electric locomotives have been ordered for use on the Christchurch-Picton line. These will be class “Df”.

At 31 March 1978 New Zealand Railways had 314 mainline diesel-electric locomotives, 191 diesel shunting locomotives, and 14 electric locomotives.

The electric locomotives are used in the Wellington suburban area and to haul trains through the 8.5-kilometre Otira tunnel.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Gross revenue and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue
*Deficit recovered from Vote: Stabilisation.
 $(000)
1976170,207233,160–62,953*
1977248,070260,073–12,003*
1978266,404304,184–37,780*

The chief items of expenditure for 1977–78 were: wages, $174,977,718; fuel (including electricity) for locomotives, road vehicles, and rail ferries, $18,457,898; stores and materials, $43,480,155; depreciation, $19,389,577; and miscellaneous, $33,959,695.

The revenue and expenditure for recent years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or Loss
Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.
 $(000)
1976137,28732,920194,82838,332–57,541–5,412
1977202,41945,651214,79645,277–12,377+374
1978212,74853,656251,86352,320–39,115+1,336

The respective Island figures of revenue and expenditure for railway operation only (i.e., omitting subsidiary services) are given below for the 1977–78 year.

Section of RailwayRevenueExpenditureOperating Deficit
 $(000)
North Island155,251175,25120,000
South Island57,49776,61219,115
New Zealand212,748251,86339,115

The revenue and expenditure of the various subsidiary services conducted by the Railways Department is set out in the following table. Full working costs are charged against these services, and interest which is debited to road services and rail ferries is credited to miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

ServiceRevenueExpenditure
1975–761976–771977–781975–761976–771977–78
 $(000)
Advertising service362388384336371373
Departmental houses1,3621,6601,8503,4003,7834,737
Road services—
    Passenger and goods12,60816,44018,44915,80417,92420,343
Cook Strait rail ferry service15,61223,59528,51418,79223,19926,867
Miscellaneous2,9763,5684,459
                Total32,92045,65153,65638,33245,27752,320

Revenue—In the following table the railway operating revenue is classified according to the class of traffic, etc., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassenger TrafficGoods and ParcelsCatering ServicesTotal
 $(000)
19757,949114,1892,783124,921
19768,999125,1843,104137,287
19779,925189,2113,283202,419
197810,547198,6393,563212,749

Expenditure—The railway operating expenditure under various heads is now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance of Way and WorksMaintenance of Rollins StockLocomotive TransportationTraffic TransportationHead Office and General Charges*Catering ServicesTotal
*Includes superannuation subsidy.
 $(000)
197645,31443,71930,52958,91610,6065,744194,828
197752,89346,05835,19363,31111,0276,314214,796
197865,29753,90440,95272,31312,2537,144251,863

Expenditure has been influenced by progressively higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment, as well as higher costs of fuel and materials.

Capital Expenditure—The expenditure on capital works and new equipment is set out in the following table.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197619771978
*Includes Capital Equipment Credits.
 $(000)
Plant and equipment2,8362,4543,898
Works programme19,95219,15420,355
Rolling stock46,871*22,718*17,337*
Motor vehicles2,4904,3725,067
Rail ferries786,857*3,203*
Shares in companies30
                Total72,25755,55549,860

This capital expenditure has been met from the department's own depreciation reserves, National Development loans, and overseas credits.

The relative proportions of capital funded from these sources were as follows:

SourceYear Ended 31 March
197619771978
 $(000)percent$(000)percent$(000)percent
Railway depreciation14,1662017,3543119,89140
National Development Loan31,9754422,8114123,12746
Overseas credits26,1163615,390286,84214
                Total72,25710055,55510049,860100

RAIL FERRY TRAFFIC—Traffic statistics for the rail ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Return CrossingsTotal Passenger JourneysMotor Vehicles (of all kinds)Freight in Railway Wagons
NumberManifest TonnesDeadweight TonnesManifest Tonnes
19762 008661 671141 102776 0611,033,9301,353,076
19771 955685 290152 976841 3681,004,3641,284,598
19781 945724 242157 615866 883999 5021,612,268

Financial statistics for the Cook Strait ferry service are as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure, Total
PassengerCateringPassengers Motor VehiclesGoods (Rail and Road)Total
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
19762,0885802,00310,94115,61218,792
19773,4866293,06716,41323,59523,200
19784,1387993,82719,75028,51426,868

The following diagram illustrates the traffic on the railways and road services.

Figure 14.1. GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES—The number of persons employed by the Government railways at 31 March 1978 was 21 338 (excluding 724 sea-going staff employed on the Cook Strait rail ferries), compared with 21 301 a year earlier.

ACCIDENTS AT LEVEL CROSSINGS—Accidents at level crossings resulted in the death of 12 people and injury to 26 others in 1977–78; in the previous year 5 were killed and 36 injured. In furtherance of departmental policy, 4 new road crossing alarms were installed during 1977–78.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS—There are a number of short private railways in New Zealand, principally lines serving collieries and other industrial undertakings. The 11-km line of the Ohai Railway Board, extends from Wairio (north-west of Invercargill) to coal mines at Ohai. The Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., in the North Island, operates a 10-km private line from Awakeri to its mill at Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty.

RAILWAY OPERATED ROAD SERVICES—There is a network of railway-operated road services the origin of which dates back to November 1926 when a bus service between Napier and Hastings was purchased. Others were acquired in the following years (notably the services within the Hutt Valley and between the Hutt Valley and Wellington in 1927 and 1928), but it was 1934 before the first long-distance coach service was taken over. The main development of the network took place between 1936 and 1951, when the route distance over which licences were held rose from 418 to 9641 km. Now the Railways Department maintains in its fleet almost 21 percent of all the vehicles used to provide road passenger services throughout the country. At 31 March 1978, the Railways Department's road services branch employed a staff of 1614.

Suburban bus services at Auckland, Rotorua, Hastings, Hutt Valley, Wellington-Khandallah, Titahi Bay, Paraparaumu, and Dunedin, with a fleet of 268 vehicles at 31 March 1978, carried 11,638,000 passengers and earned a total revenue of $3,306,861. All the other road passenger services, both long and short distance, with 603 coaches, buses, and other vehicles, carried 8,262,000 passengers and earned a revenue of $14,012,385. The routes of the services in operation at 31 March 1978 covered 10 141 km of highway.

In addition to the road passenger services, a small number of road goods services were operated. Goods traffic on these services, for which some 79 motor vehicles were maintained, produced a further $1,129,923 in 1977–78. A rail ancillary goods service is operated by the department's Traffic Branch for the carriage of goods consigned to or from wayside stations.

The following selected statistics illustrate the development of the Railways Department's road services operations.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoute Kilometres at 31 March*Number of Passenger Vehicles at 31 MarchNumber of Other Vehicles at 31 MarchTotal Passenger JourneysTotal Passenger and Goods RevenueTotal Expenditure, Including Interest Charges
*Route kilometres for which licences are held.
    (000)$(000)$(000)
19769 68877338221 32012,60815,804
19779 97578237720 32316,44017,924
197810 14178138119 90018,44920,343

12 D—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

GENERAL—Capital investment in New Zealand's roading and road transport system exceeds that of all other forms of transport services. There are 96 000 kilometres of road and over 1.5 million motor vehicles, while the population census in 1971 revealed that there were 37 790 road transport drivers, 18 215 persons whose occupations involved carrying and cartage services, 37 277 persons occupied in the repair, servicing, and sale of motor vehicles and 8604 persons engaged in motor-vehicle assembly and body building.

ROADS AND BRIDGES—The cost of providing adequate roads in New Zealand as a proportion of annual investments is relatively high in comparison with many other countries, largely because of the nature of the country and the wide variety of terrain frequently encountered within relatively short distances, and of occasional rain and flood damage.

Annual roading expenditure by Central and Local Government is now over $210 million. Maintenance comprises almost half the expenditure.

Because of its many swiftly-flowing rivers and streams and its inland gorges and deep ravines, New Zealand is faced with major bridging problems, which are perhaps different in character and more complex than those generally found elsewhere. A survey of bridging in 1974–75 confirmed that many 30-to 40-year-old bridges warranted strengthening or replacement in order to meet current motor transport requirements. In view of financial stringency, the National Roads Board has set priorities for bridging work, with the replacement of emergency Bailey bridges taking first priority, followed by the elimination of bridge weight-carrying restrictions and improvements to trafficable bridge widths.

Motorways are expensive to construct and are justified only in areas of high traffic density. They require strong foundations and thick surfacings to stand up to the heavy, fast, and continuous traffic. They confer two great benefits—greatly increased traffic capacity and greater safety. The limited number of access points, designed to permit smooth and safe entrance and exit, and the complete absence of ordinary intersections, contribute substantially to safety and the uninterrupted, fast flow of traffic, which also reduces transport costs.

The Auckland motorway system is one of the largest engineering undertakings ever attempted in New Zealand and one which is changing the face of metropolitan Auckland. An indication of the size and complexity of motorway design is gained from the statement that the cost of the large dual interchange for the Auckland inner city part of the motorway system will be of the order of $20 million, including land purchase. The 1500-metre Thorndon overbridge on the Wellington motorway is the largest bridge contract in the history of the Ministry of Works and Development.

Details of formed roads and streets at 31 March 1976 are given in the following table.

Nature of SurfaceCities and BoroughsDistrict CouncilsCountiesTown DistrictsTotal
County RoadsState Highways and Motorways
   kilometres  
Paved or sealed10 54941124 97410 0887446 096
Metal or gravel81244340 7728562042 903
Unmetalled86436 56234317 035
        Total, formed roads11 44789772 30811 2879596 034

There are 13 397 bridges of 3 metres and over with a total length of 300 889 metres.

Auckland Harbour Bridge Traffic—From May 1959, when the toll bridge opened, to March 1978, the Auckland harbour bridge has carried 279 million vehicles. In the 1977–78 year the bridge had a daily average of 69 342 vehicles crossing it: the highest daily figure being a record 92 371. With traffic totals continuing to grow it is estimated that the eight-lane facility will reach its ultimate carrying capacity in the nineteen eighties.

Traffic totals for March years are shown in the following table.

Class of Vehicle1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78

*Estimated.

†Tolls on omnibuses were removed in December 1974 and these vehicles are now classified as Exempt Vehicles.

 (thousand)
Cars10 34811 13911 23611 43411 917
Motor cycles, etc.248272270256252
Buses136
Commercial vehicles339299290297278
Exempt vehicles60100204208212
Southbound*11 11911 78511 97612 17612 650
              Total22 25023 59423 97624 37125 309

Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel—For the first time since 1968–69 a decrease of 3.5 percent was recorded in total traffic using the tunnel during the current year. This was considered to be a result of the depressed economy and a drop in the trade through the Port of Lyttelton.

The Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority has now been dissolved, and tolls have been abolished from 1 April 1979.

Traffic totals for March years are shown in the following table.

Class of Vehicle1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78
Cars1,447,3851,470,3101,475,6751,492,2871,450,044
Motor cycles, etc.74 58377 69682 07584 92380 598
Buses23 47721 95422 67122 69822 147
Trucks and extra axles256 612278 336266 777311 970289 155
Non-revenue traffic39 37939 99441 67841 42443 608
                Total1,841,4361,888,2901,888,8761,953,3021,885,552

ROADS ADMINISTRATION—The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act 1928, the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, the Counties Act 1956 and the National Roads Act 1953. Administration of the country's reading system is exercised by municipalities in respect of streets, by county councils in respect of county roads, and by the National Roads Board in respect of State highways.

The National Roads Board is charged with the responsibility of providing an adequate reading system balanced to meet the country's needs. The board came into being in 1954 as the result of the passing of the National Roads Act. This same Act provided for the establishment of the National Roads Fund. Under the chairmanship of the Minister of Works and Development, the National Roads Board is an organisation of 10 members, representative of the private motorists, commercial vehicle owners, counties, municipalities, the Ministry of Works and Development, and Ministry of Transport. It is of interest to note that Government members are in a minority. The representative nature of the board ensures that the widest possible background of knowledge and experience is brought to bear on reading matters. Essentially the board is a politically orientated policy-making body; it is required to think nationally and to act nationally. The most important functions of the board are:

  1. to administer the National Roads Fund.

  2. to provide a reading system adequate for New Zealand's needs.

  3. to advise Government on all matters concerning reading including the provision of finance.

  4. to assist and advise local authorities on reading problems.

  5. to undertake at intervals of not more than five years a comprehensive survey of the reading position in New Zealand.

The money in the National Roads Fund is derived from road taxation paid by the users, the private motorist and the commercial vehicle operator. Through this roads fund the money is returned to the road user in the form of safer, smoother, more economical travel. It is an inviolate fund. Under the legislation by which it was brought into operation on 1 April 1954, all taxation paid into it must be immediately available and be used for roading purposes. In effect the National Roads Act provided for an independent fund at the disposal of an independent board and removed the element of uncertainty associated with annual appropriation of funds through Parliament. Nevertheless opportunity is provided for Parliament to debate the board's activities.

The National Roads Board can be likened to a board of directors with the Minister of Works and Development as chairman and Director of Roading as chief executive officer. The board meets regularly once a month. Most of the business is conducted in open meeting with representatives of the press in attendance.

The board employs no staff directly but the Ministry of Works and Development provides an engineering and administrative service for which it is paid 6.8 percent of total National Roads Board expenditure. The roading division of the Ministry of Works and Development carries out the executive functions of the board and in servicing the board calls on the specialist services of other divisions and branches of Ministry of Works and Development as required, e.g., bridge design, land purchase, accounts, legal, etc.

For State highways and motorways, the board meets the full cost of construction and maintenance, while the maintenance and construction of county roads and municipal streets are subsidised by the Board. Some 94 percent of the State highways are now sealed. The National Roads Board is the controlling authority for State highways. As the board's agent, the Ministry of Works and Development has responsibility for financial control and technical control. In certain cases, the board has delegated its powers of construction and/or maintenance to local authorities.

In the case of county roads and municipal streets, responsibility lies with the local authority concerned. Apart from the question of standards on major works, there are no strings and no overriding control by Central Government.

Under the National Roads Act, in December of each year the board is required to estimate its income for the following year and to make its primary allocations of funds expected to be available. The board then prepares a final programme of road works for the coming year. At the present time there are three sectors and funds are allocated on the following basis: for counties—not less than 23 percent of motor revenue; for municipalities—not less than 16 percent of motor revenue; for State highways—not less than 50 percent of motor revenue; this leaving 11 percent of motor revenue for allocation to any or all of the above, at the discretion of the board.

For purposes of roading administration, New Zealand is divided geographically into 22 roads districts and funds are allocated by the board to each sector in each district as fairly and equitably as possible having regard to particular needs.

In each roads district there is an advisory body known as a District Roads Council. These councils are representative of the same interests as the board itself. Although they have no executive powers, their recommendations concerning relative priorities have considerable influence on board decisions. In addition to its regular meetings the board makes visits of inspection to several roads districts each year. These visits afford an opportunity for board members to get a better appreciation of local problems, needs, and conditions through observation and discussion, and to maintain personal contact with District Roads Councils. The board is thus able to keep in close touch with the roading problems of New Zealand, and is better able to discharge its responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs.

Finance—A National Roads Fund has been established within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation with an annual contribution from the Government. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Motor spirits tax of 5c per litre from all lightweight petrol-powered vehicles using public roads is paid into the National Roads Fund. All heavy motor vehicles including trailers, and all remaining lightweight non-petrol-powered vehicles are required to purchase distance licences at a cost that varies according to their nominated maximum gross weight, their axle configuration, and the distance they travel. The income from these road user charges is all credited to the National Roads Fund.

Following is a statement of receipts and expenditure of the National Roads Fund for the latest 3 March years. Receipts are less collection expenses.

Item1975–761976–771977–78
 $(thousand)
Receipts—
    Petrol tax (net)80,74485,822106,447
    Distance tax7,2547,5578,874
    Fees and charges—
        Heavy traffic fees12,58813,17610,003
    Contribution from Consolidated Revenue Account18,35021,00010,000
Advance from Loans Redemption Account4,000
Miscellaneous receipts—
    Repayments of plant purchases
    Repayments of advances to local authorities80104105
    Rents1,0681,4641,468
    Sales of land and buildings1,4339831,056
    Interest on advances to local bodies21
Bailey bridging hire12889103
Interest on investments415261
Miscellaneous209414121
              Total receipts121,895130,663142,239
Expenditure—
    Highways maintenance25,88929,34237,023
    Highways construction41,62035,73137,140
    Local authority roading subsidies and grants49,11649,83958,636
    Local authorities advances5460
Administration and general expenses—
        Ministry of Works administration5,7579,0369,365
        Fees and travelling expenses445478
        Miscellaneous expenses2,1732,0431,634
Bridging expenses—
    Bailey bridging, etc.162358316
Unauthorised expenditure822
Repayment of advance from Loan Redemption Account2,000
              Total expenditure124,823128,405144,054
    Balance in fund at end of year562,314500

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on motorways and State highways construction, renewal, or maintenance during the last 5 years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable.

Class of Expenditure1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78
*Excludes motorway structures.
 $(thousand)
Construction and improvement27,03427,63826,86619,37430,462
Bridges and other structures*8,87912,96414,75416,3576,678
Maintenance, repairs, etc.16,70219,66225,88929,34237,023
                Total52,61560,26467,50965,07374,163

State Highways—The National Roads Act provides for the declaration of roads as State highways with the approval of the Minister of Works and Development. In 1969, the National Roads Board reviewed the State highway system and re-affirmed the principle that the network must continue to be based on the pattern of national development, needs of defence, and directness of route and main travel desire lines. The most important principles in designing a State highway system are that the total length of the system must be based on routes of primary importance; that routes must be equitably distributed in relation to the pattern of national development; and that routes must be confined to those which have characteristics in keeping with the function of the system.

Although urban development with its growing industrialisation is a predominant problem, the National Roads Board is also aware of the need for continued development of a fully effective interregional network with adequate rural feeder roads. Balanced development of the total network is essential if primary production is to increase and production costs are to be restrained.

Highways Standards— In order to qualify for highway subsidies local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the National Roads Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. The National Roads Board also produces complementary guides to good practice, and standard specifications for roading materials and construction methods.

Motorways—The Public Works Act makes provision for the declaration of motorways. Motorways provide efficient and economic means of communication, while the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

The total length of motorways in use at 31 March 1978 was 118.6 kilometres.

New Sealing—During the year ended 31 March 1978 28.2 kilometres of new sealing on highways was completed, giving an aggregate of 10 936.5 kilometres of sealed highway, 94 percent of the total length.

National Roading Expenditure—Details of New Zealand public roading expenditure financed from the National Roads Fund, the Consolidated Revenue Account, and local authority funds (both from revenue and loans) are summarised as follows:

Item1976–771977–78
 $(thousand)
State highways expenditure..65,073..74,163
Subsidised highway, section 12A..1,568..1,775
County roading expenditure—
    From county funds27,810..35,804..
    From National Roads Fund27,038..32,377..
    From Consolidated Revenue Account (vote: “Roads”)1,195..1,290..
 ..56,043..69,471
Municipal roading expenditure—
From municipal funds38,517..41,968..
From National Roads Fund21,194..24,481..
 ..59,711..66,449
            Total..182,395..211,858

NOTE—Table above includes subsidies paid under section 12A of the National Roads Act to the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority ($1,000,000) and the Christchurch Road Tunnel Authority ($200,000).

Local Authority Roading—The National Roads Board pays a basic subsidy at the rate of $1.50 for each $2 that is spent by local authorities out of their own funds on such programmes of subsidised works as have been accepted for a financial year by the board, and approves grants in special cases.

In recognition of the urgency and importance of the country's bridge renewal problem, the board makes generous grants for local authority bridge replacements. Wooden bridges built 50 and 60 years ago, which have served the country well, continue to deteriorate at a greater rate than replacements can be built. In 10 years to March 1976 there have been 2006 bridges completed, totalling 49 908 metres.

For the year ended 31 March 1978 the following amounts were paid to local authorities from the National Roads Fund for roading.

Local AuthoritySubsidyGrantsTotal
 $(thousand)
Municipalities16,2268,25524,481
County councils18,98513,39232,377
              Total35,21121,64756,858

Loan Assistance—To assist counties and municipalities with their planning the National Roads Board meets 30 percent of the cost of approved transportation surveys in urban areas. Plans have been completed or are in the course of preparation in all city areas with a population in excess of 30 000 people.

Needs studies have been made for county and municipal roading and the board has carried out regional surveys to assess relative needs.

It is envisaged that more comprehensive and co-ordinated surveys will become necessary as development increases in complexity, and that the board's criteria will need to extend further into the field of productive economics.

Development Roading—In addition to the expenditure on roading from the National Roads Fund, moneys are provided annually by the Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) for development of road construction. Under this heading subsidies are paid to local authorities for the construction of new roads giving access to farmlands being brought into production. This Vote also finances access roads to lands being prepared for farm settlement by the Lands and Survey and Maori Affairs Departments, as well as certain new roading of a national development character.

New roads constructed for farm access are handed over to the care of local authorities, while national roading normally becomes the responsibility of the National Roads Board for maintenance as part of the State highway system.

Government roading expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) for the year ended 31 March 1978 was $1,289,647, excluding Maori land roading, Crown land roading, tracks, and departmental works totalling $830,466.

Overall Roading Expenditure—The following table shows the total expenditure on roading from all sources for the year ended 31 March 1978.

National Roads Fund—$(000)$(000)
    State highways74,163 
    Subsidies, etc.–local roading58,633 
  132,796
Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) 1,290
Local authority funds—  
    Municipalities41,968 
    County councils35,80477,772
                Total 211,858

Roading expenditure over the last 5 years is related to Gross National Product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoading Expenditure: Central and Local GovernmentTotal as Percentage of Cross National Product
MaintenanceConstructionTotal
*Provisional.
  $(million) percent
197447.3397.90145.231.68
197555.03103.83158.861.69*
197664.57*110.26*174.831.62*
197798.31*82.51*180.821.41*
1978101.51*110.35*211.86*..

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR VEHICLES—The amounts for initial registration fees are: motorcars, from $20 to $100 according to age or engine capacity; motor cycles, trailers, and traction engines, $20; power cycles, $12; heavy trucks, $100; light trucks and vans, $60; farm tractors, $4; and any other motor vehicle, $40.

Annual licence fees are as follows: motor vehicles $20 (except veteran or vintage motor vehicles, $6 and $10); trailers (2 tons or less loaded), $12; motorcycles, $12; power cycles, $8; tractors, $16; traction engines, $6; trade licences for motor cycles are $12, and trade licences for other motor vehicles $20. Other fees include drivers' licences, 50c; changes of ownership, $10; and dealers' licences (motor cycles, $6; any other motor vehicles, $10). All such fees, except those for drivers' licences which are payable to the local authorities, have been credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account since 1 July 1967. Additional to these fees are the Accident Compensation levies which replaced compulsory third-party insurance.

The various types of motor vehicles licensed as at 31 March in each of the last 5 years are itemised below.

Type of Vehicle19741975197619771978
Cars1,078,7951,129,6111,172,0001,200,0031,215,638
Rental cars5 0385 2795 4255 8995 533
Private taxicabs9913213010184
Light goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight 2 tons and under)129 863132 150137 184155 782161 401
Heavy goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight over 2 tons)70 26474 62673 97076 42075 290
Contract vehicles1 1091 2051 1921 2501 280
Omnibuses2 5392 6172 6602 6742 622
Public taxicabs3 0463 1133 0823 0842 987
Service coaches515513563594684
Motorcycles60 49366 81598 833104 147103 712
Power cycles26 65526 8414 2072 8792 103
              Total, motor vehicles1,378,4161,442,9021,499,2461,552,8331,571,334
Trailers, including trailers exempted from payment of annual licence fees and caravans279 650304 883328 099354 224356 839
Dealers' cars4 1824 1914 4054 3734 426
Dealers' motor cycles262321292212214
Vehicles including cycles exempted from payment of annual licence fees (farm tractors etc.)103 098105 080111 139111 979103 319
              Total, all vehicles1,765,6081,857,3771,943,1812,023,6212,036,132

Motor vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee include a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' motor vehicles used solely on the farm and only venturing on roads to proceed from one part of the farm to another, or from farm to garage for repair, etc., excavators, scoops, trench diggers, cranes, and logging trucks (used on private roads) etc.

The following table shows the changes in relationship between the number of licensed vehicles and population as at 31 March in the latest 6 years.

As at 31 MarchNumber of Persons inPopulation per CarNumber of Persons in Population per Motor Vehicle (Excluding Trailers)
19732.92.1
19742.82.0
19752.72.0
19762.71.9
19772.61.9
19782.61.9

Motor spirit usage in New Zealand during the latest March years is shown in the following table by grade. The grades shown are 83 octane (regular or standard), 96 octane (super, supreme, or premium) and other, which may include some non-petroleum based racing fuels. The figures are based on returns made by oil companies to the Customs Department in connection with the assessment of motor spirit duty. However, they include motor spirit used for farming purposes and in industrial engines for which the purchaser can claim a rebate of duty.

Year Ended MarchMotor Spirit Usage§
96 Octane83 OctaneOthersTotal

*3 April 1976 to 1 April 1977.

†2 April 1977 to 31 March 1978.

‡Provisional

§Based on deliveries by oil companies

 litres (000)
19752,061,566206 9903142,268,870
19762,098,487174 0934962,273,076
1977*2,137,605144 4615222,282,588
1978"†2,140,120111 8804982,252,500
19792,228,538100 9296432,330,110

Diesel fuel is widely used by heavy trucks and buses, but actual figures of consumption are not available.

The following diagram illustrates the trend that has taken place in the number of motor vehicles licensed, and in the consumption of motor spirits by motor vehicles. Diesel-fuel consumption, which has grown substantially in recent years, is not available. This should be borne in mind when analysing petrol consumption figures.

Figure 14.2. MOTOR VEHICLES LICENSED(1) AND MOTOR SPIRITS CONSUMPTION(2)

MOTOR VEHICLES LICENSED(1) AND MOTOR SPIRITS CONSUMPTION(2)

Estimates based on survey data collected during the New Zealand Transport Study indicated that the average travel in 1972 for passenger cars and light vehicles was 13 673 kilometres; for heavy goods-service vehicles the average was 20 534 kilometres; and for passenger-service vehicles the average was 27 859 kilometres.

Registrations of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country are as follows for the 2 latest years.

December YearNew Cars and Station Wagons—C.C. RatingCars Previously Registered Overseas*New Motor Cycles
Up to 13001301 to 20002001 to 50005001 and OverTotal
197726 51726 3717 9321 00461 8242 75014 028
197825 37233 2327 59994567 1482 68114 522
December YearNew Commercial Vehicles By Gross Weight in KilogramsOmnibus and Service CoachesTotal Commercial Vehicles
2500 or Less2501 to 45004501 to 90009001 to 14 50014 501 and Over
*Included in previous column.
197713 2621 5197891 35093826618 124
197814 3911 70773098178630618 901

Not included in the previous tables are new tractors of which 3035 were registered in 1977 and 2811 in 1978.

ROAD TRANSPORT—The Transport Act 1962 is the main legislation governing road transport and the road transport operations of the Ministry of Transport; attendant regulations set out the rules of the road, the requirements as to motor vehicle equipment, and the obligations of motor drivers and owners and pedestrians.

Transport Licensing—Transport licensing is primarily an economic measure to achieve better coordination of road and rail transport and to prevent excessive competition and duplication of services within the road transport industry. Public passenger buses, taxicabs, rental vehicles, and harbour ferries can only be operated with a licence. A transport licence is also needed for the cartage of goods in the following circumstances:

  1. When they are carried for hire or reward by means of a motor vehicle.

  2. When they are carried in competition with the New Zealand Railways beyond specified distances whether for hire or reward or not, except with vehicles which together with their load, weigh 3500 kg or less and farmers' vehicles with a payload of up to 5000 kg.

Thus goods service licensing extends beyond the common carrier operating throughout the country and can include farmers and businesses carrying their own goods in their own vehicles, if these vehicles are over the laden weights or carrying the load prescribed above and they wish to operate them beyond certain distances.

In general, goods cannot be carried by road between places where a route is available which includes at least 150 kilometres of rail. However, for some goods such as livestock, fresh meat, fresh fruit and vegetables, poultry, and fresh fish, there is no restriction at all. In addition, this restriction ceases to apply where use of the railway would increase the journey by more than one-third of the shortest road route available. The licensing authorities (see below) may also grant exemption from the railway restriction in particular cases where this is in the public interest.

Apart from the exemptions in respect of competition with the railways, there is complete freedom from transport licensing for certain special or limited transport services.

New Zealand is divided into 17 transport licensing districts (including one harbour ferry district at Auckland) which are administered by five full-time licensing authorities appointed by the Minister of Transport for terms of up to 5 years. They adjudicate on applications for a licence to enter the industry, on transfer or renewals of licences, and on changes to or withdrawals of transport services.

In addition, there is a Regional Transport Licensing Authority for the purpose of hearing applications relating to passenger-service licences (other than taxicab-service licences) or harbour ferry service licences that are operated or intended to be operated within the Auckland Regional Authority's district.

The factors to be considered in dealing with these applications are specified in the Transport Act 1962, and emphasis is placed on consideration of the public interest and of users of public transport. There is a right of appeal from the decisions of licensing authorities to the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

Charges for transport services do not come within the jurisdiction of the licensing authorities. Public bodies operating public passenger services fix their own charges; the Secretary for Transport all others. In every case there is a right of appeal to a Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Both the Minister of Transport and licensing authorities have powers in respect of public inquiries into or reviews of transport services and licences. Reviews of taxicab services must be made at least every three years in the four main centres and in other centres with a population of more than 20 000.

In general, licences may be either continuous, seasonal, or temporary (not more than 14 days). However, all rental service licences have a duration of three years after which application must be made for their renewal.

Operations of Licensed Goods and Passenger Services—The following table gives a summary of statistics of the licensed road transport industry for the year ended 31 March 1977. All the figures are estimates.

ItemTaxicabsRentalGoods
Total kilometres run (million)157171624
Kilometres per vehicle (000)572129
Total revenue ($million)3127449
Revenue per vehicle/km (cents)201672
Total capital ($million)1133326
Capital per vehicle($)3,8713,95814,554

As at 31 December 1977 the number of vehicle authorities issued was 2982 for taxicabs, 8400 for rental vehicles, and 24 713 for goods vehicles.

The next table shows financial and statistical data on passenger services licensed under the Transport Act 1962 for the year ended 31 March 1977. All the figures except the numbers of vehicles are estimates.

Type of ServiceTotal Kilometres RunTotal RevenueTotal AssetsNumber of PassengersNumber of Vehicles
*366 goods vehicles, 778 coaches, omnibuses, and tour cars.
 (000)$(000)$(000)(000) 
Suburban service and service coaches36 16118,82824,260..1 031
Mixed business and school contracts19 8587,5065,040..228
Local body services44 94019,06538,080100 0431 264
NZR Road Passenger and Goods Services43 18218,6309,64820 3221 144*
        Total144 14164,02977,028..3 667

Fuller details on NZR road services are given in the previous section on Railways, and fuller details on local body services at the end of this section.

Household Motorcars—A question on the availability of motor cars was included in the 1971 Census of Population. It was found that, out of a total of 801 686 households, 441 459 (55.1 percent) owned a car or had a business car available for use, and an additional 192 776 households (24.0 percent) had two or more cars available for use.

Transport to Work—The 1976 Census of Population again included a question on the usual method of travelling to work by the labour force. This question was first asked in 1971. The table below analyses the means of transport used according to the occupations of those in full-time employment (i.e., working 20 hours or more per week).

A comparison of 1971 and 1976 statistics confirms the overall decline in patronage of public transport during the intercensal period and the increased use by the work force of private motor vehicles.

The following table shows the means of transport to work of members of the labour force by occupation major group.

Occupation Major GroupMeans of Transport
Drive Car, Truck, or VanPassenger in Car, Truck, Van, or Firm's BusPublic BusTrainMotor Cycle or Power CycleBicycle
Professional, technical†98 20812 56712 58549048 0206 699
Administrative and managerial workers33 5551 2531 210792420199
Clerical†84 10926 91440 86711 1696 0695 469
Sales workers79 7278 22010 6401 2532 2532 062
Service workers37 4538 4099 3861 4583 3803 289
Agricultural animal husbandry and forest workers, fishermen and hunters25 2677 1416881023 2861 385
Production workers†, transport equipment operators, and labourers251 43359 79837 9107 82724 23818 640
New workers seeking employment
Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described4 3951 1611 511236265287
Workers not reporting any occupation11
            Total 1976614 147125 464114 79827 74147 93138 030
            Percentage48.39.99.02.23.83.0
            Total 1971494 188107 816132 21925 97223 05642 097
            Percentage44.29.611.82.32.13.8
Occupation Major GroupMeans of TransportWork at HomeNot Applicable*Total (Including Not Specified)
WalkOther Means

*Unemployed persons.

†Includes related workers.

Professional, technical24 8498915 6861 687178 821
Administrative and managerial workers1 86613399010640 908
Clerical22 7828293 8192 288205 918
Sales workers13 7002645 0981 290125 280
Service workers17 7641 04310 8351 61695 981
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forest workers, fishermen and hunters10 4371 35578 9851 040130 690
Production workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers49 7402 3446 5716 529468 836
New workers seeking employment4 2934 293
Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described1 378983545 88820 003
Workers not reporting any occupation11 6001 603
            Total 1976142 5166 957112 33926 3371,272,333
            Percentage11.20.58.82.1100.0
            Total 1971138 5305 805126 70517 9371,118,835
            Percentage12.40.511.31.6100.0

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS—Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the Police. For the year ended 31 December 1977, 12 068 such accidents, resulting in 702 fatalities and in injuries to 17 524 other people were reported.

As shown in the table later in this sub-section, the annual totals of people killed and injured on the roads decreased in 1974, 1975, and 1976. These decreases were attributed mainly to the fuel crisis and associated measures, the reduction of the open road speed limit to 80 km/h, the compulsory wearing of safety helmets by motor cyclists at all speeds, and the increased use of safety belts. The increase in accidents in 1977 and 1978 led to stricter laws on drinking/driving. These were introduced late in 1978 in an attempt to control the rising death rate.

Details of the nature of road accidents for the calendar year 1977, which have been compiled by the Ministry of Transport, are set out in the following table.

Classification of AccidentsFatalInjuryTotal
Overtaking30362392
Head on (not overtaking)98857955
Lost control or ran off road on straight821 1941 276
Lost control or ran off road while cornering1481 9902 138
Collision with obstruction19691710
Rear end19571590
At intersections or driveways—
    Vehicles moving in same direction, one turning10886896
    Vehicles crossing paths, not turning261 1341 160
    Vehicles crossing paths, one turning24671695
    Vehicles merging3220223
    Vehicles moving in opposite directions, one turning right21809830
Vehicles manoeuvring7519526
Pedestrian crossing road1031 1831 286
Pedestrian—other20224244
Miscellaneous15123138
Unknown99
              Total62511 44312 068

The ages of persons killed and injured in motor accidents is shown in the following table.

Age Groups (Years)KilledInjured
197519761977197519761977

*Includes accidents for which complete data is not available.

†Killed immediately or died within 30 days of accident.

Under 5222426535467409
5–9231922881758687
10–142314201 039983893
15–191671541865 9125 6675 235
20–24114981113 4243 1913 165
25–294543661 4571 4351 435
30–34363630864818843
35–39212925705591627
40–44182227594526496
45–49273022573518479
50–54182729582477462
55–59192024441388406
60–64262719412373341
65–69171627307306288
70 and over525067503509473
Unknown age11 610*888*1 285
              Total62860970219 83917 89517 524

A classification of road users killed and injured during the calendar year 1977 is given in the following table.

Type of CasualtyKilledInjuredTotal
Driver of—
    Car2115 1935 404
    Rental car26365
    Taxi13637
    Van16445461
    Truck12147159
    Articulated truck42226
    Bus11718
    Other51318
Motor cyclist792 5812 660
Passenger2075 5265 733
Pillion riders19435454
Cyclist21631652
Pedestrian1241 4481 572
Other2121
Unknown946946
              Total70217 52418 226

Of particular concern is the number of school children and pre-school children killed or injured on the roads while cycling or on foot. During 1977, 18 child pedestrians under school age were killed. Among child pedestrians and cyclists of school age, 33 were killed in 1977 compared with 24 in 1976, and 1025 were injured in 1977 compared with 989 during the previous year. The totals of killed and injured are shown by age-groups in the following table.

Age of Child (In Years)PedestriansCyclists
197519761977197519761977
Under 5228182162124
5–9378318316148129110
10–15232210203369357300
            Total838710681518488414

Total casualties and rates for the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

Calendar YearPersons KilledKilled per 10 000 Vehicles on RoadPersons InjuredInjured per 10 000 Vehicles on roadCasualties (Killed and Injured) per 10 000 Vehicles
*Provisional.
19738435.8623 385160.0168.4
19746764.5020 829137.5141.9
19756284.1019 839126.0130.0
19766093.7317 930109.9113.6
19777024.2717 524x106.7x110.9x
1978*654    

The following table shows motor accident death and injury rates in 1976 for New Zealand in comparison with other countries.

CountryPersons KilledPersons InjuredKilled per 10 000 VehiclesKilled per 100 000 PopulationInjured 10 000 VehiclesInjured per 100 000 Population
New Zealand60917 8953.719.4109.7569.9
Australia3 58487 1775.425.6130.9623.2
Great Britain6 567322 7993.711.7181.2577.2

ROAD SAFETY: Enforcement of Traffic and other Laws— Traffic on roads in five cities and boroughs is controlled by local authorities. Elsewhere throughout the country it is controlled by the Ministry of Transport which is also responsible for traffic on motorways. In national emergencies or major disasters, all traffic control comes under the supervision of the Ministry of Transport.

In addition to regulation of traffic and standards of driving, traffic officers enforce the laws relating to heavy traffic, type pressures, and the allowable weights of vehicles and loads on different classes of road. They also enforce the legislation concerning the licensing of road transport services.

Traffic officers are not part of the Police and do not engage in criminal investigations. They form however, a uniformed and disciplined enforcement body and a close liaison is maintained with the Police. Traffic officers have the power to arrest without warrant persons driving under the influence of drink or drugs, or being in charge of a motor vehicle while under the influence of drink or drugs and refusing to deliver ignition keys.

Persons giving a traffic or police officer good cause to suspect that they are driving after having consumed alcohol may be required to give a blood sample for analysis. An initial test with a breath-test device is used as a screening process.

Under new legislation introduced on 1 December 1978 a person commits an offence and is liable for prosecution if either:

  1. His/her breath-alcohol concentration as recorded on an evidential breath testing device exceeds 500 micrograms of alcohol per litre of breath; or

  2. His/her blood-alcohol concentration exceeds 80 mg of alcohol per 100 ml of blood.

Wearing of seat belts is now compulsory for drivers and front-seat passengers in most classes of light vehicles registered after January 1955. Children under 8 years of age are exempt, and there are other exemptions for certain occupational groups and on medical grounds.

From 1 December 1973 it has been compulsory for all motor cyclists and pillion riders to wear safety helmets at all speeds.

Offences—Penalties are awarded by Courts for driving and other offences under the Transport Act 1962 and attendant regulations. There is also a system in operation whereby points are automatically registered according to a fixed scale against persons convicted of driving offences.

The Secretary for Transport has authority to suspend drivers' licences for 6 months where 100 or more demerit points are received in less than 1 year, or for 3 months where this number of points are received within 2 years. Official warnings are issued and compulsory interviews take place before these levels are reached.

Breaches of certain parking, speeding, and overloading laws are dealt with under an infringement system. A motorist is able to pay an infringement fee within a certain time and thus avoid court proceedings if he so desires. In 1974 provision was made for the infringement system to be extended to certain other offences, which are not punishable by imprisonment.

Speed Limits—The maximum speed for highways generally is 80 kilometres an hour. However, lower limits are prescribed for certain vehicles, e.g., 70 kilometres for heavy goods vehicles.

A general speed limit of 50 km/h is fixed in cities, boroughs, town districts, or other localities declared to be closely populated localities. Areas with a speed limit of 70 km/h may also be specified by the Minister of Transport; and limited speed zones may be established for which the maximum permitted speed may be either 80 km/h or 50 km/h depending on conditions and circumstances.

Inspection of Motor Vehicles—All vehicles using the roads must be inspected every 6 months to ensure that their mechanical and structural fitness is of a satisfactory standard. Most lightweight vehicles are required to have a warrant of fitness which can be issued at approved garages, or at testing stations operated by local authorities or the Ministry of Transport. All heavy vehicles, with minor exceptions, undergo a more exacting examination for a certificate of fitness, which, in respect of passenger service buses, has special regard for the safety and comfort of passengers. Taxicabs and rental vehicles also require a certificate of fitness.

The design and standard of construction of vehicles manufactured, assembled, or modified in New Zealand are also regulated to ensure safety.

Insurance—Under the Accident Compensation Act 1972 a motor vehicle scheme provides cover for everyone in respect of personal injury caused by motor accidents. There is a Motor Vehicle Fund financed by premiums paid with the annual licence fee. The legislation came into effect on 1 April 1974, replacing the compulsory third-party scheme previously operating.

Road Safety Education—Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out through the press, radio, and television and by means of posters, etc. Special road safety campaigns and traffic improvement courses are held from time to time.

The main emphasis in schools and teachers' colleges centres around integrating traffic education into the current social education programmes. Traffic Education Units are co-operatively planned and implemented by traffic instructors and teachers and are based on the special social and traffic needs of the students.

The New Zealand Defensive Driving Council provides a safety course for all licensed drivers.

Traffic safety advice is given to the Government by a permanent parliamentary select committee, by the Road Traffic Safety Research Council, and by a number of other bodies, including the 46 local road safety committees.

TRAFFIC OFFENCES—The following table shows the nature of the offences resulting in convictions during the latest 3 calendar years. The table covers only offences reported by officers of the Ministry of Transport; in addition traffic prosecutions are taken by the police, particularly for serious offences, following accidents or other police investigations. Some city councils employ their own traffic control staff and total convictions are therefore rather higher than shown.

Type of Offence197519761977
*These convictions relate only to speeds in excess of the speeding infringement range.
(a) Accident promoting offences—
              Driving or attempting to drive while under the influence of drink or drugs454727554
              In charge of a motor vehicle while under the influence of drink or drugs244016
              Breath test/blood-alcohol offences4 6394 6764 141
              Warrant of fitness offences12 60215 99913 580
              Certificate of fitness offences507503384
              Certificate of loading offences239305175
              Exceeding certificate of loading517449
              Reckless driving113141138
              Driving in a dangerous manner795887907
              Driving at a dangerous speed616562584
              Driving without reasonable consideration283264214
              Careless use of motor vehicle4 2714 8765 023
              Overtaking offences775647455
              Failure to keep to the left2 2222 4262 046
              Failure to yield right of way822930906
              Failure to stop in half clear road496397472
              Exceeding 50 km/h*9 1478 6739 293
              Exceeding 70 km/h*771501541
              Exceeding 80 km/h*11 74012 89512 918
              Breaches of limited speed zone228105
              Exceeding temporary speed limits1 1201 4592 395
              Exceeding by-law, etc106168
              Failure to stop at traffic lights1 4681 7121 674
              Failure to stop at compulsory stop sign2 7693 4452 948
              Failure to give way at give way sign504561508
              Failure to yield right of way at pedestrian crossing264258200
              Failure to stop/or give way for siren217326
              Failure to comply with road signs606532463
              Cycling offences368321282
              Pedestrian offences1157
              Passenger offences575769
              Horse traffic offences17
              Motor cyclist exceeding 50 km/h without safety helmet (rider or pillion)*812860827
              Provisional motor cyclist exceeding 50 km/h*130100153
              Exceeding 70 km/h with trailer*857476463
              Exceeding 70 km/h with heavy motor vehicle*20321050
              Exceeding 80 km/h with pillion passenger*2
              Exceeding 80 km/h (omnibus)*31
              Exceeding other limits67198123
              Defective brakes547401400
              Lighting offences2 8662 6812 216
              Failure to dip lights9317188
              Mechanically defective or unsafe vehicle5 7415 9794 520
              Trailer offences330330336
                  Totals (accident promoting offences)69 53475 37770 265
(b) Non-accident promoting offences—
              Failure to obey officer1 0511 116872
              Failure to fulfil duties after accident290336276
              Owner failing to supply information1 0893 1314 841
              Failure to pay parking infringement fee118271594
              Failure to pay overloading infringement fee4542133
              Failure to pay speeding infringement fee1 0821 0921 182
              Failure to pay instruction course fee15
              Heavy traffic licence not carried or no heavy traffic licence781954618
              Heavy traffic licence defaced or obscured663913
              Exceeding heavy traffic licence601845898
              Mileage tax offences913282
              Driver's licence offences10 89412 0319 772
              Driving whilst disqualified9361 014960
              Probationary drivers' offences231219168
              Vehicle licences and registration offences2 7873 2082 896
              Breaches of drivers' hours regulations77106
              Over 100 demerit points19268
              Other miscellaneous offences176149120
              Safety-belt offences3 1474 2203 184
              Noisy motor vehicles1 9972 0251 582
              Emitting excessive smoke759353
              Loading offences626612608
              Other nuisances986180
              Conversion1
              Aiding and abetting43187
              Stock offences41013
              Other by-law offences334765
              Unlicensed goods service6699101
              Breach of goods service licence246264182
              Exceeding rail restriction limit80112141
              Unlicensed passenger service287
              Breach of passenger service licence91015
              Rental vehicle offences524672
              Taxicab offences61217
              No vehicle authority or not carried292517532
        Other transport licence offences119170149
                  Totals (non-accident promoting offences)27 23032 83930 262
                  Parking offences13 92216 33417 749
                  Totals—all offences110 686124 550118 276
                  Parking infringement—notices issued340 437450 744448 796
                  Speeding infringement—notices issued77 97171 76356 016
                  Overloading infringement—notices issued4 7146 7667 177

The new minor offence system was introduced in 1 January 1975 and, for several months after, a duplicated system was operating with Court prosecutions.

URBAN PASSENGER SERVICES OPERATED BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The data provided in this section cover the whole of the urban passenger transport services operated by local authorities, and to account is taken of the various motor-bus services operated by the New Zealand Government Railways, or by any private enterprise.

From 1 November 1969 to 31 March 1971 local authorities received grants from the Ministry of Transport of twice the amount of heavy traffic fees paid in relation to urban passenger service operations. From 1 September 1972 a grant equivalent to heavy traffic fees paid on urban passenger buses was paid to all operators, municipal and private. In March 1974 the grant was increased to 200 percent of heavy traffic fees paid.

In 1977 the Government announced a new policy in the field of urban transport. A bus replacement programme amounting to $50 million over 5 years was announced. It applied to the four main local authorities operating public passenger services—Auckland Regional Authority, Wellington City Council, the Christchurch Transport Board, and Dunedin City Council. These four will therefore no longer receive assistance from the Urban Public Passenger Transport Council.

It is also proposed to establish Urban Transport Authorities in Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and an Urban Transport Council at the national level.

An Urban Public Passenger Transport Council was established under the Ministry of Transport Act 1968 with the function of administering Government assistance by way of loans and grants for capital expenditure to urban public passenger operators, both public and private; and to encourage and conduct research into urban passenger transport and associated matters. During 1977–78 the Council made loans and grants totalling $113,750 to local authorities operating urban transport, and loans totalling $374,500 to private operators.

Recent years have been difficult for urban passenger transport operators, with mounting losses and falling numbers of passengers. During the year ended 31 March 1978 the local authority urban passenger services had an aggregate loss of $15.4 million compared with $12.4 million in the previous year. Over the same period, the number of passengers carried dropped from 100.0 million to 94.3 million, so that there was a loss per passenger of 16.3 cents compared with 12.4 cents the previous year.

Details of revenue and expenditure incurred by local authority passenger services only are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueAverage Fare per PassengerRevenue per km RunExpenditureExpenditure per km Run
Passenger FaresTotalOperating ExpensesCapital ChargesTotal (incl. “Other”)
 $(000)$(000)cc$(000)$(000)$(000)c
Auckland
    19779,07410,33318.1240.0615,59889616,49463.95
    197810,08911,30621.0244.1818,3761,00019,37675.71
Gisborne
    197711412223.8448.011211813954.55
    197812913427.3451.381612818972.42
New Plymouth
    197726426913.6237.453698645563.41
    197828128815.6241.7941810852676.39
Palmerston North
    197720120922.5425.6538243653.64
    197822423121.9931.904644651070.43
Eastbourne
    197728029628.4246.212563529445.87
    197830632833.9151.392973433752.78
Wellington
    19773,9344,05317.9270.936,7364457,181125.65
    19784,2444,32120.7677.927,2214947,715139.12
Christchurch
    19772,7373,28318.0242.614,6813825,06265.69
    19783,0713,53122.4147.255,3414675,80977.73
Timaru
    197713514716.5238.762104125166.17
    197813414817.2540.222454929480.21
Dunedin
    19771,3291,38420.1757.721,915701,98682.83
    19781,4381,51123.4967.712,077992,17797.53
Invercargill
    197719720917.2432.193834142465.26
    197823024321.8939.094393947776.88
Total: All Services
    197718,26420,30518.2645.0630,6502,01432,72272.61
    197820,14822,04021.3749.9335,0402,36537,40984.75

Details of vehicles, kilometres run, and passengers carried are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVehiclesKilometres RunPassengers Carried (000)Passengers per km Run
Trolley BusesMotor BusesTrolley Buses (000)Motor Buses (000)

*Includes cable cars.

†Includes cable car running 47 000 km during 1977.

Auckland
    1977715821 98423 80550 0641.94
    19783361976324 82947 9961.88
Gisborne
    1977112554781.88
    1978112614731.81
New Plymouth
    1977227181 9352.70
    1978226891 7992.61
Palmerston North
    1977238138911.10
    1978237241 0191.41
Eastbourne
    1977196419861.54
    1978186119031.42
Wellington
    1977110*1322 0993 61621 9563.84
    1978110*1431 9483 55020 4433.69
Christchurch
    19771787 70615 1881.97
    19781787 47313 7061.83
Timaru
    1977133798162.14
    1978133677772.12
Dunedin
    197717674841 9136 5862.74
    197817674301 7846 1232.74
Invercargill
    1977196491 1431.76
    1978226211 0531.69
Total: All Services
    1977198*1 0664 56840 495100 0432.22
    1978160*1 1163 14140 79694 2922.14

The length of routes covered by the services are given in the following table.

Area and ServiceAt 31 March
19741975197619771978
 kilometres
Auckland
    Trolley bus65.3461.4853.2723.348.14
    Motor bus600.61604.71650.35717.53776.37
Gisborne
    Motor bus28.9728.9728.9728.9725.50
New Plymouth
    Motorbus49.8949.8953.1156.3356.33
Palmerston North
    Motor bus144.84144.84193.12203.20..
Eastbourne
    Motor bus25.7525.7525.7525.7525.60
Wellington
    Trolley bus51.5851.5851.5851.6051.60
    Motor bus84.56106.76106.76106.80106.80
    Tram, cable0.620.620.620.620.62
Christchurch
    Motor bus267.48279.54293.62294.73294.73
Timaru
    Motor bus37.2339.2739.2766.4866.65
Dunedin
    Trolley bus22.7522.7522.7523.2323.00
    Motor bus56.2056.2056.2056.2056.20
Invercargill
    Motor bus45.0645.0646.6760.8757.22

12 E—CIVIL AVIATION

In terms of the use of air transport per head of population, New Zealand ranks among the leading nations of the world.

Modem aircraft provide regular flights on a network of internal air services operated by the domestic division of Air New Zealand (the former National Airways Corporation) while the international division of Air New Zealand, in competition with other international airlines, provides links with various nations in the Pacific and South-east Asian regions.

Early days of commercial aviation in New Zealand, and the growth and development of the international service, are described briefly in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

AIR SERVICES—Air New Zealand (New Zealand Division), and the wholly-owned Safe Air Ltd., the air freight carrier, provide the bulk of domestic services. Mount Cook Airlines provides essentially internal tourist services. Safe Air Ltd., provides a Cook Strait service and a Chatham Islands service. Other regular tertiary air services are provided by Air Central Ltd., Nationwide Air Akarana, James Aviation Ltd., Nationwide Air, Eagle Aviation Ltd., Cookson Airspread Ltd., Mercury Bay Aero Club, Mt. Cook Group Ltd., Sea Bee Air Ltd., Stewart Island Air Services, and the Auckland Aero Club. In addition, at most aerodromes there are light aircraft operators licensed for air charter and air taxi services. Aero clubs and flying schools provide facilities for training and private flying. The agricultural aviation industry has continued to flourish, and an increasingly significant role is being played by helicopters.

International air services are operated by Air New Zealand, together with QANTAS, Pan American World Airways, UTA French Airlines, Singapore Airlines, British Airways, Air Pacific, and Polynesian Airlines. In addition, Continental Airlines were licensed to commence services between the United States and New Zealand on 1 May 1979.

In its last year solely as an international airline before the merger with NAC took effect on 1 April 1978, Air New Zealand's operations earned or saved an estimated $100 million in overseas funds, an important contribution to the country's external balance of payments. The company's 8 DC10 and 3 DC8 aircraft carried 914 224 passengers compared with 856 632 during the previous year. The airline's revenue for the year to 31 March 1978 totalled $230.2 million, 70 percent of which came from passenger services, 11 percent from cargo, 8 percent from charters, and 1 percent from mail carriage.

LEGISLATION—The principal legislation affecting civil aviation in New Zealand is the Civil Aviation Act 1964. This Act established the Department of Civil Aviation which later, under the Ministry of Transport Act 1968, became a Division of the Ministry of Transport.

The Air Services Licensing Act 1951 made provision for the establishment of the Air Services Licensing Authority, a 4-man independent body, with the primary function of receiving and determining applications for the grant, renewal, amendment, or transfer of air service licences. Under the Act, an air service licence is essential for any air transport or specified aerial work conducted for hire or reward. There is a right of appeal against the decisions of the Air Service Licensing Authority to the Air Services Appeal Authority. International air services are governed by intergovernmental air transport agreements and the International Air Services Licensing Act 1947.

New Zealand is a party to the Warsaw Convention of 1929 as amended at The Hague in 1955 and these conventions define the financial liabilities of international air carriers towards their passengers. New Zealand has signed but has yet to ratify the Guatemala City Protocol which, although not in force, raises the limits of liability from $15,000 to $100,000. Air New Zealand is also a party to the airline agreement known as the Montreal Agreement, which for travel to and from the United States of America imposes a limit of US$75,000. This limit is now being extended world-wide in its application, pending the entry into force of the Guatemala City Protocol. Liabilities of domestic air carriers are governed by the Carriage by Air Act 1967.

The Airport Authorities Act 1966 empowers local authorities, with the consent of the Governor-General in Council, to establish, improve, operate, or manage airports. In pursuit of these objectives, local authorities may enter into joint-venture agreements with the Crown.

The Aviation Crimes Act 1972, which came into full force in March 1974, gave effect to the Tokyo Convention 1963 relating to offences committed on board aircraft, the Hague Convention 1970 relating to hijacking, and the Montreal Convention 1971 relating to aerial sabotage.

In 1976 an amendment to the Civil Aviation Act 1964 established the Aviation Security Service as a branch of the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport. The Aviation Security Service was charged with the screening of passengers and baggage and, where necessary, the searching of passengers, baggage, cargo, aircraft, aerodromes, and navigational installations. It was also to carry out security patrols, and in general, review, investigate, and inquire into security techniques, systems, devices, etc., co-operating where necessary with the Police, airport officials, Government departments, and other responsible authorities.

The International Air Tariff Regulations 1978 were introduced to control international air tariffs in relation to travel between New Zealand and overseas. The Secretary for Transport is empowered to approve tariffs, and it is an offence to sell or provide international carriage by air otherwise than in accordance with such approved tariffs. Air travel organisers are required to keep records relating to international air travel for 2 years and to make them available to the Secretary for inspection.

AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES AND FACILITIES—The Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport is the responsible authority for the provision of all facilities for air navigation in New Zealand and certain associated Pacific nations, and by delegation the facilities for flying operations in Western Samoa.

Air navigation facilities include a variety of electronic aids such as non-directional medium-frequency beacons (NDB), very high-frequency beacons (VOR), instrument landing systems (ILS), surveillance radar (SRE), precision approach radar (PAR), distance measuring equipment (DME), and also visual aids to navigation including visual glide slope indicators (VASI), high and low intensity approach, runway, and taxiway lights, aerodrome identification beacons, obstruction lights, hazard beacons, runway markings, cloud height measuring devices, wind strength and direction indicators, etc.

To assist the safe, orderly, and expeditious use of the air navigation system the division provides a comprehensive ground services organisation comprising air traffic control units, communications services, crash-fire services, a search and rescue service, and ground safety organisations Units of the ground services organisations are located at the majority of aerodromes served by regular scheduled air transport services in New Zealand and Pacific island territories, operating from control towers and associated departmental buildings. In addition, control centres and communications centres are established at Auckland and Fiji for the conduct of international operations and at Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin to provide services to en-route aircraft throughout the entire country. A search and rescue service is provided from rescue co-ordination centres established by the division, whose responsibility it is to co-ordinate the effort and resources of military and civil agencies in the planning and direction of major search and rescue operations, whether air, land, or sea.

The division maintains a flight supervision and standards service and conducts examinations and issues licences for all categories of aircrew and ground personnel. Specially equipped aircraft and qualified aircrew are continuously engaged on the checking and calibration of all air navigation facilities.

An Aeronautical Information Service prepares and publishes New Zealand Aeronautical Information and Notices to Airmen and, in collaboration with the Lands and Survey Department, produces aeronautical maps and charts, etc.

An aeronautical training college is established at Christchurch International Airport where regular courses are conducted in air traffic control, meteorology, radio engineering, communications, and crash-fire procedure.

NATIONAL AIRWAYS CORPORATION—The New Zealand National Airways Corporation (now the New Zealand Division of Air New Zealand) provides regular services to centres throughout the North and South Islands with a fleet consisting at 31 March 1978 of 8 Boeing 737s and 18 Fokker Friendships.

Statistics of the operations of the National Airways Corporation for the 2 final years before the merger with Air New Zealand are shown in the following table.

ItemYear Ended MarchPercentage Increase
19771978
Revenue passengers carried—
    Scheduled2,163,4192,286,388+5.7
    Charter6 94215 039+116.6
Passenger kilometres created (000)—
    Scheduled1,458,8111,516,569+4.0
    Charter3 9848 435+111.7
Revenue passenger kilometres (000)—
    Scheduled1,003,9271,076,742+7.3
    Charter2 2455 369+139.1
Revenue passenger load factor68.871.0..
Average passenger journey (kilometres)464.05470.93..
Revenue tonne-kilometres created (000)172 588180 975+4.9
Overall tonne-kilometres used (000)—
    (a) Passenger and baggage87 51994 410+7.9
    (b) Freight24 13424 217+0.3
    (c)Mail1 4081 467+4.2
          Total113 061120 094+6.2
Overall revenue load factor65.566.4..
Operating Account$(000)$(000) 
    Revenue82,65698,568+19.2
    Expenditure76,84891,591+19.2
    Operating surplus5,8086,977+20.1

Revenue—Revenue increase during the year ended 31 March 1978 was $15,911,587 or 19.2 percent. Growth in volume of business, measured in tonne-kilometres, was 6.2 percent so that the major portion of the revenue improvement came from increases in fares and rates increases in the various revenue categories are shown below.

CategoryRevenue for year Ended 31 March1977–78
19771978Percentage IncreasePercentage of Total
 $(000)
Passengers66,70279,56819.380.7
Freight11,47014,19923.814.4
Excess baggage2152191.70.2
Mail8361,02622.71.0
Charters6621,04858.21.1
Incidental2,7712,507–9.52.6
          Total82,65698,56819.2100.0

FLYING OPERATIONS—The following table gives the summarised result of the operations of scheduled domestic air services during recent years.

Calendar YearKilometres FlownPassengers CarriedPassenger-kilometresFreight Carried*(Tonnes)Freight (Tonne-kilometres)Mail (Tonne-Kilometeres)
*Includes excess baggage.
 (000)
197425 6152 2551,004,23264.023 7311 447
197525 1712 3121,033,67861.224 5391 617
197624 670x2 294x1,055,32264.6x27 8111 415
197726 5262 4081,123,10163.829 2361 531

Figure 14.3. DOMESTIC COMMERCIAL AIR SERVICES

DOMESTIC COMMERCIAL AIR SERVICES

International Services—The following table shows passengers, freight (including excess baggage), and mail carried by international scheduled air services on scheduled routes.

Calendar YearPassengers CarriedFreight CarriedMail Carried
 (000)tonnestonnes
19751 17930 8772 270
19761 24539 706x2 229x
19771 28641 6842 286

AERIAL WORK—Aerial topdressing as a means of improving hill pastures and checking and preventing soil erosion was begun commercially in 1949. The industry developed rapidly and is now an established feature of the national economy. About half of the total fertiliser and lime applied to farms in New Zealand is spread by means of aircraft.

Aerial spraying (i.e., the release from the aircraft of agricultural chemicals in liquid form, such as insecticides and weedicides) has also been developed. The volume of this work has increased to more than 40 million litres a year. Since early 1974 there has been a significant change in application rates due to low-volume spraying techniques of insecticides particularly in treatment for nodding thistle. This has resulted in a slight reduction in figures for litres sprayed, although there is growth in the area treated. A technical qualification is mandatory for pilots engaged in the application of all agricultural chemicals. The qualification is to ensure that pilots are familiar with the chemical properties and correct techniques in applying the agricultural chemicals, many of which are highly toxic.

A summary of aerial work operations follows.

ItemYear Ended 31 December
1973197419751976
Source: Ministry of Transport.
Hours flown159 140141 993141 098285 039
Number of operators83838587
Material distributed—
    Fertiliser and lime (tonnes)1,335,8231,105,375865 4431,062,153
    Seed (tonnes)2 6982 1741 9782 825
    Spray (litres)45,712,25344,127,28441,499,24943,313,162
    Animal poison (tonnes)5 3277 1528 43010 231
    Supplies (tonnes)5 0795 3983 4967 658
    Fencing (tonnes)1 2426307611 073
    Dusts (tonnes)6817103
    Prills (tonnes)1191944266
    Miscellaneous (tonnes)2 5281 9344 0497 193

Later figures of fertiliser and lime applied from the air are included in the farming section.

INTERNATIONAL AIR SERVICES—New Zealand's own airline, Air New Zealand Ltd., provides services to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Hong Kong, Singapore, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, Fiji, American Samoa, Rarotonga, Tahiti, Honolulu, and Los Angeles. Air New Zealand's fleet comprises 3 Douglas DC8s and 7 Douglas DC10s.

Other services through New Zealand include: Pan American World Airways—from the United States to Auckland via Tahiti; through Honolulu, Pago Pago and Nandi to Auckland and beyond to Sydney; British Airways—twice weekly from the United Kingdom to Melbourne and Auckland; Union de Transport Aeriens—weekly from Tahiti to Auckland and beyond to Noumea; and QANTAS—a full range of trans-Tasman services with connections available to a variety of destinations beyond Australia. Singapore Airlines commenced services to New Zealand in May 1976 flying direct from Auckland to Singapore, and Western Samoa's Polynesian Airlines commenced flying to New Zealand in February 1978. Continental Airlines commenced a service between the United States and New Zealand in May 1979.

A minority financial interest is retained by Air New Zealand in the regional South Pacific operators: Polynesian Airlines Ltd. (PAL)—operating between Western Samoa, American Samoa, Tonga, Niue, Nandi, and Auckland; and Air Pacific Ltd.—operating from Fiji to the British Solomons, the Gilbert Islands, the New Hebrides, Western Samoa, Tonga, Nauru, and Auckland. Cook Islands Airways is a subsidiary company of Air New Zealand.

AIR FREIGHT—Air freight involves mostly exports and imports to and from Australia, and imports from United States and United Kingdom. Exports concern mainly made-up textiles, meat, fish, and live animals, notably racehorses. Imports air-freighted are mainly machinery, scientific instruments, pharmaceutical products, and textiles.

The following table is a summary of the value of exports and imports transported by air during the 2 12-month periods ended June 1977 and June 1978. Fuller details are available from the Department of Statistics.

CommodityExportsImports*
New Zealand ProduceImported Merchandise
1976–771977–781976–771977–781976–771977–78

*Cost including insurance and freight.

†Includes manufactured goods classified chiefly by material.

 $(thousand)
Meat and meat preparations8,05410,5405627
Dairy products and eggs6044834190169
Fish and fish preparations3,8705,2501516610713
Fruit and vegetables3,8075,2301629601649
Other foodstuffs (including animal)8778152932258247
Live animals15,90417,980753406,2275,447
Beverages and tobacco4535032,4773,040157176
Hides, skins, and undressed fur skins3,0038,0313990
Animal and vegetable crude materials n.e.s.3,0584,5931931,4951,418
Petroleum and petroleum products11,11413,42713,9163457
Medicinal and pharmaceutical products2,8693,40651789922,65126,365
Other chemicals1,5502,0551,2051,36713,32110,740
Textiles, yarn fabric, made-up articles, etc.9,4479,96233835423,25919,444
Other manufactured goods6,9319,10855395420,20524,126
Machinery and transport equipment13,07416,41731,83833,488140,740157,611
Scientific instruments, optical goods, watches and clocks1,8793,0105,5635,64427,64632,146
Other miscellaneous manufactured articles28,14130,4274,4815,16223,50726,437
Other goods19119348513,35813,752
          Total103,713129,11660,60765,304284,300319,594

CIVIL AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS—Civil aircraft accidents are investigated by the Office of Air Accidents Investigation headed by the Chief Inspector of Air Accidents who has statutory powers of his own in respect of his investigative duties and responsibilities.

During the calendar year 1977, 149 aircraft accidents were reported in New Zealand. Twelve fatal accidents claimed the lives of 10 pilots and 6 passengers. Twenty-two persons suffered serious injury (including one bystander) and the remaining 139 pilots, and 83 passengers involved received minor or no injuries. Nineteen fixed-wing and 17 rotary-wing aircraft were destroyed. Thirty-four helicopter accidents included 1Q aircraft engaged in agricultural aviation, 10 in venison recovery, 9 in other aerial work, and 4 in air transport operations.

Chapter 15. Section 13; COMMUNICATIONS

13A—POST OFFICE

HISTORICAL—With the arrival of Governor Hobson in 1840 the first post office proper was set up at Kororareka (now Russell). The same year saw the establishment of offices at other settlements in the north and at Port Nicholson (Wellington), and the beginnings of overland mail routes. By 1858, 73 post offices had been opened to provide communication services for the scattered settlers. In that year a Post Office Act was passed making the Post Office an independent department of State.

The system of communication by telegraph was inaugurated in the 1860s. A separate department, the Telegraph Department, was created by Act of Parliament in 1865 to take responsibility for the erecting of telegraph lines and the opening of morse telegraph offices. The North and South Islands were linked by telegraph cable in 1866 and by telephone cable in 1926.

The telegraph and postal services were amalgamated in 1881. Under the Post Office Act 1959, the name of the department became the Post Office, and the Minister's title became Postmaster-General.

A table in the Statistical Summary towards the back of the Yearbook shows the growth of postal and telecommunication activities over the latest 50 years.

POSTAL BUSINESS—At 31 March 1978 there were 1361 post offices in New Zealand.

Because of a change in postal categories and rating structures introduced on 1 October 1977, it is not practicable to relate all current postal statistics with those published previously, The following table shows the new categories which form the basis of postal statistics now prepared and gives the numbers of articles posted during the latest available year.

Year Ended 31 MarchLetters (Standard and Non-Standard)Other Articles (Including Packets, Newspapers, etc.)ParcelsTotal
 million
1978559.378.113.2650.6

The average numbers of items posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31 March 1978 were: letters, 178.4; other articles (printed papers, commercial papers, newspapers, and magazines), 25.0; and parcels, 4.2.

Chartered air services are used to convey the bulk of surface mail between the North and South Islands.

Private boxholders as at 30 September 1977 totalled 111 048.

Rural Mail Delivery—The rural delivery system enables country residents to obtain postal notes, money orders, and stamps, to register correspondence, and to collect or post their mail in boxes at or near their gates. The deliveries are generally performed by contractors who handle the mail in conjunction with the carriage of goods, and thus the rural mail delivery is in many areas the medium by which residents obtain their newspapers, bread, parcels, etc. At 31 March 1977, the total number of boxholders was 88 104 and at 31 March 1978, it was 90 309. The cost of the rural delivery service is $6.6 million a year.

Inland Airmails—Particulars of articles carried by air within New Zealand during the latest 3 years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchWeightNumber
 Kg(000)
1976911 111..
1977853 268..
1978924 13760 819

Overseas Airmails—The weight of airmail dispatched from New Zealand is about 29.0 percent of the total amount of mail forwarded overseas each year. In 1977–78, 299 281 kg of letters, 228 003 kg of newspapers and packets, and 226 874 kg of parcels were posted by overseas airmail.

Trans-Tasman Air Services—The first flight of the regular trans-Tasman service linking Auckland and Sydney took place on 30 April 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. The existing service provides for flights between New Zealand (Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch) and Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane) with a frequency overall of at least one flight each day.

New Zealand - United Kingdom Air Service—This service operates daily to London, the transit time New Zealand to the United Kingdom being normally 30 hours.

New Zealand - Hong Kong and Singapore Air Services—There are direct services from Auckland to Hong Kong and from Auckland to Singapore. Airmail to countries in the Far East is dispatched to Hong Kong, Singapore, or Sydney for reforwarding.

Trans-Pacific Services—The trans-Pacific service operating between New Zealand and North America commenced on 20 July 1940. Airlines now operate a daily service to the United States.

Pacific Island Services—Airmails are forwarded by New Zealand-operated air services to the Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, and American Samoa (Pago Pago). Local air services provide connections from Pago Pago or Nandi to the British Solomon Islands, Gilbert Islands, Nauru Island, New Hebrides, Niue, Tonga, and Western Samoa.

Overseas Parcel Post—Particulars of overseas parcels received and dispatched in each of the latest 3 years are contained in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchOverseas Parcels ReceivedOverseas Parcels Dispatched
NumberWeightCustoms DutyNumberWeight
  kg$(000) kg
1976668 2572,574,0852,441513 3891,424,915
1977577 5292,212,9142,670477 8851,339,854
1978561 9612,104,388..408 8701,224,374

Postal Mechanisation—The Wellington Postal Centre is extensively mechanised and a similar modern centre is being built in Christchurch.

Money Orders—Inland postal money orders for amounts exceeding $7 (for $7.00 and lesser amounts postal notes are generally used) and telegraphic money orders for any amount may be purchased to send money within New Zealand, the Cook Islands, and Niue. Postal money orders may also be issued in New Zealand for payment in 115 foreign administrations, and an overseas telegraphic money order service is available to Australia, Fiji, Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Irish Republic, Norfolk Island, and Western Samoa. For remittances exceeding $4 to foreign countries a permit is required.

A special rate or commission applies to money orders payable in foreign countries, except to the Cook Islands, Niue, and Western Samoa to which the inland rate applies. In addition to commission, telegraph fees are also payable for money-order telegrams.

Postal Notes—Postal Notes ranging from 10c to $2 and for $3, $4, and $5 are available for payment within New Zealand, Niue, and the Cook Islands.

Postal notes are negotiable, and their period of validity is unlimited. They are a popular medium for making small inland remittances by post, and during the year ended 31 March 1978, 2,325,213 postal notes valued at $4,311,079 were purchased by the public.

British Postal Orders—These are both issued and paid in New Zealand. Denominations sold are 10p, 15p, 25p, 50p, 75p, £1, and £2 sterling. (In decimal currency, which has applied in the United Kingdom from 15 February 1971, five new pence equal the previous one shilling). Commission is payable. For all remittances exceeding £2 per day a permit is required. As these orders are payable in several British Commonwealth countries they are a popular medium for making small postal remittances to overseas countries, especially the United Kingdom. During the year ended 31 March 1978 the Post Office sold 886 943 British postal orders valued at $3,168,032 and paid 153 151 orders valued at $1,172,000.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK—Details on the Post Office Savings Bank are given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TELEPHONE SERVICES—The first telephone exchange was installed in 1881 and the telephone system has since then been expanded to over 800 exchanges serving 1,064,157 subscribers at 31 March 1978.

Telephone exchanges are grouped into 313 free-calling areas within which there is no charge for local calls. The long-term objective is to reduce the number of free-calling areas to about 80. Toll fees are charged for calls between different free-calling areas, at rates varying according to distance.

About one sixth of the main telephones are business telephones. At 31 March 1978 there were 25 793 applicants awaiting service, about half of whom were awaiting connections in Auckland city and environs.

According to the latest comparative data available (January 1977) compiled by the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks fifth in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the USA (71.8), Sweden (68.9), Switzerland (63.8), Canada (60.4), and New Zealand (52.0).

Subscriber Toll Dialling (STD) service is in operation in Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington, and Christchurch, and in several smaller centres. It is being progressively extended as new telephone exchange equipment is brought into service. At 31 March 1978 STD service was available to 41 percent of subscribers.

A broadband toll link, comprising microwave, radio, and co-axial cable systems, connects main centres from Whangarei to Invercargill.

The following table indicates the growth of telephone installations (the figures are as at 31 March).

Item1975197619771978
Main telephones—
    Automatic896 928946 991977 1771,008,092
    Manual83 37972 19571 28656 065
Extension telephones544 236584 514618 898644 585
Public telephones5 2275 3285 3815 290
Private line telephones254241238192
Toll offices1 2101 1641 1521 119
                Total telephones1,531,2341,610,4331,674,1321,715,343
Telephones (all types per 1000 population)493514533545
Applicants awaiting installations22 42927 01329 57125 793
Number of toll calls (inland and outward international)77,692,42080,685,52479,393,72682,975,841

TELEGRAPH SERVICES: Telegrams—The downtrend in inland telegrams has continued. In the year to 31 March 1978, 3.1 million telegrams were lodged compared with 3.6 million in the preceding year. Of these, 66 percent were lodged by telephone, 11 percent by telex, and 23 percent handed in over Post Office counters. At the delivery end, 51 percent were delivered by messenger, 38 percent telephoned to the addressee, and 11 percent telexed.

The public telegraph network comprises 111 teleprinter offices which interwork through Gentex (automatic circuit switching).

Telex Service: Telex—the international abbreviation for Teleprinter Exchange Service—is a customer-to-customer service using page teleprinters. An international manual telex service for communicating with overseas subscribers commenced in New Zealand on 1 September 1960 with 16 subscribers. Service was then available with 23 overseas countries. Automatic service was introduced in 1964 with a total of 150 subscribers. Demand for telex connections has increased steadily and at 31 March 1978 there were 3 171 subscribers.

The monthly rental for a standard teleprinter is $112.50 and for a machine equipped with a tape reader and transmitter $150. Inland calls are charged at 7.5 cents per 8 seconds. In the year to 31 March 1978 rentals totalled $4,498,888 and call revenue was $5,979,746.

Ancillary telex services include a public telex service at all Chief Post Offices, Hastings, and Lower Hutt (21 500 messages, mostly international, were handled in the year to 31 March 1978); Phonatelex (messages accepted by telephone for onward transmission by telex) was introduced on 1 October 1977 and 11 000 messages were handled in the first six months; Teltex, which provides for the hand or telephone delivery of telex messages sent to any public telegraph delivery office, had an annual volume of 411 770 messages to March 1978.

Data Service—The use of computers in the commercial sector has created a need for facilities for transferring data from one point to another. The Post Office leases both inland and international circuits for data transmission. It also leases data modems (200 and 600/1200 bauds) for use on leased lines, and provides a datel service for the exchange of data using the switched telephone networks, local, toll, and international.

For the Datel Service, Post Office modems are mandatory and subscribers are also required to rent a business telephone connection. Modems for operation at speeds of 200, 300, 600, and 1200 bits per second are currently available and a 2400 modem is to be introduced in 1979. Rentals range between $186 and $360 for modems and between $208 and $326 for a business telephone connection. There is no charge for Datel calls within each free-calling area. Calls between different areas are charged at the same rate as telephone calls. Where the toll and international services are used for data calls the ruling toll or international rates apply as appropriate.

INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS: Cable Links—Telegraphic communication overseas was first established between New Zealand and Australia by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka (Nelson) to Sydney in 1876, and between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island, Suva, and Fanning Island in 1902. In 1945, the Commonwealth's external telecommunications systems were brought under Government control and, in accordance with the Commonwealth Telegraphic Agreement 1948, the New Zealand Post Office purchased the assets in New Zealand of Cable and Wireless Ltd., the private company previously controlling these services, and took over the operation of the overseas cable services.

In July 1962 a new submarine cable with a capacity of 80 telephone channels was brought into operation between New Zealand and Australia as part of a Commonwealth round-the-world cable project. The cable was extended from New Zealand to Fiji in December 1962, and in December 1963 was further extended, via Hawaii, to Vancouver and across Canada by microwave to Montreal. At Montreal it links up with the trans-Atlantic telephone cables, to connect with Britain, and provide high-quality circuits for telephone, telegraph, and telex communication between New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Canada, the United States of America, and Britain. This cable system links New Zealand with most of the world's major countries, and it was supplemented by the bringing into service in March 1967 of the South-East Asia Commonwealth Telephone Cable which extended the system from Australia to New Guinea, and (via Guam) to Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Singapore.

An additional high capacity trans-Tasman submarine cable, a joint New Zealand-Australia multi-million dollar project was brought into service in early 1975. Known as “Tasman” the new cable has a total capacity of 640 telephone circuits.

International Telephone Service—Telephone communication by cable, satellite and radio is now available to almost all countries of the world, as well as to Ross Dependency (Scott Base), Raoul Island, Chatham Islands, Campbell Island, merchant ships, and H.M. New Zealand and Australian warships.

An International Gateway telephone exchange in Auckland handles all New Zealand's outgoing and incoming international telephone calls. The international operators dial direct to subscribers in other countries, and overseas operators and in some cases subscribers dial direct to subscribers on automatic telephone exchanges in New Zealand.

International Telex Service—Since its inception in 1960 this service has continued to grow steadily and at the present time is available with 183 countries. An important development in New Zealand's international telex service was the introduction in July 1968 of automatic subscriber-to-subscriber calling. Telex subscribers in New Zealand can now call most overseas subscribers automatically without the aid of the international assistance operator. In August 1977 automatic telex service became available to ships at sea.

International Telegraph Service—Telegrams are an important part of international communications and a world-wide service is available. Phototelegraph service is also available to a number of countries.

Satellite Communications—Because of the rapid increase in international telecommunication traffic, an earth station was opened in 1971 at Warkworth, near Auckland, for communicating with other countries via satellites in space.

In addition to providing additional international telecommunications facilities, the earth station makes live television relays practicable. The earth station works through a satellite over the Pacific Ocean.

International Radio Services—Telegraph and telephone services between New Zealand and places in the Pacific area not served by cable or satellite are provided by radio through a high-power transmitting station at Himatangi and a receiving station at Makara.

Direct radio circuits are operated from New Zealand to Apia, Rarotonga, Niue, Ross Dependency (Scott Base), and Chatham Islands. Communication is effected with other islands in the Cook group by Rarotonga Radio through feeder stations. Stations in Tokelau communicate with Apia Radio.

Radio Services to Shipping—The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on 26 July 1911. Other stations are located at Auckland, Awarua, and Chatham Islands. These stations provide a service for the exchange of radio telegrams with ships at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand and Australia. A free radio-medical service also operates for ships at sea and lighthouses on the New Zealand coast. The number of ships licensed to operate radio equipment is 10 045.

INLAND RADIO SERVICES—The use of radio as a means of communication continues to grow. In the Post Office very-high-frequency service, 5500 subscribers are provided with radio-telephone service to 43 692 mobile units through 86 base stations throughout the country. A further 13 366 mobile units are provided with service through 3140 Government and private owner-operated base stations. The biggest growth is in the Citizen radio service where the number of walkie-talkie sets licensed increased during 1977–78 from 15 267 to 21 110, an increase of some 38 percent. The amateur service provides facilities for experimental communications between persons interested in radio as a hobby, and 4746 licensed stations are operated by qualified amateur operators. There are now 107 228 radio transmitting stations of all types licensed compared with 96 707 in 1977.

REVENUE—The revenue of the Post Office for the latest financial years is now shown.

Item1974–751975–761976–771977–78
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Postal revenue—
    Postages36,38743,01365,17774,911
    Private box and bag rentals and rural mail delivery fees7508031,7021,776
    Miscellaneous1,5456681,1162,047
 38,68244,48467,99578,734
Telecommunications revenue—
    Telex4,7405,9348,71010,766
    Telegraph5,5476,0057,9578,114
    Tolls64,56574,43491,135115,183
    Telephones92,862100,352152,202184,576
    Overseas telecommunications15,34616,11718,73122,156
    Radio441533652744
 183,501203,375279,387341,539
Miscellaneous revenue—
    Fees from Government departments, etc.8,2439,67814,04913,227
    Money order and postal note commission585670953977
    Rents received511500693604
    Other revenue6994,1624,3984,918
 10,03815,01020,09319,726
              Total revenue232,221262,869367,475439,999

Revenue and expenditure for the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure
 $(000)$(000)
1973186,874188,885
1974206,256212,495
1975232,221252,995
1976262,869301,589
1977367,475346,295
1978439,999402,344

CAPITAL—Capital expansion necessary to meet demand requires substantial provisions for new telecommunications systems and the replacement of those which have become obsolete. Accommodation to house this equipment, to provide post offices in newly developed areas, and to replace old and inadequate offices is an important part of Post Office capital development.

Capital expenditure on telecommunications development and buildings is financed partly by the Post Office, and partly from National Development Loans Account, on which interest is paid at the rate of 10 percent. The interest payment amounted to $32.8 million in 1977–78.

In 1977–78, $43.6 million was spent on the development of telecommunications systems and $14.1 million on land and buildings. In addition, $13.6 million was invested in other assets such as motor vehicles, tools and plant, and office equipment. This expenditure was financed from Post Office resources, National Development Loans Account, and capital equipment credit arrangements. The capital liability of the Post Office is now $509.9 million and liability under capital equipment credit arrangement is $6.4 million.

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS—Because it has numerous offices readily accessible to the public, the Post Office also undertakes agency work for other Government departments. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

Receipts—For the following departments: Education (examination fees, etc.), Health, Inland Revenue (land tax and income tax, under PAYE system), Lands and Survey, National Roads Board (Road User Charges), Public Trust Office, Housing Corporation (State rents, loan and interest repayments), Electricity (some electric-power receipts), Ministry of Transport, Tourist and Publicity, Valuation, Customs (collection of Customs duty and sales tax), Treasury (Government Superannuation, National Provident Fund receipts, and motor vehicle registration and licence fees).

Payments—Departments of Social Welfare (social welfare benefits and war pensions, etc.), Health (refunds of medical expenses), Defence, Labour (subsidised wage payments), Public Trust Office, Police (witness warrants), Treasury (Government superannuation payments and miscellaneous payments for other departments), Ministry of Works and Development, and for Reserve Bank (interest warrants and coupons).

Other services performed by the Post Office are the issue of licences in respect of motor vehicles and radio apparatus, and assistance to the Marine and Civil Aviation Divisions of Ministry of Transport on radio matters. In some of the smaller centres postmasters act as registrars of births, deaths, and marriages. In each of the 92 electorates a postmaster or senior officer is appointed electorate officer, as an agent of the Department of Justice, with responsibilities for accepting registrations and displaying rolls as directed by the Chief Electoral Officer.

Other activities include the receipt of levies under the Motor Vehicle Accident Scheme as provided for under the Accident Compensation Act 1972, the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatisation societies, organising and selling health stamps, and collecting television licence fees.

STAFF—Staff numbers at 31 March are shown in the following table.

Classification1975197619771978
Permanent staff30 84832 63731 81532 122
Temporary and non-classified staff6 0556 2706 4156 772
              Total staff36 90338 90738 23038 894

VEHICLES—The Post Office fleet as at 31 March 1978 consisted of 5958 vehicles; 1267 trucks, 2882 vans, 1800 cars, and 9 motor scooters. Of this fleet, 806 vehicles are used for hire to other departments, 4054 for engineering work, and 1098 on postal, telegram delivery, and other general work. The fleet travelled 80.2 million kilometres in the year ended 31 March 1978.

13 B—TELEVISION AND RADIO BROADCASTING

GENERAL—Created by the Broadcasting Act 1976, the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand came into existence on 1 February 1977. It united under 1 central board, 4 independent statutory bodies—TV1, TV2, Radio New Zealand, and the Broadcasting Council of New Zealand—which had been established by the Broadcasting Act 1973. However, it calls for the 3 programme services (TV1, TV2, and Radio New Zealand) to retain “the maximum practicable independence” in providing and producing programmes which “inform, educate, and entertain”. The announced intention of the legislation was to restore direct Ministerial responsibility for the public broadcasting system, to improve administrative efficiency and financial viability, and to establish a tribunal with powers to control some aspects of broadcasting, including the establishment of further private radio stations. At the same time, it was intended to preserve those features of the preceding system which were thought to be advantageous to listeners and viewers in general. At the time of going to press, further modifications were in prospect which were expected to change the administrative organisation of the 2 television services into a unified 2-channel operation. Programme scheduling and local productions for both networks are to become common services. Legislative provision for this was expected to be made by amendments to the Act during 1979.

Earlier forms of control dating back to the introduction of the first “wireless” stations in New Zealand were the Radio Broadcasting Company of New Zealand Ltd. (1925–31); the Broadcasting Board (1931–36); the National Broadcasting Service and the National Commercial Broadcasting Service (1936–45); the New Zealand Broadcasting Service (1945–62); and the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation (1962–75). Information on these organisations appears in the relevant Yearbooks.

BROADCASTING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—The corporation consists of not less than 7 and not more than 9 members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Broadcasting. Since 1977 the chairman of the corporation has served in the capacity of an executive chairman. The corporation must appoint from its members 3 standing committees, each with a particular responsibility for one of the operating services—Radio New Zealand, Television One and Television Two. Each service has its own Director-General and the secretary of the corporation is in executive charge of all centralised functions.

In general terms the corporation's responsibility is to carry on public broadcasting services and to develop, extend, and improve them in the public interest. In doing so, it must have regard for the general broadcasting policy of the Government. The Minister may direct the corporation in writing but any such direction must subsequently be gazetted and laid before Parliament.

The corporation is required to maintain standards of accuracy, impartiality, decency, and good taste; and to this effect must promulgate rules governing programmes and advertising. The Independent Broadcasters' Association is represented on the committee formulating these rules. Additionally the corporation is charged with maintaining a New Zealand identity in its programmes, with respecting the privacy of the individual, and with avoiding the co-incident presentation on the 2 television channels of programmes of a like nature. Formal complaints from the public on certain aspects of programming must receive proper consideration and if dissatisfied with the corporation's decision, the complainant may refer the matter to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

The corporation is responsible for the publication of the New Zealand Listener and for the administration of the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra. Up to two-thirds of the cost of operating the orchestra may be met by Government appropriation.

The corporation is empowered and expected to promote and encourage artistic, cultural, and educational development in the community.

BROADCASTING TRIBUNAL—A tribunal of 3 members, appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Broadcasting, is empowered to consider applications and grant warrants for additional radio stations, public or privately-owned. No warrant may be granted for any television station additional to the TV1 and TV2 Services without the express permission of the Minister. The tribunal has no authority over any shortwave station.

It is also empowered to consider and determine complaints which in the opinion of the complainant have not been satisfactorily dealt with by the Broadcasting Corporation. The tribunal must have regard for Government policy on broadcasting and must comply with any written direction from the Minister which does not derogate from its duty to act judicially. Any such direction must subsequently be gazetted and laid before Parliament.

RADIO—Radio New Zealand provides programmes for 55 medium wave broadcasting stations, and 2 shortwave transmitters of the External Services Division, the latter having a number of assigned frequencies. Of the 55 mediumwave stations, 35 broadcast advertising material. No advertising is broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. Twenty-one stations maintain a daily 24-hour service, apart from shutdowns for maintenance purposes once a month, between 11.15 p.m. and 5.30 a.m. The shutdowns are staggered to give the minimum loss of coverage to listeners.

Coverage of Shortwave Service—The External Services Division of Radio New Zealand broadcasts the Home Service (National) Programme to the Pacific on 2 transmitters from 1800 to 0830 G.M.T. daily. Then one frequency beams this programme to Australia until midnight. The Home Service programme also continues to the Pacific on one frequency until midnight G.M.T.

Special breakouts to take Concert and Sports Networks to the Pacific and Australia are generally to cover major and international sporting events, e.g., All Black tours and cricket series. Radio New Zealand's Overseas Programme Unit supplements this with weekly despatches of taped programmes; news, current affairs, talks and comment including vernacular programmes. The shortwave service also carries home service news and magazine programmes in Maori, Tongan, Samoan, Niuean, and Cook Island Maori.

Local Broadcasting—Whereas in many Commonwealth countries local broadcasting has only recently begun, in New Zealand it, is in many ways the most important part of the national system. Local stations not only provide a wide range of entertainment and information programmes, but also play a valuable social role through new community services and participation in cultural activities. Decentralisation of administration enables local radio stations to be highly responsive to the communities they serve.

Broadcasts to Schools—Programmes are designed to aid teachers in meeting syllabus requirements particularly in the fields of science, social studies, music, language, and Maori culture. Eighteen programmes a week are broadcast to children ranging from 4 to 13 years. The most popular programmes—music, current events, and dramatised extracts from literature—are heard by audiences of between 100 000 and 150 000 children. Programmes are also broadcast by the Correspondence Schools.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Non-commercial)—One private non-commercial station operated by the Otago Radio Association Incorporated has been issued with a warrant and has been broadcasting since 1922. This station, located in Dunedin, operates from 1800 to 2230 hours on Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays, and on Sundays from 0900 to 1230 and from 1800 to 2230 hours.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Commercial)—The first warrants for private commercial broadcasting stations were issued on 30 June 1970 to Radio Hauraki and Radio i, both located in Auckland, and transmissions began on 26 September 1970 and 31 October 1970 respectively. Radio Waikato was issued with a warrant on 31 July 1970 and began transmission on 2 November 1970, followed by Radio Whakatane with a warrant dated 24 November 1970 which began transmission on 30 June 1971, and Radio Otago with a warrant dated 8 June 1971 which came into operation on 20 November 1971. Later warrants enabled Radio Avon in Christchurch and Radio Windy in Wellington to begin operations late in 1973 and Radio Pacific in Auckland in April 1979. Advertisements are not permitted to be broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. If Anzac Day falls on other than a Sunday, advertisements are not permitted before 1300 hours. The Broadcasting Act 1973 prohibited the issue of any further warrants, but the 1976 Act reinstated the right to grant them to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

Independent Broadcasters Association—In 1970, holders of warrants for private commercial radio stations formed a federation which was subsequently approved by the Broadcasting Authority in August 1971. The general objects of the federation are to conserve the rights and interests of the members in broadcasting. The name was subsequently changed to the Independent Broadcasters Association (Incorporated).

Committee of Private Broadcasters—This consists of a chairman appointed by the Minister, and 2 members appointed by him on the nomination of the Independent Broadcasters Association. It investigates allegations of breaches of warrants or rules by private stations, and is responsible to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

TELEVISION—In August 1958 the Government decided that the 625-line system would be the standard for any television service in New Zealand.

In October 1958 approval was given to the then New Zealand Broadcasting Service to purchase equipment to enable technical investigations to be made. The service began regular transmissions in Auckland in 1960, in Christchurch and Wellington in 1961, and in Dunedin in 1962.

In October 1969 the Minister of Broadcasting directed the Broadcasting Authority to carry out an inquiry into the extension of television services. Following extensive hearings in 1970, the authority recommended that the existing TV services be converted to colour transmission (using the PAL system). Colour telecasts began in a limited way in October 1973, and conversion of the remaining transmission equipment was completed by March 1975. At the end of 1978, some 50 percent of households had colour sets.

Extension to Coverage—Television coverage has been steadily extended to all areas of New Zealand.

By the end of 1978, the first television programme (TV1), was being disseminated by six 100 kW transmitters, one 50 kW, 16 of from 1 to 25 kW, and 212 installations of less than 1 kW. These transmitters cover some 99 percent of the population.

Some 143 small units are operated by private individuals or societies, the latter receiving financial assistance from the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand. These small transmitters cover less than 1 percent of the population.

Transmission of the second television programme (TV2) began from 300 kW transmitters at Auckland and Christchurch on 30 June 1975. The 100 kW transmitter for Waikato and Bay of Plenty was commissioned in September 1975, and the 300 kW transmitter for Wellington in November. The 300 kW transmitters for Manawatu and coastal Otago and the 100 kW transmitter for Southland came into operation during the first half of 1976. By the end of 1978, two further transmitters of from 1 to 25 kW and 52 translators of less than 1 kW were relaying TV2 programmes.

Second programme transmitters for other areas will be provided progressively until identical coverage is achieved for both programmes.

Over 94 percent of homes in New Zealand are equipped with television sets.

Television Programmes—Television One, with headquarters at the Avalon Centre, Lower Hutt, operates a national network in colour for 80 hours per week. Five days are commercial and Mondays and Sundays are non-commercial.

The service has production studios in Dunedin and also produces a weekly entertainment programme out of Auckland. TV1 has 3 colour outside broadcast units, stationed at Auckland, Wellington, and Dunedin. These are deployed for live coverage of sport, and programme production from towns and cities in both islands.

Television Two (South Pacific Television) opened in Auckland and Christchurch on 30 June 1975. Unlike TV1, which took over the existing NZBC network on 1 April 1975, it is continuing its transmission development by stages. By the end of 1978 it was reaching approximately 90 percent of the population. By the mid-1980s TV2 should operate a full nationwide coverage.

The channel transmits in colour for approximately 68 hours each week, and the 2 non-commercial days are Friday and Sunday.

Production is centred in the service's studios in Auckland, Christchurch, and, to a limited extent, Hamilton. Auckland has 3 studios and Christchurch 2. In addition, Christchurch has the use of the converted Civic Theatre (now known as the Teletheatre) for a variety of productions. Auckland and Christchurch are each served by colour outside-broadcast vans and comprehensive film facilities.

Each service has the objective of increasing local content in programmes substantially as circumstances permit. This includes drama, news and current affairs, light entertainment, religion, service programmes, and sport. The balance of programme output is purchased from overseas, mainly the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia.

The use of satellite links permits same-day presentation of world news items and live telecasts of significant overseas events.

NEW ZEALAND SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA—The New Zealand Symphony Orchestra was formed in 1946 as the National Orchestra and adopted its present title in 1975. It is a full symphony orchestra widely known for the high standard of its public concerts as well as its performances over the air. Distinguished guest conductors and celebrity artists from other countries, along with resident soloists and New Zealand choirs, appear regularly with the orchestra. As a national orchestra, its tour programme is one of the most extensive in the world, involving some 15 000 miles of internal travel annually. The playing strength is 89 players, which enables the orchestra to undertake the complete symphonic repertoire.

In 1974 the orchestra undertook its first overseas tour to 3 Australian cities. During 1978 a total of 85 orchestral concerts was presented, as well as many studio recordings, both radio and television. The diversity of their work means that the orchestra covers a very wide repertoire.

The New Zealand Symphony Orchestra has also made several commercial recordings.

NEW ZEALAND LISTENER—Programmes and advance information for national television channels and radio stations are published in the weekly journal, the New Zealand Listener, first issued on 30 June 1939. The circulation of the Listener is now about 315 000. The readership is estimated to be 1,203,000. As well as containing programme information the Listener occupies a special place in New Zealand journalism as a leading periodical dealing with the current scene. It publishes interviews, articles, and reprints of broadcasts as well as fiction, poetry, and criticisms. Through its editorial and correspondence columns, the Listener provides a forum for serious public discussions on important issues.

FINANCES—There have been 2 principal sources of revenue: licence fees and radio and television advertising. Under the NZBC, licence fee revenue was credited to the accounts of the non-commercial stations and sales revenue to those of the commercial stations, although a common fund was in fact operated with all revenue being available for the general purpose of broadcasting. The NZBC was abolished on 1 April 1975 and was replaced by 4 corporations—Television Service One, Television Service Two, Radio New Zealand, and the Broadcasting Council of New Zealand. Under that structure the licence fee revenue was allocated amongst the 4 organisations by the council. On 1 February 1977 the 4-corporation structure was replaced by the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, composed of 3 operating services (1 radio service and 2 television channels) and a Central Services Division, which assumed the functions of transmission and the provision of common services. Its financial operations are handled through a single main bank account known as the Broadcasting Account which receives all BCNZ income and from which all payments are made.

Gross revenue from licence fees and from advertising for the latest 5 financial years is shown in the following table.

Item1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78
 $(thousand)
TV-licence fees14,90217,92725,76927,59529,741
Radio advertising9,28710,19610,97412,387x14,850
TV advertising11,24114,12020,89430,35239,843
                Total35,43042,24357,63770,334x84,434

LICENCES—As from 1 October 1971 the radio licence, which stood at $3 a year, was abolished and the monochrome television licence raised from $13 a year to $20. A colour television licence fee of $35 was introduced on 1 November 1973. On 1 January 1975 licence fees were increased to $27.50 (monochrome) and $45 (colour).

The following table summarises licences for television receivers issued by districts.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedinTotalNumber of Sets Covered by Hirers' Licences*

*Included in preceding figures.

†Includes 15 331 colour sets in 1974, 82 027 in 1975, 188 911 in 1976, 302 212 in 1977, and 394 195 in 1978.

‡Including other.

1974263 271203 267101 87662 757754 623123 452
1975272 730209 150108 82864 494790 599135 397
1976287 244230 362110 62268 590811 182124 344
1977285 067219 507116 17568 554815 798126 495
1978298 896226 004118 80470 953843 555131 898

13 C—NEWSPAPERS AND CINEMAS

NEWSPAPERS—Although printing in New Zealand began peacefully enough with the production of hymns in the Maori language, the early years of the New Zealand press appear to have been stormy, acrimonious, and marked by frequent shortages of the basic necessities of newspaper production. The first newspaper to be printed in New Zealand was the New Zealand Gazette of 18 April 1840, but like most early New Zealand newspapers it was short-lived. Much of the newspaper writing of early days was powerful, dogmatic, sometimes virulent, and irresponsible, and the Government or other target of attack reacted with equal force. One way of closing down a rival or too-critical newspaper was to buy up the press on which it was printed. When this method of silencing was used against the Auckland Times in 1842 the proprietor continued publication with the aid of a job-lot of assorted old type, a load of coarse paper, and a mangle. Another paper appeared for some weeks printed on red blotting paper, and others appeared on occasion on green or blue paper or in varying paper sizes or qualities. Appeals for supplies of paper sometimes appeared in advertisements and one paper made a despairing appeal for treacle, apparently an essential ingredient in inking-rollers. One Auckland paper was made to yield to a unique form of forceful persuasion. In 1865 the New Zealander published an article which gave offence to the Navy, whereupon a large number of sailors passed a hawser through the newspaper office and back over the roof, and threatened to overturn the building unless there was a full retraction.

Since 1840 about 500 different newspapers have appeared in New Zealand, but relatively few have survived. The oldest surviving newspaper is the Taranaki Herald, started in 1842. A number of the large metropolitan dailies still in existence were started in the 1860s.

By world standards, New Zealand has had (and continues to have) a large number of newspapers for the size of population. In the past, difficulties of geography and the scattered nature of the centres of population prevented any daily newspaper achieving a national circulation. Today, aided by distribution during the dead hours before dawn, the morning papers published in Auckland and Wellington are, between them, able to cover much of the North Island, while the Christchurch morning paper covers much of the South Island. Nevertheless, the provincial press remains fairly strong. New Zealand still has a relatively large number of local papers published daily, weekly, or 2, 3, or 4 times a week which, by offering a detailed coverage of local news, are complementary to the newspapers published in the main centres rather than in competition with them. Most of the provincial dailies are evening papers.

There are 8 daily newspapers in the 4 main metropolitan areas, with a total circulation of approximately 735 000. In the smaller cities and provincial towns there are 25 daily newspapers with a total circulation of over 325 000. Four Sunday papers have a combined circulation of about 350 000.

The total number of magazines, periodicals, and journals published and sold in 1974–75 was 19,421,000 and in 1975–76, 14,484,000. The total number of copies of daily newspapers sold in 1974–75 was 331,346,000 and in 1975–76 it was 316,784,000.

In the following table, based on the UN Statistical Yearbook, the total circulation of daily and non-daily (including Sunday) newspapers is shown per 1000 inhabitants for selected countries. Circulation figures for non-daily papers in New Zealand include those for the weekly, fortnightly, or monthly local papers distributed free in many districts.

CountryYearCopies per 1000 Inhabitants
DailiesNon-dailies

*1974.

†1973.

Australia1975394..
Canada1973235289
Denmark197534130
France1975214196*
Germany, West197531255
Italy197511346
Japan1974526..
Netherlands197331582
New Zealand1972365547
USSR1975397264
United Kingdom1975388..
United States1975287166

Advertising—The advertising revenue of newspapers and periodicals is shown in the following table for the latest available years.

Type of Publication1974–751975–761976–77
 $(000)
Newspapers, daily53,37858,56169,876
Newspapers, other than daily5,8986,6408,056
Magazines, journals, and periodicals3,4843,2372,784

CINEMAS—The survey of cinemas for the year ended 31 March 1975 covered 203 theatres compared with 208 in 1973. Cinema admissions, which had been dropping since the introduction of television in 1961, showed a recovery in the last survey. Compared with the position 2 years earlier, total admissions during 1974–75 were up by 3.2 million and admissions per head of population, at 5.1, were above both the 1972–73 and the 1970–71 figures, although well below the wartime peak of 21.3 in 1944–45 when admissions totalled 35.4 million. The next survey of cinemas is scheduled for 1980–81.

The following table gives figures of cinema attendances and takings.

YearTheatresAdmissionsGross Admission TakingsAverage Admission PriceAdmissions Per Head of Mean Population
 No.(000)$(000)cNo.
1970–7121013 0877,82859.84.6
1972–7320811 8709,85583.04.0
1974–7520315 03514,12994.05.1

The following statistics refer to the 3 latest surveys.

Item1970–711972–731974–75
*Includes 1 circuit or itinerant operator.
Cinemas—
    Screenings 6 days per week 120134134
    Screening odd days per week 897469
    Circuit 1
                  Total 210208203
Cinemas according to seating accommodation—
    Under 200 101613
    200 and under 500 766878
    500 and under 1000 10310595
    1000 and over 201917
                Total 210*208203
Seating accommodation (all cinemas)No.129 434126 185119 365
Average seating capacity per cinemaNo.616607588
Persons engaged—
    Full time—
        MalesNo.261227241
        FemalesNo.190226244
    Part time—
        MalesNo.425405422
        FemalesNo.664784886
Performances per yearNo.89 69094 94891 304
Average attendance per performanceNo.146125165

Statistics on the commercial operation of theatres are given in the following table. These statistics relate only to cinemas, and do not purport to show employees, revenue, and expenditure of the motion picture industry as a whole. In particular, the full revenue and expenditure in connection with screen advertising, and also head office expenses of controlling companies (including such items as interest on debentures and mortgage charges), unless recovered from exhibitors, are not recorded in the statistics. The item “Rent” under “Theatre expenditure” does not represent the rental value of all theatres, but only the rent paid where theatres were leased or rented.

Item1970–711972–731974–75

*Includes drawings of working proprietors.

†In 1972–73 other receipts included a large increase in revenue from sales of confectionery and beverages not recorded in previous surveys.

 $(000)
Revenue—   
    Admission receipts7,8289,85514,129
    Screen advertising337362413
    Other receipts5021,2942,029
              Total8,66711,51116,571
Expenditure—
    Salaries and wages*1,8882,4523,288
    Film hire2,6403,2125,193
    Advertising2,8283,6814,565
    Rent
    Repairs and maintenance
    Depreciation
    Other expenses
              Total7,3569,34513,046

Classification by Statistical Areas—In the following table, cinemas have been classified by statistical areas; further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

The average attendance per performance in 1974–75 rose in all areas except Marlborough.

Statistical AreaPopulation Estimate at 1 April 1975CinemasSeating AccommodationAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions Per Head of PopulationPerformances For YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Seating Capacity per Hall
 (000)No.No. of SeatscNo.No.No.No.
Northland100.494 44480.93.92 918135494
Central Auckland796.74025 995104.45.726 771170650
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty464.13718 24472.25.013 812168493
East Coast48.583 46680.76.62 163148433
Hawke's Bay144.973 87783.04.13 088193547
Taranaki104.9105 77777.84.43 157146578
Wellington591.93325 02399.14.917 612164758
Marlborough34.331 34974.12.21 03474450
Nelson72.363 89481.04.22 054149649
Westland22.541 67076.55.2984119418
Canterbury428.12514 602102.14.410 363183584
Otago185.8156 70293.54.04 706160447
Southland111.064 37280.84.02 642169729
                Total3 105.4203119 36594.05.191 304165588

Classification by Urban Areas—Statistics for the principal urban areas are as follows. Further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

Urban AreaPopulation Estimate at 1 April 1975CinemasSeating AccommodationAdmissions SeatAverage Admission ChargeAdmission per Head of PopulationPerformances YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
 (000)No.No. of seatsNo.cNo.No.No.No.percent
Northern Auckland746.43524 380183104.96.025 39517697718.0
Western Auckland
Central Auckland
Southern Auckland
Upper Hurt Valley333.71513 592134109.25.510 1881791 00317.8
Lower Hun Valley
Porirua Basin
Wellington
Christchurch297.9149 382169106.65.38 14319578724.8
Dunedin114.463 67317197.65.53 72316964726.1
              Total1 492.47051 027167105.65.747 44917992419.4

Classification of Cinemas—The following table shows further statistics of cinemas classified by the number of screening days weekly.

ScreeningCinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAverage Admission ChargeAdmission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Admission Takings
 No.No. of seats(000)c$(000)$(000)percent
Six and 7 days per week13495 70814 32194.713,5675,03737.1
Fewer than 6 days per week6923 65771578.656215727.9
              Total203119 36515 03594.014,1295,19336.8
ScreeningPersons EngagedPerformances for the YearAverage Number of paid Admissions per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
Full TimePart Time
MaleFemaleMaleFemale
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.percent
Six and 7 days per week26325237485882 33817478422.2
Fewer than 6 days per week4120111668 9668040519.8
              Total30427248592491 30416574722.1

Chapter 16. Section 14; FARMING

14 A—GENERAL

SOILS—Soil is a product of its environment—its composition depends on the parent ingredient, the climate, the length of time it has weathered, the topography, and the vegetation under which it has formed. The complex soil pattern of New Zealand is a result of the many different kinds of rock, and the various conditions under which the soils have formed.

New Zealand includes such extremes as the subtropical climate of North Auckland, the cold uplands of the alpine regions, and the semi-arid basins of Central Otago.

The country's topography is also varied—50 percent of the land is classifiable as steep, 20 percent is moderately hilly, and only 30 percent is rolling or flat.

The natural vegetation ranges from kauri forest to subalpine scrub, and from tussock grassland to broadleaf forest. From time to time, occurrences such as river floods on alluvial plains, sand drifts, or a volcanic ash eruption interrupt and alter the pattern of soil development.

Regional differences in New Zealand's soils result mainly from the effects of climate on topography. Soils develop more rapidly under high temperatures and a heavy rainfall. In New Zealand, distinct soil gradations are found, both from north to south and from west to east. These closely follow the isohyets (lines connecting places that receive the same amount of rain) on a climatic map.

Increased knowledge of the soils of New Zealand has brought about a change in approach to soil management. Soils have been mapped and their properties and uses determined. This has stimulated the rapid conversion of large areas of “problem” land into good farms and has raised land use to a new pitch of efficiency, which reflects the modern changes to farming as an up-to-date science.

Farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers, phosphatic fertilisers, lime, and trace elements. The use of aircraft for topdressing and oversowing of grass is resulting in considerable improvements to hill pasture, with a consequent increase in carrying capacity and production.

New Zealand soils may be classified on a regional basis as follows.

RegionSoilsVegetation and Land Use
North Auckland Peninsula and Auckland regionNorthern yellow-brown earths and podzols left by kauri forest. Loams and clays from volcanic rocks. Soft-rock uplands with volcanic outcrops.Heavily forested (high rainfall and humidity). Patches of rich dairy land on formerly swampy organic soils. Some wool and store sheep. Dairying, fat lambs near Auckland. Patchy land use.
Bay of Plenty - Waikato - Thames - Hauraki PlainsVolcanic ash covers much of area. Most soils intrazonal or azonal. Yellow-brown pumice soils in Bay of Plenty. Peaty soils with high ground water on Hauraki Plains.Intensively farmed dairying region. Land use almost entirely based on grass and clover, with great reliance on topdressing. Some fat lambs. Extensive exotic forests in Bay of Plenty region.
Volcanic PlateauPumice soils, lacking in essential trace elements. Yellow-brown pumice soils from volcanic material.Largely undeveloped scrub and native forest. Extensive exotic forests. Topdressing of former manuka and scrub area for farming.
East CoastSouthern and central yellow-brown earths. Patches of recent alluvial soils along rivers. Yellow-grey earths on rolling land south of Hawke Bay.Semi-extensive sheep farming (wool and store sheep). Intensive fat-lamb production on flat to rolling plains. Market gardens and orchards near Napier and Hastings. Some pip fruit. Pockets of dairying close to main ranges from Norse-wood south.
TaranakiRing plain consists of yellow-brown loams, with granular clay from volcanic ash. Overlay of fertile ash and sediment from Mount Egmont. Soft-rock uplands away from coast.Distinct contrast between rich, closely farmed dairying ring plain and inland country with its steep ridges mainly covered in second-growth forest or dense gorse, and severely eroded.
Manawatu-Horowhenua Coast PlainSand dunes and swampy hollows common along coast. Steep-land yellow-brown earths inland. Extensive young soils from dune sands along coast.Many hollows contain native flax (Phormium tenax). Pockets of dairying and fat-lamb production.
NelsonPockets of fertile, recent alluvial soils in yellow-grey and yellow-brown earths.Orchards and market gardens. Hops and tobacco also grown on flat, rolling land.
Marlborough-Kaikoura CoastYellow-brown earths with pockets of alluvial soils.Where land is developed, mainly sheep or cash cropping.
West CoastExtensive grey podzols, with recent swamp soils on alluvial flats.Mostly undeveloped scrub and native bush. Some dairying.
Canterbury PlainsVery thick layer of gravel deposited by rivers—thickest and coarsest near mountains from which rivers flow. Soils range from stony gravel to fine silts.Deep layer of fine sediment provides fertile soil for cereals and fodder crops, and makes good sheep pasture. Cash cropping on former swamp rear Christchurch.
OtagoHigh-country yellow-brown earths on ranges; yellow-grey earths, often stony, in basins.Sheep farming for wool and fat lambs plus some cattle and some orchards. Irrigation necessary in low-rainfall area.
Southland and FiordlandSouthland Plain has extensive deposits of gravel and silt. Fiordland mostly subalpine grey soils and grey podzols.Fat-lamb production in Southland. Fiordland agriculturally undeveloped and unproductive. Scenic attractions.

NATURE OF FARMING—Most of the dairy farms are in lowland areas of the North Island, where naturally fertile or improved soils make for good grass growth. Approximately 90 percent of the total dairy stock in the country are grazed on the flat and undulating land of Northland, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, and Wellington. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry and carrying capacity may be as high as 2.5 cows per hectare, and annual production as high as 400–450 kg of milkfat per hectare. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. In most of the dairying areas lamb raising is also undertaken.

On the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are raised.

Sheep finishing farms are generally located on land which is of high fertility, either naturally or as a result of topdressing. Country of this type is usually flat to undulating in topography, and tends to be concentrated on the coastal plains and river valleys of both islands, e.g., the Waikato basin, the Poverty Bay flats, and the Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, Canterbury, and Southland plains. In the North Island it is normal to rely on pasture as a sole diet, while in the drier and colder areas of the South Island it is necessary to grow special crops for supplementing the ewe flock feeding over the winter.

Finishing farms vary considerably in area and in the size of flock carried. A flock of 1200 to 1500 ewes is commonly regarded as a 1-man unit. The average range in carrying capacity is from 7 to 15 ewes wintered to the hectare. Lambing percentages are variable but average from 95 to 110 lambs per 100 ewes mated. The aim of the farmer is to sell a high proportion of these lambs, straight off their mothers, at carcass weights around 12–14 kg. In the North Island, cattle are normally purchased in the spring and in the autumn, and are finished, if possible, by the following autumn. On some properties, store wether lambs from the hill-breeding flocks may also be brought in for finishing. The amount of meat produced on finishing farms averages about 160–170 kg per hectare.

Hill country sheep farming covers extensive areas in both islands. The stock carried consists of a mixed-age flock of breeding ewes, ewe hoggets for replacements, and rams. Where part of the property is of poor quality, wethers may also be carried. Products sold are wool (which usually represents 50 percent or more of the total farm income), some wether lambs, store lambs for finishing and, of most importance, breeding ewes.

A large proportion of the beef cattle are also run on hill-country properties.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. Approximately 90 percent of New Zealand's wheat, oats, and barley areas are in these districts. On the majority of the cereal-producing farms sheep and lambs are finished as well.

OCCUPIED LAND: Tenure—The tenure of occupied land at 30 June 1976 by size of holding is given in the following table. At 30 June 1977 there were 68 571 holdings occupying a total of 21,225,500 hectares.

Size of Holding (Hectares)Number of HoldingsFreeholdCrown Land, Leases and LicencesLeasehold*OtherTotal Land Occupied
*Includes land leased from private individuals (448 715 ha), land leased from companies (188 146 ha), land leased from trustees (499 180 ha), and land leased from local authorities (190 747 ha).
 Hectares (000)
Under 55 53516.00.20.716.9
      5–94 71928.90.72.131.8
    10–142 47525.01.02.929.0
    15–191 84226.71.13.231.1
    20–293 25466.63.37.70.277.8
    30–393 16995.44.29.40.2109.2
    40–494 113156.07.615.90.4179.9
    50–593 291154.39.315.90.3179.8
    60–795 733333.324.235.30.8393.6
    80–994 502335.023.438.80.9398.1
  100–1497 067719.567.177.41.3865.3
  150–1994 888689.885.570.32.0847.5
  200–2996 2511 201.1191.3120.72.51 515.6
  300–3993 128826.0145.999.65.41 076.9
  400–5992 9931 094.1196.7146 08.21 445.0
  600–7991 382695.3151.596.36.3949.4
  800–999809510.6142.561.62.8717.5
1 000–1 199468353.5112.045.73.3514.5
1 200–1 999964920.5406.6128.517.51 473.1
2 000–3 999581786.8676.789.737.41 590.7
4 000 and over6101 116.17 362.3259.143.48 780.8
              Total67 77410 150.59 613.01 326.8133.321 223.7

Land Usage—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1976 by statistical area is given in the following table.

Statistical AreaNo. of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneCrops, Fruit, or NurseryPlantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingTotal Area of Holdings*
Established Before 30/6/75Established During Year Ended 30/6/76Area Prior to 31/3/75Planted in 1976 Season
*Including “Other”
  ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)
Northland6 034639.38.44.830.74.935.11 069.7
Central Auckland5 910285.11.88.920.92.98.8415.7
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty15 5381 725.925.632.3390.320.652.43 405.1
East Coast1 478542.43.48.518.04.328.7722.3
Hawke's Bay4 242879.113.520.533.94.253.01 310.6
Taranaki4 439418.23.83.32.90.321.8614.0
Wellington7 7921 387.222.631.632.93.9175.51 994.8
            North Island45 4335 877.179.2109.8529.541.0375.39 532.2
Marlborough1 282188.96.78.015.05.9521.81 110.8
Nelson2 240147.44.88.756.68.3107.51 449.9
Westland73989.42.80.711.50.640.9948.1
Canterbury8 599966.1102.6179.541.218.91 558.03 337.5
Otago4 603793.640.263.737.215.11 928.93 269.2
Southland4 878651.028.759.018.26.5412.41 575.9
            South Island22 3412 836.5185.8319.7179.855.44 569.611 691.4
            New Zealand67 7748 713.6265.0429.5709.396.34 944.821 223.7

Farm Type—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1976 by farm type is shown in the following table.

Farm Type**Number of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneLand In or Prepared for Fruit, Grain, Crops, Vegetables, etc.Plantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingOther Land on HoldingTotal Area of Holdings

*Seventy-five percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity, and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

||More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶The relevant percentage of income may be derived from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

**These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

 Hectares (000)
Dairy farming*15 7031 105.713.93.729.4102.31 255.0
Sheep farming*14 5133 178.8116.044.63 362.2736.77 438.3
Beef farming*6 868554.05.412.0335.9237.11 144.5
Pig farming*5479.51.60.61.312.9
Cropping*1 43131.744.00.20.93.180.0
Dairy farming with sheep39455.81.10.35.19.571.9
Dairy farming with beef69782.30.90.94.917.4106.4
Dairy farming with other39822.72.00.10.72.027.4
Sheep farming with dairy14123.20.80.11.13.328.6
Sheep farming with beef5 7742 039.133.633.7809.9367.13 283.4
Sheep farming with cropping1 334202.244.31.424.28.3280.4
Sheep farming with other31853.92.94.432.716.0109.9
Beef farming with dairy16616.10.20.42.619.4
Beef farming with sheep1 258278.83.62.844.268.8398.3
Beef farming with other30018.32.40.71.73.226.3
Cropping with sheep75167.341.50.51.93.3114.4
Cropping with other2198.36.00.10.30.515.2
Pig farming with other1936.60.90.10.21.39.1
Mixed livestock3 746853.217.314.0210.7217.51 312.7
General mixed farming§1 384156.347.11.210.913.8229.3
Poultry farming||6496.81.00.31.49.5
Market gardening and flowers||1 58414.917.90.13.51.938.3
Orchards||2 1066.015.80.61.53.427.5
Tobacco growing||2355.52.10.41.43.512.9
Nurseries||3471.01.80.10.33.3
Plantations||5065.70.2635.34.21 204.41 849.8
Other farming1 15466.23.547.48.61 064.21 189.9
Idle land5 058108.61.81.047.01 970.72 129.1
        Total, all farm types67 7748 978.6429.5805.74 944.86 065.021 223.7

FARM EMPLOYMENT SURVEY—At 30 June 1976 the total number of persons working on farms was 143 035, an increase of 6.2 percent compared with 30 June 1975. Of these, 75 722 were working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers, 55 883 of whom worked 30 hours or more a week. There were 37 578 permanent paid employees, 9469 paid casual employees, and 20 266 unpaid family members.

Female working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers increased by 2047 or 18.1 percent from 30 June 1975 to 30 June 1976. This emphasises the trend for women to be included in the ownership structure of partnerships and farming companies. Male working owners also increased by 18.8 percent, while the number of males employed decreased by 370 or 1 percent during the same period.

There were 67 774 productive farm holdings included in the survey. On 54 570 there were working owners, leaseholders, or sharemilkers. On 25 227 there were permanent paid employees, and on 12 658 casual labour was employed during the year.

Of the 75 722 working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers, 34 percent were engaged in dairy farming, 31.2 percent in sheep farming, 12.1 percent in beef farming, and a further 5.7 percent in mixed livestock farming.

At 30 June 1976 sheep farms accounted for 36.8 percent of paid full-time and part-time employees, dairy farms for 21 percent, mixed livestock farms for 6.9 percent, and beef farms for 4.5 percent, while the same farm types accounted for 37.2, 6.7, 4.9, and 4.1 percent respectively of all paid casual employees at the same date.

Paid casual employees at 30 June 1976 numbered 9469 or 20.1 percent of the total paid labour force. Of these casual employees, 59.6 percent were employed on farms of under 200 hectares. Of the paid permanent full-time and part-time employees, 45.1 percent were employed on farms of less than 200 hectares.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE ON FARMS—An annual survey of capital formation in the farming industry is made by the Department of Statistics. For the year ended 30 June 1976 capital expenditure was reported by 58.4 percent (39 575) out of the 67 774 farms and plantations surveyed.

The following table shows capital expenditure by type during the latest available 5 years. For each type of expenditure the figure given is net, i.e., receipts from “trade-ins” or sales have been deducted from the gross expenditure.

YearBuilding and ConstructionTransport VehiclesTractors and Farm MachineryOther Improvements and DevelopmentTotal Capital Expenditure
 $(million)
1971–7232.231.532.635.0131.3
1972–7342.151.739.951.8185.6
1973–7459.145.841.465.0211.3
1974–7584.433.640.543.6202.1
1975–7693.250.758.849.0251.7

NOTE—Up to 1974–75 this table excludes holdings given over wholly to plantations of timber trees.

The following table shows capital expenditure, net of sales, by farm type and size group. It includes holdings given over wholly to plantations of timber trees. This table refers to the year ended 30 June 1976.

Farm TypeSize Groups (hectares)Total Expenditure
Under 2020–4950–99100–299300–799800 and Over

*Seventy-five percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

||More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

 $(thousand)
Dairy farming*6168,52723,93715,1701,252549,507
Sheep farming*2,5261,5562,78622,55917,15414,64061,221
Beef farming*3,7042,2372,0612,8451,3491,50213,698
Pig farming*1,1294563882191092,301
Cropping*1,2517068702,6264085,860
Dairy farming with sheep1232236953361971,689
Dairy farming with beef65684921,67128892,592
Dairy farming with other322177615271,538
Sheep farming with dairy21310720680105512
Sheep farming with beef3701,3006207,41010,0379,38229,118
Sheep farming with crop-ping1382044635,2351,9463108,296
Sheep farming with other25571205953421661,306
Beef farming with dairy6127271681372418
Beef farming with sheep2641834111,2101,4471,3794,894
Beef farming with other1992421332811132969
Cropping with sheep881005433,3701,1335,235
Cropping with other1571702102722141,024
Pig farming with other1541701812518764
Stud farming||598433364575258722,301
Mixed livestock6978411,2054,7553,7573,34814,604
General mixed farming§2086681,2874,1501,6527498,714
Poultry farming||1,7784132731321642,760
Market gardening and flowers||3,3721,5371,3301,0202832487,789
Orchards||5,0351,586774171117,577
Nurseries||8901551093071,462
Plantations||191186766910,07010,428
Other farming1,1964105114271301,4304,104
Idle land8241231216521,028
        Total, all farm types25,58122,44840,21677,19542,70143,566251,708

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—The Agriculture Production Account covers the activities of all market-oriented establishments classified to agricultural and livestock production or to agricultural services (major groups 111 and 112 of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification). All types of farms are included, together with agricultural services operated by contractors, such as top-dressing, weed-spraying, harvesting, threshing, shearing, and scrub-cutting. Other services included are herd testing and artificial insemination. Farms operated as trading enterprises by the Department of Lands and Survey and the Department of Maori Affairs are included, but not Government research farms or farms attached to prisons, psychiatric hospitals, or universities.

The account includes all income derived from the activities of the establishments covered, including their characteristically farming activities, and also their “other” productive activities. However, property income (such as dividends, interest, and rents) accruing to the proprietors of farming establishments is excluded.

These series relating to the farming industry were first described in detail in a supplement to the January-February 1976 Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Since then, some technical changes have been introduced to make them consistent with the 1971–72 Input-Output Tables and with the revised New Zealand System of National Accounts. These were described in detail in a supplement to the May 1979 Monthly Abstract of Statistics. The Agriculture Production Account is one of 25 production accounts in the New Zealand National Accounts, the theoretical and methodological description for which follows that of the United Nations System of National Accounts published in 1968.

AGRICULTURE PRODUCTION ACCOUNT
ItemYear Ended March
1974197519761977*1978*
*Provisional.
 $(million)
Input
    Intermediate consumption9097379571,1751,250
    Compensation of employees190194223254279
    Operating surplus—
        Interest paid104110128158193
        Proprietors' surplus673381571857614
    Consumption of fixed capital138144174208245
    Indirect taxes3133404855
    Less subsidies–6–10–21x–26–23
            Gross input2,0381,5882,0702,6742,613
Output
    Farm products2,0321,5812,0642,6672,606
    Other products67677
            Gross output2,0381,5882,0702,6742,613

It should be noted that figures for 1976–77 and 1977–78 are provisional.

The following table shows details of the Agricultural Account item, Intermediate consumption. A major change in this item is the inclusion of inter-farm purchases of livestock.

ItemYear Ended March
1974197519761977*1978*
*Provisional.
 $(million)
Animal health, weed and pest control46496080x85
Shearing expenses3635384447
Fertilisers, lime, and seeds1107899125x152
Vehicle expenses697795116136
Electricity17152026x35
Feed and grazing838591106124
Agricultural services33303643x48
Repairs and maintenance9883101x123145
Packing and containers779910
Railage and cartage3229323538
Administration and general expenses39x42x54x59x64
Insurance81081011
Rent2018232831
Inter-farm purchases of livestock311179291371324
              Total909x737x957x1,175x1,250

GROSS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION (GROSS OUTPUT)—The following table of Gross Agricultural Production shows the value of production for March years.

ItemYear Ended March
1974197519761977*1978*
*Provisional.
 $(million)
Income
    Sheep and lambs313187226387372
    Wool328223405555476
    Cattle336187247351339
    Pigs3436374145
    Dairy products343363435483514
    Crops and seeds96108143152150
    Fruit3945466164
    Vegetables4756555658
    Poultry and eggs6066778285
    Agricultural services9391102121131
    Other—farm products1717192328
                  —non-farm products67677
Changes of livestock
    Physical change at average market
          prices—sheep–30–2+9+23+61
                  —cattle+46+26–28–41–41
                   —Pigs–1–1+3
      Inter-farm sales of livestock311179291371324
      Gross agricultural production (gross output)2,0381,5882,0702,6742,613

VOLUME OF NET AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—The index of the Volume of Net Agricultural Production is arrived at by deducting intermediate consumption expressed in constant dollar terms from outputs in constant dollar terms and expressing the difference in index form.

The importance of the net volume series lies in the fact that it measures the volume of the contribution of the agriculture industry alone, after elimination of the contribution of all other industries to gross agriculture output. The net index is preferable to the gross index in analysing the contribution of agriculture to the country's real gross domestic product and the changing importance of agriculture in the economy and its productivity.

In the following table the series is shown in index form and in annual percentage movements. The base is 1971–72 (= 1000).

Year Ended MarchIndex NumberChange from Previous Year
*Provisional.
 Percent
19721000 
1973x901–9.9
1974x840–6.8
1975x980+16.6
1976x1013+3.4
1977*1037+2.4
1978*988–4.7

Problems which are specific to farm accounting are related to the production process of the industry itself—its seasonal nature, and its dependence on biological factors and climatic conditions. All these intervene in various ways between real resource use and output. Also, operations are not necessarily restricted to an annual cycle (e.g., the application of fertiliser in one year can affect output for a number of years) but the accounts are always made up for one year. As a result, year-to-year comparisons between resource use and output and, in the final analysis, the net profit (net income, surplus) of the farming industry, can be affected by fortuitous factors.

This is the principal reason why year-to-year changes in real gross production and real net production can differ to a marked degree.

VOLUME OF GROSS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—The index of the Volume of Gross Agricultural Production, which is a year-to-year quantum measure of commodities coming off all New Zealand farms and hence available for export or domestic consumption, is shown in the following table. The index of the Volume of Gross Agricultural Production for each of the latest 5 years is shown for the component product groups, as well as for the production of the whole agricultural industry. The expression base for each product group separately, and for the agriculture industry as a whole, is the year ended June 1972 (= 1000). The reduction in the volume index for cattle in 1977 continued throughout 1978 when a similar reduction in volume was recorded.

ProductsYears Ended 30 June
19721974197519761977*1978*
*Provisional.
 Volume Index Numbers
Sheep and lambs1000834833905936921
Wool100089694710061008964
Cattle10001002909973949x922
Pigs10008728368621013x988
Dairy products100092498610611076986
Crops and seeds100093897611891212x1218
Fruit10001199113310831104x1024
Vegetables10008581039828779x823
Poultry and eggs100011051107119212081117
Other farm products10001270135113771401x1271
Agriculture services............
Non-farm products of the agriculture industry............
All agriculture industry production100093995010151025x983

DAIRY PRODUCTION—The following table shows milk production and utilisation of milkfat during each of the last 5 seasons, year ending 31 May. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

 1973–741974–751975–761976–771971–78
*Includes milk fed to stock and waste, but excludes separation loss.
 Production*
Milk, litres (million)5 51259076 075x6420x5 892
Milkfat, tonnes (000)260.9273.3296.5302.9278.6
Liquid milk, cream, and icecream, litres (million)535x558557525521
 Utilisation of Milkfat Processed (000 tonnes)
Butter176.6197.3211.3225.8203.0
Cheese35.133.940.133.331.0
Other wholemilk products16.112.716.216.017.0
        Total227.8243.9267.6275.1251.0

Production by dairy factories during the latest 5 seasons is set out in the following table.

Product1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78*
*Provisional.
 tonnes (000)
Creamery butter185.9205.1219.8219.1187.5
Whey butter2.72.73.02.72.3
Anhydrous milkfat22.731.629.441.339.9
Frozen cream5.15.97.04.07.7
Cheese89.088.6104.881.078.4
Condensed and evaporated milk50.316.311.910.85.7
Whole-milk powder10.922.050.949.9
Infant food6.712.916.217.4
Skim-milk powder194.1243.7207.0205.7172.0
Buttermilk powder19.024.224.323.519.4
Acid casein35.529.544.641.443.9
Caseinates1.14.09.99.9
Rennet casein3.94.26.73.0
Lactose8.07.59.48.78.4

The butter produced in New Zealand is of a salted “sweet cream” type and, because the cows are fed almost entirely on grass, it has a high carotene content which makes it yellower than the butter from countries where cows are fed indoors for much of the year. The predominant cheese variety produced is cheddar. Whole-milk powder is made from the whole milk, while skim-milk powder is made from the separated milk following the removal of the milkfat for buttermaking. Buttermilk powder is made from a by-product of the butter manufacturing process. Lactose is made from whey, a by-product of cheesemaking. At one time skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey were fed to pigs, but in recent years they have almost entirely been processed to produce powders and specialised dairy products.

The following table gives average milkfat and milk production per cow “at factory”.

SeasonDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per Cow
MilkfatMilk
*Provisional.
 (000)kglitres
1973–742 1401182 470
1974–752 0801282 732
1975–762 0921372 765
1976–772 0741432 998
1977–78*2 0531282 670

Herd sizes have increased as suppliers with small herds have ceased production and as dairy farms have been amalgamated. The number of suppliers to dairy factories and milkfat production per supplier is shown in the following table. (Source: N.Z. Dairy Board)

SeasonDairy Company Suppliers*Average Size of HerdMilkfat per Supplier

*Does not include town milk suppliers (about 1700).

†Provisional.

   kg
1973–7418 55710912 875
1974–7517 704x11214 350
1975–7617 42011515 725x
1976–7716 78611616 625x
1977–7816 12611815 300

Tanker collection of milk by the dairy factories began in 1951. By 1960, 55 percent of the milkfat supplied to dairy factories was received as milk (instead of cream as previously); this had increased to 79 percent by 1966 and by 1977–78 was 99 percent.

The following diagram shows the progress of the dairy industry over a long period of years.

Figure 16.1. MILKFAT PRODUCTION(1)

MILKFAT PRODUCTION(1)

The New Zealand Dairy Board of 13 members functions under the Dairy Board Act 1961. Apart from 2 Government representatives, all are producer members—3 are appointed by the New Zealand Cooperative Dairy Company, 8 are elected by other dairy companies, with voting proportionate to the quantity of milkfat received by those companies from their suppliers in 6 geographically-defined wards.

The Dairy Board's work is divided broadly into 2 sections; one concerned with the development of the dairy industry and the other with marketing of dairy produce. (This latter activity is described in Section 21A, Marketing of Farm Products.) It is a further function of the board to promote the bobby calf and pig industries.

The Dairy Board has the broad function of linking manufacturing plans and growth with export market requirements. It is responsible by statute for the purchase and sale of export dairy products and for the development, in all respects, of the dairy industry. Since the board is the sole purchaser of produce for export, this purchasing power helps to link manufacturing plans with commercial reality.

MILK PRODUCTION—The administration and organisation of the town milk supply is the responsibility of the New Zealand Milk Board (see Section 21A).

During the year ended August 1978, town milk suppliers provided 706.5 million litres of milk. Of this, 477.7 million litres went to the milk stations and eventually reached the consumer in the form of 395.4 million litres of pasteurised milk and 8.7 million litres of sweet cream. The balance of the total production went to dairy factories (213.2 million litres), to the manufacture of ice cream, yoghurt, and cottage-cheese (15.6 million litres), and for sale as raw milk (10 690 litres).

MEAT PRODUCTION—The following table shows in summary form production of meat. Figures are shown at bone-in weights for years ended September.

Product1973–741974–751975–761976–77x1977–78
 tonnes (000)
Beef377.9477.0599.0529.9533.7
Veal26.831.129.127.827.8
Mutton192.9163.9155.2156.2159.6
Lamb304.6327.0357.6341.5342.0
Pig meat34.434.232.839.038.2
Edible offal53.455.560.658.158.8
                Total990.01 088.71 234.31 152.51 160.3

Figure 16.2. MEAT PRODUCTION(1)

MEAT PRODUCTION(1)

PRODUCTION FOR EXPORT—Export meat production for years ended September is shown in the following table.

Type of MeatTwelve Months Ended September
197619771978
Source: N.Z. Meat Producers Board.
 tonnes (000) shipping weight
Lamb—carcasses276.8264.2257.4
          —cuts50.648.756.2
Mutton—carcasses81.387.083.8
          —cuts6.35.96.8
Beef—manufacturing199.6160.7173.1
          —other77.365.752.8
Veal10.99.910.5
Pig meat0.10.80.9
Other meats0.30.70.4
Fancy meats46.444.144.3
Inedible meat and offal16.515.218.4
                Total766.1702.8704.6

There is considerable potential for expansion in lamb and mutton processing given adequate labour and plant and, in the case of lamb, some change in market requirements. Cutting and boning add significantly to the value of meat otherwise exported in carcass form and, in addition, there is a substantial freight saving.

Lamb export slaughterings during the 1977–78 season, at 25.1 million, were up 4.6 percent on the previous season's figure.

Slaughterings of steers were down 2.3 percent, while the figures for both cows and heifers increased about 13 percent, mainly as a result of the drought conditions experienced during the season which forced farmers to reduce breeding stock.

The following table gives livestock slaughter statistics at meat export works and abattoirs, omitting killings on farms and in rural slaughterhouses, for years ended September.

AnimalsYear Ended September
19741975197619771978
Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
 head of stock (000)
Lambs22 99725 42825 96125 35226 326
Sheep8 7627 0946 5926 8627 695
Cattle1 7902 1372 5732 2742 377
Calves1 2441 4411 2951 2711 208
Pigs745720721808802

About two-thirds of lambs tailed are killed during the season, and some 90 percent of the lamb meat is exported.

Meat consumed in New Zealand represents approximately one-third of total production; quantities per head are shown in Section 24,—Consumption of Food.

Producer Control—The principle of producer control of the export meat industry was established in 1922. A system was created in which the processing and exporting companies—public, private, and cooperative—worked under the overall direction of the Meat Producers Board. This system over the years has given the producer a choice of the people to do business with and a choice of methods of selling his stock. That choice for the producer meant that he obtained full benefit from a competitive situation. The system has also given the producer, through his representatives on the Meat Producers Board, the chance to influence through sales promotion the sale of his meat right down to the retail shops half a world distant. The board has controlled shipping to place supplies and has advertised widely, especially in Britain; it controls its own system of grading export meat; and it is general spokesman for the industry.

The Meat Producers Board and the Wool Board are in the position of having to make not only long-term decisions but also to meet day-to-day situations as they occur. This they do with the aid of their own technical staff and through an economic service which is in close and constant contact with the sheep farming industry throughout New Zealand.

WOOL PRODUCTION—New Zealand holds third place in the world as a producer of wool, and second place as an exporter. Production is mainly of cross-bred wool.

The strong demand for wool evident throughout the 1975–76 season continued during the first half of the season ended June 1977, but weakened somewhat during the second half. As a result, prices rose during the period to mid-December, but from January onwards the decline in demand caused them to ease again.

The average price for wool sold at auction during the 1976–77 season was 219.58 cents—the second highest in 30 years (1951–52 took top place). But when converted to common dollar terms to allow for inflation, it was considerably below the prices realised in the early 1950s.

The first half of the 1977–78 season was marked by weak demand and extensive support to the market from the Wool Marketing Corporation which eventually led to a lowering of the intervention levels. In the first 6 months the corporation purchased 95 000 bales against 75 000 bales for the entire 1976–77 season.

The following table shows for the last 5 seasons the total wool production (greasy basis), the movement in the average price per kilogram of wool (greasy basis), and the estimated total value of wool production (obtained by valuing the production estimate at the overall price per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction).

Season Ended 30 JuneTotal Wool Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price Per Kilogram (Greasy Basis)Estimated Value of Total Wool Production
 tonnes(000)cents$(m)
1974285139.19396.4
197529491.75269.8
1976312157.12489.9
1977303219.58664.3x
1978311190.43591.9

Because of lack of information on changes in stocks of wool on farms, the above figures of production should not be taken as precise measures of actual production in each season.

Figure 16.3. WOOL PRODUCTION

WOOL PRODUCTION

New Zealand Wool Board—The New Zealand Wool Board was originally set up under the Wool Industry Act 1944. It was amalgamated with the New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation by the Wool Industry Act 1977. The amalgamation took effect on 7 February 1978. The board has 6 representatives of woolgrowers, elected by an electoral committee of 26 (the members of the committee are in turn elected by sheep farmers. The same committee elects the grower representatives on the Meat Producers Board). Representatives have a 3-year term and are eligible for re-election. The Wool Board also has 2 members appointed by the Governor-General on the nomination of the Minister of Agriculture. The Director-General of Agriculture is automatically a member, and the tenth member, chosen for his commercial experience, is appointed by the Governor-General on the nomination of the board.

The general objective of the board is to obtain, in the interests of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool. Among its functions are: to promote the use of New Zealand wool in existing or new markets; to develop and maintain a marketing system for New Zealand wool suited to the requirements of the world's textile industry; to market wool to the best possible advantage; to bring about the greatest possible efficiencies in the preparation, handling, distribution, shipping, and selling of wool; to encourage the production in New Zealand of types of wool suited to market requirements; to promote research into wool and sheep; and to set minimum prices for wool and operate a minimum price funding scheme.

Main sources of income for the board are: (i) A 3-percent levy on gross wool receipts ($17.7 million in the 1977–78 season) which is used exclusively for promotion and research; (ii) Interest on investments ($2.7 million in the first 5 months of the new board's existence, which together with the interest earnings of the old board and corporation in the first 7 months of the year made a total of $6.6 million for 1977–78); (iii) Government grants for research and development ($2 million in 1977–78).

The board is active in all aspects of the wool industry from production through to advertising wool products overseas. Its production section is engaged in the promotion of breeding practices suited to today's market, proper wool handling and clip preparation, and co-operation with wool and sheep research organisations throughout the country. The field service trains 1000 shearers a year in the Wool Board shearing technique.

Perhaps the board's biggest role is in the New Zealand marketing system and the operation of its market support schemes. It values all wool offered at auction and intervenes in the market according to its commercial judgement. In doing this it may buy wool. At the end of November 1978 the board held about 140 000 bales. It sells from this stockpile, normally through the established wool trade in New Zealand. The wool is also valued for the purpose of ensuring a minimum return to growers (the minimum floor price). In the 1978–79 season the floor price was set at an average of 170 cents per kilogram, greasy weight. When the sale price for a lot at auction falls below the appropriate minimum price, the board pays the difference to the grower as a supplementary payment. Supplement is also paid on privately sold wool, provided the buyers display it under specified conditions for appraisal by the board.

The board's market support operations are funded by its general capital and reserves which totalled $85 million at 30 June 1978 and which had their origin in profits on the sale of wool accumulated during World War II. Supplementary payments under the minimum prices scheme are funded by a minimum price funding levy introduced on 1 July 1976. Currently the levy is 2 percent of gross proceeds from all shorn wool sold for the first time.

A wool auction sales committee, comprising representatives of the board, the New Zealand Woolbrokers Association, and the New Zealand Woolbuyers Association, set up under provision of the Wool Industry Act 1977, draws up and supervises the roster of wool auction sales.

The board is also empowered to grant or revoke licences to export wool. Under the regulations the board has to keep a list of registered private buyers, registered wool exchange operators, and scourers.

It is involved in the development of market innovations, such as the sale of wool by sample, it is a negotiator of freight rates, and operates a number of wool stores for its own use. Board economists conduct a market intelligence service covering production, disposal, and market prices.

The board provides a technical service to wool processors and textile manufacturers, both in New Zealand and overseas, and is extensively involved in the promotion of wool textiles, on its own account and in co-operation with garment and carpet manufacturers and the retail trade throughout New Zealand. It also supports New Zealand manufactured wool products in export markets.

In the 1977–78 season the board's share of the budget of the International Wool Secretariat was more than $19 million. The IWS is a partnership with Australia, South Africa, and Uruguay. It has its headquarters in London and operates in almost all countries with a substantial consumer market.

It offers technical and fashion advice in menswear, womenswear, and furnishing to manufacturers, administers the Woolmark and the Woolblendmark (maintaining quality control in more than 13 000 factories), and promotes wool through campaigns with manufacturers and retailers. Extensive research and development is also undertaken.

The board provides about 40 percent of the revenue of the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand (WRONZ). In 1978–79 this was $560,000. Established in 1960 at Lincoln, Christchurch, the organisation has a professional staff of about 35. It conducts fundamental research on the wool fibre and applied research on scouring, processing, and performance of New Zealand wools. It is also developing the measurement of wool characteristics as an aid in marketing. The board is represented on the WRONZ executive.

The board is also represented on the Wool Testing Authority. Wool testing, which has been carried out in New Zealand since the 1940s, is used by buyers and processors as a basis for trading. Certificates are provided for yield, vegetable matter, fibre diameter, and moisture content.

With the Meat Producers Board, the Wool Board maintains the New Zealand Meat and Wool Board's Economic Service, which provides economic data for both boards and outside organisations through a survey of a representative 500 pastoral farms.

The board administers on behalf of the Government the Individual Grower Income Levy Retention Scheme. Under this scheme a proportion of the gross proceeds from the sale of wool is retained when the adjusted weighted average sale price at auction exceeds a “trigger price” set by the Minister of Agriculture (250 cents per kilogram, greasy in the 1978–79 season). The proceeds so retained are credited to individual growers accounts and are refundable to growers after 5 years, or in special circumstances as described in the regulations. Funds are held by the Reserve Bank. In February 1978 the Government authorised the repayment of all funds held in these accounts (amounting to $26 million in more than 40 000 accounts).

The board also administers, on behalf of the Government, the supplementary minimum floor price scheme introduced in 1978 for an initial period of 2 years. This provides a Government-backed minimum price to growers at a level higher than the board's minimum price of 170 cents per kilogram (average greasy basis). For the 1978–79 season this has been set by Government at 205 cents per kilogram greasy and Government has announced that the price will be no lower for the next season (1979–80).

Supplements were payable under this scheme between the opening of the season, on 1 July 1978, and the Wellington-Wanganui sale on 1 September. Total supplement to the end of September 1978 was more than $645,000. Funds for supplementary payments above the board's minimum levels are provided by Government.

Supplementary payments are calculated on a percentage basis—using the adjusted weighted average sale price (AWASP) for each auction sale. In cases where the sale AWASP is below the supplementary minimum price level, the percentage difference between the AWASP and the supplementary floor price is added on to the realised price by the broker. For private sales the buyer completes an application on behalf of each grower, on the basis of which the board pays the supplement direct to the grower.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION COUNCIL—This council was set up following a recommendation of the Agricultural Development Conference in 1964 but has not met since late in 1974. There are 22 District Agricultural Advisory Committees which bring together at local level all the organisations which service agriculture in that region. These committees review the progress of agriculture in their district; identify factors limiting production and propose remedial measures; and ensure that farmers and their advisers are fully aware of development incentives and concessions and the availability and terms of finance.

AGRICULTURAL TRAINING COUNCIL—The Agricultural Training Council was gazetted as an industry training board in 1971 under the Vocational Training Act following recommendations of the 1970 Training in Agriculture Conference. The role of the council is to provide organised training in those sectors of the primary industry for which it is responsible and at the same time work closely with those agencies and other industry training boards having responsibilities in other sectors of the primary industry.

The council comprises representatives from Federated Farmers of N.Z. Inc., N.Z. Federation of Young Farmers, National Farm Cadet Scheme, Farm Workers' Association, the horticultural industry, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Vocational Training Council, Department of Education, Massey University, and Lincoln College.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries was formed in 1972 by grafting the fisheries management and research divisions of the former Marine Department on to the Department of Agriculture. The principal functions of the ministry are to promote and to encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, horticultural and fishing industries in New Zealand, including the stock, poultry, fruit, vegetable, flax (Phormium tenax), tobacco, hops, and honey production industries, with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing the production of those products; and to promote, control and encourage the marketing and sale of those products.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries provides a service of which the main object is the advancement of the interests of agriculture and fisheries. Under a director-general of agriculture and fisheries there are divisions of animal health, meat, dairy, advisory services, agricultural research, fisheries research, fisheries management, economics, management services, and administration. Though the service is primarily advisory, the ministry administers a number of Acts and regulations.

Animal Health—The major objective of the Animal Health Division is to safeguard the health of livestock in New Zealand by preventing the introduction of serious exotic diseases and to work towards the eradication of existing endemic diseases. The division's veterinarians examine animals and certify them as suitable for export, and they maintain surveillance and quarantine procedures which reduce the risk of introducing foreign diseases with import of animals and animal products. The division operates quarantine stations for imported livestock. Five regional animal health laboratories are operated by the division and provide diagnostic support to practitioners and veterinarians of other divisions of the ministry. It also operates a national reference laboratory for infectious diseases and for diagnostic tests of imported and exported animals. A central brucellosis laboratory services the national brucellosis testing scheme.

The division is associated with the Pest Destruction Council, through district pest destruction boards, in the destruction of rabbits, hares, opossums, and wallabies.

Meat—The Meat Division is responsible for the inspection of stock intended for slaughter at abattoirs and export meatworks and for the later inspection of the carcasses. It is also responsible for the standard of hygiene at these establishments as well as in meat packing houses, rural slaughterhouses, game packing houses, and export fish packing houses. Veterinary certificates for meat, game, and fish exported are given by veterinary staff of the division, and meat-inspection staff are responsible for grading meat produced at abattoirs for local consumption and supervising the grading of meat for local consumption at export meatworks.

Dairy Produce—Quality control in all aspects of dairy food production is essentially the job of the dairy industry itself. However, the Dairy Division is responsible for assuring all buyers of New Zealand dairy produce that strict quality standards are indeed being maintained.

In this role the division gives advice in, and supervises, all aspects of the manufacture of dairy produce. Supervision starts on the farm and extends through dairy food processing plants to storage facilities and to loading out for shipment.

All dairy farms are visited regularly for inspection and advice by farm dairy instructors. Milk tankers are inspected constantly and milk is graded before processing by Government tested and certified staff. All processing plants are inspected and classified; the division licenses and registers each plant and must approve its design, operation, and quality control performance.

Samples from each lot of dairy produce manufactured are tested by officers highly experienced in assessing the flavour, texture, body, and presentation of produce. They are backed by comprehensive chemical and microbiological assessments performed in laboratories at Auckland, Tauranga, New Plymouth, and Wellington. The laboratory network is itself supported by a national reference laboratory at Hamilton. Specialist advisory officers are available for problem-solving or general support on farms, or in dairy food manufacturing plants.

The division supervises the town milk industry in the same way.

Whenever possible, a proportion of dairy produce is examined at its destination overseas. Officers are maintained in, or visit, customer countries for this purpose.

Advisory Services to Farmers—The Advisory Services Division provides advisory services to farmers and horticulturalists and undertakes the various activities such as plant diagnostic, quarantine, testing, and field inspection services needed to meet the ministry's responsibilities under the Plants Act 1970.

The graduate advisory officers, who service the districts, are backed by specialists in the fields of agricultural engineering, animal husbandry, and farm economics. Extension work operates through individual farm visits, group techniques, and the mass media.

Outside its extension work, this division is responsible for certification and testing of herbage and cereal seeds, for the Flock House Farm Training Institute at Bulls, and for the education and training aspects of the Telford Farm Training Institute at Balclutha. The division also provides a specialist advisory service for poultry farmers and beekeepers.

The advisory service extends to commercial producers of pip, stone, citrus, and subtropical fruits, vegetables, berry fruits, cut flowers, nursery stock, grapes and wine, bees and honey, hops, and tobacco. It covers all aspects of production—soil management, disease and pest control, and crop production and handling. Advisory officers demonstrate and adapt research results in districts for all horticultural crops and beekeeping. More emphasis is being given to commercial horticultural units to assist producers to improve the profitability of their holdings.

Horticultural inspectors inspect commercial plant nurseries, market gardens, and orchards for plant pests and diseases to restrict their spread. They advise producers on when to pick, and give instruction in grading and packing fruit for export and local markets. They also inspect fruit, vegetables, and plant material for export from New Zealand. All pip fruit delivered to the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board for local and export markets is inspected by horticultural inspectors. An orange-quality testing service is provided for the Citrus Marketing Authority and a honey-grading service for the Honey Marketing Authority. All honey for export is inspected before certificates are issued.

Information is supplied for marketing organisations in the form of seasonal forecasts of production. Periodic surveys are made of orchards, market gardens, and nurseries.

Agricultural Research—All research stations of the ministry are under control of the director of agricultural research, with headquarters at Wellington. Regional directors at Hamilton, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Invermay control the 4 research regions into which the country is divided. Research activities are more fully discussed in Section 7B—Science and Scientific Services.

Economics—The Economics Division deals with all aspects of agricultural policy including international trade and trade negotiations in relation to agriculture, international quality standards, liaison with international agencies, the analysis of national production and marketing policies, and the general economic position of farmers. Other functions include the economic appraisal of projects associated with agricultural development and resource use, the economics of the fishing industry, and the economic evaluation of research proposals.

Port Agriculture Service—The Port Agriculture Service is a uniformed branch of the ministry under the control of a superintendent. Its chief responsibility is to prevent the introduction into New Zealand of serious animal and plant diseases and pests. Officers of this service are located at ports and international airports, and deal with all items of concern to agriculture from overseas.

TOPDRESSING—Topdressing with artificial fertilisers has been an important factor in the intensification of grassland farming. Most New Zealand soils need fertilisers, especially phosphates. Superphosphate has been produced in New Zealand in increasing quantities since the 1880s, using rock phosphates from Nauru and Ocean Islands; Christmas Island is now an increasingly important source of supply. Over the years there has been a marked changeover from straight superphosphate as the principal fertiliser for grassland and crops—usual variants are serpentine superphosphate or aerial superphosphate, or a mixture of superphosphate with potash, additional sulphur or a trace element. Production of chemical fertilisers in superphosphate manufacturing works during 1978 totalled 2,404,000 tonnes, the highest figure since 1973, when production totalled 2,607,000 tonnes. Approximately half of the sown grassland receives fertiliser annually, with about half the fertilised area covered by aerial distribution; about one-third of the quantity is distributed by aeroplanes from 8000 airstrips. Total expenditure on topdressing of farm land comes to about $80 million annually, including fertiliser transport and application costs. New Zealand occupies less than 0.3 percent of the world's land area, yet this country uses 2 percent of the world's fertiliser production.

The use of lime to correct soil acidity and increase the availability of trace elements grew steadily from 1890 to a peak of 1.5 million tonnes in 1945. Since then the usage has dropped to less than 1 million tonnes annually; there is now a more judicious application of lime and a greater use of trace elements, such as molybdenum, according to proved soil needs.

The following table gives particulars of areas of grassland topdressed during the latest available years. From 1972 this information is being collected triennially.

Year*Area TopdressedQuantity of Fertiliser and Lime Spread
Fertiliser OnlyLime OnlyFertiliser and Lime TogetherTotal Area TopdressedBy Ordinary MeansBy Aeroplanes
*Year ended 31 January to 1970 and 30 June thereafter.
 ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)tonnes(000)tonnes(000)
19704 853.8165.4632.95 652.12 003.8951.3
19714 758.3171.8695.75 625.82 218.9930.4
19724 758.7187.5741.75 688.02 189.61 020.2
19754 143.4226.6555.24 925.21 819.5747.1

Information on fertiliser and lime applied from the air is obtained from aerial topdressing operators by the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport. Figures for the latest 3 years are shown below.

Year Ended 30 JuneFertiliser OnlyLime OnlyTotal Fertiliser and Lime
 tonnes (000)
19769291261 055
19779651611 126
19781 0791441 223

IRRIGATION—Most New Zealand soils have a seasonal moisture deficiency and require irrigation to reach their maximum productivity. Many soils presently farmed under dry land conditions are capable of substantially increased production under irrigation.

The area and type of land irrigated during the year ended 30 June 1976 is analysed by statistical area in the following table.

Statistical AreaNo. of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneCommercialOther CropsOther LandTotal
FruitVegetables
 Hectares
Northland15554446912290221 247
Central Auckland3211 5482001 0329122 873
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty1791 6222751583532 093
East Coast5020098184482
Hawke's Bay4032 5861 27292723215 018
Taranaki47672713692
Wellington2653 360169466263174 275
                North Island1 42010 5322 4832 8967244516 680
Marlborough1572 067204503741113 526
Nelson4321 7555935331 752244 657
Westland
Canterbury1 54159 4684932 30018 45224780 960
Otago87654 3891 3802261 21339557 603
Southland2590913922
                South Island3 031118 5882 6703 56222 171677147 668
                New Zealand4 451129 1205 1536 45822 895722164 348

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC.—For many years a number of grants and subsidies have been paid to the farming industry and allied organisations from public funds.

The following table shows the pattern of major payments in recent years.

Subsidy, Grant, etc.1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78x1978–79*
*Estimates.
 $ (thousand)
Lime transport assistance5724923793543
Fertiliser and lime transport subsidy11,6498,1829,16112,72216,11224,000
Flood and drought relief9511452633742023,400
Weedicide and pesticide subsidy2,479
Eradication of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis—Compensation for condemned animals, loss of production payments, hardship payments, and incidental costs2,9852,9792,6872,3431,9462,100
Agricultural pests control2,7283,0254,0694,8355,6896,250
Subsidies to nassella tussock boards5887613,1451,2721,5341,745
Subsidies to county councils under the Noxious Weeds Act
Noxious plants control scheme8,7467,7088,500
Agricultural Engineering Institute276327373429495525
Herd Improvement Council132147160176200208
National Hydatids Council201192
Veterinary Services Council576060605660
Fertiliser price subsidy8,81435,50261,50759,33550,83261,200
Special Assistance Fund32
Dairy diversion scheme (beef)7084044,500
Stock drench subsidy3,097
Grant to New Zealand Wool Board4,4002,8792,0002,0002,0002,000
Livestock Incentive Scheme364852,600
Grants to Dairy Products Development Centre340175188180209212
Pipfruit pesticides rebate391586
Fertiliser and lime bounty14,69715,51616,0174,500
Feed storage construction subsidy2198398182
Lucerne establishment grant41765520970200
Sharemilkers' Suspensory Loan Scheme145319371400
Cartage grants to dairy companies264399547150
Grant to Agricultural Training Council for regional training officers2293110198259
Special payment, sheep and cattle60,000
Artificial breeding incentive120
Land development loans: interest subsidy180

Lime Transport Assistance and Subsidy—Since 30 November 1959 a subsidy on lime transport has been paid to farmers applying lime to newly developed land which is lime responsive, has not previously been limed, and which is cultivated and sown for the first time; or, if it cannot be cultivated, which receives its first dressing of lime. The rates of subsidy are 3.7c per tonne-kilometre for the first 100 km and 1.2c per tonne-kilometre thereafter. A revised scheme which subsidises the transport of all lime from approved lime works at the same rates of transport subsidy as those applying to fertiliser became operative from the date of the 1976 Budget in July 1976.

Fertiliser Price Subsidy—A uniform subsidy of $5 per tonne ex works on all fertiliser was introduced on 6 July 1970. The present aim is to keep the price of fertiliser down to that which applied at that date. The rate has been altered several times since it was introduced, but has stood at $32 per tonne since 1 June 1978.

Fertiliser Transport Subsidy—Since 1965 a subsidy on the transport of fertiliser has been payable. Since 1 June 1978 the rate has been 8c per tonne-kilometre for up to 65 km, 5c per tonne-kilometre for between 65 and 250 km, and 3c per tonne-kilometre for over 250 km.

Fertiliser and Lime Bounty—This bounty was introduced on 24 January 1975 to encourage the application of fertiliser and lime. The rates for spreading fertiliser were altered several times. From 1 June 1978, however, the bounty for air-spread fertiliser has been $2 per tonne, and the bounties for ground-spread fertiliser and for fertiliser spread by the farmer himself have been abolished.

For lime, the original bounty of $2 per tonne when spread by a contractor and $1 per tonne when spread by a farmer remained unchanged until 1 June 1978, when it too was abolished.

Noxious Weed Eradication—The Noxious Plants Control Scheme was introduced from 23 May 1975. Expenditure during 1977–78 was $9.24 million.

Supplementary Minimum Prices Scheme—In June 1978, the Government introduced this scheme in an effort to arouse greater long-term confidence in the profitability of pastoral farming. The scheme established new minimum prices for meat, wool, and milkfat for the 1978–79 season. It also guarantees that the minimum prices for these commodities for the 1979–80 season would not be lower than those it established for 1978–79. The new “minimum prices” supplement those set under the stabilisation schemes that are operated by various producer boards. When market returns fall short of the set prices, the “support payments” that become necessary are to be met by the Government. The producer boards, however, will still be responsible for the cost of any price- or market-support arrangements up to their own minimum prices. The scheme was designed as an interim measure, to be superseded in the longer term by more comprehensive stabilisation arrangements.

Other Items—Most of the remaining items represent an attempt to deal with a specific problem (such as the eradication of brucellosis or of bovine tuberculosis) which is of importance to the whole community, but the handling of which would impose a serious burden on the individual or on a small group, or the Government's contribution towards the running costs of a particular organisation, such as the Agricultural Engineering Institute.

FARM MACHINERY—The following table gives details of farm machinery for those items where comparison is available. The 1974 and 1977 figures relate to holdings of 1 hectare and over (previous years 4 hectares and over). Machinery owned by farm contractors is not included. The next year for which data on farm machinery will be available is 1980.

Type of Machine19651970197119741977
Agricultural tractors89 43195 50296 66695 28990 152
Milking machines32 88727 93025 79321 40818 917
Shearing stands65 91871 05572 66968 27170 621
Pick-up balers10 24712 61812 92612 99417 770
Side delivery rakes24 17825 37825 06422 22328 539
Harvesters—
    Forage4 2805 4035 4515 2254 861
    Header5 8295 7245 5914 8284 409
Electric fence units63 97070 14074 58371 33668 384
Field mowers..52 00551 00842 72040 787
Ploughs..42 10141 39233 64630 710
Disc harrows..32 97932 49930 28852 493
Cultivators......21 48320 402
Grain drills......14 39113 573
Spray irrigation plants......4 9445 119
Weed and crop sprayers......31 64030 556
Lime and fertiliser spreaders......19 94620 504
Potato planters......1 174954
Potato harvesters......1 5071 383
Grain silos or bins......16 19319 424
Grain capacity (tonnes)........722 943
Effluent disposal units........7 344
Water pumps........60 423
Chainsaws........49 721
Bikes........32 299
Farm trucks......32 96733 798

Milking Machines—At the end of June 1977 there were 18 917 milking machine plants in use, with a total of 180 493 sets of cups, compared with 21 408 machines and 181 445 sets of cups at 30 June 1974.

Agricultural Tractors—The classes of tractors on farm holdings at 30 June 1974 and 1977 are given in the following table.

Type19741977
Diesel oil—
    Crawler7 9397 313
    Wheel52 20953 063
            Total60 14860 376
Petrol or kerosene—
    Crawler3 7133 910
    Wheel31 42825 866
                Total35 14129 776

14 B—CROPS

GENERAL—Crops grown in New Zealand are in general sufficient to meet domestic needs for agricultural products, apart from tropical and subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, etc.

Local requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones are met by New Zealand orchard production. Citrus fruits are grown in the subtropical northern portion of the North Island (although in addition substantial quantities of oranges are imported), and grapes are cultivated in certain localities. There is a substantial export trade in apples and pears.

Potato and onion production is normally adequate.

Wheat production fluctuates in relation to price incentives and imports are sometimes necessary.

Animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full 12 months of the year, but the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summer months. Hay and silage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though some districts specialise in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders, other than grass and clover, hay, and silage, is grown in the South Island, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

The renewal and extension of pastures require the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass seed. There is an appreciable export trade in some species of grass seeds.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION—Grain growing is localised to a considerable extent, the Canterbury statistical area, with its fertile plains, supplying more than half of New Zealand's wheat yield, over one third of the oats threshed, and over half of the barley yield. In recent years, however, the North Island has grown higher proportions of wheat and barley crops.

Maize growing is largely confined to certain portions of the East Coast (notably Cook County) and South Auckland-Bay of Plenty areas. The growing of peas for threshing is carried out extensively in Canterbury, and to a lesser extent in Marlborough and Wellington, Canterbury alone producing three-quarters of the total yield. More than two-thirds of the area closed-off for production of grass seed is in the Canterbury district.

The Canterbury statistical area also produces a large proportion of the commercial potato crop, followed by Wellington statistical area, while the growing of potatoes for the early market is of importance in a few relatively frost-free areas, particularly Pukekohe, near Auckland. The Pukekohe district also provides the Auckland area with a considerable portion of its vegetable requirements as well as being the main onion-growing area of the Island. Wellington City draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts, while Ohakune, in the centre of the North Island, with climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages and broccoli, supplies both Auckland and Wellington with these vegetables. Hastings has become a centre for the canning and processing of many vegetables.

In the South Island market gardening is carried on near cities, on the rich soils near Christchurch, south of Oamaru, and on the Taieri Plains just south of Dunedin. Nelson also produces considerable quantities of fresh and processed vegetables, most of which are marketed in Wellington.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions. The Nelson and Hawke's Bay districts are notable for their apple and pear orchards, a high percentage of the crops from these districts normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits, notably apricots. Hawke's Bay and Nelson are also noted for their peach production. In certain particularly warm areas of the North Island with suitable soils citrus fruits are grown, the principal areas being Kerikeri, in Northland; Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty; and Gisborne.

Grape growing is of importance near Auckland and in Hawke's Bay, and to a lesser extent in South Auckland. Tobacco growing is confined to the Nelson district, hop growing also being concentrated in this area.

The following table shows the varieties of wheat, oats, barley, and peas threshed during the year ended 30 June 1977. It should be noted that some holdings grow more than 1 variety of a crop and that if, for example, a holding grows 3 varieties of wheat it appears 3 times in the “Number of Holdings” column. As a result, the aggregates of holdings by individual varieties may exceed the totals of holdings under particular crops.

VarietyNumber of HoldingsArea From Which ThreshedTotal YieldAverage Yield Per HectarePercentage of Surveyed AreaPercentage of Total Yield
  Hectares(000)Tonnes(000)TonnesPercentPercent
Wheat—
    Aotea1 77925.599.73.9026.4928.18
    Hilgendorf6065.717.93.145.915.06
    Arawa2773.19.83.163.212.76
    Gamenya1401.44.93.501.451.38
    Kopara2 17135.0124.83.5636.3635.27
    Takahe3162.29.34.222.282.63
    Karamu1 66922.885.53.7523.6824.16
    Other680.62.03.330.620.56
                Total7 02696.3353.93.67100.00100.00
Oats—
    Onward7963.813.23.4722.6222.80
    Mapua2 0179.834.73.5458.3559.94
    Black Supreme2200.82.63.254.764.49
    Grey Winter330.10.22.000.590.34
    Achilles1010.30.82.661.781.38
    Other White2890.82.63.254.764.49
    Other2651.23.83.167.146.56
                Total3 72116.857.93.44100.00100.00
Barley—
    Carlsberg9458.629.63.4411.5610.88
    Kenia1681.86.03.332.412.20
    Research2773.512.53.574.704.59
    Zephyr4 86256.7209.43.6976.2376.96
    Other6223.814.63.845.105.37
                Total6 87474.4272.13.65100.00100.00
Peas—
    Field varieties—
        Maple5137.113.51.9037.7830.01
        White3022.56.22.4813.2913.77
        Blue Boiling2863.08.32.7615.9518.45
    Garden varieties7286.217.02.7432.9837.77
                Total1 82918.845.02.39100.00100.00
Maize—
                Total1 71628.62107.34100.00100.00

Detailed statistics of crops are contained in the annual report Agricultural Statistics and in statistical bulletins issued by the Department of Statistics.

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS—Details of areas for threshing, total yields, and yields per hectare of the principal grain and seed crops during recent years are set out in the following table.

YearWheatOatsBarleyMaizePeas
Areas for threshing (hectares)
1974–7557 65619 036104 49520 55821 822
1975–76103 74212 79284 73926 02818 980
1976–7796 23616 75774 32628 56618 804
Total yields (tonnes)
1974–75179 17450 219262 881157 59947 522
1975–76388 17841 820285 495184 46954 515
1976–77354 03557 997272 096210 41945 023
Yields per hectare (tonnes)
1974–753.122.642.527.672.18
1975–763.743.273.377.092.87
1976–773.683.463.667.372.39

The following table which gives the number of holdings and total area sown during the 1975–76 season shows cereal cropping on various types of farm. The areas include threshed, fed off, and crop abandoned during the 1975–76 season.

Farm Type**WheatOatsBarleyPeasMaize
Area ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal Yield

*Seventy-five percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

||More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

**These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

 HectaresTonnesHectaresTonnesHectaresTonnesHectaresTonnesHectaresTonnes
Dairy farming*2468431204071 9356 6221134001 77312 408
Sheep farming*19 15869 1615 49117 63414 40546 0489212 2692101 374
Beef farming*2611 1731063016521 89215439756 969
Pig farming*411388963 07516442301 488
Cropping*14 46357 8685411 73510 85639 0425 00214 8238 14658 731
Dairy farming with sheep3615216531916854938246
Dairy farming with beef19892415143315423552 452
Dairy farming with other1484397334611 41710479406 884
Sheep farming with dairy14353521189309313
Sheep farming with beef4 47916 4551 1173 2437 13522 3685781 7981 3839 861
Sheep farming with crop-ping21 64781 1781 8626 84512 77343 3102 4886 687166994
Sheep farming with other3361 180903425461 65941131757
Beef farming with dairy4223511732234
Beef farming with sheep158568441737432 515551564713 429
Beef farming with other3401 2225165791 8341394219636 934
Cropping with sheep18 79873 4831 0153 43611 46440 6984 51813 5186304 361
Cropping with other1 3845 375762521 5355 2403831 0751 48310 253
Pig farming with other1153214051 4192639148961
Stud farming||1816141324423321 147267132178
Mixed livestock2 3258 4014251 2424 53415 1865221 6351 4209 862
General mixed farming§18 78166 1441 5895 26513 05043 5403 86510 5565 07435 993
Poultry farming||14348012354401 5921035151988
Market gardening and flowers||121 41826661 0793 7481835608275 444
Orchards||19114592036162742 162
Other farming2058041142853941 395411273002 206
    Total, all farm types103 742388 17812 79241 82084 739285 49518 98054 51526 028184 469

WHEAT—The following diagram shows the fluctuations that have occurred in the area sown in wheat, together with the total yield and the average yield per acre.

Figure 16.4. AREA AND YIELD OF WHEAT FOR THRESHING

AREA AND YIELD OF WHEAT FOR THRESHING

Wheat Board—Control of the distribution of both imported and locally produced wheat rests with the Wheat Board, which is also responsible for the distribution of flour and associated offal. The operations of this board, which consists of representatives of flourmillers, wheat growers, bread bakers, the poultry industry, the grain seed and produce business, the Department of Trade and Industry, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, with the Minister of Trade and Industry as chairman, and 1 person with no direct association with any of the above industries as deputy chairman, are governed by the Wheat Board Act 1965.

All New Zealand milling wheat is purchased from farmers by the Wheat Board through the agency of grain merchants acting as brokers for the board. The board is responsible for the distribution of all imported wheat and its functions also include arrangements for the processing of wheat by flourmillers and the sale of the resultant flour and offal to merchants, bakers, pastry cooks, grocers, and others.

The annual consumption of wheat in New Zealand for flour and cereal foods approximates 320 000 tonnes. Wheat is also required for poultry foods and seed. Research is assisted by a levy on wheat and flour on recommendation of the Wheat Research Committee.

MAIZE—Maize is principally grown on the east coast of the North Island, Hawke's Bay, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty. During the last decade the area sown has greatly increased from 3061 hectares in 1967 to 28 566 hectares in 1977. The introduction of improved hybrid maize varieties has considerably increased the yield of grain threshed. Maize is used as poultry feed and is becoming a more important feature of supplementary feed for pigs and other livestock.

BARLEY—Barley is used mainly in the manufacture of stock feeds, and for malting. The production of barley is increasing steadily, mainly because of the growing demand for stock feeds.

OATS—Most of the oats are grown for threshing and green feed and not for chaff. From the grain milled, rolled oats, oatmeal, and proprietary oaten foods are produced, along with feed for animals and fowls.

VEGETABLES—The following table shows vegetable production by area and total sales by variety from surveyed market gardeners for the latest 2 years, 1976 and 1977.

Vegetable19761977
Area HectaresTotal Sales kg(000)Area HectaresTotal Sales Kg(000)
Source: Department of Statistics.
Beetroot331.15 811.4158.43 246.1
Cabbage917.518 293.2888.417 409.0
Carrot983.028 878.41 062.830 095.4
Cauliflower926.514 650.8938.015 304.5
Celery103.03 591.592.02 891.7
Kumara494.04 973.6585.36 533.6
Lettuce561.08 776.3575.69 380.7
Onion1 438.538 181.91 616.346 481.6
Parsnip264.43 918.8207.03 407.5
Peas6 800.724 394.77 645.929 142.5
Tomato864.428 921.2982.241 517.8
Asparagus855.12 009.5811.31 470.9
Bean (broad and green)1 043.45 383.61 403.48 916.6
Brussels sprouts136.91 481.8135.31 445.2
Cucumber40.9896.953.61 474.1
Melons (jam, rock, pie, water)90.11 382.897.51 646.7
Mushrooms13.41 059.714.91 744.2
Pumpkin (including squash)841.89 087.71 209.615 598.3
Silverbeet (including spinach)65.5827.366.7615.5
Swedes51.4795.6150.32 693.0
Sweetcorn1 078.712 065.61 885.820 434.1
Other208.82 126.3216.01 930.2
              Total, all vegetables18 110.1217 508.720 796.3263 379.2

There has been a marked increase in recent years in the quantity and variety of crops grown for processing. The quick-freezing industry has expanded rapidly as have other forms of processing; namely, canning, freeze-drying, and the manufacture of prepared foods. The major areas producing vegetables for processing are the Heretaunga Plains around Hastings, Gisborne, Christchurch, and Timaru. Peas and tomatoes are the 2 main crops followed by sweetcorn, beans, carrots, onions, beetroot, and asparagus.

Of the 2673 surveyed market gardeners in 1976, 62 percent were in the North Island, while of those surveyed in the South Island 57 percent were in Canterbury area.

The total net area of land devoted to the production of outdoor vegetables (excluding potatoes) during the October 1978 year was some 26 550 hectares. The aggregate area of the fresh-market crops was estimated at 13 400 hectares, and at 15 150 hectares for the process-vegetable crops.

For the June 1978 year, fresh-vegetable exports (excluding potatoes) totalled some 29 155 tonnes, of which 26 500 tonnes were onions.

POTATOES—The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet the home market.

Potato yields have risen to such an extent that a population of 3 million is now supplied from the same acreages as were 1¾ million people 30 years earlier. Most of this increased production has been achieved through new varieties and better farming practice based on research results.

Figures for area and yield of potatoes for the latest available 4 years are as follows:

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonnestonnes
1973–748 606206 19223.96
1974–758 854225 52225.47
1975–769 495248 32126.15
1976–779 867270 49727.41

ONIONS—Areas in, and yields of, onions for the latest available 4 years are as follows:

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonnestonnes
1973–741 09924 66222.44
1974–751 31629 01322.05
1975–761 43938 18226.53
1976–771 61646 48228.76

GLASSHOUSES—The following table shows the area of glasshouses (heated and cold) given over to the production of tomatoes, cucumbers, beans, and grapes.

Vegetable or Fruit1974197519761977
 Area in square metres (000)
Tomatoes1 038.01 011.31 335.21 448.1
Cucumbers76.374.497.798.9
Beans27.339.549.018.7
Grapes53.553.853.658.4

LINSEED—Most of the linseed is grown under contract for the production of linseed oil. About 3500 hectares are sown each year. The oil is extracted mainly for use in paints, and the residue provides a valuable concentrate for stock food.

SEED CERTIFICATION—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates a seed certification scheme covering the more important herbage species, cereals, brassicas, and potatoes. Bred varieties of these species are produced by the Grasslands and the Crop Research Divisions of the DSIR. These are then reproduced under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries which releases them as Breeder's seed which in turn produces Basic seed. The final stages in the multiplication of certified seed are known as 1st and 2nd Generation seeds. Basic and Certified seed, 1st and 2nd Generation, are sold through the usual commercial channels.

GRASS SEED—The areas of grass, clover, and lucerne crops harvested for seed, are given in the following table.

Crop1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77
*Excludes mixed pasture.
 hectares
Ryegrass19 67646 18328 47211 20916 784
Clovers14 47314 86119 60721 74719 030
Lucerne1 569........
Other grasses and clovers, and mixed pasture6 6347 6085 9174 8043 223*
              Total42 35268 65253 99637 76039 037

The production of machine-dressed grass, clover, brassica, and other seed for the year ended 31 December 1978, compiled by the Department of Statistics, is set out below together with the corresponding totals for the year ended 31 December 1977. The figures are taken from returns from seed dressing plants.

Type of Seed12 Months Ended 31 December
19771978
 Kilograms (000)
Ryegrass—  
    Ariki ryegrass653379
    Italian ryegrass (including Western Wolths)1 3821 054
    Nui ryegrass1 8521 822
    Perennial ryegrass6 3875 478
    Short rotation (H1) ryegrass1 9301 755
    Tama ryegrass9481 160
Other grasses—  
    Browntop250109
    Chewings fescue1116
    Cocksfoot364475
    Crested dogstail280504
    Prairie grass1575
    Timothy165226
    Yarrow2219
    Yorkshire fog1213
Clovers—  
    Broad red clover624445
    Lotus511
    Lucerne213177
    Mixed clovers54121
    Montgomery red clover391397
    Pawera red clover1644
    Suckling clover7841
    White clover3 8554 157
    Huia white clover517
    Pitau white clover114
Other—
    Kale205453
    Maize7 7632 205
    Peas—
        Garden19 30718 456
        Field19 82232 158
    Rape149223
    Turnip45150
    Lupin4923

Machine-dressed seed returns show that not insignificant quantities, a total of 357 tonnes, of the following varieties were processed during 1978: Ellet ryegrass, tick beans, soya beans, sunflower, tares, swede, and fodder radish.

Large quantities of grass and clover seed have been exported during recent years, especially to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. Details of the volume and value of exports during recent years will be found in Section 22B of this issue.

HORTICULTURAL LAND USE—The following data, supplied by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, give an indication of the net areas of land devoted to the main horticultural crops in 1978.

 hectares
Outdoor vegetables (includes process crops, but not potatoes)26 550
Pip fruits6 045
Vineyards3 715
Stone fruits2 387
Kiwifruit2 206
Citrus fruits1 870
Registered nurseries (725)1 680
Berryfruits812
Other subtropical fruits446
Hops144

In 1978 the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries carried out its sixth 5-yearly survey of commercial orchards throughout New Zealand. Survey data refer to the position at the end of 1977. Areas given in these tables have been adjusted for estimated net changes in 1978.

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY—Pip and stone fruits are grown commercially throughout New Zealand, whereas citrus and subtropical fruits are largely confined to the coastal strip from North Auckland through the Bay of Plenty to Poverty Bay.

During 1973, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries made its fifth comprehensive survey of commercial orchards throughout New Zealand. The following table compares the areas of orchards recorded in this survey with estimated areas in 1978. Because the 1973 survey did not take into account 1973 tree plantings and removals, it in effect gave the situation as at the end of 1972. The main producing areas for the various fruits are also given.

Fruit19731978Main Districts
 hectares 
Pip fruit—
    Apples4 9305 603Nelson, Hawke's Bay.
    Pears566440Hawke's Bay, Nelson.
Stone fruit—
    Apricots595555Otago.
    Cherries105110Otago, Marlborough.
    Nectarines262368Otago, Hawke's Bay.
    Peaches1 3141 027Hawke's Bay, Auckland, Otago.
    Plums362328Hawke's Bay, Auckland.
Citrus fruit—
    Grapefruit435442Bay of Plenty.
    Lemons164113Bay of Plenty.
    Mandarins201303Bay of Plenty, Northland.
    Oranges (sweet)362513Northland, Poverty Bay.
    Tangelos223496Bay of Plenty, Northland, Poverty Bay.
Subtropical fruit—
    Kiwifruit7202 206Bay of Plenty.
    Passionfruit2830Bay of Plenty.
    Tamarillos208192Northland, Bay of Plenty.
    Avocados22133Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay.
    Feijoas 77Bay of Plenty.

Fruit and Crop Disposal—Estimated production and methods of disposal of the various fruit crops in 1978 are shown in the following table.

FruitDisposalTotal Production
Export* (fresh)Local Market (fresh)Processing
*Includes the quantities of major fruit exports only. Detailed figures are not available for the other fruit. Any exports are therefore included in their local-market figures. The following figures do however give some indication of other fresh-fruit exports during the June 1978 year: stone fruits, 247 tonnes; citrus fruits, 28 tonnes; tamarillos, 26 tonnes; and passionfruit, 13 tonnes.
 tonnes
Pip fruits—    
    Apples83 35567 01834 771185 144
    Pears1 4247 4515 36114 236
Stone fruits—
    Apricots3 0252 0015 026
    Cherries44256498
    Nectarines2 468172 485
    Peaches11 5515 08316 634
    Plums2 3732662 639
Citrus fruits—
    Grapefruit2 0303 4535 483
    Lemons1 2931 6102 903
    Mandarins2 1202 120
    Oranges4 8629405 802
    Tangelos3 7889004 688
Subtropical fruits—
    Avocados7373
    Feijoas149184333
    Kiwifruit7 9924691 1159 576
    Passionfruit851196
    Tamarillos1 0031501 153

BERRYFRUITS—Berryfruits are grown commercially throughout New Zealand.

The following table sets out the estimated net areas occupied by the various berryfruits during the 2 most recent fruiting seasons for which figures are available. The main producing areas for each of them are also listed.

FruitSeasonMain Districts
1976–771977–78
 hectares
Black currants187194Otago-Southland, Canterbury.
Blueberries46Waikato.
Boysenberries174187Nelson, Hawke's Bay.
Brambles (other than those listed)1850Waikato, Horowhenua.
Gooseberries1111Horowhenua, Wairarapa.
Raspberries156150Nelson, Canterbury.
Red currants11Wairarapa.
Strawberries174213Auckland, Canterbury, Hawke's Bay.
                Total (all kinds)725812 

The estimated production and disposal figures for the 1977–78 berryfruit crop are set out in the following table.

FruitDisposalTotal Production
Market (fresh)Processing
 tonnes
Black currants66619685
Blueberries718
Boysenberries4541 3331 787
Brambles (other than those listed)17055225
Gooseberries31536
Raspberries5428151 357
Red currants33
Strawberries3 2921 1484 440
                Total (all kinds)4 5653 9768 541

Fresh-berryfruit exports for the June 1978 year amounted to 204 tonnes, of which strawberries accounted for 174 tonnes.

GRAPE GROWING AND WINE PRODUCTION—The estimated net area of the vineyards throughout New Zealand as at December 1978 was 3715 hectares. The main grape-growing areas are Auckland, Waikato, Poverty Bay, Hawke's Bay, and Marlborough.

Grape-wine production in 1978 amounted to 40.5 million litres, of which about 310 000 litres were exported.

The area of table grapes under glass in 1978 was in excess of 50 000 square metres, with an estimated production of 200 tonnes. Exports of fresh glasshouse grapes, mainly to Japan, amounted to about 9 tonnes.

APPLES AND PEARS—A summary of the activities of the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board appears in Section 21. Over 700 orchardists consistently sell apples and pears to the board. Over 80 percent of the total crop received comes from Nelson and Hawke's Bay.

The following table shows the quantities of the main varieties of fresh apples and pears received by districts by the Apple and Pear Marketing Board during the 1977–78 season.

VarietyHawke's BayNelsonOther DistrictsTotal
 cartons (000)
Apples—    
    Granny Smith1 6837514232 857
    Sturmer Pippin205506134845
    Golden Delicious267430113810
    Red Delicious7771971201 094
    Cox's Orange Pippin8343077590
    Delicious60199111370
    Dougherty18013820338
    Jonathan613041177
    Other370287139796
              Total apples3 6313 0681 1787 877
Pears—    
    Packham's Triumph2654585
    Winter Cole61359105
    Winter Nelis47112078
    Other5026884
              Total pears18412642352

Exports of apples and pears in the 1977–78 season totalled 4 651 000 cartons (excluding processed goods).

HOPS—The whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea County and all the requirements of hops for New Zealand are produced. Production per hectare (approximately 2.47 acres) usually ranges between 1400 kilograms and 1800 kilograms.

The total crop produced in the 1978 season was 210 462 kilograms. About 98 percent of the crop is picked by machines. Hop gardens covered 199.6 hectares in 1978 compared with 183 hectares the previous season, and the yield averaged 1054 kilograms per hectare.

A Hop Marketing Committee of 6 members (one Government and 5 producers) was established by the Hop Marketing Regulations 1939 to regulate and control the marketing, either locally or overseas, of all hops produced in New Zealand and to assist the industry generally.

TOBACCO—Tobacco is grown mainly in the Motueka district. Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, burley, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco. Some 3600 tonnes of raw tobacco leaf was imported during 1974–75, 3650 tonnes during 1975–76, 3500 tonnes during 1976–77, and 4320 tonnes during 1977–78.

With the following particulars relating to tobacco production, it should be noted that the figures relate to the total commercial tobacco production and not merely to holdings of 10 acres (approximately 4.05 hectares) or over situated outside borough boundaries. (Source: Tobacco Board.)

SeasonNumber of GrowersArea Planted*ProductionEstimated Value of Crop
*Contract area amended after planting operations completed.
  hectareskg(000)$(000)
1973–743401 7513 2387,200
1974–753061 7643 0077,485
1975–763081 7753 3499,372
1976–773151 8472 7199,044
1977–783091 8953 55912,314

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 98 percent and burley leaf for 2 percent of the 1977–78 crop.

Approximately half the tobacco used by New Zealand manufacturers in the production of cigarettes and cut tobacco is New Zealand grown. The actual average percentages used during recent years ended 30 June has been as follows: 1970, 49.4 percent; 1971, 49.3 percent; 1972, 49.1 percent; 1973, 49.2 percent; 1974, 48.3 percent; 1975, 47.1 percent; 1976, 45.9 percent; 1977, 44.2 percent; and 1978, 41.6 percent.

14 C—LIVESTOCK

GENERAL—Agriculture is a major industry upon which much of New Zealand's prosperity depends. It has the capacity to expand provided the circumstances are favourable for development. The lines of development are influenced by overseas prices received for farm products in the form of meat, wool, butter, cheese, milk powder, casein, etc. Although there is a time-lag associated with livestock breeding, the livestock numbers are an indication of the response of farmers to financial incentives, although weather factors, such as drought, are also involved.

Livestock numbers over a 50-year period are shown in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

New Zealand has more than 20 times as many animals as people: this ratio is probably not exceeded in any country in the world. Grasslands have been developed to the extent that the best dairy farms can carry 2½ cows to the hectare, and the best sheep farms can support up to 25 sheep to the hectare throughout the year.

The first sheep stations in the 1840s were stocked with Merinos from Australia. During the 1850s and 1860s several English breeds of sheep were imported, notably Southdowns, Leicesters, Lincolns, and Romneys. In 1855 there were 761 700 sheep in the country; by 1870 there were 9,700,000. Until 1882, the year of the successful introduction of cargo refrigeration when mutton and lamb exports were sent to London, the Merino and its crosses were predominant, because the only sheep products of any importance for export were wool and a little tallow, obtained by boiling down carcasses. Then the Merino was superseded in the North Island by breeds more suited to the climate and conditions. Today the flock sheep of the North Island are nearly all predominantly of Romney blood. In the South Island, Merino blood in varying degree continued to play an important part in the flock structure but Merino crosses are now restricted to the foothills of the Southern Alps, while Corriedales are more profitable in the better hill country, and crossbreeds and long-woolled British breeds at lower levels.

In 1851 there were 193 000 cattle in New Zealand and by 1897 the number had reached 1,138,000. Cattle raising and fattening are usually associated with hill-country sheep farming and fat-lamb farming respectively, and beef stock are grazed chiefly in the North Island. The latest available survey of cattle by breeds show that the most popular breed of beef cattle is now the Aberdeen Angus (75 percent), with Herefords (17 percent), and Shorthorns (6 percent) next in number.

The growth of dairy herds was related to the availability of refrigeration for the export of butter from 1882, and the development of butter and cheese factories. There were 300 000 dairy cows by 1897, 185 000 of them in the North Island and 115 000 in the South Island. Now the North Island has more than 11 times as many dairy cows as the South Island. Estimates of breeds in 1971–72 were: Jersey, 58 percent; Friesian, 34 percent; Ayrshire, 3 percent; Shorthorn, 1 percent.

In the following table, livestock numbers are shown by farm-type category as at 30 June 1976.

Farm Type**Beef CattleDairy CattleSheep and Lambs Shorn††Pigs

*75 percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

||More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent.

**These farm types are defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

††Year ended 30 June 1976.>

 (000)
Dairy farming*1792 49629745
Sheep farming*1 5271235 3799
Beef farming*895184214
Pig farming*7618222
Cropping*1422081
Dairy farming with sheep24533282
Dairy farming with beef72105562
Dairy farming with other549617
Sheep farming with dairy7111891
Sheep farming with beef1 7481019 2826
Sheep farming with cropping5712 5614
Sheep farming with other3116384
Beef farming with dairy2214121
Beef farming with sheep37041 4021
Beef farming with other391222
Cropping with sheep207703
Cropping with other112302
Pig farming with other572340
Mixed livestock8491066 20751
General mixed farming§109131 62711
Poultry farming||62311
Market gardening and flowers||152961
Orchards||51371
Tobacco growing||445
Other farming65144412
                Total, all farm types6 0872 93070 126433

Figures as at 30 June 1977 gave a total of 5,838,792 for beef cattle (of which, breeding cows and heifers totalled 1,965,542 compared with 2,229,784 the previous year), and a total of 2,898,849 for dairy cattle of which 2,006,820 (compared with 2,035,852 the previous year) were dairy cows in milk.

The 1977 figures showed a 4.1 percent decrease in beef cattle, and the total of dairy cattle also decreased by 1.1 percent. The beef cattle herd has been increasingly supplemented in recent years by dairy-bred cattle reared for beef production, as indicated by the declining calf kill.

The dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island which, in 1977, had 76 percent of the total cattle and 92 percent of the dairy stock. Localising the dairying industry still further, it is found that 65 percent of the milking cows of New Zealand are in the northern half of the North Island.

Beef cattle are fairly evenly spread over the North Island, except Taranaki and areas close to Auckland.

Taking the number of beef breeding cows 2 years old and over as a guide to beef production, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty and Wellington statistical areas easily lead with 35 percent of the New Zealand total between them. Hawke's Bay is next, followed by Northland and East Coast in that order. These 5 districts together pasture 68 percent of breeding cows.

Northland, Central Auckland, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty statistical areas account for 42 percent of the pig population and Wellington and Taranaki for 21 percent. The number of pigs kept in the Nelson and Canterbury areas has increased considerably in recent years and 20 percent of the pig population is now in these areas. Tanker collection of whole milk from dairy farms has reduced the rearing of pigs as a sideline; major developments have taken place in the rearing of grain-fed pigs in large units.

Sheep farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The statistical areas of major importance are Canterbury, Wellington, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Southland, Otago, and Hawke's Bay in that order. These 6 districts accounted for 86 percent of the total sheep population in 1977.

The following table shows the distribution of livestock at 30 June 1977.

Statistical AreaDairy CattleBeef CattleAnimals Shorn*Pigs
Sheep and HoggetsLambs
*During year ended 30 June 1977.
 (thousands)
Northland3236451 43965019
Central Auckland22226870128760
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty1 3301 2327 5543 745124
East Coast64392 3641 1465
Hawke's Bay537306 6432 90915
Taranaki4822081 32963846
Wellington2629068 4563 88158
                North Island2 6784 42828 48613 256327
Marlborough201161 28328124
Nelson5410265123018
Westland2974154541
Canterbury604769 3791 72680
Otago293607 0591 04321
Southland292827 4441 80715
                South Island2211 41025 9705 141159
                New Zealand2 8995 83854 45618 397485

Detailed statistics of livestock are contained in the annual report Agricultural Statistics. This publication also contains the summary tables from parliamentary paper C. 5A, a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns.

SHEEP—The following table analyses categories of sheep.

At 30 JuneRamsWethersBreeding EwesDry EwesHoggetsTotal
RamWetherEwe

*Includes dry ewes.

†Included with wethers.

 (thousand)
 Totals
19749101 27540 3663162982 00910 71055 883
19759091 30041 1083362891 5769 80255 320
19768801 15841 2003343041 64610 86956 390
19778771 405*42 7823141 98911 73859 105
19789532 166*44 5153452 36311 82162 163
 Stud Sheep (Entered in Flock Book)
19721955752102251 016

The 1972 classification of breeds shows that of the 60,882,719 sheep in New Zealand, 40,019,022 (65.73 percent) were Romneys and 8,604,020 (14.13 percent) were crossbreeds. The remainder were composed principally of Corriedale, 4 405 591; half-bred, 2,537,007; Merino, 1,132,905; and Southdown, 1,061,539.

In the 1978 Budget the Government announced a livestock subsidy scheme of 50c per head for sheep and this could be reflected in the returns for that year.

The following table shows numbers of flocks by size of flock.

Size of Flocks19741975197619771978
1–995 3325 4215 3764 6665 484
100–1992 0622 0731 9601 9052 211
200–4993 8073 8543 7463 5703 806
500–9994 7734 5934 3914 2804 243
1 000–1 4994 8984 7884 5664 3094 114
1 500–1 9994 7004 5564 4584 4364 292
2 000–2 4993 3283 2563 4373 4643 694
2 500–4 9995 2395 2465 4585 9246 359
5 000–9 9991 1901 2001 2581 4591 597
10 000 and over250248254283318
      Total flocks35 57935 23534 90434 29636 118
Average flock size1 5711 5701 6161 7231 721

The following table, based on an annual survey by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, shows estimates of the number of lambs born and the percentage of lambing.

YearNumber of Breeding Ewes at 30 JuneEstimated Percentage Of LambingEstimated Number of Lambs
 (000) (000)
197341 01793.1538 208
197440 36693.5337 755x
197541 10896.4839 663
197641 20097.8040 294
197742 78297.7041 798
197844 51597.1043 224

CATTLE—Numbers of cattle at 30 June of the 3 latest available years are now given by categories.

Category197519761977

*Heifers not yet in milk, and cows not in milk during season but intended to be used again for dairying.

†Includes bobby calves (6172 in 1975, 5200 in 1976 and 5157 in 1977).

‡Includes cows culled from dairy herds (56 665 in 1975, 53 341 in 1976, and 28 774 in 1977).

Dairy stock—   
    Cows and heifers, 2 years old and over—   
        Cows in milk during season2,061,5912,035,8522,006,820
        Others*45 31337 92133 659
Heifers—
        One and 2 years old447 819416 498414 711
        Under 1 year old374 298378 127381 366
    Bulls and calves intended for dairy breeding62 82856 32457 136
            Total dairy stock2,998,0212,929,9222,898,849
Beef stock—   
    Breeding cows and heifers, 2 years old and over2,114,6182,229,7841,965,542
    Cows, 2 years old and over, not used for breeding179 544198 731189 182
    Heifers—   
        One and under 2 years old694 500502 626651 516
        Under 1 year old793 898788 107747 570
        Steers and bulls of all ages2,455,0752,314,5832,256,208
            Total beef stock6,294,3006,087,1725,838,792
            Total cattle9,292,3219,017,0948,737,641

A feature of dairy farming in recent years has been the move to the amalgamation of farms to provide more economic units. The following table, which shows dairy cattle by size of herd, demonstrates how the trend towards amalgamation has resulted in larger herds on individual holdings. In June 1973, 37 percent of dairy cattle were in herds of 200 or more; by June 1976 the percentage had risen to 39.

At 30 JuneDairy Cattle in HerdTotal Dairy Cattle
1–3940–7980–119120–199200–299300 and Over
 (thousand)
1972711794981 3547774093 288
1973611614461 3187634103 159
1974531373921 2877884173 074
1975491333921 2657663932 998
1976431213901 2377483902 930

PIGS—Pig numbers fell in the late sixties as farmers began increasingly to supply whole milk to dairy factories instead of separating off the skim milk, which was frequently used to feed pigs. There is increased emphasis on grain-feeding, and a significant increase in pig numbers in the grain-producing areas of the South Island. After falling throughout the first half of the present decade, pig numbers showed a small increase in 1976 and a more substantial increase in 1977.

At 30 JuneBreeding Sows One Year Old and OverOther Pigs of All Ages (Including Boars)Total Pigs
197357 633418 209475 842
197456 576405 150461 726
19–7553 553368 838422 391
197656 429376 415432 844
197760 809424 152484 961

DEER—A new type of livestock farming which is of growing importance is deer-farming. Venison finds a ready overseas market and almost all the meat produced is exported. (In 1975–76 venison exports totalled 2670 tonnes valued at $8.2 million; in 1977–78 the provisional total was 2688 tonnes valued at $10.7 million. The principal market is the German Federal Republic.) Deer farming is strictly controlled by the New Zealand Forest Service because of the status of the deer in the wild as a noxious animal. Deer farms have to be licensed and registered, and permits are issued for specified numbers of animals or specified areas.

The first deer-farm licence was issued in March 1970. By mid-1979 in excess of 40 000 animals were held in captivity under Forest Service permits. Some 850 properties were involved.

POULTRY—In 1976–77 there were 1 334 registered poultry runs forming the basic commercial units of the poultry industry. Farmlets comprising 24 birds or less are exempt from registration. The following table shows registered poultry runs in 1976–77 by flock size and the number of birds.

Flock Size (Birds)Number of RunsNumber of Birds
25–10043622 479
101–50017341 121
501–1 000253237 648
Over 1 0004723,525,908
        Total1 3343,827,156

The Poultry Board Act 1976, which amends and consolidates the Poultry Runs Registration Act 1933, provides for the registration by the occupiers of poultry farms with 100 or more head of poultry as from 1 July 1977.

The commercial groups sell most of their eggs through licensed egg floors and are therefore mainly responsible for supplying eggs to retail shops in the cities and larger towns.

Commercial poultry farms are distributed over both Islands, but there are concentrations around Auckland, Tauranga, Christchurch, and Oamaru. The poultry industry does not cater for overseas markets, though limited quantities of frozen egg pulp, surplus to local requirements, are exported.

Reference to the field covered by the Egg Marketing Authority is given in Section 21 of this Yearbook.

The following table shows eggs handled by licensed distributors for years ended 30 June.

YearEggs
 doz(m)
1972–7350.9
1973–7453.5
1974–7556.7
1975–7651.1
1976–7756.1
1977–7851.8

The establishment of “take-away” chicken shops throughout New Zealand and high red-meat prices has led to increased chicken-meat consumption. Production increased from 13 million to 20 million birds during the 1973–74 year and to 22 million by 1976. It appears to be stabilising at around 20 million birds per year.

Poultry meat production for June years is shown in the following table.

YearBirds
 million
197313.5
197420.6
197518.2
197622.0
197722.0
197820.0

NOTE: All figures are estimates. These have been obtained by a survey of the largest producers, and allowance has been made for ether smaller producers.

BEES—The rich pasture lands of New Zealand and some bush areas are favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey, although more intensive farming methods and land development have eliminated many sources of nectar for the bees.

Production for the year ended 31 May 1977 was estimated at 6078 tonnes of honey. Most of the honey is consumed in New Zealand. Exports during the year ended 30 June 1977 amounted to 977 tonnes.

Following is a summary of registrations under the Apiaries Act 1969 at 31 May 1977.

GroupHives
1–56–5051–250251–600601–10001000+Total
Beekeepers2 5298431645371493 709
Apiaries2 7561 8331 8671 4783 2935 03616 263
Hives established5 50814 10823 41722 16655 08586 953207 237

Only approximately 200 beekeepers were completely dependent on honey production and beekeeping for their livelihood.

Chapter 17. Section 15; FORESTRY

Table of Contents

GENERAL—Until the early nineteenth century extensive evergreen forests covered some two-thirds of the country, the remaining third being the low-rainfall zones in the east of the South Island (carrying only tussock grasses) and the rocky mountain tops above 1100–1400 metres. Because of the abundance, use of timber during the early days of European settlement was wasteful, and in clearing land for farms large areas of forest were felled and burnt, often going well beyond the limits now considered desirable by extending into steep terrain unsuited to development. Not until towards the end of the nineteenth century was the need to conserve forests of the high mountain watersheds recognised.

Today, in addition to forest set aside in national parks, about 4 million hectares of land valuable either for timber production, recreation, or forest growth vital to soil and water conservation has been constituted State forest, and there is also a large private forest estate. Resources have been built up by afforestation with introduced species, mainly conifers, which produce usable wood in 25–30 years, a much shorter time than the slow-growing indigenous species.

The following table shows the present area of forested land in relation to other categories of land.

Type of LandAreaPercentage of Total Area
 (million hectares) 
Total forested land7.026.0
Pasture and arable land13.550.2
Other non-forested land6.022.3
Minor islands0.10.4
Lakes, rivers, etc.0.31.1
        Total area26.9100.0

FORESTS TODAY—About three-quarters of the forest area is classed as unmerchantable. This is mainly Crown-owned indigenous forest which, because it covers much of the remote and mountainous high-rainfall country, has as its primary function soil protection and water regulation. The limited production possibilities it offers must be subordinated to its protective role.

Of the 6.2 million hectares of indigenous forests that remain, only about a million hectares are merchantable by today's standards. Greatly increased use of exotic timber has enabled the rate of cutting in State indigenous forests to be reduced to 1600 hectares a year. Greater emphasis is being placed on the management of indigenous forests for sustained wood yield or as reserved natural stands. A lower cutting level is also evident in privately-owned indigenous forests.

Merchantable forests also include almost all the planted (exotic) forests, about half of which were established and are owned privately or by local authorities. There are about 740 000 hectares of productive exotic forest, over half of which is in the Bay of Plenty - Taupo region, where very large plantings were made from 1923 to 1936. The distribution of the planted forests was influenced mainly by availability of cheap undeveloped land at that time. The output of timber from the exotic forests greatly surpasses that from the indigenous forests.

The exotic conifers, particularly radiata pine, have high growth rates, ease of establishment and ease of re-establishment on cut-over areas, and they produce wood that has many uses. Plantings of such trees are being extended and developed to provide for increasing domestic and export demand.

The distribution by area of forest land is shown in the table below.

Forested LandIndigenous ForestsExotic ForestsAll Forests
 hectares (thousand)
State forest29934253418
National parks and reserves15501550
Unoccupied Crown land361361
Other tenures13423151657
        Total62467406986

BOTANICAL COMPOSITION OF FORESTS: Indigenous Forests—These can be broadly grouped into podocarp/broad-leaved forest (which includes kauri forest) and beech forest, but there are also many subgroups and transition zones.

Podocarp/broad-leaved forests are found at all latitudes in the 3 main islands, more particularly those of the north and of the warm wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes, and there is a general increase in luxuriance and in numbers of species from south to north. This type of forest has suffered severely by destruction in land clearing or from heavy logging. There are still some large areas on steep country, such as the Ureweras, but these are essentially protection forests. Fairly extensive areas in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island contain most of the remaining indigenous softwood supplies. Otherwise, the remaining forest of this type consists of pockets, some of which may be worked out in a few decades.

The principal podocarp is rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) and important secondary ones are totara (Podocarpus totara), matai (P. spicatus), and miro (P. ferrugineus). Important species at higher elevations are Hall's totara (P. hallii) and kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii). Kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides), once common on low-lying swampy river silts now cleared for farming, is becoming scarce. The smaller podocarps of the silver pine group (Dacrydium biforme, D. colensoi, and D. intermedium) are dominant in bog forests occupying limited areas in the central North Island and scattered widely over the South Island although concentrated largely on the West Coast, where they are largely cut over for posts and sleepers.

The main broad-leaved species associated with the podocarps are kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa), rata (Metrosideros umbellata and M. robusta), and tawa (Beilsohmiedia tawa) in the North Island and western Nelson.

Kauri forests are found in the north of the North Island. In them, kauri (Agathis australis) either occurs frequently or is locally dominant—otherwise they are akin to the podocarp/broad-leaved forest, though with many additional hardwoods. They have been almost destroyed by logging and fire and only limited stands now remain.

Beech forests, in which one or more of the southern beech (Nothofagus) species are dominant, are the forests of the south, of the mountains, and of the dry lowlands; but the species are absent from some localities where their presence might be expected, e.g., Mt. Egmont, the region 160 km south of the Taramakau River in Westland, and Stewart Island. In the main, these forests are protection forests, but there are large areas in accessible regions that have been cut over and are regenerating, and others that have not yet been logged and will be reserved for sustained-yield management or replacement by fast-growing exotics.

Scrub and second-growth broad-leaved species occupy much of the land now classified as forest. There were, before European settlement, limited transition areas carrying manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides) between tussock grassland and forest proper. With deliberate destruction by fire of much tussock and forest these manuka belts have extended, and manuka even occupies extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from its own original stands. In this respect it is important, for it is often a stage in succession back to forest proper.

Exotic Forests—Introduced conifers form the bulk of the large and valuable exotic-forest estate, and among these radiata pine (Pinus radiata) is the supreme multi-purpose tree. Radiata pine grows rapidly in New Zealand (reaching saw-log size in 25–30 years), produces a large volume of usable wood, and is remarkably adapted to a variety of sites. Other major species are Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Corsican pine (Pinus nigra (laricio)), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa).

The largest exotic forests are in the centre of the North Island; medium and small plantations are distributed throughout most of the country. Radiata pine constitutes about half the area of State plantations and about 90 percent of private plantations.

MANAGEMENT OF STATE FORESTS—The management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards protecting, conserving, and, where possible, perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests of the country, and creating an exotic forest estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce and to provide for large exports.

Spreading awareness among the general public of the human and physical environment has brought the management of the remaining indigenous forests under critical examination. In 1975 a new policy covering State indigenous forests was approved by Government. It provides principles to guide the future use and management of these forests, giving due regard to sound forestry practices, the wishes of the public, and social and economic welfare on a regional and national basis. To manage forest land on the basis of optimum use, dominant forest values (whether they are of protection, amenity, production, or otherwise) must be identified and defined. Recognising forest zones is a sound basis for reconciling numerous objectives. The values identified first in forest zoning are soil and water conservation and biological significance. Scenic appeal, potential for recreation, and wood production values are considered subsequently. This policy was given specific effect in 1978 with the release by the Government of more detailed policies covering the two most important remaining indigenous forest regions—the West Coast, and Central North Island. In both instances substantial reductions in allowable cut have been made to provide for ecological reserves and management of the productive forests on a sustained or long-term periodic-yield basis.

In relation to the approximately 4 million hectares of State forest land administered by the New Zealand Forest Service, conservation embraces: the husbanding of indigenous forests yielding timber needed for special purposes, but which are difficult to perpetuate and must therefore be used as sparingly as possible; the management in selected areas of less silviculturally difficult forests, such as terrace rimu in Westland, beech in Southland and north Westland, and kauri in North Auckland, on a sustained yield basis; the creation and management of exotic forests on a sustained yield basis for the production of wood for a wide range of uses; the establishment or maintenance in a healthy state of protective vegetation on hill and mountain land to preserve soil and to control stream channel aggradation; the protection of exotic and indigenous forest against fire, disease, and noxious animals for the maintenance of a supply of exotic and indigenous wood, a vegetative cover to preserve soil and water values, a habitat for wildlife, and scenic and other amenity values in perpetuity; the legal reservation of selected forest types as forest sanctuaries and dedicated areas; the use of exotic and indigenous forest for recreational and other purposes, including spiritual enjoyment, where this is not incompatible with essential soil and water conservation.

Increasing interdependence between forests and the social and economic benefits derived from indigenous and exotic forests in regional development emphasise the necessity for planning all forest operations on a regional basis.

Indigenous Production Forests—Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve restriction of the annual cut, rigid insistence on full utilisation, and block sales of carefully measured standing timber. Substantial long-term reserves have also been set aside to ensure the continued supply of high-quality indigenous timber and to safeguard resources against the unlikely event that a major catastrophe should befall the exotic forest estate.

The ecology of the natural forest associations and the silvicultural characteristics of the individual species are being studied. Past work has shown the importance of preserving a forest climate. Carefully conducted selection logging of terrace rimu forests in south Westland provides a favourable forest environment for the regeneration and growth of rimu.

In many districts, forests of mixed podocarps and tawa have been logged for rimu, leaving tawa behind. Recently, however, tawa has been found useful as a hardwood pulp, and in the Bay of Plenty wood unsuitable for saw logs is being used for this purpose.

The kauri forests, now only remnants, are owned principally by the State. Management of them has the objective of perpetuating kauri as a species in the interests of science and public enjoyment, in natural stands and as managed forests. Large representative areas of mature and immature kauri have been set aside as sanctuaries, programmes of research and artificial establishment intensified, and the annual cut reduced to the lowest level consistent with economic, social, and legal constraints.

The prospects of improving and perpetuating the beech forests on a sustained-yield basis are good. Both major species, red and silver beech, when given the right conditions, will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to produce saw logs in 100–130 years; and both show their best development on sites that are unsuitable for agriculture. Many large areas of beech forests are still intact and, in the case of red beech, there are extensive stands of young forest which have originated after fire, wind throw, or mining activities. Against these favourable circumstances must be set the presence in many localities of red deer and other feral animals, the browsing of which may check or even prevent effective regeneration.

A survey has been undertaken into the extent and distribution of beech forests in Nelson, northern Westland, and western Southland that may be suitable for production of saw logs and hardwood pulp. Care is being given to the consideration of areas that must be reserved for soil and water conservation, the presentation of flora or fauna of particular scientific interest, or scenery and recreation, and any forests utilised will be managed on a sustained-yield basis or replaced in part by fast-growing exotics. Details of the proposed management and use of these beech forests are given in the publication Utilisation of South Island Beech Forests (Parliamentary Paper C.4, 1971). Permanent production is envisaged from some 300 000 hectares of lower altitude beech forest in Nelson, Westland, and Southland conservancies. (There are 3.5 million hectares of beech forest in the South Island.) The Forest Service is conscious of the need to preserve major environmental values in perpetuity.

In 1974 the Government invited proposals to use beech forests for major pulp industries. In late 1975, however, consideration of schemes to use the West Coast beech was deferred until the completion of a study by consultants to discover the economic feasibility of major processing industries using combined wood resources from West Coast, Nelson, and Marlborough, and of a panel-board industry or other local small-scale processing, using wood residues from West Coast sawmills and forests. The consultants' report and all other available pertinent data were presented at a seminar on the Future of West Coast Forestry and Forest Industries, held in Hokitika in mid-1977. At the end of the seminar, public submissions on the proposals discussed were invited, and were considered by the Government in preparing its West Coast regional forests policy released in 1978.

Exotic Forests—State exotic forests date from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting began in 1898 and proceeded slowly until 1922, by which time 19 000 hectares had been established. From 1923 to 1936 there was a boom in afforestation, with no less than 150 000 hectares planted by the State and 120 000 hectares by commercial companies. After the boom period planting continued on a more modest scale, but in 1961 State planting was increased and the Government provided for financial inducements to encourage planting by private landholders and local authorities—with the aim of doubling the exotic-forest estate by the end of the century. The annual rate of State planting has increased to more than five times the rate achieved then (4000 hectares in 1961, 21 500 hectares in 1978). The figure of over 22 000 hectares for 1975 private plantings is about 10 times that for 1961.

Now that the stage of large-scale utilisation has been reached, there are opportunities to increase productivity by correcting the deficiencies in the distribution of age classes, replacing unthrifty plantations, and improving the quality of the trees, and at the same time, meeting the demand for forest products and ensuring continuity of supplies. The diversity of products now marketable permits utilisation of trees of a wide range of sizes and aids the operations needed in management practice.

Present policy is to concentrate new exotic forests in areas where there is scope for building up integrated wood-based industries to supply New Zealand markets and material for export. The planted forests (both State and private) already supply nearly 90 percent of the total wood production.

Stabilisation of Sand Dunes—This aspect of the Forest Service's work has a twofold objective—the stabilisation of dunes for the protection of agricultural and pastoral land and the establishment of exotic production forests. The Forest Service plants marram grass, sows lupin, and later establishes trees on certain protective zones. Eight schemes are in operation—at Aupouri, Mangawhai, Woodhill, Waiuku, Tainui-Kawhia, Waitarere, Santoft, and Pouto—embracing around 60 000 hectares. About 25 000 hectares of trees have been planted.

A most successful co-operative venture is under way in two Northland localities, where the Crown has leased large areas of Maori-owned coastal sand dunes (adjacent to Aupouri and Woodhill forests) for stabilisation and afforestation.

Stabilisation of Eroding Farmlands—A consequence of past forest clearing for farm land on some unsuitably steep areas has been accelerated water run-off and erosion. Wide spread landslipping, aggradation of riverbeds, and subsequent flooding have been sufficiently severe to require remedial works in which reafforestation plays a major part. Extensive plantings are under way in the East Coast and Poverty Bay and on the western Kaimai Range. Carefully managed, these can fulfil a productive role for timber supply and also maintain a protective cover.

Afforestation of Maori Land—In addition to the two areas of Maori-owned coastal sand country mentioned above, the Crown has also leased nine other areas of Maori land for co-operative forestry ventures. These total 55 000 hectares, with 22 000 being already planted.

Protection Forests—The vegetation of the mountainous areas—forest, scrub, and alpine grassland—is of the highest importance to the welfare of New Zealand. Many rivers that bring water to low-lying farmlands or provide the domestic water supply of cities and towns have their headwaters in the mountainous back country. The mountains receive frequent heavy rain and are mostly formed of rock that erodes easily when exposed to rain, wind, and frost. The blanket of montane vegetation protects the thin soil layer and stabilises rocky slopes. This prevents soil and rock from reaching streams and altering their flow characteristics. Settled flood plains can be protected by a combination of river-training works and a good cover of vegetation on catchments to ensure the most stable stream flow possible.

Browsing animals that were introduced into the forest and mountain lands many years ago and, in the absence of natural enemies and limiting climate, multiplied excessively are the major threat to the continued protective function of the vegetation of these areas. Consequently the first step in the effective management of these areas is control of the numbers of these animals to a level that will allow an adequate vegetative cover to grow and persist.

Techniques to assess the condition and trends of vegetation, alpine climate, rates of erosion, the possibility of introducing new forest and scrub species into badly depleted areas, and changes in animal populations and methods of control are undertaken by the Forest Service and other agencies in support of management of protective forest lands.

Recreation in State Forests—Over one million hectares of State forest is set aside as forest parks which, although mainly protection forests, provide scope for recreation. In addition, a further 110 000 hectares of State forest land has been set apart as recreation areas.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for recreation in surroundings of great natural beauty—for study of plant and animal life; for challenging tramping; and for shooting and fishing. Most of the forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation and recreational use can be allowed in almost all such forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting, for instance, can be of benefit in destroying wild animal pests. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining huts. Entry on foot is unrestricted except that, in the interests of public safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

The older exotic forests, two of which are forest parks, also offer attractions and have the advantage of accessibility. In many there are walks and picnic spots for the public, and selected areas are reserved from felling for their scenic value.

Safeguarding Forests and Timber: Fire Prevention—Fire is the greatest single menace to forests; within a few hours it can destroy a valuable timber crop or undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance. Indigenous forests are fairly fire resistant but can become fire-risks in drought conditions. Without doubt, however, the major risk occurs in the plantations of exotic conifers.

The fire-protection organisation of the Forest Service operates over the entire country, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves, national parks, and all other State areas. The Forest Service also gives support to other rural fire authorities, particularly those with high country fire hazards. A fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the department has fire-fighting responsibilities and well equipped fire-fighting crews can be brought into action at short notice and controlled through a radio network. Aerial fire-detection patrols operate when and where required, and aerial fire-fighting in the form of helicopters fitted with special buckets, has been adapted to deal with fire outbreaks. When weather or other conditions may lead to the start of forest or rural fires and endanger life and property, the Forest Service may issue a warning of fire hazard conditions, impose a total ban on lighting fires in the open, and take charge of an area so endangered by declaring a regional fire emergency.

A new Forest and Rural Fires Act, which will become law in 1979, provides for a nationwide fire control system (involving all fire authorities), affords private forest owners the opportunity for protection identical with State areas, and sets up a mediator to deal immediately with any controversy.

Wild Animals—Under the Wild Animals Control Act 1977 the Forest Service is responsible for the control of deer, goats, chamois, pigs, and other introduced wild animals on all lands where the damage they cause is detrimental to the welfare of the country. On State forest and unoccupied Crown land the Forest Service also deals with opossum and wallaby control; but on pastoral land control of these two animals comes under the Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

The widespread populations of many of these animals have a serious effect on the growth of trees and ground cover in production as well as in protection forests. The forest floor of ferns, mosses, and shrubs has been extensively damaged by deer and goats, while the upper storey is adversely affected by the canopy-feeding opossum.

Control of Insects and Disease—In conjunction with private enterprise the Forest Service has organised joint spraying operations to control the pine needle blight Dothistroma pini. Aerial spraying of a copper fungicide is an effective means of dealing with the disease. Increasing research is being directed towards the debilitating effect of Swiss needle cast (Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii) on the growth of Douglas fir.

Pathologists and entomologists of the Forest Research Institute maintain a constant watch on forests, woodlots, and shelter belts to detect incipient epidemics in time for effective control measures to be taken. Much information is accumulated to elucidate the relationships between the organisms and the forests.

Timber Inspection and Quarantine—Forest Service timber inspection and quarantine cover all sawn, hewn, and natural round timber, wooden manufactured items, wooden packing, and ship's dunnage entering or leaving the country.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES—More money is spent on establishing and tending State forests than is obtained in revenue. Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry is met in full from taxation, as distinct from the development of State forests, which is financed from national development loans.

Sources of finance are shown in the following table.

Source1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78
 $(000)
Consolidated Revenue Account expenditure5,7466,7858,4598,83910,602
    Less receipts687585120142
        Required from Consolidated Revenue Account5,6786,7108,3748,71910,460
Works and Trading Account expenditure52,01661,52478,70494,552109,090
    Less receipts40,79539,90837,64759,68757,327
        Loan moneys required11,22121,61641,05734,86551,763
Net finance required from Government funds16,89928,32649,43143,58462,223

PRIVATE FORESTRY: Private Forest Estate—Exotic forest holdings other than State forests (New Zealand Forest Service) or those on Crown lands amount to 315 000 hectares.

Forestry Incentive—In 1976, 7760 hectares of new private planting was carried out under the Government's forestry encouragement loans scheme (for local authorities) or forestry encouragement grants scheme (for individuals, including trusts and partnerships, and small companies). There is added incentive in the fact that the value of standing trees does not increase any assessment for land tax, death duties, or local body rates; as well, there are concessions with regard to income tax. An Act to permit the formation of forestry co-operatives was passed in 1978.

Extension Services—Advice and help in all plantation matters are available from the Forest Service, which administers the forestry encouragement schemes. Because of the high degree of interest in private forestry, increasing emphasis is being given to information and training services. Printed booklets are available; a correspondence course is offered through the Technical Correspondence Institute; and short residential courses are held periodically.

Farm forestry associations also are involved in promoting the advantages and advising on the management of woodlots.

FOREST UTILISATION: Removals of Roundwood— By the 1930s the easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone, whereas some of the exotic forests had reached the stage where harvesting could begin. By 1939, of the 1,700,000 cubic metres per annum of roundwood for industrial use, some 280 000 cubic metres came from the exotic forests. By 1948 the total annual removals of roundwood had gone up to 2,300,000 cubic metres with 820 000 cubic metres from the exotic forests. The exotic forests are now by far the more important source of wood and in 1978 they supplied 8,574,000 cubic metres, or 93 percent of the total supply from exotic and indigenous forests.

The table below shows the quantities of timber produced by the forests of New Zealand to supply the forest industries, which comprise 377 sawmills, 9 plywood and veneer plants, 3 particle board mills, 7 pulp and paper mills, and 2 fibreboard mills. This roundwood production does not include firewood.

Year Ended 31 MarchIndigenous WoodExotic WoodTotal
 cubic metres (thousand)
1974917.27 659.98 577.1
19751 002.77 397.58 400.2
1976959.67 344.38 303.9
1977861.18 892.89 753.9
1978692.08 574.09 266.0

Sawn-timber Production—Radiata pine and other pines account for about 89 percent of the total cut of exotics; Douglas fir provides most of the remainder. Only 13 percent of the country's timber requirement comes from the indigenous forests, and this proportion is being reduced to the point where a small sustained yield in indigenous timber can be maintained for special purposes.

The table below gives the production of though-sawn timber in recent years.

Total sawn-timber production by years over a 50-year period is included in the Statistical Summary at the back of the Yearbook.

Year Ended 31 MarchSoftwoodsHardwoodsGrand Total
IndigenousExoticTotalIndigenousExoticTotal
 cubic metres (thousand)
19743411 6682 009405452 054
19753281 7162 044393422 086
19763261 6181 9444811592 003
19772961 8672 163472492 212
19782231 7041 927322341 961

Figure 17.1. PRODUCTION OF ROUGH - SAWN TIMBER

PRODUCTION OF ROUGH - SAWN TIMBER

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past 5 years.

SpeciesYear Ended 31 March
19741975197619771978
 cubic metres (thousand)
Rimu and miro288272266242185
Matai171720169
Totara78643
Kahikatea2629323221
Tawa118211712
Beech2727262919
Other indigenous55336
        Total, indigenous381366374343255
Exotic pines1 4701 5421 4271 6621 522
Douglas fir177147153161141
Eucalypts531022
Other exotic2128394441
        Total, exotic1 6731 7201 6291 8691 706
        Total (all species)2 0542 0862 0032 2121 961

Export Wood-chip Industry—The industry originated in 1969 in the Nelson region where two mills now produce both indigenous and exotic wood chips for Japan. They use trees unsuitable for sawn-timber production, enabling replanting with more productive species, and also provide outlets for forest and sawmill residues which would normally be wasted. Nelson remains the principal chip export port, handling about 57 percent of the country's total chip exports.

Wood chips have been exported through the port of Mount Maunganui since 1972, through Lyttelton since 1975, and through Port Chalmers since 1977. Total chip exports reached a peak at 213 000 bone dry units for the calendar year 1977, declining to 195 000 bone dry units in 1978.

Pulp and Paper Industry—The total value of sales of pulp, paper, and paperboard was over $270 million in 1975–76. Over the last 10 years total production of pulp (the basic commodity) has risen at an average annual rate of over 9 percent, and production of paper at over 5 percent. Production of pulp rose from 481 000 tonnes in 1967–68 to 1,152,000 tonnes in 1977–78, requiring an increase in roundwood input from 1,752,000 cubic metres to 4,137,000 cubic metres over the same period. The industry is mainly concentrated near the big exotic forests on the volcanic plateau of the North Island. There are 7 pulp and paper plants in New Zealand, 6 of which are in the North Island. Of these 6, 4 are integrated with sawmills to utilise fully the total input of wood. The 7 companies are:

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.—This company was formed in 1952 to utilise wood from Kaingaroa State Forest. Practical assistance and financial backing were given by the Government, which is represented on the board of directors. The company's plant is at Kawerau, Bay of Plenty. The pulp and paper mill began operation late in 1955 and the sawmill early in 1956. The annual rated capacity of the sawmill is 200 000 cubic metres of sawn timber on the basis of one shift a day, while the capacity of the pulp and paper plant is 325 000 tonnes of newsprint and wallpaper base, 245 000 tonnes of chemical pulp, and 295 000 tonnes of mechanical pulp.

N.Z. Forest Products Ltd.—This public company utilises about 2,200,000 cubic metres of timber a year from its own pine forests and also small quantities of hardwood (tawa) from State forests. Annual plant capacity is 265 000 tonnes of kraft, packaging, printing, and writing paper, 450 000 tonnes of kraft pulp, 55 000 tonnes of refiner groundwood pulp for fibreboard production, and 115 000 cubic metres of sawn timber a year, the last on a one-shift basis. The company uses 12 000 cubic metres of timber to make wooden cases and has the capacity to produce 12 000 cubic metres of plywood on a one-shift basis, 11 million square metres of wallboard, and 100 million multi-wall paper bags annually. The integrated pulp mill, paper mill, sawmill and veneer lathe is at Kinleith near Tokoroa: the fibreboard, multi-wall paper bag, and wooden case mills and plants are in Auckland. The company is also a joint owner, with Australian Paper Mills Ltd. of Australia and U.E.B. Industries Ltd., of Fibre Products N.Z. Ltd., a firm which makes a range of moulded pulp products, including 32 million moulded fruit trays a year.

Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., a subsidiary of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., has an annual production capacity of 130 000 tonnes. The company manufactures mechanical and semi-chemical pulp which it uses, with considerable quantities of waste paper, in the production of paperboard. The company owns its own radiata pine forest at Matahina and hauls the logs 42 kilometres to the mill by road. It also operates a sawmill near the board mill to take the larger logs from the forest.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. makes tissue and various lightweight papers adjacent to the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.'s plant at Kawerau.

New Zealand Paper Mills Ltd., at Mataura, now a subsidiary of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., has been in operation for more than 100 years. It has 2 machines producing a range of papers from kraft wrapping grades to specialty printing and writing papers. The company uses New Zealand-made sulphate-pulp and supplements this with wastepaper and small quantities of imported specialty pulp. Annual production capacity is 19 000 tonnes of paper. Adjacent to the paper mill is a small bagmaking factory, producing a range of single-ply bags.

Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd.—In 1969 the Government invited tenders for the processing of 9 million cubic metres of wood from Kaingaroa State Forest. After examining the proposals received, the Government awarded the sale of roughly two-thirds of the volume to Carter Consolidated Ltd. This led to the formation of the company, which has built an integrated sawmill and refiner groundwood mill at Whirinaki in the Napier district. This project, which is geared to the Japanese market, began producing wood pulp in March 1973. Present productive capacity is about 204 000 tonnes of refiner groundwood pulp and 70 000 cubic metres of sawn timber annually. Newsprint production is planned for the late 1980s when additional wood supplies are expected to be available.

Winstone Samsung Industries Ltd.—The company's new thermo-mechanical pulpmill at Tangiwai produced its first pulp in the latter part of 1978. The plant, which uses exotic wood from the Karioi State Forest, has a rated capacity of about 85 000 tonnes annually. About 70 percent of its production will be exported to the Republic of Korea, with the rest to be offered on world markets.

The basic products of the pulp and paper industry are mechanical and chemical pulp, which are converted into such products as newsprint, kraft, and other paper, paperboard, and fibreboard.

The following table gives the production of wood pulp in New Zealand in recent years.

Year Ended 31 MarchWood Pulp
Chemical*Mechanical

*Chemical pulp includes semi-chemical pulp.

†Mechanical pulp includes ground-wood pulp and defibrated pulp.

 tonnes
1973339 502260 543
1974465 300351 057
1975521 161371 618
1976565 376387 736
1977581 453521 203
1978606 759545 130

Production figures for paper in New Zealand in recent years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchNewsprintOther Printing and Writing PaperOther Paper and PaperboardTotal Paper and Paperboard
 tonnes
1974217 83131 175285 129534 135
1975208 52333 852304 459546 834
1976219 13434 213301 607554 954
1977275 36938 773320 450634 592
1978276 62722 657341 881641 165

The rise of production of pulp and pulp products is clearly shown in the following graphs.

Figure 17.2. PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY

PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY

Wood-based Panel Products Industries: Plywood—Five factories manufacture plywood, and the total output for the year ended 31 March 1978 was 33 000 cubic metres. Total production of veneer in the industry in 1977–78 was 48 000 cubic metres.

New Zealand Forest Products plywood plant at Kinleith began production of industrial and structural grades of plywood for both the domestic and export markets in 1976. The plant has a capacity of 12 000 cubic metres on a one-shift basis (twice that of any other plywood plant in New Zealand or Australia) and uses radiata pine from Kaingaroa State Forest together with wood from the company's own pine forests.

Radiata pine has become increasingly important as a species for peeler log supply because of the demand for industrial plywood and now constitutes about 79 percent of total peeler log production. Now that the indigenous forests have become depleted, the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence, in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs, and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers logging State indigenous forests to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Fibreboard—Although fibreboard is manufactured from wood pulp, it is by end use a panel product. Production started in 1943 and has increased steadily. A new mill in Canterbury began producing medium-density fibreboard by a dry process in 1976. This product is now successfully establishing itself on domestic and export markets.

Particle Board—Particle board is manufactured from roundwood and sawmill residues. There has over recent years been a rapid expansion in the domestic market for this product for interior panelling and flooring as well as furniture manufacture.

Production of plywood, veneer, fibreboard, and particle board is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVeneerPlywoodParticle BoardFibreboard
 cubic metrestonnes
197437 80030 100118 80045 500
197535 40027 000112 90043 900
197632 20019 300128 481x44 000
197741 10026 000159 56656 100
197847 70033 200107 30051 400

Production of Round and Split Produce—Considerable quantities of native timbers have been used in the past to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, and firewood, and for a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge-timber requirements, but as with forest products in general, most post and pole requirements are now met from exotic resources. A massive increase in the volume of posts and poles treated (from 5000 cubic metres in 1955 to 279 000 cubic metres in 1977) indicates the switch from indigenous roundwood to exotic roundwood.

Wood Preservation—In the year ended 31 March 1978, 46.0 percent of all sawn timber produced was preservative treated: by world standards the proportion treated is very high, partly because of the relative ease with which otherwise non-durable exotic softwoods such as radiata pine can be treated.

Features of the preservation industry are: the very wide use in house building of timber treated by diffusion or vacuum-pressure methods with water-borne preservative at low retentions to prevent insect borer attack; the wide dispersal of small treating plants specialising in such treatment; and the quality-control function exercised by the Timber Preservation Authority.

Timber Preservation Authority specifications prescribe the preservative treatments for different service conditions. For treatment of exterior timbers against decay multi-salt preservatives (essentially solutions of copper, chromium, and arsenic compounds) at high loadings are widely used, but oil-type preservatives (e.g., creosote) are also acceptable. The usual method of application of multi-salt preservatives is by vacuum pressure, but such variations as the oscillating-pressure method (OPM), the Lowry process, and the alternating-pressure method (APM) have been introduced. Oil-based preservatives are applied by pressure, hot and cold bath, and cold soak and are used for poles, posts, and sleepers. For timber out of contact with the ground and protected from the weather lighter treatment with water-soluble preservatives is acceptable. Two basic formulations of alkyl ammonium compounds have now been approved for preservative treating pine timber, including plywood, used in above ground locations whether protected from, or exposed to, the elements.

The following table shows the quantities of sawn timber treated.

YearOpen TankDiffusion Impregnation*Pressure ImpregnationTotal
*Mainly boron.
 cubic metres
1973–745403 488536 036939 529
1974–7537396 370561 971958 378
1975–769359 238570 849930 096
1976–7764402 883x618 488x1,021,435
1977–7830350 297551 433901 760

In addition, 313 966 cubic metres of other timber, such as sleepers, poles, and fence posts, were treated by one of the preservation methods in 1977–78.

OVERSEAS TRADE—Forest products are important earners of overseas funds. For the year ended June 1978 exports of forest products were valued at about $234 million; Australia was the largest customer, taking 41 percent, mainly in the form of pulp and paper, and Japan was the next largest, taking 36 percent, mainly pulp and logs. For the same period, imports of forest products into New Zealand were valued at $48 million.

Timber Exports—There is an established market in Australia for sawn radiata pine and Douglas fir. Japan takes large volumes of logs, and a significant quantity of sawn timber. Korea and the People's Republic of China are also taking logs, and the Middle East is taking sawn timber. Only special categories of indigenous timbers are permitted for export, and these are strictly regulated.

Timber Imports—Durable Australian hardwoods are still imported for use as large poles, crossarms, wharf, bridge, and constructional timbers, etc. The demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses, exterior joinery, and weatherboards continues. Other imports are normally limited to tropical hardwoods for the furniture trade and specialty purposes.

Pulp and Paper Exports—These are now established exports of great value to New Zealand. Australia takes significant volumes of pulp and paper, and Japan takes large volumes of pulp. Both chemical and mechanical pulp are exported. Newsprint accounts for 73 percent of all paper exports.

Pulp and Paper Imports—Short-fibred pulp and special papers are imported and constitute over 70 percent of the value of our total forest products imports.

VALUE OF EXTERNAL TRADE IN FOREST PRODUCTS
Year Ended 30 JuneWood ProductsPulpPaper and Paper ProductsAll Forest Products
 Imports $(000) c.d.v.
197417,4941,78424,13443,412
197516,7491,20035,41353,362
197611,7271,75921,56535,051
197717,3321,58536,81855,735
197813,1102,69832,58148,389
 Exports $(000) f.o.b.
197453,95025,57328,654108,177
197536,08543,58739,306118,978
197641,95658,78066,624167,360
197764,50570,02785,924220,456
197879,54269,71984,485233,746

The following tables give New Zealand's imports and exports of timber for the latest 5 years.

TIMBER IMPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneSawn TimberSleepersLogs and Poles
HardwoodsNorth American Softwoods*OakOtherTotal
*Douglas fir, redwood, and cedar.
 cubic metres (thousand)
197431300.33.26511
197532210.11.7555
19761580.91.1258
197721132.0367
19781562.0239
TIMBER EXPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneIndigenous TimberRadiata PineDouglas FirOther ExoticTotal ExoticsTotal, All Sawn TimberLogs and Poles
SawnCases
 cubic metres (thousand) 
19745.01745315.02422471 449        
19754.01221356.0164170695        
19764.0143458.0196200714        
19775.020514215.02632681 136        
19784.02791378.03253291 070        

NOTE—Small quantities of roundwood are included in the exports.

The following table gives New Zealand's external trade in pulp and paper for the latest 5 years.

Year Ended 30 JuneWood PulpFibreboard*Paper and Paperboard
NewsprintOther Paper and PaperboardTotal

*In cubic metres.

†Excludes manufactures of paper and paperboard; excludes minor items for which no quantities are given.

 Imports (tonnes)
197411 5201177 54638 55746 103
19754 1022 5427 86150 63058 491
19765 6402820619 76919 975
19774 0123588 66431 10439 768
19788 521220227 57727 779
 Exports (tonnes)
1974243 2184 763103 09941 363144 462
1975312 1692 454120 58752 147172 734
1976359 9194 407132 11784 306216 423
1977420 3984 969175 92780 208256 135
1978429 8904 140190 35071 708262 058

RESEARCH—The Forest Service undertakes and co-ordinates its forestry and forest-products research through the Forest Research Institute, with two divisions at Rotorua and a third at Christchurch, employing 139 scientists, 206 technicians, and a large servicing staff. An advisory committee for each division of the Institute ensures that the research programmes are relevant to the needs of the forestry and forest-based industries.

The Institute maintains a continuous exchange of scientific information with other research organisations in New Zealand and overseas, and provides opportunities for research fellowships under the National Research Advisory Council's fellowship scheme, as well as some finance for universities to undertake contract research.

The Institute produces its own annual report.

Production Forestry—This division is responsible for research into all aspects of growing forests for productive purposes. Its research programme includes forest establishment, genetics and tree improvement, silviculture and the economics of silviculture, soils and site productivity, mensuration, entomology, pathology, tree physiology, forest biology survey, and the ecology, silviculture and management of indigenous forests.

A large research nursery and tree improvement trial area has been established within the Institute's grounds at Rotorua, as well as a comprehensive network of research trials in State and private forests throughout the country.

Forest Products—This division undertakes research aimed at making the best use of wood. Its research includes: wood formation, structure and quality; drying, and preservation; timber engineering; adhesives and composite wood products; pulp and paper wood chemistry; and the production of ethanol by wood hydrolysis and fermentation. In carrying out its work, this division maintains close contacts with the timber and building industries and is therefore represented on numerous agencies associated with building standards and timber use and preservation.

Protection Forestry—Located in the grounds of the University of Canterbury at Christchurch, this division undertakes research to protect and restore the soil, water, and other values of forests. It studies the condition of mountain-land forests, the biology and control of introduced animals such as deer and opossum, the influence of forest operations on slope stability and erosion, and the re vegetation of eroded areas.

Industry, the universities, and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research also carry out research into many aspects of forestry and forest products.

TRAINING IN FORESTRY—The Forest Service recruits school leavers up to 20 years of age as forestry trainees. They work and train for 12 months in the field while continuing their education, often by correspondence, to gain prerequisites for further study. Management-orientated trainees wishing to obtain the New Zealand Certificate in Forestry undertake 3 years of block study courses at the Forestry Training Centre as well as practical training in forests to gain a balanced education in forest management. Research and technical trainees are also catered for with course alternatives for the certificate, and an increasing number of Forest Research Institute technician recruits are studying for the New Zealand Certificate in Forestry rather than the New Zealand Certificate in Science.

Planning- or technically-orientated trainees wishing to do university study attend a 4-year degree course in forestry at Canterbury University, doing practical work during vacations. Private students may also study for a bachelor of forestry science degree and take post-graduate courses leading to a master of forestry science degree and Ph.D. in forestry.

To build up a permanent skilled-labour force, the Forest Service recruits each year about 70 youths 16 to 18 years of age. These junior woodsmen receive a 2-year course of basic training in the practical skills of forestry at one of the woodsman schools at Kaingaroa, Golden Downs, Berwick, Ashley, or Aupouri, followed by a third year of advanced training given in small groups in selected forests.

Each year the Forestry Training Centre in Rotorua holds about 40 in-service management courses for forest industry personnel. The Timber Industry Training Centre, also in Rotorua, provides courses in sawmill practice, sawdoctoring, and timber machining. Accommodation, catering, and recreational facilities of a high standard are available at the Forest Training Centre Hostel for those attending courses.

EMPLOYMENT—In 1977 the people employed in the forestry sector comprised 3.6 percent of the total labour force. Because the major manufacturing units are logically located near their raw material supplies, there is a concentration of employment near the largest forest areas. This is seen in the central North Island, where over half the country's exotic forests are located and where one-quarter of the regional labour force is engaged in forest industries. In fact the forest industries have had a very marked effect on regional development. The current prosperity and the fast growth of population in the Rotorua-Bay of Plenty area is due in no small measure to the expansion of the forest industries. Apart from the expansion of the established towns such as Rotorua, the industrial development of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., and Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. led to the establishment of the completely new town—Kawerau—and the rapid growth of another—Tokoroa. The development of these industrial complexes has also stimulated other industries especially transport, vehicle repair, and building and construction. Similarly the expansion of exports of forest products was partly responsible for the increased tonnages that have passed through the ports of Tauranga and Napier over the last decade.

The following table shows the number of employees and working proprietors in the forest industries at 15 April 1977 and 1978.

At 15 AprilForestry*LoggingSawmillingTimber MerchantingPulp, Paper, and PaperboardOther§Total

*Includes silviculture, nurseries, etc.

†Includes felling, cutting, and haulage.

‡Includes planing mills and plywood and veneer mills.

§Includes other wood industries, manufacture of furniture and fittings, wooden and cane containers, and wood and cork products.

19773 9633 2657 5003 621..26 06944 418
19784 5863 1086 6433 35911 09113 13641 923

THE OUTLOOK—The State owns 75 percent of the remaining indigenous timber and about half of the 0.7 million hectares of exotic forest. It makes sales, of either standing timber or logs, from both types of forest. The contribution of the indigenous forests to timber supply has diminished considerably but it is hoped that these forests will in the future supply small volumes of special purpose timbers. The exotic forests are readily renewable and are managed for sustained yield. Their full possibilities have not yet been reached but owing to the irregularity of past planting programmes their composition is far from ideal and there are problems over maintaining a steady rate of expansion of output.

The large area of exotic forest in private ownership has arisen for the most part from speculative planting in the 1920s and 1930s. Most of the forests then established have since come under the control of industrial companies, which are utilising them and managing them, in several cases, to ensure regular and permanent supplies for their major wood-using factories. The other privately-owned indigenous forests are subject to uncontrolled exploitation and are expected to be exhausted at no distant date.

Increased production up to the end of the century will be based for the most part on existing forest resources and will be sustained thereafter by additional new planting. It is expected that the current new planting rate of about 45 000 hectares a year will continue for some time.

New Zealand's forest industries are favourably placed in regard to the basic requirement for expansion—wood supplies from exotic forests, which will increase over the next 30 years. Efficient processing is well established, providing a good basis for further expansion; projections indicate that demand for forest products will grow both at home and abroad, particularly for paper. In many countries wood supplies are inadequate for their needs, hence these countries must import timber.

Chapter 18. Section 16; FISHERIES

Table of Contents

General—Food from the sea figured prominently in the diet of the Polynesian inhabitants of New Zealand for over a thousand years. And although fish was also important to white settlers, it is only within the last two decades that fishing has attained status as a significant industry.

Whalers and sealers were the first Europeans to tap the potential of New Zealand waters. In 1844 whale oil and other products, were fetching more than £50,000 on London markets.

Fishing had existed as a way of life among the European inhabitants of New Zealand for more than a century before, in 1945, the Government of the day introduced a system of restrictive licensing of fishing vessels which provided for the vessels to land catches only at the port of registration. Surplus fish were exported, but there was no steady export trade. In 1962 a Parliamentary Select Committee was appointed to examine the prevailing restrictive licensing system and review practices. It recommended the abolition of the system, which had restricted the expansion and diversification of the industry.

At this time there was a mounting world-wide demand for protein foods. Russian and Japanese fishing boats were penetrating into the hitherto unexploited south-west Pacific, including New Zealand waters, where of the 42 food fishes known to be caught locally, only 7 were being marketed regularly.

Restrictive licensing was abolished in 1964 and the Fishing Industry Board was established to help promote the industry.

From 1964 onwards, the industry not only expanded, but also diversified into rock oyster and mussel cultivation and began to employ different catching methods to land tuna and other pelagic species, which represent a large untapped resource in New Zealand waters.

The establishment of new industrial plant principally for export of quality wet fish, regular supplies, development of attractive packaging, and the introduction of Government quality standards and control are now resulting in expanding export markets.

With the advent of the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone in 1978, the New Zealand fishing industry requires further investment in large off-shore vessels such as mid-water and deep-water trawlers and purseseiners. Shore facilities, including processing establishments, have also needed to be expanded to cope with the increased landings.

Resources and Fishing Methods—Trawling and Danish seining are the principal methods of taking demersal or bottom-dwelling fish, which form the basis of New Zealand's fishing industry. These two methods accounted for 65 percent and just under 6 percent respectively of the total wet fish catch in 1974. Lines and set nets accounted for another 18 percent. Other methods used are purse seining and trolling, employed in fishing for pelagic or surface-dwelling fish, which form an increasing proportion of the total wet fish catch.

Between 1964 and 1977 production of fin fish increased from 29 924 tonnes to 60 378 tonnes and the value of all fish exports increased from $4.1 million to over $20 million.

The biggest stimulus to the export industry has been the development of the rock lobster fishery, exports of which have flourished after a demand for frozen tails arose in the United States from 1948 onwards. In 1962 rock lobster landings totalled 4501 tonnes. Five years later landings had risen to 8078 tonnes and in 1968 jumped to 10 909 tonnes valued at $7,433,006. This was the peak year of a fishery in the Chatham Islands, where prolific rock lobster grounds had been discovered. Total landings began to taper off in 1971, and had declined to 3533 tonnes in 1977.

Fishing Grounds—The continental shelf, which extends out to a depth of approximately 200 metres, is fairly narrow. Though in some areas, such as the Taranaki Bight, it extends for a considerable distance off shore and in others, such as the south-west of the South Island, it is almost contiguous with the coast line, its average width is approximately 19 kilometres. There are 36 trawl-fishing ports, including 16 major importance. These are located fairly evenly around the coastline, with trawlers having access to the whole continental shelf. The boundary of the shelf occurs at about the 200-metres isobath which, until recently, was the maximum depth.

Boats work throughout the year, with no marked fluctuations except for seasonal changes to fish particular species. A full-time trawler averages between 100 and 160 days at sea a year, but there are regional variations due to climatic differences.

Trawling is more intensive along eastern coasts, but the fishery on western coasts is increasing, especially in the South Island.

Vessels—Since 1945 the average size of trawlers has increased from 12 to 16 metres and from 16 to 26 gross tons. Engine power has risen from an average of 40 bhp to 150 bhp.

North Island boats are generally larger than those of the South Island. At Auckland and Gisborne average size approaches 20 metres and 200 bhp, and at Lyttelton and Timaru boats average 14 metres.

Crews number between one and three, with the national average about 2.5.

In 1968 pelagic fish amounted to only 15 percent of the total fishing catch here, whereas they comprise 60 percent of the world catch. By 1971 the percentage of pelagic species in the total New Zealand catch was 21 percent. However, most of these were still trawl caught.

Species landed have been barracouta, trevally, tuna, kingfish, kahawai, mackerel, and pilchard. Of these, barracouta, trevally, and tuna have been exported. Tuna landings in 1968 were 18 tonnes; these rose to 1807 tonnes in 1975, approximately 6000 tonnes in 1976, and about 6300 tonnes in 1977. The increased landings were due mainly to the advent of chartered super-seiners fishing for skipjack tuna on the north-east coast of the North Island. Locally-based purseseiners are also adding to the tuna catch and diversifying into other pelagic species such as trevally, mackerel, and kahawai.

New Zealand landing figures offer no real indication of the total potential harvest of the seas in the south-west Pacific, but the build-up of Japanese and Russian fleets suggests that there are substantial virgin stocks which are now being subjected to heavy exploitation. The extent to which the New Zealand industry will participate in fishing this area depends upon the economic outlets for the fish and the availability of capital for investment in large all-weather vessels capable of fishing down to 500 fathoms (914 metres).

Fisheries Development—Responsibility for the optimum development of fishery resources rests with two divisions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Fisheries Research and Fisheries Management Divisions. Promotion of industrial development is a responsibility of the Fishing Industry Board.

The research programme is headquartered in Wellington, with freshwater centres also in Christchurch and Rotorua. The 42-metre, deep sea research vessel, James Cook, is used extensively all around New Zealand, and the 19-metre Ikatere mainly for inshore studies in north eastern waters. Virtually all the major New Zealand demersal and pelagic fish species are being studied by the Research Division. In a number of cases the work has progressed to the establishment of safe biological yields for coastal species and the work is now being expanded to include assessment of the deeper water resources within the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Shell fish teams are also studying biology and behaviour, and fisheries for rock lobsters and dredge oysters. Biology and methods of cultivation of rock oysters and mussels are also under investigation.

Study began during 1976–77 on demersal fish resources in trawlable waters deeper than 200 metres and within 200 miles of New Zealand. First objectives are to establish basic biological parameters, such as growth and mortality rates, spawning areas and seasons, fecundity, and movements. A number of species are being investigated. Information from previous Japanese exploratory expeditions is being examined, and the James Cook is being used to collect complementary data.

The 27-metre technological vessel, W. J. Scott, based at Nelson, undertakes various gear tests and exploratory fishing. Among long-standing programmes are a 2½-year trawl survey in the southern plateau area south of Stewart Island, which determined the up-to-date prospects from the bottom-trawl industry in that area. A 1978–79 aimed-trawling survey on preselected transects, covering the entire continental-shelf area of the east coast of the South Island, tested the viability of midwater trawling for the less-preferred species as a means of safeguarding the prime demersal in-shore species.

Development until recent years has in the main been influenced by a traditionally small and highly selective domestic market which has not encouraged diversification in processing methods for fish which did not meet the normal domestic demand for a white fleshed, bland, non-oily, relatively bone-free type of fish.

Generally, fisheries development involves two important factors. The first is where a demand develops for a particular type of fish and this stimulates a search for this fish. The second factor is new treatment and packaging of a resource which has not previously found favour in the traditional fresh fish market in New Zealand (e.g., mackerel).

There are changes in the world-wide demand for fish as the more popular species reach the point of over-exploitation. Thus fish species which in the past had little or no value on either the domestic or the export market are now acquiring a new value internationally. The time is very appropriate for the expansion and development of certain types of fisheries but a great deal will depend upon the economics of these operations.

The governing legislation for the fishing industry is the Fisheries Act 1908, which is administered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977 redefined the territorial sea and established a 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone.

Fishing Industry Board—This board was established in 1964 under the Fishing Industry Board Act. Since then there have been great improvements in the quality of fish products and their presentation and in the wider use of less popular fish species. There have been new developments in fishing vessel design and construction; in fishing gear and in catching methods; in the utilisation of species formerly regarded as commercially worthless; in fish farming; in processing, packaging, and marketing; in food technological research; in technical education; and in co-operation within the industry.

A levy of approximately 1 percent of the landed value of fish came into force on 1 January 1965 and provides finance for the board's activities. The board through its committees investigates local supply and marketing, export development, technical education, tuna development, and fishing demonstrations.

Assistance to the Fishing Industry—During 1976–77 the administration of the State Loan and Mortgage Guarantee Scheme for assistance to the fishing industry was transferred from the Fishing Industry Finance Commitee to the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation. The year ended 31 March 1978 was one of major expansion in the Rural Bank's lending to the fishing industry. Loan authorisations increased from $3.57 million in 1976–77 to $7.95 million in 1977–78.

Loan authorisations to the fishing industry during the 2 latest available years are shown in the following table.

 1976–771977–78
NumberValueNumberValue
  $(m) $(m)
Loans to fishermen363.30887.04
Loans for processing facilities70.25150.75
Rural export suspensory loans20.0310.16
        Total453.571047.95

Section 30 B “State Finance for Farms and other Primary Industry” should also be consulted.

Assistance to the fishing industry in the 1977 budget included increased loans to assist young well-qualified fishermen to purchase their own fishing vessels; a fishing vessel ownership savings scheme similar to the farm ownership savings scheme; the establishment of a development grant fund; lower interest rates; and an extension to the incentives for training scheme.

The Rural Bank financed the building of 20 new fishing vessels during 1977–78 ranging in size from 11 metres to 31 metres. Thirteen of these were constructed in New Zealand and 7 overseas. This upsurge in new investment in the catching sector reflects the increased confidence of the industry and the Government's awareness of the contribution fishing can make to our export earnings.

SPECIES OF FISH—Of the many kinds of excellent edible fish, the most important is the snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), which is the principal species in the catch (mainly by trawl) in the north-western part of the South Island, the west coast of the North Island, and the east coast of the North Island to just south of East Cape; next in importance are tarakihi (Cheilodactylus macropterus) and trevally (Caranx georgianus) which are taken mainly by trawlers and purseseiners working off the east coast of the North Island and in smaller quantities off the coasts of the South Island. The groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) is caught on lines in the deeper water from North Cape to Stewart Island, but principally in Cook Strait and on the rocky parts of the east coast of the South Island, while the blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the staple line-caught product of the southern line fisheries, particularly about Foveaux Strait,

Stewart Island, and at Chatham Islands. The flounder and sole (Pleuronectidae) occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters. Rock lobsters (crayfish) are fished mainly at the Chatham Islands and around the south-west of the South Island.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow waters, and most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 145 metres. Depths of over 180 metres occur at a comparatively short distance from the coast. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, kingfish, and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which flounder, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, John Dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets and drag nets are used for flounder, snapper, and mullet.

Pelagic Fisheries—Blue mackerel, Scomber japonicus (Cuvier and Valenciennes), and jack or horse mackerel, Trachurur declivis, are taken by purse seining. The smaller pelagic species include the pilchard, Sardinops neopilchardus (Steindachner), sprat, Sprattus antipodum Hector, and the anchovy, Engraulis australis (White).

Arripis trutta, the New Zealand kahawai, which forms the basis of a commercial fishery in Australia, schools at the surface in substantial numbers in our waters and is being caught in increasing quantities.

Of the larger, oceanic-pelagic species, the southern bluefin tuna, Thunnus maccovii, is found from the far north of New Zealand to the south of South Island in summer. Though hardly exploited commercially by local fishermen, it is fished off-shore by Japanese long-line vessels, particularly to the east and west of the North Island. The skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelanis) appear in substantial numbers during summer and an annual catch of the order of 12 000 tonnes is available for harvest, mostly on the north and east coast of the North Island. Albacore (Thunnus adalunga) occurs more on the West Coast of New Zealand extending as far as Jacksons Head. It is believed that the fishery for this species, which is currently based on trolling, could be substantially increased by live-bait fishing. Both species are under detailed investigation.

The duty-free importation of new and secondhand fishing vessels of 21 m and over in the past 2 years has given a considerable boost to the trawl-fish production. The quota allocations and area-fishing controls imposed on foreign fishing vessels within the recently established 200-mile Economic Zone have resulted in the regeneration of fish stocks that is now taking place. The overall New Zealand fish landings have been doubled, to almost 100 000 tonnes. Considerable developments have also been noted in the international joint-venture fields, particularly in the squid fisheries and in demersal trawling within the Exclusive Economic Zone. The 1979 skipjack-tuna season has brought a two-fold increase in the number of super-seiners working this fishery.

CATCH—The amount of fish landed annually by the fleet has increased from 6488 tonnes in 1936 to 60 378 tonnes in 1977.

Composition of the catches is extremely varied and most species are landed whole. About 40 species are landed, but many only in small quantities. In 1977, 3 strongly dominant species contributed 41 percent of the total landings. These were snapper (21 percent), trevally (11 percent), and skipjack (9 percent).

In some individual fishing areas one or two species predominate. The trawl fishery in Hauraki Gulf is largely a snapper fishery, tarakihi is the chief species in the East Cape and eastern Cook Strait areas, and sole, red cod, and elephant fish predominate on the east coast of the South Island.

The catch in landed weight and value is shown in the following table.

Class1974197519761977
tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)
*Includes other minor items.
Snapper13.93,42911.63,09214.44,85612.65,162
Trevally5.15953.54755.79506.51,184
Tarakihi3.87193.48033.51,1124.11,516
Gurnard3.03802.02762.95423.3717
Barracouta3.42602.52333.73554.7551
Hapuku1.34411.14151.14911.0549
Elephant fish0.93200.62750.81910.8226
Flounder0.96010.96801.29961.41,240
Mackerel1.5630.3171.1841.9151
Sole1.15630.73221.26471.71,009
Shark2.68542.46833.66744.51,180
Red cod1.91940.7640.91312.3267
Albacore0.93390.616230.9321
Skipjack0.71481.22094.51,0875.41,459
Other7.81,3636.51,4278.22,2968.92,620
        Total, wet fish48.610,26938.09,13352.814,41660.018,153
Rock lobster3.67,0533.35,8503.79,3043.513,896
Oysters (dredge and rock)10.12,4509.93,37810.03,80110.84,383
Mussels2.12151.6962.22470.7356
Paua0.41460.52010.62700.8446
Scallops3.48049.52,2836.12,1145.72,305
Southern spider crab0.3502
Squid0.1260.1210.1340.6169
Other0.4740.37180.34970.5362
        Total, all fish69.121,837*63.221,68075.830,68282.940,083*

The value of fisheries products is shown in the following diagram.

Figure 18.1. FISHERIES

FISHERIES

MAIN FISHING PORTS—Auckland and neighbouring Manukau continue their leadership of New Zealand fishing ports. These two centres registered 13 003 tonnes of wetfish in 1974 out of a record total wetfish catch for New Zealand of 48 606 tonnes. Nelson, in third place, is the fastest growing fishing centre, with a 1974 catch of 5290 tonnes. Twenty ports reported catches of over 500 tonnes, an indication of the wide dispersion of the industry.

EXPORTS—The total value of New Zealand's fisheries exports during the 1977–78 June year increased by $8.9 million (about 18 percent) over those for 1976–77. Again, the total of $57.5 million set a new record.

The value of the rock lobster exports was $22.4 million, which was almost the same as in 1976–77, and represented 39 percent of the total value of all the fisheries produce exported. The table that follows shows the quantity and value of each of the principal classes of fishery products during the three most recent June years. Rock lobsters are exported mainly to the United States. The main markets for our other fish are Australia and Japan, but New Zealand now exports fish and fish products to a total of more than 25 countries.

CommodityQuantityValue
197619771978197619771978
*Quantity figures do not include oysters, which are not recorded by weight.
 tonnes (000)$(million) f.o.b.
Fish12.224.528.613.720.530.1
Rock lobsters1.82.01.914.823.022.4
Shellfish*0.60.90.82.25.15.0
                  Total14.627.431.330.748.657.5

FOREIGN FISHING ACTIVITY—The types of fishing being practised by foreigners before the establishment of the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone were, as far as the Fishing Industry Board was aware:

  1. Long lining for tuna, mainly by Japanese vessels, but quite possibly by other nations such as South Korea.

  2. Trawling by large vessels, mainly Japanese, South Korean, and Russian.

  3. Squid fishing by Japanese vessels.

Since the Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act came into effect on 1 April 1978, foreign trawling activity is being strictly controlled and catch limits are being enforced. A 200-mile wide economic zone has been established in which Japanese, Russian, and South Korean fishing vessels continue to operate by treaty.

CONSUMPTION—The following table shows the annual per-head consumption of fish products and the permissible mercury levels in selected countries. A study on mercury levels in snapper in New Zealand waters has been made by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Results showed that, despite some variation in mercury levels with size of fish and location, the average level was well within acceptable limits.

Country and PeriodPer Head Consumption (Edible Weight)Permissible Mercury Level
*Ten times this level is the lowest amount that is likely to cause ill-effects.
 lbppm
Japan (1969)67.61.0
Denmark (1966–68)45.91.0
Sweden (1969–70)45.91.0
Norway (1968–69)45.11.2
United Kingdom (1968–69)20.91.0
New Zealand (1969)15.30.5*
Australia (1968–69)14.50.5
Italy (1968–69)12.90.7
Netherlands (1968–69)12.11.0
United States (1971)11.20.5

DREDGE OYSTERS—The principal oyster beds around the coasts of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South Island and Stewart Island. During 1977 a total of 122 100 sacks of oysters, valued at $3,359,000, were dredged from these beds. Tasman Bay, in Nelson yielded a further 9000 sacks, valued at $256,000. The total 1977 dredge-oyster catch of 131 100 sacks, valued at $3,614,000, represented an increase of 4.0 percent in landings and a rise of 10.0 percent in value on the previous year's figures.

Dredge-oyster catches during the latest seasons for which figures are available are shown in the table below.

SeasonFoveaux StraitTasman BayTotal
Sacks (000)Value $(000)Sacks (000)Value $(000)Sacks (000)Value $(000)
1974119.52,1011.824121.32,125
1975114.72,8568.7117123.42,973
1976115.03,10710.8179125.83,286
1977122.13,3599.0256131.13,614

ROCK OYSTERS—In addition to the 2 Government experimental rock-oyster farms, many private farms are in production in Northland and the Hauraki Gulf. The industry is in the process of changing from tray to stick cultivation.

Total production on rock-oyster farms in 1977 was valued at just over $769,000. A high proportion was exported to Singapore, Hong Kong, and the Pacific Islands.

OTHER MARINE FARMING—Green tipped mussels are farmed in the Marlborough Sounds area. Production is growing, and markets in New Zealand and overseas are proving profitable.

Other species being farmed include dredge oysters (in the far South and Marlborough), scallops (in Marlborough), paua, and kina (sea eggs).

ROCK LOBSTERS—Rock lobsters occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast. Part of the catch of rock lobster is sold in local markets for domestic consumption and part is exported as frozen rock lobster tails and whole rock lobsters.

With the development of the export of frozen rock lobster tails to the United States of America and the productive fishing in the Chatham Islands, the catch of rock lobster increased until 1968. The boom period, however has now passed and the aim of all concerned is to ensure that this valuable fishery stabilises to provide regular supplies for overseas and local markets.

YearProduction (whole)Exports*
QuantityValueQuantityValue
*Years ended June.
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
19743,5727,0531,74410,677
19753,3185,8501,50311,642
19763,7009,3041,75418,134
19773,50013,8961,81022,615
1978....1,90022,400

FISH MEAL AND FISH OIL—In 1977, 3 companies produced commercial quantities of fish meal and fish oil from whole fish offals and frames. Fish meal production totalled 782 tonnes, valued at $335,516. Fish oil production totalled 35 tonnes, valued at $15,570.

BIG-GAME FISHING—Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District. They attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), Whakatane, and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The heaviest black marlin swordfish (443 kg) was caught off the Bay of Islands.

To preserve this very important fishery the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950 prohibit the taking of swordfish by other than rod and line, and stipulate that the line be not heavier than No. 39 linen thread line. In addition, a limit bag of not more than 4 fish per boat per day has been imposed.

In the 1976 season, big-game fish caught included 8 black marlin, 290 striped marlin, 9 blue marlin, 502 mako sharks, 153 hammerhead sharks, 26 thresher sharks, 124 assorted tuna species, and 445 kingfish.

PAUA—Relatively few years ago paua was, strictly speaking, a non-commercial shellfish. Maoris have traditionally taken paua as a regular item of diet, but it was largely neglected as food by the pakeha until very recent years. Even now it is only a small item in the retail sales of fish in New Zealand. The recent change in the demand for paua has come about in the context of the ban on the export of the unprocessed flesh, which would have been processed overseas. Some New Zealand canners have solved the problems of bleaching and canning the flesh, to produce an article acceptable at substantial prices in, primarily, South-east Asian markets.

A close season for paua from 1 February to 31 May each year was introduced in 1972. Stocks are believed to have increased slightly since then.

WHITEBAIT—This fishing is based on Galaxias species which, so far as is known, are not taken on a commercial scale in the other countries where they occur. Whitebait fishery is carried on in the tidal reaches of many rivers, from August to November in the North Island and from September to November in the South Island. The most productive fishing grounds are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally, the whitebait fishery gives employment to over 300 regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishers. With improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aeroplanes have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed, particularly on the West Coast of the South Island. In the 1977 season about 127 tonnes (worth $942,340) were recorded for the West Coast of the South Island, while 17 tonnes (worth $126,140) was the figure for the Waikato River. The large number of itinerant buyers makes it increasingly hard to collect catch data, and the figures should therefore be regarded as conservative.

FRESHWATER FISHERIES: Acclimatised Species—These include quinnat or chinook salmon, brown and rainbow trout, and perch. The local administration and management of these species is delegated to acclimatisation societies and to the Department of Internal Affairs for the Rotorua and Taupo fishing districts and for the Southern Lakes Acclimatisation District, where it acts as an acclimatisation society. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries assists with management investigations, and provides technical advice. It also conducts research on behalf of acclimatisation societies.

A fishing licence is required for the taking of acclimatised fish. The estimated revenue from angling licences in a season is approximately $300,000.

Indigenous Species—Eels are the only indigenous species of which a significant commercial harvest is taken from New Zealand's freshwaters. The catch of “wild” eels amounted in 1976 to 1575 tonnes (worth $280,000) compared with 2346 tonnes in 1975.

Research—The research programme includes both introduced fish, and native species. The effects of environmental changes associated with man's activities are of major concern. Research leading to the estimation of streamflow needs of fish, the need for fish passes, and the effects of eutrophication on trout is being carried out.

Studies on the quinnat and sockeye salmon aim to enhance the stocks and evaluate their commercial potential.

The native species are being studied, especially the eels which are subject to considerable commercial exploitation. Also the aquaculture potential of eels and freshwater crayfish is being investigated.

Fish disease research together with a diagnostic service for New Zealand is provided.

Chapter 19. Section 17; MINERALS

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The mineral industry in New Zealand began with the discoveries of the gold prospectors of the 1850s and 1860s. Gold production reached a peak in 1873 when it earned 75 percent of all export earnings. Coal mining also began about 1850, and early this century the value of coal produced exceeded that of gold for the first time. In 1961 coal in turn was replaced by building aggregate, sand, and gravel as the most valuable mineral product. From 1969–72 the world-wide mining boom resulted in a great upsurge in mineral exploration in New Zealand. At its peak in 1971 estimated annual expenditure reached $1.7 million. No major metalliferous mineral deposits were discovered, but the impetus given to the mining industry has continued.

The existence of extensive ironsand deposits on the west coast of the North Island has been known for more than a century. Numerous attempts had been made to smelt the ironsand but, as none had been successful, the State-owned New Zealand Steel Investigating Co. was set up to investigate the feasibility of steelmaking from the ironsands. In 1963 the company reported that an industry was economically and technically feasible, using ironsand from near Waikato Heads and Waikato coal. Construction of the steel mill at Glenbrook was completed in 1970 and the mill now provides a significant proportion of the country's steel requirements.

In addition, ironsand is mined for export at 2 localities (Waverley and Taharoa) on the west coast of the North Island. The value of ironsand concentrates exported in 1977 exceeded $18 million.

Ilmenite, which is a source of titanium oxide for the paint and other industries, occurs extensively in the beaches of the west coast of the South Island in association with monazite, gold, and zircon. A reconnaissance survey by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research indicated reserves of over 50 million tonnes of ilmenite-bearing sands, and subsequent work by New Zealand and Australian companies has indicated considerable reserves in the Westport and Barrytown areas. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has carried out extensive laboratory work aimed at producing a synthetic rutile from these rather low-grade (46 percent TiO2) ilmenites. The companies concerned have also carried out both concentration and beneficiation studies with encouraging results. The main obstacle to the development of this mineral is now in marketing rather than in treatment.

Coal production over the last 40 years has varied between 2 and 3 million tonnes per annum. However, recent steep rises in the cost of imported fuels, and the prospect of shortages, has led to renewed interest in the country's coal resources, mainly for electricity generation and industrial uses. A large thermal power station at Huntly should begin operating in 1979, and three new mines now being developed at Huntly will produce over 2 million tonnes per annum when fully operating.

After a long period with little activity, serious exploration for oil and gas resumed about 20 years ago, resulting in the discovery of 2 natural gas fields. The Kapuni field was discovered in 1959 and started production in 1970 with gas being supplied to 9 North Island centres and to a number of industrial consumers. The much larger Maui offshore gas field was discovered in 1969 and is at present being developed. The gas produced will be used for electricity generation, and as a premium fuel. Exploration for oil has continued with the drilling of several wells both on-shore and off-shore, so far without success. Expenditure on mineral exploration for 1977 was $0.95 million.

The existence of high-melting-point waxes in peat deposits on the Chatham Islands has been known for more than 30 years. Comparable waxes have also been discovered in the lignites of Otago and Southland. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is carrying out research in processing methods that might produce saleable products from these minerals. Laboratory-scale work has investigated a range of solvent systems, and different extraction techniques. Larger-scale work is also being done on the production of bulk samples of wax for further analysis and evaluation. Thus successful commercial development will involve co-operation between industry and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

The Mineral Resources Council, originally established as a sector council on minerals for the National Development Council, keeps all aspects of mineral development under review.

MINERAL PRODUCTION—In New Zealand non-metallic minerals such as coal, clay, limestone, and dolomite are both economically and industrially as important as metallic ores. Up to 4 years ago, almost the total value of mineral production was represented by coal and limestone, together with sand, rock and gravel for roads, ballast, building, and construction purposes. The position has changed over the last few years with the increased production of ironsand for export and the increasing output of gas and condensate from Kapuni taking precedence. This change in values will be further enhanced when Maui comes on stream in 1979. The value of aggregate and sand production remains the highest of any mineral in New Zealand. The quarrying industry, which produced about 26 million tonnes of aggregate and sand and about 4 million tonnes of limestone in 1977, is of prime importance.

The following table shows the production of minerals and metals from mines and quarries. The values are assessed at pit mouth or quarry.

Mineral19761977
QuantityValue*QuantityValue*

*Based on selling price ex mine (or equivalent).

†Based on overall price at State coal mines (64 percent of total production)

‡Includes a high percentage of CO2.

§Thousand litres Estimated value.

¶Tonnes (000) unless otherwise stated.

Fuelstonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)
Coal2486.928,5002368.944,820
Petroleum condensate600 328m3..860 973m3..
Natural gas1 420.69 × 106m3..2 256.58 × 106m3..
LPG8 309.4§..11 959.4§..
Natural gasoline5 344.1§..7375.7§..
Metals    
Gold101.91kg425222.96 kg1,122
Silver15.51 kg1235.53 kg38
Iron ore0.22
Ironsand (export)2 290.615,1312 771.318,900
Ironsand (local)182.91,048183.11,345
Tungsten ore (scheelite)112110
Non-metallics    
Bentonite1.0422.698
Clay for bricks, tiles, etc.260.8772173.0676
Clay for pottery58.854394.71,265
Diatomite1.4541.149
Dimension stone26.334116.8374
Dolomite23.140523.1438
Greenstone6 018 kg603 026 kg173
Limestone, agricultural1 686.55,5201 731.76,975
Limestone for roads273.8683307.8796
Limestone, industrial164.5876170.41,289
Limestone and marl for cement1 673.62,5521 590.22,954
Magnesite0.8310.624
Perlite1.541.02
Pumice50.213028.6109
Rock (harbour work, reclamation, and filling)3 737.52,5744 895.74,902
Salt41.051653.0631
Sand, rock, gravel, etc. for building aggregate6 068.616,5646 143.319,287
Sand, rock, gravel, etc. for roads and ballast14 716.527,76615 258.532,174
Sand for industry88.722575.3289
Serpentine71.853889.0919
Silica sand143.0484146.5669
Sulphur0.850
                Total..105,949..140,430

Figure 19.1. MAIN LOCALITIES NON METALLIC MINERALS MAIN COAL AND GAS FIELDS

MAIN LOCALITIES NON METALLIC MINERALS MAIN COAL AND GAS FIELDS

LEGISLATION—Legislative control of mineral production is contained in the Ministry of Energy Act 1977, the Atomic Energy Act 1945, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959, the Mining Act 1971, the Quarries Act 1944. the Petroleum Act 1937, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. The administrative agency is the Ministry of Energy.

COAL—Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well defined areas, outside which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coalfields, with the class of coal found in each, are—

Bituminous Coal (Coking): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfields), Reefton (Garvey Creek).

Sub-bituminous Coal (Non-coking): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago (Kaitangata), Southland (Ohai), Reefton.

Lignite (Non-coking Low Grade): Southland (Mataura).

Coal Utilisation and Research—Coal utilisation and research is being fostered by the New Zealand Coal Research Association. Finance for the association's activities is raised by a levy of 10.0 cents a tonne made by coal wholesalers, including State coal mines, and a Government grant.

Fuel Technology Service—The Ministry of Energy and the Coal Research Association have established a fuel technology service in Auckland, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Dunedin to advise industrial and domestic consumers on the efficient use of coal.

Survey of Coal Resources—The Mines Department (now incorporated in the Ministry of Energy) in association with the N.Z. Geological Survey, has in recent years accelerated its coal exploration programme. As well as undertaking exploration to locate and evaluate deposits for specific demands, e.g., as at Huntly to supply coal for thermal power generation, there is in progress a broad programme to evaluate all New Zealand's coal resources in order to facilitate long-term planning and efficient resource management and stimulate use of an indigenous energy source.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable coal reserves of New Zealand. Recoverable coal is coal which it is estimated could be recovered by mining techniques that are established in New Zealand with coal at the present selling price. The reserves are expressed according to the following criteria:

  1. “Measured coal” is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established.

  2. “Indicated coal” is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.

  3. “Inferred coal” is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples or measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

There are areas where the presence of coal in mineable quantities is undoubtedly possible but there is insufficient geological knowledge to include these in the table. As exploration proceeds more will be learned of this coal as well as about the coal in the categories, Measured, Indicated, and Inferred.

Detailed information concerning geology, coal type, rank, and extent of the coalfields is given in the Geological Survey Bulletins and for an overall picture a suitable reference is Williams G. J., Economic Geology of New Zealand, Monograph Series No. 4, published by the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.

The major coal exploration effort has been in the Waikato and East Southland regions. In the Waikato major deposits of coal mineable by underground methods have been located as well as some important discoveries of opencastable coal which constitutes less than 10 percent of the coal-in-ground in the Waikato. The coal is suitable for electricity generation and general industrial use.

The East Southland programme has located 6 major deposits of lignite which could technically be mined by opencast methods. This is a very large energy source by New Zealand standards, but because of the medium-term energy demand situation and mining costs it is more appropriate to consider the resource as one available for longer-term use. Potential uses of the lignite, such as conversion to liquid fuel, can now be fully investigated and adequately planned for.

During the year an exploration programme was started in Central Otago to evaluate the lignite deposits there.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable reserves, which total 1179 million tonnes.

LocalityMeasuredIndicatedInferred
*Recent exploration has located 6 major deposits of lignite containing approximately 3,000,000 000 tonnes indicated and inferred lignite-in-ground. The amount that is recoverable has not yet been assessed.
Bituminoustonnes (000)
Buller31 5006 20012 100
Murchison3001 400
Garvey Creek3343 7102 600
Reefton5541 2206 800
Greymouth2 45018 30056 000
Pyke River15 000
Shag Point20800
 34 83829 75094 700
Sub-bituminous   
Waikato—
    Maramarua8 97932 50032 200
    Huntly111 800120 200122 000
    Rotowaro12 7808 9301 800
    Glen Massey1 8001 400
    Whatawhata480370700
Kawhia2 34031019 000
Mangapehi7 170
Taranaki (includes Ohura)—
    Waitewhena, Aria, Mokau, Tangarakau15050046 000
Retaruke4 300
Collingwood100100100
Heaphy River1 000
Charleston11 700
Punakaiki90702000
Buller Gorge, Inangahua, Fletchers Creek739705600
Kaitangata2701 230200
Ohai2 2485 30045 700
 139 310179 450293 700
Lignite   
Canterbury36022 000
Otago, includes—
    Green Island4703 7802 300
    Kaitangata23 85067 00032 000
    Pomahaka8 75016 200
    North Otago11 9306 350700
    Central Otago24015 000
Southland*, includes—
    Mataura Valley47 90094 000
    Maitland4 10050 000
 36 850137 880232 200
                  Total210 998347 080620 600
                  Grand total 1,178,700 

One of the biggest potential uses for coal is for electricity generation.

There is likely to be a smaller number of larger, mechanised, underground mines. Coal mining will become less labour-intensive.

There are 3 coal areas of major future significance—Waikato, Buller, and Southland.

Waikato—Has measured and indicated resources of low/moderate-ash, low-sulphur, sub-bituminous coal of 298 million tonnes—one-eighth of it opencast. Inferred resources are an additional 158 million tonnes. Production costs range from $6 to $20 per tonne. Sufficient reserves are known to supply a 1000 MW power station, plus the steel industry's projected requirements. Further work to increase measured and indicated reserves is currently being undertaken for proposed additional thermal power station capacity. The Waikato coalfield is well placed to serve Auckland's industrial development, and coal is railed to the Bay of Plenty for the pulp and paper industry. New Zealand Steel Ltd's development programme anticipated an increased demand of over 500 000 tonnes a year by the late 1980s.

Main markets for Waikato coal are electric power generation, dairy factories, paper mills, freezing works, carbonisation, central heating, brick and tile manufacturing, cement and lime works, general industries, and domestic heating.

Southland—Essentially comprises the Ohai and Mataura Valley coalfields. Ohai contains 53 million tonnes of Waikato-type coal, mostly inferred, but has little significance because the principally domestic market is likely to decrease. Mataura is important because of its proximity or ready access to the Bluff industrial area, and because the reserves of moderate-ash, low-sulphur coal are large, potentially cheap and open castable. Because the flat-lying seams seldom outcrop, and there are relatively few drillholes, there is potential for a very large speculative tonnage of coal to be present in addition to the inferred recoverable reserves. Future potential uses include power generation.

Buller—Has measured and indicated resources of low/moderate-ash, low/high-sulphur, bituminous coal amounting to 38 million tonnes, three-quarters of it opencast, but only 7 million tonnes of it low-ash and low-sulphur. Inferred reserves amount to 12 million tonnes. The significant fact is the high proportion (about 30 million tonnes) of opencast, and therefore low-cost ($12 per tonne) coal.

Coal Consumption—Coal has always been important in New Zealand's mineral industry, and had a higher production value than any other mineral between the First and Second World Wars. Usage has slumped in recent years but, with the increased price and prospects of shortages of oil, coal consumption is now rising again, especially as industries are in some cases reconverting their heating and steam plants to coal firing.

The approximate distribution of coal consumption during recent years is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports.

User19761977
 tonnes (000)
Factories1 1491 125
Shipping
Railways
Gasworks8080
Households288290
Public hospitals and central heating, etc.240265
Electricity generation730750
                    Total2 4872 510

Summary of Operations—The following table summarises coal-mining operations during recent years.

YearOutputPersons Ordinarily Employed
UndergroundOpencastTotalUnderground MinesOpencast MinesTotal
SurfaceUnderground
  tonnes (000) Number  
19757171 6952 4124157714141 600
19767231 7642 4874267133891 528
19776351 7342 3694526885101 650

The total output of underground and opencast mines up to and including 1977 is estimated at 194.6 million tonnes.

In 1977 the State operated 12 of the 37 underground mines in operation, and these produced 593 109 tonnes of coal; 13 of the 33 opencast mines were operated by the State and they produced 1,094,459 tonnes of coal. The profit on operations of State coal mines for the year ended 30 September 1977 was $8,897,207, after payment of interest on loan capital.

Derived Products—Low temperature carbonisation works at Rotowaro (100 km south of Auckland) use the Lurgi process to produce a range of products derived from coal which forms part of the output of local State mines. During the year ended 30 September 1977 the works produced 4563 tonnes of carbonettes, 678 642 litres of tar and oil, 6993 tonnes of char, 432 tonnes of pitch and 374 482 litres of creosote. This company is at present engaged on investigations into the building of a replacement plant of modern design and similar capacity.

Mercer Power Station—This station, of 210 000 kW capacity, if working at full capacity, can burn up to 780 000 tonnes of coal a year. Two-thirds of the coal is provided from the Kopuku opencast coalfield, about 11 km distant from the station, and the remainder from the Huntly coalfield.

Huntly Power Station—Following delays in coming to an agreement on the price of natural gas, it has been decided to build a 1000 MW coal-fired station at Huntly, the first unit (250 MW) of which is scheduled to be commissioned in April 1979. Investigations have confirmed the existence of a large underground coalfield sufficient to provide fuel for the station.

PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS—Prospecting and mining for petroleum in New Zealand is governed by the Petroleum Act 1937, the Petroleum Regulations 1978 and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. These give the Minister of Energy the authority to grant petroleum prospecting and mining licences over land and marine areas including the New Zealand continental shelf. As at 31 December 1978 there were 23 petroleum prospecting licences covering 493 175 km2 of New Zealand land, territorial sea, and continental shelf. Three petroleum mining licences covered 203 km2 of the Kapuni field in Taranaki, 782 km2 of the Maui field in the continental shelf off-shore Taranaki, and a small area of less than 1 km2 in Hawke's Bay.

Activity in the search for petroleum is being maintained. Four off-shore and 2 on-shore prospective wells were drilled in 1978.

The construction of the Maui Platform A was completed in Japan and arrived on site for erection in late December 1975. During 1976 work proceeded on this platform and the laying of pipelines from it to on-shore. The Maui field discovered in 1969 some 30 km off the Taranaki coast has recoverable reserves estimated at 140 million metres of high quality natural gas with, in addition, a condensate content likely to supply 10 to 15 percent of the refinery feedstock requirements in New Zealand.

Gas from the Kapuni field is used mainly as a premium fuel and is supplied to the Natural Gas Corporation for distribution to Auckland and Wellington and other centres en route. Condensate separated from this gas before it is supplied to the corporation is delivered as feedstock to the petroleum refinery at Whangarei.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MAUI FIELD—The Maui field is being developed in two stages: Stage One consists of the installation of Maui Platform A, drilling of production wells, the installation of separate submarine pipelines for gas and condensate, and the on-shore processing facilities for the Maui production station at Oaonui. Treated gas will be distributed by transmission pipelines to the New Plymouth, Huntly, and Auckland power stations. Maui gas will also be available for direct use by domestic and industrial consumers.

Commissioning of Stage One was completed in April 1979.

Stage Two of the development provides for a second platform, Maui Platform B, additional and independent submarine pipelines, and an expansion of the on-shore processing facilities.

Stage One Development—The first drilling and production platform, Maui Platform A, is being installed some 37 km from the Taranaki coast, close to the Maui 3 exploration well, in a water depth of some 110 metres. Twelve production wells will be drilled from the platform. The tower base of the platform, which was fabricated in Japan, arrived on schedule and was upended on location in early January 1976. Difficulties arose during the 1975–76 construction season as a consequence of severe weather and installation work was suspended in June 1976. Installation work recommenced with a larger construction vessel in December 1976.

The piling of the tower to the sea bed and the installation of the modules, living quarters, and helideck were completed late in 1977 and drilling operations were scheduled to commence early in 1978. A 254 mm condensate pipeline and a 610 mm gas pipeline carry the condensate and the gas to the on-shore processing facilities at the Maui Production Station at Oaonui. The laying of these submarine pipelines also commenced in January 1976 but was suspended in June 1976, again as a consequence of the very severe weather. Work recommenced in December 1976 and was completed in 1977.

At Oaonui, 2 gas refrigerator trains, each with a capacity of approximately 7 million cu metres a day, will process the gas stream to meet the gas delivery specifications, and 2 stabiliser trains, each with a capacity of 1500 tonnes per day, will stabilise the condensate to enable subsequent sea shipment to the Whangarei refinery. The on-shore processing facilities are ready for service.

As a result of the difficulties experienced in the installation of the tower it was necessary to put back the planned commissioning date for Stage One from October 1978 to April 1979.

Stage Two Development—Maui Platform B will be located some 16 km further from the coast than the first platform, close to the Maui 1 exploration well, in similar water depth to Maui Platform A. At least 14 production wells will be drilled from the platform and similar processing equipment will be installed as on the first platform. In addition, it is intended to install facilities to produce a limited amount of light crude oil and to increase and accelerate condensate recovery by gas recycling. Separate 254 mm condensate and 580 mm diameter gas pipelines will be laid to the on-shore processing facilities. A third gas refrigeration train, also with approximately 7 million cu metres a day capacity, and a third condensate train of 1500 tonnes per day capacity, will be constructed at the on-shore plant.

Costs—The estimated cost of the Stage One development, excluding the on-shore gas and condensate transmission pipelines, is $442 million in 1978 values. The estimated cost of Stage Two (also excluding on-shore transmission pipelines) in 1978 values is $461 million. These figures compare with $391 million and $328 million respectively in 1978 values in the 1978 Yearbook. The increases are a consequence of continuing inflation, the increased time now seen to be necessary for the installation of platforms and submarine pipelines, and for the second platform the extra facilities now planned.

On-shore Pipelines—The total length of the on-shore gas pipeline will be approximately 386 km. The diameter of the pipeline is 864 mm as far as the New Plymouth interchange station where it reduces to 762 mm. The diameter will be further reduced in the vicinity of Auckland. New Plymouth and Huntly power stations will be served by 508 mm and 406 mm lateral pipelines respectively. The condensate pipeline from Oaonui to New Plymouth is 203 mm diameter and approximately 47 km long.

The estimated cost of on-shore pipelines for condensate and for gas transmission as far as Huntly is $137.6 million in 1978 values. This expenditure is expected to be completed in 1981. Construction work on these pipelines has been substantially completed. Investigations are proceeding for extensions from Huntly to Auckland and for a lateral pipeline from Te Awamutu to Kinleith.

IRON RESOURCES—New Zealand's largest resources of potential iron ore are contained in the black sands of the western beaches—from Westport southwards in the South Island and from Wanganui to Muriwai in the North Island. Titanomagnetite sands make up most of the black sands in the North Island, but from Waikato Heads northwards the beach deposits also contain ilmenite in varying proportions. In the South Island beach sands, ilmenite is the chief iron-bearing material. These beach sands have been estimated to contain some 800 million tonnes of titanomagnetite, with a further 8.6 million tonnes of ilmenite in the North Island and 43 million tonnes in the South Island.

A process has been developed whereby the titanomagnetite sands can be smelted on a large scale economically to produce a good grade of steel. A steelworks has been constructed at Glenbrook, 58 km south of Auckland, by New Zealand Steel Ltd., and the plant began production late in 1969 using ironsand deposits from the North Head of the Waikato River, 19 km away. Production of steel billets from ironsand commenced in November 1969.

There has been a small annual production of iron ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district, for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock licks, and in the brickmaking industry.

Near Waverley, 32 km north of Wanganui, an ironsands mining unit produces titanomagnetite concentrates for direct export to Japan through off-shore bulk-loading facilities and in 1977 some 1,318,526 tonnes were exported. New Zealand Steel Ltd. has developed a similar undertaking at Taharoa near Kawhia, and 1,452,786 tonnes were exported in 1977.

Figure 19.2. MAIN LOCALITIES, METAL MINING AND PROSPECTING

MAIN LOCALITIES, METAL MINING AND PROSPECTING

URANIUM—In 1955 uranium-bearing minerals were discovered in the Buller Gorge. These deposits occur in steep, broken country which is heavily covered with bush. The area is subject to heavy rainfall and access is difficult. Prospecting work, however, has been disappointing and, so far, ore has not been found rich and extensive enough to be worked economically at present price levels. Interest is being maintained in the investigation of these areas.

The Atomic Energy Amendment Act 1957 amended the Atomic Energy Act 1945 by adding several new provisions designed to encourage the search for and production of uranium or other substances which may be used for the production of atomic energy.

GOLD—The gold mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, declined in importance with the exhaustion of the more accessible alluvial-gold deposits and of ore from the zones of enrichment. Annual production is now mainly confined to one dredge at Taramakau on the west coast of the South Island. However, workings of residual stockworks at the old Martha Mine at Waihi have yielded favourable results in a pilot plant process.

SILVER—A small quantity of silver is won by the West Coast gold dredge, the remainder of the silver comes from Waihi.

TUNGSTEN—The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

The Scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, and the scheelite is erratically distributed in the veins. Access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high. Although the price of tungsten ores has improved, scheelite mining continues to be on a small scale, being confined to the Glenorchy and Macrae's Flats field in Otago, and Top Valley in Blenheim.

COPPER—Production of copper has ceased since the Tui mine, near Te Aroha, closed in 1973. Small mines have been worked in Northland in the past, at Parakao (where the carbona and oxide ore was used as a fertiliser additive) and Pupuke. Prospecting has been carried out at a number of localities, but no significant deposits have been discovered. Exploration for economic deposits of copper in a number of geological environments continues.

MANGANESE—Manganese ores are found in many localities chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. Prior to 1960 there was some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits are, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore.

MERCURY—Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand. No mining is at present being carried out. Past production has been limited, the main bulk came from the cinter deposits in Northland, at Puhipuhi and Ngawha Springs. Recently there has been interest in the disseminated mercury in Northland.

LEAD AND ZINC—An ore-bearing reef of lead and zinc was mined near Te Aroha, producing lead-copper sulphide and zinc sulphide concentrates for export to Japan, but the mine closed in 1973. Prospecting still continues, however, on the Coromandel Peninsula and the East Cape region of the North Island.

MOLYBDENUM—Some promising geological environments exist for economic molybdenum mineralisation in north-west Nelson but, to date, exploration has failed to locate an economic deposit. Exploration is now being carried out on the Coromandel Peninsula.

TIN—Cassiterite in the form of “stream tin” occurs in small deposits on the Tin Range near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island. These, and lodes in greisen on the range itself, were worked on a small scale early this century.

PLATINUM—Platinum occurs in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel, but quantities produced have been insignificant.

SILICA—At Parengarenga, in northern Northland, there are large deposits of pure quartz (silica) sand, Over 100 000 tonnes from here, 30 000 tonnes from Tarakohe in Golden Bay, and 13 000 tonnes from Mt. Sorners in Canterbury are used each year, mainly for glass manufacture.

There are lump silica deposits in Southland of a high quality suitable for the production of ferrosilicon and probably silicon metal.

DIATOMITE—Diatomite is a light powdery material used as a source of silica and as a filtering agent. It is worked in the Rotorua-Taupo volcanic zone and at Middlemarch, Otago.

BENTONITE—Production of bentonite continued at Coalgate in Canterbury and at Porangahau in Hawke's Bay for applications such as foundries and pelletising stock food. A new drilling grade meeting A.P.I. specifications is being used on oil rigs in the Taranaki area. Export shipments were sent for iron ore pelletising in Australia as well as to Japan and Taiwan.

HALLOYSITE—Halloysite is a clay used as a filler in the paper industry, and for ceramics. It has been mined in Northland since the Second World War. Though nearly all production is for local consumption, possible expansion of the small existing export market is being investigated.

SULPHUR—Prospecting proved a 6 million tonne deposit of sulphur at Rotokawa in the Taupo area in 1968. The deposit is mixed with pumice and work on the development of a separation process is continuing. The Frasch Process cannot be applied here owing to the porosity of the overlying beds. Prospecting and mining have ceased at present. Further development will await additional research and finance.

PERLITE—Perlite is a volcanic glass expanded by heating; it is used as an insulator and in light-weight concrete. There are deposits in the Rotorua-Taupo area, and others are being prospected on Great Barrier Island.

ASBESTOS—Chrysotile asbestos, mainly associated with serpentines in ultramafic occurrences, occurs at a number of localities in the South Island. The most significant deposits are those of the North West Otago (Pyke River) area, where investigations to date suggest that at least 2 bodies of ore exist, but further work is required to determine the limits of mineralisation. Tests of the fibre indicate that it is of favourable economic quality.

PHOSPHATE—The only deposit of phosphate ever to have been worked in New Zealand is that at Clarendon. Mining ceased in this area in 1944. The most promising source of phosphate is thought to be the nodules occurring on the sea floor on the eastern half of the Chatham Rise (west of Chatham Island). Evaluation is still continuing. Exploration for phosphate in other geological environments has not revealed any economic deposits as yet.

SERPENTINE—Serpentine is a magnesium-rich rock used as a fertiliser additive. Deposits are being mined at Piopio, near Te Kuiti, and North Cape, in the North Island, and Lee Valley, Collins Valley and Mossburn, in the South Island.

GREENSTONE—The mineral nephrite, the “pounamu” of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of “greenstone”, occurs as rounded aggregations in the talc or talc-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply was obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers, and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. At the present time the main source of supply is from a deposit of greenstone boulders in Olderog Creek, a tributary of the Arahura River. The boulders are reduced in size by a portable diamond trepan saw and airlifted by helicopter. Some of this has been cut and polished in New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations this mineral has been in short supply. The best-known occurrences of bowenite, the serpentine variety of greenstone, are in Fiordland, but are not systematically or commercially exploited. Following the discovery and removal of a 12-tonne greenstone boulder from Barn Bay (south of Cascade Point), there has been considerable interest in this area from applicants for mining and prospecting licences.

KAURI GUM—Production of kauri gum has been at a comparatively low level in recent years. The quantity exported annually is now less than 100 tonnes. Prospecting north of Kaitaia has given encouraging results, however.

PEAT WAX—There are an estimated 4000 hectares of moorland peat on the Chatham Islands with an average thickness of 4 metres. This peat contains peat wax derived from a particular plant which grew in the area. The peat wax is being investigated for commercial application in carbon paper, polishes, varnishes, cosmetics, and explosives. Similar investigations are taking place with deposits in Central Otago.

SALT—At Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of sea water. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose. Salt was first harvested in 1952.

Production of salt in the latest 6 years is shown in the following table.

YearSalt ProducedValue
 tonnes$(000)
197259 436385
1973101 500447
197454 864454
197540 000464
197641 000516
197753 000631

STATE AID TO MINING—State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz (a) geological survey and bulletins; (b) detailed investigation of the occurrence and development of economic minerals; (c) schools of mines; (d) financial aid to prospecting and for access roads to mining fields; (e) research by Chemistry Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—An understanding of the country's geology is imperative for long-term assessments of New Zealand's mineral resources. In New Zealand almost all Government geological work is carried out by the New Zealand Geological Survey, a scientific institution founded in 1865, which since 1926 has been a branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Works and Development, and other Government departments consult the Geological Survey on geological problems. Only that part of the work of the Geological Survey that concerns the discovery and development of mineral resources is discussed here. Other aspects of applied geology include engineering geology, the study of earthquakes and volcanoes, and effects of engineering works and other developments on the physical environment.

The survey's principal work is to prepare geological maps of New Zealand and to determine the country's geological structure and geological history. Along with this, the survey studies and helps to assess the country's mineral deposits, geothermal steam, and underground water resources, and gives advice on geological problems encountered in State and private civil engineering projects, such as the construction of hydro-electric dams, bridges, tunnels, roads, and building foundations.

The Geological Survey has issued regional geological maps on a scale of 1 mile to the inch, covering about one-third of the country. Maps (scale 1 : 250 000), informally known as the “Four mile” series, are available for the whole country. Bulletins will continue to be issued at intervals for areas of special economic or scientific importance. Most new maps will in future be published on metric scales— 1 : 10 000, 1 : 25 000, 1 : 50 000, 1 : 100 000 etc. In 1972 a new 1 : 1,000,000 geological map was published (in 2 sheets) of each of the North and South Islands; and in 1973 maps on the same scale of the Quaternary geology (Pleistocene and recent deposits, together with the location of active faults, recent and active volcanoes, and changes in shore lines, etc.). Several sheets of a series of detailed urban geological maps, at a scale of 1 : 25 000, have been issued. They cover to date most of the Auckland area and the city of Hamilton.

Geological mapping has also been carried out in New Zealand's island territories and in the Ross Dependency, Antarctica.

Prospectors and mining companies may seek advice and assistance from any of the district offices of the Geological Survey as well as from the head office in Lower Hutt, which houses the administrative and specialist research sections.

Mineral Resources Surveys—The Economic Geology Section of Geological Survey is responsible for the investigation of potentially valuable deposits, coupled with closer study of the changing overseas economic emphasis. The work is largely concerned with the implementation of the Mineral Resources Council's recommended programme. A new inventory of New Zealand's minerals is now available, and a publication Industrial Minerals and Rocks, containing articles of interest to engineers, mining companies, and local bodies, is produced from time to time. In earlier years, when gold was of major importance, the survey reported on all major goldfields. Deposits of ores of iron, copper, tungsten, manganese, chrome, uranium, aluminium, and other metals have also been investigated over the years, and the survey took complete responsibility for the raw material geological investigations for the new steel industry. Field studies are made by the geologists, and laboratory examination of ores by the petrology specialists. Chemical analysis is usually done by the Chemistry Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Petrology Section makes free identification of rocks and minerals forwarded by the Ministry of Energy, prospectors, and others.

Coal—Coal is still New Zealand's most important mineral, apart from constructional materials, and mapping the coal fields in detail has been one of the survey's major undertakings in economic geology. Work has proceeded in co-operation with the Ministry of Energy and with the Coal Research Association. Detailed maps and bulletins on Greymouth, Reefton, Kaitangata, Ohai, and Waikato coalfields have been published. Although the mapping of the coalfields is largely complete, survey geologists continue to help with the large number of day-to-day problems in the coalfields and undertake constant revision. A major revision of coal estimates is currently being made. Geological work is being undertaken for the Ministry of Energy in connection with the present extensive drilling in the Huntly and Southland areas.

Oil and Gas—Oil companies draw on survey maps and bulletins for basic information about the country's stratigraphy and geological structure which enables them to narrow down areas deserving more detailed examination. Close and mutually beneficial co-operation has usually developed between survey geologists and paleontologists and those of oil companies. Copies of oil company reports and maps continue to be deposited with the Government in terms of the Petroleum Act. The Geological Survey is the national repository of collections of rocks, fossils, and drill cores collected by the oil companies, and has recently expanded its Petroleum Section, partly in response to increased Government participation in exploration.

Paleontological and stratigraphic information by the survey helped the search for oil in Taranaki which was rewarded by the discovery and development of large reservoirs of natural gas at Kapuni, and off-shore in the Maui field. The collections of fossils and drill cores held from earlier Taranaki oil-exploration bores greatly helped prediction of the type, age, and thickness of strata the drills would penetrate. Geological Survey micro-paleontologists are assisting oil companies in interpreting the stratigraphic progress of off-shore oil wells and provide a complete service for many recent drill-holes, both on-shore and off-shore.

Constructional Materials and Other Non-metallic Minerals—As far as it is possible with the staff available, the survey advises the Ministry of Works and Development and local authority engineers, contractors, and other users on where rock materials for road metal, aggregate, building stone, sand, etc., can be obtained. Marl, limestone, and pozzolana for cement manufacture, perlite, bentonite, clays, talc, mica, and magnesite are other non-metallic minerals in the utilisation of which the survey has played a part. Current aid to industry given by the survey, includes detailed projects on northwest Nelson deposits of wollastonite, asbestos, dolomite, and talc magnesite; the limestone resources of Auckland and Otago have been assessed in detail; and North Auckland sands and halloysite clays have been the subject of New Zealand Geological Survey publications.

CENSUS OF MINING, QUARRYING, AND PROSPECTING—The third 5-yearly census of mining, quarrying, and prospecting was taken for the production year 1973–74. At earlier censuses, only operators of mines and quarries registered with the Mines Department (now part of the Ministry of Energy) were surveyed, but the 1973–74 census included for the first time holders of licences issued by other Government departments.

Production—The value of all output from mines and quarries registered with the Mines Department was $73.1 million, and, in addition, there was a value of output of $2.6 million from firms holding licences issued by other Government departments. This gave a total output value of $75.7 million for the production year 1973–74.

The main products were shingle, sand, and gravel with a total value of production of $18.2 million, quarried rock, sand, etc., $19.9 million, coal $14.5 million, limestone $6.2 million, and clay for manufacturing $1.1 million. The remaining $15.8 million consisted mainly of ironsand concentrate, gold, silica sand, bentonite, serpentine, salt, marble, and scoria.

The statistics in the following table refer only to operators of mines and quarries registered with the Mines Department. An analysis of returns received from firms operating under licences issued by other departments is given separately later in the section.

ItemOperating Full TimeAll Types Operating Part TimeGrand Total
Predominant Type of Mining or Quarrying
Shingle, Sand, Gravel, Quarried Rock, etc.LimestoneClayCoalOther Inc. GoldTotal

*Valuation of production was at the point at which the minerals were washed, graded, crushed, screened, powdered, or otherwise crudely treated and were ready for sale or transfer for further use.

†Included in salaries and wages, other expenses, and capital expenditure.

Type of organisation—
    Registered private company 1744412112126256318
    Registered public company 181783349857
    Co-operative 471111
    Individual ownership 15332235477
    Partnership 6292191938
    Government 101112921
    Local authority 622643498
Total 28572203429440180620
Nature of business—
    Underground mines operated 34236642
    Surface mines or quarries operated 794904123369843031287
    Productive bores 333
Total 794904157411 0233091 332
Average number of persons employed during the year (excludes working proprietors) 1976344731 3244154 132674 199
Salaries and wages paid for year (including bonuses, overtime, etc) to above persons$(000)9,2241,7632676,0712,42319,74713519,882
Number of working proprietors 2755859579174
Production during the year(*)—
    Shingle, sand, and gravelcu yds(000)11 800282611 83558712 422
    $(000)15,5825411615,65239416,046
    Quarried rock, sand, etc.cu yds(000)10 31015014310 46829110 760
    $(000)19,21013839319,36315119,514
    Limestonetons (000)1083 304243 436263 463
    $(000)3265,6742786,081466,128
    Clay for bricks, tiles, pottery, and other manufacturingtons (000)538156520434238
 $(000)12331,022141,081421,123
    Coaltons (000)2 4022 40232 405
    $(000)14,46114,4611914,480
    Other$(000)1467611115,48615,71910515,824
    Total value of production$(000)35,2765,9741,03914,48515,58372,35875873,116
Less salaries and wages$(000)9,2241,7632676,0712,42319,74713519,882
Less other expenses$(000)22,7583,5636779,6418,33044,96942545,395
Surplus$(000)3,29564895–1,2274,8317,6411987,839
Net output (net value added)$(000)12,9122,4823764,8707,63128,27034128,611
Expenditure on capital assets—
    Land—excluding purchases for resale$(000)2661721303304
    Buildings—
        Residential$(000)221821812231224
        Non-residential$(000)891104214538710397
    Other construction$(000)2739361,0782,5403,98933,992
    Motor cars and station wagons$(000)22335934613623365
    Other transport vehicles (road, air, or sea)$(000)730184982241,237301,267
    Plant, machinery, and equipment$(000)4,506837492682415,901605,961
Total$(000)6,1091,294651,5233,41212,40310712,510
Sales of assets at realised value$(000)8493407442711,709221,731
Expenditure on exploration surveying, and prospecting$(000)583122744688164820
Environmental protection expenditure$(000)30818192712049215507

The statistics in the following table were compiled from returns received from firms operating under licences issued by the following:

  1. Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport who issue licences under the Harbour Act 1950.

  2. Lands and Survey Department who issue licences under section 165 of the Land Act 1948.

  3. Ministry of Works and Development who hold licences which are sub-issued to catchment boards.

No. of units—213QuantityValue
Production during year— (000)$(000)
    Shingle, sand and gravelcu yds1 5512,114
    Quarried rock, sand, etc.cu yds308380
    Limestonetons2759
    Clay for bricks, tiles, pottery, and other manufacturingtons66
    Coaltons..2
    Other 26
Total value of production ..2,587
Exploration—
    Expenditure on exploration, surveying, and prospecting (including purchase during the year of vehicles and other fixed assets)—  $(000)
    Salaries and wages ..116
    Other expenses ..236
Total ..351

Prospecting—Returns received from holders of licences issued by the Mines Department showed 53 units engaged full time in mineral exploration and prospecting. The following table shows details. Expenditure by these units is in addition to that by mining and quarrying units in production and by units holding licences from other than the Mines Department, as shown in the previous tables.

Units Engaged in Prospecting During 1973–74
Type of organisation—
    Registered private company..31
    Registered public company..11
    Individual ownership..4
    Partnership..7
                  Total..53
Nature of business—
    Exploring for oil or gas..11
    Exploring for mineral ores..41
    Other exploring..3
                  Total..55
Average number of persons employed during year on mineral exploration..82
Salaries and wages paid for year (including bonuses, overtime, etc.) to above persons$(000)462
Number of working proprietors 19
Operating costs other than salaries and wages during the year$(000)2,318
Sales of services during the year-
    Fees or other receipts derived from mineral exploration services rendered$(000)85
Expenditure on capital assets$(000)228
Sale of assets at realised value$(000)20

Chapter 20. Section 18; MANUFACTURING

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—The function of the early manufacturing industries in New Zealand was to supply locally the immediate needs of the small scattered communities for food, clothing, building materials, and home furnishings and to provide shipping with ropes, spars, and repairs. These handicraft activities grew into factories as the settlements expanded and as there developed more opportunities for the organisation and specialisation of labour, and for the more complex processing of domestic or imported raw materials. Flour mills, flax mills, ropewalks, and sawmills appeared in the early eighteen forties followed by breweries, brick kilns, cooperages in the mid forties and, later in that decade, lime kilns, ship and boat yards, soap and candle works, and tanneries.

By 1867, the first year in which statistics of factory production were collected in conjunction with the population census, manufacturing establishments included grain mills, breweries, biscuit factories, a bone-manure works, brick and tile yards and potteries, candle and soap works, coachbuilding workshops, fellmongeries, tanneries, wool-scouring works, flax works, aerated water and cordial factories, iron and brass foundries, lime kilns, malt kilns, engineering workshops, a patent slip, a petroleum works, rope and cordage works, sawmills, sash and door factories, ship and boat yards, and a woollen mill. The factories of this period were still primarily concerned with the satisfaction of the needs of the limited local markets.

The development boom of the eighteen seventies, the rapid rise in population, and the better communications between internal markets encouraged further factory expansion. There was to some extent a natural protection from overseas competition in the high freight rates on imports. Other factors which assisted in this expansion were the admission of certain raw materials free of duty, the imposition of a tariff on some finished goods, and the granting of bounties for new factories by central and provincial governments. These were followed by protection by way of tariff in 1888 when the home market was shrinking and capital and labour were beginning to leave the colony. Footwear and clothing factories, machinery, and metal industries were protected by this tariff. A wider protective Customs tariff was imposed in 1895. During the depressed years of the eighteen eighties low wage costs enabled some New Zealand manufacturers to export their products, but this was partly attributable also to the special suitability of some New Zealand products, such as farm implements, to the needs of other developing communities overseas.

The first shipment of refrigerated meat in 1882 opened the way for the establishment and growth of the meat-freezing and butter and cheese industries. Ten years after this first shipment, 21 meat-freezing works and 104 butter and cheese factories had been established.

The recovery from the long depression, the resumption of large-scale immigration at the beginning of the present century, the spectacular development of meat-freezing and dairy factories, and the breaking in of new land, especially in the North Island, all contributed to the revival of a strong internal demand which stimulated manufacturing growth.

Auckland early established itself as the predominant manufacturing province in New Zealand, but in the general prosperity following the gold boom of the sixties, there was a spectacular increase in manufacturing activity in Otago, which led Auckland until the nineties. Canterbury was the next most important manufacturing province. Today, however, Auckland has clearly re-established its predominance and is followed by Wellington and Canterbury.

With the rising population and increased export income during the first decade of this century, manufacturing continued to expand at a steady rate. The growth continued to be concentrated on industries processing farm products for export and those supplying the more simple goods, housing materials and equipment, repairs, and supplies for farmers. In this period the electrical, wire-work, sheet-metal, and motor-vehicle industries had their beginnings.

Developments in the nineteen twenties included the expansion of the vehicle industry (particularly motor and cycle assembly), sawmilling, and the metalworking, furnishings, and apparel industries. These developments carried forward the tendency for industries processing farm products to be less dominating in value of production and employment compared with other types of industry.

During the depression of the nineteen thirties the total volume of factory output declined with the contraction of New Zealand's export income and the drop in internal demand. While prices fell the output of factories processing farm products rose, but not sufficiently to offset the loss in volume from other manufacturing industries. The rapid fall in purchasing power caused the farmer to produce more, but the impact of the depression on the factories processing “non-farm” materials meant a heavy reduction in the output of consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural and dairy machinery and implements. By 1934–35, however, the volume of factory production had been restored to the 1929–30 level.

Apart from metalworking and vehicle factories, which had improved their position significantly, industry emerged from the depression in much the same pattern as before.

The recovery of manufacturing after the depression was primarily the result of better export prices, more public development, and an expansionist monetary policy, all of which resulted in the re-engagement of most of the unemployed.

There had been little time for any protective effect of exchange control and import selection to stimulate industrial expansion between the date these measures were introduced (December 1938) and the outbreak of war in September 1939. It was the war and its shortages which changed the manufacturing pattern and gave great encouragement to industrial development. The engineering and apparel industries, which contributed so much to war needs, made the greatest progress.

Production expanded in response to the need to replace imports that the United Kingdom and other countries could no longer supply and to provide uniforms, weapons, equipment, and provisions for New Zealand and allied armed forces.

One protective effect of the war and post-war periods and their restricted supply of imports was that domestic industry was often enabled to attain its optimum (New Zealand) output quickly without a difficult competitive struggle with imports.

Post-war Development—The pattern of New Zealand industry changed again from 1949–50 with the exemption from import control of many items. Factory expansion was sustained by a high level of internal demand, by a widening of the range of products, and to some extent by the restriction of imports for a short period of exchange control. In this period the volume of production in the food, footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods groups increased slowly in response to population growth, while leather industry production fell as a result of competition from imports and synthetics. Spectacular increases in production came from new developments in the pulp and paper and the rubber industries. However, as in past years it was the engineering factories that contributed most to the growth of manufacturing after 1949–50. The expansion in this field was stimulated especially by increasing mechanisation on farms, the high level of investment in New Zealand, the rising demand for consumer durables, and the increased imports of motor vehicle components.

Small factories continue to be typical of manufacturing in New Zealand. Some 73 percent employ 10 or less persons (full- and part-time employees and working proprietors included). This is a reflection of the fact that, partly as a result of the geographical configuration of the country, many factories supply small local markets. At the other end of the scale, only 2.1 percent of factories employ more than 100 people (again, full- and part-time employees and working proprietors included). Many of the smaller manufacturing units are involved in the production of machinery and wood products while the largest plants are engaged in the manufacture of food and paper. The trend is towards larger manufacturing units.

Some of the major industries are mentioned in this section. Others include wire drawing and galvanising; the production of copper tube, wire rope, aluminium cable, and telephone and underground power cable; 11 kV switchgear, electric hoists, electric motor starters, and fractional horsepower electric motors, as well as telecommunications equipment and electronic controls for a variety of equipment. The manufacture of transport equipment and machinery has expanded to cover turboprop topdressing aircraft, bicycles, pneumatic and steel-tyred road rollers, self-propelled hydraulically operated excavators, post-hole diggers, hydraulic equipment and attachments, and cargo containers. Further items now made in New Zealand include oil-fired kilns, control valves, thermostats, press brakes, disc brake-pads, high-speed twist drills and numerous others. In the chemical and allied industries, New Zealand factories process PVC compounds and dry blends, besides producing such PVC products as sheeting, flooring, roofing, and rainwater goods; a range of formaldehyde resins used in the manufacture of adhesives and related products; acrylic emulsions and compounds; many industrial and domestic materials including synthetic detergents; various weed killers and insecticides: and a range of drugs and cosmetics. The packaging industry makes moulded pulp products as well as several types of plastic film, the most recent projects involving cast polypropylene and the manufacture of irradiated polyethylene ("shrink film"). Textured synthetic yarns, warp-knitted, transfer-printed, and foambacked fabrics have been added to the products of the textile industry in recent years. An oil refinery and sheet glassworks have been in operation for some years. Gin and whisky distilleries have been established.

RECENT MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS—Major industrial developments in recent years or now under way are summarised in the following paragraphs.

Pulp and Paper—New Zealand Forest Products Ltd. opened a new kraft pulp mill at Kinleith early in February 1973. This mill, operating 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, doubled pulp output from 213 360 tonnes to 426 720 tonnes. The company's No. 6 paper machine began operating about the end of the first quarter of 1973. The company's No. 3 paperboard machine at Whakatane came into production in mid-1976. This doubled the capacity of the Whakatane paperboard mill and enabled the company to produce fully-coated paperboard. A new multi-wall paper bag plant at Penrose also commenced production in mid-1976, producing a new type of totally sealed bag for foodstuff such as milk powder. The major increases in pulp and paper production are part of a 5-year expansion project which is the largest undertaken by an individual company in New Zealand's industrial history.

The expansion programme undertaken by Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., Kawerau, is also well advanced. The kraft pulp mill expansion has raised output from 106 700 tonnes a year to 233 700 tonnes, of which 100 000 tonnes will be exported. The company's third newsprint machine, which commenced production early in 1975, has increased newsprint production to 350 000 tonnes a year.

The pulp mill constructed by Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd. at Whirinaki, near Napier, commenced production in March 1973. The capacity has now been raised to 240 000 tonnes per annum. The entire output is exported.

Construction of a thermo-mechanical pulp mill at Tangiwai was completed during 1978. The mill, owned by Winstone-Samsung Limited, a New Zealand-Korean joint venture, will produce 70 000 tonnes of pulp a year, using wood from the adjacent Karioi III State Forest. All of the output will be exported, primarily to the Republic of Korea.

Particle Board—New Zealand Particle Board Ltd. commenced production in October 1972. With an annual output of 56 000 cubic metres at the Kumeu plant, the company is in the process of installing plant which will more than double its capacity.

The Fletcher Timber Company Ltd's Taupo particle-board plant has also recently more than doubled capacity. In addition, the company has introduced a new product to the market—Bison-board—which is a type of particle board. At present, the company is constructing a second Bison-board plant at Kopu, near Thames.

Canterbury Timber Products Ltd. commenced production of a new product—a medium density fibreboard—in Rangiora in late 1975.

Plywood—New Zealand Forest Products Limited has established a new plywood plant at Kinleith. This plant, the largest of its kind in Australia or New Zealand, uses 56 500 cubic metres a year of radiata pine from the Kaingaroa forest.

Steel—New Zealand Steel Ltd. was formed in 1965 and began production at its Glenbrook plant in 1968. Items under manufacture are galvanised products, pipe, rectangular hollow sections, and primary billets. The company has announced its future plans to expand its operations into cold- and hot-rolling facilities which, together with an associated expansion in primary steel production, would mean a fully integrated steel industry for New Zealand.

Aluminium—New Zealand Aluminium Smelters Ltd. was formed following the signing of an agreement by the New Zealand Government, Comalco Industries Pty. Ltd., of Australia, Showa Denko KK, and Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd., of Japan. The 25 percent shareholding of Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd. has now been transferred to Sumitomo Aluminium Smelting Co. Ltd. of Japan.

Construction of the primary aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point, near Bluff, was completed early in 1971. The first furnace was commissioned in April 1971. Production is now 150 000 tonnes a year rated annual capacity, with 2 full pot-lines in operation. Approximately four-fifths of the primary aluminium produced at the smelter is exported.

An aluminium semi-fabricating industry is well established, making a wide range of extrusions, rolling mill products, and fabricated items.

Aircraft Manufacture—In March 1973 rationalisation of the aviation manufacturing industry took effect with the amalgamation of separate industry units into a single company, Aerospace Industries Ltd. Air New Zealand provides substantial financial and technical assistance. Up to 1976 the company produced about 100 military training aircraft; it is currently concentrating on agricultural aircraft to serve both local and overseas markets.

Electronics Manufacture—The New Zealand electronics industry has a well-developed consumer sector, principally orientated towards the colour television market. Some exports have been achieved, mainly to the Asian market. The professional and industrial electronics sector, which covers a wide range of industrial, medical, and scientific applications, has shown increasing maturity and sustained growth.

Motor Vehicles—The new transmission and chassis component plant of the Ford Motor Co. (N.Z.) Ltd. at Wiri was officially opened in November 1973. Assisted by provisions of the New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement, this facility is intended to supply total New Zealand and Australian needs for several components used in Ford's production of light and medium passenger cars.

Todd Motors Ltd's new plant at Porirua, currently the largest single vehicle assembly plant in New Zealand, was officially opened in October 1975.

In mid-1976 Government approval was given to General Motors (N.Z.) Ltd. to manufacture rear axle assembly units principally for export to Australia. The annual value of exports is expected to total approximately $1.2 million.

Following a downturn in 1977, the demand for new cars increased markedly in 1978. Production levels in the assembly industry rose in 1978, as indicated by 65 000 to 70 000 new registrations.

Carpets and Carpet Yarns—Carpet yam production for the year ended June 1978 was lower than in the previous 2 years, although New Zealand wool yarn continues to be in steady demand overseas. A large new spinning mill in Christchurch is now fully commissioned.

The domestic market for carpet declined in response to economic restraints, but showed greater buoyancy towards the end of 1978. Export markets are more important than ever and, with the maintenance of the quota of 2.1 million square metres on New Zealand wool carpets entering Australia, emphasis is placed on the diversification of overseas markets. In the year ended June 1978, production of all carpeting fell by 3.3 million square metres to 8.2 million, of which 3 million (worth $33 million f.o.b.) was exported, almost a third of that quantity going to countries other than Australia.

Recent features of the New Zealand carpet industry include the full commissioning of an American jet-dyeing machine at the Foxton mill and the construction in New Zealand of a somewhat similar Australian patterning machine for an Auckland mill. Carpet-making machinery has been moved to Auckland from the Invercargill mill and one of the Christchurch plants, and both now concentrate on yarn spinning.

Tanning—The New Zealand tanning industry has had a high growth rate in recent years and is strongly export-oriented. Of the total sheep and lamb kill of 38.7 million in 1977–78, 82 percent (31.6 million skins) was exported in the form of pickled pelts and the rest (7.1 million) was converted in New Zealand into finished leather, finished woolskins, and semi-finished crust leather for export. The value of all sheep and lamb-skin exports in the year ended June 1978 was $102.5 million, to which pickled pelts contributed $77.5 million.

Of the 1977–78 cattle kill of 2.1 million, some 32 percent (0.7 million hides) was converted in New Zealand. In the year ended June 1978 the total value of all hide exports was $55 million, including $35.5 million wet salted hides.

In recent years the farming industry has concentrated on the further processing of leather, and the production and export of high quality leather products is increasing.

TRENDS IN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: Export Market Orientation—A considerable number of manufacturers are now exporting a substantial proportion of their production. This is a comparatively recent development. A decade ago few manufacturers would have exported more than 5 percent of their output but exports of 20 to 40 percent or more are not uncommon now. This development reflects both increasing efficiency and competitiveness, and a greater awareness by manufacturers of the opportunities in overseas markets.

Overseas Investment—Evaluation of overseas investment proposals is undertaken by the Overseas Investment Commission according to the Government's objectives. These are that New Zealand's natural and human resources should be developed for the country's benefit, and that the transfer of capital and technology from overseas should make an optimum contribution to New Zealand's economic growth.

Resource Conservation—The Department of Trade and Industry provides support for existing reclamation industries and encouragement for the establishment of new resource conservation ventures. A detinning unit has been commissioned which should be in operation by mid-1979. This will reclaim tin stannate and scrap steel from cans retrieved from domestic refuse and factory offcuts. It is hoped that scrap steel recovery can be further increased through schemes for vehicle and whiteware hulk recovery now under consideration.

Trials are continuing with source-separation schemes for materials recovery from domestic waste, especially glass, reusable bottles, textiles, paper, and metals. It is expected that during 1979 more cities will set up such schemes.

The Department of Trade and Industry will provide resource recovery support for the New Zealand Litter Control Council's comprehensive nationwide programme, commencing with a pilot Clean Community City to be nominated early in 1979.

As a result of stepped-up kraft reclamation, New Zealand Forest Products Limited is now receiving about 24 000 tonnes a year. Much of this is being collected by authorised collectors at tipsites by arrangement with local authorities, and through the existing domestic source-separation schemes. The tonnages collected show that a substantially greater recovery rate will be achieved when these schemes operate more widely.

Good printed white paper (bank, bond, sulphates) is expected to be sought by New Zealand Forest Products Ltd. during 1979 for re-use in underliner for bleached coated board. About 1000 tonnes a year would be required.

Trials are to take place during 1979 into the production of ethanol from waste paper as a commercially feasible venture. Present trials will continue to establish year-round markets for pelletised fuel made from paper and mixed non-offensive waste such as that which can be collected from schools and offices.

By mid-1979 the New Zealand Waste Materials Exchange, which indexes usable industrial wastes, will extend its coverage across the whole country from the Department of Trade and Industry's 4 offices.

Interest continues in the Department of Trade and Industry's Conservation Award which provides recognition of achievements by industry or commerce in the conservation, including recycling, of raw materials and of energy. By the end of 1978, 12 companies had received the award.

The Department of Trade and Industry is also associated with other departments, local authorities, and recycling industries in discussions and measures to increase economic use of resources.

Indigenous resources—New Zealand's industrial development has relied strongly on imported raw materials and the processing of agricultural and forest products. However, increasing emphasis is being placed upon the development of new industries based on natural resources such as forest, fish stocks, and energy. The rapid development of the forest industries was a major turning point and these are now significant export earners, principally through export of pulp, paperboard, and newsprint but also through exports of logs, sawn timber, chips, and building boards. Intensive forest planting programmes since the early 1960s will result in a surplus for export about 3 to 4 times greater than current levels by the year 2000, and this will present opportunities for substantial future processing developments.

The declaration of a 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone in 1977 has stimulated the expansion of the fishing industry. The levels of catching and processing should rise significantly in the short term with the introduction of more and larger vessels, substantial investment in processing equipment, and the establishment of joint ventures between local and foreign companies. The expansion will concentrate on hitherto underutilised species.

Projects utilising indigenous energy resources as major inputs are also under consideration. The offshore Maui gas field, due in production in mid-1979, was originally committed to electricity generation, but a downturn in projected power demands has released substantial quantities for other uses. As a priority, the government is investigating alternative transport fuels based on gas, specifically methanol as a gasoline and diesel extender, and synthetic gasoline. Apart from fuel applications, an ammonia/urea plant is to be established at Kapuni.

The production of activated carbon and montan wax from local coals and the development of ilmenite sands are also under investigation.

EXPORT EARNINGS—There has been a significant slowdown in the rate of increase of goods manufactured in New Zealand since late 1977. Export receipts for all manufactured goods (excluding forestry and dairy products) during the year ended June 1978 totalled $511.6 million compared with $491 million the previous year. Export earnings increased by 4.2 percent between June 1977 and June 1978, which represents a considerable decline in the growth rate compared with the 42.9 percent increase recorded between June 1976 and June 1977. The reasons for the dramatic reduction are difficult to ascertain. Loss of confidence, reduced liquidity, and lower profitability associated with the depressed domestic market may be key factors.

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT—A programme of financial incentives aimed at stimulating development in regions with a slower-than-average growth rate was introduced in 1973. At that time 9 areas: Northland, King Country, East Coast, Taranaki, Wanganui, Wairarapa, West Coast, Otago, and Southland, were designated as regional development priority areas eligible to receive assistance. In 1975 Southern Canterbury and Malborough were also created regional development areas. Each area has a regional development council which reports to the Minister of Regional Development on economic and social matters affecting their region as well as advising on applications for regional development assistance.

The main incentives for regional development are suspensory loans towards the capital costs of viable development projects. Two new schemes, announced in the 1977 Budget, are now in operation: the “pioneer status” suspensory loan scheme for projects involving the further processing of renewable resources, or introducing a technology new to the region; and the investigation and establishment grant scheme which provides assistance with the cost of feasibility studies and/or initial establishment costs. Both these schemes are available to projects in the fishing, forestry, tourism, mining, agriculture, and horticulture sectors as well as to manufacturing and processing projects, and together they effectively widen the range and coverage of regional development assistance available. The Department of Trade and Industry considers applications for assistance forwarded by the regional development councils and consults the Development Finance Corporation, the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation, and other departments where appropriate for comments and viability reports.

Six councils (Northland, Wairarapa, King Country, Otago, Marlborough, and Southern Canterbury) have completed surveys of the resources of their regions and other councils are preparing them. These surveys present comprehensive data on the regional resources (land, water, forests, manpower, etc.) and provide a basis for planning for further resource-based developments.

AIDS TO DEVELOPMENT—Described very briefly below are some of the bodies which provide assistance of various types to manufacturing industry.

Development Finance Corporation—A description of the Development Finance Corporation, which was established as an independent body in 1964, is included in the Banking and Currency section of this Yearbook. The forms of assistance available from the corporation include term loans, export suspensory loans, regional development suspensory loans, small business grants, and hire purchase, lease, and equity finance. It also administers on the Government's behalf a programme for industrial research and development, the Applied Technology Programme. With greater emphasis being given to export production, the corporation's role has recently been extended to providing working capital finance for export production.

Industries Development Commission—The Industries Development Commission operates under the Industries Development Commission Act 1961, and on 19 September 1975 superseded the Tariff and Development Board.

The commission's functions are to inquire into and report on matters relating to industrial development and to protection at the frontier when requested by the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry, or the Minister of Overseas Trade.

At present the emphasis is on the commission's developmental function. Its current commitments are a general textile industry reference, which calls for a study in depth of the whole of New Zealand textile industry, and another development study on the painting of metal strip and sheet.

The commission completed a tariff inquiry into paper and paper-board of Tariff Heading 48.01 during 1978.

High Priority Activities Scheme—The 1977 Budget announced the introduction of a scheme under which a limited number of manufacturing activities which are judged, on the basis of a few quantitative criteria, to be making an outstanding contribution to growth and to the country's balance of payments, are granted “high priority” status. Such activities become eligible for benefits constituting forms of reduced administrative control, priority treatment, preferential access to finance, and taxation incentives. Since the scheme began in February 1978 the activities of 37 companies have achieved this status.

Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme—The Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme (PIIDS), introduced on 30 November 1976, provides financial assistance and incentives for New Zealand companies developing approved manufacturing operations in Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, the

Cook Islands, Niue, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Gilbert Islands, Tuvalu, and Nauru, with the objective of fostering economic development opportunities in those countries and furthering the growth of employment.

Standards Association of New Zealand—The Standards Association of New Zealand (SANZ), the New Zealand authority responsible for producing national standards, was established by the Standards Act 1965 to take over and expand the activities of the New Zealand Standards Institute, a division of the former Department of Industries and Commerce (now Trade and Industry). This move was strongly supported by industrial, commercial, and professional organisations.

The Standards Association represents New Zealand in the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), the Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC), and on the Asian Standards Advisory Committee (ASAC) of the United Nations.

Manufacturing Development Council—The council was established in 1969 as a sector council of the National Development Council.

The Holmes Task Force on Economic and Social Planning recommended that the functions of the council should be widened as far as practicable to include the whole industrial sector. Moreover, in addition to its prime function of acting as a link between the industrial private sector and the Government, the council should act as a planning body. The Manufacturing Development Council (MDC) and the Government both supported this recommendation and a comprehensive reorganisation of the council was undertaken in 1977–78. Broadened membership encompassing increased geographical spread, greater range of interests, and more diversity in size and type of industry are features of the new MDC.

In late 1978 the council directed to the Government a document which commented on the New Zealand Planning Council's statement Planning Perspectives 1978–1983. The MDC gave firm support to the views enunciated by the Planning Council and this has had an important bearing on official thinking.

Productivity Centre—The Productivity Centre was established within the Department of Trade and Industry in 1973 to promote improved productivity in New Zealand's manufacturing and servicing industry.

The centre offers a variety of services to industry:

  • Workshops, seminars, and information on financial management techniques for (particularly) smaller businesses.

  • An industry liaison officer service. These officers are based in the Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin offices of the Department of Trade and Industry and are available to help diagnose practical problems in individual companies at the invitiation of management and to direct them to advice and assistance from the wide range of facilities available.

  • Productivity groups, self-sustaining groups of people in business in the same geographic area who examine and exchange ideas and experience, are set up and serviced by the centre.

  • Interfirm comparisons, which highlight areas within individual firms requiring remedial attention, are sponsored and costs subsidised in selected cases by the centre.

  • Productivity improvement teams, which are set up to improve the productivity of an organisation by utilising the skills, knowledge, and experience already present, are encouraged by the centre.

  • A wide publications programme, including a monthly newsletter and a magazine published six times a year, is run by the centre. A directory of advisory services, booklets describing productivity measurement, quality assurance, financial management, sources of finance, and ratio analysis are available from the centre.

The centre's programme also includes general publicity to ensure widespread understanding of the concept, techniques, and benefits of productivity improvement, and liaison with other productivity-related organisations in New Zealand and overseas.

The centre's work is guided broadly by a 12-member Productivity Advisory Council, the members of which represent both the Government and private sectors.

New Zealand Export/Import Corporation—Established early in 1974, the corporation has a responsibility for co-ordinating and expanding overseas trading opportunities. By providing assistance to small and medium companies to go into the export field, the corporation aims at increasing and diversifying New Zealand's range of exports.

Other Bodies—A number of liaison committees have been established to promote development in particular fields of industry. These include the Advisory Committee on the Heavy Engineering Industry, the New Zealand Metal Casting Industry Association (previously the Foundry Industry Advisory Committee), and the National Electronics Development Association (NEDA). Several bodies exist principally to promote exports: ENEX (previously the Engineering Export Association of New Zealand Inc.) continues to be prominent in this field, while the Export Guarantee Office facilitates the export of manufactured goods by removing some of the financial uncertainties involved in export trade. The Industrial Design Council (IDC) exists to promote and encourage good design. There are also several bodies providing technical and advisory services for industry. Further details of these organisations are to be found under Section 7, Education, Science, and the Arts.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT—Engagement in research and development by manufacturing enterprises is shown in the following table.

Details published in all but the last column exclude single-establishment enterprises employing less than 10 persons and ancillary units servicing more than one industry.

Manufacturing Census (Year)Persons Engaged on Research and DevelopmentPercentage of Total Number Engaged in ManufacturingExpenditure on Research and DevelopmentPercentage to Total Value Added in Manufacturing
 No.%$(000)%
1974–7514490.5013,9490.65
1975–7614080.4715,4450.66
1976–7713440.4315,4030.54

SCOPE OF STATISTICS—Results of the first integrated economic census of manufacturing introduced by the Department of Statistics applied to the 1974–75 year. The census covers establishments (factories, workshops, etc.) in New Zealand, the predominant activity of which is manufacturing, processing, assembly, or repair, plus the activities of ancillary units (head offices, etc.) which service or predominantly service those establishments. Single establishment firms having an average of less than 2 persons engaged full time are, however, not included in the census.

All activities of the manufacturing operations, from the purchase of material and supplies to the point at which the products are sold, are within the scope of the census, which is for the year ended 31 March, or the last accounting year prior to the 31 March.

The integrated economic census classifies all the manufacturing industries according to the revised New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC), which is based on the 1968 United Nations International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities.

Because of the major changes introduced, there was an unavoidable break in the continuity of manufacturing statistics. To provide some link with the previous census series, a limited number of main aggregates were collected for the 1973–74 year on the same basis as those collected for 1974–75. This link information has been published in a series of industry bulletins in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

In the statistical tables which follow, the results of the 1975–76 and 1976–77 manufacturing censuses are published. The 1976–77 manufacturing census will be the last of the annual series Commencing with the 1977–78 year, the Department of Statistics will introduce a series of 5-yearly integrated economic censuses covering the 9 major divisions of NZSIC.

A series of quarterly sample surveys linked to each 5-yearly census has commenced. A description and some results of these surveys are given at the end of this section.

GENERAL SUMMARY—Changes introduced by the integrated census of manufacturing may be summarised as follows:

  • industries were reclassified to conform to the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification;

  • ancillary units, such as servicing units, laboratories, etc., were included in the census;

  • the basis of valuation was changed from cost of materials used and factory door value of production to purchase and sale prices;

  • the census year was changed from a year centred on 31 March to a year ended 31 March or the nearest prior balance date;

  • a number of new or changed definitions were introduced. A table of definitions follows:

Definitions

Establishments—Productive units, usually factories, engaged predominantly in manufacturing operations.

Ancillary Units—Servicing units, usually head offices, laboratories, workshops, etc., engaged in predominantly servicing establishments.

Persons Engaged—Numbers of people employed in the establishments and ancillary units at, or on the nearest pay day to, 15 April.

Salaries and Wages—Gross earnings during the accounting year, before taxation and other deductions, of all employees in the establishments or ancillary units included in the census. Included are such items as sick and holiday pay, bonuses, benefit allowances, payments under piece rate schemes, and capitalised salaries and wages. Excluded are contributions to superannuation funds by employer, reimbursement allowances, payments from superannuation funds, and drawings by working proprietors.

Depreciation—As charged in the books of account on fixed tangible assets owned by the establishments or ancillary units included in the census.

Purchases and Other Expenses—The sum of all operating expenses except interest, bad debts, and donations, and including value of capital work done by own employees but excluding salaries and wages and depreciation.

Turnover—The total of all sales and other income except interest, dividends, royalties, patent fees, and insurance claims received, plus the value of capital work done by own employees.

Value Added—The industry and sector contribution to Gross Domestic Product comprising the sum of salaries and wages paid, employer contributions to superannuation schemes, operating surplus, depreciation, and indirect taxes less subsidies.

Capital Expenditure Less Disposals—The sum of the amount spent by establishments and ancillary units in the census on the purchase, less the proceeds received from the sale, of the following types of fixed assets: land; buildings and other construction; road vehicles, ships and aircraft; plant, machinery and equipment; other, such as artefacts.

General Statistics

A general statistical summary of the results of the 1975–76 and 1976–77 Integrated Economic Censuses of Manufacturing is given in the following table.

Turnover of manufacturing establishments, including ancillary units, covered in the 1976–77 Census of Manufacturing totalled $8,987 million, a 23.7 percent increase on the total of $7,264 million recorded in 1975–76.

ItemUnitCensus of ManufacturingPercentage Change
1975–761976–77
EstablishmentsNo.8 5329 019+5.7
Ancillary unitsNo.680719+5.7
Persons engaged at mid-April:
    MalesNo.215 810219 046+1.5
    FemalesNo.82 88287 131+5.1
              TotalNo.298 692306 177+2.5
Capital expenditure, less disposals$(million)349479+37.2
Salaries and wages paid:
    Males$(million)1,2771,445+13.2
    Females$(million)299357+19.4
              Total$(million)1,5761,802+14.3
Purchases and other expenses$(million)4,9936,381+27.8
Turnover$(million)7,2648,987+23.7
Value added$(million)2,3512,865+21.9

The 3 following tables give a more detailed comparison of the results of the 1975–76 and 1976–77 Censuses of Manufacturing. This is at industry division and major group level.

The first table shows numbers of establishments and ancillary units, and persons engaged.

Division and Major GroupEstablishmentsAncillary UnitsPersons Engaged
1975–761976–771975–761976–771975–761976–77
 Number
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco
    Food1 0461 08411411666 23866 979
    Beverages11811725314 3594 712
    Tobacco66881 3461 330
                Total1 1701 20714715571 94373 021
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather
    Textiles391408242519 11619 566
    Clothing (except footwear)739762323820 76621 989
    Leather137142533 2843 418
    Footwear102106884 7955 119
                Total1 3691 418697447 96150 092
Wood and Wood Products
    Wood and cork products842875192216 45116 957
    Furniture44547716187 2327 298
                Total1 2871 352354023 68324 255
Paper and Paper Products, Printing and Publishing
    Paper and paper products971049119 88910 436
    Printing and publishing540570515517 96818 077
                Total637674606627 85728 513
Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
    Industrial chemicals1201249115 6965 962
    Other chemical products16717245456 9496 875
    Petroleum1313352368
    Petroleum and coal products191854397373
    Rubber products818336364 6114 602
    Plastic products16919818174 9926 222
                Total56960811311322 99724 402
Non-metallic Mineral Products n.e.c.
    Pottery, china, and earthenware17181 1001 289
    Glass and glass products676712 4782 670
    Other non-metallic mineral products40841113167 5647 311
                Total492496131711 14211 270
Basic Metal Industries
    Iron and steel4144223 1153 402
    Non-ferrous metals6971223 1463 300
                Total110115446 2616 702
Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery, and Equipment
    Metal products1 1521 253414922 97024 327
    Machinery (except electrical)780858222313 49814 378
    Electrical machinery277299354118 46917 502
    Transport equipment3824213620 57420 059
    Professional and scientific equipment4343351 0441 107
                Total2 6342 87410412476 55577 373
Other Manufacturing26427510114 4734 430
    Ancillary units servicing more than one major group....1251155 8206 119
    Total manufacturing8 5329 019680719298 692306 177

The following tables give financial statistics derived from the 1975–76 and 1976–77 Censuses of Manufacturing. The first shows salaries and wages, purchases and other expenses, and total turnover.

Division and Major GroupSalaries and WagesPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnover
1975–761976–771975–761976–771975–761976–77
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco$(million)
    Food351.3393.71,417.61,812.11,934.02,367.0
    Beverages24.627.3103.7122.3152.7186.1
    Tobacco7.37.941.149.051.163.5
                Total383.2428.91,562.31,983.42,137.82,616.6
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather
    Textiles92.2100.0230.9305.8351.5439.9
    Clothing (except footwear)74.190.3122.0157.8213.9261.3
    Leather13.215.638.862.055.282.0
    Footwear20.824.235.246.261.074.2
                Total200.3230.1426.9571.8681.6857.4
Wood and Wood Products
    Wood and cork products87.1102.7250.5313.0377.6463.6
    Furniture33.138.679.094.2121.8143.7
                Total120.2141.3329.4407.2499.4607.3
Paper and Paper Products, Printing and Publishing
    Paper and paper products69.681.4302.2417.9444.1594.6
    Printing and publishing95.9108.2138.6170.3276.0318.6
                Total165.4189.6440.8588.2720.1913.2
Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
    Industrial chemicals35.941.4178.3234.9242.4316.7
    Other chemical products37.741.1158.5187.9214.7256.3
    Petroleum2.52.932.639.438.153.1
    Petroleum and coal products2.42.210.010.714.514.9
    Rubber products28.331.662.481.1106.7131.3
    Plastic products25.734.863.199.2104.5151.1
                Total132.5154.0505.0653.2721.0923.4
Non-metallic Mineral Products, n.e.c.
    Pottery, china, and earthenware4.56.45.16.410.615.4
    Glass and glass products16.018.931.040.855.069.5
    Other non-metallic mineral products43.746.8160.4182.3239.8270.9
                Total64.272.1196.5229.5305.5355.8
Basic Metal Industries
    Iron and steel21.426.392.5147.1135.4199.6
    Non-ferrous metals20.223.978.1105.1107.3156.9
                Total41.750.2170.6252.2242.7356.5
Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery, and Equipment
    Metal products122.6145.8377.2490.8562.9707.5
    Machinery (except electrical)71.983.0220.8265.2322.0385.9
    Electrical machinery93.7102.7292.3334.5422.0458.0
    Transport equipment115.1126.9323.3411.6468.4569.3
    Professional and scientific equipment4.75.413.013.918.821.5
                Total408.1463.81,226.51,516.01,794.22,142.2
Other Manufacturing18.521.743.252.569.581.6
    Ancillary units servicing more than one major group42.249.891.1127.092.8132.9
                Total manufacturing1,576.31,801.74,992.56,381.37,264.48,987.2

The final table of comparative data from the 1975–76 and 1976–77 Censuses of Manufacturing shows Value Added and Net Capital Expenditure. Value Added, as shown in the table of definitions, comprises salaries and wages paid, any employer contributions to superannuation schemes, the operating surplus, depreciation, and indirect taxes less subsidies.

Capital Expenditure Less Disposals comprises gross capital expenditure less the proceeds of “trade-ins” and sales of second-hand capital goods.

Division and Major GroupValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
1975–761976–771975–761976–77
 $(million)
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco
    Food497.4593.7104.7119.9
    Beverages58.269.69.116.1
    Tobacco15.117.64.01.4
                Total570.6680.9117.8137.4
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather
    Textiles130.2144.918.114.1
    Clothing (except footwear)94.0117.15.15.7
    Learner18.225.81.72.5
    Footwear25.833.21.81.7
                Total268.2321.026.724.0
Wood and Wood Products
    Wood and cork products138.2165.927.131.8
    Furniture46.053.33.33.8
                Total184.2219.230.335.6
Paper and Paper Products, Printing and Publishing
    Paper and paper products135.1155.929.968.4
    Printing and publishing139.3156.313.814.5
                Total274.4312.243.782.9
Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
    Industrial chemicals53.978.715.924.7
    Other chemical products57.170.74.97.4
    Petroleum9.114.11.14.5
    Petroleum and coal products4.24.20.50.5
    Rubber products43.254.76.67.6
    Plastic products39.556.06.07.0
                Total207.0278.435.051.7
Non-metallic Mineral Products, n.e.c.
    Pottery, china, and earthenware5.98.90.50.6
    Glass and glass products24.731.83.14.4
    Other non-metallic mineral products80.891.214.827.8
                Total111.4131.918.332.8
Basic Metal Industries
    Iron and steel44.861.73.53.3
    Non-ferrous metals31.860.25.732.4
                Total76.6121.99.235.7
Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery, and Equipment
    Metal products187.5241.415.822.7
    Machinery (except electrical)108.7129.98.79.9
    Electrical machinery138.5144.613.410.3
    Transport equipment143.9173.617.522.1
    Professional and scientific equipment6.98.71.00.9
                Total585.5698.256.665.9
Other Manufacturing27.535.50.63.0
    Ancillary units servicing more than one major group45.266.110.99.8
                Total manufacturing2,350.72,865.3349.0478.9

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1976–77—Statistics from the 1976–77 Census of Manufacturing have been given along with data from the 1975–76 Census in the previous tables at industry division and major group level. The following tables, which refer only to the 1976–77 Census of Manufacturing, show statistical data by industry major group and sub-group.

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1976–77
Industry Major Group and Sub-groupEstablishmentsAncillary UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

*Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential data.

†Establishments and single-industry ancillary units.

‡Ancillary units servicing only this major group.

§Data included in Food products n.e.c., Textiles, n.e.c, Manufacturing industries, n.e.c. and Transport equipment, n.e.c.

Food ManufacturingNo.No.No.$(000)
    Meat export works (incl. export-licensed abattoirs)44531 1551 901189,7989,878
    Other abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses3021 075318,181112
    Meat packers and canners223741152,549524
    Ham, bacon, and smallgoods50101 1875327,0052,126
    Poultry slaughterhouses243524881,6121,717
    Game packers5185233,2681,362
    Meat pies and puddings21322207
    Casings of animal origin4147104
    Co-operative dairy factories107205 71886548,1475,023
    Milk processing plants4339911687,994802
    Ice cream factories1924673202,8291,262
    Factories manufacturing dairy products including processed cheese (excluding co-operative dairy factories)44312145§§
    Canning and preserving fruit and vegetables4353 1092 03413,4526,417
    Land-based fish, etc., factories57117104663,9241,897
    Vegetable and animal oils and fats20528774,148364
    Grain milling22371803,743732
    Prepared grain breakfast foods6239166
    Bread bakeries78171 89360812,6402,028
    Cake, pastry, and pie (not meat) factories5373173421,4841,026
    Cake and pastry kitchens265108601 1703,4493,324
    Biscuit factories94848013,5733,193
    Macaroni, vermicelli, spaghetti, and noodles3711§§
    Sugar factories and refineries1230738§§
    Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery3429611 2155,4735,172
    Food products, n.e.c.61111 44199213,9564,814
    Prepared animal feeds5936641044,275379
                Total food manufacturing1 08411653 97613 003341,50052,152
Beverages
    Distilling, rectifying and blending spirits47947**
    Wine6013631625**
    Breweries1131 71613914,361671
    Malting149310
    Soft drinks and cordials41118864865,0572,233
                Total, beverages117313 4051 30722,9734,300
Tobacco Manufactures686966345,0832,837
Textiles
    Wool scouring30994426,373165
    Woollen fibres, spinning and weaving3252 7441 77717,4468,014
    Linen flax mills131§§
    Man-made fibres, spinning and weaving833301752,122780
    Dyeing, printing, and finishing yarns and textiles11220601,496236
    Canvas goods and similar articles of other fabrics775084902,5481,652
    Other made-up textile goods (except clothing)8213521 0051,8843,505
    Knitting mills1122 2264 68112,76019,207
    Carpets and rugs28111 8781 05811,3294,697
    Cordage, rope and twine6495149§§
    Textiles, n.e.c.2152301214,7841,021
                Total, textiles4082510 0089 55860,74239,277
Wearing Apparel
    Leather gloves and clothing251893665581,324
    Fur clothing16215152182
    Clothing other than leather or fur721373 02918 43318,72769,461
                Total, wearing apparel762383 13918 85019,33770,967
Fur and Leather
    Tanneries and leather finishing1521 0943865,8661,650
    Fellmongery5741415*
    Fur dressing and dyeing, fur and skin articles, n.e.c.22123203713*
    Leather and leather substitute products (except footwear and clothing)10015331 0042,7533,363
                Total, fur and leather14231 8241 5949,7475,820
Footwear (except rubber, plastic, or wooden)10682 0643 05512,48111,713
Wood and Cork Products (except furniture)
    Sawmills24946 21127439,4301,082
    Planing, preserving, and seasoning timber701 90914811,900616
    Builders' carpentry and joinery34753 47035120,1071,158
    Prefabricated and precut buildings551777745,390304
    Plywood, veneer, and board3511 79125912,5041,262
    Wooden containers233403342,226129
    Basket and cane wear5369*21
    Cork products and wood products, n.e.c.917032673,672894
    Other ancillary units816972*401
                Total, wood and cork products8752215 4691 48896,8735,867
Furniture
    Wooden furniture and upholstery441135 0401 21529,2754,693
    Mattress making163792772,047971
    Window blinds (incl. Venetian and roller)2052121751,009593
                Total furniture477185 6311 66732,3316,257
Paper and Paper Products
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard114 92030246,8061,838
    Corrugated board, paper board and corrugated board boxes, cases, and cartons5232 02364515,7733,943
    Paper bags and sacks5243150
    Wallpaper factories3317799,0483,949
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard articles, n.e.c.337974743
    Other ancillary units12713
                Total, pulp and paper products104118 5041 93271,6279,730
Printing and Publishing
    Printing and publishing newspapers, periodicals, and books93396 0283 07443,95713,561
    Job and general printing401165 3182 64033,39011,362
    Service industries for the printing trade767672504,8641,109
                Total, printing and publishing5705512 1135 96482,21126,032
Industrial Chemicals
    Basic industrial chemicals (except fertilisers)2717251805,764822
    Chemical fertilisers1911 334729,910332
    Pesticides114231373,139862
    Synthetic resins, plastic materials, and man-made fibres (except glass)6792 51457718,1302,453
                Total, industrial chemicals124114 99696636,9434,469
Other Chemical Products
    Paints, varnishes, and lacquers38231 2483598,5651,659
    Drugs and medicines2137907265,3483,001
    Soap and detergents1225272803,8321,233
    Toilet and cosmetic goods3165276823,7003,110
    Cleaning preparations, n.e.c.92171631,598821
    Ink114366712,591375
    Chemical products, n.e.c.5076023174,1021,207
                Total, other chemical products172454 2772 59829,73611,406
Petroleum Refineries13340282,744*
Petroleum and Coal Products
    Bituminous mixtures and products164264292,035176
    Petroleum and coal products, n.e.c.26317
                Total, petroleum and coal products184327462,035176
Rubber Products
    Tyres and tubes10321 75816217,121841
    Tyre retreading and vulcanising3543422
    Rubber products, n.e.c.3841 42380310,3813,261
                Total, rubber products83363 61598727,5024,102
Plastic Products, n.e.c.198173 9212 30125,7249,100
Pottery, China, and Earthenware186136164,0172,403
Glass and Glass Products6712 20546516,7192,146
Other Non-metallic Mineral Products
    Structural clay products293842594,762222
    Cement works42832257,137129
    Lime kilns (not agricultural lime)3321
    Cement, lime, and plaster, n.e.c.2362
    Precast concrete13031 85910611,407412
    Concrete masonry70932656,217285
    Ready-mixed concrete916983596,683251
    Plaster and fibrous plaster products27 425212,82878
    Monumental masonry and stone masonry4121892285746
    Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.c.14728935,090422
                Total, non-metallic mineral products411166 85845344,9811,845
Iron and Steel
    Iron and steel basic products61 88213715,776*
    Iron and steel forgings and castings3821 2571269,122*
                Total, iron and steel4423 13926324,8981,409
Non-ferrous Metal
    Non-ferrous basic metal products1622 22328917,9421,304
    Non-ferrous forgings, castings, extrusions, etc.556491394,149553
                Total, non-ferrous metal7122 87242822,0911,857
Metal Products (except Machinery and Equipment)
    Cutlery and handtools244181222,486516
    Builders' and joiners' etc., hardware4919584985,8141,936
    Furniture and fixtures (primarily of metal)6039812865,6811,142
    Architectural metal structures and fixtures21442 75844516,2011,631
    Sheet metal roofing and related products14842 11220513,831871
    Structural steel fabricating, and plate metal and boilershop products237114 40028931,9731,043
    Wireworking.7421 4132218,806719
    Nails and fasteners10347652,341317
    Household and kitchen utensils1913021301,533548
    Servicing industries to the metal trades1211 0502196,249780
    Fabricated metal products, n.e.c.297215 5881 47435,6545,778
    Other ancillary units23511  
                Total, metal products1 2534920 3623 965130,56915,281
Machinery (except Electrical)
    Manufacture and reconditioning of engines and turbines9318071024,033365
    Agricultural machinery and equipment19732 62437914,6691,222
    Tool, die, and jig making6427081344,138444
    Metal and woodworking machinery, n.e.c.31660784,035337
    Specialised industrial machinery and equipment12632 45021616,065751
    Office, computing, and accounting machinery302215371,433153
    Machinery and equipment (except electrical), n.e.c.317125 27968932,8252,571
                Total, machinery 8582312 7431 63577,1985,843
Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies
    Electrical industrial machinery and apparatus9871 93075312,5533,225
    Radio, television, and communications equipment and apparatus81132 3762 52215,57611,395
    Household electrical durables and ranges3283 7811 38724,3437,490
    Other electrical appliances and housewares, n.e.c.2858206604,7022,823
    Electrical cables and wires68311735,828853
    Other electrical apparatus and supplies n.e.c.5481 41585410,1103,760
                Total, electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies2994111 1536 34973,11229,546
Transport Equipment
    Ship building and repairing16912 27516714,446553
    Railroad equipment93 55647§§
    Motor vehicle assembly plants2125 2401 32334,8607,468
    Motor vehicle body building, caravans, and trailers11022 28736512,8401,303
    Motor vehicle parts, n.e.c.6111 2854957,7611,995
    Motor cycles and bicycles1288§§
    Aircraft (incl. repairs)332 71113322,919580
    Transport equipment, n.e.c.171013821,799419
                Total, transport equipment421617 4832 576114,62512,318
Measuring and Controlling Equipment, etc.
    Medical and surgical equipment and supplies, n.e.c.91712101,101846
    Laboratory and scientific equipment, measuring and controlling equipment, n.e.c.1541921421,198516
    Photographic and optical goods1911991931,077622
                Total, measuring and controlling equipment4355625453,3761,984
Other Manufacturing Industries
    Jewellery and related articles9125132672,869884
    Musical instruments315310§§
    Sporting and athletic goods443932022,026671
    Brushes and brooms103452132,331994
    Toys and games2923744402,2472,034
    Manufacturing industries, n.e.c.9866789424,1523,502
                Total, other manufacturing industries275112 3562 07413,6258,085
                Total, all manufacturing establishments and ancillary units servicing single industries or major groups9 019604214 71185 3471,404,805347,089
    Ancillary units servicing only manufacturing562 77097425,8695,303
    Ancillary units predominantly servicing manufacturing591 56581014,5384,113
                Grand total9 019719219 04687 1311,445,212356,505

The following table shows additional statistics.

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1976–77
Industry Major Group and Sub-groupDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals

*Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

†Establishments and single-industry ancillary units.

‡Ancillary units servicing only this major group.

§Data included in Food products, n.e.c., Textiles, n.e.c., Manufacturing industries, n.e.c., and Transport equipment, n.e.c.

 $(thousand)
Food Manufacturing
    Meat export works (incl. export-licensed abattoirs)21,886502,111753,878292,15542,740
    Other abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses45610,23420,6839,8581,151
    Meat packers and canners28726,64830,6573,998431
    Ham, bacon, and smallgoods1,02551,29062,38812,3781,508
    Poultry slaughterhouses50829,47838,9846,105687
    Game packers1,14728,07534,3998,8372,322
    Meat pies and puddings
    Casings of animal origin
    Co-operative dairy factories16,964525,490598,94374,94028,770
    Milk processing plants1,59157,03970,097–3165,625
    Ice cream factories66224,77430,2706,043–886
    Factories manufacturing dairy products including processed cheese (excluding co-operative dairy factories)§§§§§
    Canning and preserving fruit and vegetables3,45977,434108,32038,0102,964
    Land-based fish, etc., factories1,53831,13342,52012,0324,117
    Vegetable and animal oils and fats1,0632,27638,03310,5901,931
    Grain milling75848,61857,0229,018671
    Prepared grain breakfast foods
    Bread bakeries1,90455,62677,72422,4172,732
    Cake, pastry, and pie (not meat) factories1475,1898,3443,317189
    Cake and pastry kitchens51615,32725,86510,907444
    Biscuit factories65425,10840,03411,217314
    Macaroni, vermicelli, spaghetti, and noodles§§§§§
    Sugar factories and refineries§§§§§
    Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery87038,13355,04716,073839
    Food products, n.e.c.3,523175,780204,56234,35820,868
    Prepared animal foods1,27556,36269,27011,7982,521
                Total, food manufacturing60,2331,812,1252,367,040593,735119,938
Beverages
    Distilling, rectifying, and blending spirits*7,5849,6322,514*
    Wine*17,76824,5559,398*
    Breweries3,13870,901114,67545,56314,123
    Malting
    Soft drinks and cordials1,10626,09337,25112,1612,059
                Total, beverages5,730122,346186,11369,63616,071
Tobacco Manufactures1,49948,99363,48017,5831,364
Textiles
    Wool scouring80422,55430,80610,0901,182
    Woollen fibres, spinning and weaving2,98065,81998,98134,6056,577
    Linen flax mills§§§§§
    Man-made fibres, spinning and weaving3917,31812,6325,263–147
    Dyeing, printing, and finishing yarns and textiles2454,5177,7233,116716
    Canvas goods, and similar articles of other fabrics24712,06518,6687,224363
    Other made up textile goods (except clothing)45021,66328,6457,491538
    Knitting mills2,83576,431119,04146,3524,739
    Carpets and rugs1,69270,90291,74923,730–648
    Cordage, rope, and twine§§§§§
    Textiles, n.e.c.67024,51231,6737,031745
                Total, textiles10,314305,781439,918144,90214,065
Wearing Apparel
    Leather gloves and clothing1374,6036,9892,929*
    Fur clothing55971,004406*
    Clothing other than leather or fur3,227152,624253,285113,7715,272
                Total wearing apparel3,369157,824261,278117,1065,735
Fur and Leather
    Tanneries and leather finishing87038,65149,33113,8211,647
    Fellmongery751,9902,710761*
    Fur dressing and dyeing, fur and skin articles, n.e.c.1896,3227,5312,502*
    Leather and leather substitute products (except footwear and clothing)33715,08522,4778,718478
                Total, fur and leather1,47162,04882,04925,8022,477
Footwear (except rubber, plastic or wooden)1,19046,24574,24533,2181,746
Wood and Cork Products (except furniture)
    Sawmills5,762101,230157,80363,76913,761
    Planing, preserving, and seasoning timber1,46149,68170,56921,8461,950
    Builders' carpentry and joinery1,49562,53193,09032,3462,389
    Prefabricated and precut buildings42728,47237,0518,692982
    Plywood, veneer, and board2,15148,24770,77524,63810,496
    Wooden containers1279,03212,0723,389154
    Basket and cane ware4230404155*
    Cork products and wood products, n.e.c.37310,86017,9547,717887
    Other ancillary units5692,7393,8773,299*
                Total, wood and cork products12,369313,022463,595165,85131,845
Furniture
    Wooden furniture and upholstery1,81177,356119,42146,3603,518
    Mattress making12111,98216,9724,41562
    Window blinds (incl. Venetian and roller)1124,8937,3292,546174
                Total, furniture2,04494,231143,72253,3213,754
Paper and Paper Products
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard21,323263,043377,26497,56858,699
    Corrugated board, paper board and corrugated board boxes, cases, and cartons2,15393,674133,36132,8576,860
    Paper bags and sacks
    Wallpaper factories1,85061,16783,96725,5002,850
    Pulp, paper, and paperboard articles, n.e.c.
    Other ancillary units
                Total, pulp and paper products25,326417,884594,592155,92568,409
Printing and Publishing
    Printing and publishing newspapers, periodicals, and books4,15777,836155,01184,3326,580
    Job and general printing4,51586,088148,95763,5207,077
    Service industries for the printing trade5886,40914,6788,479889
                Total, printing and publishing9,260170,333318,646156,33114,546
Industrial Chemicals
    Basic industrial chemicals (except fertilisers)2,40725,11339,04715,3853,149
    Chemical fertilisers3,59273,485101,83215,88012,606
    Pesticides59732,03639,3338,2372,814
    Synthetic resins, plastic materials, and man-made fibres (except glass)3,346104,272136,49539,1856,140
                Total, industrial chemicals9,942234,906316,70778,68724,709
Other Chemical Products
    Paints, varnishes, and lacquers78952,33670,81119,221727
    Drugs and medicines1,09037,12050,91813,6501,821
    Soap and detergents95630,30040,7787,7622,021
    Toilet and cosmetic goods51723,88132,43411,398834
    Cleaning preparations, n.e.c.1969,01711,9423,727246
    Ink2649,40313,5534,620493
    Chemical products, n.e.c.71425,81435,87010,3181,301
                Total, other chemical products4,526187,871256,30670,6967,443
Petroleum Refineries1,22639,39753,10514,0664,485
Petroleum and Coal Products
    Bituminous mixtures and products29110,68914,9174,155474
    Petroleum and coal products, n.e.c.
                Total, petroleum and coal products29110,68914,9174,155474
Rubber Products
    Tyres and tubes2,35648,62681,72333,2675,248
    Tyre retreading and vulcanising
    Rubber products, n.e.c.82132,52149,62421,4482,339
                Total, rubber products3,17781,147131,34754,7157,587
Plastic Products, n.e.c.4,68599,206151,12656,0287,015
Pottery, China, and Earthenware3816,43915,4338,900635
Glass and Glass Products2,39040,79269,54831,8444,370
Other Non-metallic Mineral Products
    Structural clay products51011,95619,1077,9791,556
    Cement works4,19326,57844,98918,91716,833
    Lime kilns (not agricultural lime)
    Cement, lime, and plaster, n.e.c.
    Precast concrete1,87430,74151,81319,6633,733
    Concrete masonry95329,73441,74211,7531,127
    Readymixed concrete1,84548,14661,20813,5082,830
    Plaster and fibrous plaster products23615,76219,9454,798305
    Monumental masonry and stone masonry821,8893,5901,77367
    Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.c.80217,50028,49112,8561,362
                Total, non-metallic mineral products10,495182,306270,88591,24727,813
Iron and Steel
    Iron and steel basic products4,001124,735162,67645,6781,519
    Iron and steel forgings and castings99322,40936,94716,0461,767
                Total, iron and steel4,994147,144199,62361,7243,286
Non-ferrous Metal
    Non-ferrous basic metal products5,59290,081133,63651,91431,481
    Non-ferrous forgings, castings, extrusions, etc.57215,05323,2998,250968
                Total, non-ferrous metal6,164105,134156,93560,16432,449
Metal Products (except Machinery and Equipment)
    Cutlery and handtools2788,90113,3575,309753
    Builders' and joiners' etc., hardware67517,02128,65213,3241,759
    Furniture and fixtures (primarily of metal)43517,38226,52310,009935
    Architectural metal structures and fixtures1,13163,02385,64725,5522,042
    Sheet metal roofing and related products1,27177,513102,70629,8482,382
    Structural steel fabricating, and plate metal and boiler-shop products2,09482,643127,06047,6544,440
    Wireworking82263,43378,08518,2661,715
    Nails and fasteners30615,33719,1425,020793
    Household and kitchen utensils1504,6738,2373,688327
    Servicing industries to the metal trades91629,69941,03212,0121,121
    Fabricated metal products, n.e.c.3,699111,162177,03870,7056,426
    Other ancillary units
                Total, metal products11,777490,787707,479241,38722,693
Machinery (except Electrical)
    Manufacture and conditioning of engines and turbines41710,55718,1577,673565
    Agricultural machinery and equipment1,28167,38192,97326,0151,035
    Tool, die, and jig making7137,44914,7937,896965
    Metal and woodworking machinery, n.e.c.33610,91316,5206,623838
    Specialised industrial machinery and equipment99560,55186,91426,1541,361
    Office, computing, and accounting machinery1283,1615,8572,874226
    Machinery and equipment, n.e.c.2,728105,210150,65852,6514,926
                Total, machinery6,598265,222385,872129,8869,916
Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies
    Electrical industrial machinery and apparatus81338,31360,35923,5911,033
    Radio, television, and communications equipment and apparatus1,613105,686132,71436,0142,432
    Household electrical durables and ranges2,013102,807140,16843,3013,983
    Other electrical appliances and housewares, n.e.c.43220,97228,5879,294–27
    Electrical cables and wires87631,97741,97611,3611,166
    Other electrical apparatus and supplies, n.e.c.1,13734,76654,20520,9991,669
                Total, electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies6,884334,521458,009144,56010,256
Transport Equipment
    Ship building and repairing87532,26151,49721,0021,792
    Railroad equipment§§§§§
    Motor vehicle assembly plants4,977254,621307,90460,8314,414
    Motor vehicle body building, caravans, and trailers72549,94669,59721,8922,095
    Motor vehicle parts, n.e.c.91020,25134,66615,8741,897
    Motor cycles and bicycles§§§§§
    Aircraft (incl. repairs)1,69925,39653,48829,7769,717
    Transport equipment, n.e.c.58629,11152,11624,2152,174
                Total, transport equipment9,772411,586569,268173,59022,089
Measuring and Controlling Equipment, etc.
    Medical and surgical equipment and supplies, n.e.c.1195,4348,6853,173167
    Laboratory and scientific equipment, measuring and controlling equipment, n.e.c.1052,9864,8212,383454
    Photographic and optical goods1315,4687,9823,132282
                Total, measuring and controlling equipment35513,88821,4888,688903
Other Manufacturing Industries
    Jewellery and related articles1929,58615,9266,926328
    Musical instruments§§§§§
    Sporting and athletic goods2799,24511,9616,099447
    Brushes and brooms2186,57510,0664,687634
    Toys and games34410,65215,9505,858656
    Manufacturing industries, n.e.c.51516,47227,66811,885955
                Total, other manufacturing industries1,54852,53081,57135,4553,020
                Total, all manufacturing establishments and ancillary units servicing single industries or major groups218,0106,254,3978,854,2972,799,202469,093
Ancillary units servicing only manufacturing2,39674,54776,67646,3006,659
Ancillary units predominantly servicing manufacturing2,26152,40356,26919,7763,134
                Grand total222,6676,381,3478,987,2422,865,278478,886

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY—The following tables show the distribution of the manufacturing industry by statistical area in 1976–77. The tables illustrate the high degree of concentration of industry in the four main centres and very noticeably in the Central Auckland and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty Statistical Areas.

Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemales
 No.No.No.$(000)
 1976–77
Northland204194 6201 05134,923
Central Auckland3 11823072 62035 009647,145
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1 1637526 2827 662217,348
East Coast6862 08380113,929
Hawke's Bay3212710 5163 69075,107
Taranaki23686 5971 74449,034
Wellington1 58316337 70516 651317,565
              Total, North Island6 693528160 42366 6081,355,051
Marlborough8141 2114768,412
Nelson18583 3371 27024,626
Westland7031 1902848,397
Canterbury1 32611132 65512 512253,401
Otago4335311 8364 65689,200
Southland231128 3941 32562,631
              Total, South Island2 32619158 62320 523446,666
              Total, New Zealand9 019719219 04687 1311,801,717

Figure 20.1. FACTORY PRODUCTION 1976–77

FACTORY PRODUCTION 1976–77

Figure 20.2. FACTORY PRODUCTION 1976–77

FACTORY PRODUCTION 1976–77

Additional financial statistics of manufacturing by statistical area are shown in the following table.

Statistical AreaPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(000)
 1976–77
Northland134,240196,76459,5179,044
Central Auckland2,301,6533,219,0091,020,337116,716
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty911,1891,241,430347,97694,694
East Coast36,00558,08724,662917
Hawke's Bay269,255392,022135,90029,654
Taranaki266,613338,93677,17314,014
Wellington1,143,8141,562,675488,19268,474
              Total, North Island5,062,7687,008,9222,153,757333,511
Marlborough28,27841,82914,4572,015
Nelson84,700122,04840,95020,263
Westland24,89937,58114,6511,544
Canterbury721,2491,080,106386,33355,200
Otago269,148397,557138,68719,101
Southland190,305299,199116,44447,254
              Total, South Island1,318,5791,978,320711,521145,375
              Total, New Zealand6,381,3478,987,2422,865,278478,886

A similar summary of manufacturing during 1976–77 is given by employment districts in the following tables.

Employment DistrictOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid AprilSalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 No.No.No.No.$(000)$(000)
Whangarei204194 6201 05130,9293,994
Auckland3 11823072 62035 009498,516148,629
Hamilton6675012 7014 23780,73217,247
Tauranga21352 7281 16615,7033,972
Rotorua2832010 8502 25689,7019,981
Gisborne6862 08380111,3682,561
Napier146123 3731 39021,3934,691
Hastings150136 8352 16538,8827,794
New Plymouth23085 7581 69737,7966,642
Wanganui17564 4601 58524,7115 780
Palmerston North392208 2853 54249,40613,348
Masterton12392 6021 32715,8705,037
Lower Hutt4084413 9955 47297,37124,266
Wellington516869 5134 91066,72722,005
              Total, North Island6 693528160 42366 6081,079,106275,945
Employment DistrictOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid AprilSalaries and Wages Paid During Year
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 No.No.No.No.$(000)$(000)
Blenheim8141 2114766,8131,599
Nelson16072 9371 11317,4654,046
Greymouth9541 5904419,9691,543
Christchurch1 12510727 90811 278175,44045,039
Ashburton5621 2364147,4181,735
Timaru14423 50581920,8772,847
Oamaru4221 5734308,4431,796
Dunedin3925110 2694 22761,96217,043
Invercargill231128 3941 32557,7194,912
              Total, South Island2 32619158 62320 523366,10680,560
              Total, New Zealand9 019719219 04687 1311,445,212356,505

Additional financial statistics of manufacturing during 1976–77 are shown by employment districts in the following table.

Employment DistrictDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Whangarei6,482134,240196,76459,5179,044
Auckland65,4652,301,6533,219,0091,020,337116,716
Hamilton12,440430,972558,248141,93225,234
Tauranga2,97882,405116,42830,4586,511
Rotorua24,258397,769566,716175,54762,947
Gisborne1,87136,00558,08724,662917
Napier6,065120,690168,40354,12719,488
Hastings7,001137,009208,08477,9389,812
New Plymouth8,760254,344322,03571,67213,934
Wanganui2,79787,696128,00243,28411,478
Palmerston North7,216273,179363,61799,99514,467
Masterton2,87196,009124,37034,4896,294
Lower Hutt12,519459,600617,259190,37821,557
Wellington9,021251,197361,901129,42115,114
              Total, North Island169,7455,062,7687,008,9222,153,757333,511
Blenheim1,07328,27841,82914,4572,015
Nelson2,88375,008103,48032,3454,200
Greymouth3,25834,59156,15023,25617,607
Christchurch19,396645,521953,308333,41136,018
Ashburton79515,29829,70613,6852,068
Timaru2,95160,07596,65939,16017,104
Oamaru99131,04146,72615,6512,930
Dunedin8,650238,462351,264123,11316,181
Invercargill12,934190,305299,199116,44447,254
              Total, South Island52,9221,318,5791,978,320711,521145,375
              Total, New Zealand222,6676,381,3478,987,2422,865,278478,886

PRODUCTION OF SELECTED GOODS—The following table shows the volume of production of selected goods. It should be noted that the figures refer to the calendar years (except where otherwise stated) and not to production years as in most tables in this section. This table is not based on the censuses of manufacturing from which the data in other tables in this section are derived.

Commodity197619771978

*Other than rubber or plastic.

†See also section 14A Farming (General) and section 24 Consumption of Food.

‡Year ended May.

§Provisional.

||Year ended June.

¶Figures related only to operations of superphosphate manufacturing works.

**Gross production, including wastage.

Refrigerators and deep freezersNo. (000)242.7177.9162.2
Washing machinesNo. (000)83.165.753.5
Tumbler clothes dryersNo. (000)137.0116.480.8
Electric ranges and rangettesNo. (000)75.374.645.5
Lawn mowersNo. (000)96.987.177.5
Radios and radiogramsNo. (000)157.9168.5143.3
Television setsNo. (000)154.0119.190.6
RecordsNo. (000)6 0635 6066 513
Textiles and Clothing
Woollen and worsted yarntonnes21 58618 77617 685
Piece goodssq metres (000)2 8092 6552 430
Blanketsprs (000)215200153
Carpetssq metres (000)11 31510 0428 546
Women's—
    Overcoats(000)214.2220.1183.4
    Skirts(000)695.3699.9724.4
    Slacks and jeans(000)1 596.31 343.8755.9
    Dresses(000)1 111.91 151.21 225.5
    Blouses and shirts(000)1 782.71 964.11 606.3
Men's—
    Suits(000)206.1217.9167.0
    Trousers (working)(000)933.9929.21 119.4
    Trousers (other)(000)1 500.51 571.81 109.5
    Shirts (men's and boys')(000)6 3744 9694 751
Footwear
Men's footwear*prs (000)1 761.71 570.11 502.0
Women's footwear*prs (000)2 169.52 037.12 186.9
Children's footwear*prs (000)940.6955.5897.5
Slippersprs (000)1 180.41 098.5963.8
Rubber and plastic boots and shoesprs (000)1 138.71 091.4983.1
Gym or tennis footwearprs (000)1 075.61 028.3595.5
Foodstuffs
Liquid milklitres (million)6 3596 4425 892
Creamery buttertonnes (000)255.6277.1233.6
Cheesetonnes (000)104.881.078.3
Skim-milk powdertonnes (000)207.0205.7172.9
Condensed and powdered whole milktonnes (000)46.877.978.7
Caseintonnes (000)52.757.057.0
Flourtonnes (000)211.1220.1218.8
Wheatmeal and wholemealtonnes (000)5.05.46.2
Refined sugartonnes (000)154.1159.9134.1
Breakfast foodstonnes (000)17.117.718.8
Biscuitstonnes (000)29.125.225.3
Ice creamlitres (million)51.954.557.9
Beer and stout**litres (million)409.6418.0437.1
Canned vegetables||tonnes (000)19.120.618.0
Quick frozen vegetables||tonnes (000)40.344.550.7
Canned fruit||tonnes (000)20.015.713.6
Transport
Passenger carsNo (000)69.562.951.8
Trucks, vans, and busesNo (000)11.512.611.1
TyresNo (000)1 6731 8051 525
Miscellaneous
Papertonnes (000)608650611
Wood pulptonnes (000)1 0541 136822
Chemical fertiliserstonnes (000)2 2512 2682 404
Cigarettesmillion6 5356 5126 443

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF MAIN INDICATORS—In 1974–75 the department introduced an enterprise-based economic census of manufacturing. Following completion of the first two annual censuses on the new basis a quarterly survey of the main indicators for the manufacturing sector was developed and this commenced with the June 1977 quarter.

The new survey replaced the previous short term survey of manufacturer's stocks (now discontinued) and was designed to provide rapidly more comprehensive economic indicators for the use of the Government, trade organisations, and business people, as well as providing data for use in the quarterly national accounts. With the co-operation of manufacturers, and because the survey is a sample one only, it is possible to publish results in a much more timely manner than is possible in the case of a full census.

It is also hoped that this survey will obviate the need for an annual Manufacturing Census. The move towards a less frequent Census of Manufacturing is being tested out by having a gap in 1978, and then a 2-year gap between 1979 and 1982. A firm decision will then be taken on the planned conversion to 5-yearly censuses.

The survey, which is a sample one, is based on 1400 firms selected from the 1974–75 Census of Manufacturing. All manufacturing divisions of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification are represented. Allowance is made in the survey for the opening of new factories and the closure of established ones.

A long term series covering earlier years has been derived using the values of the previous survey of manufacturer's stocks which were not conceptually the same as this survey.

The basic definitions of the headings are as follows:

Sales—This is the actual value of sales (whether in New Zealand or overseas) during the quarter. It includes sales of goods without processing or assembly, and also includes processing of other firms' materials.

Stocks—Stocks are as at the end of each quarter. They are grouped under two headings—

  1. stocks of materials include components, stores, fuels, containers, and other packaging materials.

  2. Stocks of finished goods include work in progress. This section also includes goods purchased for resale without further processing.

Gross Capital Expenditure—This includes the purchase of new and second hand fixed assets and the cost of work done by a firm's own employees, in producing, constructing and installing fixed assets for its own use.

Salaries and Wages—This is the gross salaries and wages of all employees, (full time, part time, and casual) during the quarter. It does not include drawings of working partners.

Purchases—This figure includes the value of purchases of all materials, components, supplies, containers and other packaging materials, fuels, electricity, and water. It also includes payments for commission and contract services, and purchases for resale without processing or assembly.

Other Operating Expenses—These include all other expenses except interest, bad debts and donations.

Hours Worked—Hours worked during the quarter relate to paid employees only and include overtime hours.

All-industry totals for a series of quarters are shown in the following table. Annual figures (where given) are for the year ended 31 March.

PeriodSalesStocksGross Capital Expenditure
MaterialsFinished Goods
 $(million)
19789,905.71.063.21.107.2410.9
Quarter
    1977—Jun2,553.11.008.31,024.897.6
                Sep2,481.01,064.9980.4110.8
                Dec2,465.41,060.81,007.8101.8
    1978—Mar2,406.11,063.21,107.2100.8
                Jun2,605.91,032.61,107.6109.4
                Sep2,754.51,027.01,019.6116.8
                Dec3,054.91,030.91,048.3116.9
PeriodSalaries and WagesPurchasesOther Operating ExpensesHours Worked
  $(million) (000)
19782,062.65,709.61,782.5532 887
Quarter
    1977—Jun518.31,478.2434.4141 158
                Sep498.31,403.4451.2134 144
                Dec529.11,433.5453.9131 709
    1978—Mar516.91,394.5443.0125 875
                Jun551.01,433.5445.2133 801
                Sep547.71,460.4455.7132 897
                Dec630.41,662.3486.5137 022

The following table shows the main indicators by industry divisions for the year ended 31 March 1978. The industry divisions are in accordance with the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification. Primary Food covers the processing of meat and dairy products.

Industry DivisionsNZSICSalesStocksGross Capital Expenditure
MaterialsFinished Goods
 $(000)
Primary food311,887,08751,832300,80097,232
Other food311,126,455130,160122,02841,631
Textiles, clothing32943,232109,040110,91230,047
Wood and furniture33592,19960,13153,33118,241
Paper and printing341,036,10796,50070,94047,095
Chemicals351,113,603131,508117,82758,501
Non-metallic mineral36365,43626,67632,47612,171
Basic metal37402,16261,30729,97318,325
Fabricated metal382,347,089381,800257,06184,036
Other man. industries3992,35314,22311,8083,655
          Total, all industries 9,905,7231,063,1771,107,156410,934
Industry DivisionsNZSICSalaries and WagesPurchasesOther Operating ExpensesHours Worked
  $(000)$(000)$(000)(000)
Primary food31365,8031,254,839273,05781 552
Other food31166,042694,571199,38146 032
Textiles, clothing32256,087499,219168,23577 347
Wood and furniture33145,427307,883117,20641 015
Paper and printing34226,395520,111188,52356 941
Chemicals35200,605578,040256,01149 513
Non-metallic mineral3679,530167,92579,20120 831
Basic metal3761,606241,86672,41513 037
Fabricated metal38538,4771,404,969410,863140 032
Other man. industries3922,58740,15817,6176 585
          Total, all industries 2,062,5595,709,5811,782,509532 887

Chapter 21. Section 19; BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND HOUSING

Table of Contents

“Perhaps the most important lesson to be learned is the clear need for more sophistication in the management of the housing system to ensure that the limited resources are used in everyone's interest.

“It is necessary to recognise that housing performs the following functions:

  1. It is a consumer item on which the average household spends a considerable portion of its income;

  2. It is an investment for the entrepreneur and the owner-occupier for whom it often represents the major accumulation of wealth;

  3. It is an economic sector in which the level of activity has a major impact on employment, transport, and manufacturing and a wide range of service industries;

  4. It is a social good the supply of which is an important element in the overall quality of life for most people and for which the community as a whole takes some responsibility through government action to help families whose needs cannot be met in the normal market situation."

Housing New Zealand (National Housing Commission, 1978.)

The downturn of the economy in 1974 and the difficult economic climate in succeeding years have been reflected in conditions in the building and construction industry. The labour force in the industry has declined significantly since 1975, following a general slowdown in the annual rate of labour force growth that had been in evidence since late in 1974. This slowdown followed by actual decline came after a period of accelerating growth in the post-1971 period when the expansion was assisted by an improved liquidity situation and increased expenditure by the Government on capital works, including civil engineering projects, schools, and multi-rise buildings.

The building and construction industry has always been sensitive to fluctuations in the economy as a whole. In recent years the Government has endeavoured to cushion the effects of such fluctuations in order to provide more stability in the industry while, at the same time, allowing it to adjust to a level related to the resources available.

During 1977–78 the general slowdown in building activity continued. In most regions levels of demand fell below the 1971–72 level and the industry continued to go through a difficult period readjusting to smaller work loads.

The demand for housing continued the decline from the high levels of recent years noted in 1976–77. This reflected the changes in the migration pattern, tightening economic conditions, the pressure of inflation on living standards, and the increasing inability of prospective homeowners to undertake the necessary financial commitments. The annual total of completed dwellings declined from 34 300 in the peak year 1974–75 to 32 900 in 1975–76, 28 600 in 1976–77, and 24 200 in 1977–78.

In the “other buildings” sector of the industry, demand from the private sector remained depressed during 1977–78. However, the reactivation of Government programmes maintained activity at a reasonable level.

The emphasis in the construction sector moved to energy development, with lower levels of activity continuing in roading programmes involving State highways or local authority roads and streets.

Within the residential field the trend away from houses to flats continues. Whereas new flat units comprised 5.5 percent of all residential units built in 1960–61, the percentage in 1977–78 was 32.3. The greatest demand for flats has been in the main urban centres, Auckland and Wellington. Many flats are merely two or more one-storey units on the one section, thus making greater use of serviced sections and achieving a saving in costs. This construction is popular with builders and finds a ready market, particularly with people of retiring age.

The modern tendency is for people to buy, rather than rent, flats. Another development in residential accommodation is the growing popularity of town houses, a type of construction which combines some of the advantages of both houses and flats and makes more economical use of space than does the traditional house on the ¼-acre section.

BUILDING INDUSTRY ADVISORY COUNCIL—The functions of the Building Industry Advisory Council are: (a) to give advice to Government through the Minister of Works and Development on matters affecting the building and construction industries; (b) to maintain an overall and continuing review of the industries and (c) to give advice to the industries on the likely effects of building trends. The membership of the council consists of nine representatives from sectors of the industries, namely building and civil engineering contractors, architects, professional engineers, workers, and suppliers, plus one representative each from Treasury and Ministry of Works and Development. Members have been appointed by the Minister of Works and Development on the recommendation of organisations within the building industry.

BUILDING PERFORMANCE GUARANTEE CORPORATION—The Building Performance Guarantee Corporation was established early in 1978 to offer an insurance scheme designed to protect the buyers of new homes against the consequences of poor workmanship, the use of inferior building materials, the bankruptcy of the builder, or other failures to complete a house in accordance with the contract.

NATIONAL HOUSING COMMISSION—The National Housing Commission, established in 1974, is a body whose principal functions are to advise the Minister of Housing on all matters relating to housing in New Zealand and to inquire into and keep under review the housing needs of the population. In addition it is charged with assisting in the co-ordination of all persons, bodies, and agencies, both public and private, concerned with housing in New Zealand and to promote co-operation between them.

Currently there are six appointed members, comprising the chairman (a barrister and solicitor with local body housing background), the general manager of a lending institution, an architect, a builder, an accountant, and a professor of economics.

Early in 1978 the commission published Housing New Zealand, the first of its intended 5-yearly reports on the present and prospective position of housing in New Zealand.

TRENDS IN AVERAGE COSTS—The following table illustrates trends in the cost of building activity over a period. (Sources: Ministry of Works and Development, and Housing Corporation.)

Type of BuildingCost at End of Year
1950196019701975197619771978
*Area 102 sq metres. Cost comparability is affected by design changes from year to year.
 $$$$$$$
State rental house (976 sq ft)4,3445,5287,45017,735*19,690*21,965*23,755*
Buildings (reinforced concrete) of similar size and type50,20064,20096,000179,778199,553229,984255,650

CENSUS OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION—The third 5-yearly census of the activities of the building and construction industry shows that the total value of work done in the production year 1973–74 was $1,716 million compared with $814 million in 1968–69. If subcontracts and other identifiable transactions between firms within the industry are deducted, the value of work done becomes $1,405 million for 1973–74 and $697 million for 1968–69. The net values are a relatively large proportion of the gross national product of the 2 years at 16.3 percent and 16.0 percent respectively.

In 1973–74 expenditure by the industry on capital goods for its own use such as plant and machinery, motor vehicles, and land and buildings was $96 million compared with $43 million in 1968–69 representing 4.6 percent and 4.5 percent of the estimated gross capital formation (excluding stock changes) in the 2 respective years.

Of the total gross value of production for the year 1973–74 of $1,716 million, $1,308 million or 76 percent was represented by work on buildings (involving construction, alteration, repair, maintenance, or demolition); $140 million was for work on roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, wharves, aerodromes, and airstrips; $56 million was for land drainage, sewerage, river protection, irrigation schemes, water supply, and well drilling; $62 million was for earthmoving, reclamation, and land development; $6 million was for the removal of overburden for mines or quarries; $82 million was for power, telephone, and telegraph-line erection, cable laying, radio and television masts, and power development; $46 million was for other construction; and $16 million was for plant hire.

One of the main purposes of the 5-yearly Census of Building and Construction is to examine the structure of the industry. Of the total gross output of $1,716 million in 1973–74, private firms were responsible for output to the value of $1,364 million both as main and subcontractors, Government departments used their own staff for a value output of $147 million, while local authorities did work to the value of $104 million with their own staff. Private owner-builders not normally engaged in building and construction undertook $101 million of their own building work. In 1973–74 Government and local authorities gave more work to private firms, and correspondingly reduced their own activities.

Private Contractors—The business of private contractors in building and construction in 1973–74 is summarised in the following table.

Nature of BusinessUnitsPersons EngagedSalaries and WagesWorking ProprietorsMaterialsValue of Work Done
As Main ContractorAs SubcontractorTotal*
*Includes value of work done as labour-only contractors.
 No.No.$(m)No.$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)
Building contracting5 67427 672124.04 070302.3761.047.9816.2
Civil engineering contracting3246 06933.86940.7112.221.6134.9
Shop and office fitting43671.7182.95.22.57.8
Electrical contracting9913 76316.545834.322.940.765.0
Plumbing and drainlaying1 3654 38018.679144.033.948.883.3
Painting and paperhanging1 2313 40514.51 0769.219.618.638.5
Plastering2137473.21342.02.05.98.0
Roofing contracting766553.72213.24.318.923.2
Bricklaying and/or blocklaying3851 0254.42978.14.413.818.5
Glazing895212.1235.32.57.29.7
Flooring contracting843061.3403.42.73.36.7
Earthmoving2871 5267.81153.132.35.037.5
Road sealing386193.085.612.31.313.8
Concrete contracting1156082.8604.15.44.410.0
Heating and air conditioning contracting891 4546.81716.719.511.130.6
Demolition contracting221250.591.00.51.5
Scaffolding contracting111870.840.31.61.9
Other3913 49216.613319.625.031.656.9
    Total11 42556 921262.27 344514.81,066.6285.01,364.0

HOUSING—More than half of New Zealand's estimated 1,056,000 dwellings have been built during the past 25 years. The average house is about 102 square metres in area, is single-storeyed, and normally built of timber; fittings are of a reasonably high standard, especially in the kitchen.

Approximately 90 percent of the dwellings completed annually are built for private home ownership, with most of the balance being erected by Government agencies for rental purposes. There is relatively little housing built for private rental, but some rental flats are created by conversion of existing dwellings. Rapidly rising property costs have made it difficult for persons on modest incomes to finance their way into home ownership.

Since 1937 the State, using the services of private contractors, has been building rental dwellings. At March 1978, 84 199 of these houses and flats had been built and since 1950, 28 078 of them had been sold to the occupiers. Rental dwellings are let to applicants in difficult housing circumstances.

Under the Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act 1945 local authorities can take action to rebuild decadent central city areas. Urban renewal schemes are in progress at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Greymouth, assisted with Government finance. Loans are available to private houseowners to renovate old houses.

The Unit Titles Act 1972 made provision for a new type of ownership of units in a multi-unit development. Individual owners are entitled to a legal estate in their respective units and can sell of transfer a unit without requiring the consent of other owners as is the case where a block of shares in a flat-owning company provides the right to a flat.

GOVERNMENT CAPITAL ASSISTANCE FOR NEW HOUSING—The following table shows the bulk of the Government's capital expenditure on new housing during the latest available 3 years. It does not include expenditure on residential properties by the Departments of Maori Affairs or Lands and Survey, expenditure by the Housing Corporation for other departments, or advances under the scheme for the capitalisation of family benefits.

Expenditure1975–76x1976–77x1977–78
  $(000) 
Land purchase and development, State house construction, etc.103,77168,75562,092
Advances for new urban houses175,635140,900132,551
Advances for new rural houses3,1845,4568,141
Loans to local authorities for rural housing, pensioners' housing, etc.13,63717,10116,869
Subsidies paid to local authorities, and religious or welfare organisations for housing of elderly7,0388,3838,477

HOUSES AND FLATS COMPLETED—Statistics of completions are given in the following table; they include flats created by conversion of existing dwellings. The statistics are dependent on the supply of information by local authorities and indications are that they have been understated.

Year Ended 31 MarchGovernmentPrivate and Local AuthorityTotal New Houses and FlatsFlats Created by ConversionTotal Housing Units
State RentalTenancies*

*Includes Education and Hospital Boards.

†City, borough and county councils, etc., comprising pensioner units, staff housing, etc.

‡Additional dwelling units created by conversion of existing buildings, e.g., one house converted into two flats.

19751 05640533 00034 30036034 600
19761 88057030 50032 90025033 200
19771 91359826 10028 60029028 900
19781 427491x22 30024 20020024 400

DEMOLITIONS—According to notifications received, the totals of dwellings demolished in recent years have been: 1973–74, 3137; 1974–75, 2145; 1975–76, 2056; 1976–77, 2097; and 1977–78, 1808.

BUILDING STATISTICS—The principal official building statistics are the Department of Statistics monthly analyses of building permits and its quarterly analyses of the value of work put in place. Estimates of construction other than buildings (mostly in the Government sector) are derived from Government accounts and form part of gross domestic capital formation in the national income statistics. Other building information is available from the 5-yearly Census of Building and Construction, the 5-yearly Census of Population and Dwellings, and inter-industry statistics.

The prime source of the following statistics is building permits issued by local authorities. To enable a complete picture of building activity to be shown, construction commenced by Government departments, hospitals, education and harbour boards are included, even though permits may not actually be taken out.

The value shown represents in the majority of instances the total contract price or estimated cost of the building. A permit for a large building may involve work spread over several years whereas in the permit statistics the value is shown entirely for the year or month in which the permit is issued. This qualification applies more particularly to large buildings.

The value placed on a building for the purposes of the permit is usually less than the actual cost. This applies particularly to large new buildings which take a considerable time to complete. In these cases the final cost, owing to wage increases, rising costs of materials, etc., may be considerably greater than originally estimated. These rises are not apparent in building permit figures.

The values of building permits for the latest 5 years are analysed by types of building in the following table. Permits cover alterations and additions as well as new buildings. Government and other buildings not requiring building permits are included.

Type of BuildingYear Ended 31 March
19741975197619771978

*Includes ancillary buildings.

†Includes alterations and additions.

Dwellings$(million)
Houses378.6400.3432.5453.3375.8
Flats166.1146.3160.9179.5124.4
Alterations and additions67.675.891.8115.3116.6
Other Buildings     
Hostels, boardinghouses5.33.94.64.219.1
Hotels, motels, etc.*19.216.916.118.019.2
Hospitals and nursing homes*16.132.291.515.949.9
Education buildings*53.975.777.646.134.4
Shops, restaurants, taverns37.528.818.034.231.6
Office and administrative78.1110.284.286.492.4
Warehouses40.338.538.854.249.1
Factories, powerhouses, etc.87.897.186.8113.8114.4
Social, cultural, and recreational15.424.724.226.131.6
Farm buildings16.816.619.730.232.2
Miscellaneous buildings14.414.411.76.23.5
                All buildings997.31,081.31,158.51,183.41,094.4

The following tables show the value, and a percentage analysis of the value, of building permits and authorisations during 1977–78 by type of building and sector of ownership. The high percentage of the total value of building permits represented by houses and flats built by the private sector highlights the importance of private investment in residential buildings as a key to stability in the building industry.

Type of BuildingCentral GovernmentPublic CorporationsLocal GovernmentPrivate SectorTotal
 Value $(million)
Houses and flats57.06.6553.2616.8
Hostels and boardinghouses15.93.319.1
Hotels, motels, etc.0.90.418.019.2
Hospitals and nursing homes44.45.549.9
Education buildings29.50.14.934.4
Shops, restaurants, taverns0.631.031.6
Office and administrative23.65.663.192.4
Warehouses0.70.53.344.649.1
Factories, powerhouses, etc.7.28.099.2114.4
Social, cultural, and recreational buildings2.63.425.531.6
Farm buildings1.50.130.732.2
Miscellaneous0.51.31.73.5
                All buildings183.80.629.4880.61,094.4
Type of BuildingCentral GovernmentPublic CorporationsLocal GovernmentPrivate SectorTotal
 Percentage of Total Value
Houses and flats5.20.650.656.4
Hostels and boardinghouses1.40.31.7
Hotels, motels, etc.0.11.61.8
Hospitals and nursing homes4.10.54.6
Education buildings2.70.43.1
Warehouses0.10.34.14.5
Factories, powerhouses, etc.0.70.79.110.5
Social, cultural, recreational0.20.32.32.9
Shops, restaurants, taverns0.12.82.9
Office and administrative2.20.55.88.4
Farm buildings0.12.82.9
Miscellaneous0.10.20.3
                All buildings16.82.780.5100.0

The values of permits for alterations and additions are included for all types of buildings.

The total for houses and flats during 1977–78 includes 21 081 permits or authorisations to a total value of $500.2 million for new dwellings. This included authorisations by the Central Government for 1917 new houses (value $48.1 million) and 365 new flats (value $8.1 million).

Compared with the previous year, in 1977–78 the value of permits and authorisations for houses and flats made up a lower percentage of the aggregate total (56.4 percent as compared with 63.2 percent). Central Government spending as a percentage of the total spending on building and construction had risen sharply, from 9.9 percent in 1976–77 to 16.8 percent in 1977–78. The main increases in Central Government expenditure on building and construction were on hospitals and nursing homes, houses and flats, and hostels.

Some categories of buildings used in this and other building-permit tables require additional explanation. Hostels and boardinghouses, for example, include barracks, orphanages, nurses' homes, and boarding school accommodations; hotels and motels include private and licensed hotels, but exclude taverns; education buildings include primary and secondary schools, teachers colleges, technical institutes, university buildings, kindergartens, and play centres; and the broad category—social, cultural, recreational—includes churches, halls, theatres, cinemas, clubrooms, community centres, and grandstands.

In the following table the numbers of permits for new houses and flats over a period of 5 years are shown along with permit values. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

Year Ended 31 MarchNew HousesNew FlatsTotal Dwelling Permits*Total Permits All Buildings*
Dwelling UnitsValueAreaDwelling UnitsValueNo. of Blocks
*Includes the value of permits for alterations and additions.
  $(m)sq metres $(m) $(m)$(m)
   (000)     
197423 582378.63 018.416 152166.15 622612.3997.3
197521 436400.32 602.411 665146.34 336622.41,081.3
197620 932432.5x2 541.0x11 257160.94 192685.2x1,158.5
197719 127453.32 436.1x10 966179.54 184x748.11,183.4
197814 272375.81 808.56 809124.42 795616.81,094.4

The average permit value for houses and flats in 1977–78 was $23,728, compared with $21,027 in 1976–77, $18,434 in 1975–76, $16,508 in 1974–75, $13,708 in 1973–74, and $11,160 in 1972–73.

The following diagram illustrates building-permit figures for new houses and flats.

Figure 21.1. NEW HOUSES AND FLATS - BUILDING PERMITS

NEW HOUSES AND FLATS - BUILDING PERMITS

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS—The following table shows for urban areas and statistical divisions, building permit values and dwelling completions for the March year 1977–78. Where applicable the urban areas are included in the relevant statistical division.

AreaNew Houses and FlatsTotal (All Permits) ValueDwelling Completions*
NumberValue
*Figures for completions of dwellings are rounded to indicate that exact numbers are not always available and are dependent on notifications from local authorities.
  $(m)$(m) 
Whangarei U.A.3538.016.7430
Northern Auck. U.A.1 40734.483.51 990
Western Auck. U.A.1 04121.432.21 380
Central Auck. U.A.68416.486.7870
Southern Auck. U.A.2 04846.682.51 950
Auckland Stat. Div.5 695131.8308.36 600
Hamilton U.A.63113.728.8980
Hamilton Stat. Div.1 13226.652.11 460
Tauranga U.A.61914.825.3760
Rotorua U.A.3146.713.2310
Gisborne U.A.1784.111.7160
Napier U.A.2816.611.4250
Hastings U.A.3227.121.0340
Napier-Hastings Stat. Div.63614.735.8630
New Plymouth U.A.3307.917.6460
Palmerston Nth. U.A.3407.717.5470
Palmerston Nth. Stat. Div.54913.528.0690
Lower Hutt U.A.47710.922.0570
Upper Hutt U.A.2826.110.1320
Porirua Basin U.A.2476.918.5380
Wellington U.A.3708.941.9500
Wellington Stat. Div.1 68240.9103.02 060
Wanganui U.A.3297.113.2350
Masterton U.A.822.24.8130
Nelson U.A.2866.013.1320
Christchurch U.A.1 78939.087.72 400
Christchurch Stat. Div.2 03745.198.82 700
Timaru U.A.1694.210.5240
Dunedin U.A.41510.232.4480
Dunedin Stat. Div.45511.234.3530
Invercargill U.A.2756.619.3350
    Total, New Zealand21 081500.21,094.424 200

WORK PUT IN PLACE—The Department of Statistics makes a quarterly survey of building work put in place. In contrast to the statistics based on building permits, these figures show the gross value of actual work done. It should be noted that there are varying time lags between the issue of the building permit and the commencement of building. The actual work for which a permit is issued can be extended over a number of time periods. Also, the total value of this work may differ considerably from the value estimated on the building permit, especially in times of relatively rapid inflation.

Year Ended 31 MarchDwellings
New Houses and FlatsAlterations and AdditionsTotal
GovernmentOtherTotal
 $(million)
197414.5428.4442.960.2503.1
197533.1509.7542.875.6618.4
197661.7536.5598.294.7692.9
197749.5599.7649.1126.7775.9
197858.3523.6581.9128.8710.7
Year Ended 31 MarchOther Buildings*Grand Total
Hotels, BoardinghousesHospitalsFactoriesCommercial BuildingsSchoolsMiscellaneousTotal

*Includes alterations and additions.

†And ancillary buildings.

‡Includes churches and sports entertainment buildings.

 $(million)
197425.019.174.4122.145.450.2336.1839.2
197523.423.099.1172.954.155.2427.71,046.1
197621.439.298.9165.175.667.6467.81,160.6
197722.251.2119.6189.963.075.1521.01,296.9
197825.455.0123.4204.171.275.8554.91,265.6

EMPLOYMENT—The following table of employment in the building and construction industry at 15 October 1977 by occupation and type of work covers all units in the industry which are surveyed by the Department of Labour and which employ 2 or more persons including working proprietors.

OccupationWorking Proprietors*Houses and FlatsGovernment and Local Authority BuildingsCommercial and Industrial Premises§Civil and Electrical Engineering||OtherTotal*

*Working proprietors not included in total by occupation.

†Includes private, State, and local authority housing.

‡Includes hospitals, schools, administrative buildings, etc., but not houses or flats.

§Not for Government or local authorities.

||Includes both Government and other work.

¶Principally maintenance and small jobbing work.

Carpenters and joiners3 8075 4893 2464 4809351 67915 829
Plumbers and drainlayers1 0931 2026125751548493 392
Bricklayers and plasterers480553206354301161 259
Painters and paperhangers7171 1737165901185113 108
Electricians8077334748083199753 309
Roof tilers and fixers6013655101536333
Welders, riveters, etc.59341494206422811 526
Concrete workers94101345829261546
Lorry and other machine drivers2683492172973 4371 8476 147
Other skilled workers2704033762562 2911 2464 572
Other semi-skilled workers963092512771 5167993 152
Labourers436238511 1042 5681 9657 111
                Sub-total7 79411 1057 1879 32012 30710 36550 284*
Surveyors and other professional86..........4 481
Clerical, executive, etc.1 497..........7 157
                Total9 37711 1057 1879 32012 30710 36561 922

In recent years the size of the “on-site” labour force in the building and construction industry has been affected by the tendency for a greater proportion of the work to be done by “off-site” supply industries in the form of prefabricated, preformed, or pre-assembled sections and units.

BUILDING MATERIALS—Production of some principal building materials during the three latest calendar years is shown in the following table.

ItemCalendar Year
197619771978
Ready-mixed concretecu metres (000)1 4301 2501 002
Paint and varnish—
    Paints (not water) and enamels in liquid formlitres (000)13 34212 74512 893
    Water paints, emulsion typelitres (000)7 8557 8418 491
    Lacquers (clear), undercoats, and colourslitres (000)2 5762 4972 394
Structural clay—
    Glazed pipesmetres (000)2 2291 7741 356
    Field tilesmetres (000)2 8562 9653 439
    Bricks and hollow blocksNo. (000)27 48227 94020 227
Fibrous plaster sheetssq metres (000)842763548
Fibre boardtonnes (000)50.257.6x55.7
Sawn timbercu metres (000)2 1872 066x1 670
Particle boardcu metres156 489121 02497 856
Plywoodcu metres25 66032 11438 062
Cementtonnes (000)999910798

HOUSING FINANCE—The chief agency providing finance for housing in New Zealand is the Housing Corporation, a wholly Government-owned institution described in detail in Section 30C. For the year ended 31 March 1978 the Housing Corporation authorised 7063 loans valued at $125 million for new urban dwellings. Of the total 12 156 housing loans authorised, 3048 were authorised for the purchase of existing houses. Other important sources of housing finance are building societies, life insurance offices, trustee savings banks, and solicitors trust funds.

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 provides for payment in a lump sum of the social welfare family benefit. The capitalised benefit can be used either to build a family home, or for essential alterations, or to repay mortgages. The scheme became operative on 1 April 1959. Benefits in respect of any number of children may be capitalised provided the aggregate advance does not exceed $2,000. Family benefit advances totalling $3.03 million were authorised during 1977–78 by the Housing Corporation to applicants holding elegibility certificates issued by the Department of Social Welfare.

The Housing Corporation operates a Housing Mortgage Guarantee Scheme in respect of housing loans on first or subsequent mortgage granted by approved lenders, including trustee lenders, where the amount advanced does not exceed 90 percent of value. Under the present scheme, amended in April 1977, the corporation guarantees the full amount of the loan advanced. The loans must be for the purpose of building, buying altering, or refinancing a house or flat. There is no charge for this service. Home lay-by accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank and trustee and private savings banks qualify for subsidy, and Home Ownership accounts qualify for subsidy and preferential loan finance (see Section 29).

COST OF HOUSES AND SECTIONS—Freehold section and house costs in building proposals financed by the Corporation in the four areas of greatest housing demand in March 1977 and March 1978 are set out below. Section prices are likely to be conservative as some sections would have been purchased well in advance of offering as securities.

CentreMarchSectionsHouses
NumberAverage CostNumberAverage Contract Price
   $ $
Auckland19771448,59814119,284
 1978769,2706822,917
Hamilton1977257,7782118,429
 197887,9751923,041
Wellington1977677,6875721,448
 1978169,2811627,167
Christchurch197778,620719,440
 197889,3452223,093
New Zealand19774137,45938519,560
 19782898,17030523,620

Statistics compiled by the Valuation Department illustrate the trend in residential prices in 38 urban areas throughout New Zealand. The following figures of average sale prices for sections, houses, and owner-occupier flats exclude family sales and sales of leasehold property.

ItemCalendar Years
197319741975197619771978
Average sale price of—$$$$$$
    Sections4,9627,1798,94110,19510,84211,680
    Houses17,12623,29925,47127,47629,23930,590
    Owner-occupier flats16,50622,78723,65725,05026,99528,656

URBAN RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY AND SECTION PRICE INDEX—This index is designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for residential properties and urban sections sold during each half-year. Variations in the average age of properties transferred, as an indicator of the average quality of such properties, are eliminated in the index methodology in order to arrive at a valid index of price level changes.

The following table shows index numbers for individual centres (Base: Each centre separately 1973 = 1000).

CentreResidential PropertiesSections
January-June 1978July-December 1978January-June 1978July-December 1978
Whangarei1948199528462874
Auckland1667171323342165
Hamilton1796183423702407
Tauranga1744181721372140
Rotorua1943191528262613
Gisborne2040212928542960
Napier-Hastings1761165522162170
New Plymouth1689173121592211
Wanganui2243233629092859
Palmerston North1734174124972081
Masterton1794186927992922
Wellington-Hutt1523153719021985
Nelson1964198724102486
Christchurch1593161222082045
Timaru2047210429632856
Dunedin1878199929662709
Invercargill1899202228172889
    All 17 centres combined1701173523062212

The following series is obtained by linking the current urban residential property price index (on base: weighted average 17 centres combined, 1973 = 1000) to the index which it superseded.

Six Months EndedResidential PropertiesSections
1971—Jun665647
            Dec695688
1972—Jun750729
            Dec806782
1973—Jun918905
            Dec10821095
1974—Jun13221456
            Dec14431642
1975—Jun14521800
            Dec15031939
1976—Jun15651981
            Dec16082069
1977—Jun16812110
            Dec16892245
1978—Jun17012306
            Dec17352212

HOUSE MORTGAGES—Most of the housing advances made by institutions are in the form of table mortgages, being made initially for terms of usually up to 30 years with the Housing Corporation, about 15 years with building societies, and about 10 years with the private savings banks. The general experience of these institutions is that most house mortgages are redeemed in 7 to 12 years. Interest rates and the methods of calculating them vary from one institution to another. Some institutions prefer to lend on new houses, others cater for the purchase of older dwellings. Information on mortgages is given in Section 30A—Mortgages and Section 30C—State Finance for Housing.

ROLE OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities through the Housing Corporation for pensioner, rural, and community housing, including urban renewal.

Housing of the Elderly—Since 1951 Government policies have encouraged local authorities to meet the housing needs of elderly persons. A low-interest $3,500 loan is available for up to 30 years on each pensioner unit built. All other costs can be met by Government subsidies. This combination of low-interest loans and generous subsidies is directed at keeping rents reasonable—at present, one-sixth of the income from National Superannuation.

The policy is administered by the Housing Corporation, which establishes the need for pensioner accommodation in a particular locality, provides technical services, and administers the loan and subsidy.

The amount of subsidy approved in 1977–78 was $8,477,288 to provide housing for 1025 persons. Since the inception of the policy in 1951, subsidy assistance has totalled $52,625,723 for the accommodation of 11 176 persons.

A new policy to assist the rehousing of elderly home owners in owner-occupier flats is proving popular with local authorities and religious and welfare organisations. A particular feature of this policy is the bridging finance which is made available, so that elderly home owners can sell their existing home, before contributing towards the cost of the new flat.

Rural Housing—The Rural Housing Act 1939 has as its object the provision of more houses on farm properties. Loans are made to county councils (and other local bodies within whose boundaries farmlands are situated) for readvancing to farmers for the erection of, or additions or alterations to, dwellings. The Housing Corporation is responsible for the supervision and general administration of the Act. Persons receiving loans (699 in 1977–78) are principally owners of economic farms.

Community Housing—The Housing Corporation has authority to grant loans for general housing purposes, i.e., for the benefit of the community in general. Proposals must involve a definite scheme for the erection of not less than three houses. The substantial proportion of assistance provided has been in the metropolitan areas (e.g., in Wellington a significant part of the city council's building programme has been financed from this source). The emphasis is on moderate-cost accommodation.

Urban renewal is also financed by the Housing Corporation. Areas must first be declared reclamation areas or comprehensive urban renewal areas; any loss on land purchase and demolition is eligible for a Government subsidy. The Freeman's Bay scheme in Auckland and the Nairn Street project in Wellington are examples.

Since 1970 over $45 million has been authorised for community housing and urban renewal schemes.

Provision has been made by the Government for an annual amount of $7 million for urban renewal and allied works (including community housing undertaken by local authorities). This recognises the need to curb urban sprawl and to bring more people into inner city areas, close to employment, health services, and other amenities.

Borough councils are authorised under the Municipal Corporations Act to provide loans for housing purposes, to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; and to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes. Local authorities may also apply to the Local Authorities Loan Board for authorities to purchase land for subdivision for housing. Local authorities are encouraged to play a prominent part in the housing of their citizens.

MAORI HOUSING—In addition to the facilities of the Housing Corporation, financial assistance towards the building of houses, including the purchase of building sites, additions, repairs to existing dwellings, and for the purchase of houses, is available to Maoris and other Polynesians under the Maori Housing Act 1935.

The Maori Affairs Department also arranges for the construction of the houses in many cases and provides a free plan service. Finance through the department up to set loan limits, rebated interest rate, and capitalisation of family benefits, is similar to loans granted by the Housing Corporation. Where the applicant does not qualify for special interest concessions the finance is made available at an interest rate of 8⅝ percent.

All applications for State tenancies are dealt with by the Housing Corporation, although assistance with applications is often given by the department's staff.

From the inception of the scheme to 31 March 1978, the department has provided finance to enable 20 304 families to build new houses and 1358 to purchase existing houses. Also, 12 527 advances have been made for additions and repairs to houses and other buildings.

The Government has also provided accommodation for single young Maori people in urban areas. It has built rental flats for girls in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Whangarei. It has provided hostels for boys at Auckland and Christchurch and by the provision of subsidy has encouraged church organisations to establish hostels in a number of cities. Through the agency of the Maori Trustee, hostel and flat accommodation for both boys and girls has been provided in many of the main centres. In these ways the accommodation needs of over 1000 young Maori people are now being met, many of whom are enrolled on the department's vocational training course operated in conjunction with the technical institutes.

Flats for elderly Maoris have also been provided in semi-rural areas in close association with local marae.

WELFARE ORGANISATIONS: Hostels for Young People—Since 1951, religious and welfare organisations have been assisted to establish hostels for young people by subsidies of establishment costs. Since November 1973, the subsidy has been 80 percent, with a limit of $5,000 per young person accommodated. The purpose is to assist young men and women who are working or studying away from their homes, and find it difficult to obtain suitable living accommodation. Subsidies of 50 percent may also be granted for authorised improvements to existing hostels and 75 percent for fire protection work required by the local authority.

Since the policy commenced, subsidies totalling $2,596,656 had been approved up to 31 March 1978, to assist in providing hostel accommodation for 1624 young people, and for upgrading purposes.

The Government also helps with substantial subsidies for university halls of residence established by religious and welfare agencies. Administration is handled by the University Grants Committee.

CORPORATION RENTAL HOUSE CONSTRUCTION—State rental houses and flats (now known as Corporation rental houses and flats) have been built since March 1937. These are allocated to tenants on the basis of need. The Housing Corporation acquires and develops land to provide sites for houses and flats and arranges contracts for their construction. The “design-and-build” scheme, whereby the Housing Corporation arranges contracts with private builders or organisations for the construction of houses on land owned by the builders or organisations, was introduced during 1974–75. The scheme provides for the construction of the houses and the purchase of the land within the one contract, and has proved a successful means of achieving integration of rental accommodation in privately-owned and developed subdivisions.

The totals of rental units completed and handed over for occupation in the latest 6 years are shown in the following table. Up to 31 March 1978 there were 84 077 units completed.

Year Ended 31 MarchRental Units
1973765
1974650
19751 463
19763 017
19772 238
19781 611

Planning of New Urban Areas—The level of demand for rental accommodation has fallen significantly from a peak in 1974–75, and while the larger schemes that were promoted to cater for this demand are still proceeding the rate of section production has fallen slightly. A reasonably high level of demand still exists for sections for sale, however, and an annual programme of around 3000 sites is now meeting both rental and sales demands.

The Corporation is also directing an increasing proportion of its rental programme into renewal and redevelopment, particularly in the main centres, in order to encourage better utilisation of the existing housing stock and provide greater diversity in the type of accommodation offered. The emphasis on this and other developments remains with smaller schemes where the social and economic impact on the existing urban pattern is less marked.

Recognising the need for social diversification in corporation-developed areas, it is now the corporation's policy to make 50 percent of the sections available for sale to the public for private housing.

State Services Housing—State Services houses are houses for Government departments and the armed forces. The total number of such houses erected by the Housing Corporation to 31 March 1978 was 15 393. This includes houses built at the sites of major construction jobs, such as electric power schemes.

Finance—The cost of the corporation housing programme, including the acquisition and development of land, is financed from the Housing Corporation vote, i.e., out of national development loan moneys.

The following table shows the annual expenditure from the Housing Construction (later, Housing Corporation) vote.

Year Ended 31 MarchCorporation HousingLand Purchase and DevelopmentAdministration and GeneralTotal
 $(000)
19748,9999,0282,68320,710
197543,38023,2544,84171,475
197665,81530,6807,276103,771
197741,63616,89110,22868,755
197844,4506,31911,32362,092

The next table shows the annual total expenditure by the Housing Corporation on house construction in the latest 5 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchVote: Construction Land Purchase and Development, AdministrationOn Behalf of Other DepartmentsTotal
  $(000) 
197420,7104,72425,434
197571,4757,22278,697
1976103,77110,670114,441
197768,75510,88279,637
197862,09212,60074,692

Land Acquisition and Development—During 1977–78 a total of 725 developed unit sites were purchased together with 152 hectares of undeveloped land estimated ultimately to yield 1306 unit sites.

Corporation Rental Housing Tender Prices—The following table shows typical tender prices being accepted in the 4 main centres at the ends of a series of years for similar types of 3-bedroom corporation rental houses. In each case the house is a typical single unit on a flat section, built in weatherboards with a tiled roof. The price includes drainage, fencing, paths, toolshed, revolving clothes line, and letterbox. There is no strict comparability year to year as new designs have modified floor areas and fittings. Examples of major changes in specifications are the inclusion of carports in 1973–74 and of insulation in 1974–75. The cost of the section is not included. The figures in parentheses represent the cost per square metre (1. square metre = 10.764 square ft).

Year Ended 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 $$$$$$$$
19656,726(69.00)6,888(70.61)6,104(62.54)6,632(68.03)
19707,184(74.63)7,675(78.58)6,759(69.21)7,661(78.47)
197517,987(184.32)19,081(195.51)17,415(178.40)18,658(191.21)
197619,823(193.98)21,484(210.23)18,244(178.53)21,139(206.85)
197722,099(216.23)24,385(238.60)19,193(187.80)24,056(235.40)
197826,268(257.03)26,259(256.94)21,260(208.02)26,326(257.59)

JOINT FAMILY HOMES—The Joint Family Homes Act 1964 is designed to encourage the stability of marriage and family life. It provides for a form of ownership in which a husband and wife enjoy equal rights of use, possession, and enjoyment of the family home. While a settlement subsists, neither party may deal separately with his or her interest in the property, but on the death of one of them the home becomes wholly the property of the survivor. There are considerable benefits arising from settlement under the Act. Settlements are exempt from gift and stamp duty, and on the death of one spouse an exemption from estate duty may be claimed. In the event of claims by creditors, or the Official Assignee in bankruptcy, the property is protected to the extent of $10,000. Own-your-own flats may be settled under the Act, and an amendment passed in 1974 enables the benefits of settlement to be transferred from one family home to another purchased for the same purpose.

Joint family homes under the Joint Family Homes Act registered during the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchHomes Settled
197316 925
197420 710
197525 402
197631 415
197729 345
197818 143

CENSUS INFORMATION: Type of Dwelling—The following table shows the type of dwellings in existence at the censuses of 1971 and 1976, together with total and average occupancy for each category.

Type of DwellingNumber of Dwellings1976 Number of Occupants
1971x1976xAggregateAverage

*Flats attached to shops, etc., were not classified separately for 1971 and will therefore be included in the figure shown for houses with shops.

†This was included as a separate category under “Houses” for the first time at the 1976 Census of Population. Some of these would have been classified as flats at the 1971 census and building permits issued for this type of dwelling are classified as flats by the department.

Occupied dwellings—
    Permanent private dwellings—
        Detached house687 237742 7682,570,4933.46
        Row, cluster, terrace, or town houses linked together34 94580 2582.30
        House with separate flat attached14 37041 2952.87
        House and shop/business premises4 736*4 67317 3563.71
            Total houses691 973796 7562,709,4023.40
        Flat (in single or multi-storey block)105 45998 736203 0982.06
        Flat (in house)19 23437 5211.95
        Flat and shop/business premises*3 6059 4952.63
            Total flats105 459121 575250 1142.06
        Bach, crib, hut4 2544 9269 3141.89
            Total permanent private dwellings801 686923 2572,968,8303.22
    Temporary private dwellings—
        Mobile residence (caravan, etc.)9942 8696 1872.16
        Other (tent, shed, etc.)753588292.32
            Total temporary private dwellings1 0693 2277 0162.17
    Non-private dwellings—
        Hotel, motel, guesthouse2 3642 41639 01316.15
        Boarding/rooming house1 3887788 03010.32
        Private or public hospital53545429 05063.99
        Education institution38435022 28463.67
        Other2 4112 77855 16019.86
            Total non-private dwellings7 0826 776153 53722.66
            Total occupied dwellings809 837933 2603,129,3833.35
Unoccupied dwellings—
    Occupants temporarily away18 11623 945....
    Dwellings to let, for sale, etc.26 18427 518....
    Holiday residence32 44633 143....
            Total unoccupied dwellings76 74684 606....
Dwellings in course of erection9 18214 284....

Between the 1971 and 1976 censuses of population and dwellings the total number of dwellings occupied on the night of the census increased from 809 837 in 1971 to 933 260 in 1976, a rise of 123 423, or 15.2 percent. This rate of increase was considerably in excess of that for population. In addition, unoccupied dwellings increased from 76 746 to 84 606.

In 1976 the average number of occupants per permanent private dwelling was 3.22, compared with 3.38, 5 years earlier.

Unoccupied dwellings are restricted to buildings intended for human habitation, e.g., houses, flats, cottages, etc., and the category omits unoccupied caravans, tents, etc.; it also excludes unoccupied dwellings which are both deserted and dilapidated.

Tenure of Dwelling—The following table classifies the occupied permanent private dwellings according to tenure.

Tenure19711976
Permanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total SpecifiedPermanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total Specified
Owned without mortgage212 37426.7253 56727.6
Owned with mortgage329 73341.4387 07842.1
Rented or leased206 46525.9248 35627.0
Free with job34 6834.422 6782.5
Free not with job13 1711.78 6490.9
Not specified5 260..2 929..
                Total801 686100.0923 257100.0

Amenities of Dwellings—The following tables present the various amenities, as at the 1976 Census, which were used by the occupants of permanent private dwellings.

AmenitiesHouseholdsPercentage of Households
Caravan48 7725.3
Deep freeze647 68770.2
Electric clothes dryer351 04238.0
Fully automatic washing machine354 71538.4
Garage or carport668 94372.5
Telephone829 78689.9
Television set—
    Black and white625 50067.7
    Colour159 69817.3
    Both40 2254.4
Means of Cooking*HouseholdsPercent
*Principal means.
Electricity829 94089.9
Gas, including rock gas61 7376.7
Wood, coke, coal23 5622.6
Other1 2400.1
No means162
Not specified6 6160.7
            Total923 257100.0
Means of HeatingHouseholdsPercent
Electricity only288 47531.2
Electricity and coal, coke or wood334 94736.3
Electricity and gas17 9901.9
Electricity and oil and/or kerosene46 7665.1
Electricity and other combinations61 4286.7
Gas only, including rock gas14 5201.6
Oil or kerosene only24 8872.7
Wood, coke, coal only100 16710.8
Other21 4732.3
Not specified and no means12 6041.4
            Total923 257100.0
Hot Water Service*HouseholdsPercent
*Principal means.
Electric848 94492.0
Gas25 8622.8
Wood, coke, or coal range24 9622.7
Wetback8 1870.9
Other7 4010.8
No hot water service1 7200.2
Not specified6 1810.7
            Total923 257100.0

New questions asked at the 1976 population census revealed that 72.5 percent of households (668 943) has a garage or carport, while 5.3 percent (48 772) owned a caravan. Colour television was present in 21.7 percent of households.

Materials of Outer Walls and Roofs—The following table analyses the composition of outer walls of permanent private dwellings in 1976 by their roofing material. Each unit of a block of flats constitutes a separate dwelling for census purposes. The roofing category “Not Applicable” comprises those dwellings (mainly flats) which had a second dwelling overhead.

NOTE: Changes to the census question on building materials for 1976 have meant that the categories given below are not directly comparable with classifications published for previous censuses.

Main Material of Outer WallsMaterial of RoofTotal
Galvanised IronTilesFibrolite*AluminiumOtherNot Applicable

*Or asbestos material.

†Including two or more materials.

‡Including “not specified” roofing materials.

Wood374 79799 51711 5976 4734 6413 242502 447
Brick64 56379 6351 8101 4171 0471 222150 576
Rough-cast54 48619 1603 5361 9681 31185281 732
Concrete—including concrete block48 71337 0392 2471 6941 2436 67398 644
Asbestos37 17717 2793 3371 3611 39336761 154
Galvanised Iron3 131129293735263 414
Aluminium1 5901 2325018045143 119
Other2 5732 149837380705 054
Three or more materials7 3424 5882352275489813 132
Not specified1 111488123361391023 985
            Total595 483261 21623 04713 46610 48212 666923 257

Easily the most popular type of house construction in New Zealand continues to be predominantly wooden walls and a roof covered with galvanised iron. This description applied to 374 797 permanent private dwellings in 1976, or 40.7 percent of those specifying both wall and roof type.

Numbers of Rooms and Occupants—The following table classifies inhabited permanent private dwellings in 1976 according to the number of rooms and number of occupants.

Number of RoomsNumber of OccupantsTotal DwellingsAverage Per Dwelling
12345678 and Over
Number of Dwellings
13 7644198035186414 3271.19
214 1545 818999322774010721 4271.44
323 92723 0116 4612 9009363671309557 8271.89
442 18065 34424 63215 3345 7462 6181 1361 075158 0652.34
534 44987 82756 62368 83642 72519 0707 2865 738322 5543.37
615 60148 35636 34049 16031 59615 4086 3085 855208 6243.67
74 27815 14513 08819 32915 0747 8123 3282 63080 6843.97
81 5315 2855 3638 3317 1974 1081 6441 40034 8594.19
95551 9662 0453 2752 8941 75974962713 8704.30
102077897921 2971 2528443423575 8804.47
11 and over1415075278648014892702923 8914.56
Not specified3 1093 3111 5131 41084847827230811 2492.82
                  Total143 896257 778148 463171 093109 16452 99921 47918 385923 2573.22

Of the total cases where number of rooms was specified, 689 243 dwellings or 75.6 percent had either 4, 5, or 6 rooms and of these 452 452 were occupied by either 2, 3, or 4 persons.

The proportion of dwellings with between 1 and 5 occupants has increased in each case since 1971, ranging from a gain of 27.0 percent in 1-occupant dwellings to 8.7 percent for those with 5 occupants. On the other hand, corresponding declines since 1971 were recorded for almost every size of dwelling with over 5 occupants.

Insulation of Walls and Ceilings—The 1976 census included for the first time a question on the presence of heat-insulation materials in outer walls and ceilings of permanent private dwellings. An analysis of the data obtained follows. The inquiry was restricted to those materials specifically installed as insulation—in most cases, fibreglass pads or loose-fill, or aluminium foil.

Outer Wall InsulationCeiling InsulationTotal
PresentNot PresentNot KnownNot Specified
Houses
Present63 4748 8476951 42474 440
Not present168 024398 5494 5721 171572 316
Not known21 50013 71147 62767483 512
Not specified29 74114 8311 63620 28066 488
      Total282 739435 93854 53023 549796 756
Other Dwelling Types
Present5 2556052531196 232
Not present5 86758 3262 93519167 319
Not known2 8663 96737 18439944 416
Not specified1 6812 3631 1103 3808 534
      Total15 66965 26141 4824 089126 501

A total of 298 408 dwellings at census date had insulated ceilings and of these 68 729 (25.7 percent) also specified insulated walls. In all, wall insulation was present in 80 672 dwellings.

TENANCY—Under the Rent Appeal Act 1973, formerly administered by the Department of Labour, but now administered by the Housing Corporation, rent appeal boards have been appointed to determine on application by either a landlord or tenant the equitable rent for dwelling houses. The amounts to be paid for rent in advance and as a bond are limited by the Act. The Tenancy Act 1955 governs rents and conditions of possession of certain private tenancies in existence before 18 November 1961. All private tenancies since that date and all business premises without exception are no longer governed by the Act. Where the Act applies, a landlord or tenant may apply to a rents officer or the Magistrate's Court to fix a fair rent, effect certain repairs, prevent oppressive conduct, or have the tenancy freed from controls under the Act. It is estimated that 8800 tenancies are protected by this Act.

Chapter 22. Section 20; ENERGY

20 A—ENERGY DEMAND AND SUPPLY

DEMAND AND SUPPLY TODAY—The demand for energy in New Zealand has grown on average by 4 percent annually since World War II. This is a result of the expansion and diversification of the economy, rising living standards, increasing population, and the falling price of energy in real terms. Until recent years, energy policies were aimed principally at providing reliable and cheap supplies to keep up with the demand. The energy crisis has brought about a new emphasis on conservation.

The table below illustrates the trends in the consumption of primary energy since. 1924. The term “primary energy” refers to energy as it is first obtained from natural resources. Broadly, this means that coal is accounted for as it is mined, oil products as they are imported in various degrees of refinement, and natural gas as it is taken from the wells at Kapuni. About 15 percent of our primary oil requirements were derived from Kapuni condensate in 1977, and 14 percent in 1978.

Primary electricity is electricity generated from hydro and geothermal sources. For these, generation efficiencies are ignored, and the measure of the primary energy is the electricity generated. This is justifiable in the case of hydro-electricity, where the generation efficiency is high, but a large quantity of energy is wasted in producing electricity from geothermal heat. However, the wasted energy is low grade, and for the sake of simplicity is not shown in the table.

In a number of tables in this section, energy is measured in petajoules. The joule is the metric unit of energy and makes comparisons among the different forms of energy possible. For convenience, the petajoule (PJ) or 1015 joules is often used.

Calendar YearCoalOilNatural GasPrimary ElectricityTotalImported Oil as Percentage of Total
ImportedIndigenous

*Provisional.

†Because of rounding, totals may differ slightly from sums of individual figures.

Petajoules
192475100.58611
1934561937824
19447230710928
195466591413942
1964661033420351
1974621938145533258
1975561878156433157
19765918422406036550
1977x5616831645737645
1978*4916626596036046

This table shows that New Zealand's dependence on imported oil increased up to the time of the large oil price increases in 1973–74 and has subsequently declined. Imports of petroleum and petroleum products have continued to fall from 1974 levels (the highest level recorded, 4,344,437 tonnes) to 3,852,000 tonnes in 1977. New Zealand's indigenous primary energy production exceeded imports of energy in 1977 for the first time in more than a decade. The principal reasons for this were virtually static demand and increased production of natural gas and condensate at Kapuni.

In 1977, some 18 percent of primary energy was converted into other forms of energy (mainly electricity), while smaller amounts were lost in processing (oil refining, gas treatment, etc.) or supplied to international transport.

The following table illustrates the trends in consumer energy consumption over the same period as in the previous table. Consumer energy is accounted for in the form and quantity in which it is distributed to the consumer. “Electricity” includes the electricity which is generated in thermal stations burning coal, oil, or natural gas, and “gas” includes the small quantity of gas manufactured from coal, naphtha, and natural gasoline.

Calendar YearCoalOilGasElectricityTotal
*Provisional.
 Petajoules
19245952166
193449192373
1944623028102
19545559216132
19644890230170
197441151758257
1975401531062264
1976411531267273
1977x421531368275
1978*371531168269

As this table shows, in the past 3 years there has been virtually no growth in the consumption of oil by final consumers. Only in transport was consumption above 1975 levels. The increase in oil used in internal transport was no greater than the increase in population, so that consumer energy for transport remained constant at 32.7 gigajoules (109 joules) per head. The use of oil for industrial, commercial, and domestic heating has held steady since 1974.

In 1977 consumer energy (274 660 terajoules) was used in the proportions: industry, 36 percent; transport, 37 percent (nearly all oil); households, 15 percent; and commerce, 12 percent.

The supply and demand of energy in 1977 is shown in detail in the following table.

Supply and Demand of EnergySource of EnergyTotal
Solid FuelOilGasElectricity
*Decreases in stock levels appear as negative stock changes. Such decreases in stocks have to be added to indigenous production (+ imports–exports) in order to obtain figures of energy consumed.
 Petajoules
Indigenous production54.7330.5264.3556.65206.25
Plus Imports0.11178.61178.72
Less Exports0.651.452.10
Stock changes*–2.248.946.70
                Primary energy consumed56.43198.7464.3556.65376.17
Less used in electricity generation13.238.3144.5466.08
Less used in synthetic fuel production3.930.801.306.03
Plus secondary production2.030.531.9720.0624.59
                Total energy available41.30190.1620.4876.71328.65
Less
    Used by international transport21.9521.95
    Consumption by energy sector and losses0.0910.957.658.6627.35
    Non-energy use4.594.59
    Statistical discrepancies–0.01–0.110.220.10
                Total consumer energy41.21152.6812.9467.83274.66
Energy demand—
    Industry27.7837.029.5425.4199.75
    Transport102.130.12102.25
    Domestic6.562.611.7230.0140.90
    Commercial and other uses6.8710.921.6812.2931.76
                Total energy demand41.21152.6812.9467.83274.66

Market shares of the various energy resources for 1977 are shown on a percentage basis in the following table.

SourceIndustry and CommerceTransport (Incl. International Transport)HouseholdsThermal Electricity Generation
 Percent
Oil36100613
Coal261620
Gas (natural and manufactured)9467
Electricity2974
Total100100100100

OIL USAGE—Until the “oil crisis” in 1973 and the 4-fold increase in the price of oil, there had been a rapid growth in the use of oil in New Zealand. This resulted from its declining cost in real terms, its versatility, its convenience, and the increasing affluence of the population.

Petrol accounts for about 44 percent of New Zealand's total consumption of petroleum products. In the year ended 31 December 1977, New Zealand used a total of 3,772,000 tonnes of petroleum products. This figure for the internal consumption of petroleum products in 1977 is broken down in the following table.

 Tonnes 
 (000)Percent
Light flash distillate naphtha110.3
Premium gasoline1 58041.9
Regular gasoline872.3
Aviation gasoline270.7
Aviation turbine kerosene1173.1
Kerosene431.1
Light diesel oil91824.3
Marine diesel90.2
Fuel oils (all types)78820.9
Bitumen1092.9
Lubricants631.7
White spirits200.6
                Total3 772100.0

In 1978, 85 percent of our oil was imported—seven-tenths came in as crude and partly refined feedstocks for refining at the Marsden Point refinery while the remainder was imported as refined products because of a lack of refining capacity. Most of the aviation fuel comes from Australia while lubricants and kerosenes are imported mainly from Australia, Singapore, the Middle East, and Europe. The main sources of supply for crude petroleum are normally Iran, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia. (See Section 22 C Imports).

New Zealand exported 40 984 tonnes of residual fuel oil to Japan and Singapore in 1978. This oil was too waxy to be used in New Zealand except in power stations. This occurred because of the increased proportion of Kapuni condensate refined at Marsden Point refinery, and reduced requirements for power station fuel oil.

In 1978, 44 percent of the Marsden Point refinery's annual output was petrol, 22 percent was diesel, 30 percent light and heavy fuel oils, and 4 percent was bitumen.

ENERGY PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE—Until late 1973 there seemed to be little difficulty in meeting the expanding demand for energy from a combination of indigenous resources and imported petroleum, although New Zealand had been steadily moving into a position of increased dependence on imported fuel. The oil supply embargo announced in October 1973 by the Organisation of Arab

Petroleum Exporting Countries sounded a clear warning of the danger this entailed. As well as dramatically illustrating that oil was no longer a reliable form of energy in terms of supply, the fourfold price increases that followed the lifting of the embargo meant that oil was no longer a cheap resource.

New Zealand's oil import bill rose from $114 million for the December year of 1973 to $306 million for 1974; $374 million for 1975; $483 million for 1976; and $555 million for 1977. In 1978 oil imports cost an estimated $480 million.

The rising cost of imported petroleum, coupled with uncertainty about the reliability of future supplies, has made it imperative for New Zealand to adopt policies aimed at reducing petroleum consumption and decreasing its dependence on imported energy. This is being achieved on 2 broad fronts; by accelerating the development of all indigenous energy resources, especially those that can substitute for petroleum, and by developing and promoting energy conservation programmes. Supporting these strategies is a research and development effort, which was spearheaded by the establishment of the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee in 1974. In the international sphere, New Zealand has taken action to ensure the reliability of oil supplies through its membership of the International Energy Agency (IEA).

Even before the outbreak of the oil crisis, concern had been felt about the lack of co-ordination in New Zealand's energy policy making. This concern was the rationale for the formation of the Ministry of Energy Resources in 1972, and later, for the decision to give the 3 energy portfolios—of Energy Resources, Electricity, and Mines—to one Minister.

Ministry of Energy—A further development in the co-ordination of energy policy-making was the announcement in May 1977 of the Government's decision to merge the Ministry of Energy Resources, the New Zealand Electricity Department, and the Mines Department into a single department responsible for all energy planning and operations. The new Ministry of Energy came into being on 1 April 1978.

The Ministry's principal function is the formulation, implementation, co-ordination, and continuing review of effective and efficient energy policies for New Zealand. It achieves this through an organisation consisting of a central planning/policy group supported by 2 operating divisions for electricity and coal production and supply.

Development of Resources—The decline in New Zealand's dependence on imported petroleum since 1973 has largely been as a result of the Kapuni acceleration, which provided a supply of untreated gas to the New Plymouth power station and increased the flow of condensate for local refining. To a much smaller extent, greater use of treated gas and coal by industry has also contributed. With the present constraints on coal and gas production, the potential for further reducing our reliance on imported oil by interfuel substitutions was limited until Maui natural gas came ashore in 1979, and until new coal production facilities are in operation. The availability of condensate from the Maui field is now limited only by the rate at which Maui gas is utilised.

In May 1977 the Government announced the formation of a State-owned petroleum company—Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Petrocorp). Petrocorp, which was formed on 31 March 1978, is a holding company with 3 subsidiaries: the Natural Gas Corporation Ltd., Offshore Mining Co. Ltd., and Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand (Exploration) Ltd. The Natural Gas Corporation and Offshore Mining, which operated before the formation of Petrocorp, will continue with their former functions—the treatment and supply of natural gas in New Zealand, and the Government's participation in the development of the Maui gas/condensate field respectively.

Petrocorp (Exploration) has assumed the responsibility for the Government's joint-venture interests in off-shore exploration and is carrying out the work of the Government's on-shore petroleum exploration programme which was announced in the 1977 Budget.

In May 1978 Goals and Guidelines: An Energy Strategy For New Zealand—Public Discussion Draft was published by Hon. G. F. Gair, Minister of Energy Resources. This paper sets out for public comment the goals and guidelines for an energy policy for New Zealand and suggests methods for achieving these goals. The document has been the starting point for public discussion and debate on a range of energy issues. A summary report on the written submissions was published in March 1979.

The following table sets out New Zealand's estimated recoverable fossil fuel resources including the re-determination by Shell, BP and Todd Oil Services Ltd. in December 1977 of the reserves of the Kapuni gas/condensate field. As can be seen, the major resources deficiency is in liquid petroleum fuels, and it is likely the country will continue to be a net petroleum importer. It will, however, become relatively less dependent on imports for a decade or so as natural gas is brought into greater use.

FuelProductionReserves
19771978
*Does not include Southland lignite reserves. Over 3000 million tonnes exist but recoverable reserves have not yet been calculated.
Coal53.8PJ49.6PJMeasured 5 002PJ (210 million tonnes)
Indicated 7 593PJ (347 million tonnes)
Inferred 13 579PJ (621 million tonnes)
26 174PJ* (1 178 million tonnes)
Oil30.5PJ (0.674m tonnes)25.6PJ (0.564m tonnes)Proven and probable reserves with a 65% probability level: 580PJ (12.35 million tonnes)
Gas64.4PJ (2347m cubic metres)59.5PJ (2175m cubic metres)Proven and probable reserves with a 65% probability level: 5965PJ (259 800 million m3)

In 1978 New Zealand's hydro-electric power stations provided 54.32 PJ (15 502 GWh) of electricity or approximately 72.6 percent of the total electricity generated. There is still a substantial potential for further hydro development in the South Island (perhaps 115 200 TJ (32 000 GWh) per annum), and a smaller potential in the North Island—perhaps 28 800 TJ (8 000 GWh). Environmental considerations may, however, limit development of some of these schemes.

In 1978 geothermal steam at Wairakei power station generated 4.26 PJ (1184 GWh) or 5.5 percent of our total electricity. Geothermal energy (steam and hot water) also provides some heat for homes and industry. A rough estimate of the total electrical energy available from New Zealand's geothermal resources is 54 000 TJ (15 000 GWh) per annum, given the present state of technology. Geothermal energy if used directly has the potential to provide a greater amount of New Zealand's low grade heat requirements than foreseeable demands.

The 1977 report of the Power Planning Committee deleted the introduction of energy from nuclear power stations from its 15-year plan. The Royal Commission on Nuclear Power Generation, which was established in September 1976, completed its hearings and reported to the Governor-General early in 1978. After a thorough examination of the subject, the Royal Commission concluded that a significant nuclear power programme during the early part of the next century should be economically possible in New Zealand, but that a firm decision to proceed need not be made until at least 1992 to 1996.

Energy Conservation—The initial impetus for a major effort on energy conservation in New Zealand came from the 1973 oil crisis. Since the lifting of emergency restrictions, except for the 80 km/h speed limit, efforts have still concentrated mainly on reducing the use of imported petroleum, although increasing attention has been paid to the conservation of indigenous energy resources as well. In the context of the country as a whole, fuels can to a large extent replace one another and a reduction in the consumption of gas or coal releases these fuels to other consumers, until, at the margin, oil is replaced. Various measures have been introduced to encourage appropriate inter-fuel substitution.

Pricing and tax measures introduced during 1974 and 1975 included a graduated sales tax on cars, a $6,000 depreciation limit on company cars, petrol price and tax increases, minimisation of petrol tax rebates, and a tax on fuel for private flying. Other measures included the introduction of daylight saving, electricity allocations, a publicity campaign, and an interest-free loan scheme for home insulation. A programme for the insulation of existing state rental and departmental houses was introduced with the scheme and the Housing Corporation has laid down a specification for the insulation of all new State houses. As far as larger buildings are concerned, the Government has taken a lead by issuing a set of instructions requiring a critical analysis of the design of public buildings (schools, hospitals, post offices, State office buildings, etc.) having regard to energy conservation.

A major development during 1976 was the announcement in October of the Government's energy pricing policy. The policy recognised that because certain energy prices had been held artificially at low levels there was Utile incentive for the conservation and efficient use of indigenous energy resources.

A feature of the new policy was the introduction from 1 January 1977 of an energy resources levy on coal and natural gas. The pricing policy had the effect of increasing the average industrial price of coal by 20 percent, that of natural gas by 75 percent, and that of electricity by 37 percent.

Three non-price measures intended to promote the wiser use of energy in the business sector were announced with the pricing policy:

  1. A system of approved energy audits to aid firms to use energy more efficiently.

  2. An energy advisory service to be established within the Ministry of Works and Development.

  3. An immediate write-off for tax purposes of approved expenditure on effective controls on existing energy-using plants, industrial insulation, and similar approved measures.

Further measures introduced in recent years to conserve energy or to encourage energy conservation are listed below:

  1. The 1976 tax incentive scheme for industrial and commercial energy conservation was extended in the 1977 and 1978 Budgets.

    Plant and equipment covered by the scheme is as follows:

    1. New process control equipment.

    2. Equipment used in the evaluation of energy use.

    3. New plant, machinery, or equipment used in the production of an energy form from waste materials.

    4. New heat-exchange equipment other than heat pumps for comfort cooling.

    5. New plant, machinery, or equipment for the recovery of waste heat.

    6. Insulation of industrial and commercial buildings.

    7. Sealing of sources or means of energy leakage.

    8. New energy-using plant which uses indigenous energy resources (including solar and wind energy) but not oil or electricity.

    9. Conversions of existing energy-using plant from oil or electricity to indigenous resources.

    10. Plant and ancillary equipment which, in association with approved energy-using plant and equipment, mitigates pollution effects.

    11. New plant, machinery, or equipment for co-generating electricity.

    12. Conversion of business road vehicles to LPG.

    13. Refurbishing of existing lighting installations.

    14. Installation of new LPG storage spheres/tanks exceeding 100 000 litres.

  2. Cash grants, known as “gas development grants”, may be given by the Ministry of Energy to businesses which sell, use, or distribute LPG.

  3. Provision has also been made for a refund of the 10 percent sales tar; on plant and machinery listed in (a) to (j) above where the machinery qualifies for immediate write-off under the taxation incentive.

  4. The Development Finance Corporation has available, subject to its normal lending criteria, finance for plant and equipment which qualifies for the immediate write-off.

  5. The major features of schemes to encourage the use of natural gas in the home are grants to the supplying authority of $200 for each new mains connection to new and existing houses where at least 2 of the 3 major gas uses (cooking, water heating, and space heating) are involved; a temporary reduction in the tariff on imported gas cookers for household use; and interest-free loans of up to $400, repayment over 4 years, available to assist in the purchase of gas appliances for cooking, water heating and space heating.

  6. Mandatory home insulation for new houses is, in general, taking effect with new building permits being issued after 1 April 1978. Interest-free loans are available for up to $400 over a 4-year repayment period.

  7. Late in 1978 the home insulation loan scheme was extended to offer assistance to purchasers of approved solar water heaters. Interest-free loans of $500 upwards are available, with repayment spread over 5 years.

  8. From 22 July 1977 a sales tax of 1.5 cents a litre has been payable on a range of products including fuel and heating oil, marine diesel, and kerosene.

  9. As from 2 June 1978, motor spirits duty was increased by 2 cents a litre. This was passed on to the consumer.

  10. New sales tax rates have been introduced on energy-intensive appliances as follows:

    Household, industrial, and commercial air conditioners which incorporate refrigerating units30 percent
    Household tumbler and cabinet clothes driers20 percent
  11. The Government decided to support financially to the extent of $70,000 in 1977–78, a car-pooling scheme developed by the local authorities for commuting between the North Shore and Auckland.

Various other developments are also significant to the energy conservation effort. These include the establishment of an advisory committee on energy conservation and use within the Standards Association of New Zealand, the revitalisation of energy conservation efforts in Government departments, budgetary measures to upgrade public passenger transport, and the successful establishment of an Energy Advisory Service.

As from 1 April 1979 the bulk electricity supply tariff was increased by 60 percent. “Carless days” were introduced at the end of July 1979 in an attempt to further reduce petrol consumption.

Research and Development—New Zealand is able to obtain the results of much overseas energy research work through its international scientific contacts, for example, the International Energy Agency (IEA). Many of this country's energy problems are, however, unique and can only be solved by our own efforts.

New Zealand has a varied energy research programme with work on a multitude of topics being conducted in Government departments, and by universities, private companies, and individuals. About $4.02 million was provided by the Government for energy research, development, and demonstration projects in 1978–79 (in addition $1.14 million was provided by private sources). Particular emphasis recently has been placed on research into alternative liquid fuels, but other programmes involve wind-energy research, research on opportunities for conservation, and conservation demonstrations on, for example, co-generation and heat pumps, geothermal energy utilisation, and coal utilisation.

New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee—The New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee (NZERDC), chaired by Dr C. Maiden, was formed in 1974 to promote energy research. It now lets research contracts to universities, research associations, and the private sector. The Government provides a grant to the NZERDC ($760,000 in 1978–79) to fund the committee's work. Some of its larger recent contracts include energy use in transport, wind energy, biomass conversion, heat pumps, electricity from municipal refuse, and conservation demonstrations in industry.

Apart from funding energy research outside Government departments the committee advises the National Research Advisory Council and the Minister of Energy on overall energy research policy. It is also the administering body in New Zealand for energy research under the United States-New Zealand Joint Agreement for Scientific and Technological Co-operation.

Liquid Fuels Trust Board—The development of alternative fuels for New Zealand's transport sector is vitally important since transport is heavily dependent on imported energy.

The 1978 Budget announced the establishment of a Liquid Fuels Trust Account to be funded by a 0.1 cent per litre levy on automotive gasoline and diesel sales. A Liquid Fuels Trust Board was created by Act of Parliament in October 1978 to administer the account.

The board's principal task is to finance research into transport fuels derived from indigenous resources, especially Maui natural gas, and to actively promote measures that will reduce the transport sector's dependence on imported oil. It has let a wide range of research contracts to both New Zealand and overseas organisations.

International—New Zealand has signed 6 IEA agreements to undertake co-operative research and exchange information on aspects of energy research with other IEA members. These agreements cover solar heating and cooling (DSIR); wind energy conversion systems (New Zealand Meteorological Service); mining technology clearing house and technical information service (Mines Division of Ministry of Energy); energy from forestry (Forest Research Institute); and heat pumps (University of Auckland).

Other multi-lateral organisations from which New Zealand gains energy research and development information are the United Nations and NATO's Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society. Two bilateral scientific and technological exchange agreements, one with the United States and the other with the Federal Republic of Germany, also provide a mechanism for co-operation and information exchange.

International Energy Agency—At the end of 1976 New Zealand notified its consent to be bound by the Agreement on an International Energy Programme, under which the International Energy Agency (IEA) was established. This 19-country organisation was set up as an autonomous body within the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, in response to the 1974 oil crisis. New Zealand had provisionally joined in March 1975, but before it could ratify its membership the Government required legislative authority to enable it to fulfil the various IEA commitments. This authority is given by the IEA Agreement Act, passed in 1976.

All IEA members are co-operating in an emergency oil-sharing scheme which is intended to provide protection against further embargoes in oil supplies. During an emergency the arrangement calls for the sharing of any oil available to the group on an equitable basis. Countries have agreed to introduce oil demand restraint measures in an emergency and to hold oil stocks at specified levels at all times.

The IEA is attaching considerable importance to co-operation in energy conservation and the accelerated production of alternative sources of energy. A long-term co-operation agreement negotiated amongst the member countries is directed towards these purposes and sets a framework for co-operation in a number of fields. In October 1977, the IEA ministerial meeting passed the Draft Decision on Group Objectives and Principles for Energy Policy. This policy sets a target for the IEA members collectively to hold their oil imports to not more than 26 million barrels a day in 1985. Member countries believe the Principles make this a reasonable goal. Another important feature of the effort to reduce dependence on imported oil has centred on an extensive programme of research in which member countries collaborate on energy research in fields of mutual interest.

COMPARATIVE ENERGY-USE STATISTICS—Comparative statistics of per-head consumption of energy in selected countries and geographical areas in 1976 are given in the following table. The figures, taken from the UN World Energy Supplies 1972–1976 are expressed in kilogrammes of coal equivalent per head and are provisional.

Kg per Head

*Except Middle East.

†Includes that part of Russia in Asia.

‡ Customs Union of South Africa.

Africa397
    Congo142
    Egypt473
    Ethiopia27
    Ghana157
    Nigeria94
    South Africa2 985
America, North11 395
    Canada9 950
    United States11 554
America, South868
    Argentina1 804
    Brazil731
    Chile987
Middle East1 169
    Bahrain11 998
    Iran1 490
    Israel2 541
    Turkey743
Asia*557
    Bangladesh33
    Burma49
    India218
    Japan3 679
    Pakistan181
    Singapore2 262
Europe4 289
    Denmark5 320
    France4 380
    Germany, West5 922
    Netherlands6 224
    Sweden6 046
    United Kingdom5 268
    USSR5 259
Oceania4 953
    Australia6 657
    New Zealand3 617
World2 069

20 B—ELECTRIC POWER

GENERAL—New Zealand's natural resources of lakes and fast-flowing rivers have been systematically harnessed for hydro-electric development, providing a relatively cheap source of energy which is continually replenished by nature. Hydro energy provides over 68 percent of the national electricity supply, with 5 percent coming from geothermal energy and the balance from fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas.

At Wairakei, in New Zealand's thermal region, natural steam is being used to drive the turbines. Meremere, the steam station south of Auckland, uses coal as fuel, while at Marsden, near Whangarei, heavy oils are used. A large dual-fuel steam station at New Plymouth uses both natural gas and oil. A second dual-fuel steam station is currently under construction at Huntly, this station to use natural gas and coal as fuels. Gas turbines operate at Otahuhu (oil and natural gas), Stratford (natural gas), and Whirinaki (oil).

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—Electricity supply in New Zealand was pioneered by local bodies and private enterprise. Reefton had hydro-electric supply as early as 1888, and Wellington in the following year opened a water-powered plant, using water from the city mains, but later switched to steam generation. Auckland and Christchurch, using steam-generating stations, and Dunedin, using hydro plant, all had supplies extensively developed before the advent of Government supply. Many smaller communities also had local supply, mostly produced from local steam stations, although in some cases hydro plant was installed to take advantage of local water resources.

The first Government station was opened at Lake Coleridge in 1914, and its capacity was increased in 4 stages up to 1930. In the North Island the Government purchased the Waihi Goldmining Company's station at Horahora on the Waikato River. This station was enlarged and by 1927 was supplying power as far north as Henderson and Takapuna. Mangahao station near Shannon was opened in 1924; one of the Waikaremoana stations (Tuai) and Arapuni both began operating in 1929. Between 1920 and 1930 the capacity of the State generating system grew by 135 590 kW and the number of consumers in New Zealand increased from 58 449 to 284 235. In the early 1920s steam stations were still producing up to 60 percent of the total electricity but by the 1930s they produced as little as 1 percent in some years, as they were gradually relegated to standby stations.

In the 1930s the Waitaki hydro station was commissioned and the Government acquired 2 small hydro stations—Arnold from the Grey Electric Power Board and Monowai from the Southland Power Board. With the latter the Government also took over the responsibility for distribution in Southland, a situation still existing today.

Despite the difficulties, capacity was increased during the war years. Some existing stations were extended, and new ones opened at Piripaua (the second Waikaremoana station), at Cobb in north-west Nelson and, towards the end of the war, at Highbank in Canterbury. Gates were built in 1941 to control the outflow from Lake Taupo.

After the war plans were pushed ahead for the development of the potential of the principal power source in the North Island, the Waikato River. Work had proceeded on Karapiro, the second Waikato station, during the war and its first power was produced in 1947 (the old Horahora station was submerged in the lake formed behind the dam). In 1952 Maraetai, the largest station on the Waikato, began producing electricity, and in 1956 Whakamaru was completed, following by Atiamuri in 1958. Both Ohakuri and Waipapa stations began operating in 1961 and Aratiatia Station in 1964.

Development in other areas included the commissioning of Kaitawa, the third Waikaremoana station, in 1948 and the installation of further machines at Waitaki. Control works were built at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo to ensure an adequate water supply to the Waitaki station in the winter. Incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo is a single-machine power station which was commissioned in 1951. Since the commissioning of the first station of the Upper Waitaki project (Tekapo “B”) this station has been known as Tekapo “A”. The largest station built up to that time in New Zealand began operating at Roxburgh on the Clutha River in 1956. Meanwhile work proceeded on the Benmore station, which was completed in 1966. Another station on the Waitaki, at Aviemore, located between the Waitaki and Benmore stations, began operating in 1968.

Matahina on the Rangitaiki River in the Bay of Plenty produced its first electricity in January 1967.

The Manapouri scheme uses the waters of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, taking advantage of the 177m head between Manapouri and the sea. Intakes at the West Arm of Manapouri lead the water into vertical penstocks to the turbines 213 m underground and it is discharged into Deep Cove at Doubtful Sound through a tunnel almost 10 kilometres in length.

A large proportion of Manapouri's output supplies the Bluff aluminium smelter and the remainder is fed into the national grid. Four generators began operating in 1969 and the remaining 3 in 1971 to give a total installed capacity of 700MW (name plate rating).

The Manapouri scheme was the subject of an agreement between the Government and Comalco in 1960 but subsequent agreements were negotiated in 1963, 1966, 1969, and 1977. As the land concerned lies within Fiordland National Park the agreement required statutory authority which was conferred in the Te Anau - Manapouri Development Act 1963. Under the 1969 agreement the Government built the power station and the lake control works at Te Anau and Manapouri.

The actual formula devised for Comalco to pay for the electricity varied between agreements. The latest of these was a major re-negotiation in late 1977 to reflect the changed circumstances in energy supply.

The 1966 agreement provided that Lake Manapouri be raised from its natural level of 178 m above sea level to an operating level of 185–190 m while the minimum lake level was set at 175.4 m. Consequent on a campaign by conservationists opposed to the raising of the lake level the Government appointed a commission in 1970 to inquire into the proposal. The dam at Mararoa to control Lake Manapouri has been built on a narrow base to control the lake within a normal range of levels. Lake Te Anau, which feeds Lake Manapouri through the Upper Waiau River, is controlled at natural levels between 199 m and 202 m by a dam near its outlet.

The purpose, planning, and the development of the Manapouri project were fully described in parliamentary paper D.7, 1967, as well as the Report of the Commission to Inquire into the Proposal to Raise the Level of Lake Manapouri for the Purpose of Generating Electricity (parliamentary paper D.8, 1970) and a report by the Institute of Economic Research on the Manapouri-Bluff Project commissioned by Comalco and published in October 1971.

The installed capacity of Maraetai power station on the Waikato River was doubled by the building of a second powerhouse for 5 additional machines which were commissioned in 1970–71. The yearly output from Maraetai has not been increased although useful peak-time capacity has been added.

The first of the power stations being built as part of the Tongariro scheme was commissioned by early 1974. This is the 200 MW Tokaanu power station.

The most recently completed hydro power station was commissioned in mid-1977. Tekapo “B” is the first station completed on the Upper Waitaki development.

Thermal Generation—The first thermal station built by New Zealand Electricity (a division of the Ministry of Energy) came into operation in 1958 at Meremere beside the Waikato River, 64 km south of Auckland. This station burns coal which is transported from the Maramarua opencast mines by aerial cableway, and from the Huntly mines by road and rail.

At Wairakei, a few kilometres north of Taupo, geothermal steam has been harnessed for the generation of electricity. The first machine began producing electricity in 1958 and the last machine (the thirteenth) was installed in 1963. Bores which are 102, 152, and 203 mm in diameter have been drilled to depths varying between 174 m and 1220 m.

Marsden power station was commissioned in 1967 using oil from the nearby refinery, and oil/natural gas burning gas turbines went into service in 1968 at Otahuhu. In 1976 a gas turbine station using natural gas was completed at Stratford.

The 600 MW thermal station at New Plymouth produced its first electricity in 1974 and the last machine was commissioned early in 1977. Until the Maui natural gas wells off the coast of Taranaki began production, the energy source was Kapuni natural gas, supplemented by some oil-firing. A chimney 198 m high has been built to disperse the hot exhaust gases.

A 216 MW oil burning gas turbine station at Whirinaki, near Napier, was completed in mid-1977, but commercial operation of this station was not possible until late 1978 when an oil pipeline and oil storage facilities were completed.

Construction Projects: Hydro—A catchment area of nearly 260 000 hectares in the central volcanic uplands of the North Island is being tapped for hydro-electric power development. Known as the Tongariro Scheme, this complex development involves drawing upon the headwaters of certain rivers and their tributaries and diverting part of their flow from one watershed to another.

The Western Diversions collect water from the headwaters of the Wanganui River and several of its tributaries and divert it into Lake Rotoaira. As part of this project, control equipment has been installed to close gates at the Whakapapa tunnel intake in the event of the passage of a lahar (volcanic mud flow) down the Whakapapa River. Water from Lake Rotoaira passes through a 6100-metre tunnel to the power station at Tokaanu, then into Lake Taupo. Tokaanu Power Station, which has four 50 MW generators, was completed in early 1974.

The Eastern Diversions will collect water from the Moawhango River and the eastern slopes of Mount Ruapehu. The waters will then feed through the Moawhango tunnel to join water from the Tongariro River before passing through Rangipo station into Lake Rotoaira. Rangipo power station, now under construction, is a 120 MW underground station scheduled for commissioning in 1982.

Much restorative planting and landscaping work is being carried out through the whole development as well as special measures to protect and preserve fishing and fish spawning grounds in the area.

In July 1968 Government approved in principle the total development of the Upper Waitaki Valley for hydro-electric use. The scheme involves controlling the outflows of Lakes Tekapo and Pukaki and to a limited extent Lake Ohau, and directing the stored waters through canals to 4 power stations named Tekapo B, Ohau A, Ohau B, and Ohau C; the diverted waters will eventually reach the Waitaki River at Lake Benmore. The total capacity of the new stations will be about 850 megawatts; also the extra storage provided by the scheme will allow the output from existing Waitaki stations to be increased. Work began with the construction of a township at Twizel, and on the Tekapo B project, which was completed early in 1977. Work is underway on the Ohau A power station, first power from which is expected in 1979. The Government has also given approval for Ohau B and C stations, and work has started on both these.

Upper Clutha Hydro-electric Development—In December 1976 the Government announced that scheme F had been chosen from a number of alternatives which had been drawn up. This scheme comprises 5 power stations estimated to cost $732 million (1977) with a potential plant capacity of 1300 MW, which may later be extended to 1500 MW. For comparison, Benmore produces 540 MW and Huntly will produce 1000 MW. Construction of the scheme will extend over 18 years and will comprise 3 power stations on the Clutha River (Clyde, Luggate, and Queensberry) and 2 on the Kawerau River (Gibbston and Kawerau). The maximum lake levels (height above sea level), generating capacity, and approximate commissioning dates of the power stations are as follows: Clyde-195 m, 400 MW, 1987; Luggate-273 m, 265 MW, 1991; with Queensberry-232 m, 220 MW, Gibbston-307 m, 180 MW, Kawerau-256 m, 240 MW, to follow as required.

Thermal—Agreement was reached late in 1973 between the oil consortium and the Government on the development of the Maui off-shore natural gas field. The first stage to be completed involves the installation of a platform structure at the Maui 3 location and the laying off-shore of a 610-mm diameter gas pipeline and a 254-mm diameter condensate pipeline. Part of the natural gas delivery of 17 million cubic metres a day will be used to feed 4 thermal power stations, one of them being the New Plymouth station.

One natural-gas-fired power station of 1400 MW was earlier proposed in the Auckland area, but investigations are now proceeding into the alternative of providing this capacity in smaller combined cycle stations rather than one large conventional steam station. A 1000 MW station is being built at Huntly, the first unit (250 MW) of which is scheduled to be commissioned in October 1979. Investigations by the Mines Department over the years have confirmed the existence of a large underground coal-field sufficient to provide fuel for such a station, but natural gas from the Maui field is to be used for one or more of the generating units, at least in the initial years of operation.

Approval was given in November 1972 for a further 2 generating units of 50 MW to be added to Otahuhu gas turbine station. These are designed to run on distillate oil and in early 1979 were in final commissioning. Construction of an oil-fired intermediate load station, Marsden B, was approved on 30 July 1974 and is expected to be completed by December 1979.

The guaranteed market for gas for electricity generation has made the development of the Maui field, with the recovery of the associated valuable condensate, an economically viable proposition. This guaranteed gas demand involves a progressive increase in annual consumption until a maximum level is reached in the mid 1980s. At this level, about 17 600 GWh of electricity could be produced annually from a gas-fired power station plant of 3300 MW capacity. This capacity would, of course, be reduced by the extent to which gas is diverted for other uses, but the annual consumption rates set out in the Maui Gas Purchase Contract are expected to be maintained. Some idea of the magnitude of this output can be gauged from the fact that these figures are roughly equivalent to electrical energy consumption and peak demand for the whole of New Zealand for the 1972–73 year.

The Ohaki power station which will be built on the Broadlands geothermal field will have an initial output of some 80–100 MW, which may be increased to 165 MW at a later stage when more is known about the performance of the field. The initial stages of design are nearing completion with an expected completion date for the first stage (2 machines) of April 1985.

INTER-ISLAND TRANSMISSION—In 1965, at the same time as Benmore power station was commissioned, the transmission systems of the North and South Islands were linked by a high-voltage direct-current (HVDC) transmission line and undersea cables. This new system enabled electricity to be transmitted from the South Island to the North Island where there is a greater demand for power.

This scheme not only involved the laying of submarine cables for 40 km in Cook Strait, but also the construction of a 570 km, 500 kV direct-current transmission line from Benmore to Fighting Bay on the southern side of Cook Strait, and from Oteranga Bay on the northern side to Haywards sub-station. Complex converting equipment had also to be installed at each end of the system. Considerable worldwide interest has been shown in this scheme, which was the largest of its type outside the USSR. The World Bank made a loan of $23.2 million to meet the overseas costs of this project.

Following modification to the HVDC link it has been possible to transmit power in both directions between the North and South Islands since April 1976.

The 1978 report of the Planning Committee on Electric Power Development in New Zealand proposed the construction of a further HVDC scheme connecting the 2 islands. The earliest date such a scheme could be completed is estimated as being mid-1985. However, at this stage, no decisions have been made regarding size, route, etc.

PLANNING FOR ELECTRIC POWER—Forward planning is continually under review by a series of specialised committees. The Committee to Review Power Requirements considers estimates for 5 years ahead from the Electrical Supply Authorities Association and projects demand for a further 10 years. Peak power forecasts are also derived from the basic energy forecasts.

The personnel of this committee, representing the generating and distributing portions of the electrical industry, together with the Department of Statistics, Treasury, and the Ministry of Energy (previously the Ministry of Energy Resources), apply a wider judgment on long-term considerations to frame forecasts for the 15-year period. The independent forecast prepared by the Department of Statistics provides a valuable comparison with the work done in the industry.

Forecasting electricity demand is one of the longest-term planning processes in New Zealand. It is of critical importance to the electrical industry and the economy of the country. The long sequences of events in providing generating plants, spanning about 7 years, is today lengthening because of a more critical appraisal of their environmental impact. If demand estimates are low, or plant is not ready on time, a difficult supply situation could result. On the other hand, if estimates are high, a premature commitment of resources and capital can materially affect what is available for other national development and social programmes.

The Planning Committee on Electrical Power Development in New Zealand, which consists of members of the Ministry of Energy (Electricity, Planning, and Policy Divisions), Ministry of Works and Development, Treasury, and supply authority representatives, considers the findings of the review committee in relation to the construction of stations to meet power requirements. The planning period was increased in 1974 from 10 to 15 years to provide for the extra time necessary for the careful environmental impact planning and generally lengthening construction times of major projects.

The planning committee recommends what projects it considers should be proceeded with, and when, in order to meet estimated needs. The review and planning reports are submitted to the Minister of Energy who tables them in the House of Representatives.

The 1978 Committee to Review Power Requirements provided (for the first time) 2 sets of estimates (based on different assumptions of population and economic growth) for the period 1978–79 to 1992–93 inclusive as follows (all figures in GWh or million kWh):

Upper—22 024; 22 951; 24 166; 25 568; 26 627; 27 547; 28 475; 29 507; 30 523; 31 584; 32 675; 33 823; 34 899; 36 019; 37 164.

Lower— 21 919; 22 701; 23 491; 24 446; 25 111; 25 617; 26 123; 26 751; 27 348; 27 971; 28 607; 29 261; 29 934; 30 625; 31 333.

The Government and the electrical industry have put considerable emphasis on conservation. Examples of this are the solar heating and home insulation schemes which allow householders to finance installation with a 2 year interest-free loan, repayments being with their electricity accounts. Home insulation is now mandatory in new dwellings. Many electric supply authorities operate advisory services and these, with the Electrical Development Association, provide advice to consumers on the economic and efficient consumption of electricity.

FINANCE FOR ELECTRICITY—Up to 1968 some $1,105 million had been expended in generation, transmission, and distribution, of which the Government share was $833 million. By 1978 the capital invested by the Government had risen to $2,197 million and, with the further expenditure by the electrical supply authorities on generation and distribution, the total capital expenditure has increased to $2,734 million. Continuing capital expenditure will be necessary for the strengthening and expansion of both New Zealand Electricity's generating and transmission network and electrical supply authorities distribution systems. Until recently this capital investment programme was partly financed from a surplus of current revenue but with the stabilisation of electricity tariffs a greater portion has had to come from loan funds. However, from 1 May 1979 the bulk supply tariff and consequential retail tariffs will provide for 50 percent of the capital requirements to come from revenue.

Figure 22.1. GROWTH OF SUPPLY OF ELECTRICITY

GROWTH OF SUPPLY OF ELECTRICITY

LEGISLATION—Under the Ministry of Energy Act 1977, the Ministry of Energy is responsible for preparing plans to meet the expected demand for electric power and for controlling the State generating and transmission systems. The Ministry also has certain responsibilities for promoting the conservation and efficient utilisation of electricity. In general, hydraulic investigation and civil engineering are carried out by the Ministry of Works and Development to the requirements of the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy. New Zealand Electricity is also responsible for the overall functional design of each station, detailed design and installation of all turbines, generators, and associated electrical and mechanical equipment, for the design and installation of equipment at substations, for the survey, design, and construction of transmission lines, and for the operation and maintenance of the network which supplies electricity in bulk to the distributing authorities.

ELECTRIC POWER BOARDS AND SUPPLY AUTHORITIES—Under the Electric Power Boards Act 1925, boards control constituted electric power districts. Of the 37 electric power boards actually functioning at 31 March 1978, 13 had generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 52 461 kW. There were also 22 territorial electric supply authorities, 8 of them having generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 103 822 kW. New Zealand Electricity acts as the distributing authority for Southland Electric Power Supply, while Rotorua is controlled by an area electric authority. The licensed areas under the control of the boards and other authorities cover almost all the inhabited parts of the country. More than 99 percent of New Zealand's population enjoy the benefits of electricity in the home; only a few thousand people in the more isolated and less accessible parts of the country lack this amenity.

The supply of electricity to the remote areas presents difficulties because of the high cost of reticulation in relation to the revenue from power sold. To assist consumers whose livelihood requires them to live in remote rural areas the Rural Electrical Reticulation Council can make a levy on the gross revenue from all electricity sales of all supply authorities and Government-owned electricity undertakings. This levy, at present set at 1/10 of 1 percent, is used to subsidise the capital cost of supply to these areas (line or private generating plant). Since the council was set up, under the Electricity Act 1945, it has approved subsidies on 16 345 route kilometres of line (15 909 route km completed) assisting some 15 757 consumers (15 610 in service). During the year ended 31 March 1978, the council approved subsidies on 113 route kilometres of line, assisting 169 consumers, and paid out $299,078 on subsidies.

PUBLIC SUPPLY STATIONS—The following table covers all stations whose output is fully or partially available to the public supply system as at 31 March 1978, their installed capacity, static head where applicable, and annual electrical energy generation. Stations are State-owned unless otherwise indicated.

StationInstalled Capacity at 31 March 1978Static HeadAnnual Energy Generation Year Ended 31 March 1978Annual Load Factor
Number of UnitsMW

*Owned by Dunedin City Council.

†Owned by other supply authorities and industries.

‡Excludes capacity of generating plant owned and operated by industries.

§New station commissioned during the year.

||New station being commissioned.

  Hydrometresmillion kWhpercent
Arapuni8157.853845.061.32
Aratiatia390.034344.946.82
Atiamuri484.025298.142.01
Karapiro390.030548.767.50
Mangahao519.2273100.155.47
Maraetai10360.061853.830.65
Matahina272.061258.639.31
Ohakuri4112.035402.340.36
Tokaanu4200.0208541.127.48
Waikaremoana—
    Kaitawa232.0135166.961.98
    Piripaua240.0113201.5
    Tuai352.0206317.3
Waipapa351.016263.553.52
Whakamaru4100.038517.355.82
Arnold23.11321.775.16
Aviemore4220.037599.527.91
Benmore6540.0921 427.629.02
Cobb632.0594173.759.16
Coleridge934.514996.726.29
Highbank125.210175.233.32
Manapouri7700.01774 055.976.96
Monowai36.04728.473.76
Roxburgh8320.0461 250.344.27
Tekapo 'A'125.23077.231.48
Tekapo 'B'§2160.014.6358.1
Waipori*1190.6218; 218; 57; 51; 34181.727.69
Waitaki7105.021314.636.64
Auxiliary6155.3272.0
            Sub-total 3 776.9 14 591.9..
  Thermal   
Marsden2240.0 390.518.73
Meremere7210.0 869.656.08
New Plymouth5600.0 3 435.567.38
Otahuhu4180.0 35.53.18
Stratford4208.0 763.038.83
Wairakei13192.4 1157.989.62
Whirinaki||4216.0 4.6
Auxiliary1010.3 19.9
             Sub-total 1856.7 6676.6 
Total 5633.7 21268.5 

GENERAL STATISTICS—A summary of all supply authorities and New Zealand Electricity in 1977–78 is shown in the following table.

ItemUnit1977–78

*New Zealand Electricity only.

†Excluding stocks and materials.

‡Includes starting oil.

Generating stationsNo.80
Capacity of generatorskW(000)5 634
Fuel used*
    Coaltonnes600 093
    Light oiltonnes4 760
    Heavy oiltonnes157 180
    Natural gasTerajoules45 652
Staff employedNo.14 989
Capital expenditure
    During year (net outlay)$(m)355.6
    To date$(m)2,733.9
Generation and sales—
    Generation per head of mean populationkWh6 798
    Retail sales per head of mean populationkWh6 043
    Domestic consumption per domestic consumerkWh7 670
    Income from total retail sales of electricity per kWh sold to consumerscents2.365

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE—Financial operations are summarised in the following table.

Item1977–78
*These figures represent transfers within the electrical supply industry and therefore do not represent additional income or expenditure to the industry.
Income—$(000)
    Gross income (including bulk sales and standby charges, excluding rates)743,509
    Income from bulk sales to supply authorities*270,274
    Net income (excluding rates, bulk sales, and standby charges)473,235
Expenditure—
    Operating (including cost of energy purchased in bulk)432,189
    Cost of energy purchased in bulk*270,274
    Operating (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)161,915
    Trading, administration and general70,027
    Loan interest and depreciation183,155
    Total annual expenditure (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)415,097
Surplus58,138

GENERATION—Means of generation of electrical energy for public supply is given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated by Means of
HydroSteamOil and GasTotal
 million kWh
197414 150.93 534.0429.518 114.4
197514 197.23 992.4162.118 351.7
197616 873.23 084.9113.120 071.2
197714 927.44 968.21 018.620 914.2
197814 591.95 873.4803.221 268.5

The following table sets out generation and disposal by type of authority. The excess generation of certain local organisations, which is bought for public supply, is given in the column “other sources”.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated for Public SupplySold RetailNon-productive
N.Z. ElectricitySupply AuthoritiesOther SourcesTotal
million kWh
197417 7363532518 11415 9472 167
197517 9533811818 35216 2722 079
197619 6474071720 07117 6502 421
197720 4654301920 91418 709x2 205x
197820 7954542021 26818 9092 360

SALES—The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. “Domestic” includes domestic water-heating units.

Year Ended 31 MarchDomesticIndustrialCommercialFarmingStreet LightingRail and Bus TractionTotalNumber of Consumers
million kWh
19747 4405 6422 3603621043915 9471,182,469
19757 5545 8042 4033701043716 2721,214,922
19768 4036 1232 5783941133917 6501,248,909
19778 3986 9992 7534101163618 7121,280,166
19788 3147 1052 9074361153218 9091,309,958

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power, and shows also the principal purposes for which the power was employed.

Figure 22.2. ELECTRICITY GENERATION

ELECTRICITY GENERATION

The distribution of the expenditure per kWh sold retail during 1977–78 was as follows: operating expenses 0.856 cents; trading, administration and general 0.370 cents; and loan interest and depreciation 0.969 cents giving a total expenditure of 2.195 cents per kWh sold retail.

The income per kWh sold in 1977–78 was, by categories; domestic 2.303 cents; commercial 4.036 cents; industrial 1.658 cents; farming 3.841 cents; public lighting 2.615 cents; railway traction 3.122 cents; urban traction 2.447 cents.

20 C—GAS

GENERAL—Gas was produced from coal as an early source of light and heating in New Zealand and by 1916 there were 56 undertakings engaged in the marketing of gas to the public. From that date the numbers of manufactured gas undertakings steadily declined because of the growth in the use of electricity as providing a cheaper source of energy. A Gas Council was established in 1958 to arrest the decline. Since 1970 the gas industry has been rejuvenated by the reticulation of natural gas in the North Island. There remains, however, a major difference between that part of the industry distributing natural gas and the remainder which is still manufacturing gas from coal and oil. The manufactured gas industry has, for many years, not been able to operate without financial assistance, and its problems intensified during 1974–75, largely because of the massive increases in the price of imported naphtha from which the lowest-cost gas had previously been produced.

The oil consortium, Shell B.P. and Todd Oil Services Ltd., discovered natural gas in Kapuni in 1959. In 1967, when further investigations had confirmed that the field was sufficiently large to justify exploitation, the Natural Gas Corporation was set up by the Government to develop this new energy resource. It is now operating the gas processing plant at Kapuni, and the pipeline to supply and sell gas along the pipeline routes to undertakings previously producing coal gas, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Hawera, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Levin, Hutt Valley, and Wellington. Natural gas supply to these centres took place in 1970 and 1971. The corporation also supplies gas to a limited number of industrial consumers adjacent to the pipeline route. A pipeline to supply untreated natural gas to the Stratford and New Plymouth electricity generating stations was completed in 1975. Supplies of untreated gas are also made available to a limited number of large industrial consumers. The corporation produces natural gasoline which is used by the Gisborne, Napier, and Hastings undertakings as a base feedstock for their gas supplies. An additional by-product extracted at Kapuni is commercial propane, which is purchased and distributed by the oil consortium. Gross trading profits of the Natural Gas Corporation were $62,144 in 1971–72, $719,966 in 1972–73, $1,826,000 in 1973–74, $1,894,000 in 1974–75, and $2,511,359 in 1975–76, but interest and depreciation charges resulted in net losses of $2.8 million, $2.2 million, $1.3 million, $1.3 million, and $982,885 in the respective years. In 1976–77 and 1977–78, however, pre-tax profits of $1,861,457 and $3,167,770 were achieved.

Those gasworks not receiving natural gas continue to receive financial incentives provided by the Government; in 1977–78 subsidies on coal prices and gas sales totalled $1,999,000 compared with $2,775,000 in the previous year.

Restrictions on electricity usage in the winters of 1973 and 1974 led to an unprecedented increase in demand but this could not be met until the Natural Gas Corporation completed extensions to its gas treatment plant at Kapuni. During 1976–77 gas processed amounted to 129,278,000 MJ × 100. A further 286,482,000 MJ × 100 of untreated gas was supplied for electricity generation.

GAS INDUSTRY—In 1975–76 the gas industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

  1. The manufacture and distribution of gas by gas works.

  2. The distribution of natural gas by gas undertakings.

This reclassification also introduced an integrated economic census of the industry, based on the year ended 31 March or the last accounting year prior to that date.

The census of the gas industry covered the activities of 12 gasworks manufacturing coal, oil, and water gas, and 9 gas undertakings distributing natural gas. Of the 12 gasworks, 4 are situated in the North Island and 8 in the South Island, whilst all the 9 gas undertakings are in the North Island.

Gas distributed by gasworks decreased by 7.8 percent in 1977–78 to 1193.2 million megajoules, whereas there was an increase of 2.8 percent to 12 201.6 million megajoules in natural gas distributed by gas undertakings.

Total turnover of gasworks and gas undertakings in 1977–78 was $42,780,000 representing an increase of 26.3 percent over 1976–77. Value added (the approximate contribution to Gross Domestic Product) for the whole industry was $12,251,000 in 1977–78, 21.7 percent higher than in 1976–77.

The following table gives general statistics of the gas industry for the 3 years for which these are available on a comparable basis. Definitions of the terms used are similar to those for the Manufacturing Census (see section 18).

ItemUnit1975–761976–771977–78
EstablishmentsNo.212121
Ancillary unitsNo.888
Persons engaged at mid-April:
    MalesNo.918916953
    FemalesNo.140145142
Capital expenditure, less disposals$(000)3,4583,0562,737
Depreciation$(000)8131,3751,444
Salaries and wages paid:
    Males$(000)5,6966,4237,378
    Females$(000)591706789
Purchases and other expenses$(000)15,871x21,895x29,434
Turnover$(000)25,494x33,873x42,780
Value Added$(000)8,576x10,070x12,251

In the 3 tables which follow, the general statistics table has been extended to show the separate details of the 2 sub-groups of the gas industry which forms part of N.Z.S.I.C.—Major Division 4—“Fuel and Power”. viz:

Sub-group 41021—The manufacture and distribution of gas by 12 gasworks, covering 4 in the North Island and 8 in the South Island.

Sub-group 41022—The distribution of natural gas by 9 gas undertakings in the North Island.

The first table gives operating statistics.

ItemUnitGas WorksGas Undertakings
1975–761976–771977–781975–761976–771977–78
Enterprise units—
    Establishments No.121212999
    Ancillary units No.666222
Paid employees at mid-April—
Administration, sales, professional, office and related employees
 —MaleNo.797969166156174
 —FemaleNo.393936939996
Production and all other employees
 —MaleNo.287272286386409424
 —FemaleNo.8710
                Total—MaleNo.366351355552565598
 —FemaleNo.474646939996
Paid part-time employees (included above)—
                Total—MaleNo.81110235
 —FemaleNo.10910243
Hours worked by paid employees—
    Ordinary time—Malehrs (000)6666346591 0391 0701 184
 —Femalehrs (000)758277171173177
    Paid overtime—Malehrs (000)647069945866
 —Femalehrs (000)123
Paid employees, full-time equivalent—
 —MaleNo.409394408634631700
 —FemaleNo.4246439798101
Salaries and wages paid—
    Administration, etc.—Male$(000)5225836311,2691,4501,617
 —Female$(000)145166185415510556
    Production, etc.—Male$(000)1,7121,9102,2062,1932,4812,925
 —Female$(000)313049
                Total—Male$(000)2,2342,4932,8363,4613,9314,542
 —Female$(000)177196233415510556
Capital expenditure, less sales of fixed assets—
    Land and buildings $(000)61147–2013–38
    Other construction $(000)2462182,2791,8651,649
    Vehicles, all types $(000)405333178176257
    Plant machinery and equipment $(000)664410328288364483
                Total $(000)7346393862,7242,4182,351
Capital work done by own employees—
    Salaries and wages $(000)263010280388348
    Other costs $(000)331,251801675
                Total (included in capital expenditure) $(000)2934101,5311,1881,023

The second table gives financial statistics.

ItemGas WorksGas Undertakings
1975–761976–771977–781975–761976–771977–78
Stocks of materials, etc., and finished goods—$(000)
    Value at start of year1,1341 4271,5002,8473,0333,036
    Value at end of year1,4271,5011,6933,0333,0342,998
              Increase+293+74+193+186+1–38
Purchase of materials—
    Fuel and power—Electricity77108165293336
                                Fuel oil3239
                                Gas—Natural12x7344357
                                —Manufactured12x
    Materials—Natural gas for distribution3,9424,3266,66513,353
                      Coal2,021x2,919x
                      Oil1,7502,3111,953
    Other materials and amount paid for contract services324713114450
    Goods for resale3735345552,0302,7342,757
                Total purchases of materials4,297x5,934x6,7606,5639,52516,203
Operating expenses, other—
    Contributions to superannuation, etc.525249124125147
    Rent—Land and buildings212935141221
            —Plant, equipment, vehicles139137159
    Insurance667583105125131
    Land tax, rates and licence fees7387107121135172
    Additional expenses1,0991,3971,2302,0433,4573,663
    Other costs of capital work done by own employees331,251801675
              Sub-total1,3141,6441,5043,6974,7914,967
Total purchases and other expenses5,611x7,579x8,26410,26014,31621,170
    Depreciation351664718461711726
    Salaries and wages (including those capitalised)2,4112,6883,0703,8764,4415,098
              Total operating expenses8,373x10,931x12,05214,59719,46826,994
Sales—
    Gas and by-products—
        Natural gas—Industrial users9,06613,00220,180
        Domestic users3,1333,9315,471
        Manufactured gas—Industrial users3,1674,7875,552
                                      Domestic users1,6872,1282,434
            Coke492794971
            Tars139192203
            Other manufactured goods and services169236205218
    Goods for resale6687507702,8163,5203,533
              Total sales6,3228,88610,13615,23320,45329,184
Other—
    Rent293132130183181
    Subsidies1,896x2,367x1,720154
    Other income1165042207667448
    Capital work done by own employees2934101,5311,1881,023
              Total other2,070x2,481x1,8031,8682,0531,656
              Total turnover8,393x11,367x11,94017,10122,50630,840

The third table shows the approximate contribution made by the gas industry as a whole to the Gross Domestic Product.

ItemGas WorksGas Undertakings
1975–761976–771977–781975–761976–771977–78
 $(000)
Total turnover8,393x11,367x11,94017,10122,50630,840
Stocks at end of year1,4271,5011,6933,0333,0342,998
Total9,820x12,868x13,63220,13425,54033,838
Less stocks at start of year1,1341,4271,5002,8473,0333,036
Less total operating expenses8,373x10,931x12,05214,59719,46826,994
Operating surplus312510812,6903,0393,808
Salaries and wages2,4112,6893,0703,8764,4415,098
Superannuation, etc.525249124125147
Land tax, rates, etc.7387107121135172
Depreciation351664718461711726
Total3,2004,0024,0257,2728,4509,951
Less Government grants and subsidies1,896x2,3671,720154
Equals value added totals for the two industries1,304x1,635x2,3057,2728,4359,946

PRODUCTION AND DISPOSAL STATISTICS—The following 2 tables compare production and disposal of manufactured and natural gas by the 21 enterprises in the 2 industries. The first shows gas manufactured and distributed by gas works.

Item1975–761976–771977–78*
*Includes “natural gasoline” reformed by 3 gas works operating in the North Island.
 Megajoules (million)
Production—
    Quantity manufactured by gas works1 294.51 298.31 196.6
        Less
            Internal consumption4.94.13.4
                Quantity available for distribution1 289.61 294.21 193.2
Distribution—
    Losses211.9210.9224.2
    Sales—Domestic354.3338.8293.6
                —Industrial and commercial723.4744.5675.4
                        Total distribution by gas works1 289.61 294.21 193.2

New Zealand Children

1979 · International Year of the Child

A colour supplement to the New Zealand Official Yearbook illustrating the monthly themes used during the International Year of the Child. Photographs are by kind permission of the Photographic Society of New Zealand, the Department of Education, and the Police Department, and by courtesy of World Vision—from the IYC film “Come Over to My Place”.

The second table shows gas purchased and distributed by gas undertakings.

Item1975–76*1976–77*1977–78*
*Includes “natural gas” reformed by 1 gas undertaking in the North Island.
 Megajoules (million)
Purchases—
    Quantity purchased by gas undertakings10 398.811 944.512 266.4
        Less
            Internal consumption79.574.964.8
                Quantity available for distribution10 319.311 869.612 201.6
Distribution—
    Losses1 342.81 572.81 523.7
    Sales—Domestic1 124.91 396.11 498.0
                —Industrial and commercial7 851.68 900.79 179.9
                        Total distribution by gas undertakings10 319.311 869.612 201.6

Chapter 23. Section 21; MARKETING

21 A—MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

DEPENDENCE ON AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL EXPORTS—Despite the rise in the last decade in exports of timber, wood pulp and paper, and of manufactured products in general, products of animal origin still average annually over 65 percent of the total value of New Zealand exports, and agricultural exports of grass seed and fruit can be added to raise even higher the value of exports of farm produce. New Zealand remains one of the largest exporters in the world of butter and also (in some years) of meat, and is also one of the leading exporters of wool and cheese.

The following table of exports by value indicates the relative importance of farm products.

Year Ended 30 JuneDairy ProduceMeatWoolHides, Pelts, and SkinsTotal Exports*
ButterCheeseMilk and CreamCaseinTotal
*Of New Zealand produce.
$(million)
1974109.561.8x133.228.6333.1534.1361.667.01,746.2
1975122.148.4106.014.7291.2442.2261.762.71,558.0
1976204.278.088.527.1397.8593.8456.477.42,255.6
1977253.984.9111.159.7509.6765.6648.2128.63,096.7
1978240.976.6132.860.5510.8765.2580.0144.03,141.0

The countries of destination for some of the main exports for 1977–78 are shown in the following table on a percentage basis. (Percentages are based on value of exports.)

Country of DestinationButterCheeseLambBeef and VealMuttonWool
United Kingdom76.69.856.52.49.518.0
Japan0.330.94.24.036.37.8
United States1.029.35.659.23.5
U.S.S.R6.427.98.2
Germany, Fed. Rep.0.11.32.50.10.18.8
Netherlands0.20.30.10.38.6
France0.60.56.5
Italy0.11.30.10.64.1
Others22.028.429.027.724.834.5
                  Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The United Kingdom has always been New Zealand's main export market for farm products. Until Britain joined the European Economic Community the British consumer had virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand supplies of butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of the mutually advantageous trading arrangements made between Britain and New Zealand over a long period, which reflected close political and economic connections between their people and governments.

GENERAL MARKETING SITUATION: Meat—Most meat produced in the world is supplied to domestic markets, and only about 8 percent of world output enters into international trade. Among the few countries with significant levels of exports are Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, the Netherlands, Denmark, and the Irish Republic. The principal importers are the countries of western Europe (in particular, the United Kingdom), the United States, Canada, and Japan. It is significant, however, that although the Common Market countries are substantial meat importers, much of the current trade now takes place between member countries of the Community as governed by the Common Agricultural Policy regulations.

The United Kingdom continues to be by far the largest market for lamb and New Zealand lamb exports are heavily dependent on this market.

Currently, over 100 countries import New Zealand meat; of these 3 may be regarded as major markets: they are the United Kingdom, which accounts for about 65 percent of New Zealand's lamb; Japan, which takes about 50 percent of New Zealand's export mutton production; and North America (United States and Canada) which purchases about 65 percent of the country's beef and veal exports.

New Zealand's beef trade with North America developed in the late 1950s, as a result of a decline in the American dairy herd and a subsequent drop in output of manufacturing-type beef. The American beef herd is grain-fed and produces carcases with a greater amount of external fat than the consumer requires. This fat is trimmed when the carcases are being dressed. The trimmings which are used in the manufacture of processed meat products need to be supplemented with the lean type of beef that New Zealand (and Australia among others) can provide. Imports of beef into the United States are subject to “voluntary restraint” agreements under the meat import quota law. Under this system New Zealand, along with other suppliers, agrees to restrict the quantity of quota meat shipped for arrival in the U.S. during the calendar year to a negotiated tonnage. New Zealand's quota entitlement under the terms of the agreement was initially set at 123 700 tonnes for 1978, but was increased in June by 10 100 tonnes. A further increase of 7400 tonnes was gained in December owing to some countries being unable to supply their quota share and this shortfall being reallocated. As a result, total shipments of beef and veal to the United States exceeded 150 000 tonnes for the calendar year 1978.

Beef and veal imports into Canada have been controlled by quota since the last quarter of 1976, New Zealand's quota allocation for the calendar year 1978 being 27 920 tonnes.

Imports of beef and sheepmeats into the United States are shown in the following table.

Country of ExportImports Subject to Meat Import Law*Lamb
19741975197619771974197519761977
*Includes beef, veal, mutton, and goat meat.
 tonnes (000) product weight
New Zealand11812511812069128
Australia2333082872972232
Canada17103635
Mexico18132427
Nicaragua15222223
Costa Rica27272426
Other countries624348391
                  Total imports4905485595678111610
United States production10 71611 27112 16611 843211186163.7154.7

Shipments of beef and veal to Canada totalled 28 552 tonnes in the year ended September 1978 while lamb shipments made up 9114 tonnes.

In Japan, imported mutton is used mainly for processing into sausage-type foods. Shipments of New Zealand mutton in the year ended September 1978, including those to South Korea where meat is processed and reshipped to Japan, totalled 49 499 tonnes, compared with 38 200 tonnes in 1977 and 31 900 tonnes in 1976. The U.S.S.R. did not purchase any mutton from New Zealand during the 1977–78 season, a change from previous seasons when it provided one of the largest markets for this product.

It has been the policy of the Meat Board to diversify exports of lamb. The original initiative for this was the likelihood of Britain joining the EEC and, with that, the possibility of more comprehensive regulations covering imports of sheepmeats from outside the Community than the present Common Customs Tariff of 20 percent. It was also considered that there was a need to reduce the continued dependence on one market.

In 1960 the Meat Export Development Company was established, an organisation charged with the responsibility for the orderly development of New Zealand lamb marketing in the United States and Canada. All New Zealand lamb sales to these countries are controlled by this company, the directorate of which is composed of nominees of the New Zealand Meat Producers Board and representatives of the freezing companies. The head office of the company is in Wellington, while the North American operations are controlled from Toronto.

There is a Market Development Committee which consists of representatives of the Meat Board and the meat export trade. Each year the committee sets a percentage of lamb exports to be sold in markets other than the United Kingdom. It also establishes a levy payable per kilogram on any short fall in sales below the target figure. The target for the 1978–79 season has been set at 32 percent, the same level as the 1977–78 season.

During the 1977–78 season the Middle East remained the largest diversionary market for New Zealand lamb, although actual tonnage shipped to the area dropped slightly against the previous season. Shipments included 27 145 tonnes to Iran and 2733 tonnes to Iraq. Other principal markets for lamb were Japan (which took 15 200 tonnes); U.S.A. (12 400 tonnes); Canada (9100 tonnes); Greece (14 900 tonnes); and Germany (6100 tonnes).

Wool—New Zealand is one of the world's leading producers and exporters of wool. It holds third place as a producer; only Australia and the Soviet Union grow more. It is second to Australia as an exporter, and is the world's largest supplier of medium-to-coarse crossbred for use in soft woollen clothing, upholstery, and carpets. About 90 percent of the total clip is exported. During the 1977–78 season, wool earned New Zealand $633 million overseas.

The most common way of selling wool is by open auction in New Zealand. About two-thirds of the clip is sold this way. The auction season runs from August to the following June. Sales are held at 8 centres around the country and they attract buyers representing all the main wool importing countries. Growers can also sell their wool to merchants privately in New Zealand, and the New Zealand Wool Board buys certain types of wool direct under its Extra Choice scheme. Small quantities of wool are also shipped to Britain for sale at auction.

Prices fluctuate from season to season. The Wool Board operates a floor price scheme which assures growers of a minimum income each season. The board's market intervention and strata price control policies help to steady the market in times of uncertainty.

After a period of relative price stability dating back to the early 1950s, demand slackened in late 1966 and prices remained low for the next 5 years. Following a recovery which reached a peak toward the end of 1973, the market declined sharply although not to the levels of the late 1960s. After the devaluation of the New Zealand dollar in August 1975, the downward trend was reversed.

The market strengthened throughout 1975–76 and 1976–77, but declined again in 1977–78. The average sale price decreased from 219.58 cents per kg greasy in 1976–77 to 190.43 cents in 1977–78. It then increased back to 213 cents by the middle of October 1978. Since then it has declined marginally. Since the intervention price was increased at the beginning of the 1978–79 season, there has been minimum intervention buying (about 9000 bales to the end of December) but considerable selling by the New Zealand Wool Board (68 000 bales).

World wool production increased steadily until 1968–69, particularly in Australia, New Zealand, and the Soviet Union. This growth reflected improvements, both in carrying capacity per acre (number of sheep) and in wool production per sheep. Of the increase, probably over two-thirds stemmed from the upward trend in sheep population and the remainder from improved output per head of sheep. After reaching a record level in 1968–69, world wool production showed a downward trend until 1973–74. Production increased next season, but dropped again in 1975–76 and 1976–77. Since World War II there has been no significant change in the broad geographical distribution of production which remains concentrated in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa, and Uruguay—all of which export on a large scale—and in the United States and the Soviet Union. These countries account for 72 percent of world production; of the world total, Australia produces 27 percent, New Zealand 13 percent, Argentina 7 percent, and South Africa 4 percent.

Wool production does not, of course, coincide exactly with the distribution of the sheep population, since the production of wool or yield per sheep varies considerably according to differences in pastoral conditions and objectives in farming.

The International Wool Secretariat, founded by the woolgrowers of Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa in 1937 and now a partnership of the grower organisations of these countries plus Uruguay, is engaged in research, product innovation, and marketing, and the general promotion of wool. In recent years wool has had to meet strong competition from synthetics but the secretariat's campaign, and particularly the use of the Woolmark identification, has contributed to establishing a clear price premium for wool.

Sheep numbers and wool production for selected countries are shown in the following table. (Sources: International Wool Textile Organisation, Commonwealth Secretariat, International Wool Study Group, I.W.S.)

CountryWoolled SheepWool Production
1974–75x1975–76x1976–77*1975–761976–77x1977–78x1978–79*
*Provisional.
 (millions)Greasy (million kilograms)
Argentina34.034.934.0188176172171
Australia151.7148.6135.4754703677691
New Zealand55.356.459.1312303311315
South Africa24.324.324.3108103106108
Soviet Union145.3141.4139.8467436458465
United Kingdom28.328.328.149484646
United States14.513.312.859535046
Uruguay14.915.616.062666263
World total928.0925.0913.12 6142 5072 5052 531

The major importing countries of virgin wool are shown in the following table. (Source: International Wool Textile Organisation.)

Country of Import19721973197419751976x1977
 (million kilograms)
Belgium69.353.043.145.363.046.7
France164.6121.5125.5120.1165.2117.4
Italy121.490.467.079.8107.987.6
Japan348.1315.7163.1229.8269.8214.4
Soviet Union83.096.0100.3108.8109.6111.6
United Kingdom207.0150.8121.0132.5162.0136.6
United States55.234.515.319.433.828.8
West Germany115.758.947.174.399.376.4

The following table shows wool entered for export from New Zealand to major wool-consuming countries. (Sources: Department of Statistics.)

Country1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77x1977–78
*An average bale of greasy wool contains 154 kg.
 bales(000)*
Japan257.8109.5125.7203.0130.4129.4
Netherlands115.5143.6157.9167.5176.5154.3
Soviet Union126.0152.7152.2181.7158.9151.9
United Kingdom358.8253.1280.2270.8332.5323.9
United States156.472.945.260.468.758.6
West Germany165.2105.4133.5166.3167.1143.1
Total exports1 993.31 485.61 527.51 904.61 776.11 686.8

The following table shows the number of bales purchased by New Zealand mills during the past 6 seasons. (Sources: New Zealand Wool Board, Manufacturers' Monthly Levy Returns.)

 1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78
 bales
Wool purchased144 870175 76191 896175 354156 207121 492

Dairy Produce—The international market for dairy products is characterised by its small size relative to the total world production of milk, with only around 3 percent to 4 percent of production entering international trade. As such, it is very vulnerable to fluctuations from external causes, whether these be climatic, commercial, or political. It only takes marginal production changes in the major producers, transferred via shortages, or surpluses onto the international market, for severe shifts to occur in the international supply position and international prices.

There are only really 4 main dairy exporters, namely: the EEC; New Zealand; Australia; and Canada, in that order of magnitude, who provide about four-fifths of all exports. Relatively smaller quantities are exported by the Nordic countries, East Europeans, and the U.S.S.R.

The New Zealand Dairy Board exports annually over 500 000 tonnes of manufactured dairy products, of which around half go to the affluent countries in Europe, North America, and Japan, and the other half to the developing countries, with a heavy emphasis on South-east Asia and Latin America. New Zealand now relies on the United Kingdom for only one-third of the value of its dairy export exchange earnings, although the United Kingdom still remains the principal market for butter.

Developed countries have a tendency to express social and political policies towards their farmers through price support mechanisms; high prices which are fixed with little regard to commercial reality encourage production but discourage consumption, thus creating surpluses. It is the disposal of these surpluses, by means of heavy Government export subsidies, which really undermines the stability of the international market.

New Zealand is almost the only country for which dairy exports are economically important. For most other countries, dairy exports are a question of surplus disposal, and therefore inconsequential to national economies. Consequently, New Zealand maintains strong and consistent pressure in international councils to achieve a stable balance between supply and demand in international trade. While success in GATT or other international organisations to negotiate improved access conditions in developed countries has been minimal, international arrangements covering consultative procedures and minimum prices have contributed to stabilising markets.

In 1963 an international agreement on wholemilk powder was formulated in the OECD that established minimum selling prices and consultative procedures. A similar type of agreement for skim-milk powder was concluded in 1970 under the GATT, while an anhydrous milkfat agreement under the GATT was established in 1973. At the end of 1978 the minimum price levels per to be realised, and tonne were:

 US$
Wholemilk powder600
Skim-milk powder350
Anhydrous milkfat (AMF)680

These agreements were incorporated into a proposed International Dairy Arrangement that emerged from the “Tokyo Round” of GATT Multilateral Trade Negotiations (MTN). In the dairy products subgroup of the MTN, New Zealand and the EEC tabled essentially similar proposals for a comprehensive dairy agreement and following detailed negotiation among all interested participants, the arrangement should be finalised in 1979. This extends the product coverage, sets new minimum prices, and augments the consultative procedures. An International Dairy Products Council is proposed, whose function is to evaluate the international market situation and, hopefully, develop solutions to problems arising.

The new minimum prices per tonne proposed are:

 US$
Whole-milk powder725
Skim-milk powder425
Buttermilk powder425
Anhydrous milkfat (AMF)1,100
Butter925
Cheese (certain types only)800

The following tables compare production and exports of butter, cheese, and skim-milk powder by selected countries. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

PRODUCTION
CountryButter*CheeseSkim-milk Powder
197519761977197519761977197519761977

*Includes butter equivalent of AMF.

†Provisional.

‡Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

§Twelve months ended 31 May of following year.

 tonnes (000)
Australia1481181121131041151479783
Canada128114111120125130187158175
Denmark139139131152157177696353
France5565535599419701 007730715696
Ireland86103102625054134164146
Netherlands204202179372382411206190155
New Zealand§2592732391058178207206172
United Kingdom4790135235204206105170246
U.S.A.4464444961 2751 5131 517458420501
West Germany519543535618650691562574559
EXPORTS
CountryButter*CheeseSkim-milk Powder
197519761977197519761977197519761977

*Including butter equivalent of AMF.

†Provisional.

‡Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

 tonnes (000)
Australia8434353252449511046
Canada..632323698167
Denmark98929099116125113021
France7981151154175186118179324
Ireland576851575639109142161
Netherlands1821941702252482555515072
New Zealand21022218381797097158165
United Kingdom31615711116011555
U.S.A.....1445574557
West Germany143111139105129150140142250

Butter—World butter production in the period 1974 to 1977 averaged around 6.6 million tonnes. Excluding trade between the member states of the EEC, which does not enter international trade as such, international commercial trade in that period amounted to around 348 000 tonnes for butter and 81 000 tonnes of anhydrous milkfat (AMF). As well, 34 000 tonnes of anhydrous milkfat was given as food aid. The relatively small size of trade compared to production illustrates the vulnerability of the international market to distortions introduced by disposal of relatively small surpluses in large producing countries via export subsidies.

In October 1977, after protracted negotiations with the EEC Commission, the c.i.f. price for New Zealand butter supplied to the United Kingdom was increased by 10 percent. This partially compensated for cost increases incurred since the previous price change in January 1976. A further price increase was applied for in June 1978 to compensate for continued cost escalation, but domestic Community politics meant that no rise was immediately forthcoming.

Access for New Zealand butter into the United Kingdom for the years 1978, 1979, and 1980 was agreed in June 1976 at 125 000 tonnes, 120 000 tonnes, and 115 000 tonnes respectively. Negotiations on continued access for New Zealand butter after 1980 commenced in late 1978. With lesser annual entitlements now applying, New Zealand is less able to cut butter arrivals in order to attract higher price rises.

Skim-milk Powder—World production of skim-milk powder has rapidly expanded over recent years, with 1977 world production at over 4.0 million tonnes, up 1.0 million tonnes from levels at the beginning of the 1970s. Up to 1975, international demand had been buoyant, stimulated by a growing number of milk recombining plants in Asia, South America, Africa, and the Caribbean. Economic recession and high support prices in certain producing countries dampened demand during 1975 and there was a corresponding decline in international prices in the face of surplus powder stocks. The surplus powder situation was eased in 1976 and 1977 through special disposal sales as stockfood, and of the main exporters in 1978 only the EEC continued to hold high stock levels. Market prices have gradually lifted, but returns are not likely to show marked improvement until the EEC situation of persistent surplus production and high export subsidies is solved.

Casein—Casein, which is produced from skim milk, was originally chiefly used in industrial products such as the manufacture of coatings for high quality paper. In the past 10 years, however, the nutritional value of caseins and their derivatives has come to be realised, and it is now being put to an increasing range of edible uses. Caseins are used as high-grade protein in food manufacture, where their nutritional and functional properties make them desirable ingredients in bakery goods, specialty high protein foods, coffee creamers, snack foods, and other products.

New Zealand is the largest exporter of casein, with much of the production going to the United States of America, EEC, and Japan.

The major producing countries for casein are shown in the following table.

Producing CountryCasein
197519761977*

*Provisional.

†Twelve months ended 31 May following year.

‡Twelve months ended 30 June following year.

 tonnes (000)
New Zealand52.758.056.7
Australia15.516.818.6
Poland24.028.035.0
France12.712.619.5
West Germany13.812.712.8
Netherlands12.013.014.0
Irish Republic1.94.07.5
Argentina8.08.05.0
Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.

DIVERSIFICATION OF MARKETS—The value of New Zealand's dairy exports to markets outside the United Kingdom has markedly increased over the last couple of decades. In 1955 only 13 percent of the value of New Zealand's total dairy exports went to markets outside the United Kingdom. In 1972, for the first time, more than half of the dairy exchange earnings came from these other markets. Since then, dairy exchange earnings from the United Kingdom market have settled at around one-third of the total.

The rate of diversification away from the United Kingdom in exchange earnings terms has now stabilised, reflecting the relatively higher returns for the milkfat export sector compared to the solids-non-fat (snf) sector. The United Kingdom continues to be the most important outlet for New Zealand milkfat products, taking still over 80 percent of total butter exports. Continued diversification successes are restricted by limited market opportunities for milkfat products. Sales of butter to the Soviet Union and Japan are conducted on an ad hoc basis when these countries have domestic shortages, and as such they do not represent long-term secure markets. The growth in cheese exports to Japan has slowed, while cheese exports to the United States—which had rapidly increased in recent years—are expected to be stabilised under new import quota provisions.

The following table shows the changing direction of New Zealand's dairy export earnings in the period since 1970.

Product197019751978
United KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll Markets
 $(million)
Butter104.0113.2121.0146.8212.8241.5
Cheese35.747.920.273.717.387.7
Casein3.233.50.419.42.581.0
Other dairy products8.847.8151.6218.2
All dairy products151.7242.5141.6391.5232.6628.4

The percentage of dairy export earnings obtained from the United Kingdom in recent years is shown in the following table.

ProductPercentage from United Kingdom
197019751978
Butter91.982.488.1
Cheese74.527.419.7
Casein9.62.13.1
Other dairy products18.4
All dairy products62.636.237.0
Source: Reserve Bank of New Zealand.

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY—The Rome Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) came into force on 1 January 1958. The member countries were Belgium, France, West Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, and the Netherlands. These countries entered into negotiations which resulted in the abolition of customs duties within the Common Market on 1 July 1968. On the same date the separate customs tariff of the 6 countries gave way to a single tariff—the common customs tariff of the Community. By that date also much of the Common Agricultural Policy was in operation, although some final negotiations had still to take place. The Common Agricultural Policy, with its high internal prices supported at the Community frontier by variable levies, and its export subsidies, has encouraged the production of surpluses, most notably of dairy products, while reducing consumption.

The danger facing New Zealand was that should Britain, in joining the EEC, accept the Common Agricultural Policy without special arrangements to protect the major items of New Zealand's agricultural trade with Britain, the pastoral industries in particular and the economy in general would be severely damaged.

Before the formal negotiations between Britain and the EEC commenced the New Zealand Government engaged in discussions with the British Government and listed the requirements which were regarded as necessary to safeguard New Zealand's vital interests. These requirements were as follows:

  1. That New Zealand should be able to continue to sell at remunerative prices the quantities of butter and cheese for which it currently received assured access to the British market.

  2. That guarantees of access should not terminate with the transitional period, but that there should be a continuing arrangement subject to periodic review.

  3. That, in the event of the Community adopting a common regulation for sheepmeats, New Zealand should continue to have access for lamb sales on a satisfactory basis.

When the formal negotiations opened in June 1970, the British Government accepted this “statement of claim” for dairy products as the basis for their submission to the Community. In respect of lamb, no negotiations with the EEC were scheduled because of the absence of a common Community regulation. The New Zealand Government accordingly sought from the United Kingdom an understanding that they would not agree to the introduction of a sheepmeats policy which would damage New Zealand's interests.

Negotiations between Britain and the Community formally opened on 21 July 1970. However it was not until a decisive negotiating session held in Luxembourg from 21–23 June 1971 that Britain succeeded in negotiating a special arrangement for New Zealand butter and cheese.

The special arrangement was subsequently incorporated in Protocol 18 to the Treaty of Accession of the applicant countries (United Kingdom, Denmark, and Ireland) to the EEC. It provided access to the British market for specified quantities of butter and cheese at fixed prices for an initial period of 5 years ending on 31 December 1977. Access for butter was to be continued after 1977 but no special provision was made for cheese.

New Zealand butter and cheese entered under Protocol 18 from 1 February 1973 onwards, was guaranteed a c.i.f. price of £361 per ton for butter, and £312 per ton for cheese. In 1973, monetary compensatory amounts became applicable to New Zealand's butter and cheese exported to the United Kingdom, and these went some way towards compensating for the decline in the sterling value of the c.i.f. prices. In November 1974 the EEC agreed to increase New Zealand's guaranteed c.i.f. prices for butter and cheese by 18 percent in recognition of New Zealand's claim that inflation and rising freight and production costs had severely eroded returns to our farmers.

A further increase of 18 percent was granted towards the end of 1975 applicable from 1 January 1976 and a third increase of 10 percent was granted with effect from 10 October 1977.

In March 1975, in the context of Britain's renegotiation of its terms of entry to the community, the Common Market Heads of Government set guidelines for the quantities of butter for which New Zealand would have access to the British market for the first 3 years after 1977. They also agreed to periodic adjustments to the Protocol 18 prices taking into account, among other things, prices paid to EEC farmers, production costs in New Zealand, and trends in freight charges. In addition, they left the way open for further access for New Zealand cheese after 1977. New Zealand is pursuing the question of continued access for cheese in the multilateral trade negotiations being conducted under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).

In June 1976 the Community's Council of Agriculture Ministers agreed on the arrangements for the import of New Zealand butter into Britain in the years 1978–80. The quantities agreed for these years are 125 000, 120 000, and 115 000 tonnes respectively.

The vital matter of how much butter New Zealand will be permitted to export to Europe in the period after 1980 has yet to be decided by the European Community. Despite the efforts made by the New Zealand Dairy Industry to diversify, market opportunities outside Europe remain very limited and therefore continued access to Britain for substantial quantities of butter remains essential.

The sheep and sheepmeat sector is currently one of the few not covered by the EEC Common Agricultural Policy. The question of including sheepmeat within a common policy has however received closer attention in recent years. In April 1978 the EEC Commission presented a draft regulation for the sheepmeat sector to the EEC Council of Ministers. Currently the commission's proposal is still under consideration by the council. Progress in reaching a final decision appears likely to be slow as the positions of the member states diverge widely. New Zealand has consistently made clear its position that if a regulation must be introduced it should not adversely affect consumption or New Zealand's trade in lamb with the Community.

New Zealand has received assurances at the highest level that New Zealand will continue to be consulted during the preparation of the sheepmeat regulation and that our vital trade interests in this product will be safeguarded.

UNITED KINGDOM MARKET: Butter—New Zealand continues to retain an important supply position in the United Kingdom butter market, as the following table illustrates. Domestic production of butter in the United Kingdom has dramatically increased in recent years and, with the decreasing level of consumption, is becoming a relatively larger influence on the market.

Country of OriginButter
197619771978
 tonnes (000)
New Zealand (Protocol 18)120.1137.8125.0
Belgium/Luxembourg2.80.91.2
Denmark71.559.459.5
West Germany42.327.413.6
France20.013.65.9
Ireland48.229.348.3
Netherlands86.353.237.7
Other countries0.10.10.1
              Total imports391.3321.7291.3
United Kingdom production89.3133.1161.7
(Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

The following table shows the comparative figures for consumption of butter and margarine in the United Kingdom. Many of the figures have been revised slightly.

Product19701971197219731974197519761977
 kilograms per head
Butter8.88.17.27.68.38.48.37.8
Margarine5.45.96.35.84.95.05.86.5
(Source: Milk Marketing Board, U.K.)

Meat—The following table shows the imports of meat into the United Kingdom from the principal countries, by country of export. (Source: Meat and Livestock Commission.)

Country of ExportMutton and LambBeef and Veal
197519761977197519761977
 tonnes (000)
New Zealand2342132136108
Australia812510106
Argentina287
Denmark152022
Ireland, Republic of19680129
Botswana111719
France202323
West Germany141618
Other countries111223028
              Total imports244226219196214258
United Kingdom production2592482221 2221 0741 001

The Meat and Livestock Commission estimated that in 1977 the inhabitants of the United Kingdom consumed per head 21 kilograms of beef and veal, 7 kilograms of mutton and lamb, 11 kilograms of pork, 4 kilograms of offal, 12 kilograms of poultry, and 9 kilograms of bacon and ham.

THE ORGANISATION OF MARKETING—In a country such as New Zealand, which is very dependent upon overseas trade, the efficient organisation of marketing of primary produce takes on a special importance.

Marketing Authorities—Since about 1950 the principle has been accepted that producers should be predominantly responsible for the marketing of their products. The major statutes under which specific marketing authorities operate are the Dairy Board Act 1961, the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 and the Amendment Acts 1956 and 1971 (for the Meat Producers Board), and the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, the Wool Industry Act 1977, the Milk Act 1967, the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953 (safeguards citrus fruit, honey, and eggs).

Dairy Produce—The New Zealand Dairy Board acquires and markets all dairy products intended for export and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand. The New Zealand Dairy Board is a statutory authority operating under the Dairy Board Act 1961 and acts as the administrative body for the industry and as its export marketing agency. Of the board's members, 11 are elected by the co-operative companies and 2 are appointed by the Government. The board acquires all export dairy products from the manufacturing companies, sells the goods overseas, and returns the proceeds, less marketing costs, to the companies.

The board sells its products throughout the world, and is currently exporting to over 100 countries. Sales are made in the United Kingdom through the board's own sales organisations. In other markets, the board sells through its own local company, or through local agents, or in the case of some buyers it sells direct on a contract basis. Increasingly the board is posting its own personnel overseas in key markets as liaison representatives and, where warranted, subsidiary trading companies have been established.

Meat—The New Zealand Meat Producers Board was constituted in 1922 under the provisions of the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 to protect the national and producers' interests. The board obtains funds by the imposition of a levy on all meat exported (except canned meats and offals). The current levy is 0.77c per kilogram.

Funds from the levy totalled $4.8 million in the year ended September 1977. Expenditure exceeded income by $3.0 million, the balance being drawn from the Industry Reserve Account.

The board's main responsibilities are:

  1. Meat export licensing;

  2. The grading, storage, and shipment of meat;

  3. Market research;

  4. The promotion of New Zealand meat;

  5. Improvement in the quality of New Zealand meat.

The board has engaged in most activities in the export trade in the interests of the producer.

The board has had a major influence on meat marketing policy through the regulation of shipments, control over quality, and the development of markets through promotion, in which it is investing some $3 million a year.

In its market support activities the board is the only organisation in the world promoting the sale of meat on a genuinely international scale. To this end it has established in its major markets a network of market consultants assisting the board through its overseas offices, which are in London, New York, Tokyo, Brussels, and Tehran.

Prior to 1971 the board's power to participate in the purchase and sale of meat in any country outside New Zealand was limited under the terms of the Act to the establishment of markets in those countries where no substantial market for New Zealand meat previously existed and to the expansion and maintenance of those markets. An amendment to the Act passed in October 1971 extended the board's power to enable it to buy any meat derived from sheep and sell in or export to any country. These powers were further extended in 1974 by an Order in Council which enables the board to buy and sell beef. In the 1971–72 season the board purchased a sizeable proportion of lambs slaughtered for export, while, at one stage in the 1974–75 season, it was purchasing mutton, beef, and lamb. During the 1975–76 season and again in 1976–77, the board intervened and purchased a significant proportion of the export mutton product.

While the trade has retained the role of direct marketing, the administrative and promotional work of the board has served to ensure that the long-term interests of the industry are not ignored. This function embraces all activities in moving meat from producer to consumer in the quickest and most efficient manner with due regard to the stability of prices and markets.

A Pork Industry Council functions under the Pork Industry Act 1974. Its principal functions are to promote and organise the orderly development of the pork industry; to assist in the marketing of pigs; to maintain and improve quality; to increase production; to promote efficiency; and to ensure a supply of foodstuffs for pigs.

Wool—The New Zealand Wool Board—an amalgamation of the old Wool Board and the Wool Marketing Corporation—was established on 7 February 1978 by the Wool Industry Act 1977. The board is a grower-controlled authority which has as its object to obtain, in the interest of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool. Currently the board is involved in a number of activities associated with the marketing of wool including the operation of a minimum prices scheme and a market intervention scheme aimed at reducing fluctuations in prices and cushioning declines in the market. It is also deeply involved in the research and promotion of New Zealand wool and is a partner in the International Wool Secretariat.

Apples and Pears—Apples and pears are purchased from growers by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board. This board was set up in 1948, in terms of the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971, to acquire and market the apple and pear crop. Under the Apple and Pear Marketing Amendment Act 1967 there has been set up an Apple and Pear Prices Authority whose function it is to determine each season the average price to be paid for apples and pears. This price is a New Zealand average, and within it prices to growers vary for the different varieties, grades, and sizes. Most apples and pears of standard grade are purchased by the board, with private sales by growers limited by regulations. Growers may sell direct to consumers in lots of not more than 2 cases, or with permission of the board, to retailers in specified localities. Manufacturers may be licensed by the board to purchase their requirements direct from growers (although in some cases the board itself purchases fruit and resells it to the factory). Growers may also be permitted by the board to sell at municipal markets established under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954.

The board decides what proportion of the fruit is to remain in New Zealand and what proportion is to be exported, and arranges for the storage and release of varieties according to their condition and keeping capacity, in order to make fruit available for as long a period as possible during the year. The board determines the wholesale prices at which fruit is sold in New Zealand by authorised wholesalers to retailers. If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the board exceed the amount which the board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus, after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the board, is apportioned between a reserve fund and the growers. The board may distribute up to 50 percent of the surplus among growers, or such greater proportions as the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries approves. The balance is added to the reserve fund. If sales in any season realise less than the amount the board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve fund. The reserve fund, which has been built up from profits derived almost solely from exports, has been invested in a chain of modern cool stores and mechanical equipment designed for the improved handling of fruit.

Financial results for recent seasons are shown in the following table.

SeasonProfit or LossBoard's ShareGrowers' ShareReserve Fund at End of Season
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1973–74–4,103–4,103–3,197
1974–751,0181,018–2,179
1975–76–2,228–2,228–4,407
1976–7713,15610,2232,9335,816
1977–7812,3826,3226,06012,138

Potatoes—The New Zealand Potato Board was reconstituted by the Potato Industry Act 1977 as predominantly a producer organisation. It consists of 9 members—a nominee of the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries representing the interests of the consumer, 6 grower members (3 nominated by the New Zealand Potato Growers Federation and 3 by the New Zealand Vegetable and Produce Growers Federation), and 2 merchant members representing the New Zealand Agricultural Merchants Federation and the New Zealand Fruit and Produce Merchants and Auctioneers Federation.

The principal functions of the Potato Board are to promote and assist in the orderly development of the potato industry in New Zealand, and to ensure as far as practicable an adequate supply of potatoes. It maintains a register of potato plantings and charges a registration fee. The board has the power to administer a legal minimum quality standard scheme for potatoes; to specify standards for table and seed potatoes; to foster, arrange, or undertake the disposal of, surplus potatoes or sub-standard potatoes or the export or import of potatoes where necessary; to further sales by publicity or otherwise; to maintain statistics and disseminate information to growers; and to foster research and development in the industry.

Milk—The New Zealand Milk Board was set up in 1953. It operates the national milk scheme and engages in other activities for the purpose of ensuring an adequate supply and efficient distribution of milk. The legislation is contained in the Milk Act 1967.

The board may make a levy on milk to finance its operations but while a subsidy on milk is payable from the Consolidated Account the rate of levy requires the approval of the Minister of Agriculture.

Retail prices are fixed by Order in Council. The price for the milk to the producer is fixed by the Minister of Agriculture after consultation with the Milk Board. Intermediate margins, such as those for treating milk and to vendors for its delivery, are fixed by the Milk Prices Authority. The total cost at the present time exceeds the amount paid by the consumers, the balance being met by subsidy. It is the function of the Milk Board to administer the whole town milk scheme on behalf of the Government which, however, retains a direct interest by virtue of the substantial sum paid in subsidy.

Eggs—The Egg Marketing Authority, which was established in 1953, consists of 8 members—5 producer members of the New Zealand Poultry Board and 3 Government representatives. The principal function of the authority is to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg pulp in New Zealand and elsewhere in accordance with the regulations, to ensure as far as possible sufficient supplies of eggs, and their equitable distribution in the general interests of producers and consumers.

The New Zealand Egg Marketing Authority operates principally through licensed distributors in the various districts who, on commission, receive and resell eggs or, as directed by the authority, manufacture egg pulp for the use of bakers and pastrycooks. Eggs are subject to price control.

Imported Citrus Fruits, Bananas, Pineapples, and Grapes—The importation and marketing of imported citrus fruits, bananas, pineapples, and grapes are the responsibility of a registered company, Fruit Distributors Ltd., representing trade interests. The operations of the company are defined and restricted by an agreement between it and the Government. There are 2 Government members on the company's board of directors.

New Zealand Lemons and Oranges—The Citrus Marketing Authority was established in 1953 to market fresh lemons, either directly or through agents throughout New Zealand, and to process unmarketable but otherwise sound fruit into by-products such as fruit juice and lemon peel. The authority has a membership of 6, 5 of whom are nominees of the New Zealand Citrus Council and represent the producers, and 1 appointed by the Minister of Agriculture as the Government member, who also protects the interests of consumers.

The Citrus Marketing Authority controls the assembly and distribution of New Zealand lemons, and also New Zealand-grown sweet oranges. The entire output of fruit, which comes under the jurisdiction of the authority, is sold at agreed prices to Fruit Distributors Ltd. The authority operates processing and packing facilities at Kerikeri, Tauranga, and Gisborne.

Honey—The Honey Marketing Authority, set up in 1953, undertakes the packing and marketing within New Zealand and for export, of all honey supplied to it. Beekeepers have the option of supplying the authority, selling to private packers, or packing and marketing their own honey.

A hive levy payable by all producers owning 50 or more hives is administered by the authority for the benefit of the honey producing industry generally.

The rate of hive levy is determined annually and is currently set at 15c per hive.

The authority comprises 4 members elected by beekeepers, and 1 member appointed as Government representative. One of the functions of the Government representative is to watch the interests of the consumer.

Prices and sales of honey are set out in the following table.

Item1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78
Payment to producerscents per kg54.9854.8261.3475.0281.0
Average selling price—
    New Zealandcents per kg84.4293.01101.20111.71127.40
    Overseascents per kg87.7874.2380.98116.88116.23
Sales—
    New Zealandtonnes780988889938789
    Overseastonnes3986872 061701780

TRANSPORT AND OVERSEAS MARKETS—Farm products form the bulk of New Zealand's exports. They come to hand for shipment in seasonal cycles. These are most pronounced for lamb, and apples and pears, but apply also to a marked extent to mutton, beef, wool, and related produce. Butter, cheese, and other dairy produce become available throughout the year, but production is considerably higher in the 6 months October to March than in the remainder of the year. The peak season for all the animal products is much the same, being roughly November to May, while there is a shorter concentrated season for fruit in March and April.

This seasonality presents shipping problems in the marketing process. In addition, the bulk of the commodities are perishable and require continuous refrigeration throughout the period of at least 2 to 3 months between production and consumption. The demand for shipping space lags a little behind the season, generally building up in January and declining in June. A realisation of the demands that increased production was making on transport, storage, handling, and shipping services led in 1964 to the setting up of an Exports and Shipping Council, an independent body whose main purpose is to improve the efficiency and economy of New Zealand export trade as it relates to transport services. Shipping receives special attention as shipping costs absorb a substantial portion of market realisations.

The council is representative of producer boards, freezing companies, transport interests, harbour boards, the New Zealand Chambers of Commerce, the Federation of Labour, and the Manufacturers' Federation. It has been successful in bringing into effect many of the recommendations of the streamlining report on ports, shipping, transport, and other services produced as a result of consultations between the producer boards and the main shipping lines, and it continues its efforts to improve the efficiency and economy of transporting New Zealand produce to its markets.

PRICES FOR FARM PRODUCTS: Wool—The New Zealand Wool Board and the Wool Marketing Corporation were amalgamated under the Wool Industry Act on 7 February 1978. One of the main activities of the new board is the continuance of the corporation's minimum or floor price plan, and its market intervention and strata price control schemes.

The floor price plan was introduced in 1952 by the corporation's predecessor, the New Zealand Wool Commission. It guarantees wool growers a minimum income from the wool they sell. The board prepares a table of minimum prices for all types of wool (there are almost 2000) before the start of a new selling season. The prices are fixed in agreement with the Minister of Agriculture, and are not altered during the season. If wool is sold either to commercial buyers or to the board at a price below the appropriate minimum, the board makes a supplementary payment to the grower up to the floor level. Supplementary payments are made from the board's Wool Income Stabilisation Account. The account is funded by a 2 percent levy on the returns for wool sold for the first time at above minimum prices.

The minimum price per kilogram greasy weight for the 1978–79 season was 170 cents.

The floor price plan applies to all grower-owned scoured and greasy wool sold for the first time at auction in New Zealand and Britain. There are also procedures to protect greasy wool sold privately in New Zealand.

The board can buy wool at any price under its market intervention policy. It will do this to prevent lots being sold significantly below the market, and to cushion declines in the price. Intervention levels can be set above, at, or below, floor prices. Levels can be changed at any time by the board's directors, although their aim is to set levels which can be held for some time. The board will bid at auction if prices drop to intervention levels. If the commercial benches do not raise the price, the board buys. During the 1977–78 season the corporation purchased 190 000 bales and in the first 3 months of the 1978–79 season, 2471 bales.

When prices are above intervention levels, the board operates its “strata price control”. It bids when necessary to prevent prices falling more than a set percentage on the previous day's levels.

The following table shows weight, sale value, and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction. The last column shows the average minimum price to growers set by the Wool Marketing Corporation, or its predecessor, the Wool Commission.

Season Ended JuneGreasy Wool Sold at AuctionTotal Sale ValueSale Value per KilogramAverage Minimum Price Per Kilogram
 Tonnes$  
 (000)(million)cc
1973196.21282.5143.9650.00
1974195.13271.6139.1970.00
1975210.25192.991.7593.00
1976212.52333.9157.12124.00
1977200.93441.2219.58136.00
1978208.61397.2190.43170.00

The next table shows index numbers based on prices of new clip greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand adjusted to a clean f.o.b. New Zealand port basis. The All Wool and each group index is on its own base: average over all sales of 1974–75 season (=1000).

SeasonAll WoolFine Wools*Medium WoolsCoarse Wools

*28 microns and finer.

†29 to 34 microns.

‡35 microns and higher.

1973–741511165915801451
1974–751000100010001000
1975–761669145616481716
1976–772363201923552379
1977–782066179220762066

Dairy Produce—Basic prices (then known as guaranteed prices) were introduced in 1936 for butter and cheese. The present legislative authority for the fixing of purchase prices for all dairy produce which the Dairy Board acquires for export is the Dairy Board Act 1961, as amended by the Dairy Board Amendment Acts of 1972 and 1975.

Since the 1975–76 season, the Dairy Products Prices Authority has established separate values for the milkfat and solids-non-fat (s.n.f.) components of milk on a farm gate basis at the beginning of each season. These values are established having regard to the stability and efficiency of the dairy industry, realisations and market prospects, and the state of the Dairy Industry Account. They may normally not increase by more than 10 percent nor decrease by more than 5 percent on the previous season's values.

Using the milkfat and s.n.f. prices established by the prices authority as a base, the board, in turn, fixes the export purchase prices for the major dairy products by using New Zealand average yields and costs. The board may apply differentials between products to enable the product mix to be more closely matched with expected market requirements, but in doing so must establish purchase prices for products in such a manner that the average payment for the fat and s.n.f. components is at the level set by the prices authority.

The results of the board's export trading each season are recorded in 2 separate accounts—one for the seasons' trading in milkfat products, and the other for trading in s.n.f. products. The differences between export sales prices less selling costs and the purchase prices paid, results in a surplus or deficit in both of these accounts at the end of the year.

The board may pay up to 50 percent of any surplus in either of the trading accounts as an end-of-season distribution, provided such distribution is not considered by the Government to affect adversely the national economy and the stability of the dairy industry. Any remaining surplus, and any deficit, is then transferred to the Dairy Industry Reserve Account.

This system of purchase prices, trading, and reserve accounts, ensures that severe fluctuations in overseas prices are smoothed out when translated into the price the farmer receives for his milk. In the short term, a surplus or deficit in the Reserve Account may occur, but in the longer term the account must be self-balancing from overseas revenue.

The following table gives the average value of milkfat and s.n.f. in wholemilk “at farm” as set by the Dairy Products Prices Authority plus the end-of-season distribution paid from the milkfat account.

Season Ended 31 MayMilkfat ValueS.N.F. ValueEnd of Season DistributionTotal Wholemilk Value
(cents per kilogram of milkfat)
1975–7674.4256.699.70140.81
1976–7781.8653.8617.02152.74
1977–7896.8053.8616.69167.35
1978–79111.8653.86....

These values enabled the following average prices to be paid by the Dairy Board to companies for the main products acquired for export.

Season Ended 31 MayButterCheeseSpray Skim-milk PowderAcid Casein

*Period 1/6/77–31/1/78.

†Period 1/2/78–31/5/78.

‡Interim.

(cents per kilogram of product)
1975–7669.6973.2045.93118.90
1976–7778.5977.3146.31122.24
1977–78*94.7189.3950.38135.64
197894.7189.8350.13134.88
1978–79107.0095.2152.71137.20

Production of dairy factories is shown in Section 14A—Farming.

Town Milk Supply—The objects of the New Zealand Milk Board are the provision of an adequate supply of milk of good quality for human consumption and the organisation of the town milk industry on an economic basis. The board arranges supply contracts with milk producer companies for all districts, reports to Government on the adequacy of the town milk producer price, makes recommendations to Government or reports to the Milk Prices Authority, as the case may be, as to national margins for pasteurising, bottling, distribution, and other aspects of price fixation, fixes local allowances for cartage and such special distribution allowances as may be necessary, makes financial adjustments with all those in the industry to see that they get the prices or allowances to which they are entitled, and in doing so pays out subsidy on behalf of Government.

The total Government subsidy on town milk paid during recent 12-month periods ended 31 August has been as follows: 1973–74, $43,941,904; 1974–75, $49,196,949; 1975–76, $44,582,480; 1976–77, $38,304,813; and 1977–78, $50,160,459. These figures include deferred payments.

The following table shows production and sales of town milk under the control of the New Zealand Milk Board.

Year Ended 31 AugustProductionQuantity on Which Town Milk Price PaidVolume of Town SalesPrice per Litre Paid to ProducersGovernment Subsidy per Litre
  litres(m) cc
1975671.7517.1422.69.20911.5413
1976725.5536.8414.310.03710.758
1977739.3534.7399.510.814x9.589
1978706.5534.3395.412.49612.686

The town milk industry has converted to the metric system and bottles of 600 ml, 300 ml, and 150 ml have been progressively introduced.

Meat—The Imported Meat Trade Association in the United Kingdom compiles weekly London wholesale meat prices, the basis of quotation being “ex-hooks to retailers at Smithfield market”. The next table gives prices for New Zealand lamb and beef at the end of the last week in March.

Approximately 35 percent of the value of all New Zealand exports of frozen and chilled meat is generally accounted for by lamb, and the 8–12.5 kg and 13–16 kg P grades quoted in the table usually account for approximately 20 percent and 35 to 40 percent respectively of all lamb carcasses exported.

End of Last Week in MarchLambBeef
Prime GradeY GradeBoneless Cartoned Ox Rumps
8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg16.5 to 25.5 kg8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg

*At end of last week in February. No March quotations.

†No quotations because of no sales or no significant sales.

New pence per kilogram equivalent
197566.1–67.263.9–65.059.5–60.663.9–66.162.8–63.9143.3–145.5
197678.3–79.470.5–71.765.0–66.178.3–78.970.5–71.7134.5–138.9
197790.4–93.789.3–91.588.2–89.388.2–90.488.2–89.3163.1–167.6*
197899.2–100.397.0–98.194.8–95.598.8–99.997.0–98.1
1979105.8–106.9104.7–105.8100.3–101.4104.3–105.8103.6–104.7

Schedule Prices—A schedule of buying prices is issued each week by the meat operators in New Zealand. The producers have a choice on how to sell their export meat. They can sell on schedule, on owner's account, on a pool account system, on the basis of prices received from a nominated ship, on the hoof, or they can sell through a producer co-operative.

The New Zealand Meat Producers Board can, by use of its statutory powers, issue its own schedule of meat export prices. It has taken this course of action on occasions in the past when it has considered that exporters were unduly pessimistic in their assessment of future overseas market prices. Intervention of this type by the board involves not only the setting of the schedule but also the marketing overseas of the various products on its own account.

Mutton prices improved in the 1976–77 season and as a result producers' returns were considerably higher than those of the previous season. However, prices were depressed again during most of the 1977–78 season and as a consequence the schedule price soon fell to the board's minimum prices.

The board decided that instead of paying supplements to the producer it would undertake to market the product itself, which it did from April onwards.

Lamb schedule prices stayed comparatively constant throughout the season and no deduction or supplements were required. On the other hand, overseas prices for beef improved steadily during the season and from July onwards the schedule price for manufacturing grade beef exceeded the trigger price and deductions were made.

The opening schedules for the latest 5 seasons are given below. The prices quoted are for dressed weights “on the hooks” at freezing works. The prices for lamb and mutton are for bare meat only with an additional payment being made for the wool and pelt.

OPENING NORTH ISLAND SCHEDULE PRICES
Class of Meat1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79

*Schedule issued by New Zealand Meat Producers Board.

†New Zealand Meat Producers Board Minimum Price.

 cents per kg
Lamb—
    PL, 8.0–12.5 kg44.459.772.974.593.7
    PM, 13.0–16.0 kg42.456.268.468.590.7
    YL, 8.0–12.5 kg44.452.759.570.589.0
Mutton—
    EL, 22 kg and under14.0*24.021.542.031.0
    EM, 22.5–26.0 kg12.0*22.019.540.016.5
Beef—
    PI—Steer, 220.5–270 kg39.055.055.058.587.5
    LI—Steer, 220.5–270 kg37.048.050.554.083.0
    M—Cow, 140.5 kg and over26.042.042.545.076.5
    Bull, 211–260 kg38.050.050.053.092.0

Minimum Prices for Export Meat—The scheme which had operated since 1955 has been replaced by a more comprehensive system with 2 principal aims: first, to establish floor prices at a more realistic level and, second, to provide a mechanism which will allow for the replenishment of the funds paid out during the periods of low prices by levying farmers' receipts when prices exceed certain “trigger” levels.

Minimum prices are based on the average of the actual price for the preceding season, the estimated price for the current season (towards the end of which the determinations are made), and a forecast for the following season during which the prices will operate. The Meat Export Prices Committee will have discretion to set the minima up to 10 percent above or below the average of the 3 seasons. The committee also determines the trigger prices for each of the 4 benchmark grades of meat. A meat income stabilisation levy is imposed when schedule prices exceed the appropriate trigger price the proceeds going into individual buffer accounts (sheep meats and beef) established at the Reserve Bank within the Meat Industry Stabilisation Account.

In general, the scheme aims at placing a floor under the prices the producers receive, financed by funds accumulated when returns are at higher levels. It is, in short, a price-smoothing scheme which, at the same time, pays necessary regard to changes in market demand. Because of the importance of meat in the national economy, it will also have the effect of softening the impact of any sharp movements in overseas prices.

The minimum and “trigger” prices for the 1978–79 meat season are shown in the following table.

Class of MeatMinimum PricesTrigger Prices
Lamb—cents per kilogram
    PM, 13.0 to 16.0 kg7295
Mutton—
    EL, 22 kg and under30.542
Beef—
    PI Steer, 220.5 to 270 kg7096
    M Cow, 140.5 kg and over5880

These are known as the “benchmark” prices. They are the key grades for each category of meat. Other grades will be priced as appropriate differentials.

In addition to the above scheme the Government announced in the 1978 Budget the Supplementary Minimum Prices Scheme. This scheme differs from the Price Smoothing Scheme in that it offers direct price support to the producer. The minimum prices announced under this scheme relate to the same benchmark grades as listed above and for the 1978–79 season they are as follows:

 Supplementary Minimum Price
Lamb PM (13.0–16.0 kg)70c/kg
Mutton ML (22 kg and over)30c/kg
Prime Beef PI Steer (220.5–270 kg)80c/kg
Manufacturing Beef M Cow (140 kg and over)70c/kg

In the possible event of the schedule price for a benchmark grade falling below the supplementary minimum price, the supplementary minimum price for all the other relevant non-benchmark grades of meat will be determined and the producers will be paid accordingly. Therefore, the prices received by farmers for benchmark grades in the announced schedule will never be below the announced supplementary minimum price. The scheme is to operate for a 2-year term.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES—Farm industry reserves were built up during the Second World War when, in furtherance of the Government's stabilisation policy, farmers agreed that increases in overseas realisations for meat and dairy produce be paid into special funds for later use for the benefit of the industry concerned. The wool reserve account (later the capital funds of the Wool Marketing Corporation) arose in the main from the profits derived from the sale of wartime surplus stocks, and in part from a contributory charge levied on wool sold at that time. Much of it was used to buy in wool in 1966–67 but this was all resold by 1972. About half the meat industry reserve was used to purchase lambs in 1971–72 to provide a higher price schedule, but was recovered from die ensuing marketing of the meat. The meat industry and wool reserve accounts were both drawn on again in 1974–75. Under a new stabilisation scheme for the wool industry, from the start of the 1976–77 selling season, wool growers paid a 3-percent levy on gross wool proceeds into a stabilisation fund. Where necessary, supplementary payments back from the fund will assure them of a minimum price.

The following table shows the balances in the various farm industry reserve and stabilisation accounts at given dates.

YearWool Board*Capital and Reserves at 30 JuneWool Income Stabilisation Account at 30 JuneMeat Income Stabilisation Account at 30 SepMeat Industry Reserve Account at 30 SepDairy Produce Account at 31 May
*Previously Wool Marketing Corporation.
   $(000)  
197455,92693,55811,776
197557,760200–3,20877,83417,785
197672,025450–14,41690,924–25,978
197778,93324,354–7,74295,888–2,925
1978....–8,07697,978–2,091

21 B—DOMESTIC TRADE

GENERAL—Domestic trade embraces retail and wholesale trade and part of the services field. The trend of retail trade is one of the most perceptive barometers of economic activity as it constitutes a large proportion of personal expenditures on consumer goods and services.

The fifth of New Zealand's 5-yearly Censuses of Distribution, which provide the basis for the monthly and quarterly surveys of retail and wholesale trade, was for the year ended 31 March 1973. It covered wholesale trade; retail trade; selected service trades; the hotels, motels, taverns, and restaurant group; motor vehicle trades including repairs and servicing; laundries and drycleaners; and cinemas. This section contains a summary of the results.

The sixth Census of Distribution was taken for the year 1977–78.

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1973—The Census of Distribution for 1972–73 revealed aggregate retail sales of $4,314 million, or average turnover of $128,100 by each of the 33 700 retail stores included in the Census.

At 31 March 1973 there was one retail shop to every 88 persons, over 40 percent of them dealing in food and drink. A large proportion of the goods sold had earlier passed through wholesale stores, of which 5215 with an aggregate turnover of $3,632.9 million were included in the Census.

Retail Trade—In the following table the main retail trade figures from the 1968 and 1973 censuses are set out. To allow for comparisons, a number of store types surveyed only in the 1973 Census have been omitted.

Item19681973Percentage Increase
Number of retail stores29 33130 5864.3
Sales ($ million)2,099.73,968.789.0
Average sales per store ($)71,600129,80081.3
Labour force—
    Paid employees103 254147 62843.0
    Total137 251188 32137.2
Salaries and wages paid ($ million)181.1376.3107.8

Some comparisons between the results of the 1968 and 1973 Censuses are shown by store-type group in the following table. As in the previous table, store types surveyed for the first time in 1973 have been omitted.

Store-type GroupAverage Labour Force per StoreTurnover per Unit of Labour ForceTurnover per Head of PopulationAverage Population per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid
  No.$$No.$(m)
Food and drink—
    Packaged19734.220,322253.033546.6
19683.414,988181.427830.4
    Consumed19738.710,131122.672066.8
19684.910,02172.067523.6
Apparel19733.915,33491.965227.4
19683.411,84361.166816.1
Furniture19735.622,75971.61 79323.5
19684.815,42942.91 74413.0
Automotive sales19739.342,500354.61 41172.8
19685.638,530106.22 04813.7
Hardware19737.726,47865.72 72218.6
19686.518,17843.42 73111.7
Chemists19734.717,25332.62 34310.0
19683.912,81121.22 3596.4
Miscellaneous19737.220,238342.1428110.6
19687.114,818236.145066.3
    Total19736.121,0741,334.291376.3
19684.715,298762.894181.1

In the previous table the store-type group “Food and drink—consumed” includes restaurants, licensed hotels, taverns, chartered clubs, cafeterias, coffee bars, fish and chip shops, and similar eating establishments.

In the 1968 Census of Distribution, licensed hotels were asked to supply only the value of sales of beer, wine, spirits, tobacco and cigarettes, with the appropriate related employment and wage data for that area. In the 1973 Census of Distribution, sales or turnover, labour force, and salaries and wages for licensed hotels also included accommodation services and a la carte dining rooms where meals were charged for separately to guests (that is, not included in tariff) and the general public. Also included in the 1972–73 figures were 22 licensed hotels (with total sales of $4.9 million) for which the provision of accommodation services was the predominant activity and which were therefore classified as service establishments, although a large proportion of their turnover (slightly less than 50 percent) was attributable to retail sales. The breakdown of sales for licensed hotels only was as follows: retail sales, $187.8 million; accommodation services, $37 million; wholesale sales, $0.3 million; and hiring and leasing services, $0.3 million.

The store-type group “automotive sales” includes the store-type “sales of motor vehicles (including motor cycles)”. It should be noted that, in the 1968 Census of Distribution, only licensed motor vehicle dealers, wholly concentrated in the sale of motor vehicles, were included. In the 1973 Census, the store-type content for the automotive sales group was extended to include service stations and motor vehicle repair shops, taking in the sales of petrol, oil, parts, and accessories, and also repair and maintenance work. In many cases, where service stations or repair shops had car sale yards attached, and the sale of cars was predominant (that is 50 percent or more of total value of sales), such establishments would be store-typed as “motor vehicle dealers.” The 1973 Census figures are, therefore, not a true comparison with those of 1968. The breakdown of sales and paid employee occupation content for the store-type “sales of motor vehicles (including motor cycles)” in 1973 was as follows:

  1. Sales—retail sales (including petrol, oil, parts and accessories) $895.9 million; wholesale sales $21.9 million; services (maintenance, repairs, etc.) $66.9 million; and hiring and leasing services $0.7 million.

  2. Paid employee occupation—managerial, clerical, etc., 4380; selling and distribution (including petrol, oil, parts and accessories) 5007; motor mechanics, auto electricians etc., 8766; and other paid employees, 1338.

The following table deals only with those store types first surveyed in the 1973 Census which were omitted in the previous tables.

Newly-surveyed Store TypesNumber of StoresTotal SalesAverage Sales per StoreLabour Force at 15 April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid
Paid EmployeesTotal
  $(m)$(000)  $(m)
Food and drink (packaged)—
    Milk vendors1 07925.023.22 2003 7521.2
Food and drink (consumed)—
    Caterers1809.653.21 6161 9312.1
    Licensed motels205.6279.76706901.5
                Total20015.276.02 2862 6213.6
Automotive—
    Service stations1 545220.5142.77 2679 71521.6
    Caravan and trailer dealers5510.3186.61292060.4
    Powered boats and accessories dealers9016.0177.34185301.3
            Total1 690246.7146.07 81410 45123.2
Hardware—
    Timber merchants10245.2443.11 5431 6335.3
    Concrete and cement products5317.7334.05856391.9
            Total15562.9405.82 1282 2727.1
Miscellaneous—
    Other miscellaneous120.541.729410.1
Total, newly-surveyed store types3 136350.3111.714 45719 13735.2

It may be noted that the tables giving comparisons between the 1968 and 1973 Census of Distribution show total retail sales in 1973 as $3,968.7 million. The above table dealing with store types omitted in the tables of comparisons show total sales of $350.3 million. This gives a grand total of retail sales or turnover recorded at the 1973 Census of Distribution of $4,319.0 million whereas the following tables show a figure of $4,314.0 million. The explanation of this discrepancy lies in the 22 hotels mentioned previously, of which the predominant activity was the provision of accommodation services. These hotels were accordingly classified as service establishments. However, in the tables of comparisons only, these 22 hotels were included with the bulk of the licensed hotels classified as retail establishments, and the total retail sales were accordingly inflated by $4.9 million.

In the following table retail sales are shown by method of purchase as recorded at the 1973 Census. Figures given in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total sales. A survey of hire purchase is carried out at quarterly intervals, and some results from this are given later in this section.

Store-type GroupCashCharge AccountHire PurchaseLay byInstalments, Budgets, Store Credit, etc.OtherTotal Turnover (1972–73)
Not Assigned to Finance CompaniesAssigned to Finance Companies
*Receipts by chemists for dispensing charges claimed from the Department of Health were included under “cash” in 1968 and under “Other” in 1973
 $(million)
Food and drink—
    Packaged667.3109.9 0.2777.5
(85.8)(14.1)(100.0)
    Consumed339.832.92.4375.0
(90.6)(8.8)........(0.6)(100.0)
Apparel222.234.30.30.310.34.61.4273.4
(81.3)(12.5)(0.1)(0.1)(3.8)(1.7)(0.5)(100.0)
Furniture64.2101.034.811.11.00.9213.0
(30.1)(47.4)(16.3)(5.2)(0.5)(0.4)(100.0)
Automotive639.3420.566.8169.60.20.74.41,301.6
(49.1)(32.3)(5.1)(13.0)(0.3)(100.0)
Hardware47.5201.90.40.60.67.1258.2
(18.4)(78.2)(0.1)(0.2)(0.2)(2.8)(100.0)
Chemists, etc.52.77.037.3*97.1
(54.3)(7.2)(38.4)(100.0)
Miscellaneous449.6474.342.38.27.326.69.81,018.1
(44.2)(46.6)(4.2)(0.8)(0.7)(2.6)(1.0)(100.0)
    Total, all groups2,482.71,381.9144.6189.819.540.255.44,314.0
(57.6)(32.0)(3.4)(4.4)(0.5)(0.9)(1.3)(100.0)

The following table shows details of all industries surveyed in the 1973 Census of Distribution by turnover-size groups.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1973Total Labour Force on 15 April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid During 1972–73Turnover During 1972–73Stocks at Close of Year (March 1973)
MalesFemales
$    $(m)$(m)$(m)
Under 4,000467361077550.11.10.4
4,000–9,9991 3283135952 6581.09.52.2
10,000–19,9993 6769992 4988 6734.456.29.5
20,000–39,9997 7314 0407 79423 39117.4227.231.9
40,000–59,9995 3864 1587 21419 41921.8265.736.0
60,000–99,9996 2318 12711 40728 70943.0480.360.8
100,000–199,9994 76213 62512 09531 75965.1652.981.9
200,000–499,9992 62118 62111 86332 61185.8800.496.9
500,000–999,99990914 3039 31824 15867.0634.878.5
1,000,000–1,999,99940310 4485 76216 40948.2554.562.8
2,000,000 and over18610 7587 32418 20055.9631.380.1
    Total, all retail stores33 70085 42875 977206 742409.74,314.0541.1

Of the 33 700 stores surveyed in the 1973 Census, 18 377 (54.5 percent) were owned by private registered companies, 7843 (23.3 percent) by individuals, 4 675 (13.9 percent) by partnerships and 1960 (5.8 percent) by public registered companies. The remaining 845 (2.5 percent) were owned by a variety of organisations, including co-operative associations, licensing trusts, Government departments, and local authorities.

Geographical Distribution of Retail Trade—In 1973 the principal centres of population (urban areas) included 68 percent of New Zealand's population, and contained 69 percent of all retail stores, with almost 74 percent of total retail turnover.

Urban AreasEstimated Population at 31 March 1973Number of Retail StoresTotal SalesAverage SalesPurchases
Per StorePer Head of Population
 (000) $(m)$(000)$$(m)
Whangarei35.445566.51461,87950.8
Northern Auckland123.91 225130.01061,05098.8
Western Auckland99.172982.911483763.3
Central Auckland289.74 155585.61412,022429.3
Southern Auckland185.41 473204.11391,101156.9
Hamilton87.81 073176.21642,007132.9
Tauranga44.465673.91131,66556.7
Rotorua43.453089.11682,05566.2
Gisborne31.236454.91511,76142.0
Napier46.455066.21201,42749.7
Hastings48.258681.41391,68862.0
New Plymouth40.751974.91441,84055.9
Palmerston North59.8729108.11481,80981.1
Upper Hutt Valley33.026834.51291,04526.2
Lower Hutt Valley94.9957126.41321,33395.8
Porirua Basin52.029739.513375829.8
Wellington139.41 792281.31572,018202.2
Wanganui38.050861.31211,61246.2
Masterton20.628239.61401,92130.2
Nelson39.851264.61261,62148.3
Christchurch285.93 153404.11281,413303.8
Timaru29.539757.01431,92945.3
Dunedin112.41 334161.91211,440121.1
Invercargill52.3702112.81612,15884.6
                Total2 033.223 2463,176.71371,5622,379.2

The next table gives the number of stores and value of sales or turnover for boroughs with over 4000 population not included in the 24 main urban areas of the preceding table.

BoroughsEstimated Population at 31 March 1973Number of Retail StoresTotal SalesAverage SalesPurchasesTotal Labour Force
Per StorePer Head of Population
    $(m)$(000)$$(m)
Dargaville4 1609913.81393,31911.0623
Pukekohe8 04016425.61563,18119.91 058
Huntly5 2909513.31402,51810.6517
Cambridge6 68012214.41182,15711.2733
Ngaruawahia4 080573.7659102.7241
Te Awamutu7 06016622.81373,22817.61 019
Morrinsville4 44012721.61704,87617.6797
Te Kuiti4 85010812.81182,6309.6547
Taumarunui6 71011817.21462,56413.4731
Thames5 87012915.11172,56711.9653
Matamata4 19011814.41223,44311.4604
Putaruru4 62010013.31332,87110.4515
Taupo11 90019825.31282,12919.61 044
Whakatane10 25018729.11562,83822.61 217
Kawerau7 670568.01421,0376.2352
Wairoa5 54010514.51382,61611.2702
Dannevirke5 60012815.01172,68111.5763
Waitara5 320686.6981,2475.2346
Stratford5 38010515.71502,92112.4652
Hawera8 21017528.71643,49722.61 153
Feilding9 98015620.51322,05615.7962
Marton4 6709013.51502,88310.5573
Levin13 85022128.51292,05522.01 238
Blenheim15 60023632.41372,08024.71 593
Westport4 880969.0941,8526.6536
Greymouth7 75017118.81102,42714.4958
Rangiora5 1509113.21452,55610.2586
Ashburton13 70018832.51732,37426.01 405
Oamaru13 05021928.61312,19222.01 366
Balclutha4 7108214.61783,09711.5643
Gore8 88016427.51683,09721.41 045

Types of Retail Stores—In 1972–73, approximately 42 out of every 100 retail establishments dealt in food and drink, either for home preparation and consumption (for example, the bulk of the commodities sold by butchers, bakers, grocers, milk vendors, and so forth) or for consumption on the premises when the establishment was a restaurant, hotel, cafeteria, milk bar, or similar. Total sales of food and drink amounted to $1,152.5 million, almost 27 percent of total retail turnover.

In the following table, leading results of the 1973 Census of Distribution are given by both store-type groups and store types. Unlike the store type tables given earlier in this section, the following table includes store types surveyed for the first time in 1973.

Store TypeNumber of StoresSales or TurnoverAverage Turnover per StoreTotal Trading IncomePurchasesTotal Trading ExpenditureCost of Goods Sold as Percentage of Turnover*

*Cost of goods sold is equivalent to purchases during the year plus stocks at start, less stocks at close.

†Builders' hardware stores, excluding stores selling timber and constructional materials.

  $(m)$(000)$(m)$(m)$(m)Percent
Food and drink (packaged)—
    Baker and pastry-cook, cake shop57020.235.420.410.918.153.8
    Butcher, delicatessen, poulterer1 778125.670.7126.190.4116.771.7
    Grocer and dairy4 983507.4101.8508.8426.7484.983.5
    Confectioner1223.326.83.31.82.955.7
    Fish shop (wet fish)2107.837.17.84.96.762.8
    Fruiterer, greengrocer89838.542.938.628.333.973.5
    Milk vendor1 07925.023.225.415.219.560.6
    Wine shop, independent bottle store27139.0144.039.327.134.168.1
    Other food and drink (packaged)4910.7218.610.98.910.282.6
                Total9 960777.578.1780.4614.2727.178.5
Food and drink (consumed)—
    Licensed restaurant12915.3119.015.66.914.744.5
    Hotel, tavern, chartered club1 392255.9183.8259.7140.3240.354.6
    Unlicensed restaurant, tearoom, coffee house, cafeteria1 20442.735.442.822.738.153.0
    Takeaway food bar, milk bar, fish and chip shop1 38745.933.146.028.840.062.3
Other food and drink (consumed)20015.275.815.36.513.842.3
                Total4 312375.087.0379.4205.2346.854.4
Apparel—
    Footwear74448.665.348.833.944.768.9
    Draper91161.467.461.743.757.968.9
    Hosiery, lingerie, children's clothing, wool, corsets, millinery, and haberdashery73822.330.222.415.821.068.6
    Dress and coat shop1 35869.551.269.849.765.669.3
    Men's and boys' clothier74269.493.569.748.463.768.4
    Other apparel722.230.7231.21.952.4
                Total4 565273.459.9274.6192.8254.968.7
Furniture—
    Furniture store48281.2168.584.658.176.569.1
    Floor coverings and soft furnishings34841.2118.541.531.940.672.0
    Household appliance store59974.6124.578.952.174.068.4
    Radios, television etc.23015.969.316.410.915.464.6
                Total1 659213.0128.4221.3153.1206.469.1
Automotive—
    Service station (oil, petrol, accessory sales predominant)1 545220.5142.7221.8175.6212.879.2
    Motor vehicles (including motorcycles)1 436985.4686.2992.0832.2955.583.8
    Parts and accessories (including tyres and batteries)53665.0121.365.344.261.866.4
    Other automotive28130.7109.331.323.929.475.9
                Total3 7981,301.6342.71,310.41,075.91,259.582.0
Hardware—
    Domestic hardware, crockery, glass and china33220.461.420.614.819.470.0
    Paint, varnish, and wallpaper23825.7108.126.418.824.971.5
    Builders' hardware 21462.4291.663.446.857.774.1
    Timber and building materials294137.9468.9145.2101.6130.872.8
    Other hardware17011.969.812.37.811.363.7
                Total1 248258.2206.9268.0189.8244.272.4
Chemicals—
    Chemist1 16093.380.593.764.485.767.3
    Other chemicals333.8115.44.43.04.178.0
                Total1 19397.181.498.267.389.867.7
Miscellaneous—
    General store687129.5188.5131.6108.4126.283.1
    Department and variety store379292.6772.0302.2210.5284.970.6
    Toys, novelties, etc.37016.544.716.710.714.864.9
    Bookseller, news agent, and stationer1 26483.866.386.360.079.670.2
    Electrical goods10413.5130.113.98.813.165.0
    Florist2735.720.85.72.94.950.6
    Jeweller53723.844.323.915.321.760.6
    Pawnbroker and secondhand dealer34421.763.021.916.621.274.0
    Seedsman and nurseryman26211.343.211.46.310.254.7
    Tobacconist50513.727.214.010.212.273.7
    Leather goods and harness1446.041.86.04.05.764.7
    Music and record store13312.190.812.58.311.866.3
    Office supplies store11127.0243.227.213.423.752.3
    Sports goods dealer27618.868.318.913.717.869.7
    Agricultural machinery and farm equipment17753.6302.654738.551.267.9
    Photographic dealer1317.255.37.35.06.967.9
    Sewing machine dealer1178.270.38.45.17.661.3
    Other miscellaneous1 151272.9237.1290.2220.7272.079.5
                Total6 9651,018.1146.21,052.9758.5985.573.2
                Grand total33 7004,314.0128.04,385.33,256.74,114.274.5

The following table shows the number of retail stores handling particular commodity groups and the total sales of each commodity group during the year ended 31 March 1973.

Commodity GroupStores Handling CommoditiesTotal Sales of Commodity
 No.$(m)
Groceries (excluding processed meat, fish, smallgoods, etc.)6 546367.3
Fresh and frozen fish (including molluscs, etc.)2 23612.3
Fresh fruit and vegetables5 10674.3
Fresh and frozen meat5 202154.3
Processed (other than tinned) meat, fish, bacon, ham small-goods, etc.4 69031.6
Bread, cakes, and pastries5 98348.7
Milk, cream, yoghurt5 56236.2
Cooked take-away food, fish and chips, hamburgers, etc.1 99934.8
Beer, wine, and spirits1 985254.2
Confectionery, ice cream, soft drinks, snack foodstuffs, etc.8 69290.4
Meals consumed on premises and separately charged1 75064.1
Cigarettes, tobacco, and tobacconists' sundries10 29294.3
Drapery, millinery, haberdashery, soft furnishings, bedding, household textiles.2 93998.5
Women's, girls', and infants' clothing and accessories3 343160.6
Furniture (including mattresses, blinds, etc.)1 21678.3
Floor coverings (including carpets, lino, floor tiles, etc.)85656.1
Footwear—men's and boys'1 91125.1
Footwear—women's, girls', and infants'1 74439.8
Men's and boys' clothing and accessories2 363109.4
TV sets, parts, and accessories (excluding rental sets)1 21914.5
Radios, record players, tape recorders, etc.1 31922.4
Musical instruments, records, sheet music, etc.77316.0
Domestic refrigerators and freezers1 18126.2
Washing machines, stoves, household heating and ventilation appliances, etc.1 28529.6
Sewing and knitting machines, parts, etc.56610.0
Other household appliances and accessories (including vacuum cleaners, motor mowers, toasters, food mixers, electric blankets, etc.)2 06732.5
Domestic hardware (including kitchenware, china, glassware, cutlery, garden tools, etc.)2 62152.8
Wallpaper and glass58915.0
Timber (including joinery and fencing)69891.2
Wood-based panel products (e.g., hardboard, softboard, plywood)34121.6
Cement, clay, plaster, and concrete products, sand and gravel, bricks, tiles, pipes, etc.57936.9
Paints and varnishes1 35424.9
Plumbing supplies4356.0
Electrical supplies (builders)46712.9
Hand tools (including electrical)1 00011.5
Other builders' hardware and materials (including structural steel, metal joinery, etc.)83455.3
Motorcars and station wagons—new775323.6
Motorcars and station wagons—used1 520335.9
Trucks, vans, buses, and other vehicles except motor cycles—new51167.4
Trucks, vans, buses, and other vehicles except motor cycles—used62031.8
Motor cycles and motor scooters—new26616.7
Tyres and tubes (including stock retreads and recaps)2 66543.7
Motor vehicle parts and accessories (including batteries)3 067136.4
Motor spirit (not including diesel fuel)3 095170.1
Diesel fuel1 4906.8
Lubrication oil2 47212.1
Caravans and trailers (including fixtures and fittings)21012.2
Boats, outboard and inboard motors, parts, etc.36619.3
Agricultural machinery and implements (including tractors, parts, and accessories)81567.6
Industrial machinery and equipment (including fork lifts, machine tools, parts, etc.)26836.3
Office and business machines and equipment, parts and accessories18622.5
Fertilisers and manures77548.1
Grain, bulk seed, feed, and fodder62769.4
Medical and pharmaceutical goods1 29925.0
Stock remedies54311.6
Agricultural chemicals58613.7
Toiletries, cosmetics, perfumes, etc.3 06639.3
Prescription medicines (including dispensing and payments from Department of Health)1 16239.4
Photographic equipment, accessories, and supplies (including projectors, enlargers, chemicals, and film)1 14410.5
Souvenirs and novelties1 34012.7
Travel goods, briefcases, handbags, etc., of leather or plastic7128.3
Sports goods and requisites, camping equipment, toys, games etc.1 85136.2
Watches, clocks, jewellery, precious stones1 39324.8
Seeds, plants, and other garden supplies (excluding garden tools)1 22415.8
Books, stationery, newspapers, magazines, greeting cards, etc.4 24792.0
Secondhand goods, antiques, etc.61532.1

The following table shows average turnover and average labour force per establishment, turnover per unit of labour force and per head of population, and the approximate number of times stock was turned over each year as recorded by store-type group at the 1973 Census.

Store-type GroupAverage Turnover per EstablishmentAverage Labour Force per EstablishmentAverage Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceTurnover per Head of PopulationNumber of Times Stock Turned Over per Annum
Full TimePart Time
 $  $$ 
Food and drink—
    Packaged78,0592.51.620,322253.021.2
    Consumed86,9715.13.710,131122.629.8
Apparel59,8842.71.215,33491.93.8
Furniture128,3814.80.822,75971.65.8
Automotive342,7088.11.242,500354.611.8
Hardware206,9306.80.926,47865.76.4
Chemists, etc.81,4273.31.417,25332.66.7
Miscellaneous146,1805.81.420,238342.15.8
        All retail stores128,0114.51.621,0741,334.28.7

Shopping Malls—Unlike the 1968 Census of Distribution, in 1973 no comparable statistics were obtained for multiple stores engaged in retail trading. Statistics have, however, been compiled for shopping malls.

The following table gives the total of all retail establishments confined to shopping malls, excluding service establishments such as hairdressing salons.

LocationNumber of Stores in Shopping MallsSalesStocks, at End of Year (March) 1973Total Labour Force on 15 April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid 1972–73
Full TimePart Time
Main urban areas—No.$(m)$(m)No.No.$(m)
    Northern Auckland496.31.02091640.6
    Western Auckland416.51.02341110.6
    Central Auckland8810.02.14852291.3
    Southern Auckland14221.72.76544571.9
        Total, Greater Auckland U.A.32044.56.81 5829614.4
    Wellington8714.62.05631841.5
    Lower Hutt Valley242.80.499650.3
    Total, Greater Wellington U.A.11117.42.46622491.8
    Christchurch11616.32.15383041.5
Secondary urban areas573.40.4143860.3
Smaller centres717.71.12721950.8
Other urban areas201.70.383230.2
    Total69590.913.13 2801 8189.0

The following table shows the number of shopping malls by turnover-size groups, together with the number of stores (including, in this case, service establishments), aggregate sales, and average sales per store for each turnover-size group.

Turnover-Size Groups of Shopping MallsShopping MallsStores in Shopping MallsTotal SalesAverage Sales per Shopping Mall
$No.No.$(m)$(m)
Under 250,0007420.801
250,000–99,9998772.80.4
500,000–999,99911948.20.7
1,000,000–1,999,9993383.91.3
2,000,000–2,999,9993667.82.6
3,000,000–3,999,99937810.83.6
4,000,000–4,999,999515222.44.5
5,000,000–8,999,999312119.26.4
9,000,000 and over29418.79.3
          Total4576294.62.1

Self-Service Stores—With the advent of equal pay for female shop assistants, shortages of staff, and the introduction of more varieties of goods, combined with larger selling areas, the numbers of self-service stores operating have grown considerably over the past few years.

The following table gives statistics for the units which were mainly self-service in 1972–73, followed by those which were mainly counter-service units.

LocationNumber of storesSalesStocks at End of Year Sales (31 March 1973)Paid Employees as at 15 April 1973
Full TimePart Time
  $(m)$(m) No.
Main urban areas—Mainly Self-Service
    Northern Auckland17226.22.1470491
    Western Auckland10720.11.1371325
    Central Auckland52366.46.71 424898
    Southern Auckland21642.53.1892749
        Total, Greater Auckland U.A.1 018155.213.03 1572 463
    Wellington21631.03.3884406
    Lower Hutt Valley11118.32.3376197
    Upper Hutt Valley416.80.514983
    Porirua Basin489.40.617897
        Total, Greater Wellington U.A.41665.56.71 587783
    Hamilton14118.51.8429214
    Christchurch35149.43.81 107516
    Dunedin15618.42.1430184
Secondary urban areas729106.19.72 5391 029
Smaller centres45369.16.61 729693
Other urban areas30634.73.7705318
Rural32224.52.9346207
        Total, mainly self-service3 892541.450.112 0296 407
Main urban areas—Mainly Counter-Service
    Northern Auckland1 053103.811.02 2831 551
    Western Auckland62262.87.01 432711
    Central Auckland3 632519.268.315 9985 039
    Southern Auckland1 257161.618.83 8561 848
        Total, Greater Auckland U.A.6 564847.4105.223 5699 149
    Wellington1 576250.332.96 6852 851
    Lower Hutt Valley846108.212.72 1661 322
    Upper Hutt Valley22727.73.6574388
    Porirua Basin24930.13.5681358
        Total, Greater Wellington U.A.2 898416.252.610 1064 919
    Hamilton932157.721.54 0671 239
    Christchurch2 802354.750.510 3644 738
    Dunedin1 178143.519.44 3711 532
Secondary urban areas6 061843.8115.024 6518 893
Smaller centres4 054648.572.614 4424 548
Other urban areas2 660265.634.97 1952 535
Rural2 659194.819.34 6382 013
        Total, mainly counter-service29 8083,772.6490.9103 40339 566
        Total, all retail stores33 7004,314.0541.1115 43245 973

Wholesale Trade—The total of 5 215 wholesale establishments included in the 1973 Census of Distribution had an aggregate turnover of $3,632.9 million, an average turnover of $696,627 per store. (Oil companies, with 119 outlets and a turnover of $318.8 million, are not included in these figures. A separate summary is given later in this section.)

Auckland and Wellington (including the Hutt Valley and Porirua Basin) Urban Areas, together accounted for 46.2 percent of wholesale stores and 55.6 percent of turnover.

The following table shows details of wholesale establishments by store-type groups in 1973.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1973Total Labour Force on 15 April 1973
MalesFemales
Food and drink96910 7554 42615 898
Apparel and textiles4963 2222 2505 921
Furniture3122 2519463 423
Automotive3734 1231 1405 501
Timber and hardware8908 8641 96511 405
Chemicals2182 5161 2073 784
Miscellaneous1 95715 1386 62323 329
    Total, all wholesale stores5 21546 86918 55769 261
Store-type GroupAverage Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1972–73Sales or Turnover During 1972–73Average Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1973)
 No.$(m)$(m)$$(m)
Food and drink16.448.8880.062,05476.8
Apparel and textiles12.017.9289.055,11348.4
Furniture10.911.4202.163,84825.5
Automotive14.717.7407.075,10155.0
Timber and hardware12.838.1479.944,17186.8
Chemicals17.313.4209.459,14841.2
Miscellaneous12.073.41,165.654,797180.7
    Total, all wholesale stores13.3220.73,632.957,014514.4

A classification by size of turnover shows that stores with a turnover of under $100,000 numbered 1641 (31.5 percent) but accounted for only $68,195,000 or 1.9 percent of the total turnover. At the other end of the scale, a total turnover of $2,522,193,000 (69.4 percent) was accounted for by only 789 stores (15.1 percent) which had turnovers of $1,000,000 or more.

TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1973Total Labour Force April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid During 1973Turnover During 1972–73Stocks at Close of Year (March 1973)
MalesFemales
$    $(000)$(m)$(m)
Under 6,0002314913041 0562,1520.30.2
6,000–9,999662421126790.50.1
10,000–19,9991841691335626512.70.5
20,000–39,9993794803751 3252,08111.31.7
40,000–59,9992835953311 2782,46614.02.7
60,000–99,9994981 4246672 5855,97639.37.0
100,000–199,9998283 3611 4115 33815,073120.821.8
200,000–299,9995202 8221 0634 26512,277127.522.8
300,000–399,9994022 9561 0624 20513,247139.726.7
400,000–499,9993012 6949223 77412,107134.625.6
500,000–599,9992042 0427552 8999,650111.790.4
600,000–799,9993243 9501 4605 57618,344224.7
800,000–999,9992062 7989873 90513,018183.6
1,000,000–1,499,9993035 5541 9767 64426,278365.51314.9
1,500,000 and over48617 5097 09024 72387,2892,156.7
    Total, all wholesale stores5 21546 86918 55769 261220,6853,632.9514.4

The following table shows a commodity analysis of wholesale trade, repair work, hiring, leasing and renting.

Commodity GroupNumber of Stores Handling CommodityTurnover During 1972–73
AmountPercentage of Total
 No.$(000) 
Groceries, other food, drink, and tobacco459395,43710.9
Fresh and frozen meat, poultry, game, etc.191192,7895.3
Fresh and frozen fish, etc.14622,8620.6
Processed meat, fish, bacon, ham, smallgoods, etc., other than canned12238,7701.1
Fresh fruit and vegetables12465,5361.8
Bread, cakes, and pastries18341,0281.1
Milk, cream and yoghurt (wholesaler), confectionery, ice cream, soft drinks, etc.29671,5002.0
Other foods14750,8351.4
Beer, wine, and spirits167109,4823.0
Cigarettes, tobacco, and tobacconists sundries210111,5893.1
Fabrics, drapery, piecegoods, millinery, haberdashery, woollen goods, soft furnishings, etc.406138,3573.8
Footwear26831,8170.9
Men's and boys' wear27176,2052.1
Women's, girls', and infants' wear31892,1272.5
Furniture and floor coverings32792,2632.5
Television sets and parts (excluding rentals)8912,0990.3
Radios, radiograms, record players, and tape recorders17722,0460.6
Musical instruments (including records)4610,6610.3
Domestic and commercial refrigerators and freezers13831,7370.9
Washing machines, stoves, heating and ventilation equipment21235,1751.0
Other household appliances, motor mowers, electrical goods, and accessories37635,0611.0
Domestic hardware, cutlery, china, and glassware43861,9571.7
Building materials and supplies (excluding timber, bricks and concrete products)19133,9950.9
Wallpaper and glass13113,8920.4
Timber only, including joinery and fencing materials21966,9581.8
Panel products (wood based) hardboard, soft board, and plywoods12119,6480.5
Cement, clay, pipes, bricks, and concrete products, sand and gravel, etc.14445,3671.2
Plumbing supplies25960,5051.7
Electrical supplies28763,0391.7
Hand tools (including electrical)24212,9134.0
Other builders' supplies, structural steel, metal joinery, etc.515184,9985.1
New and used motor vehicles62247,2846.8
Automotive parts and accessories, fuel, and lubricants522145,7644.0
Caravans, trailers, boats, bicycles, etc.16220,4450.6
Agricultural machinery, implements, tractors, parts, and accessories16232,5200.9
Industrial machinery and equipment464118,7113.3
Construction, earthmoving, mining, and quarrying machinery, etc.9627,8340.8
Other machinery, including office18923,6820.7
Florists goods, plants, seeds, and garden supplies24729,4490.8
Agricultural chemicals10421,8550.6
Fertilisers and manures10440,9041.1
Grain, seed, feed, and fodder9440,8361.1
Medical and pharmaceutical goods (including payments received from Department of Health)23170,3791.9
Toiletries, cosmetics, perfumes, etc.18733,2260.9
Industrial chemicals and allied products14471,3292.0
Books, stationery, newspapers, etc.21254,1601.5
Paper in bulk (not stationery)7838,1981.1
Photographic equipment and supplies6513,2570.4
Printers' supplies, paper, and ink369,7400.3
Professional and scientific equipment, including medical, optical, and dental equipment13014,9320.4
Sports goods (including toys and games)21429,7830.8
Travel goods, leather goods, etc.14016,8310.5
Watches, clocks, jewellery, silverware, etc.27518,6310.5
Wrapping and packaging materials15624,1010.7
Wool, hides, and skins, and sheepskin products90205,2205.6
Other34531,0100.9
        Total, wholesale commodities 3,620,72999.7
        Total, wholesale repairs and services 10,9800.3
        Total, wholesale hiring, leasing, and renting 1,201
  3,632,910100.0

Wholesale Distribution of Petroleum and Petroleum Products 1972–73—Petrol wholesalers were not included in the previous tables on wholesale trade as the 7 oil companies surveyed under the Census of Distribution supplied aggregated figures for their respective installations. In all, 119 depots with aggregate sales valued at $318.8 million were covered by the survey. Details of sales of petroleum and petroleum products during 1972–73 are given in the following table.

Wholesale Sales of GoodsVolumeValue
*Included in these figures are the following over/under recoveries from the Petroleum Pool Account.
 litres (million)$(million)
Motor gasoline2 184.8209.9*
Aviation gasoline35.82.4
Lighting and power kerosene35.21.8
Jet kerosene201.18.2
Light fuel oil251.75.9*
Heavy fuel oil743.414.3*
Diesel1 074.140.4*
Other petroleum products..35.9
Total..318.8
 $(million) 
Motor gasoline9.2(over)
Diesel1.3(under)
Light fuel oil0.1(under)
Heavy fuel oil0.3(under)

The following table gives a summary of the income and expenditure of the 119 oil company installations in New Zealand and also includes Head Office expenses such as sales promotions.

ItemValue
Trading income—$(million)
    Sales of goods (see above)318.8
    Sales of services (mainly to other companies in this group)6.4
    Other trading income (interest, rent, etc.)2.6
Total trading income327.8
Value of stocks—
    Beginning of year40.9
    End of year42.1
Trading expenses—
    Purchases of petroleum and petroleum products (includes refinery fees and coastal shipping charges)144.5
    Commodity duties and taxes100.3
    Salaries and wages (includes overtime)14.7
    Rent and leasing of land, buildings, plant, vehicles, etc.2.9
    Advertising and sales promotion2.6
    Gross interest paid1.9
    Transport costs—operating costs of own vehicles4.3
                                    —contract freight and cartage7.7
    Depreciation on fixed tangible assets (as charged in books of account)8.4
    Other trading expenses24.3
Total, trading expenses311.6

All figures in these tables dealing with the wholesale trading activities of oil companies include intercompany sales but exclude manufacturing activities which mainly involve the blending and packaging of lubricating oils.

Total paid employees of the 7 companies surveyed numbered 3211. The table below shows the fixed tangible assets of the oil companies.

Fixed Tangible AssetsPurchases During Trading YearSales During Trading YearBook Value at End of Trading Year
 $(million)
Land0.50.610.6
Buildings0.10.15.7
Road transport vehicles1.70.77.1
Other assets4.90.442.3
                Total7.21.865.7

Service Establishments—Service establishments surveyed in the 1973 Census of Distribution fell into 5 main groups as follows: renting, hiring, and leasing; accommodation; motor vehicle repair, maintenance, and servicing; other miscellaneous repair and maintenance servicing; and personal services.

Of the 7416 service establishments, 5516 or 74 percent provided services only, and in the remainder some secondary trading was also carried on. Services establishments covered by the Census comprised 5350 (or 72 percent of the total) in the North Island and 2066, (or 28 percent) in the South Island.

The principal centres of population (Urban Areas) contained 70 percent of service establishments with 79 percent of the total turnover of such establishments.

The following table gives details of numbers and location of those services covered by the census in 1973.

ItemRenting, Hiring, and leasing ServicesAccommodation ServicesMotor Vehicle, Repair, Maintenance, and ServicingOther Miscellaneous Repair and Maintenance ServicesPersonal ServicesTotal
Number of establishments2971 5762 1718592 5137 416
Sales or turnover during 1972–73 $(000)44,95336,72499,59729,80764,773275,854
Location of establishments—
    Main urban areas1763691 0594781 4073 489
    Secondary urban areas754045061945241 703
    Smaller centres22160298100336916
    Other urban1623315267181649
    Rural84101562065659
Paid employees on 15 April 1973
    Males1 6328706 0441 6784 26414 488
    Females1 1483 36681042911 25317 006
    Total2 7804 2366 8542 10715 51731 494
Total labour force on 15 April 19733 0257 0759 9673 17418 38541 626
Salaries and wages paid during 1972–73 $(m)10.56.521.37.127.172.4

Service establishments are further analysed in the following table.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1973Total Labour Force 15 April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid During 1972–73Turnover During 1972–73
MalesFemales
$    $(000)$(000)
Under 2,000223202729525.5277.9
2,000–3,99946549117741165.71,412.4
4,000–5,99956037236988341.82,814.8
6,000–9,9991 1751458322 5061,357.49,303.2
10,000–19,9991 7506451 9485 0934,405.925,031.4
20,000–29,9991 0121 1821 4034,1115,244.024,899.4
30,000–39,9995469788892 6884,189.018,848.9
40,000–59,9996501 7991 2443 9887,773.731,960.2
60,000–99,9995552 5911 7805 15510,848.542,620.7
100,000–199,9993132 5111 8484 74911,602.542,486.4
200,000–499,9991322 5613 7106 36513,817.639,390.2
500,000 and over351 9702 9724 94712,620.536,809.1
        Total7 41614 48817 00641 62672,392.2275,854.4

The nature of the service establishments covered in the Census of Distribution 1973 is shown in the following table. It should be recognised that there are many other types of services.

Nature of ServiceNumber of Stores or Agencies
Personal services—
    Laundry, drycleaner, carpet cleaner, dyer383
    Cleaner (office, window, shop)166
    Men's hairdresser143
    Ladies' hairdresser, beauty salon1 417
    Photographer (portrait and commercial)223
    Funeral director and undertaker78
    Health centres, saunas, etc., gymnasiums54
    Other49
    Total, personal services.2 513
Renting, hiring, and leasing services—
    Cars and other motor vehicles101
    Television46
    Towels and linen20
    Apparel13
    Excavation, construction, building, and agricultural machinery59
    Office machinery and equipment13
    Other45
    Total, renting, etc297
Motor vehicle repair—
    Service stations226
    Panelbeater714
    Spray painter218
    Car washer25
    Car trimmer85
    Engine reconditioners and engineers655
    Auto electrician170
    Other78
    Total, motor vehicle repairs2 171
Accommodation—
    Unlicensed motels973
    Motor camps and cabins275
    Unlicensed hotels, guest houses, hostels, boardinghouses285
    Licensed hotels/motels (accommodation predominant)43
    Total, accommodation1 576
Other miscellaneous repair and maintenance services—
    Boot and shoe repairer102
    Electrical goods repairer322
    Watchmaker88
Carpet sewer and fitter44
Agricultural machinery and equipment repairer39
Gunsmith and locksmith15
Tool repairer and sharpener35
Other214
    Total, other services859
Grand total, all service establishments7 416

Turnover figures for the 14 main types of service establishments covered were as follows: Panel-beating, $33.6 million; engineers and engine reconditioners, $28.5 million; service stations, $18.5 million; laundry, dry-cleaning, dyeing, $17.1 million; electrical repairs, $16.3 million; hairdressing and beauty salons, $16.2 million; office and shop cleaning, $15.4 million; renting, hiring or leasing office machine equipment, $14.5 million; car hire, etc., $8.0 million; auto electrician, $7.7 million; towel and linen hire, $7.9 million; licensed hotels (accommodation predominant) $7.4 million; unlicensed motels, $5.9 million; and renting, hiring television, etc., $5.2 million.

The following table shows details of numbers and turnover of establishments for the above groupings, divided into those providing services only, and those providing mainly services but with secondary retail or wholesale activity.

Type of ServiceNumber of Establishments Handling Service SpecifiedTurnover During 1972–73
 No.$(000)
Personal services—
    Services only1 97955,528
    Services plus retail and wholesale5349,245
        Total, personal services2 51364,773
Renting, hiring, and leasing—
    Services only20218,135
    Services plus retail and wholesale9526,818
        Total, renting, hiring, and leasing29744,953
Accommodation—
    Services only1 26320,424
    Services plus retail and wholesale31316,300
    Total, accommodation1 57636,724
Motor vehicle repair—
    Services only1 59860,280
    Services plus retail and wholesale57339,317
        Total, motor vehicle repair2 17199,597
Other miscellaneous repair and maintenance services—
    Services only4749,648
    Services plus retail and wholesale38520,160
            Total, other miscellaneous repair and maintenance services85929,808
            Grand total, all services7 416275,854

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADE—A quarterly sample survey of retail trade was made by the Department of Statistics until the December quarter 1969, but was replaced by a monthly sample survey in January 1970 and the results of this sample are aggregated to obtain quarterly figures.

The present sample survey was revised in January 1976, based on store-type groupings from the 1972–73 Census of Distribution. Some store types (hotels, chartered clubs, wine and spirit merchants, and the automotive group), are still excluded from the published figures. The collection of statistics for these store types commenced in April 1976 and the results are at present being used to establish a seasonal correction pattern for future surveys.

The following table gives quarterly sales and also stocks at 31 March for store-type groups. Figures prior to March 1976 have been linked to the new series to give a comparable long-term series.

Quarter EndedButcher, Poulterer, etc.Grocer and DairyOther Food and DrinkFootwear aApparelFurniture and Soft FurnishingsHousehold Appliances, Electrical Goods, Radios, T.V., etc.Hardware, Builders' Hardware, Paints, etc.ChemistGeneral Department, and VarietyOtherAll Store Types
$(million)
Retail Sales
1975—
    Mar32.3198.060.814.066.643.951.659.332.0102.9181.2842.7
    Jun34.6199.861.119.888.952.967.161.433.7132.4187.7939.6
    Sep35.7208.864.416.180.761.674.365.636.2132.2206.9982.6
    Dec40.6243.372.221.299.369.983.877.843.5171.9275.11,198.6
1976—
    Mar37.4228.667.916.578.854.965.970.6-37.9123.1227.71,009.3
    Jun39.9239.669.823.099.663.877.674.339.1148.9225.81,101.4
    Sep41.0258.573.418.188.468.285.476.742.3140.2234.91,127.1
    Dec46.4298.086.322.9102.975.790.091.752.8190.0309.51,366.1
1977—
    Mar39.4273.076.318.781.063.571.481.543.1130.5269.31,147.9
    Jun43.9284.878.226.0108.871.380.984.044.6162.9260.71,246.0
    Sep45.5298.682.520.499.880.082.484.849.8150.0262.51,256.1
    Dec49.1328.889.624.7112.579.483.595.662.0190.3323.11,438.5
1978—
    Mar41.5309.684.520.488.565.368.685.652.0133.4283.81,233.2
    Jun45.8309.487.029.5117.777.487.888.852.9172.6280.31,349.2
    Sep48.4326.190.822.8105.983.693.690.954.4160.5299.41,376.4
    Dec56.2368.9104.230.8132.993.9103.6111.468.0223.3379.01,672.0
Retail Stocks at 31 March
19751.752.35.523.7101.647.537.647.721.2105.7150.9595.4
19762.063.36.626.8109.559.047.751.826.1110.0178.2680.9
19772.970.48.532.6124.078.761.362.629.8129.8217.3817.9
19782.779.39.236.6133.582.464.270.433.4141.1226.6879.4

Retail Trade Statistics Adjusted for Seasonal Fluctuations and for Price and Population Changes—To facilitate direct comparisons between quarterly figures, seasonally adjusted values of retail trade turnover have been prepared. To do this, seasonal adjustment factors were calculated using the U.S. Bureau of the Census Method II of Seasonal Adjustment, and including an additional adjustment for changes in the number of trading days in each month.

A special price index has been prepared for the purpose of deflating the retail sales figures to give a series in dollars of constant purchasing power—i.e., the adjusted series shows the changes in the real volume of retail sales. The principal source of the prices used for this index are the commodity prices used in the Consumers Price Index. The prices have been appropriately weighted and the whole index expressed on the base: December quarter, 1974 (= 1000), so that application of the index to the original figures, both before and after seasonal correction, gives series in constant December quarter, 1974 dollars.

The results of these calculations and adjustments are shown in the following table for all store-types.

Quarter EndedIn Current SIn Constant Dec qtr. 1974 $
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*

*Base: Value December Quarter 1974 (= 1000).

†All data on turnover per head of population have been revised in the light of the 1976 Census of Population figures, revised intercensal estimates, and revised population figures from March 1976 onward.

Total Sales or Turnover
 $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) 
1975-Mar842.7916.01000813.3884.0966
        Jun939.6957.01045869.9886.0968
        Sep982.61,007.71101872.1894.4977
        Dec1,198.61,065.411641,019.9906.8990
1976—Mar1,009.31,070.61169822.2872.2953
        Jun1,101.41,134.71239857.6883.5965
        Sep1,127.11,153.31260828.9848.2926
        Dec1,366.11,201.41312977.4859.5939
1977—Mar1,147.91,245.21360795.1862.6942
        Jun1,246.01,278.11396828.5849.8928
        Sep1,256.11,281.21399798.1314.1889
        Dec1,438.51,282.51401882.6786.9859
1978—Mar1,233.21,334.91458740.9802.0876
        Jun1,349.21,368.51495785.4796.6870
        Sep1,376.41,429.41561791.4821.9898
        Dec1,672.01,503.31642937.6843.0921
Sales per Head of Population
 $$ $$ 
1975—Mar273.24297.02992263.71286.64957
        Jun305.06310.711037282.44287.67960
        Sep319.25327.411093283.34290.61970
        Dec385.88343.001145328.37291.94975
1976—Mar322.84342.451143263.00278.98931
        Jun354.19364.891218275.78284.10948
        Sep363.46371.901242267.29273.50913
        Dec436.77384.091282312.50274.79917
1977—Mar365.06396.031322252.88274.33916
        Jun398.99409.271366265.30272.13909
        Sep403.87411.941375256.61261.74874
        Dec459.07409.311367281.68251.14838
1978—Mar391.68423.991416235.33254.74850
        Jun431.50437.691461251.19254.78851
        Sep442.55459.571534254.45264.25882
        Dec533.85479.991602299.37269.17899

Information on quarterly sales is presented graphically in the following diagrams.

Figure 23.1. RETAIL TRADE

RETAIL TRADE

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF WHOLESALE TRADE—In this survey stores are classified by store-type group according to the predominant type of commodity sold. The store-type figures therefore do not cover only sales of goods normally associated with the type of store listed, as there are many wholesale stores which handle a wide variety of commodities.

This survey was revised in March 1977. The revised survey includes wholesalers with sales turnover in excess of $100,000 at the 1973 Census of Distribution and covers approximately 89 percent of all wholesale turnover and 87 percent of wholesale stocks at that census.

Several wholesale store-types which were included in the 1973 Census of Distribution for the first time have been introduced into the quarterly survey. The major additions are timber merchants, timber products, cement and concrete stores, indent agents, exporters, manufacturers' agents, and wool, hide, and skin dealers. They have each been allocated to an appropriate survey store-type group. The revised survey also features the addition and deletion of a number of stores which were reclassified at the 1973 Census to and from wholesale, respectively, owing to changes of the proportion of wholesale trade between the 1968 and 1973 Censuses of Distribution. In addition some existing wholesale stores have moved between survey store-types.

The following table shows wholesale turnover by store-type group during each quarter of the 2 latest years and wholesale stocks as at the end of each quarter of the two years.

PeriodFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicals
Quarter ended—$(million)
1977—Sales or Turnover
    31 Mar307.192.251.8126.5178.884.9
    30 Jun315.390.953.5138.9186.684.7
    30 Sep343.791.250.3138.0189.892.0
    31 Dec388.381.445.9129.9172.0103.0
1978—      
    31 Mar335.782.036.1130.8150.893.0
    30 Jun354.697.851.7160.9177.1102.5
    30 Sep381.396.452.7171.0185.8113.1
    31 Dec437.0108.356.9173.0189.9118.7
As at—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
1977—
    31 Mar103.964.346.3114.6129.762.6
    30 Jun114.467.550.6127.4139.962.7
    30 Sep122.167.150.4149.6144.871.1
    31 Dec119.469.445.8166.8142.874.6
1978—
    31 Mar120.475.245.6142.4140.263.3
    30 Jun133.066.942.0147.8137.967.2
    30 Sep134.162.045.4136.4142.566.9
    31 Dec134.673.443.6117.0143.064.9
PeriodGeneral MerchantsMachineryElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryMiscellaneousTotal
ActualSeasonally Corrected
Quarter ended—$(million)
1977—Sales or Turnover
    31 Mar93.278.231.731.0233.61,308.91,401.4
    30 Jun104.274.036.032.4251.71,368.31,392.1
    30 Sep100.076.537.935.4215.31,370.01,335.4
    31 Dec107.068.032.538.5215.21,381.71,318.8
1978—
    31 Mar90.570.330.033.4221.41,273.91,364.0
    30 Jun99.870.531.733.0267.21,446.71,468.7
    30 Sep106.076.432.438.5232.01,485.61,435.3
    31 Dec118.277.933.542.0266.21,621.61,551.8
As at—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
1977—
    31 Mar52.174.030.522.4112.7812.9808.4
    30 Jun54.678,431.823.6112.8863.6862.7
    30 Sep58.985.433.324.1102.8909.6905.8
    31 Dec59.9102.833.323.5108.0946.4957.1
1978—
    31 Mar61.898.033.923.5116.7921.0915.3
    30 Jun59.7103.329.025.5134.6946.8947.7
    30 Sep61.597.029.226.0125.4926.3920.8
    31 Dec58.991.028.525.4123.1903.5914.5

INSTALMENT CREDIT TRADING—Instalment credit trading in New Zealand has been growing steadily in recent years in common with other developed countries. This growth generally is explained by common causes, including an increasing social acceptance and the development of borrowing facilities. There is an increasing tendency for consumer durables to be purchased on credit. Instalment credit allows high-priced goods to be acquired as opportunity or desire dictates, with less reference to the immediate cash position. Some people welcome the discipline of monthly credit repayments as a means of saving. Consumer credit is provided either by retailers or finance companies. A major activity of the finance companies is the financing of motor vehicles on hire-purchase; the Reserve Bank collects statistics in this field. A report by the Tariff and Development Board on instalment credit trading, published as parliamentary paper H.49, 1968, is a useful reference.

The Hire Purchase Act 1971 is the governing legislation in New Zealand.

Regulations to control hire-purchase trade have existed since 22 July 1955. Goods coming into the category “Other consumer goods” were exempted from hire-purchase restrictions from 29 October 1977, and, from 3 February 1978, new regulations covering hire-purchase sales of new cars were introduced. These allowed for a minimum deposit of 60 percent, with a maximum repayment period of 12 months. For used cars the repayment was extended once more to 18 months. With effect from 19 April 1978 hire-purchase sales and credit sales of colour television sets, together with the conditions applying to the hire of television sets, were no longer regulated. The maximum period of credit on new motor cycles was extended to 18 months, and on secondhand motor cycles to 24 months, while the minimum deposit for the latter was reduced to 33⅓ percent.

A limited quarterly survey of hire-purchase trade is made by the Department of Statistics. It includes selected merchandising firms and finance corporations and for the 1967–68 March year surveyed business was estimated to cover 72 percent of hire-purchase sales recorded in the 1968 Census of Distribution. Only sales covered by the regulations governing hire-purchase are intended to be included in the survey but some types of lending by way of lease, and instrument by way of security are also included. Credit sales, charge accounts, laybys, and other forms of instalment or credit selling covered by the Census of Distribution, and shown in an earlier table in this section, are not included in the quarterly figures. The following table shows the value of goods sold on hire-purchase as recorded by the businesses in the survey.

QuarterMotor VehiclesPlant and MachineryTelevision SetsOther Household and Personal GoodsTotal Sold on H.P.Total Owing Under H.P. Agreements*Percentage of Payments Overdue*
Sold on H.P.H.P. FinancedSold on H.P.H.P. FinancedSold on H.P.H.P. FinancedSold on H.P.H.P. Financed
*As at end of quarter.
$(million)
1975—
    Mar42.117.810.47.01.81.412.410.066.7192.53.3
    Jun53.624.312.27.22.92.116.013.084.7185.53.3
    Sep57.427.714.510.04.13.016.813.892.7200.24.6
    Dec62.429.215.310.84.13.018.915.6100.7220.13.9
1976—
    Mar58.426.516.011.32.92.014.411.691.7224.03.8
    Jun51.625.613.39.42.71.520.016.287.6226.62.8
    Sep56.0-28.721.616.32.91.619.215.499.7234.33.3
    Dec69.137.022.116.92.51.522.718.5116.4297.53.0
1977—
    Mar63.833.321.614.61.91.117.314.3104.6284.22.8
    Jun71.838.819.314.12.11.219.015.9112.2302.62.5
    Sep69.436.816.712.81.61.019.916.7107.6320.12.5
    Dec83.746.317.312.81.41.022.018.4124.4333.52.7
1978—
    Mar75.139.127.618.81.10.817.614.8121.4351.52.4
    Jun75.841.626.718.45.74.523.519.6131.8374.62.3
    Sep83.546.025.617.64.84.123.420.1137.4392.62.3
    Dec84.146.322.215.33.52.930.424.7140.2408.12.4

The average amount covered by hire-purchase agreements in the quarter ended 31 December 1978 was: motor vehicles, $3,112; machinery, $10,633; television sets, $649; other household and personal goods, $163.

COMMERCIAL PRACTICES—Legislative provisions dealing with the control of prices and with consumer protection are briefly described in Section 23 Prices, Household Expenditure, and Consumer Affairs. Further Sections of the Commerce Act 1975 are described below.

TRADE PRACTICES—Part II of the Commerce Act 1975 is designed to stimulate competition through the alleviation of the harmful effects of various undesirable trade practices that are, or may be, considered contrary to the public interest as defined in section 21 of the Act. Some of these practices are prohibited, for example, profiteering and black marketing. Other types of practices are those that may be approved by the Commerce Commission if they are not considered harmful to the public interest. They include collective pricing agreements, individual resale price maintenance arrangements, and pyramid selling schemes. The commission may also make orders against a third category of practices which it considers contrary to the public interest. These include refusals to supply, and directed insurance.

MONOPOLIES, MERGERS, AND TAKEOVERS—Part III of the Commerce Act is designed to ensure that some control is maintained over aggregations of economic power in New Zealand. Aggregations which constitute a merger or takeover proposal under the Act are investigated and considered by the Examiner of Commercial Practices in terms of the effects on the public interest, which is defined in the Act. The examiner may consent to a proposal, or where he considers it is likely to be contrary to the public interest, it may be referred to the Commerce Commission which will hold a public hearing to decide in terms of public interest whether the merger or takeover should proceed.

Monopoly and oligopoly situations can be investigated by the examiner on complaint or on evidence of misuse of market power. If found to be contrary to the public interest, situations are made the subject of a hearing held by the Commerce Commission, which is empowered to take corrective action.

Chapter 24. Section 22; EXTERNAL TRADE

22 A—GENERAL

GENERAL—New Zealand has always been heavily dependent on overseas trade for its development and progress. Today the value of New Zealand's overseas trade as a proportion of gross national product is among the highest in the world. In the early days of colonisation the infant farming industry found a ready market in Australia for basic foodstuffs such as potatoes, grain, butter, and cheese. Timber and gold temporarily constituted a sizeable proportion of exports, but the most consistent export was wool, which made up 22 percent of the value of exports in 1853, when statistics were first compiled. In the 1870s it accounted for over half the value; from 1880 to 1898 its share was from 40 percent to 50 percent. From 1899 to 1964 wool consistently earned one-third of New Zealand's export receipts; since then the proportion has declined, and in the year ended June 1978 wool made up only 18 percent of exports by value.

Real and lasting diversification of the exports of farm products was made possible by the introduction of refrigerated ships in 1882. This accentuated the development of New Zealand's economy as a complement to the British economy, to the benefit of both. The proportion of New Zealand's total exports going to Britain grew from 70 percent in 1860 to 77 percent in 1900, and reached 88 percent in 1940. At first, exports of frozen meat increased more rapidly than those of butter and cheese; the early emphasis was on frozen mutton and lamb, with beef and veal becoming more significant later. The great expansion of exports of dairy produce occurred after 1900, and was encouraged by the centralised factory production of butter. From 1913 until recent years, meat, dairy products, and wool accounted for over 60 percent of total exports of New Zealand goods. The proportion dropped to 56 percent for the year ended June 1978.

New Zealand's heavy dependence on the British market continued into the post-Second World War era. From about the beginning of the 1960s the increasing emphasis on diversification away from this dependence has been reflected in the growth of beef exports to the United States, of mutton and forest products exports to Japan, and of lamb exports to Greece, the United States, and Canada; the establishment of a rapidly growing trade in meat and dairy produce with the developing countries of South-east Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America; the expansion of trade with Australia under NAFTA and with other South Pacific countries; and the growth of manufacturing industries within New Zealand to supplement agriculture as a source of export earnings as well as to supply the domestic market.

Britain's entry into the European Economic Community has in recent years lent special importance to New Zealand's efforts in the field of economic diplomacy. The terms of the special arrangement concerning the importation of New Zealand butter and cheese into Britain for the 5 years up to 31 December 1977 were decided at Luxembourg in June 1971. This was preceded by an intensive programme of official contacts and representations both in Britain and in the countries of the Common Market. New Zealand's diplomatic and trade posts in Europe were strengthened to handle this work and, over the years, a programme of visits to New Zealand was organised for Ministers, senior officials, and journalists directly concerned with developments in the Common Market.

New Zealand's relations with the enlarged European Economic Community, now its largest trading partner accounting for 29.8 percent of New Zealand exports and 26.6 percent of New Zealand imports during the year ended June 1978, continue to demand close attention. The important questions of continued access for cheese, and the quantities of butter for which access will be provided after 1980, have yet to be decided. The steps towards the introduction of an EEC policy for the sheepmeats sector, and developments affecting trade with the community in other agricultural and horticultural products, are monitored very closely. New Zealand has sought to establish even closer relations with the EEC Commission and with the individual member states of the EEC.

Access into the North American market is vitally important. New Zealand's trade with the United States is circumscribed by various quantitative restrictions imposed on beef, mutton, veal, and dairy products. The quantitative restrictions on beef, veal, and mutton apply from time to time, although the situation is reviewed every quarter, as provided by law, but New Zealand's exports of dairy products are subject to a formidable array of quota controls. Dairy products exported to Canada are also subject to quantitative restrictions, and quotas were applied to beef entering Canada in 1975, and between October and December 1976.

New Zealand's economic and trade relations with Japan have become closer. Bilateral trade has increased, both in volume and value, and consultations between the 2 Governments, at Ministerial and official level, have been extended. Continued efforts have been made to improve access for New Zealand agricultural exports, particularly dairy products and beef. Beef sales recommenced on a limited scale in the latter half of 1975, following the establishment of several small quotas, and have progressed slowly under the 6-monthly import allocation system adopted by Japan in April 1976.

The newly-independent nations of the Pacific have attracted particular attention since the formation in 1971 of the South Pacific Forum. There is now much more awareness of the scope for closer trade relations with and between the islands, and New Zealand has taken several initiatives in this direction.

At the same time our diplomatic and trading links across the Pacific, with the countries of Latin America, have been extended and a significant volume of trade has developed. Credits have been made available to Peru to assist it to finance purchases of meat and dairy products from New Zealand.

New Zealand's trade relations with Australia, dealt with in more detail later in this section, have always been close. They are largely governed by the New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and the Agreement on Tariffs and Preferences, which came into effect on 1 January 1966 and 1 December 1977 respectively. Two-way trade is currently in excess of NZ$1,000 million per annum.

New Zealand's trade with the USSR and other socialist countries of eastern Europe has grown steadily over the past decade, but declined significantly in the 1977–78 trade year relative to its peak in 1976–77. New Zealand exports to the region are dominated by wool, hides, skins, meat, and occasionally dairy products, while imports include a range of manufactured products, fertilisers, and foodstuffs.

The large rises in world oil prices have greatly increased the revenues of Middle East oil exporting countries and this has been reflected in the expansion of New Zealand exports to the region in recent years. New Zealand exports of meat to the Middle East rose from less than NZ$1 million in the year ended 30 June 1973 to more than NZ$55 million in the year ended 30 June 1978; wool from approximately NZ$6 million to over NZ$25 million; and dairy products from less than NZ$1 million to more than NZ$14 million. New Zealand's exports of frozen lamb to Iran have continued to grow rapidly.

The main markets for these commodities in the year to 30 June 1978 were Iran (meat, wool, and dairy products), Saudi Arabia (meat and dairy products), Iraq (meat and dairy products), and the Arab Republic of Egypt (dairy products and wool).

The pattern of New Zealand's export commodities is changing. Whereas in the year ended June 1970, meat, dairy products, and wool earned 76 percent of New Zealand's export income (Reserve Bank figures), in the year ended June 1978 they earned only 62 percent of the total export income. Over this 8-year period earnings from exports of manufactured goods, including forest products, rose from 12 percent to 23 percent of total export income.

The following table shows the changing pattern of external trade by countries of destination and origin. The percentages are based on value data, exports f.o.b. and imports c.d.v.

YearBritainAustraliaJapanUnited SlatesOther Countries
Exports percent
1920745..165
1930803..512
1940883..45
1950663..1021
1960534..1330
June     
Year     
1970368101630
19752212121242
19761913141242
19772012131144
19781813131442
Imports percent
19204817..1817
1930478..1827
19404716..1225
19506012..721
19604318..1029
June     
Year     
1970302181328
19751920141334
19761819151434
19771722151333
19781822131433

TRADE RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED KINGDOM—The preceding table shows that the United Kingdom has remained the predominant market for New Zealand's exports and the second biggest supplier of her imported goods. The British consumer for a long time enjoyed virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of trading arrangements reflecting traditional economic, political, and cultural bonds between the people and governments of the two countries.

In return for providing an assured market for this New Zealand produce, Britain obtained an assured source of reasonably priced food in war and peace, valuable preferences in the sale of manufactured goods in the New Zealand market, and considerable earnings from the provision of shipping, insurance, and other services related to the 2-way trade between the countries.

In recent years the United Kingdom's share of New Zealand's export trade has gradually declined. This decline was given impetus by New Zealand's increased efforts to diversify her export products and markets in view of British moves towards joining the EEC. Thus in 1950 the United Kingdom took 66 percent of New Zealand's exports, but by the year ended June 1978 its share had fallen to 18 percent. However, the United Kingdom is still New Zealand's main export market, taking the bulk of our lamb and butter exports (65 percent and 76 percent respectively in the 1977–78 year), and 12 percent of our wool.

With the termination at the end of 1977 of the exceptional arrangement under Protocol 18 which provided for access for New Zealand's cheddar cheese into the EEC, New Zealand's exports of this product to Britain are now subject to the trade restrictive rules applicable to all imports from third countries. The fact that New Zealand's exports of cheese to Britain have declined from 35 percent of the total in 1976–77 to 8.4 percent in 1977–78 reflects this situation.

Entry into the EEC, involving the assumption of obligations under the community's Common Agricultural Policy, required Britain to terminate the 1959 and 1966 trade agreements with New Zealand on 31 January 1973, and to begin to phase in the common customs tariff and other EEC policies affecting the import of goods from those countries. In consequence, New Zealand phased out by 1 July 1977 the tariff preferences previously given to imports from Britain.

DIVERSIFICATION—Britain's prospective entry into the EEC also caused an intensification of New Zealand's efforts to develop new markets for its exports and to broaden the range of its export commodities. Progress in diversification by the dairy industry is reflected in the fact that the volume of dairy exports to markets outside Britain rose to 63 percent of the total in the June year 1975, 68 percent in 1976, and 73 percent in 1977 compared with 60 percent in 1973. An important factor in the diversification effort is the greater exchange of views and co-operation between the principal dairy exporters.

Reference has been made earlier to the important structural changes taking place in New Zealand's export trade and, in particular, the growing importance of manufactured exports and of new markets, especially in the Pacific basin region.

North America—The United States is one of New Zealand's largest markets outside Britain, and the major market for beef, taking 45 percent of our total exports of this commodity in the year ended June 1978 compared with 42.3 percent the previous year. This trade is, however, circumscribed by United States import restrictions, introduced in 1964. These were suspended in mid 1972 but have been reimposed since 1975. Dairy exports are subject to a formidable array of quota controls. Not since 1973 and 1974 has New Zealand been able to take advantage of emergency import quotas for cheese, milk powder, and butter.

New Zealand's exports to Canada have increased from $10.6 million in the year ended June 1967 to $73.5 million in the year ended June 1978. Beef is our main export to Canada, followed by sausage casings, lamb, wool, sheepskins, milk powder, apples, and textile yarns. In July 1973 New Zealand and Canada agreed in an exchange of letters to continue tariff preferences on the same general basis as those derived from their trade agreements with Britain prior to the termination of these agreements on 1 February 1973 because of Britain's entry into the European Economic Community. The July 1973 agreement included undertakings against increasing duties against each other, and for maintenance of margins of preference. In August 1974 Canada introduced import quotas on beef. These were removed in January 1976 but reimposed in October 1976, thereby limiting New Zealand's ability to expand sales to this market. New Zealand's main objectives in the trade policy field are to have the quotas removed and to obtain permanent access for dairy products.

South Pacific—The Pacific Islands have attracted particular attention in recent years and in 1971 New Zealand and Australia, with the Cook Islands, Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, and Western Samoa, formed the South Pacific Forum. Since then Papua New Guinea, the Gilbert Islands, Niue, Solomon Islands, and

Tuvalu, have become full members. The forum has initiated a regional shipping line, and studies into market expansion for Island products, and the rationalisation of agricultural production. New Zealand officials held talks on trade and economic matters with officials from both Fiji and Tonga in 1978.

Japan—Exports to Japan have shown a marked increase from $6.2 million in 1953 to $430 million in the year ended June 1978. The largest export item is un-wrought aluminium, which represented 22 percent of our total exports to Japan in that period. Meat (mainly mutton and lamb), forest products, and wool form 39 percent of the total. The other main commodities exported are dairy products (particularly cheese and non-fat dairy mixes), animal feedstuffs, and ironsands. Imports of beef, butter, and skim-milk powder are subject to global quotas.

ASEAN Countries—New Zealand is becoming increasingly aware of the long-term potential of the ASEAN countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand) as major export markets for agricultural and manufactured products. Over the 5 years 1974 to 1978 New Zealand's exports to the ASEAN countries increased from $73 million to $150 million, and further substantial gains are foreseen as the region develops further, particularly for the export of manufactured goods. In September 1978 a trade agreement was signed with Indonesia. Trade talks took place with Malaysia in November 1978. While ASEAN continues to develop as a regional entity, the trading emphasis is on bilateral relations with each of the individual member countries.

China—In recent years the People's Republic of China has become a useful market for New Zealand, increasing its purchases from $0.8 million in 1970 to $42.7 million in the year ended June 1978. Most of this increase has taken place since the establishment of diplomatic relations in December 1972, and the signing of the Trade Agreement in October 1973. Wool and tallow are the main exports, but contracts have been signed for a number of new products, including pulp and linerboard, logs, hides and skins, newsprint, milk powder, butter, and steel. The fourth meeting of New Zealand - People's Republic of China Joint Trade Committee took place in Peking, in May 1978. The committee, which had the task of overseeing the development of trade between the 2 countries, meets annually.

Korea—Exports to the Republic of Korea have increased substantially from $1.6 million in 1971 to $43.5 million in the year ended June 1978. The Minister of Overseas Trade and officials discussed the development of 2-way trade at the Ninth Annual Ministerial Trade Talks in Wellington in May, 1978. Korea has now begun to import mutton for the domestic market, (imported mutton was previously processed for re-export to Japan) and beef.

Latin America—Peru, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Mexico have become useful markets for New Zealand dairy products. Peru and Venezuela are our largest market in the area, purchasing substantial quantities of milk powder and anhydrous milk fat.

Eastern Europe—New Zealand exports to the socialist countries of Eastern Europe have grown steadily over the last decade, in response to continuing efforts to expand trade with the region. In the 1977–78 trade year, exports to Eastern Europe totalled nearly $121 million, compared to only $16 million in 1966–67. While this latest figure maintained the long-term growth trend, it nevertheless represented a short-term decline of 42 percent relative to the previous year's peak in export income of $210 million. Factors which may have contributed to the decline included a shortage of available hard currency on the part of many Eastern European countries, fewer shortfalls in domestic protein supply, and the desire of many of the countries concerned for an improved balance in their bilateral trade with New Zealand.

New Zealand exports to the region remained concentrated in 2 areas: wool, hides and skins (raw materials for Eastern Bloc manufacture); and meat and occasionally dairy products (largely to meet shortfalls in domestic production). Diversification of exports continues to be an important goal, and progress has been made in the form of sales of breeding sheep to Romania and seeds to Hungary. Market prospects for a range of other products are under active investigation by a number of exporters.

New Zealand imports from Eastern Europe in 1977–78, although relatively small at $19 million, increased by 6 percent over the previous year. A diversified range of products were imported, including machinery, fertilisers, foodstuffs, and vehicles.

The efforts of individual New Zealand exporters have been supported by active representation at a Government-to-Government level, in particular through the New Zealand Embassies in Moscow, Vienna, Rome, and Athens. The framework of institutional contacts has also been expanded by the signing of a Trade Agreement with the German Democratic Republic in April 1978, and by the conclusion of a revised Trade Agreement with the Hungarian Peoples' Republic in September 1978. Both agreements provide for consultations through Joint Trade Commissions. In addition to these new instruments, New Zealand also has Trade Agreements with the USSR, Poland, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, and Romania.

The Third Session of the New Zealand-Soviet Joint Trade Commission was held in Wellington in March-April 1978, and New Zealand also received visits by trade delegations from Hungary and the German Democratic Republic in the same year.

The Middle East—The considerable potential of Middle Eastern markets can be demonstrated by the spectacular increase in New Zealand exports to the region that has occurred in the last decade. In 1967–68, New Zealand exported less than $1 million to the Middle East: in 1977–78 the figure was nearly $104 million. New Zealand exports are dominated by meat, in particular lamb, while our imports from the area (totalling more than $237 million in 1977–78) consist almost entirely of oil and petroleum products.

New Zealand's major market in the Middle East has been Iran, which in 1977–78 purchased almost $70 million of New Zealand exports (including $45 million of lamb, $20 million of wool, and $4 million of dairy products, kraft paper and other manufactured items). Promising markets are also being developed in Iraq, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and the Gulf States. Export initiatives have been supported by the New Zealand Embassies in Rome, Baghdad, Tehran, and Athens, and by the New Zealand Consulate-General in Bahrain.

Contacts at Ministerial, official, and business levels have been important in developing New Zealand trade with the region, and have been continued. In April 1978, H.E. Mr Yousuf Shirawi, the Minister of Development and Industry for Bahrain, made his third visit to New Zealand. In June 1978 an Iranian delegation visited Wellington for the Second Session of the New Zealand-Iran Joint Commission for Trade and Economic Development, provided for in the 1974 Trade Agreement between the 2 countries. A delegation from the new regime in Iran inspected New Zealand export meat works in May 1979. New Zealand also signed a Trade Agreement with Egypt in 1977.

Australia—New Zealand's trade relations with Australia have always been close, but recent years have witnessed unprecedented growth in 2-way trade, particularly in manufactured goods. The 1965 New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has been an important factor in this expansion. A number of projects for co-operation in industrial development, including the motor vehicle industry, have been developed and there has been increased co-operation in implementing the Memorandum of Understanding on Defence Supply signed in 1970.

The New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement was signed on 31 August 1965 and came into effect on 1 January 1966. The main aim of the agreement, which ran for an initial period of 10 years, and was extended for a further 10 years, is “to further the development of the area and the use of the resources of the area by promoting a sustained and mutually beneficial expansion of trade”.

The central element of the agreement is its list of goods (Schedule A) on which duties are progressively reduced and bound at free in the tariffs of both countries. The agreement also contains general provisions governing the conduct of trade between Australia and New Zealand covering such matters as dumping, the maintenance of import restrictions, the encouragement of industrial rationalisation between the two countries, and the holding of consultations on a regular basis and for specific purposes.

The original Schedule A contained some 990 items. Since then further items have been added. On inclusion in Schedule A, goods free of duty are bound at free; goods with duties not exceeding 5 percent become free; duties of between 5 and 10 percent are halved and eliminated 2 years later; and duties of more than 10 percent are reduced by one-fifth on inclusion and by a further fifth every 2 years. There is provision for either quicker or slower reduction of duties where agreed to by both countries. Schedule A trade represents about 65 percent of total trans-Tasman trade.

Complementary development of trade has been encouraged since 1967 by reciprocal concessions under trading arrangements between firms in New Zealand and Australia under Article 3:7 of NAFTA. Approvals for such inter-firm arrangements totalled about $82 million in the June year 1978. Special arrangements have also been negotiated under article 3:7 to facilitate continuing trade where both countries maintain quantitative restrictions against imports. The new partial free trade arrangements, while not replacing the old arrangements, will offer wider opportunities, will not be limited to specific firms, and should encourage co-operation on an industry-wide basis as well as co-operation between individual firms.

Continued development of the concept of reducing tariffs within the NAFTA area as a preferential free trade area was the aim of an agreement on tariff rates and preferences, which came into effect on 1 December 1977. This replaced an interim agreement which had operated since 1973. The basic features are undertakings not to increase tariffs against each other, while maintaining agreed minimum margins of tariff preference over imports from non-preferential countries. In addition, the agreement makes clear the intention of both Australia and New Zealand to set tariffs against each other on manufactured goods at the lowest possible level consistent with protection of domestic production, while permitting reasonable competition from the NAFTA partner.

A number of special industry bodies have been established within the NAFTA framework to discuss trade in particular products. Among these is the Joint Consultative Council on Forest Industries, the Joint Committee on Dairy Products, the Joint Pea and Bean Industry Panel, and the Joint Industry Panel on Sawmilling Products.

Trans-Tasman trade statistics are given in the following table.

June YearN.Z. Imports*from Australia NZ$(million)N.Z. Exportsto Australia NZ$(million)Visible Balance of Trade with Australia NZ$ (million)Ratio of Imbalance in Australia's Favour

*Current domestic value.

†Including re-exports f.o.b.

1973x320.9118.3–202.61:2.71
1974x449.3159.3–290.01:2.82
1975x502.6166.8–335.81:3.01
1976x514.5263.7–250.81:1.95
1977x653.6365.6–288.01:1.79
1978652.0387.8–264.21:1.68

TRADE PER HEAD—Trade per head of population is affected, not only by the volume of trade but also by the value, i.e., the prices received for exports and the cost of imports.

The following table shows the value, per head of mean population, of New Zealand's trade over the last 5 years.

Year Ended JuneExports (f.o.b.)Imports (c.i.f.)Total Trade
 $$$
1974595.53678.661,274.19
1975529.71902.621,432.33
1976768.74953.851,722.58
19771,033.511,132.522,166.03
19781,058.691,046.922,105.61

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE—In the following table the c.i.f. valuation of imports has been used to establish the visible balance of trade. Gold, specie, passengers' baggage, ships stores, and bunkering totals are excluded.

June YearVisible Excess of Exports
 $(000)
1972–73397,624
1973–74–274,223
1974–75–1,179,639
1975–76–632,850
1976–77–378,240
1977–78–29,297

NOTE: Minus signs indicate an excess of imports.

Visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries (see Section 25B). A statement of New Zealand's overseas exchange transactions is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

Figure 24.1. DIRECTION OF EXTERNAL TRADE

DIRECTION OF EXTERNAL TRADE

TRADE STATISTICS—Provisional trade data are published in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics fairly soon after the period to which they relate. A quarterly publication entitled New Zealand Country Analyses of External Trade is also published.

Annual volumes containing comprehensive surveys of final data are also published by the Department of Statistics.

New Zealand has used the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) as from 1 July 1962, for classifying external trade for statistical purposes; from the same date this classification was put into effect for recording the external trade of the Cook Islands and Niue. The SITC order was also adopted on 1 July 1962 as the Customs Tariff classification, but a move to the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature was made on 1 July 1967.

Provisional values of imports and exports are set out in the following table.

Period1975–761976–771977–78
Exports (Including Reexports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Reexports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Reexports) f.o.b.Imports
c.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Value
 $(million)
Month of July140.9182.2198.9175.6252.8277.2276.5260.1281.3
2 months ended August282.3353.6388.0435.1474.0518.7528.8566.0612.6
3 months ended September432.6554.4604.2663.8757.2824.6754.5844.6916.8
4 months ended October611.5785.1860.0882.9986.11,079.2986.11,091.71,188.8
5 months ended November783.21,018.21.111.41,132.21,315.91,432.11,195.91,329.81,448.5
6 months ended December963.61,248.81,361.41,407.51,566.61,704.41,486.01,571.01,708.6
7 months ended January1.120.81,459.21,590.71,691.41,791.91,951.21,737.71,772.01,935.9
8 months ended February1,319.51,641.31,788.21,977.32,057.72,244.12,037.92,002.42,185.5
9 months ended March1,544.21,993.62,164.02,243.42,346.02,563.62,346.92,251.92,453.9
10 months ended April1,765.32,230.82,423.42,562.12,592.72,832.02,681.22,468.82.686.6
11 months ended May1,993.02,458.12,670.42,869.82,871.93,351.42,925.42,706.12,945.5
12 months ended June2,371.62,693.72,927.73,216.33,168.33,459.83,309.13,001.53,269.5

Valuation of Exports—It has always been the practice to record exports at free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, except during the Second World War when wool exports were valued at appraisal prices. Most meat and dairy product exports are consigned for sale on overseas markets, and necessarily valued, on export, at the f.o.b. equivalent of the prices ruling at that time in the markets to which they are consigned. Price changes may occur in these markets before the actual sale of the produce.

The exports recorded relate to goods on vessels which have cleared their final port of call in New Zealand during the period.

Valuation of Imports—From July 1962, with the introduction of the Standard International Trade Classification, Revised, statistics on the c.i.f. basis (cost including freight and insurance) became available at item level.

The proportional difference between the 2 figures of valuation now made available—viz, c.d.v. and c.i.f.—varies from period to period depending on: (1) the make-up of imports in the different periods, (2) differential charges in import prices and in freight rates, (3) differences between domestic and export prices in the exporting countries, and (4) price fluctuations between dates of purchases and of shipping. In all the tables, imports are now shown at c.d.v., unless otherwise specified in respect of particular tables.

The trade figures for imports are compiled from the imports entries passed by the Customs Department. Generally the imports entries are not passed until the goods are available for discharge from the wharf.

Annual Statistics—For trade statistics a June year has been adopted since 1 July 1962 and this accords fairly well with the farm production year.

The statistics of external trade given in this section (comprising the 3 subsections) do not include the trade of the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau; statistics for these territories are given separately.

The following table shows for the June year 1978 the values of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the countries trading with New Zealand.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDED JUNE 1978
CountryExports f.o.b.Imports c.d.v.
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of Origin
  $(000) 
O.E.C.D. Countries
E.E.C. Countries
    Belgium37,91437,97919,401
    Denmark6,7096,73011,735
    Destination unknown—E.E.C.737738..
    Faeroe Islands11
    France72,48472,64633,008
    Germany, Federal Republic of89,86290,636121,000
    Greenland2
    Ireland10,18210,2081,026
    Italy62,01862,15142,351
    Luxembourg40
    Monaco
    Netherlands69,27773,86743,353
    United Kingdom589,587595,239532,108
    Vatican City State2
                Total, E.E.C. Countries938,771950,194804,026
Other O.E.C.D. Countries
    Australia394,014412,642655,274
    Austria1,4161,4365,401
    Canada73,19373,47272,377
    Finland1,5591,5623,449
    Greece50,50050,501393
    Iceland336
    Japan430,194435,558390,276
    Liechtenstein333335
    New Zealand (reimports)....6,515
    Norway2,3352,33710,913
    Portugal6,0036,0041,718
    Spain15,77915,8637,674
    Sweden3,0693,14529,650
    Switzerland5,5945,75622,738
    Turkey672672255
    United States of America421,007439,015420,896
                Total, O.E.C.D. Countries2,344,1432,398,1932,431,596
China
    People's Republic of China43,24243,24320,340
    Province of Taiwan28,21828,24714,425
Asia
    Afghanistan10610676
    Bangladesh2,0212,0402,822
    Bhutan1010
    Brunei154175..
    Burma45455
    Hong Kong38,99841,76240,653
    India4,5324,60419,291
    Indonesia24,51424,8274,781
    Kampuchea11
    Korea, Republic of43,73343,73713,180
    Macao1711725
    Malaysia39,18747,89826,130
    Mongolia5
    Nepal44444424
    Pakistan2,0532,118847
    Philippines40,06740,1563,309
    Singapore33,97695,48860,649
    Sri Lanka4,4934,5617,264
    Thailand12,30412,3963,833
    Vietnam, Socialist Republic of313313..
Oceania
    Solomon Islands1,7581,972431
    Canton and Enderbury Islands11
    Fiji38,04242,42922,891
    French Polynesia11,12111,81055
    Gilbert Islands9741,0263,502
    Nauru64666816,311
    New Caledonia9,38211,82451
    New Hebrides2,3592,54457
    Papua New Guinea16,97317,9935,143
    Pitcairn Islands7075..
    Tonga7,1037,5441,508
    Tuvalu28331
    Wake Islands1
    Wallis and Futuna Islands136136
    Western Samoa12,17513,1753,103
Latin America-Caribbean
    Argentina366366320
    Associated States in Eastern Caribbean6,1006,10123
    Bahamas799799256
    Belize55
    Bermuda2,7942,79542
    Bolivia1111111
    Brazil1241243,686
    British Virgin Islands1717
    Cayman Islands3131
    Chile360362186
    Colombia2,9562,95667
    Costa Rica2,2282,232
    Cuba15
    Dominican Republic1,4951,495
    Ecuador1,8741,8884,984
    El Salvador2,4512,4513
    Falkland Islands1
    French Guiana6161
    Guatemala22222226
    Guyana546546140
    Haiti86862
    Honduras54541
    Jamaica7,2857,2921,099
    Mexico4,0684,0681,600
    Montserrat66
    Netherlands Antilles3,4553,4556,680
    Nicaragua58
    Panama15115116
    Paraguay10
    Peru11,81711,820162
    Surinam2525
    Trinidad and Tobago11,30711,30748
    Uruguay9797
    Venezuela12,84912,849118
Middle East
    Bahrain2,2942,29549,641
    Egypt5,3635,36314
    Iran69,98469,99277,113
    Iraq5,9355,935842
    Israel951122,342
    Jordan626631
    Kuwait2,9252,92513,196
    Lebanon162164
    Libya863872
    Oman1,8181,818
    Qatar318322
    Saudi Arabia7,0937,09394,081
    Syria90890843
    United Arab Emirates4,3234,352
    Yemen, Arab Republic3613612
    Yemen, Democratic People's Republic
Eastern Europe
    Albania
    Bulgaria23523586
    Czechoslovakia8,8118,8124,227
    German Democratic Republic4,6234,623655
    Hungary407407416
    Poland12,52612,5911,510
    Romania3,0593,0594,998
    U.S.S.R80,95280,9525,402
    Yugoslavia10,15510,1551,872
Africa
    Algeria5885881
    Angola
    Benin11
    Botswana11
    Burundi182
    Cameroon419419121
    Central African Republic204
    Comoros1
    Ethiopia5454
    Gambia2626
    Ghana1,3571,35717,194
    Guinea
    Ivory Coast55773
    Kenya1,9231,9232,307
    Lesotho1
    Liberia1111
    Madagascar63
    Malawi999999417
    Mali
    Mauritius6,2286,2313
    Morocco63863848
    Mozambique2,5092,50987
    Niger99
    Nigeria5,6965,698 
    Reunion2482481
    Rhodesia
    Rwanda20
    Senegal253253
    Seychelles1212
    Sierra Leone44
    South Africa6,5716,73212,521
    Sudan6627
    Swaziland2121
    Tanzania9239252,741
    Tunisia302302
    Uganda77772,534
    Zaire4420
    Zambia4848125
Other countries
    Antarctic Stations (British)1
    Antarctic Stations (U.S.A.)121
    Cyprus3,6993,69938
    Destination unknown—Other10,50410,504..
    Gibraltar100100
    Malta4,3644,36452
    St. Pierre and Miquelon5454
                Total, all countries3,108,7173,247,3583,018,158
    Passengers' goods74514,340..
    Ships' stores81,468..
    Bunkering, ships' and aircraft31,57450,329..
    Grand total3,141,0433,313,4963,018,158

Figure 24.2. VALUE OF NEW ZEALAND'S EXTERNAL TRADE WITH INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES

VALUE OF NEW ZEALAND'S EXTERNAL TRADE WITH INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES

VOLUME INDEX OF EXTERNAL TRADE—For the index of the volume of external trade, both the import and the export series are linked chain series with changing (price) weighting patterns, each year being calculated on base previous year and then linked on. This revised series was described in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for May 1972.

Exports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000) for each commodity or class of commodities.

June YearButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy Produce
19748537541023912732842889
1975853697811985764898881
19761079881937110795110511033
1977x11208731076117789110721088
1978*95578797810858619971013
June YearFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods Other Than FoodCrude Materials Other Than FuelsAll Groups
*Provisional.
19749371918820953
19758911893827929
1976104223349731094
1977x119129279631211
1978*109631559451170

Imports—Base; Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000) for each commodity or class of commodities.

June YearPetroleum and ProductsTextile Yam, Fabrics, etcIron and SteelMachinery Other than ElectricElectric Machinery and ApparatusTransport Equipment
1974133315701298145814541576
1975128912801538177620141458
197612001021926138416491429
1977116412521141138015911452
1978*1133105390512231306921

Imports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (=1000) for each commodity or class of commodities.

June YearFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods Other Than FoodCrude Materials Other Than FuelsFuelsAll Groups
*Provisional.
197412471474139313271431
197514151524121712851468
19761143121297711991193
197711061293110511581250
1978*9921085112011291092

IMPORT AND EXPORT CONTROL AND EXCHANGE ALLOCATION—To ensure that overseas debt services would be met and sufficient funds be available for essential imports, there have been import control and export licence regulations since December 1938.

The Import Control Regulations 1938 prohibited the import of goods except under a licence or an exemption. The Export Licences Regulations 1938 provided (with minor exceptions) that an export licence had to be obtained before goods could be exported. In addition, the requirement of an export permit was introduced by the Export Prohibition Emergency Regulations 1939, which have since been replaced by the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953. The Import Control Regulations 1973 require that, except for exempted goods (which comprise over two-thirds of private imports), a written licence, or a written permit granted by the Minister of Trade and Industry is necessary for all imports.

Export Control—Three classes of export licences are provided for, viz, particular, general, and purchaser's. The particular licence applies to an occasional shipment, the general licence is issued to exporters who make regular or frequent shipments, while the purchaser's licence applies to those cases where goods have been purchased in New Zealand for export and credits have been established from overseas funds (e.g., wool purchases). A condition of the issue of any export licence is that the overseas exchange earned must be sold to a New Zealand bank for New Zealand currency.

Whereas the purpose of the Export Licences Regulations 1966 is to ensure that all foreign exchange earned is sold to the New Zealand banking system, the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953 control the export of essential goods in short supply, of goods on which subsidies have been granted, and of goods shipped to strategic destinations.

The Export Incentive Scheme introduced in 1962 enabled import licences to be made available to all manufacturers who manufacture for export or who undertake to do so. Import licences issued under the scheme are either replacement, assistance, or bonus licences. A manufacturer already holding a licence, or entitlement to a licence, for raw materials or components may obtain a replacement licence to the value of the licensed imported content of the goods exported, produced for export or in the course of manufacture against confirmed overseas orders. Assistance licences will be granted either in the case of confirmed overseas orders where production has not been commenced, or when a manufacturer not holding overseas orders makes a declaration of intention to export and shows that active steps to open up an export market have been taken. Bonus licences are available to manufacturers who have actually exported; they may obtain licences for raw materials or components either of the same kind and value as those used in the manufacture of the exported goods, or of a different kind provided that the latter have a basic allocation and that the grant is not likely to affect adversely the efficient operation of an existing New Zealand industry. Bonus licences are in addition to licences issued as replacement or assistance licences. Once a bonus licence has been granted, the materials or components may be used to manufacture goods for sale either overseas or in New Zealand as the manufacturer decides.

Import Selection—Before 1973 administration of import licensing policy was the joint responsibility of the Customs Department and the Department of Trade and Industry. On 2 April 1973 the Department of Trade and Industry assumed sole responsibility for licensing administration in terms of the Trade and Industry Amendment Act 1973.

Import provisions are published in an annual Import Licensing Schedule. Summaries of changes in the schedules and import policies in general up to the period 1974–75 are contained in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Since then the Import Licensing Schedule has provided generally for a level of licensed imports at 100 percent of the previous year's allocation. Devaluation of the New Zealand dollar and increases in the prices of imports has meant that the volume of imports has been progressively reduced.

The objectives of the import licensing policies are to ensure a stable market for industry, to utilise domestic resources to the fullest extent, to maintain full employment, and to encourage investment and greater productivity.

A downturn in New Zealand's terms of trade has prompted tight control on the 27 percent of imports subject to licence, and the Minister of Trade and Industry has stated that “importation will not be approved of any goods for which a reasonable alternative is manufactured in New Zealand”.

The 1978–79 Import Licensing Schedule made provision for basic allocations on the basis of 107½ percent of the previous year's licence for consumer goods, and 112½ percent for other goods.

Chapters 1 to 49 of the 1979–80 Schedule have been restructured to allow usage of the Customs computer facility which will be introduced in approximately 2 years. The remaining Chapters 50 to 99 will be restructured for the 1980–81 Schedule.

The 1979–80 Import Licensing Schedule made provision for increases in basic allocations. Consumer goods licences were to be issued at 110 percent of last year's qualifying licence, and licences for other goods with a basic entitlement were to be issued at 115 percent of the last allocation.

Industries Development Commission—The Industries Development Commission operates under the Industries Development Commission Act 1961. This Act was assented to on 19 September 1975 and on that date the Industries Development Commission superseded the Tariff and Development Board. The Industries Development Commission Act 1961 differs only in minor respects from the Tariff and Development Board Act.

The commission's functions are as set out in section 7 of the Act and are to inquire into and report on matters relating to industrial development and protection at the frontier when requested by the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry or the Minister of Overseas Trade.

At present the emphasis is on the commission's development function. Its current commitments are a General Textile Industry Reference which calls for a study in depth of the whole of the New Zealand textile industry and another development study on the painting of metal strip and sheet.

The commission completed a tariff inquiry into paper and paperboard of Tariff Heading 48.01 during 1978.

Emergency Protection Authority—The Emergency Protection Authority operates under section 10A to 10E of the Industries Development Commission Act 1961. It was set up under an amendment to the Tariff Development Board Act 1961 of 22 November 1967. Its function is to advise, when requested by the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry or the Minister of Overseas Trade, whether urgent action is necessary to protect New Zealand industry in relation to the importation of any goods and if so the nature of such action.

From 1968 to end of 1978 the authority has undertaken 175 inquiries.

Trade Commissioner Service—Facilities for the promotion of overseas trade are provided by the Department of Trade and Industry through the service of Trade Commissioner posts at Athens, Baghdad, Bahrain, Bangkok, Bonn, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Djakarta, The Hague, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Moscow, New York, Paris, Peking, Perth, Port Moresby, Rome, San Francisco, Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, Tokyo, Toronto, Trinidad, Vancouver, Vienna, and Washington. This representation reflects New Zealand's interest in expanding and diversifying export markets. In addition the Air New Zealand overseas managers in Tahiti, American Samoa, and Hawaii act as Trade Correspondents of the Department of Trade and Industry. Trade Commissioners have appropriate diplomatic or consular status in the countries to which they are accredited.

Trade Commissioners can be of considerable help to New Zealand exporters by reporting on market prospects for particular products. They can supply information on access conditions (customs duty, quotas, sales tax, etc.) and on other market requirements such as packaging, labelling, or testing requirements. Trade Commissioner market reports can describe the market situation, recommend marketing methods, and indentify imports. The Trade Commissioner may also assist New Zealand importers to locate new sources of supply of essential commodities. New Zealand business men travelling overseas may be saved much time and trouble by enlisting in advance the services of the Trade Commissioner, whose knowledge of local conditions and whose connections with businessmen and Government officials in the territory enable valuable advice to be given. The task is made easier if adequate notice of the visit is given.

The Trade Commissioner keeps a careful watch on the pattern of New Zealand trade with the territory and reports on significant changes. Where imports from New Zealand are affected, for example by a new interpretation of an agricultural inspection regulation, or by the imposition of import restrictions, the Trade Commissioner is often called upon to make official representations to the government concerned.

Trade Commissioners are also engaged in numerous other activities, some of which are representing New Zealand at international conferences, reporting on economic and industrial developments in their territories, acting on behalf of Government departments in the procurement of stores, payment of accounts, etc.

Business people may write for information direct to the New Zealand Trade Commissioner in the country concerned. However, where convenient, it is preferred that requests be made through the Department of Trade and Industry in New Zealand, which is often able to give preliminary advice and assistance.

The addresses of overseas representatives are listed in Section 39, Official.

Trade Promotion—The Trade Promotion Council was established in 1962, under terms of the Trade and Industry Act 1956, as an advisory body to the Minister of Overseas Trade on measures required to assist the further development of New Zealand's export trade. The 17 members are drawn from leaders of industry and commerce in New Zealand and are widely representative of agriculture, manufacturing, professional and technical services, labour, financial, and regional interests. The council, which meets quarterly under the chairmanship of the Minister of Overseas Trade, makes recommendations to the Government concerning the expansion of New Zealand's trade in such areas as the provision of export incentives and financial facilities; increasing the public awareness of the importance of exporting; the improvement of facilities in New Zealand and overseas to assist exporters; the co-ordination of promotional schemes, trade fairs, and publicity in overseas markets; and the exploration of new markets by trade surveys and missions.

The council's Export Award affords recognition to individuals, companies, and organisations who have made significant contributions to the expansion of New Zealand's export trade. There is also the Governor-General's Award for exceptional export performance, which is open only to winners of the Export Award who have had at least a further 5 years' exporting with exceptional sustained export performance.

Since the Export Awards Scheme was introduced in 1965, 105 New Zealand exporters have been granted an export award. Six companies have been granted the Governor-General's Award since its inception in 1974.

The Export Guarantee Office (EXGO) operates in accordance with the Export Guarantee Act 1964. The office's function is to promote export trade by providing insurance against commercial and political risks arising from the export of goods or services. It also provides guarantees to lending institutions for amounts advanced to exporters of goods or services which are covered by a contract of insurance issued by EXGO. The Export Guarantee Office can provide a wide range of policies sufficient to meet most requirements.

New Zealand Export-Import Corporation—The New Zealand Export-Import Corporation was established under the New Zealand Export-Import Corporation Act 1974 to engage in overseas trade and act on behalf of any manufacturers, producers, exporters, and importers who request it to do so, including the Government. The corporation offers a range of services varying from documentation and costing to complete marketing overseas. Its main activity has been concerned with assisting small and medium size firms producing goods with export potential. The corporation operates the Sydney Trade Centre and the Los Angeles Trade Centre which assist member New Zealand exporters selling to Australia and North America respectively and it is contemplated that a further trade centre will be established in South-east Asia shortly. The corporation also has a representative based in Caracas, Venezuela. The corporation holds the New Zealand interest in the Bahrain-New Zealand Trading and Storage Company (BANZ) which has been established to operate a port and storage facility in Bahrain. Shares in BANZ will be offered to New Zealand exporters once the facility has been established.

22 B—EXPORTS

GENERAL—The growth and diversification of the New Zealand economy are heavily dependent on increasing exports to pay for rising imports of goods needed by industry and a growing population, as well as to provide for large payments for “invisibles” in the form of services. Overseas trade is the lifeblood of the economy. New Zealand's export trade has become more diversified in recent years, as regards both products and markets. While the traditional export commodities, dairy products, meat, and wool, remain the backbone of the export trade, new commodities such as wood pulp, paper, and other products of our forest industries, and manufactured goods, are of growing importance.

In New Zealand copies of export entries are forwarded to the Department of Statistics for processing and analysis and the regular publication of export statistics. Exports are valued in New Zealand currency “free on board at the port of shipment”. Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. Meat and dairy produce exports are valued like other commodities, on the basis of overseas realisation, not on the basis of the prices payable to producers under the internal purchasing procedures.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. A distinction is made between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

Since 1 July 1962, the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) has been used in classifying export trade.

MAIN EXPORTS—The following table gives total exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports (excluding gold and current coin) for the latest 5 June years by the main commodity groups.

Year Ended JuneMeat and Meat PreparationsDairy ProductsHides, Skins, and PeltsWool 
Milk,Cream ButterCheeseCasein 
f.o.b. value $(million)
1974534.1133.2109.561.828.667.0361.6 
1975442.2106.0122.148.414.762.7261.7 
1976593.888.5204.278.027.177.4456.4 
1977765.6111.1253.984.959.7128.6648.2 
1978765.2132.8240.976.660.5144.0580.0 
Year Ended JuneSausage CasingsTallowFruit and VegetablesPulp, Paper, and PaperboardTotal*Re-exportsTotal Exports
*Including commodities not listed.
f.o.b. value $(million)
197417.213.836.051.81,746.241.11,787.3
197518.816.441.280.21,558.063.51,621.5
197623.525.850.5120.92,255.6131.22,386.9
197725.833.064.8150.53,096.7132.03,228.7
197827.032.476.8148.13,141.0172.33,313.5

The commodity groups shown above account for more than 70 percent of the total value of merchandise exports. In recent years, however, manufactured goods have come to play an increasingly important part in New Zealand's export trade.

Figure 24.3. VALUE OF EXPORTS - N. Z. PRODUCE

VALUE OF EXPORTS - N. Z. PRODUCE

Figure 24.4. VOLUME OF EXPORTS – N.Z. PRODUCE

VOLUME OF EXPORTS – N.Z. PRODUCE

The relative importance of dairy produce, meat, and wool as the main individual constituents of New Zealand's export trade have varied considerably, as is seen from the figures in the preceding table. The preceding subsection includes a table of volume index numbers for these commodities and for manufactured goods and other commodities. A table showing the export price index numbers and terms of trade is given in Section 23, Prices, Household Expenditure, and Consumer Affairs.

For many years, exports of wool, meat, and dairy produce averaged over 70 percent (by value) of New Zealand's export trade. Despite the growing importance of manufactured goods, they still make up about three-fifths. During the June years 1977 and 1978, exports of these products made up 61 percent and 59 percent respectively of the total value of exports.

Other principal exports of economic significance during the June years 1977 and 1978 were (in millions of dollars): fresh, chilled, or frozen fish, including crayfish ($41.5 and $50.4); apples ($16.2 and $26.1); lamb and sheep pelts ($69.1 and $77.3); sawlogs and veneer logs ($30.5 and $36.7); wood pulp ($70.0 and $69.9); inedible tallow ($32.3 and $32.3); casein ($59.7 and $60.5); and newsprint ($51.8 and $51.6).

The volume of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce during the 3 latest years are shown in the following table. The Statistical Summary, towards the end of this Yearbook, shows the figures for some of the more important commodities over a period of 50 years.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)UnitYear Ended June
197619771978
RacehorsesNo.2 0402 1292 025
Meat, fresh, chilled or frozen—
    Beef—
        Bone intonne132 53117 8429 526
        Bonelesstonne85 217234 339206
    Vealtonne10 3638 4589 914
    Lamb—
        Carcasses(000)20 01318 47220 042
        Bonelesstonne51 60850 12651 897
    Muttontonne79 996105 35362 583
    Other meat and edible offalstonne49 34753 56346 393
Milk and cream—
    Condensed and evaporatedtonne1 2941 7901 497
    Skimmed milk powdertonne97 096158 547164 892
    Other driedtonne49 43680 08675 652
    Other kindslitre (000)7 6064 7186 283
Buttertonne206 788212 929177 265
Cheesetonne80 64079 04670 154
Fish, fresh, chilled or frozentonne11 02823 96727 514
Crayfish, fresh and simply preservedtonne1 7251 7881 809
Barley, unmilledtonne59 26452 61049 971
Maize, unmilledtonne77 11446 30320 832
    Fruit and vegetables—
    Apples, fresh, whole fruittonne76 49459 46780 539
    Kiwifruit, freshtonne3 5196 1076 584
    Potatoes, freshtonne14 55424 13111 419
    Peas—
    Dry, including splittonne19 06327 32122 929
    For sowingtonne8 66810 9539 058
    Frozentonne5 2189 3666 981
    Onions, freshtonne19 68341 11926 635
    Vegetables, frozen, excluding peastonne4 4204 3907 640
Chocolate and preparationstonne6 9535 6917 281
Feeding stuff for animals—
    Lucerne meal and pelletstonne29 75628 54920 090
    Meals of meat, fish, etc.tonne62 24069 08357 177
    Poultry mash and pelletstonne19 84821 6635 784
    Other kindstonne29 638162 65161 183
Margarine and shorteningtonne3 0916 2635 537
Hides, skins, and furskins, undressed—
    Cattle hides(000)2 0551 8621 811
    Calf and kip skins(000)9771 0291 205
    Sheep and lamb skins in fleece(000)1 7532 6613 049
    Lamb pelts(000)20 26819 39919 225
    Sheep pelts(000)5 6537 1986 059
    Opossum skins(000)1 5901 6592 724
Sawlogs and veneer logs, conifercu metre707 8031,081,5891,031,837
Timber, sawn, sliced, or peeled—
    Douglas fircu metre32 22330 06529 275
    Pinus radiatacu metre134 184193 155241 352
Wood pulp—
    Mechanicaltonne137 579208 665232 904
    Sulphate, not dissolving gradestonne222 340211 731197 985
Wool—
    Greasytonne142 605124 625111 346
    Slipe,tonne24 33026 26925 180
    Scouredtonne105 432103 005106 385
Iron ore and concentratestonne (000)2 2362 2233 079
Sausage casings, naturalhank (000)7 1216 5276 326
Clover and grass seedstonne6 07112 3969 320
Petroleum products—
    Distillate fuellitre (000)167 626157 846155 439
    Residual fuel oillitre (000)185 503227 986202 319
Tallow, inedibletonne95 66793 48685 177
Caseintonne24 26362 38459 940
Caseinatestonne2 3954 1506 867
Newsprinttonne132 117175 999190 351
Kraft paper and kraft cardboardtonne77 88172 39866 327
Yarn of wool or hairtonne2 4213 8093 580
Carpets, carpeting, and rugssq m (000)2 7683 0152 986
Iron or steel—
    Bars, rods, angles, etc.tonne10 78116 14134 797
    Universals, plates, and sheetstonne19 01227 58741 574
Aluminium, un wroughttonne98 009127 486114 658
Finished structural parts and structures, n.e.s. of metaltonne1 6981 5671 720
Domestic electric refrigeratorsNo.114 99086 85381 894

The-values of the principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)Year Ended June
197619771978
*Includes parts.
 $ (thousand)
Race horses11,35314,70114,962
Meat, fresh, chilled or frozen—
    Beef—
        Bone in131,09418,68211.500
        Boneless97,794279,011285,624
    Veal12,56014,44415,828
    Lamb—
        Carcasses213,392259,699270,804
        Boneless50,16660,04171,574
    Mutton33,79467,77147,286
    Other meat and edible offals47,42756,80454,135
Milk and cream—
    Condensed and evaporated624912862
    Skimmed milk powder50,19556,73871,594
    Other dried33,68250,89757,026
    Other kinds4,0242,5653,312
Butter204,196253,890240,941
Cheese77,97084,88176,565
Fish, fresh, chilled or frozen10,89019,89828,558
Crayfish, fresh and simply preserved14,32721,58221,865
Barley, unmilled7,3176,9465,914
Maize, unmilled8,7085,4712,242
Fruit and vegetables—
    Apples, fresh, whole fruit20,76316,20326,086
    Kiwifruit, fresh4,3889,96011,557
    Potatoes, fresh2,1103,2751,423
    Peas—
        Dry, including split5,9798,00110,336
        For sowing2,5853,3922,877
        Frozen2,0064,1693,238
    Onions, fresh3,6928,6344,369
    Vegetables, frozen, excluding peas2,0302,3054,358
Chocolate and preparations6,9026,1439,346
Feeding stuff for animals—
    Lucerne meal and pellets2,4783,2836,098
    Meals of meat, fish, etc.6,65415,89212,576
    Poultry mash and pellets2,0722,9931,044
    Other kinds10,32629,94313,468
Margarine and shortening3,6847,9817,051
Hides, skins, and furskins, undressed—
    Cattle hides23,01636,33135,915
    Calf and kip skins4,3017,9138,026
    Sheep and lamb skins in fleece4,1837,6278,231
    Lamb pelts29,45245,53254,913
    Sheep pelts11,19123,52322,416
    Opossum skins4,3846,63212,558
Sawlogs and veneer logs, conifer19,06230,46136,683
Timber, sawn, sliced, or peeled—
    Douglas fir2,4072,6832,871
    Pinus radiata7,16611,39015,843
Wood pulp—
    Mechanical13,84122,64527,801
    Sulphate, not dissolving grades44,94047,38242,133
Wool—
    Greasy220,119283,296228,737
    Slipe38,60960,25153,344
Scoured197,679304,605297,899
Iron ore and concentrates12,78014,38424,094
Sausage casings, natural23,48725,84427,015
Clover and grass seeds4,51910,8359,887
Petroleum products—
    Distillate fuel15,76318,11018,412
    Residual fuel oil12,68219,09516,426
Tallow, inedible25,61632,29932,283
Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins2,1304,2505,919
Casein27,08659,71860,533
Caseinates2,8354,9198,976
Leather—
    Bovine and equine, including calf3,1068,20811,103
    Lambskin6,54514,31816,633
Furs, dressed or dressed and dyed2,6773,5054,626
Woodchips, softwood6,3167,9097,479
Newsprint paper" 34,30551,79651,594
Kraft paper and kraft cardboard22,47221,66318,449
Articles of pulp, paper or paperboard4,7875,9327,252
Yarn of wool or hair9,01518,27718,181
Carpets, carpeting and rugs20,63428,52132,999
Iron or steel—
    Bars, rods, angles, etc.2,0583,5366,367
    Universals, plates, and sheets,5,2609,38014,425
Aluminium, unwrought67,667112,976105,124
Finished structural parts and structures, n.e.s., of metal2,2252,4572,906
Tools for use in the hand or in machines2,0993,1484,016
Agricultural machinery and implements*5,92610,08112,643
Textile and leather machinery6,1817,3496,343
Electric power machinery and switchgear3,5014,8827,159
Domestic electric equipment—
    Refrigerators18,96316,39116,609
    Other*3,8134,9625,113
Road motor vehicles*9,06310,32314,308
Aircraft*2,4151,5541,514
Ships and boats*2,3842,1673,996
Clothing, excluding fur clothing12,79425,80723,398
Printed matter3,1905,2048,281
Prams, toys, games, sporting goods2,1633,8384,678

In the following table exports (excluding re-exports) are summarised according to the Sections and Divisions of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised).

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE
Section and DivisionYear Ended June
19771978
0 Food and Live Animals$(thousand)
00 Live animals18,64121,076
01 Meat and meat preparations765,601765,153
02 Dairy products and eggs452,424453,656
03 Fish and fish preparations48,41357,513
04 Cereals and cereal preparations20,10314,786
05 Fruit and vegetables64,76876,830
06 Sugar and sugar preparations5,1005,170
07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof7,95511,278
08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)52,11133,185
09 Micellaneous food preparations12,17911,632
                Total, Section 01,447,2961,450,278
1 Beverages and Tobacco  
11 Beverages2,2771,899
12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures2,5532,611
    Total, Section 14,8304,510
2 Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels  
21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed128,648144,007
22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and kernels1,5841,055
23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed
24 Wood and cork50,40561,760
25 Pulp and waste paper70,48170,368
26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics) and waste649,663581,697
27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones549705
28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap17,55827,076
29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.s.51,55352,425
                Total, Section 2970,442939,092
3 Mineral Fuels, Lubricants and Related Materials
32 Coal, coke, and briquettes1,122631
33 Petroleum and petroleum products37,75035,631
34 Gas5
                Total, Section 338,87236,267
4 Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats  
41 Animal oils and fats35,22737,114
42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed1053
43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin7111,018
Total, Section 435,94938,185
5 Chemicals  
51 Chemical elements and compounds3,3832,979
52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas815
53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials2,0372,758
54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products5,0405,523
55 Essential oils and perfume materials, toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations4,9696,259
56 Fertilisers manufactured362791
57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products3786
58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins4,2505,919
59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products71,78580,202
Total, Section 591,870104,530
6 Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material  
61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.i., and dressed furs26,81733,708
62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.2,1104,077
63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)13,67917,498
64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof85,97685,000
65 Textile yam, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products56,94462,353
66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.s.9,71413,391
67 Iron and steel15,93226,750
68 Non-ferrous metals116,855111,790
69 Manufactures of metal25,66728,010
                Total, Section 6353,695382,577
7 Machinery and Transport Equipment  
71 Machinery other than electric36,74145,028
72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances35,44940,814
73 Transport equipment14,49420,450
                Total, Section 786,685106,292
8 Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles  
81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures, and fittings1,3781,746
82 Furniture and fixtures8,47012,095
83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles1,5291,603
84 Clothing27,28524,727
85 Footwear2,4492,881
86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods, watches and clocks3,2684,817
89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.s.22,58331,300
                Total, Section 866,96179,170
9 Commodities and Transactions Not Classified According to Kind  
Goods under $50 in value327
Other88135
                Total, Section 9120142
Total New Zealand produce exports3,096,7183,141,043
Re-exports131,974172,453
Grand total, merchandise exports3,228,6923,313,496
Exports of gold (excluded from above)222x312

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) are given in the table below. It should be noted that Australia includes Cocos and Norfolk Islands, and the United States includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Islands Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

CountryYear Ended June
197319741975197619771978
*Including ships' stores, passengers' duty free purchases, and destination optional.
 $(million)
Australia131.8171.9188.4292.3382.3412.6
Canada42.452.445.159.865.973.5
France61.737.743.366.078.272.6
Germany, Fed. Rep. of51.242.342.362.596.090.6
Japan231.5248.7187.1325.9403.5435.6
Netherlands39.846.936.556.584.173.9
United Kingdom480.2368.7351.7450.8642.3595.2
United States283.0300.2190.9278.2353.2439.0
U.S.S.R30.237.945.462.1144.181.0
Other countries*440.1480.6490.9732.7979.01,039.5
    Total merchandise exports1,792.01,787.31,621.52,386.93,228.73,313.5

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded on the Customs documents. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and in normal times subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export, the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics.

A further point of some importance is the fact that an appreciable quantity of wool is exported on an “optional” basis—United Kingdom, option Continent. In these cases, however, subsequent information is received as to the actual destination of the goods, and the entries are amended.

It will be realised, therefore, that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

ASEAN and ESCAP—Since the 1950s there has been a growth in New Zealand's relations with the countries of the Asian-Pacific area. This country enjoys a close relationship with the countries which make up the Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN) and the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP).

The following table shows the total value of merchandise exported to and imported from these two regions. These figures are based on the ESCAP countries, with the ASEAN member countries indicated.

CountryYear Ended June 1977Year Ended June 1978
Exports*F.O.B.Imports C.D.V.Imports C.I.F.Exports*F.O.B.Imports C.D.V.Imports C.I.F.

*Includes re-exports.

†ASEAN member countries.

 $(thousand)
Afghanistan161691067687
Australia382,342711,250731,733412,642655,274674,489
Bangladesh5823,7085,0792,0402,8223,819
Bhutan410
Brunei153175
Burma6213164559
China, People's Rep. of25,10917,23019,89043,24320,34022,983
Fiji39,94617,20419,62642,42922,89125,238
Hong Kong44,47556,44361,07241,76240,65344,957
India2,21619,38522,4294,60419,29121,977
Indonesia17,8603,9694,31924,8274,7815,472
Iran43,157138,715150,72869,99277,11383,629
Japan403,514473,989532,311435,558390,276435,585
Kampuchea1
Korea, Democratic People's Rep. of      
Korea, Republic of27,95412,84514,39443,73713,18014,913
Lao, People's Democratic Rep. of12
Malaysia†31,48818,44821,11147,89826,13028,933
Mongolia131356
Nauru49114,55022,05866816,31125,049
Nepal40162814442431
New Zealand (Re-imports) 6,7787,035 6,5156,888
Pakistan4,9221,2771,3942,118847946
Papua New Guinea11,0692,1202,35617,9935,1435,456
Philippines38,2523,2063,98740,1563,3093,925
Singapore61,29256,42961,25895,48860,64965,840
Solomon Islands1,3801642971,972431623
Sri Lanka2,4035,9897,8434,5617,2649,822
Thailand15,2562,5822,86712,3963,8334,533
Tonga6,8091,6612,7537,5441,5082,003
Vietnam, Socialist Rep. of91,1521,217313
Western Samoa9,5533,5144,10913,1753,1033,496
        Total1,170,7101,572,7551,700,0461,365,8961,381,7761,490,709

Oceania—Exports to the countries of Oceania have increased in the past years. In 1974 the total was $44.0 million compared with $111.2 million in 1978. Fiji is the principal importer of New Zealand's exports to Oceania, taking over 35 percent of the total each year.

The following table shows the increase in value of total exports over the past 5 years.

CountryYear Ended June
19741975197619771978
*Included with Gilbert Islands before 1977.
 $(thousand)
Solomon Islands5576531,1561,3801,972
Canton and Enderbury Islands1
Fiji20,21623,38930,92239,94642,429
French Polynesia6,0886,7808,27911,50811,810
Gilbert Islands2703407057501,026
Nauru159241294491668
New Caledonia3,9174,1475,6767,87311,824
New Hebrides1,7231,6631,3222,0512,544
Papua New Guinea2,2303,9006,13311,06917,993
Pitcairn Island2316223575
Tonga3,0514,8494,9616,8097,544
Tuvalu*1133
Wake Island
Wallis and Futuna Islands20284178129136
Western Samoa5,5757,9607,4519,55313,175
            Total44,01154,02267,09991,604111,229

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS—The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the latest available June years. Note: Australia includes Cocos and Norfolk Islands; United States includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Islands Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

Country to Which ExportedJune Year 1976June Year 1977June Year 1978
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
*Excludes Province of Taiwan.
Wool (Greasy, Slipe, and Scoured)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia10 18919,8257 69123,0238 25824,285
Belgium8 61014,23110 50225,9229 95322,275
Canada1 5222,5991 8425,4561 7874,990
China*8 16012,4022 8997,3337 30116,210
Czechoslovakia2 8774,3615 36812,5964 3998,800
France25 98141,24619 73945,07417 26437,661
Germany, Democratic Republic of1 9653,0911 4543,4292 3334,549
Germany, Federal Republic of22 92141,19322 82961,27719 81250,884
Greece12 69925,03810 72133,25211 12432,834
Hong Kong3 4146,7823 88011,5482 3326,746
Iran9 38116,2927 59022,3697 53320,646
Ireland2 2584,0292 4256,5802 6746,382
Italy9 66016,2967 88321,5899 26523,662
Japan26 99644,34717 29645,59317 45545,496
Netherlands25 34740,53826 43361,58822 97549,863
Poland8 38913,3428 21518,2094 8569,531
Portugal1 4512,4382 0544,9382 2464,956
South Africa5791,032305841276716
Spain1 7352,4991 8394,2322 8705,964
U.S.S.R27 66445,70524 19958,91322 45447,657
United Kingdom39 88564,28147 106116,59645 124104,296
United States of America8 97415,38710 16425,9108 55820,540
Yugoslavia5 8748,6632 1965,4713 5097,557
Other countries5 83710,7899 26726,4148 55423,479
                Total272 367456,406253 899648,152242 910579,980
Beef and Veal (Fresh, Chilled, or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean2 4871,9861 9332,0071 7292,133
Australia2663741 2401,8541 1341,711
Belgium614837451612164213
Bermuda6919599731,5429441,696
Canada38 75736,61825 66630,30427 19736,693
China, Province of Taiwan1 6551,466206698150364
Cyprus1 4441,4173 0163,0712 0172,541
Fiji830704597592435505
France606877315473107191
French Polynesia2 2583,7162 5164,6472 1614,359
Germany, Federal Republic of547687572817150274
Greece3 5653,5494 4783,275
Hong Kong2 4274,0252 9886,2232 0875,467
Iraq1 6281,3434 8225,578
Jamaica1 8731,488790753393468
Japan5 2297,2175 1958,5157 78812,706
Malaysia6339825151,093396969
Malta3 1563,5942 3052,9221 6892,521
Netherlands Antilles1 0651,3251 4381,9701 6802,563
New Caledonia181329265614350899
Philippines8271,2211 1312,2194481,144
Singapore2 7314,5771 9554,6901 9745,136
Sweden6041,0464021,3314681,178
Trinidad and Tobago4 2204,0604 3964,7982 7263,589
U.S.S.R9 7426,49146 47439,51018 58720,044
United Kingdom6 6807,28411 85912,5214 9927,380
United States of America127 839137,536111 433141,774136 305185,315
Other countries5 555x5,740x22 710x27,734x9 70512,889
                Total228 111241,448260 639312,137225 776312,952
Lamb (Fresh, Chilled or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean1 0178271 3781,4611 1031,156
Belgium1 1731,1321 1861,3871 3291,790
Canada8 2788,7978 82211,6267 95913,088
Cyprus9617741 2501,252754752
Denmark1 0851,1561 7772,6142 0122,896
Fiji3 1641,7622 9472,0662 7582,126
France9801,0717631,0091 5122,089
French Polynesia368451432665469723
Germany, Federal Republic of4 7054 2703 6434,1747 2708,473
Greece14 74413,7503 4193,54713 93915,884
Hong Kong701573631664680759
Iran12 30310,52018 11618,23943 22644,877
Iraq11 4239,85612 205311,940671804
Italy4 4344,1941 1061,1553 7824,383
Japan10 4208,73912 91313,78712 58614,202
Jordan74661 3521,789431516
Netherlands1 9981,8141 2651,5581 0511,186
Singapore7706559209461 0391,233
Switzerland9581,1071 2561,8351 6042,674
Trinidad and Tobago612512238293319399
United Kingdom214 776170,351201 847215,482185 298193,347
United States of America13 38113,8649 94013,53311 79519,252
Other countries9 0887,3139 7408,72010 7189,770
                Total317 413263,558297 148319,740312 305342,378
Mutton (Fresh, Chilled or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean3615157104164121
Belgium189141144143163195
Cyprus693564404329
Fiji290128268153181120
France288194152141232255
Germany, Federal Republic of186103113656153
Iran23926715234583
Italy2631896650325233
Jamaica1 2986271 4158651 096781
Japan39 26316,31321 59814,09723 17017,164
Korea, Republic of10 9663,66510 7636,52713 1479,242
Malaysia10966180140262273
Papua New Guinea483126471166252104
Singapore1238715135252
Trinidad and Tobago956887609272
United Kingdom10 5194,9968 8445,1475 9234,487
U.S.S.R10 3764,31558 88938,40916 56413,204
Other countries5 203x2,460x2 112x1,628x809820
            Total79 99633,794105 35367,77162 58347,286
Other Frozen Meat
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Belgium165222172260126155
Canada1 1658571 6411,491675618
France3 7365,9343 9706,6443 3546,192
Germany, Federal Republic of2 5367,2982 5919,9712 4768,931
Hong Kong151166166317146421
Italy403497367414261300
Jamaica89645534120313995
Japan3 1322,6204 7115,3383 4344,368
Netherlands8951,2259251,7927851,447
Sweden538305268643149190
Trinidad and Tobago800540576419691603
United Kingdom27 81022,65429 88122,40829 50926,088
United States of America1 9691,9763 6803,5359961,205
Other countries5 153x2,676x4 274x3,367x3 6523,523
            Total49 34747,42753 56356,80446 39354,135
Butter
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
China2 2052,426
China, Province of Taiwan172199571619716900
Fiji1 5591,6411 8992,0952 2632,801
French Polynesia6077778491,1738181,228
Hong Kong8888181 5711,5101 2781,503
Indonesia2 4242,5903 4543,8894 4115,625
Iran8 8668,3382 0222,026
Iraq3 0022,7644 4533,7612 5002,168
Jamaica3 8984,4392 9513,6781 6481,911
Japan4 1395,5036 8077,477500618
Malaysia4 5995,0065 3296,0462 5913,350
Malta251278330324807785
Mexico1 8592,0475 1945,4071 7582,208
Mozambique837991760902339432
Nigeria8559122502509321,154
Oman1822603214407311,087
Peru7 4148,6908 94110,4013 8224,787
Philippines2 3412,5374 5635,1673 1284,020
Singapore2 9773,1213 1533,4961 8572,293
Thailand9691,0461 2641,360535687
Trinidad and Tobago1 0461,029987904773720
United Kingdom110 305105,678135 535171,576130 094184,532
United States of America2 9644,7401 3511,9751 5022,360
Venezuela1 2401,2152 6602,4332 2631,908
Other countries43 391x39,577x19 735x19,006x7 7729,414
            Total206 788204,196212 929253,890177 265240,941
Cheese
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean702690723663800804
Australia1 9762,3862 8713,6384 1505,016
Bermuda102115140173169203
Cyprus120127141121146140
Egypt8776791 9171,2731 9991,475
Fiji647269867190
French Polynesia115167153217181262
Germany, Federal Republic of110826224141 4921,010
Guyana432438724801448474
Hong Kong144143173147110106
Iraq3 9133,8609088312 3262,130
Jamaica2 8823,0902 3442,8721 8062,082
Japan18 35918,41418 14318,34123 39823,675
Malta394377329266430354
Philippines1 2481,2212 0431,9192 6832,586
Singapore165178167195247309
Trinidad and Tobago1 7931,8052 1952,0441 9881,868
United Kingdom32 75426,45227 65828,7865 9787,527
United States of America12 79815,87715 22119,98617 73522,459
Other countries1 692x1,799x2 507x2,109x3 9963,996
            Total80 64077,97079 04684,88170 15476,565
Milk (Dried, Condensed, etc.)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Bangladesh2 5311,5711 1865042 8841,326
China, Province of Taiwan5 2124,3509 8436,75812 2319,412
Colombia18231 8021,1543 7502,923
Costa Rica3001534 0732,7222 2921,634
El Salvador1 0741,0822 3042,5942 8112,403
Fiji1 2418551 7961,2311 8201,296
Ghana2 0461,0432 1098012 1001,218
Hong Kong9236391 1016531 6081,063
Indonesia10 2545,54816 0236,16320 7909,651
Iraq8546332191421 452680
Jamaica3 9801,9649 0583,3844 2871,808
Japan19 2509,16518 8927,39916 2397,012
Malaysia28 05115,88031 46514,34244 05123,577
Mauritius4754032 5221,6892 7962,016
Mozambique2 0641,0572 1087502 146963
Nigeria4 0961,9284 1921,5285 6042,336
Peru10 6526,54420 9508,12015 8606,725
Philippines20 89710,89036 68113,73941 15418,810
Singapore9 1435,17011 0074,99310 3725,749
Sri Lanka1 8461,0684 5202,3675 7564,353
Thailand7 3444,0019 9914,6379 8514,999
Trinidad and Tobago2 1291,7444 8012,9875 0923,267
United States of America1 2539289914471 706904
Venezuela1988910 3426,0699 5735,762
Other countries11 994x7,773x32 447x13,374x15 8149,594
            Total147 82684,501240 423108,548242 041129,482
Casein
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Canada234242193188509567
France197245380373200208
Germany, Federal Republic of1 1901,2576 6486,4723 5473,392
Italy45471 2981,268337344
Japan7 5998,86912 28612,18911 47112,040
Mexico4735731 1281,203655688
Netherlands1 1331,2522 4432,4011 6871,621
United Kingdom7098541 3581,391544625
United States of America12 11713,14534 21531,79239 14339,007
Other countries566x603x2 435x2,439x1 8462,041
                Total24 26327,08662 38459,71859 94060,533
Inedible Tallow x
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Bangladesh57152361 648598
China*20 6645,91930 84411,11224 88510,142
China, Province of Taiwan15 9504,06915 7465,2409 1413,301
India4272 0117991 894666
Japan31 1298,39911 3223,5552 131738
Kenya5371712 9771,1943 6471.375
Korea, Republic of10 5533,66123 7588,476
Malawi1 6024337542602 021819
Mozambique7981862 6359161 951749
Netherlands4 3851,1382 37173522483
Nigeria2 9991,168
Singapore1 3335312 6381,138
Thailand1 1062759903591 297512
United Kingdom7 7822,1054 2371,4561 192444
Other countries11 6152,9007 6902,4765 7512,074
                Total95 66725,61693 48632,29985 17732,283
Cattle Hides (Undressed)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
China*1 3626516225732 0772,255
France1 9851,0578446819174
Greece1 7271,0431 1961,0951 3001,187
Italy11 5976,41715 38615,23211 73311,367
Japan12 1967,3287 1107,1578 7129,399
Korea, Republic of1 6861,1532 3852,1864 5244,418
Netherlands1 147686500427216185
Poland1 6309923 2313,213738816
Spain1 144389692566238220
Sweden285123766687289224
Yugoslavia2 5321,4561 5541,2982 3911,927
Other countries3 4341,7213 4903,2154 3553,843
                Total40 72623,01637 77736,33136 66535,915
Sheep and Lamb Pelts
 doz(000)$(000)doz(000)$(000)doz(000)$(000)
Belgium1713,9521857,5001878,930
France3816,78638910,76534511,860
Italy2063,6562306,3611424,825
Netherlands1253,3372158,5831255,858
Spain2182,8452024,8062487,247
United Kingdom3526,39438411,40631811,716
United States of America65212,80358618,95869225,183
Other countries5587125675501,710
            Total2 16040,6422 21669,0552 10777,329
Sausage Casings
 hanks hanks hanks 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Canada.1 4065,0021 2345,4261 2705,988
Germany, Federal Republic of4711,9255172,4114952,521
Japan3911,2106222,2285452,130
Netherlands147590159774149836
United Kingdom2 0515,8221 8106,3301 5085,839
United States of America2 1937,2851 8097,2101 5566,501
Other countries4621,6533751,4648033,199
            Total7 12123,4876 52725,8446 32627,015
Apples (Fresh Whole Fruit) x
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Canada3 3579196 2591,7255 5981,864
Destination unknown—EEC532177
Destination unknown—non-EEC21 2156,737
Hong Kong5 2211,4122 4776825 5071,736
Singapore4 2621,1272 5126896 0151,829
United Kingdom25 0886,75825 9006,81932 64810,680
United States of America6 7551,8594 5901,2783 8541,289
Other countries31 8108,68817 7285,0105 1701,773
            Total76 49420,76359 46716,20380 53926,086
Kraft Paper and Cardboard
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia23 59310,11724 51410,17820 1788,043
China*8 9341,9948 5711,93910 1421,952
Hong Kong7 9731,8829 0152,0727 4281,558
Indonesia5 7041,2365 1471,1776 5291,370
Pakistan10 8842,8777 3992,0154 328890
Philippines1 9264184 2359671 877556
Other countries18 8663,94913 5163,31515 8464,080
            Total77 88122,47272 39821,66366 32718,449
Feeding Stuff for Animals
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
China, Province of Taiwan23 3413,00025 1145,4689 4332,262
Japan62 0647,673128 47321,53681 19717,854
Malaysia1 6714573 8081,1803 5781,497
Philippines23 0792,54720 4414,72422 3804,610
Singapore5 1171,6114 9421,5107 7841,944
Spain2 79872666 33410,410
United States of America2 7171,2032 0581,1411 126614
Other countries20 6954,31320 7766,14218 7364,405
            Total141 48221,529281 94652,111144 23433,185
Wood Pulp
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia136 34624,424145 09129,558141 18130,123
China*13 8453,10011 8862,46014 7272,755
Japan152 64918,099218 57926,286236 00628,952
Korea, Republic of26 7835,80811 4342,87314 5362,569
Philippines12 5903,16720 3065,42819 5334,534
Thailand8 2031,9374 6451,113804162
Other countries9 5032,2458 4572,3094 102838
Total359 91958,781420 39870,027430 88969,934
Timber (Sawn Conifer)
 cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)
Australia826,754969,188879,481
Japan984,2771487,32020011,810
New Caledonia534497367639
Tonga222043284365
Other countries97468782131,360
    Total19612,34226418,35531123,655
Sawlogs and Veneer Logs (Conifer)
 cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)cu m (000)$(000)
China*25695371,02013368
Japan67017,99294626,65289531,915
Korea, Republic of13372982,7281234,360
Other countries 326140
            Total70819,0621 08230,4611 03236,683
Fish (Fresh, Chilled or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia3 5403,6825 0135,7835 8867,798
Japan3 3693,2554 0534,8437 5047,607
Netherlands7901,154640815569880
United States of America25924210 4275,4448 3707,604
Other countries3 0692,5573 8333,0155 1854,669
                Total11 02810,89023 96719,89827 51428,558
Newsprint
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia110 44829,310146 26145,379115 99834,975
Hong Kong3 2548033 8771,0885 4901,606
Indonesia13 0682,89311 6592,45821 4314,367
Singapore1 0642391 9993332 906557
Other countries4 2831,06012 2042,53744 52610,089
                Total132 11734,305175 99951,796190 35151,594

EXPORTS BY PORTS—The following table shows for the latest available June years the value of total exports, including re-exports, according to the ports at which goods were loaded for export.

PortYear Ended June
197319741975197619771978
 $(million)
Whangarei45.235.830.538.256.048.8
Auckland476.3487.3451.5634.1874.5992.7
Hamilton2.59.77.27.48.815.1
Tauranga175.4187.9187.8284.1355.6379.6
Gisborne12.613.910.314.613.77.8
Napier182.4176.7161.1202.9269.2176.8
New Plymouth105.184.577.8125.9133.0138.9
Wanganui3.33.44.45.86.710.1
Palmerston North............
Wellington266.3262.7228.1367.3537.7595.8
Blenheim4.65.65.25.96.66.6
Nelson18.417.718.836.027.731.6
Greymouth..0.10.2....0.9
Christchurch133.4138.0116.4191.4257.8293.1
Timaru101.388.993.4134.0186.0106.5
Dunedin99.898.974.5130.3178.2290.7
Invercargill165.3176.1154.4208.9317.1218.3
                Total1,792.01,787.31,621.52,386.93,228.73,313.5

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, since over a quarter of all exports are dispatched from that port. Wellington occupies second place, with approximately one-sixth of the trade. As will be seen from the above table, the order of the other ports varies from year to year. The general rise in the value of exports through Tauranga is attributed to the pulp, paper, and timber industries of the district.

RE-EXPORTS—Until recent years the forwarding trade of New Zealand has never been of great significance. In recent years, passengers' duty-free purchases, ships' and international aircraft stores, have made up between one-fifth and one-third of the total re-exports. The balance is made up principally of miscellaneous stores sent to the Pacific Islands and goods returned or re-sold to the United Kingdom and Australia.

Particulars of re-exports are contained in the next table. Specie is not included in the figures.

Year Ended JuneRe-exports
 $(000)
197333,281
197441,086
197563,522
1976131,226
1977131,974
1978172,453

The destinations of this re-export trade for the latest available June years are shown in the following table.

CountryJune Year
1975197619771978
 $(thousand)
Australia19,27924,00415,09118,627
Canada241170601279
Fiji3,2274,1125,7924,387
French Polynesia473429566689
Germany, Federal Republic of871754553774
Hong Kong4075192,5252,764
Indonesia86281142313
Japan83317,5927105,363
Malaysia1941071,7948,711
Netherlands5754183574,589
Papua New Guinea2261694721,020
Philippines489,6124989
Singapore3,08326,24133,36861,512
Sweden78907,48376
Tonga360475762441
United Kingdom2,9363,3533,0805,652
United States of America4,9509,12713,35118,007
Western Samoa6457127841,000
Other countries4,6265,00314,28523,104
Ships' stores10,53813,99417,3841,461
Passengers' goods9,84714,06112,82513,596
    Total (excluding gold and current coin)63,522131,226131,974172,453

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS, NIUE, AND TOKELAU—Trade with the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau is not included in external trade statistics. The values of exports (including re-exports) to the islands are summarised below.

Year Ended JuneExports
 $(000)
19735,476
19746,800
19757,885
197610,898
197712,126
197815,299

22 C—IMPORTS

GENERAL—Statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed to the Customs and are usually quoted on the valuation basis c.d.v. (current domestic value in the country of export at the time of shipment). However, in certain tables the value c.i.f. (cost including insurance and freight) is also given. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and import totals do not include gold and current coin, except where expressly stated.

Reference should be made to Section 22A for details of the systems of valuation of imports as now used in these tables. Section 22A also gives a summary of import totals for recent years and index numbers of the volume of import trade, and also includes a sub-section on Import Control.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS—The following table classifies imports by Sections of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised).

Year Ended JuneImports (c.d.v.)
Food and Live AnimalsBeverages and TobaccoCrude Materials, Inedible, Except FuelsMineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related MaterialsAnimal and Vegetable Oils and FatsChemicals
 $(thousand)
197493,62219,71476,578169,7547,868246,967
1975125,49721,58794,797317,67810,855288,275
1976140,54025,146100,305396,6319,470307,254
1977148,76328,629122,816468,97013,707423,861
1978152,30229,547119,538466,25714,925417,492
Year Ended JuneImports (c.d.v.)
Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by MaterialMachinery and Transport EquipmentMiscellaneous Manufactured ArticlesCommodities and Transactions not Classified According to KindTotal Merchandise Imports
 $(thousand)
1974491,684611,047131,72312,8551,861,812
1975618,412821,590171,87421,4032,491,967
1976558,355993,772177,23621,3712,730,080
1977723,1431,091,036203,49819,9343,244,356
1978618,327952,747215,49331,5293,018,158

The next table gives fuller details of imports according to sections and divisions for the latest available June years.

Section and DivisionJune Year 1977June Year 1978
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
0. Food and live animals$(thousand)
    00 Live animals5,8066,5055,0775,612
    01 Meat and meat preparations1,4841,651854946
    02 Dairy products and eggs644741707819
    03 Fish and fish preparations10,89711,9798,2129,066
    04 Cereals and cereal preparations3,7924,7903,2253,940
    05 Fruits and vegetables35,61945,65837,07247,684
    06 Sugar and sugar preparations45,67752,41442,82747,801
    07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof42,48246,72151,59857,206
    08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)577705730914
    09 Miscellaneous food preparations1,7862,1741,9992,299
    Total, Section 0148,763173,337152,302176,288
1. Beverages and tobacco
    11 Beverages15,82719,05314,51117,234
    12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures12,80214,27515,03717,326
    Total, Section 1..28,62933,32729,54734,559
2. Crude materials, inedible, except fuels
    21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed8661,0841,6201,806
    22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and oil kernels5,8426,6175,9746,768
    23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed22,07525,49917,89920,628
    24 Wood and cork8,93412,1716,1768,452
    25 Pulp and waste paper1,5851,8212,6983,307
    26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yam, thread, or fabrics) and waste14,50617,18314,41317,194
    27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum and precious stones56,10988,02957,19189,022
    28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap2,3622,9892,7893,006
    29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.s.10,539. 11,40410,77611,614
            Total, Section 2122,816166,797119,538161,797
3. Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials
    32 Coal, coke, and briquettes4978428721,315
    33 Petroleum and petroleum products468,432513,229465,325505,216
    34 Gas42646077
            Total, Section 3468,970514,134466,257506,608
4. Animal and vegetable oils and fats
    41 Animal oils and fats130161100121
    42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed10,84711,78112,59613,864
    43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin2,7303,1292,2292,569
    Total, Section 413,70715,07014,92516,553
5. Chemicals
    51 Chemical elements and compounds145,519165,900149,621170,654
    52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas1,4461,6421,6971,724
    53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials21,51823,47918,46319,604
    54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products72,48661,73273,24463,968
    55 Essential oils and perfume materials; toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations13,52413,72913,33713,719
    56 Fertilisers, manufactured24,73932,20726,12833,936
    57 Explosives4,0713,6732,0552,072
    58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins105,412113,39795,696100,145
    59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products35,14639,95337,25241,048
            Total, Section 5423,861455,713417,492446,869
6. Manufactured goods classified chiefly by material
    61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.s., and dressed furs4,2124,4843,5203,843
    62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.25,06226,77923,65325,252
    63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)7,9909,4226,4577,724
    64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof36,69541,39032,32736,243
    65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles and related products226,804250,380197,994217,684
    66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.i.37,21543,89739,48745,115
    67 Iron and steel228,466244,208180,553188,967
    68 Non-ferrous metals70,02772,99753,86756,854
    69 Manufactures of metals86,67390,63280,46884,755
            Total, Section 6723,143784,189618,327666,435
7. Machinery and transport equipment
    71 Machinery other than electric461,404492,883469,360491,784
    72 Electric machinery, apparatus and appliances203,082211,262166,920173,529
    73 Transport equipment426,551460,394316,466349,550
            Total, Section 71,091,0361,164,539952,7471,014,862
8. Miscellaneous manufactured articles
    81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, lighting fittings, and fixtures3,3373,9372,6193,116
    82 Furniture and fixtures1,7202,0221,6181,925
    83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles769797760764
    84 Clothing6,9017,6366,8067,525
    85 Footwear4,7825,3475,4766,144
    86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods, watches, and clocks83,78482,89790,61287,492
    89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.s102,204107,552107,602113,393
            Total, Section 8203,498210,190215,493220,359
9. Commodities and transactions not classified according to kind19,93420,68631,52932,324
            Grand total, merchandise imports3,244,3563,537,9823,018,1583,276,655

n.e.s-not elsewhere specified.

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE—From the eighties of the last century until the early seventies of this century, the chief source of supply of New Zealand's imports was the United Kingdom. Prior to that the main source of supply was Australia, and in the latest years, as the United Kingdom has become more involved in Europe, Australia has once more moved into first place. During the year ended June 1978, imports from the United Kingdom were valued at $532.1 million and imports from Australia at $655.3 million.

In the years following the Second World War, the proportion of the import trade received from the United Kingdom rose from 47.8 percent in 1946 to a maximum of 60.1 percent in 1950. Since 1950 there has been an overall decline, and for the June years 1977 and 1978 only 16.7 and 17.6 percent of imports came from that source. The trade with Australia from 1950 to 1956 was between 10 and 15 percent of the total. In 1957 and 1958, however, it rose to 17 percent, and in 1959 and 1960 to 18 percent. In the years ended June 1977 and 1978, 21.9 percent and 21.7 percent, respectively, of imports came from Australia. Japan is becoming an important trading partner; in the years ended June 1977 and 1978, 14.6 percent and 12.9 percent, respectively, of imports came from that source.

The principal changes in the direction of the import trade are illustrated in the table in Section 22A giving the percentage received from the various geographic areas.

The table which follows show imports (valuation c.d.v.) during the latest 5 years from the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States, and Japan. It should be noted that, from 1975, Australia includes Cocos and Norfolk Islands, and that the U.S.A. includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Island Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific Islands.

Year Ended JuneCountry Where PurchasedCountry of OriginTotal Merchandise Imports
United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.JapanUnited KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.Japan
$(million)
19744095032462403534532252481,862
19755755743693314795053333372,492
19765935674453994815193944022,730
19776267735134625437114264743,244
19786237144463815326554213903,018

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS—The table which follows shows details of principal commodity imports by country of origin for years ended June 1977 and 1978. C.d.v. basis of valuation is used.

Commodity and Countries of OriginValue of Imports
1976–771977–78
*Does not include statistics for the Province of Taiwan.
 $(000)
Sugar (not refined)
    Australia25,35519,575
    Fiji15,92621,598
    All countries44,77941,205
Coffee, raw
    Brazil4,278359
    Indonesia2,9073,135
    Kenya2,3851,079
    Uganda2,7692,534
    All countries18,49614,549
Rubber (crude and synthetic)
    Australia1,8191,613
    Japan5,5483,981
    Malaysia7,4937,012
    U.S.A2,1751,285
    All countries22,07517,899
Crude petroleum
    Iran128,01162,174
    Kuwait25,5245,843
    Saudi Arabia39,95080,893
    All countries193,485155,378
Partly refined petroleum
    Australia13,65421,471
    Bahrain16,30716,212
    Saudi Arabia32,76113,188
    Singapore22,17412,190
    All countries103,30180,378
Alcoholic beverages
    Australia1,2541,217
    France2,4042,194
    Germany, Fed. Rep.660645
    Italy635696
    Jamaica1,0411,041
    United Kingdom5,1115,259
All countries15,77614,439
Tobacco (Unmanufactured)
    Korea, Rep. of7751,165
    U.S.A.8,7688,250
    All countries11,80313,874
Natural calcium phosphate
    Australia17,96020,171
    Nauru14,54916,311
    All countries39,54139,983
Medicinal and pharmaceutical products
    Australia21,96125,787
    Germany, Fed. Rep.7,7366,284
    Switzerland7,6894,594
    United Kingdom19,50923,221
    U.S.A.4,5234,267
    All countries72,48673,244
Manufactured fertilisers
    Japan4,2804,029
    U.S.S.R3,0342,856
    U.S.A13,63110,652
    All countries24,73926,128
Motor spirit
    Australia24,98427,723
    Bahrain9,21917,716
    Iran4,9593,163
    All countries54,71887,095
Kerosene and white spirit
    Australia31,46236,885
    Bahrain9841,941
    Singapore7,73710,819
    All countries41,68852,869
Distillate fuels
    Australia23,14533,419
    Bahrain6,64713,771 '
    Singapore6,02110,172
    All countries42,36761,766
Organic chemicals
    Australia13,22610,073
    Germany, Fed. Rep.4,6624,936
    Japan10,8229,688
    United Kingdom11,0839,951
    U.S.A.17,59013,498
    All countries67,44456,822
Inorganic chemicals
    Australia47,86959,311
    Germany, Fed. Rep.2,2032,418-
    Japan6,4047,666
    United Kingdom8,3349,679
    U.S.A.6,2995,968
    All countries77,67692,265
Woven fabrics of synthetic fibres
    Australia2,3962,101
    Hong Kong3,2362,024
    Japan20,52716,061
    U.S.A5,4633,965
    All countries47,48843,345
Other woven textile fabrics
    Hong Kong4,9815,612
    India4,6073,019
    United Kingdom9,2058,235
    U.S.A.3,2962,906
    All countries37,63133,149
Glass and glassware
    Japan2,6312,068
    United Kingdom4,4744,698
    U.S.A.2,4851,964
    All countries16,87815,595
Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose and artificial resins
    Australia21,47922,273
    Germany, Fed. Rep.7,2546,096
    Japan21,22716,161
    United Kingdom14,88415,499
    U.S.A27,23824,110
    All countries105,41295,696
Articles of rubber
    Japan3,8882,964
    United Kingdom3,6823,902
    U.S.A4,8343,720
    All countries18,85117,077
Paper and paperboard
    Australia5,7814,942
    Japan8,1695,965
    United Kingdom5,6125,738
    U.S.A.3,4443,452
    All countries31,98827,348
Textile yarn and thread
    Australia6,4224,059
    Hong Kong7,5054,677
    Japan6,7125,943
    United Kingdom6,0725,450
    All countries38,73830,324
Cotton fabrics suitable for manufacture of apparel
    China*3,4162,810
    Hong Kong11,9247,126
    Japan4,4393,436
    Malaysia2,1033,213
    United Kingdom1,035972
    U.S.A.2,6471,205
    All countries30,67724,162
Copper and copper alloys
    Australia22,13817,022
    Japan1,7851,204
    United Kingdom4,7452,370
    All countries29,93321,502
Unwrought zinc
    Australia18,04210,842
    Canada528335
    All countries18,61511,210
Bars and rods of iron or steel
    Australia7,118x4,370
    Japan8,459x6,554
    United Kingdom1,621x1,375
    All countries19,105x13,864
Angles, shapes and sections of iron or steel
    Australia8,6886,950
    Japan6,8313,058
    United Kingdom1,6061,109
    All countries17,87411,787
Universals, plates and sheets of iron or steel
    Australia22,260x25,362
    Japan90,408x70,597
    United Kingdom6,195x5,121
    All countries129,910x108,450
Iron and steel wire
    Australia9,8273,585
    Japan4,0572,911
    United Kingdom2,9752,084
    All countries17,4409,166
Tubes, pipes and fittings of iron or steel
    Australia5,4014,624
    Japan4,4445,950
    U.S.A7,1073,380
    All countries22,63318,330
Automatic data processing machines and accessories
    Italy2,3591,824
    United Kingdom4,1723,320
    U.S.A18,57920,940
    All countries30,92430,284
Metalworking machinery
    Australia1,0171,298
    Germany, Fed. Rep.3,9101,350
    Japan2,2002,653
    United Kingdom3,3893,850
    U.S.A2,054967
    All countries18,10013,901
Textile and leather machinery
    Germany, Fed. Rep.4,0814,978
    Japan4,7443,818
    United Kingdom4,6904,991
    All countries24,18423,782
Tools for hand use or in machines
    Australia5,9495,035
    Japan2,9593,069
    United Kingdom6,7765,664
    U.S.A4,6594,750
    All countries26,85925,111
Miscellaneous manufactures of metal
    Australia8,2367,939
    United Kingdom6,4278,055
    U.S.A2,6662,375
    All countries24,25025,031
Internal combustion engines (Not aircraft)
    Australia3,6383,068
    Japan1,5131,553
    United Kingdom5,4855,028
    U.S.A.11,15010,311
    All countries24,70623,039
Other non-electric power generating machinery
    Canada18,83914,029
    United Kingdom15,56629,910
    U.S.A17,66739,598
    All countries74,96691,707
Tractors
    Germany, Fed. Rep.3,4483,695
    Italy3,8093,756
    United Kingdom20,24318,321
    U.S.A.5,0893,852
    All countries40,52835,680
Agricultural machinery and implements (excl. tractors)
    Germany, Fed. Rep.3,5373,279
    United Kingdom4,3304,676
    U.S.A3,2573,116
    All countries20,34122,049
Electric power machinery
    Australia7,2447,818
    United Kingdom9,1355,510
    U.S.A6,5246,118
    All countries38,63127,790
Electric switchgear, etc.—
    Australia4,7633,885
    United Kingdom8,0508,676
    U.S.A3,8593,671
    All countries30,56127,613
Excavating, levelling, boring, etc., machinery
    Japan4,5654,093
    U.S.A8,6369,995
    All countries18,99920,277
Other machinery for special industries
    Australia3,1113,872
    Germany, Fed. Rep.3,9875,800
    United Kingdom5,4445,381
    U.S.A.8,1065,903
    All countries26,25829,915
Pumps and centrifuges
    Australia7,6526,494
    United Kingdom6,1187,533
    U.S.A.6,7727,234
    All countries35,93235,876
Mechanical handling equipment
    Australia6,3866,749
    United Kingdom4,5085,223
    U.S.A8,8058,282
    All countries25,17327,252
Other non-electric machinery and appliances
    Australia16,97216,218
    United Kingdom21,54420,466
    U.S.A.26,31123,522
    All countries103,27696,974
Parts, accessories of, tractors and motor vehicles (not motor cycles)  
    Australia10,0728,507
    Germany, Fed. Rep.3,6913,604
    United Kingdom14,46815,465
    U.S.A5,3705,562
    All countries38,00039,261
Telecommunications equipment
    Japan16,84212,875
    United Kingdom3,4622,978
    U.S.A2,4703,482
    All countries32,73625,022
Thermionic, etc., valves and tubes
    France3,906664
    Japan9,7875,797
    Netherlands4,9841,344
    U.S.A3,2742,223
    All countries26,65713,107
Other electrical machinery and apparatus
    Australia7,3866,454
    Japan9,7459,825
    United Kingdom13,95914,991
    U.S.A11,21610,867
    All countries51,42651,175
Railway vehicles
    Australia2,1285,020
    Japan9,068955
    United Kingdom3,0722,009
    U.S.A6383,581
    All countries15,04811,914
Motor cars
    Australia27,09125,272
    Germany, Fed. Rep.2,2292,848
    Japan45,93240,679
    United Kingdom49,72055,343
    All countries128,295130,987
Buses, trucks, and vans
    Australia14,07814,328
    Japan15,11813,970
    United Kingdom22,80342,077
    All countries59,28377,492
Scientific, medical, optical, etc., instruments and apparatus
    Australia6,2857,822
    Japan8,4379,836
    United Kingdom8,32510,145
    U.S.A.12,99613,990
    All countries49,60358,785
Aircraft
    United Kingdom6,3462,812
    U.S.A.8,7699,502
    All countries22,14915,281
Ships and boats
    Australia55,077738
    Norway3,5395,630
    Singapore2,1792,500
    United Kingdom52,516451
    All countries134,09514,65
Photographic and cinematographic suppplies
    Australia6,5387,002
    Germany, Fed. Rep.4,4693,529
    United Kingdom2,1602,742
    U.S.A.5,3595,215
    All countries24,07423,200
Printed books and pamphlets
    Australia6,1787,967
    United Kingdom15,03616,264
    U.S.A.6,4416,938
    All countries32,52536,044

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the quantities imported during June years of a number of principal items.

ItemUnit of QuantityYear Ended 30 June
1975197619771978
*Excludes hardboards, softboards, wallpaper, lincrusta, and window transparencies.
Sugar, not refinedtonne191 538173 510184 490166 359
Coffee, rawtonne7 1475 8395 5074 011
Wine of fresh grapeslitre (000)2 6262 0241 7631 611
Spirits, liqueurs and other spirituous beverages over 40 percent proofp. litre (000)7 2535 5536 4765 195
Tobacco, unmanufacturedtonne3 6133 6543 5094 371
Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimedtonne22 70524 38928 76922 279
Natural calcium phosphatetonne (000)1 2109361 0501 137
Sulphur, other than sublimed, precipitatedtonne (000)251196230235
Crude petroleumtonne (000)2 5361 8632 1661 682
Partly refined petroleumtonne (000)902899844662
Motor spiritlitre (000)486 337694 053434 550674 788
Kerosene and white spiritlitre (000)385 889376 718371 619451 367
Distillate fuelslitre (000)378 625408 987375 990559 832
Aluminium oxidetonne145 609294 125250 846326 387
Potassium chloride (fertiliser)tonne233 448194 988226 088230 502
Polymerisation, copolymerisation products in bulk formstonne59 19456 09477 65264 155
Other plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins, excl. floor coveringstonne25 06916 83923 15622 150
Rubber tyres and tubes excl. bicycletonne7 2602 8801 5653 324
Paper and paperboard*tonne59 62718 86839 11827 130
Textile yarn and threadtonne10 3358 1229 9977 345
Cotton fabrics, woven—
    Suitable for manufacture of apparelm2 (000)33 81531 67031 73424 996
    For furnishing and household usem2 (000)23 32911 11816 50016 254
Woven textile fabrics of synthetic fibres excl. tyrecordm2 (000)40 35232 20446 93040 759
Iron and steel—
    Bars and rodstonne96 782x22 602x45 810x29 934
    Angles, shapes and sectionstonne80 21339 81863 72740 130
    Universals, plates and sheetstonne393 037256 637378 227x318 040
    Wiretonne30 99812 64132 67513 755
    Tubes, pipes and fittingstonne80 90262 64723 33022 829
Copper and copper alloys excl. foil, powders and flakestonne13 01512 35714 79612 302
Unwrought zinctonne21 48515 49823 34517 311
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)no.160 580118 911131 621117 952
Tractorsno.5 2554 7185 5544 526
Metal working machinerytonne5 3123 9514 6774 062
Excavating, levelling and tamping machineryno.1 477369667577
Lifting, handling, loading machinery, telphers and conveyorstonne9 1256 1153 8604 071
Electric motorsno.678 472519 064543 083424 346
Thermionic, cold cathode, photocathode valves and tubes(000)2 1161 0251 036829
Railway vehicles excl. containers and partsno.3151 80933216
Motor cars—assembledno.13 2894 3554 1383 188
                    — unassembledno.70 11169 92964 95452 261
Buses, trucks, vans—assembledno.1 9811 0888011 022
                    — unassembledno.16 08917 39515 94016 704
Aircraft, excl. parts, balloons, airshipsno.16483123144
Ships and boats excl. those for breaking upno.1 0861 3591 0681 091

VALUE OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the values imported during June years of a number of principal items.

ItemYear Ended June
1975197619771978
 $(000) c.d.v.
Sugar, not refined35,13656,07344,11941,205
Coffee, raw6,0747,28718,49614,549
Alcoholic beverages13,56513,71015,77614,439
Tobacco, unmanufactured6,71910,15311,80313,874
Crude rubber, including synthetic, reclaimed11,17914,62222,07517,899
Natural calcium phosphate33,71437,72439,54139,983
Sulphur, other than sublimed, precipitated5,0398,5799,8988,330
Crude petroleum137,543139,490193,485155,378
Partly refined petroleum71,70891,103103,30180,378
Motor spirit36,88169,51354,71887,095
Kerosene and white spirit26,78534,27441,68852,869
Distillate fuels23,22433,59942,36761,766
Organic chemicals46,62342,06167,44456,822
Aluminium oxide13,11135,33739,53051,272
Inorganic chemicals (excl. aluminium oxide)30,73034,86438,14540,994
Medicaments, including veterinary42,80243,76260,70461,808
Potassium chloride (fertiliser)8,94911,79812,83112,061
Polymerisation, copolymerisation products in bulk forms36,12036,47655,94948,820
Other plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins34,20732,18749,46346,876
Articles of rubber, n.e.s.18,60712,87518,85117,077
Paper and paperboard31,37217,39831,98827,348
Textile yarn and thread28,13727,13738,73830,324
Cotton fabrics, woven—
    Suitable for manufacture of apparel20,57326,43530,67724,162
    For furnishing and household use13,6297,65313,92513,646
Woven textile fabrics of synthetic fibres30,89130,00447,48843,345
Other woven textile fabrics29,36928,51937,63133,149
Special textile fabrics and related products15,89215,13919,25418,688
Glass and glassware12,50612,25216,87815,595
Iron and steel—
    Bars and rods25,610x9,157x19,105x13,864
    Angles, shapes and sections16,8809,66017,87411,787
    Universals, plates and sheets92,25967,897129,910x108,450
    Wire11,8396,82717,4409,166
    Tubes, pipes and fittings46,82148,89122,63318,330
Copper and copper alloys23,22419,98729,93321,502
Unwrought zinc12,73711,30818,61511,210
Tools for hand use or in machines21,89721,89526,85925,111
Manufactures of metal, n.e.s.21,92720,42624,25025,031
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)17,95021,16324,70623,039
Other non-electric power generating machinery26,93032,25674,96691,707
Tractors23,66728,39040,52835,680
Agricultural machinery and implements (not tractors)12,10711,41520,34122,049
Automatic data processing machines and accessories26,81436,74130,92430,284
Metalworking machinery12,60911,20918,10013,901
Textile and leather machinery24,97524,25324,18423,782
Excavating, levelling, boring, extracting machinery, etc.23,10021,66418,99920,277
Other machines for special industries33,54027,24326,25829,915
Pumps and centrifuges, filtering, etc., machinery, incl. parts31,13831,90735,93235,876
Mechanical handing equipment27,97125,16425,17327,252
Other non-electric machinery and appliances, incl. parts93,32198,831103,27696,974
Electric power machinery34,76451,41238,63127,790
Electric switchgear, etc.20,75326,36030,56127,613
Telecommunications apparatus35,66933,66132,73625,022
Thermionic, etc., valves and rubes, etc.14,20120,97026,65713,107
Other electric machinery and apparatus, n.e.s.43,46742,31751,42651,175
Railway vehicles10,02545,51715,04811,914
Motorcars—unassembled90,669110,397113,081118,535
    —assembled28,89111,31615,21412,452
Buses, trucks and vans—unassembled38,58047,15859,28372,306
    —assembled4,7345,5043,7975,186
Parts, accessories of tractors and motor vehicles (not motorcycles)29,67233,33138,00039,261
Aircraft10,68626,51922,14915,281
Ships and boats44,370105,513134,09514,651
Scientific, medical, optical, etc., instruments and apparatus43,62242,81749,60358,785
Photographic and cinematographic supplies16,05818,44224,07423,200
Printed books and pamphlets (including maps, etc.)28,56831,21932,52536,044

n.e.s.—not elsewhere specified.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS BY END-USE—In the following table imports are classified by end-use in the form of economic categories. The classification involves some arbitrary decisions but it is adapted to practical purposes and the comparability of the time series has useful economic applications. Basis of valuation is c.i.f.

Class of Goods Imported*Year Ended 30 June
19741975197619771978
*For more detailed list of items included under each heading see relevant table in Monthly Abstract of Statistics.
 $(million)
Finished Capital Goods272.9435.2454.4524.3433.8
    Agricultural machinery and plant27.236.941.060.556.1
    Industrial machinery and plant82.3131.0127.5158.5135.7
    Construction machinery and plant20.317.715.214.211.6
    Transport and communications items42.683.9111.3114.154.3
    Other complete items100.5165.8159.4177.0176.0
Components and Materials for Capital Goods187.7320.2395.3371.4375.1
    For agricultural machinery and plant8.812.311.216.415.1
    For industrial machinery and plant23.441.442.865.669.5
    For construction machinery and plant2.23.93.63.93.5
    For transport and communications items56.489.7109.9122.3144.7
    For building, construction, roads13.722.467.824.323.5
    For other capital items83.2150.5159.9138.8118.9
Finished Goods and Components (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)293.2324.8412.1434.2369.9
    Complete transport items83.158.7118.2100.739.4
    Parts for transport items140.2158.9180.3202.3202.6
    Other complete items28.643.740.648.849.1
    Parts for other items41.363.472.982.578.8
Consumer Goods524.4631.6658.9812.8796.2
    Finished consumer goods257.2311.0319.8391.4420.2
    Components for consumer goods267.2320.7339.0421.5376.0
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere747.21,030.71,021.91,373.01,269.3
Stores Used Only for Defence11.420.519.022.232.4
                Total2,036.72,763.12,961.63,538.03,276.6
 percent
Finished Capital Goods13.415.715.314.813.3
    Agricultural machinery and plant1.31.31.41.71.7
    Industrial machinery and plant4.04.74.34.54.1
    Construction machinery and plant1.00.70.50.40.4
    Transport and communications items2.13.03.83.21.7
    Other complete items4.96.05.45.05.4
Components and Materials for Capital Goods9.211.613.410.511.4
    For agricultural machinery and plant0.40.40.40.50.5
    For industrial machinery and plant1.11.51.41.82.1
    For construction machinery and plant0.10.20.10.10.1
    For transport and communications items2.83.23.73.54.4
    For building, construction, roads0.70.82.30.70.7
    For other capital items4.15.55.43.93.6
Finished Goods and Components (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)14.411.813.912.311.3
    Complete transport items4.12.14.02.91.2
    Parts for transport items6.95.86.15.76.2
    Other complete items1.41.61.41.41.5
    Parts for other items2.02.32.52.32.4
Class of Goods Imported*Year Ended 30 June
19741975197619771978
*For more detailed list of items included under each heading see relevant table in Monthly Abstract of Statistics.
 Percent
Consumer Goods25.722.922.323.024.3
Finished consumer goods12.611.310.811.112.8
Components for consumer goods13.111.611.411.911.5
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere36.737.334.538.838.7
Stores Used Only for Defence0.60.70.60.61.0
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

IMPORTS BY PORTS—In 1978 New Zealand had 17 ports of entry for Customs purposes—ten in the North Island and seven in the South Island. The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry. The value of overseas cargo landed at other ports is included with the appropriate port of entry. Basis of valuation is c.d.v.

PortYear Ended June
19741975197619771978
 $(thousand)
Whangarei102,724252,025259,111328,742249,159
Auckland895,2001,097,6261,120,3551,484,4541,410,497
Hamilton9,38315,72925,78824,90022,109
Tauranga16,83636,08429,73243,20945,633
Gisborne1,7544,2592,8122,2711,195
Napier28,61746,72762,12454,66855,219
New Plymouth39,33873,477198,331124,86047,694
Wanganui2,3693,0962,9685,1075,529
Palmerston North10,50813,60416,99526,19627,675
Wellington453,718546,380562,025636,519636,602
Blenheim1,1633,5567951,037556
Nelson9,42825,84315,44524,20822,703
Greymouth4663,4751,0501,0481,042
Christchurch213,237262,027284,449325,122306,156
Timaru5,1375,1136,9264,7028,615
Dunedin42,06159,98959,22979,46885,231
Invercargill29,87242,95781,94577,84692,544
                Total1,861,8122,491,9672,730,0803,244,3563,018,158

Between 60 and 70 percent of the total imports usually come in by way of Auckland or Wellington. With the advent of the oil refinery plant at Whangarei this port has now reached fourth place in importance. Christchurch occupies third place.

Imports by air have been credited to the port in whose district the overseas airport is located. Thus goods which came in through Mangere Airport were included in the Auckland figures, imports through Wellington Airport and Ohakea in the Wellington figures, and through Christchurch Airport in the Christchurch figures. The value of imports by air, the commodities and their countries of origin are listed in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Some figures of imports and exports by air are given by main commodity groups in Section 12 E of this Yearbook.

GOODS SHIPPED FROM COOK ISLANDS, NIUE, AND TOKELAU—Trade with the Cook Islands, Tokelau, and Niue is not included in the export and import totals for New Zealand. The following table shows the movement of goods from these islands to New Zealand.

June YearValue of Goods
 $(000)
19733,132
19743,322
19753,897
19762,918
19773,464
19783,719

The c.i.f. values of principal goods brought to New Zealand from the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau during the latest available June year were as follows:

ItemYear Ended June 1978
Cook IslandsNiueTokelau
 $$$
Tangerines, mandarins and similar10,354
Other citrus fruit1,6462,631
Bananas and plantains31,157
Coconuts6,543
Other fresh whole fruit172,026
Fruit juices1,255,96140,188
Fruit preserved by freezing80,721
Fruit prepared or preserved312,0431,546
Vegetables (fresh, frozen or preserved)275,283
Natural honey22,810
Copra282,982113,038
Wood manufactures, n.e.s.6,571
Clothing of textile fabric837,05795
Footwear52,133
Postage, revenue and similar stamps11,7009,0012,954
Manufactured articles, n.e.s.5016,852
Other miscellaneous items160,63322,659
    Total3,416,590299,5412,954

n.e.s.—not elsewhere specified

22 D—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

The New Zealand Customs Tariff dates back to June 1841 when the first Customs Regulation Ordinance was passed. In the latter half of the nineteenth century and the first two decades of the present century tariff policies were unsophisticated and tended to reflect the prevailing economic philosophy, the development of the country's agricultural base, and the British preferential system. From 1921, however, tariff policies directed at encouraging and protecting manufacturing industries were given greater importance. This policy evolution received a temporary check following the Ottawa Agreement of 1932 whereby, in return for concessions from the United Kingdom related to New Zealand's agricultural products, further preferences were accorded to British goods and some constraint placed on the use of the Tariff for purely protective purposes. Subsequent tariff reviews have placed increasing weight on the objectives of encouraging and protecting manufacturing industries.

The structure of the Tariff was changed from 1 July 1962 when the Standard International Trade Classification was adopted. Since 1 July 1967, however, the Tariff has been based on the Customs Cooperation Council Nomenclature (C.C.C.N.).

Consequential to the United Kingdom's decision to enter the European Economic Community, preferences on goods of United Kingdom origin were phased out, the process having been completed on 1 July 1977 with the exception of certain automotive products. Commonwealth Preferential Country rates were discontinued from 1 July 1978 but the former recipients of these preferences benefited in lieu from New Zealand's extended Generalised System of Preferences favouring developing countries.

On 1 July 1978 a fully revised Customs Tariff was introduced based on the recommendation of a Tariff Review Committee which had been given a 2-year period to put forward proposals to make the Tariff compatible with modern trading conditions, industrial development requirements, and administrative facility. Tariff rates were set consistent with the committee's terms of reference which required, inter alia, an assessment to be made of rates necessary to accord domestic industry a reasonable level of protection against competing imports disregarding the existence of other forms of protection.

The new Tariff reduced the number of individual tariff items from approximately 4700 to some 2500 but also provided for the collection of statistics on a more detailed basis.

The rates of Customs and excise duty enforced in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled The Customs Tariff of New Zealand available from the Government Printer, Wellington.

OBJECTS OF THE TARIFF—The objects of the Customs Tariff can be summarised as:

  1. The collection of revenue.

  2. The development of New Zealand industries.

  3. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand's exports.

  4. The implementation of New Zealand's tariff commitments in multilateral and bilateral trade agreements.

  5. Harmonisation with New Zealand's external political objectives including the provision of assistance to developing countries.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)—New Zealand was one of the original members of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade reached in Geneva in 1947 and has since taken an active part in the work of the GATT in attaining its general objective of reducing barriers to trade and providing a forum for the discussion and settlement of international trade problems and disputes.

The majority of the world's trading nations have now become contracting parties to the GATT and entitled to most-favoured-nation treatment. The non-discriminatory provisions within the GATT assist New Zealand to at least some degree in promoting its objective in seeking the right to trade on a multilateral basis.

The results of the tariff negotiations which took place in 1947 and on subsequent occasions are embodied in schedules to the General Agreement and are applied multilaterally so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants and, conversely, accords reciprocal concessions to all other contracting parties. These concessions are of two kinds—actual reductions in duty rates and bindings on duties against increase.

Developments have, however, tended to whittle away most of the trading advantages which countries relying heavily on agricultural exports might reasonably expect to get from GATT membership. There has been a growing disparity between the benefits accruing under GATT to the industrialised nations and the far less tangible advantages it provides for primary producing countries such as New Zealand. This has been due principally to the maintenance of quantitative restrictions on agricultural products by most of the large industrialised countries as an aspect of their policies of agricultural protectionism.

The Kennedy Round of negotiations which was concluded in June 1967 did not correct this imbalance although New Zealand did obtain improved access and some tariff concessions on a limited range of products exported to some GATT countries in compensation for a reduction in rates of duty of up to 50 percent on a number of items. A new round of multilateral trade negotiations was initiated in Tokyo in September 1973. New Zealand has taken an active part in these negotiations whilst making it clear that the extent of its contribution to a successful outcome is dependent upon improvements in conditions of trade relating to products of principal export interest.

PREFERENCES AND OTHER BILATERAL TRADE AGREEMENTS: United Kingdom—A radical change in New Zealand's trade and tariff policy was necessitated by the United Kingdom's decision to enter into the European Economic Community on 1 January 1973 and the effect of this action on New Zealand's exports to that country. Consequently the New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade agreement was abrogated on 31 January 1973. The tariff preferences accorded to British goods in the New Zealand market were accordingly phased out in four steps which began on 1 July 1974 and were completed by 30 June 1977, except in the case of a range of automotive products.

Australia—The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement which came into force on 1 January 1966 provides for periodic reduction and ultimate elimination of duties on the goods listed in a schedule to the agreement when such goods qualify for admission into either country as the produce or manufacture of the other country. This agreement modifies or supersedes some of the provisions of the earlier trade agreement between New Zealand and Australia in 1933.

The goods listed in Schedule A to the agreement cover some two-thirds of the imports from Australia and include forest products (timber, pulp, packaging materials, plywood and veneers), petroleum products, meat, fish, cheese, lead, zinc, and other metals, copper rods and bars, wool, and some machinery and chemicals. As a result of subsequent reviews a limited number of other items have been added to Schedule A each year.

The agreement provides for reviews of trade between the two countries with a view to progressive inclusion of additional items within the agreement. The original agreement was for 10 years and thereafter would remain in force unless terminated on 180 days' notice being given. However, in September 1976, the two countries agreed to extend the agreement for a further period of 10 years on the same terms and conditions.

On 1 December 1977 an exchange of letters took place between the New Zealand and Australian Governments. These replaced an interim agreement made in 1973 and provided a general undertaking, subject to certain qualifications and consultative provisions, to avoid increases in rates of duty other than in exceptional circumstances and to maintain margins of preferences on trade between the two countries. It was also provided that when changes were being made to the respective tariffs each country would, subject to certain conditions, endeavour to preserve a minimum margin of preference of 15 percent on goods in the protected area or a lesser margin if operative at 31 January 1973 or 30 November 1977. A 5-percent margin (or lesser provision if operative at base dates) is to be maintained for goods in the non-protected area where the other State has a substantial or important trade interest. The agreement is for an initial period of 3 years.

Canada—Reciprocal trade arrangements between Canada and New Zealand are governed by an agreement negotiated in 1932, and this agreement remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the terms of the agreement, sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri gum, and phormium fibre are amongst the New Zealand products admitted free of duty. Certain other items such as butter, cheese, mutton, and lamb are admitted at preferential rates of duty.

On 26 July 1973 an exchange of letters took place between the New Zealand and Canadian Governments. Among the mutual agreements reached was a general undertaking subject to certain qualifications and consultative provisions, not to increase the duties and to maintain margins of preference on each other's goods based on the position existing at 31 January 1973.

Malaysia—A trade agreement between Malaysia and New Zealand was signed in February 1961 by which each country accords preferential rates of duty to the other. Both countries agreed to guarantee minimum margins of tariff preference which apply to certain important items in each other's trade.

Developing Countries—New Zealand responded to the recommendation of the United Nations Committee on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) that developed countries introduce Generalised Systems of Preference in favour of developing nations, and special developing country rates were incorporated in the Customs Tariff as from 1 January 1972.

When New Zealand introduced a revised Generalised System of Preference (GSP) on 1 July 1976 the new scheme was based on the negative-list concept and significantly increased the GSP coverage granted previously. Every effort was made to keep the list of exceptions to the minimum to give the greatest possible coverage to the scheme. Based on figures for the year ended 30 June 1978, total value of imports from GSP beneficiaries was $550 million. Of this trade only $43 million was subject to duty, with $32 million thereof being admitted at Developing Country preferential rates of duty.

The revised GSP was based on an intention to maintain, in terms of GSP criteria, specified margins of preference for developing countries up to a level of 20 percent. For the year ended June 1978 less than 2 percent of trade from developing countries was excluded from duty free and/or preferential treatment. Since 17 December. 1976 special provisions have been made for the duty-free importation of specified handicraft products.

The revised Customs Tariff introduced from 1 July 1978 did not improve significantly on the overall scale of preferences although a number of individual rate adjustments were made including a lowering of tariff levels applicable to developing countries in some cases where they had been relatively high.

Although no concurrent changes were made in rules of origin, New Zealand had already adopted on 1 October 1975, the “cumulative” principle whereby content from any developing country could be aggregated to comply with the minimum requirement. At the same time, provision was made for the goods of one beneficiary country to enter the commerce of other beneficiary countries without interfering with their right to enter New Zealand under preference.

OTHER TRADE OBLIGATIONS—New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, and arrangements with countries outside the Commonwealth resulting from direct negotiations with the countries concerned. In practice, some of the earlier arrangements (which generally provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment) became superseded by New Zealand's accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Trade agreements which are still operative include those with Switzerland (1938 and since extended to Liechtenstein in 1956); the Federal Republic of Germany (1959, amended 1977); Japan (1958, amended 1962); the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1963, protocol 1973); the Polish People's Republic (1965); Republic of Korea (1967, amended 1976); People's Republic of Bulgaria (1968); Republic of Philippines (1968, amended 1976); Socialist Republic of Romania (1969); Hungarian People's Republic (1970, revised and superseded 1978); The People's Republic of China (1973); Empire of Iran (1974); Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1975); Arab Republic of Egypt (1977); German Democratic Republic (1978); and Indonesia 1978.

ELIGIBILITY OF GOODS FOR TARIFF PREFERENTIAL RATES—In order to qualify for entry at preferential rates imported goods must meet certain origin requirements before they can be deemed to be the produce or manufacture of the countries entitled to the preferences. The provisions are contained in the Customs Regulations 1968 as amended. In general, with minor variations, they include the following:

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries.

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw materials and/or (in some instances) from one or more of the imported partly-manufactured materials which are enumerated in the regulations.

  3. Goods “wholly obtained”. (This provision applies only to Developing Country Preferences and is instead of provisions (a) and (b).)

  4. Goods partly manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or other items of factory or works cost incurred in such countries in respect of each article is not less than half of the factory or works cost of the article in its finished state.

CUSTOMS DUTIES—The 1978 Tariff (effective from 1 July 1978) has only two duty columns, viz: normal and preferential.

EXCISE DUTIES—Excise duty is a tax on certain commodities manufactured in New Zealand. Duties on major commodities were as follows at the dates given.

Beer—Rates of Beer Duty which became effective on 1 April 1978 were as follows:

DescriptionRate of Duty
Not exceeding 4.35 percent alcohol by volume15.94 cents per litre
Exceeding 4.35 percent, but not exceeding 5.00 percent alcohol by volume19.93 cents per litre
Exceeding 5.00 percent alcohol by volume25.10 cents per litre

Tobacco—Rates of excise duty on tobacco products, which became effective on 22 July 1977, were as follows:

DescriptionRate of Duty
Cigarettes—$
    Exceeding in weight 1.134 kg per 100013.70 per kg
    Not exceeding in weight 1.134 kg per 100015.54 per 1000
Cigars and Snuff8.58 per kg
Other manufactured tobacco10.26 per kg

Distilleries—Excise duty on gin, geneva, schnapps, vodka, and other spirituous mixtures approved by the Minister of Customs, which are produced by two rectifying and compounding distilleries, is at the rate of $3.85 per proof litre.

The excise duty on whisky distilled or made in New Zealand is $3.786 per proof litre.

CUSTOMS REVENUE—Revenue from Customs and Excise Duties is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchExcise DutiesOther DutiesTotal Duties
BeerSpiritsTobacco
$(000)
197546,23311,20375,197142,685275,318
197648,37412,12980,265124,630265,398
197746,45714,28491,201147,406299,343
197858,69316,787105,727150,311331,518

Motor spirits duty paid into the National Roads Fund has been excluded from Customs duties.

Customs revenue as a proportion of taxation is discussed in the section on Central Government Finance.

INTERNATIONAL COMMODITY AGREEMENTS: Sugar—New Zealand's annual requirement for sugar is approximately 160 000 tonnes. In the past the bulk of this was imported from Australia and Fiji under long-term contracts. Any additional cargoes were purchased from Cuba and the Philippines.

In 1978, however, New Zealand was unable to negotiate a new contract with Australia. Negotiations were scheduled to take place early in 1979 with Fiji in an effort to continue our sugar supply arrangements. It is likely therefore that we will buy more of our sugar on the world market during 1979.

In an effort to exert a greater control over market forces, producers and consumers have repeatedly made efforts over the past 20 years to encourage market stability through the implementation of a number of International Sugar Agreements. These agreements incorporate mechanisms that regulate the supply and price of sugar on world markets. Under the agreements exporters undertake to regulate their sales on the free market according to agreed quotas, while importers are to restrict their purchases from non-members during times when sugar prices remained within the range specified in the agreement. New Zealand has been a member of the International Sugar Agreements of 1958, 1968, and 1978.

Coffee—New Zealand is a party to the International Coffee Agreement 1976, which came into force in October 1976, for a period of 6 years. New Zealand was previously a party to the International Coffee Agreement of 1968 which finally expired in 1976, having been extended from 1973 as a purely administrative agreement.

Under the 1976 agreement provisions have been incorporated for adjusting basic quotas, regulating imports whenever quotas are in effect, and recording international coffee trade. New Zealand has joined this agreement as part of a wider support for commodity agreements.

Cocoa—New Zealand joined the International Cocoa Agreement 1976, which came into force in October 1976, for a period of 3 years. New Zealand was a member of the 1973 agreement which expired in 1976.

The International Cocoa Agreement incorporates features common to other commodity agreements, but depends largely for the stabilising of prices on the operation of a buffer stock. Cocoa beans would be bought into the buffer stock at times of low prices and sold when prices pass an agreed maximum level.

However, to date, the provisions of this Agreement have not come into effect. There has been considerable pressure therefore from member countries to renegotiate a more workable base for the Agreement, and discussions on this were to take place early in 1979.

Chapter 25. Section 23; PRICES, HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE, AND CONSUMER AFFAIRS

Table of Contents

CONTROL AND STABILISATION OF PRICES*—The principal enactments affecting the control of prices of goods and services are the Commerce Act 1975 and the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948.

Under the former statute a Positive List of Controlled Goods and Services is published by the Minister of Trade and Industry. This specifies goods and services, increases in the prices of which are subject to the direct supervision of the Secretary of Trade and Industry or in the case of specified energy products, the Secretary of Energy. Regulations (notably the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1974) have been made under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948 for the purpose of restraining increases in the prices of most other goods and services which are not subject to the direct supervision of a statutory pricing authority. Such authorities are the Secretary of Trade and Industry and the Secretary of Energy in the case of goods and services subject to control under the Commerce Act, the Secretary of Transport in the case of many domestic transport services subject to price control under the Transport Act 1962, and the Air Services Licensing Authority with respect to air transport charges determined in accordance with the Air Services Licensing Act 1951. The prices of some other goods and services such as motor spirits, automotive and diesel oil, and milk and cream prices are fixed by Order in Council.

Goods and services subject to the direct supervision of a statutory pricing authority or Order in Council are generally referred to as Category A goods and services, while other goods and services subject to price restraint under the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1974 are termed Category B goods and Services.

The Commerce Act 1975—Part IV of the Commerce Act replaces the provisions of the Control of Prices Act 1947. While many of the provisions of this Part closely follow provisions of the earlier Act there are a number of important differences. Besides providing for goods and services to be placed under price control, provision is also made for regulations to be made placing goods and services under price restraint. Decisions take the form of price orders or special approvals as previously. The Secretary of Trade and Industry is required on request to give his reasons for a decision to the applicant or to interested parties. The Commerce Commission, which replaces the former Price Tribunal, sits as a judicial authority for the determination of appeals from decisions of the Secretary of Trade and Industry.

Decisions of the Secretary of Trade and Industry are made following investigations by him, upon receipt of an application in accordance with procedures set out in the Act. Provision is also made for the Secretary to review prices on his own motion with the consent of the Minister of Trade and Industry. Before making a determination in respect of an application or following a review on his own motion, the Secretary is required to fulfil certain duties which accord applicants the benefit of the rules of natural justice which applied under the previous judicial jurisdiction.

Criteria considered by the Secretary of Trade and Industry or the Commerce Commission in dealing with pricing matters include the cost of production and distribution of the goods concerned; the ability of the applicant to absorb costs; profit margins and return on capital; stable internal prices; improvements in productivity and efficiency; market competition; and subsidies or import protection given.

The Ministry of Energy Act 1977, which came into force on 1 April 1978, transferred to the Secretary of Energy all the functions, powers and duties conferred on the Secretary of Trade and Industry under Part IV of the Commerce Act 1975 with respect to energy products included in the Positive List.

Price increases may be made on Category B items, but only to the extent provided in the Regulations. In general, this may be stated in respect of manufacturers and suppliers of services as the recovery of costs, plus the established percentage margin of profits. In the case of wholesalers and retailers prices are determined by applying the lawfully established margin of profit to into-store cost.

Unless approval has been obtained from the Secretary of Trade and Industry for a more frequent increase, there must be a minimum interval of 6 months between price increases by manufacturers and suppliers of services. All manufacturers and packers and suppliers of Category B goods and services must maintain a record of their price increase calculations. Any such manufacturer with an annual turnover of $1.6 million is required to send a copy of that record to the department.

*This subsection gives the position on the control and stabilisation of prices as it was early in 1979.

Manufacturers with a turnover of $5 million or more and suppliers of services with a turnover of $500,000 or more are required to give 28 days notice of their intention to increase prices. If the Secretary of Trade and Industry does not object to the increase within the 28 days the increase may be implemented. If an objection is made, the trader must await clearance from the Secretary of Trade and Industry before increasing prices.

The maximum profit ceiling provisions of the Regulations require all traders to ensure they do not exceed their maximum profit ceiling in any year. The maximum profit ceiling is the average percentage of profit to sales achieved during the last four years immediately preceding July 1974. If a trader does obtain any excess profit he is required to liquidate it either through reducing prices or charges or absorbing cost increases.

Provision exists in the Regulations for the Secretary of Trade and Industry to grant approval to traders to retain excess profits or to reassess a maximum profit ceiling. In considering such applications the Secretary has regard to the following:

  1. The need for a profit ceiling higher than the enterprise's maximum profit ceiling in order to sustain a programme of capital expansion approved by the Secretary, to effect improvements in productivity, or to provide for investment in the interests of national, regional, or export development.

  2. Demonstrable improvements in productivity that have been achieved in the business of the enterprise.

  3. Whether full compliance with the maximum profit ceiling is affecting or will affect prejudicially the financial stability and viability of the business of the enterprise.

  4. Significant changes in the activities or structure of the business of the enterprise which render its maximum profit ceiling unreasonable.

  5. Any other matters which the Secretary considers relevant, including the need to protect consumers and to maintain the stability of prices.

REVOCATION OF PRICE CONTROLS—The Stabilisation of Prices Regulations, which imposed a general system of price control on goods and services, was revoked from 6 April 1979. The effect was to free profit controls, the margins of importers, wholesalers, and retailers, and the prices charged for accommodation and meals by the tourist industry. Controls on prices charged by manufacturers of Category B goods and Group 1 or 2 services were phased out over a 6-month period.

Category A goods and services, which include building materials, chemicals, drugs, fertilisers, petroleum products, sugar, tobacco, hardware, vehicles, and some foodstuffs and services, remained under control, but the Government announced its intention to review the list.

Consequent on the phasing out of the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1974, a new system of price surveillance was introduced. Among other provisions of the Price Surveillance Regulations 1979 were the following:

  1. Manufacturers with an annual turnover of $7.5 million or more, suppliers of services with an annual turnover of $2 million or more, and professional bodies were required to notify the Secretary of Trade and Industry of price increases;

  2. Importers, wholesalers, and retailers whose annual turnover is $5 million or more must supply the Secretary of Trade and Industry with half-yearly returns;

  3. All traders must keep records of prices and increases;

  4. The Secretary of Trade and Industry can investigate prices and, where he considers a price excessive, he may report to the Minister of Trade and Industry who is empowered to make any goods or services subject to price control or to require the Commerce Commission to hold a public inquiry.

CONSUMER PROTECTION—The basic aims of the Consumer Information Act 1969 are the informative labelling and marking of goods, and the prevention of deceptive or misleading packaging, labelling and advertising. The Act has general application to goods, including services, but the majority of the sections exclude foods, drugs, and medical devices as these are dealt with by the Department of Health under the food and drug legislation. There are provisions dealing with misleading advertising, misleading packaging, and false representations as to prices, and all goods packaged in New Zealand must show the name and address of the packager on the label. Provision is made for other specific packaging and labelling requirements, including the declaration on the label of the quantitative contents of the package, to be stipulated from time to time by the publication of notices in the Gazette or by regulations made by Order in Council.

Other Acts concerned with protecting the interests of the consumer or with laying down standards include the Door to Door Sales Act, the Merchandise Marks Act, the Wool Labelling Act (all administered, like the Consumer Information Act, by the Department of Trade and Industry), the Sale of Goods Act, the Layby Sales Act, the Hire Purchase Act, the Motor Vehicle Dealers Act, and the Unsolicited Goods and Services Act (all administered by the Department of Justice), the Weights and Measures Act (administered by the Department of Labour), and the Food and Drug Act and Poisons Act, administered by the Department of Health.

Departments can give assistance under some of this legislation, but in other cases an aggrieved person must take action through the Courts. Following the passing of the Small Claims Tribunals Act 1976, small claims tribunals were set up as a pilot project in Christchurch, New Plymouth, and Rotorua in June 1977.

The Consumers Institute runs a consumer complaints service and citizens advice bureaus are also established in some main centres and will assist complainants. Some of these bureaus have legal assistance sections for those with legal problems who may not be able to afford to seek private legal advice.

CONSUMER COUNCIL—The Consumer Council's functions are to protect and promote the interests of consumers of goods and services and by so doing to encourage the improvement and development of industry and commerce. The Council was established in 1959 and reconstituted an independent body under the Consumer Council Act 1966. The Council consists of 12 members appointed solely on the basis of personal qualifications by a representative Appointments Committee. The Secretary of Trade and Industry, the Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Director-General of Health are also members.

The council has appointed District Consumer Committees in Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and sponsors the formation of local consumer associations. The Council lays down the policies to be followed by the staff of Consumers' Institute. The Institute's work includes comparative tests and surveys of consumer goods and services; research into and advice on legislative, financial, and welfare matters; representations to parliamentary committees and public inquiries; consumer education; complaints advisory service; assistance to Polynesians; and liaison with business, trade, and safety associations.

Citizens are encouraged to become members of Consumers' Institute at an annual subscription of $7. At the end of 1978, around 110 000 members received the monthly magazine Consumer. Members are entitled to purchase other Institute publications. Teaching Notes are made available to schools, and radio, television, and newspaper reports are made.

Membership subscriptions and sales of publications provide about 60 percent of the Institute's finance. The remainder comes from Government grants and selected non-commercial sources. While the Institute liaises and co-operates with others, it maintains complete independence and impartiality.

The Consumer Council is a council member of the International Organisation of Consumers Unions, and co-operates with and assists other consumer organisations throughout the world.

PRICE STATISTICS—Actual prices of many goods and services at various levels are collected periodically by the Department of Statistics. The fields covered are retail prices, wholesale prices, farm input prices, export prices, import prices, share prices, and wool prices. In the case of retail, wholesale, and farm input prices, direct inquiry is made; export and import prices (or strictly, unit values) are mainly derived from trade statistics, share prices from records of the stock exchanges, and wool prices from the New Zealand Wool Board. In addition, average prices of many materials and products of manufacture are available from the statistics of industrial production. Some retail prices are shown later in this Section, and a wider coverage is published in the annual Report, Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics (Part A: Prices), published by the Department of Statistics. The chief use made of the prices collected is in the compilation of price index numbers. These are, fundamentally, weighted averages of price ratios, the weighting being so arranged that the index numbers give a general indication of price movements in the field covered. The usual technique employs fixed weights with, however, provision for revision of the weighting pattern at suitable intervals.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—The Consumers Price Index (CPI) measures changes in the general level of the prices of the goods and services which households purchase; it thus provides the best available measure of the effect of changes in retail prices on the average household budget. Index series of retail prices have a long history in New Zealand, starting with a food and rent index for the 4 chief centres back to 1891, and increasing in comprehensiveness both as to commodity and geographical coverage over successive series since that time. The most recent revisions to the Consumers Price Index were made in 1949, 1955, 1965, 1974 (the 1974 revision was the subject of a special article in the 1975 Yearbook), and 1977.

The 1977 revision of the Index was a limited one. It was concerned with updating the expenditure pattern on which the Index is based, incorporating up-to-date population weights to be assigned to the market centres from which prices are collected, and in reviewing the items which are priced and the pricing outlets from which such prices are obtained. No changes were made to the concepts of, and definitions used in, the Consumers Price Index nor to the areas of expenditure, market centres, or households covered by the Index. The reference period or base period in the case of this revision is the year ended 31 March 1977, adjusted to reflect December quarter 1977 price levels. The main basis for establishing the expenditure pattern for the Index was the Household Expenditure Survey conducted throughout the year ended 31 March 1977.

The salient features of this index may be summarised as follows:

  1. The basic formula used is that of Laspeyres in its aggregative form.

  2. The index relates to the expenditures of all New Zealand residents living in private households.

  3. The number of items regularly priced is 565.

  4. The base expenditures are quantities for 12 months ended 31 March 1977 at prices for the quarter ended December 1977.

  5. The sources of group and commodity weights are the average expenditure per household from the Household Expenditure Survey of the year ended March 1977 supplemented by crosschecks from other statistical sources. Where considered appropriate, the base weight assigned to selected items represent expenditure on kindred items not selected for pricing

  6. Prices for most items are collected by field officers in 25 centres, including 3 combined areas. A few are obtained by mail.

  7. Rent movements are determined by means of a quarterly survey of a sample of rented houses and flats.

  8. Special techniques are employed for costs of owner-occupiers, for prices of seasonal fruits and vegetables, and for transport charges.

  9. Index numbers are compiled for all food and its sub-groups at monthly intervals, and for all other groups and sub-groups at quarterly intervals.

  10. Index numbers are published for 7 chief market centres and 10 larger market centres individually. Combined index numbers are also published for each of these two groupings and for all centres combined. Each centre and groupings of centres is shown on its own base and on a common, all-centres, base.

  11. To provide continuous series, the pre-revision all-groups index and food index series were converted to a base of December quarter 1977.

  12. Expenditures on the following items are, for various reasons, excluded: direct taxation; purchases of shares, bonds or debentures; payments to superannuation funds and the like; savings; collectors' items; gifts; gambling; court fines; legal expenses for traffic cases, criminal and civil cases, estates, family settlements, divorces, adoptions, etc; charitable and church donations; wages of domestic servants, home aids, home nurses, jobbing gardeners, etc.; catering and other service charges for private receptions; training, racing and stabling fees for race or trotting horses; purchase, boarding and breeding charges for animals; pet requisites (other than pet food); and grazing fees and fees for pony clubs.

The basic objective of the Consumers Price Index is to provide a multi-purpose indicator of retail price changes of those goods and services which are purchased by New Zealand residents living in New Zealand.

The weights in the Consumers Price Index are based on the pattern of expenditure of the population covered by the index rather than on what is consumed by them.

Data to revise and update the Consumers Price Index are obtained mainly from continuing household expenditure surveys. These are to be supplemented and tested by additional data on housing, national consumption, production, and expenditure.

The selection of goods and services to be priced—inevitably only a small percentage of goods and services can be priced—has been widened to include more fields of expenditure and more pricing outlets. This reflects more adequately both the expenditure patterns of New Zealand residents living in New Zealand and the movement in prices of consumer goods and services.

Consumers Price Index (1977 Revision)—The tables which follow relate to the Consumers Price Index (1977 Revision) only.

The first table supplies all-groups index numbers and index numbers of individual groups and subgroups for 25 centres combined. The group and sub-group weights are also shown as percentages of the base expenditure.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—(ALL GROUPS)—TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES COMBINED
Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres, December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Groups—
    Percentages of base expenditure19.1223.5317.047.9513.8418.52100.00
Calendar year—
    1976810861796793856821828
    1977948956934928956948947
    19781049104310531069107810821060
Quarter ended—
    1977–31 Dec1000100010001000100010001000
    1978–31 Mar1006101510151016103010411020
                30 Jun1036103310401065106010661047
                30 Sep1067105010651075109710941073
                31 Dec1089107410911119112511281101
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold Operation
Fruit and VegetablesMeat, Fish, and PoultryOther FoodsRentalsHome OwnershipFuel and LightHousehold FurnishingsHousehold Supplies and Services
Subgroups—
    Percentage of base expenditure2.955.1211.054.0219.502.779.334.94
Calendar year—
    1976831858784833866685819819
    1977942966942954956936948908
    197810331062104810461042103710641041
Quarter ended—
    1977–31 Dec10001000100010001000100010001000
    1978–31 Mar993984101910201014100110171018
                30 Jun10511011104410401032104510461027
                30 Sep10681092105510521049105110771052
                31 Dec10211163107210701075105211151069
PeriodApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
ClothingFootwearPublic TransportPrivate TransportTobacco and AlcoholOther SuppliesOther Services
Subgroups—
    Percentage of base expenditure6.441.521.2212.627.885.944.70100.00
Calendar year—
    1976796777846856824843791828
    1977929921957956950954937947
    197810691068112410741080109110741060
Quarter ended—
    1977–31 Dec10001000100010001000100010001000
    1978–31 Mar10161015105610271052103910261020
                30 Jun10671057109810561060107510631047
                30 Sep10761067115010921084110810921073
                31 Dec11161133119111191125114411141101

The average level of consumer prices rose by 11.9 percent in 1978, compared with a rise of 14.3 percent during the preceding year. Although price increases were recorded in all main groups of the index the major contributions to the overall result came from the private transport, home ownership, household furnishing, tobacco and alcohol, miscellaneous supplies, and meat, fish, and poultry subgroups.

The following diagram shows the movement in consumers price index numbers.

Figure 25.1. CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX NUMBERS

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX NUMBERS

The following tables distinguish individual centres and groupings of centres, but the subgroup indexes are omitted. Attention is called, however, to the two-fold method of presentation: in the second table current prices in each centre are compared with prices in the same centre during the base period; in the first, current prices in each centre are compared with average prices over all the 25 centres in the base period.

Where the base is the individual centre, the index numbers are specially designed to show price movements in each centre. Vertical comparisons can also be made but they will show the relative amount of price movements in respective centres, not relative current price levels. In the first method, where the base is average prices over the 25 centres, horizontal or vertical comparisons may be made to compare relative price levels. However, these index numbers do not indicate how much dearer or cheaper it is to live in one centre or another, but only how much higher or lower retail price levels are in one centre than another. The construction of the index assumes the same consumption habits in all centres, regardless of size, climate, etc.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—ANNUAL GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES
Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres combined, December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
Fourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar Year
197719771978197719771978197719771978197719771978
Auckland9769311032105310151081100193910469849131049
Hamilton101195710561006937102510049331036941871998
Napier-Hastings99993810449358909851012948106310129501098
Palmerston North1010954107496793710241025957109110339571109
Wellington-Hutt10109561054106110171091999928105610279521098
Christchurch100894810559749401021984923103610509781119
Dunedin1009966105391087210011038971108310319471129
Seven chief market centres9969451047101497210521004938105210069341076
Whangarei1000952105698193510279979261064877809914
Tauranga10019521063105810021093100994110519679011029
Rotorua10019491050967922101098391710729598931025
Gisborne1036968108590786598999693110649809081048
New Plymouth100895710549479099851017943106710059091087
Wanganui10119581058907861983960894102410259281062
Masterton1029964107393990398999993110939709081025
Nelson1008953104410239831065101494910619809141075
Timaru98393410259378741012981917104810519891142
Invercargill10159541058925866997963901103910579851116
Ten larger market centres10079531055964915102099192410569869141049
Twenty-five market centres combined*10009481049100095610431000934105310009281069
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Fourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar Year
197719771978197719771978197719771978
*Includes eight smaller market centres, viz. Tokoroa, Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, and Gore.
Auckland102098011111034983111210179681073
Hamilton976923104398993410799949311043
Napier-Hastings1027992110199193510879889361053
Palmerston North969928104197792410639919411061
Wellington-Hutt9879451056995944108310169631072
Christchurch100695810731020965109310019491058
Dunedin1000959109298292910669849331060
Seven chief market centres100496110831011958109310069551065
Whangarei1004965110698392510659819281048
Tauranga9759211044984931104710069501060
Rotorua974924104897992810599789251044
Gisborne1026990110097791910619819251054
New Plymouth993948104297592410529859311041
Wanganui9769351039101395510849739171037
Masterton979934104797592710779799271050
Nelson10019541071961915104210019501058
Timaru997948106895490510589749181047
Invercargill1008966111498692910729829241055
Ten larger market centres994949107197992510619849301050
Twenty-five market centres combined*100095610781000948108210009471060
CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—ANNUAL GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES
Base: Weighted average each centre and grouping, separately, December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
Fourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar Year
197719771978197719771978197719771978197719771978
Auckland10009531049100096310491000938105010009281061
Hamilton10009461048100093110451000929104810009251073
Napier-Hastings10009401050100095310441000937105010009391078
Palmerston North10009461065100097110611000933106010009271077
Wellington-Hutt10009471040100095910291000890104910009271076
Christchurch10009421051100096510411000938105710009311064
Dunedin10009571052100095710401000936105210009191074
Seven chief market centres10009481049100095910441000935105210009281068
Whangarei10009521058100095210351000929107110009231055
Tauranga10009501055100094710401000932104110009331064
Rotorua10009481048100195410461000932106610009311068
Gisborne10009351055100395510551000934104510009271054
New Plymouth10009501043100096110301000926104910009051086
Wanganui10009471045100094910391000931104910009061062
Masterton10009361052100096210341000932109110009371069
Nelson10009461045100096110541000936104910009331086
Timaru10009501043100093310421000936105410009401077
Invercargill10009391048100093610431000935106410009331071
Ten larger market centres10009461050100094910411000932105710009271068
Twenty-five market centres combined*10009481049100095610431000934105310009281069
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Fourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar YearFourth QuarterCalendar Year
197719771978197719771978197719771978
*Includes 8 smaller market centres, viz Tokoroa, Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, and Gore.
Auckland100096110961000951108010009521062
Hamilton100094610681000945108210009381059
Napier-Hastings100096610701000944108710009481061
Palmerston North100095710591000946108310009501067
Wellington-Hutt100095810711000950109010009481055
Christchurch100095210681000946108010009481059
Dunedin100095910871000945108010009491061
Seven chief market centres100095810801000948108310009481060
Whangarei100096110911000941107910009461063
Tauranga100094510721000947107410009441054
Rotorua100094910731000948108310009451062
Gisborne100096410671000940108110009451060
New Plymouth100095510571000948108410009451054
Wanganui100095810601000943107410009421053
Masterton100095410671000950108510009461064
Nelson100095310661000952108710009491068
Timaru100095010671000949109410009431060
Invercargill100095811011000941107510009411064
Ten larger market centres100095510741000946108110009451060
Twenty-five market centres combined*100095610781000948108210009471060

AVERAGE RETAIL PRICES—New Zealand retail prices (weighted average prices over 25 centres) at 15 November 1978 of a number of the commodities which enter into the Consumers Price Index are shown hereunder.

CommodityUnitPrice
  Cents
Apples, eatingkg82.41
Orangeskg82.68
Cabbagekg37.38
Carrotskg53.70
Onionskg45.05
Potatoeskg37.67
Peaches, canned425 g tin57.60
Peas, green frozen1 kg pkt107.07
Beef, blade steakkg263.12
Beef, corned silversidekg272.83
Beef, porterhouse steakkg378.59
Beef, prime rib, rolledkg236.73
Beef, rump steakkg340.28
Hogget, chops, middle loinkg247.63
Hogget, cut leg, knuckle endkg238.62
Hogget, forequarterkg158.95
Lamb, leg, wholekg252.86
Pork, cut leg, knuckle endkg302.46
Pork, loin chopskg312.02
Bacon, middle rasherskg466.02
Ham, cooked, pressed, slicedkg641.78
Mince, beefkg189.53
Sausages, beefkg142.34
Sole or flounder, wetkg236.48
Fish, fresh, filleted—e.g. tarakihikg348.07
Salmon, canned220 g110.60
Chicken, deep frozenMedium281.46
Eggs, min. 636g/dozenDozen105.24
Milk, delivered600 ml10.02
Butter500 g53.45
Cheese, tastykg236.08
Milk powder, full cream1 kg tin193.73
Bread, sliced, wrapped750 g37.80
Biscuits, chocolate wheaten225 g69.36
Cake, block, light fruit500 g129.65
Breakfast flake biscuits750 g75.65
Flour, white1.5 kg55.45
Oatmeal, packaged1.4 kg105.45
Rice, short grain500 g52.96
Honey500 g tin87.84
Jam, apricot400 g tin72.90
Coffee, instant100 g190.94
Coffee, ground, packaged200 g197.93
Tea250 g94.28
Margarine, table500 g87.40
Salt, iodised2 kg bag49.56
Soup, tomato450 g tin47.62
Spaghetti in tomato sauce450 g tin46.39
Sugar, white3 kg pkt145.49
Vegetable cooking oil500 ml102.75
Aerated waters740 ml bot35.32
Ice cream, vanilla2 litre99.31
Chocolate, block250 g131.80
Meals, coffee and 2 sandwichesEach74.57
Meals, grill, steak and eggsEach387.61
Takeaways, chicken, hotEach314.51
Takeaways, hamburger, hotEach63.06
  $
Timber, dressed, 150 mm × 25 mm finishing tanalised radiata pinePer 100 lineal metres97.57
Concrete blocks, 400 mm × 200 mm × 150 mm waterproofPer 10058.69
Paint, house, waterbased, high-gloss4 litre tin18.47
Wallpaper, N.Z. plain, sunproofPer roll6.41
Local body ratesAnn. Demand224.54
Coal, delivered255 kg20.23
Electricity with water heating5040 MJ per 2 months34.59
Gas1050 MJ per month7.83
Electric blanket, single, thermostat  
ControlEach30.49
Clothes drier, tumblerEach254.25
Home-freezer 0.31 cu mEach364.30
Electric radiator, 4 elementsEach82.24
Radio, transistorised, 8 transistors 6VEach63.95
Electric range, 4 elementEach467.01
Electric razor, triple header (in travel case)Each57.29
Refrigerator 0.32 cu m dual temperature, freezer-fridgeEach478.73
Modular stereo, turntable, 3 speed, single playEach612.45
Television set, black and white, 30 cm portableEach358.60
Television set, colour, 66 cmEach1,166.59
Vacuum cleanerEach123.50
Washing machine, spin dry, fully automaticEach525.98
Bedroom suite, 135 cm including dressing table, tallboyEach543.39
Motor mower, rotaryEach302.91
Tallboy, 4 drawer, rimuEach96.59
Dining room suiteEach303.04
Lounge suite, 3 pieceEach671.72
Mattress, (inner spring, with spring base and divan feet) 135 cmEach265.23
Blinds, Venetian, 175 cm wide, 130 cm dropEach81.32
Cot, wooden, painted, dropsideEach70.48
Piano, upright, iron frameEach2,071.78
Carpet, embossed, broadloomPer metre76.43
Carpet, 80/20 broadloomPer metre84.09
Blankets, all wool, singlePair48.11
Sheets, singlePair15.51
Towel, turkish, 61 cm x 122 cm.Each5.60
Casserole dish, 1.7 litre pyrexEach10.08
Clock, alarmEach20.57
Mixing bowl, stainless steel 20 cmEach4.94
Saucepan, 20 cm aluminiumEach18.72
Cup, saucer, plateSet8.20
Forks, table, stainless steel½ dozen3.98
Hammer, 568 gEach13.35
PlaneEach22.43
Spade, gardenEach18.05
Bulb, electric light, 100WEach0.75
Cat food, tinned425 g0.46
Detergent, liquid, plastic container900 ml0.95
Disinfectant560 ml0.78
Flyspray, aerosol310 g1.68
Soap powder1.10 kg0.92
Washing powder900g1.26
Postage, surface letters, 10 gEach0.10
Telegrams, 15 wordsEach1.10
Telephone rental, privatePer year120.00
Dry cleaning, men's 2 piece suitEach3.22
Television licence, black and whitePer year27.50
Man's cardigan, all wool, fully fashionedEach38.32
    HandkerchiefEach0.83
    Jeans, navyPair20.04
    Raincoat, fabricEach70.88
    Shirt, businessEach19.20
    Singlet, athleticEach3.38
    Socks, half-hose, wool/nylonPair3.27
    Suit, ready-made two-pieceEach154.01
    Swimming trunks, brinylonPair7.98
    Trousers, sports, terylene or woolPair40.78
Woman's brassiereEach7.29
    Cardigan, lightweightEach20.81
    Coat, winterweightEach100.40
    Frock, lightweightEach23.00
    Nightdress, nylonEach12.21
    Nightdress, dacron/cottonEach11.39
Woman's Panties, nylonPair1.71
    PantyhosePair1.66
    Slacks, lightweightPair19.42
    Skirt, winterweightEach31.66
    Blouse, winterweightEach22.50
    Swimsuit, nylonEach23.87
    Underslip, nylonEach9.07
    Vest, at least 50 percent woolEach6.06
Boy's shortsPair7.13
Girl's pantiesPair1.72
    Pyjamas, heavyweightPair7.11
    Socks, ankle, nylonPair1.88
Infant's nursery squares, 76 cm × 76 cmDozen15.07
Infant's vest, eyelet meshEach1.76
Fabric kettlecloth, plain, 115 cmPer metre3.49
Synthetic, dress, lightweight, 115 cmPer metre3.16
Woollen/cotton mixture, 90 cmPer metre6.19
Paper pattern, dressmakingEach1.42
Knitting wool 4 plyPer 25 g ball0.67
    double knitPer 50 g ball1.27
Men's boots, heavyweight, commando solePair36.12
    Sand shoesPair6.40
Shoes, lightweightPair38.79
Women's fashion shoes (summer)Pair31.94
    Fashion shoes (winter)Pair34.30
    SlippersPair9.41
Boy's shoes, schoolPair16.75
Girl's shoes, schoolPair16.72
Car. new, basic without extras, 1051–1350 ccEach6,710.00
Bicycle, 53 cm frameEach173.37
Petrol, 96 octanePer 10 litres3.16
Car repairs, overhaul of brakes,Per job77.95
    overhaul of gearbox, (new seals, bearings, and gaskets only)Per job154.33
Cigarettes, filter tippedPkt 200.66
Cigarette tobacco50 g pkt1.10
Beer, in a public bar200 ml glass0.21
Wine, N.Z. sherry, medium dryPer 750 ml 
 bot2.15
Aspirinpkt of 250.63
Make-up, foundation (tinted)32 g3.07
Lipstick, 12 mm, popular colourEach3.21
Baby talc110 g0.81
Razor blades, stainless steelpkt of 51.14
Toilet paperPer 4 rolls1.24
Toilet soap, bath size tabletEach0.24
Toothpaste, family sizePer tube0.61
Ring, diamond, engagementEach692.88
Watch, wrist, man'sEach103.34
Pad, writing, 23 cm × 18 cm 40 leaves ruledEach0.46
Long playing recordEach7.99
Construction set, child's toyEach15.39
Teddy bear, 33 cmEach14.39
Tricycle, child'sEach64.81
Bowls, outdoorSet of 487.97
Golf club, no. 5 ironEach30.25
Rifle, 243 calibreEach363.55
Tennis ballsPer pair2.15
Tennis racquet, juniorEach27.05
Newspaper, dailyEach0.13
Optician's fee, full examination and spectacles with caseEach47.27
Dental fillingsEach6.58
DenturesPer set224.49
Medical, general practitioner's fee (in excess of G.M.S. benefit)Per service3.29
Specialist consultation, (in excess of specialist benefit)Per service8.63
Private general hospital, medical wardPer day32.21
Cinema admission, adult, eveningEach1.76
Rugby admissionEach0.68
Golf club subscription, adult, male, netPer annum137.74
Rugby club subscriptionPer annum14.42
Tennis club subscriptionPer annum29.32
Motel tariff, 3 star, 2 personsPer night19.17
Funeral, burialEach619.57
Funeral, cremationEach549.41
Haircut, man'sEach1.89
Haircut, woman'sEach3.16
Hairset, woman'sEach4.82

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS—The table overleaf provides a comparison of retail prices between New Zealand and certain other countries. All the prices have been converted into New Zealand currency and the metric liquid and dry measures have been adopted as the basis for common units of quantity.

Comparisons in annual movement of Consumer Price Indexes of selected countries are given in the following table. (The base is December Quarter 1977 = 1000.)

YearNew ZealandAustraliaCanadaFrance (Paris)JapanUnited KingdomUnited States
1972514523631591534457676
1973556573679634598499718
1974618660753721742578798
1975708759834805831719870
1976828862896884911838920
1977947968968968987971979
19781060104510551057102910521055
INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL PRICES OF BASIC FOODSTUFFS (At December 1978 in New Zealand currency)
ItemUnitNew Zealand (Average 25 Centres)Australia (Sydney)*Great Britain (200 Areas)*Japan (Tokyo)United States (Average 56 Cities)

*September 1978.

†October 1978.

‡June 1978.

§Milk loaf sliced.

||Green tea, loose. 'Processed

¶cheese.

**Sirloin.

  centscentscentscentscents
Bread750 g35.265.0§49.7108.861.6
Flour1.5 kg56.162.266.0118.560.0
Tea500 g187.8176.8186.31067.5||..
Coffee (instant)100 g190.8197.1170.8346.7188.0
Sugar1 kg48.637.154.9116.553.1
Milk (fresh)600 ml10.028.424.584.022.8
Cheesekg239.1235.7294.0573.3409.2
Butter500 g53.6101.5127.5376.7153.4
Margarine500 g87.180.759.7218.969.1
Baconkg468.1501.9373.8 410.4
Beef—rib roastkg235.0249.9703.4**1555.0498.2
Lamb—legkg252.3280.4480.1....
Pork—legkg303.0369.9326.7780.0..
Pork chopskg313.4362.2....443.9

Sources: Australia: Australian Statistician. Great Britain: Department of Employment Gazette. Japan: Bureau of Statistics. U.S.A.: Bureau of Labour Statistics.

Prices shown for the United States of America do not include sales tax. A similar table of wholesale prices is shown later. Currency conversion basis: Australia, A$1 = NZ$1.0911; Great Britain, £1 = NZ$1.8549 September, $1.8560 November; Japan, 1 yen = NZ$0.0050; United States US$1 = NZ98.5999c June, NZ$1.0535 August; France, 1 Franc = NZ21.7052c September.

GENERAL PRICE INDEX—The General Price Index replaced and considerably extended the Wholesale Price Index, which was discontinued from December quarter 1977 after 57 years of publication. The new series measures price changes on a quarterly basis, commencing from December quarter 1977.

The new index is intended to provide a measure of price changes over all industrial sectors of the economy and makes possible the price deflation of the current value of each industry's output and input of goods and services, thus making it possible to calculate the industry's real net output and contribution to Gross Domestic Product in constant prices, or effectively in volume terms.

The General Price Index contains price indexes for outputs and inputs at both all-industry and group levels. At the all-industry level, the General Price Index reflects price movements as these affect the economy as a whole. The 24 industry groups for which separate index series are available correspond to industry production groups in the New Zealand System of National Accounts.

The list of goods and services being priced for the General Price Index was selected on the basis of input-output commodity flows contained in the Department's Inter-Industry Studies and updated by comparison with data collected for other statistical series including the Farm Costs Price Index and the Wholesale Price Index regimens, import and export lists, and other economic censuses recently undertaken. On selecting the goods and services to be priced, careful consideration was given to the coverage and representativeness of various commodity groups and, in particular, to their absolute importance to the producing industry and the whole economy.

The specifications for the commodities and services included in the index were obtained in collaboration with the suppliers of the price data concerned, thus ensuring the representativeness of priced commodities and adherence to specifications over time.

The weight assigned to an industry to obtain the all-industry group index is based on the New Zealand System of National Accounts Production Accounts for 1975–76. Commodity weightings within each industry index are based on data from the 1971–72 Inter-Industry Study. Adjustments were made for significant variations in relative commodity weightings occurring between the date of the study and the index expression base.

Industry outputs are priced at approximate basic values (i.e., before the addition of commodity taxes or deduction of subsidies) corresponding to factory door prices or as close to this level as is made possible by a firm's pricing policy, and exclude down-stream commodity taxes. In cases where price differentiation occurs between items that are both consumed locally and exported, separate pricing is usually obtained.

Prices for inputs are producer prices (i.e., factory door prices including commodity taxes) with separate indexes for transport and distribution charges. Wherever reliable unit values (i.e., c.i.f. value divided by quantity) are available from the Department's data on imports, these have been incorporated in the relevant input indexes. Altogether, some 5000 price quotations are obtained each calendar quarter.

It is not intended to produce separate sub-indexes for the imported components of each industry's inputs.

It is conceptually impossible to calculate an output price index for the non-market-oriented groups of Central Government Services, Local Government Services, and Private Non-profit Services to Households. Their activities differ substantially in character from market-oriented industries in that their output is produced for free distribution or at prices which bear no relationship to the cost of production. The only means of obtaining price movements of their output is to calculate implicit price deflators by dividing the value of their output by an independently-calculated volume index of output. Such volume indexes, however, will not be available for some time to come.

The following table shows price indexes of inputs (i.e., current purchases of commodities and services) and of outputs by industry groups. As already stated, input prices are producers' prices and include commodity taxes paid by, and subsidies received by, the producer.

GENERAL PRICE INDEX
Base: December Quarter 1977 (=1000)
Industry GroupQuarter Ended
31 Dec 197731 Mar 197830 Jun 1978
 InputsOutputsInputsOutputsInputsOutputs
Agriculture100010001033102510781055
Fishing and hunting1000100010229851032994
Forestry and logging100010001014103110281110
Mining and quarrying100010001042101510581021
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco100010001023101510541045
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries100010001025102310471044
Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture100010001040104410511073
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing100010001032103310601048
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products100010001013102210201031
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal100010001043103710721065
Basic metal industries100010001016102210431063
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment100010001018102410641056
Other manufacturing industries100010001023103110741038
Electricity, gas, and water100010001017100110591028
Construction100010001040..1072..
Trade, restaurants and hotels100010001029104510431064
Transport and storage100010001019105010381073
Communications100010001045100010551000
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services100010001034..1038..
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings100010001030101710691034
Community, social, and personal services100010001021101710491034
Central Government services100010001027..1028..
Local Government services100010001045..1062..
Private non-profit services to households100010001027..1039..
    All industry100010001028..1045..
GENERAL PRICE INDEX
Base: December Quarter 1977 (=1000)
Industry GroupQuarter Ended
30 Sep 197831 Dec 1978
 InputsOutputsInputsOutputs
Agriculture1128114311801227
Fishing and bunting106210221118993
Forestry and logging1057111611021140
Mining and quarrying1098106611171085
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco1113111911711150
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries1078106710931080
Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture1088110011391148
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing1090107511211099
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products998106010091061
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1120112111251136
Basic metal industries1076110310921137
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment1089110111211138
Other manufacturing industries1098109411401111
Electricity, gas, and water1067105810841059
Construction1099..1135..
Trade, restaurants and hotels1069109111101113
Transport and storage1053110610831156
Communications1097100011151000
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services1064..1134..
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings1111104011521050
Community, social, and personal services1069106910891095
Central Government services1077..1113..
Local Government services1083..1097..
Private non-profit services to households1075..1106..
                All industry1084..1121..
COMPARISON OF WHOLESALE PRICES OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES (At November 1978 in New Zealand currency) For currency conversion basis see earlier page in this section.
ItemUnitNew Zealand*FranceGreat BritainUnited States§

*Fourth quarter.

†September 1978.

‡November 1978.

§August 1978.

  $$$$
WheatTonne120.000213.926167.820123.096
OatsTonne145.000..137.84592.177
FlourTonne215.420348.360..184.365
Sugar50 kg22.857....23.806
Butter500g0.4721.9641.2161.400
CheeseKg1.3502.5892.1563.068
Motor spiritLitre0.1090.5160.290..

FARMING COSTS PRICE INDEXES—Three farming costs price indexes are calculated. These cover sheep farming, dairy farming, and all fanning. There is also a farming capital expenditure price index. These indexes are designed to measure price movements only as they would affect a fixed quantity and pattern of materials and services used by the farmers in each category.

It is emphasised that these indexes are not cost of production indexes, i.e. they do not purport to measure the actual total costs of running a farm, but only measure the movements in prices paid for commodities and services used by farmers.

Full descriptions of these indexes were published in supplements to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics; the sheep farming index in the September 1973 issue; the dairy farming index in the October 1973 issue; and the all farming index in the March 1974 issue. All these indexes are published regularly in the Monthly Abstract.

The index values for the all-farming index for the latest available 4 years are set out below. The base is the year ended June 1971 (= 1000).

ItemPercentage of Base ExpenditureYear Ended June
19711975197619771978

*Excludes depreciation 9.63 percent.

†Provisional.

Wages and rations13.7110001623184020802318
Sharemilkers5.4310001407144816111763
Animal health and breeding expenses3.2110001376152717782013
Electricity1.3210001076130920742661
Feed8.5710001580166619192172
Freight2.8810001515170319172192
Fertiliser and lime11.1910001339132018091972
Seeds1.3210001353138718452179
Shearing expenses3.6310001531171419622340
Weed and pest control1.2810001663194321862352
Other farm working expenses2.8110001509183722192512
Repairs and maintenance8.7310001484177920762426
Vehicle expenses7.5710001530179420872423
Administrative expenses2.8710001424165618682211
Insurance1.0710001070107710951095
Rates3.0810001544180622352580
Interest10.0110001144120612571319
Rent1.6910001059113712431362
All Groups90.37*10001439159318652105

The table following shows a capital expenditure price index for farming. Some expenditure on topdressing comes into both indexes. Capital expenditure on land development includes topdressing and it is also included as a normal part of farm maintenance in the all-fanning cost price index.

ItemPercentages of Base ExpenditureYear Ended June
19711975197619771978*
*Provisional.
Farm buildings17.5210001567183121442529
Transport vehicles19.7610001507197923602588
Tractors and farm machinery24.6910001452194825362926
Land development38.0310001504163519572234
            Total100.0010001503181522122526

PRICE AND VOLUME INDEXES OF EXTERNAL TRADE—The aims of these index series are to analyse the changes in the values of imports and exports from period to period (annually and moving 3-monthly) in order to isolate the relative price, or more correctly “unit value”, and volume components.

All these index series are of the Fisher Ideal type, which involves the calculation of two indexes (for both price and volume) for each current period on the previous year as base, one index using the weighting pattern of the base year and the other using the weighting pattern of the current period. The averaging method known as the “geometric mean” applied to these two indexes produces the index for the current period on the previous year's base which is then linked on to the index for the earlier year to provide a continuous series. The 3-monthly moving indexes (as published in the Monthly Abstract) are provisional until the calculation of the annual definitive index for the year in which they fall. The indexes for calendar quarters are then aligned to the annual indexes. Revision is also necessary on occasion as a result of corrections made by the Customs Department to provisional external trade data on which the indexes are based. The annual indexes for years ended 31 December and 31 March are calculated from the figures for component quarters.

The indexes use the whole range of data available on external trade and involve imputing trends in prices and quantities of some items to other items where it is impracticable to obtain meaningful quantity and price series. The items for which quantity data are not available and those unsuitable for pricing have imputed to them the average price and volume movements of the remainder of the division in which they are classified, or, in some cases the price and volume movement at the next higher level of index aggregation. This means that the weighting system takes account of the value of unpriced items even though these items cannot be used as explicit price or volume indicators. The imputation of movements to the unpriced items is done primarily at the S.I.T.C. (Revised) division level. However, in some cases the values of a whole division are adjusted by imputing to them the price and volume movements obtained by amalgamating the movements of several divisions.

The methodology of the indexes makes the import and export indexes consistent in approach and content with each other, and the adopted internal classifications of commodity groupings of exports facilitates the construction of export index series for industry groupings. The classification is also consistent with the United Nations recommended classification groupings for both exports and imports.

The year ended 30 June 1971 is the standard expression base for price and volume indexes for exports and imports and the tables in which they are published have been standardised in content and constituent components in line with the standardisation of the index methodology.

Although the price and volume indexes are produced as complementary series, only the price indicators are published here. The volume indexes are presented in the section on External Trade.

Export Indexes—The export items explicitly dealt with in the index represent, approximately, 95 percent of the total value of exports. The proportion of manufactured exports so treated is higher than this overall average. To qualify for inclusion as an explicit indicator of price or volume movement in the index a commodity must have an aggregate value of at least $20,000 in the base year and a minimum of $16,000 in the current 3-monthly period. This represents some 525 different items as well as subdivisions of these items. The 5 percent by value of exports that do not have a statistical unit are included in the index by imputation.

The annual indexes on the previous year as base are chain-linked to give longer-term valid comparisons. Provision is made for alignment of individual quarters in both price and volume series once annual indexes are constructed. Because of the varying quantities of particular commodities sold each quarter, the mean price or unit-value, and consequently the index number of any year, is not necessarily equal to the arithmetic mean of the quarterly figures.

Re-exports are not included in the export indexes. The items covered are defined as goods and materials grown or produced in New Zealand, and articles manufactured in New Zealand from imported materials (but not including imported goods which are exported in an essentially unchanged condition).

The following table gives export prices index numbers for years ended 30 June.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year ended June 1971 (= 1000)
Year Ended 30 JuneButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsAll Groups
*Provisional.
197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
197411461708150814972613182217291503117621331653
197512771448173011471808138314711378139017261512
197616881843200313702533173717981625173622181857
1977x20212024212316603837235222871862206131832301
1978*22482026234217993555241523932038214831502415

The next table shows export prices index numbers for all pastoral and dairy produce groups and for all groups combined on a long time series. Separate series are prepared for calendar years and years ended June, the latter relating more closely to the farming year.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
YearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll Groups
*Provisional.
Calendar Year
1928374367
1929358353
1930278277
1931210213
1932191194
1933189194
1934236239
1935228233
1936264266
1937311311
1938286288
1939279282
1940324325
1941331334
1942341342
1943356357
1944374376
1945405406
1946443444
1947561557
1948624619
1949605599
1950860846
19511009992
1952806798
1953900888
1954915905
1955939929
1956917906
1957906893
1958767761
1959879868
1960851843
1961802797
1962818813
1963903890
1964987970
1965950937
1966942927
1967854846
1968914911
1969972966
1970974971
197110711052
197212941266
197317151623
197416271596
197515071582
19762040x2085x
1977*2380x2392x
June Year
1928369362
1929373367
1930308305
1931227229
1932202204
1933183188
1934235237
1935217221
1936254257
1937303304
1938296297
1939281282
1940317320
1941327330
1942342342
1943351352
1944366368
1945398399
1946416417
1947517513
1948623618
1949599594
1950694685
195110841062
1952809803
1953871859
1954921909
1955912903
1956934922
1957934923
1958781773
1959814805
1960900889
1961813807
1962797791
1963859850
1964976960
1965957944
1966952938
1967897887
1968867862
1969957953
1970974973
197110001000
197211721160
197315551477
197417291653
197514711512
197617981857
19772287x2301x
1978*23932415

IMPORT INDEXES—The import prices index has, since 1959, reflected changes in the c.i.f. valuation of imports. Price changes at item level are measured at the current domestic valuation in the country of origin and are adjusted by the c.d.v.: c.i.f. valuation ratio at division level.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
Year Ended JunePetroleum and ProductsTextile Yam, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery other than ElectricElectric Machinery and ApparatusTransport EquipmentFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsFuelsAll Groups
*Provisional
197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
197418341245120210811054112713001175117418401230
197532391442171513571252135915181496171932481627
197643371742212017721790197119841967219743492143
197752822007233421551897203822892215250053012445
1978*53402075227624271897183826032268242053592589

The following table shows a longer time series of all groups import prices index numbers on the same expression base for years ended March, June, and December.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
YearYear Ended
31 March30 June31 Dec (Calendar Year)
*Provisional.
1953732716698
1954698694689
1955690692703
1956706715721
1957729735745
1958746743742
1959740734724
1960725732734
1961734732738
1962735733721
1963716718721
1964724727732
1965734730732
1966733734734
1967734733745
1968776808878
1969887898912
1970920935967
197198310001027
1972103310441068
1973108410951125
1974115412301428
1975154216271881
1976200021432318
1977239824452560x*
19782556*2589.. 

TERMS OF TRADE—The terms of trade is the expression of the ratio of export prices to import prices, i.e., an index of the purchasing power (in units of imports) of a fixed quantity of exports. In the table that follows terms of trade are expressed on base 1957 (= 100). However, an index above or below 100 means only that terms of trade are more or less favourable than in 1957. The choice of base year was arbitrarily made and is not intended to indicate that 1957 was a normal or standard year. For the purposes of this table both import prices and export prices indexes have necessarily been converted to a 1957 base.

The table below shows index numbers of import prices, export prices, and terms of trade.

IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE—ALL COUNTRIES
Base: Calendar Year 1957 (= 100)
Year Ended JuneImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of Trade

*Provisional.

†Calendar year (base).

1957100100100
19679890101
19681089789
196912110788
197012610987
197113411283
197214013093
1973147165113
1974165185112
197521816978
197628820872
1977x32825879
197834727078
1979*37331685
PeriodImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of Trade
Quarter—
1975–30 Sep25117770
          31 Dec28919969
1976–31 Mar29721773
          30 Jun31123074
          30 Sep316237x75x
          31 Dec320249x78x
1977–31 Mar340273x80x
          30 Jun337268x79x
          30 Sep346264x76x
          31 Decx35226676
1978–31 Mar*34527078
          30 Jun*35528079
          30 Sep*36328679
          31 Dec*37130683
1979–31 Mar*36831987

SHARE PRICES INDEX—This index is designed to reflect changes in the aggregate value of holdings of parcels of ordinary shares in representative selections of companies listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges and trading in New Zealand. In selecting the companies, the frequency with which shares are traded was used as a criterion as well as the value of the New Zealand shareholding. The weights of the different companies are determined by the New Zealand shareholding, and appropriate methods take account of capital changes in the companies concerned.

The weights used are fixed and are based on the aggregate value in 1960 of the total New Zealand shareholdings in all the exchange-listed companies which qualified for representation in the index.

SHARE PRICES AND DIVIDEND YIELDS—ALL GROUPS INDEX NUMBERS
Base: 1960 (= 1000)
Calendar YearShare PricesDividend Yields
197414401663
197513281876
197614431736
197713152034
197814282037

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY—The Household Survey arose from the acceptance of the Consumers Price Index Revision Advisory Committee's recommendation in 1971 that an essential feature of the revision of the Consumers Price Index should be the establishment of average expenditures of private households and that this information should be a major source for determining the relative importance (or weights, in the statistical sense) of the many items of goods and services to be included in the new index. The first year of collection of the Household Survey designed to provide this basic information ran from 1 July 1973 to 30 June 1974. In 1975–76 the collection year was changed from July-June to April-March.

The tables below refer to the year ended 31 March 1978, unless otherwise stated.

Sample surveys are an internationally accepted activity when the collection of information from the total population is either administratively impracticable or would be prohibitive in cost. To meet the needs of the Consumers Price Index revision, the Household Survey was designed to produce data on a national basis, representative of the average New Zealand private household.

A fuller description of the Survey, together with the concepts, definitions, and collection methods involved, was given in a special article in the 1975 Yearbook, and a full description in a separate report, New Zealand Household Survey, is available from the Government Printer.

The number of responding households in the 1977–78 survey was 3183, containing a total of 10 091 persons, an average of 3.2 persons per household. Persons aged 15 or over and earning $20 or more per week totalled 5585, an average of 1.8 earners per household. The following table shows households by income of household.

Weekly Income of Responding HouseholdsNumber of Responding Households
$ 
Under 3847
38–76332
77–114328
115–153435
154–172202
173–191220
192–239549
240–287391
288–384407
385 and over272
            Total3 183

The system used was similar to that in use in many similar surveys overseas. This involved collecting data on the more frequently purchased items by asking respondents to keep a daily record of their spending for a short period (in the New Zealand survey a fortnight of diary-keeping was sought) and at an interview conducted in the household asking respondents to recall their expenditure on major items in the preceding 12 months. The recall action usually concerned expenses of $100 or more, and therefore related to the acquisition of such things as housing units, major household appliances, motor vehicles, etc. Again for practical reasons, the diary-keeping requirement was restricted to those household members aged 15 years and over, expenditures by younger members being recorded in the diaries of adult members.

For the purpose of the Consumers Price Index revision private household expenditure was processed in considerable detail, as is shown in the full report of the Household Survey available from the Government Printer. However, for summary purposes, average expenditure was treated under eight main headings.

In early 1977 a decision was made to discontinue the collection of property and vehicle sales as from 1 April because of insufficient sample size in non-CPI revision years. When the results of the 1977–78 year were received, it was apparent that the non-inclusion of the property and vehicle sales had had a marked distorting effect on the housing and transportation groups expenditure. Similarly the total expenditure and the relative expenditure figures for all groups were affected. It was therefore decided to withhold publication of data relating to the housing and transportation groups for 1977–78, and also for 1978–79, which will be similarly affected.

The collection of property and vehicle sales has been reintroduced from 1 April 1979 and these data will now be collected each year irrespective of sample size.

Expenditure group coverage—

Food—Purchases, including meals away from home where separately recorded by respondents.

Housing—Excluded in 1977–78 survey. See explanation above.

Household Operation—Fuel, light, and power; household equipment and appliances; furniture; domestic supplies and services.

Apparel—Clothing and footwear.

Transportation—Excluded in 1977–78 survey. See explanation above.

Tobacco and Alcohol—Purchases.

Other Supplies—Medical, health, and personal goods; recreational, educational, and cultural goods.

Other Services—Medical and health services; entertainment charges; education fees; accommodation charges; personal services; licence fees; life insurance premiums.

In each group the expenditures comprised the total cost of particular goods or services, including credit costs, hire and repair charges.

All expenditures were expressed as average weekly expenditure per household in the particular category. Households were categorised according to their total income, number of occupants, the family types of the members (census definition), and the age of the head of the household.

In all cases information as reported by households was given without adjustment, although overseas experience has shown that expenditure on tobacco and alcohol, meals away from home, and food items such as ice cream and confectionery tend to be understated in household surveys There is reason to believe that this Household Survey collection contained similar features.

Income, as defined in the Household Survey, related to current gross income from all sources (including Social Welfare and other benefits) for each income recipient in the household, the one exception to this being interest from deposits in savings banks (unless such interest was $200 or more a year).

No endeavour was made to obtain precise income details from respondents, the method of collection used being on similar lines to that used in the Census of Population, where respondents have a broad-banded range of income categories and mark the category pertaining to themselves.

For statistical purposes, the mid-point in this range was selected to represent the income of the individual responding. The total weekly income of the household was obtained by summing the values attributed to each income earner in the household. In some cases average expenditure appeared to exceed average weekly income. This was caused by the purchase of major items, mainly houses, within the period covered.

As a result of the decision to withhold the housing and transportation figures, the data available for publication have been considerably reduced.

The following selection of tables from the 1977–78 survey shows average weekly expenditure on the remaining six expenditure groups by selected households characteristics.

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY 1977–78 AVERAGE WEEKLY HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE BY TOTAL WEEKLY INCOME OF HOUSEHOLDS
Expenditure GroupAll HouseholdsTotal Weekly Income of Households
Under $38$38-$76$77-$114$115-$153$154-$172$173-$191$192-$239$240-$287$288-$384$385 and Over
Average Weekly Expenditure ($)
Food29.0910.7514.2919.7225.4227.7929.5030.4334.2736.9646.14
Household operation27.629.7416.1218.2521.8824.0424.5729.6533.6236.6844.07
Apparel13.743.265.498.299.6412.5513.4413.7217.2518.8427.25
Tobacco and alcohol7.720.982.153.996.206.537.388.678.6411.2115.26
Other goods11.102.194.166.487.9610.4311.1211.6612.9115.9621.21
Other services15.952.854.487.1711.0013.5813.9017.4120.1822.7334.92
Total households3 18347332328435202220549391407272
AVERAGE WEEKLY HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE BY AGE GROUP OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD
Expenditure GroupAll HouseholdsAge Group of Head of Household (Years)
Under 2020–2425–2930–3940–4950–5960–6465 and Over
Average Weekly Expenditure ($)
Food29.0923.4825.9326.7532.9939.8030.5223.0217.29
Household operation27.6217.1923.9529.3629.2233.5229.7725.2418.89
Apparel13.7417.2212.4312.4414.9019.11155511.297.19
Tobacco and alcohol7.7213.9611.468.608.109.718.306.092.81
Other goods11.1011.3211.4212.4012.3915.2711.397.895.11
Other services27.0512.5314.3115.3118.2223.3118.3710.736.48
Total households3 18324215386709545533252519
HOUSEHOLD SURVEY 1977–78 AVERAGE WEEKLY HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE BY SELECTED FAMILY TYPES
Expenditure GroupCoupleCouple With 1 ChildCouple With 2 ChildrenCouple With 3 ChildrenCouple With 4 or More ChildrenOne Adult* With ChildrenExtended FamiliesNon-Family Household

*Single, separated, divorced, widowed man or woman with children.

†The category “1 Adult With Children With Spouse Temporarily Absent” has been omitted as the figures relate to only 2 of the 3183 households surveyed and cannot be regarded as representative.

 Average Weekly Expenditure ($)
Food22.7930.5635.0241.3640.7425.2743.0717.12
Household operation27.5430.7029.6534.9531.7822.2134.5318.56
Apparel10.1714.4816.4820.3917.9312.1821.278.26
Tobacco and alcohol6.467.998.519.376.525.2615.056.11
Other goods7.7412.1414.0015.7512.599.4717.577.09
Other services12.8718.2319.9023.6921.1410.2821.348.81
Total households699362616357142176184645

Chapter 26. Section 24; CONSUMPTION OF FOOD

Table of Contents

FOOD AVAILABLE FOR CONSUMPTION—Each year the Department of Statistics prepares statistics of the amount of food available for consumption in New Zealand, from data supplied by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and from other sources. These statistics are estimates of the total amounts of basic foodstuffs available in New Zealand for human consumption during the calendar year, making allowances for estimated quantities which are produced by households for their own consumption, including the households of commercial producers. The estimates are not of the amounts actually consumed, nor of the actual average intake of nourishment. Nor can these figures be reconciled with the figures for the average per household expenditure on food for the year recorded by the Household Survey, as the latter figures are of the expenditure on food in the form it is actually bought, often in a much more highly processed form.

Dairy Products—New Zealanders are the world's largest consumers of butter per head, but are fairly moderate consumers of cheese. The annual amounts available of the main items of dairy produce, eggs, and ice cream, estimated per head of mean population, are shown in the following table.

Food CommodityUnit1938197419751976x1977

*Includes condensed milk, evaporated milk and cream, milk powders, and sugar of milk.

†Provisional.

‡Includes the whole-milk equivalent of cream consumed as such.

Fresh milk and cream (whole milk equivalent)litre129181183172167
Processed milk*kg27577
Cheesekg25558
Ice creamlitre218171617
Butterkg1915151414
EggsNo.240320273301270

Meat, Poultry, and Fish—Gradual changes are taking place in consumption patterns for meat, poultry, and fish, of which the most notable is the increase in the consumption of poultry. New Zealanders remain among the world's largest consumers of meat, judging from the amount available per head.

Estimates of the amounts of meat available per head are expressed on a bone-in dressed carcass basis.

Allowances have been made for non-commercial catches of fish, and for home production of poultry. Catches of fish in the Exclusive Economic Zone which are not landed in New Zealand are not taken into account as they do not contribute to the amount of fish available for consumption in New Zealand.

Food CommodityUnit19381974197519761977*

*Provisional.

†Years ended 30 September for 1938 to 1974 figures. Later figures refer to December years.

Beefkg5257485457
Vealkg44443
Mutton and lambkg3138373330
Pigmeatskg1211121113
Edible offalkg45665
Poultrykg21091010
Fish—
    Fresh, frozen, smokedkg5322x1
    Shellfishkg11111
    Cannedkg12111

Vegetables and Fruits—The estimates in the following table are based on commercial production plus allowances for production in home gardens and orchards. The estimates include, at fresh weights, the fruits and vegetables grown in New Zealand and either quick-frozen or canned for local consumption.

There are considerable variations from year to year for many of the commodities and these are often a reflection of a poor growing season or a bountiful one, fluctuations in the supply of imported fruit, or a change in consumption pattern.

Availability per head of mean population for individual items is estimated as follows.

Food CommodityUnit1938197419751976x1977§

*Includes asparagus, beans, brussel sprouts, cucumber, leeks, parsnips, pumpkin, spinach, swedes, sweetcorn, etc.

†Includes grapefruit, lemons, mandarins, tangelos, etc.

‡Includes nectarines, plums, grapes, pineapples, tamarilloes, kiwi fruit, passionfruit, etc.

§Provisional.

Fresh vegetables
    Potatoeskg5454525657
    Kumaraskg43222
    Cabbageskg147875
    Carrotskg51015108
    Cauliflowerkg..4654
    Lettucekg..5553
    Onionskg..914119
    Tomatoeskg99111110
    Other vegetables*kg..41067
    Canned and other processed vegetableskg116211319
Quick-frozen and dried vegetableskg..15161214
Fresh fruit
    Orangeskg76766
    Other citrus fruitkg35554
    Bananaskg914121012
    Appleskg2030272727
    Pears and quinceskg34543
    Berryfruitskg..2212
    Apricotskg..3212
    Peacheskg..10777
Other fruitkg..111089
Dried fruitkg..3333

Other Foodstuffs—Most of the foodstuffs in the following table show relatively slight fluctuations in the amounts available per head in different years. It is obvious, however, that the consumption per head of wheat has fallen substantially since before the Second World War.

Food CommodityUnit1938197419751976x1977§

*Includes treacle and golden syrup.

†Includes dried peas, beans, and lentils.

‡Includes barley, and corn used for cornflour and maize used for corn flakes only.

§Provisional.

Sugar, syrups, and honeykg4446433937
Pulseskg11111
Nutskg 3222
Cocoakg12111
Cereals—
    Wheatkg8172746972
    Oatskg42211
    Ricekg22122
    Otherkg..111
Lard, tallow, animal fatskg..3422
Vegetable oils and other fats*kg..4455

Non-alcoholic Beverages and Tobacco

 Unit1938195119611971197519761977
Teakg3333223
Coffeekg  12222
Tobaccokg2222332

Alcoholic Beverages—The following table shows the estimated consumption of alcoholic beverages. From 1960 onwards, figures for spirits are expressed in proof litres, a fact to be borne in mind when making comparisons with earlier figures.

Year Ended 31 DecemberTotal ConsumptionConsumption per Head of Mean Population
BeerWineSpiritsBeerWineSpirits

*Years ended June.

†From 1970 onwards, all figures for spirits are expressed in proof litres.

  litres (million)  Litres 
194083.31.52.050.90.91.2
1970329.215.95.4116.85.61.9
1975389.8x26.3*9.6126.3x8.6*3.1
1976373.4x30.1*10.9119.8x9.7*3.5
1977383.3x29.4x*10.9122.5x9.4x*3.5
1978398.736.1*10.9127.411.5*3.5

PROPORTION OF FOODSTUFFS EXPORTED—New Zealand is a major exporter of dairy produce and meat, and has a growing export trade in fruit and vegetables. The following table shows for these commodities the percentage of the New Zealand production that is exported.

Product1968197419751976x1977*
*Provisional.
Percentages exported
Dairy products
    Processed milk7375516583
    Cheese8494798763
    Butter8084737775
Meat, poultry, fish
    Beef6165707167
    Veal5857656166
    Pig meat32x214
    Mutton6156545760
    Lamb92898890
    Offal7673637172
    Other meat231295x9595
    Poultry......11
    Fresh, smoked, or frozen fish2546597183
    Shellfish5256434146
Fruit and vegetables
    Apples4035444637
    Pears1714101111
    Berryfruits521212921
    Potatoes24579
    Onions3533173756
    Canned vegetables94354
    Quick-frozen vegetables302192427
Other foodstuffs
    Barley22513
    Honey46272716
    Pulses5583596363
    Eggs258511
    Tallow and animal fats7769788586

FOOD AVAILABLE PER DAY—The following table shows by commodity group the food available for consumption in New Zealand per day, per head of mean population.

Food CommodityGrams Per DayCalories Per DayProtein Per Day (Grams)Fat Per Day (Grams)
1976x1977*1976x1977*1976x1977*1976x1977*
*Provisional.
Cereals200207727755212322
Potatoes and other starchy foods15716111211533
Sugar, syrups, and honey*105102399386
Pulses and nuts141356572222
Vegetables226242566424
Fruits198204110112
Meat (incl. poultry)32032466668139425456
Eggs474067585454
Fish128151221
Milk and cheese54354052654425282829
Oils and fats (incl. butter)58574484413636
                Total1 8801 8983 1823 22599107127129

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS—The table which follows, which is taken from the FAO report, The State of Food and Agriculture 1975, shows for selected groups of developed and developing countries the annual rates of growth of population and food production (exponential trend, 1961–74), and the dietary energy supplies per head (average, 1969–71). In terms of food availability, New Zealand is one of the most-favoured nations.

CountryAnnual Rates of GrowthPer Head Daily
PopulationFood Production*Domestic Demand For FoodDietary Energy SupplyProtein Supply
KilocaloriesRequirement

*Food component of crop and livestock production only (i.e., excluding fish production).

†Supply as a percentage of physiological requirements plus 10 percent for waste at household level.

‡Total food, including fish.

Developed Countries percent  percentgrams
    Australia1.83.32.43 280123108
    Canada1.61.62.53 180129101
    Denmark0.70.01.33 24012093
    France1.02.32.03 210127105
    Germany (West)0.81.91.93 22012189
    Japan1.02.13.72 51010779
    Netherlands1.23.41.73 32012387
    New Zealand1.72.22.03 200121109
    Sweden0.61.01.02 81010486
    U.S.S.R.1.13.13.03 280131101
    United Kingdom0.52.30.73 19012692
    United States1.12.31.63 330126106
Developing Countries
    Afghanistan2.41.52.21 9708158
    Bangladesh3.51.8..1 8408040
    Ethiopia2.11.73.02 1609372
    Ghana3.13.43.22 32010149
    India2.22.23.02 0709452
    Indonesia2.83.22.61 7908338
    Nigeria2.60.63.12 2709663
    Pakistan3.14.64.22 1609356
    Rwanda2.93.61.91 9608458
    Somalia2.33.31.51 8307956

SUBSIDIES—Government subsidies on food items and on services have been sharply reduced in recent years. The following table shows the total cost of subsidies paid under the Stabilisation vote. Other subsidies, involving farm incentives, etc., are included in other Government expenditure.

Subsidy ItemsYear Ended 31 March
19751976197719781979
 $(thousand)
Bread5,2645,60372
Eggs1,7921,696227
Meat1,189
Milk50,36250,31136,21541,53556,688
Subsidy on transport of LPG........52
Wool1,953
Coal gas1,4602,0562,7761,9992,196
Subsidy on shipping services2,8592,9203,038534
Industrial coal (rail transport)493458111
Subsidy to meet losses on—
    Post Office operations21,00038,000
    Railways operations46,10068,50016,00058,50061,000
    Electric supply18,53913,070
                Total148,152182,55358,321105,072120,470

Higher postal charges, rail fares, and electricity charges from early 1976 resulted in sharp cuts in the level of subsidies designed to meet losses in these areas. Milk and bread prices were increased at the same time, and at the end of March 1976 the subsidy on bread and flour was abolished. The egg subsidy was abolished at the end of April 1976. The average subsidy on milk for the year ended 31 August 1978 was 12.686c per litre. In the 1978 Budget a subsidy at the rate of 5c per litre was introduced on the transport of liquid petroleum gas (LPG) to the South Island.

Chapter 27. Section 25; ECONOMIC AGGREGATES

25 A—NATIONAL ACCOUNTS

The aim of national accounting statistics is to provide a consistent and systematic summary of the transactions taking place in the economy within a specified time period. Information on the production and use of goods and services, on the generation and redistribution of incomes, and on capital transactions is required for planning purposes, social and economic analysis, economic policy formation, and decision-making both inside and outside of government.

During the last 30 years both compilers and users of national accounts have become aware of the need to develop a comprehensive system which fulfils the above needs and which is also internationally comparable. This culminated in 1968 with the publication by the United Nations of a standard system of national accounting. The New Zealand System of National Accounts (NZSNA) is based on these United Nations guidelines and their adoption now places New Zealand's national accounts on a similar conceptual basis to most other market economies.

The New Zealand System of National Accounts replaces the National Income and Expenditure Accounts which have been produced since 1948 and last appeared for the 1976–77 financial year ending March.

The new system greatly expands the coverage of the existing accounts and provides a general framework for the collection and presentation of all macro-economic statistics. In recent years the Department of Statistics has adopted common classifications and concepts throughout its major statistical collections and, as a result, such statistics are now fully integrated with the NZSNA.

Inter-industry studies of the New Zealand economy and the Balance of Payments Accounts (see Sections 25B and 25C) use the same concepts and classifications as the NZSNA. The industrial groupings of NZSNA are the same as those of the 25 industry format of the latest inter-industry studies. All 3 series are therefore statistically reconcilable.

Unlike the old series, which was concerned with the economic use of resources supplied by New Zealand residents regardless of where these were applied, the NZSNA concentrates on the economic activity occurring in New Zealand irrespective of whether the income generated accrues to New Zealand or overseas residents.

The first stage in the release of the NZSNA comprised the Consolidated Accounts of the Nation broken down into 4 parts, the Production Accounts of 25 industry groups, and detailed tables relating to Gross Capital Formation.

The principal tables in this section refer to the 5 years ended March 1973 to 1977.

Provisional national accounts for the year ended 31 March 1978, together with revised accounts for 1975–76 and 1976–77, were released too late for inclusion in the National Accounts section. The 4 accounts comprising the Consolidated Accounts of the Nation are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of this Yearbook.

CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNTS OF THE NATION—The Consolidated Accounts of the Nation comprise 4 accounts:

  1. Gross Domestic Product and Expenditure—Gross Domestic Product is a measure of the value added from all economic activity in New Zealand. The account shows the various forms of income generated by the economy and the categories of the final expenditure on the domestic product.

  2. National Disposable Income and its Appropriation—National Disposable Income is the value of income available to New Zealanders. Consisting mainly of the incomes generated in production in New Zealand, adjustments are made for the income paid to and received from the rest of the world. The account also shows that part of disposable income which was spent by New Zealanders on current consumption and the portion of income which was saved.

  3. Capital Finance—Capital expenditure is recorded in this account. The difference between the accumulation of capital assets and the sources of funds (mainly savings and the income set aside for the use of assets) gives a residual to be borrowed from (or lent to) the rest of the world.

  4. External Transactions—This account brings together all transactions with the rest of the world. The residual “Surplus of Nation on Current Transactions” records New Zealand's net borrowing from the rest of the world.

Terms Used in this Section

Accounting Period—Generally financial years ending 31 March or the last accounting year prior to 31 March.

Gross Domestic Product—The total market value of goods and services produced in New Zealand after deducting the cost of goods and services utilised in the process of production, but before deducting allowances for the consumption of fixed capital.

Compensation of Employees—Payments of salaries and wages whether in cash or in kind to employees. Includes contributions paid on employees' behalf to superannuation funds, private pension schemes, the Accident Compensation Commission, casualty and life assurance schemes, etc.

Consumption of Fixed Capital—The value of depreciation at ordinary rates allowed for taxation purposes, plus an estimate for the normal rate of accidental damage, based on the insurance claims by each industry group.

Indirect Taxes—Taxes which are assessed on producers in respect of the production, sale, purchase, and use of goods and services, and which add to the market prices of these goods and services. Includes sales tax, local authority rates, and import and excise duties, and also registration fees such as motor vehicle registration which are paid by producers.

Subsidies—Grants made by Government to market-oriented producers who regard the transfers as an addition to income from current production. These grants include payments to ensure a guaranteed price or to enable market prices of goods and services to be held below the cost of production. Transfers made by local authorities out of rates receipts to finance the losses of their trading departments and deliberately incurred losses of government trading organisations are also included.

Intermediate Consumption—The value of non-durable goods and services used in production. Valuation is at purchaser's values.

Gross Output at Producer's Values

  1. Market Production Groups: The total market value including commodity taxes of all goods and services produced during the year including stocks of work-in-progress. Included is output produced for both sale in the market and capital formation on own account.

  2. Non-market Production Groups: These producers may sell a proportion of their output in the market and such receipts are included in total output. However, most of the services produced represent unmarketed output and are valued at cost price. This assumption is necessary because there is no other basis for valuation.

Operating Surplus—This is a residual item, being gross output at producer's values less the sum of intermediate consumption, compensation of employees, consumption of fixed capital, and indirect taxes net of subsidies. It is approximately equal to accounting profit before the deduction of direct taxes, dividends, and bad debts and before the deduction of interest paid or the addition of interest received.

Final Consumption Expenditure

  1. Resident Households: All outlays on consumer goods and services including expenditure on consumer durables such as motor vehicles and furniture; included are payments made by Government on behalf of households and the imputed rent of owner-occupied dwellings.

  2. Producers of Government services and private non-profit services to households: Total current expenditure by these producers less the value of any sales or own account capital formation (i.e. the total net current costs incurred in providing the services).

Increase in Stocks—The change in value, between the beginning and the end of the year, of stocks of raw materials, work-in-progress, and finished goods.

Gross Fixed Capital Formation—The outlays of producers on durable real assets, such as buildings, motor vehicles, plant and machinery, hydro-electric construction, roading, and improvements to land. In measuring the outlays, sales of similar goods are deducted. Land is excluded from gross fixed capital formation. Included is the value of construction work done by a firm's own employees. The term “gross” indicates that consumption of fixed capital has not been deducted from the value of the outlays.

Statistical Discrepancy—In these accounts, the items making up Gross Domestic Product and Expenditure Gross Domestic Product are estimated independently. Including the statistical discrepancy on the expenditure side of some of these Consolidated Accounts Tables is simply a convention. It does not imply that one side of this account is more accurate than the other.

PRINCIPAL AGGREGATES—The following table gives the principal aggregates of the national accounts over a 6-year period.

AggregatesYear Ended March
197219731974197519761977*
*Provisional.
 $(million)
Gross domestic product6,9247,9829,25710,01011,44313,625
Plus net factor receipts from rest of world–35–47–21–77–156–255
Gross national product6,8897,9359,2369,93311,28713,370
Less consumption of fixed capital–571–630–710–807–947–1,099
National income at market prices6,3187,3058,5269,12610,34012,271
Plus net current transfers from rest of world13404517182
National disposable income6,3317,3458,5719,14310,35812,273

CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNTS—The first of the 4 consolidated accounts of the nation follows.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT AND EXPENDITURE
ItemYear Ended March
19731974197519761977*
*Provisional.
 $(million)
Compensation of employees3,9454,6565,5986,4547,291
Operating surplus2,7853,2052,9423,3144,153
Consumption of fixed capital6307108079471,099
Indirect taxes7548509171,1031,297
Less subsidies–132–164–254–375–215
Gross Domestic Product7,9829,25710,01011,44313,625
Final consumption expenditure—
    General government1,0221,1761,4501,7321,947
    Private4,7965,5716,2297,2358,447
Increase in stocks160368979370469
Gross fixed capital formation1,7552,0492,5353,0983,383
Statistical discrepancy4012395–177–155
Gross national expenditure7,7739,28711,28812,25814,091
Exports of goods and services1,9382,2502,1482,6953,825
Less imports of goods an services–1,729–2,280–3,426–3,510–4,291
Expenditure on Gross Domestic Product7,9829,25710,01011,44313,625

The second of the consolidated accounts shows national disposable income, that is, the income available to New Zealanders, how it is spent, and how much is saved.

NATIONAL DISPOSABLE INCOME
hemYear Ended March
19731974197519761977*
*Provisional.
 $(million)
Compensation of employees3,9454,6565,5986,4547,291
Compensation of employees from the rest of the world, net.     
Operating surplus2,7853,2052,9423,3144,153
Property and entrepreneurial income from the rest of the world, net.–47–21–77–156–255
Indirect taxes7548509171,1031,297
Less subsidies–132–164–254–375–215
National Income7,3058,5269,12610,34012,271
Current transfers from the rest of the world, net.404517182
National Disposable Income7,3458,5719,14310,35812,273
Final consumption expenditure
    Government—Central8981,0391,2641,5191,733
    Government—Local124137186213214
    Private—Households4,7355,5046,1497,1478,343
    Private—Non-profit organisations serving households61678088104
    Savings1,5271,8241,4641,3911,879
Appropriation of National Disposable Income7,3458,5719,14310,35812,273

The third of the consolidated accounts shows capital expenditure and how it is financed.

CAPITAL FINANCE
ItemYear Ended March
19731974197519761977*

*Provisional.

†Includes all Government-owned producer enterprises.

 $(million)
Increase in stocks160368979370469
Gross fixed capital formation—
    Private1,1621,4411,6741,8742,189
    Central Government426435658962942
Local Government167173203261251
Purchase of intangible assets from the rest of the world, net...........
Net lending to the rest of the world201–6–1,338–953–719
    Gross Accumulation2,1162,4112,1762,5153,133
Savings1,5271,8241,4641,3911,879
Consumption of fixed capital6307108079471,099
Capital transfers from the rest of the world, net...........
Statistical discrepancy–41–123–95177155
Finance of Gross Accumulation2,1162,4112,1762,5153,133

The fourth and last of the 4 consolidated accounts of the nation records all transactions with the rest of the world.

EXTERNAL TRANSACTIONS
ItemYear Ended March
19731974197519761977*
*Provisional.
 $(million) Current
Exports of goods and services1,9382,2502,1482,6953,825
Compensation of employees from the rest of the world..........
Property and entrepreneurial income from the rest of the world5480656259
Other current transfers from the rest of the world108134139160159
Current receipts2,1002,4642,3522,9174,042
Imports of goods and services1,7292,2803,4263,5104,291
Compensation of employees to the rest of the world..........
Property and entrepreneurial income to the rest of the world101101142218314
Other current transfers to the rest of the world6989122142157
Surplus of nation on current transactions201–6–1,338–953–719
Current disbursements2,1002,4642,3522,9174,042
 Capital
Surplus of nation on current transactions201–6–1,338–953–719
Capital transfers from the rest of the world..........
Net incurrence of foreign liabilities73598711,001590
Capital receipts27453–46748–129
Purchase of intangible assets from the rest of the world..........
Net acquisition of foreign financial assets39832–27911220
Statistical discrepancy–12421–188–64–149
Capital disbursements27453–46748–129

PRODUCTION ACCOUNTS—The Production Accounts show the production of goods and services in New Zealand in each year, analysed according to economic activity. Each account measures the gross output of goods and services and the costs incurred. The classification used in establishing these groups firstly distinguishes between those producers that are market-oriented and those that produce goods and services that are not normally marketed.

Market-oriented producers are those who either produce goods or services for sale on the market at prices that are designed to cover the costs of production, or produce similar kinds of goods and services and use similar kinds of inputs and production processes (with the exception of social and community services provided by government or private non-profit organisations serving households) although this production may not be intended to make a profit and may not be disposed of in the market.

Market: producers are then classified according to industry into 21 production groups which correspond with major divisions, divisions, major groups, or sub-groups in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

Groups not normally producing for the market are sub-divided into those owned by Central Government, local government, and private non-profit organisations which provide services for households.

The revised system explicitly recognises the Government as a producer when it carries out its conventional role of administrator, provider of health services, education, defence services, etc. Similarly, the large number of organisations which provide services on a non-profit basis—religious orders, schools, hospitals, sporting clubs, etc.—are now included in the national accounts. Also included among the non-market production groups is an account recording the wages paid by households employing domestic labour.

An additional table is provided which distinguishes market production groups according to the sector of ownership.

Two points require further clarification. Firstly, the item 'imputed bank service charge'. Financial enterprises whose expenditure is largely financed out of net receipts of interest (such as trading banks and finance companies) require special treatment in the national accounts. The interest that they receive is viewed as consisting of a pure interest component and a 'service charge' which is paid by the users of banking services. However, this imputed service charge has not been allocated to customers and therefore the convention is adopted that all is paid by a nominal industry which accordingly has a negative operating surplus equal to the value of the service charge. Total output is therefore zero and the effect in aggregate is that a correct operating surplus figure is recorded for all market producers.

Secondly, no figure is given for consumption of fixed capital by the producers of central and local government services. This omission is entirely due to the present inability to obtain an indication of the correct value from the cash accounts maintained by these 2 producers. The feasibility of deriving estimates from other sources is currently under investigation.

GDP by Production Group—The following table shows gross domestic product (GDP) by the kind of economic activity, i.e. by production group.

Production GroupsYear Ended March
19731974197519761977*

*Provisional.

†For imputed bank service charge.

Market production groups$(million)
Agriculture1,0621,1298521,1131,446
Fishing and hunting1416141624
Forestry and logging1279975121127
Mining and quarrying3340493265
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco477493583709805
Textiles, wearing apparel and leather industries203219260275323
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture133158180192231
Manufacture of paper and paper products; printing and publishing193231277310366
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products136204213175240
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal8396103123142
Basic metal industries45628879117
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment434538618653748
Other manufacturing industries2327273140
Electricity, gas, water178177169201287
Construction466565681783832
Trade, restaurants, hotels1,7332,0622,2502,5382,990
Transport, storage459553619650834
Communication160176197210308
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services7398849301,0821,244
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings236270302382478
Community, social and personal services263312379454505
Nominal industry–154–185–188–236–264
    Total market production groups7,0448,1268,6779,89311,889
Non-market production groups
Central Government services6918259801,1741,324
Local government services7585103127122
Private non-profit services to households63718397109
Domestic services of households67678
    Total non-market production groups8359881,1721,4051,563
    Total, all production groups7,8809,1149,84911,29813,452
Plus: import duties88120142124147
Plus: other indirect taxes not allocated to production groups1423191925
Gross Domestic Product7,9829,25710,01011,44313,625

The contribution of each production group to gross domestic product is shown as a percentage of the total GDP in the following table.

Production GroupsYear Ended March
19731974197519761977*
*Provisional.
 Percentage
Agriculture13.312.28.59.710.6
Fishing and hunting0.20.20.10.10.2
Forestry and logging1.61.10.81.10.9
Mining and quarrying0.40.40.50.30.5
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco6.05.35.86.25.9
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries2.52.42.62.42.4
Manufacture of wood and wood products incl. furniture1.71.71.81.71.7
Manufacture of paper and paper products; printing and publishing2.42.52.82.72.7
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products1.72.22.11.51.8
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1.01.01.01.11.0
Basic metal industries0.60.70.90.70.9
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment5.45.86.25.75.5
Other manufacturing industries0.30.30.30.30.3
Electricity, gas, water2.21.91.71.82.1
Construction5.86.16.86.86.1
Trade, restaurants, hotels21.722.322.522.221.9
Transport, storage5.86.06.25.76.1
Communication2.01.92.01.82.3
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services9.39.69.39.59.1
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings3.02.93.03.33.5
Community, social and personal services3.33.43.84.03.7
Central government services8.78.99.810.39.7
Local government services0.90.91.01.10.9
Private non-profit services to households0.80.80.90.80.8
Domestic services of households0.10.10.10.10.1
Not allocated–0.6–0.5–0.3–0.8–0.6
                Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The following table shows the components of gross domestic product and the components of each industry's output by each of the 25 production groups for the latest available 5 years. The figures for 1976–77 are provisional throughout.

YearComponents of Gross Domestic ProductComponents of Industry InputTotal Industry Output
Compensation of EmployeesOperating SurplusConsumption of Fixed CapitalIndirect TaxesLess SubsidiesContribution to Gross Domestic ProductIntermediate Consumption
$(million) at Producers' Values MARKET PRODUCTION GROUPS
Agriculture
1972–7316476812026161,0628131,875
1973–741907771383161,1299092,038
1974–7519450614433258527371,588
1975–7622373317440561,1139582,070
1976–7725496820848331,4461,1752,621
Fishing and Hunting
1972–73643141225
1973–74754161228
1974–75733141327
1975–76844161531
1976–771095241943
Forestry and Logging
1972–7330897112747174
1973–743358719955154
1974–7539278117558133
1975–76496292112166187
1976–7755601121127100226
Mining and Quarrying
1972–73188812333972
1973–74239811404282
1974–75261310114952101
1975–7630712143276108
1976–773317135265123188
Manufacture of Food, Beverages, and Tobacco
1972–732471264299384771,0831,560
1973–7427911944103524931,2391,732
1974–7536012852102585831,3451,928
1975–7642915762119577091,6162,325
1976–7747715673139408052,0202,825
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather Industries
1972–73133571343203256459
1973–741527413322219345564
1974–75186551552260404664
1975–7621046172275424699
1976–7724456203323552875
Manufacture of Wood and Wood Products incl. Furniture
1972–73814092133180314
1973–749254102158215373
1974–7511750121180270450
1975–7613143172192306498
1976–7714861202231379610
Manufacture of Paper and Paper Products; Printing and Publishing
1972–7311350228193203395
1973–7412775228231255486
1974–7515586297277333609
1975–7617593339310428738
1976–771991193810366564930
Manufacture of Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
1972–73777215734136312449
1973–74979817715204390593
1974–751259221833213645858
1975–7614264231265175752927
1976–77170912914632401,0721,312
Manufacture of Non-Metallic Mineral Products except Products of Petroleum and Coal
1972–734132918390173
1973–7449379196109205
1974–756132101103139242
1975–766742131123169292
1976–777648171142194336
Basic Metal Industries
1972–732115814590135
1973–742924962144205
1974–7541371088171259
1975–7644231179183263
1976–775348151117276394
Manufacture of Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery and Equipment
1972–732771082525434563997
1973–7432216326265386911,229
1974–75404158302616188891,507
1975–7645413237316531,1141,768
1976–7752214944327481,3752,122
Other Manufacturing Industries
1972–7314721232447
1973–7416911272956
1974–7517711273259
1975–7619822313869
1976–77231322404483
Electricity, Gas, Water
1972–7361853221178145323
1973–7468733622177169346
1974–75797039120169197366
1975–76947745216201218419
1976–771011375023287329617
Construction
1972–733141232554669531,419
1973–743671603355651,1361,701
1974–754391954166811,4992,180
1975–764972314877831,8492,632
1976–775372404788322,1713,003
Trade, Restaurants, Hotels
1972–73675650103319141,7331,3313,064
1973–74799825110355282,0621,5443,606
1974–75958798123390202,2501,6783,928
1975–761,072824150526342,5382,0924,630
1976–771,226988191609242,9902,5405,531
Transport, Storage
1972–7332557682314459310769
1973–7438279892420553417971
1974–754669210123636195091,128
1975–765198911224956506441,294
1976–7758515211326428347901,624
Communication
1972–731271415416032192
1973–7414618164717636212
1974–75180191722119742239
1975–76207202023921063272
1976–7723451232130868376
Financing, Insurance, Real Estate and Business Services
1972–73 382434517392731,012
1973–74352434514818843471,232
1974–75403410625419303841,314
1975–76488453727011,0824341,516
1976–7756351080901,2445071,750
Ownership of Owner-Occupied Dwellings
1972–731454150236158394
1973–741704654270171441
1974–751935257302207509
1975–762546068382263645
1976–773286881478315792
Community, Social and Personal Services
1972–7313010514239263201464
1973–74153128152510312236548
1974–7518315817289379273652
1975–7620820020348454330784
1976–7723521622396505388893
Nominal Industry (for imputed bank service charge)
1972–73..–154......–154154
1973–74..–185......–185185
1974–75..–188......–188188
1975–76..–236......–236236
1976–77..–264......–264264
Total Market Production Groups
1972–733,1222,7856226471327,0447,26914,313
1973–743,6803,2057027021648,1268,67516,801
1974–754,4422,9427997492548,67710,06518,742
1975–765,0653,3149379523759,89312,27322,166
1976–775,7474,1531,0881,11621511,88915,26327,152
NON—MARKET PRODUCTION GROUPS
Central Government Services
1972–73689....2..691251942
1973–74824....2..8252671,092
1974–75978....2..9803401,320
1975–761,172....2..1,1744161,590
1976–771,321....3..1,3244941,818
Local Government Services
1972–7374....2..75105180
1973–7484....2..85126212
1974–75101....2..103163267
1975–76124....2..127189316
1976–77120....2..122197319
Private Non-Profit Services to Households
1972–7354..72 6358121
1973–7461..82 7164135
1974–7572..92 8376159
1975–7685..93 9784181
1976–7796..103 10997206
Domestic Services of Households
1972–736........6..6
1973–747........7..7
1974–756........6..6
1975–767........7..7
1976–778........8..8
Total Non-Market Production Groups
1972–73823..75..8354141,249
1973–74975..85..9884571,445
1974–751,157..97..1,1725791,751
1975–761,389..97..1,4056892,094
1976–771,544..109..1,5637872,350
All Production Groups—Total
1972–733,9452,7856306521327,8807,68315,563
1973–744,6563,2057107071649,1149,13218,246
1974–755,5982,9428077552549,84910,64420,493
1975–766,4543,31494795937511,29812,96224,260
1976–777,2914,1531,0991,12521513,45216,05029,502

In the following table the components of G.D.P. and of industry output for the total market production groups are shown by sector of ownership. As in other tables, the 1976–77 figures are provisional.

Year Ended MarchComponents of Gross Domestic ProductComponents of Industry InputTotal Industry Output
Compensation of EmployeesOperating SurplusConsumption of Fixed CapitalIndirect TaxesLess SubsidiesContribution to Gross Domestic ProductIntermediate Consumption
$(million) at Producers' Values
Private Sector
1972–732,5662,7095426231116,3296,48712,815
1973–743,0483,1736106791307,3807,78615,165
1974–753,6702,9566907281457,8988,93916,838
1975–764,1443,3478139262199,01110,81119,822
1976–774,7374,0449431,08416410,64413,49824,143
Central Government Sector
1972–734511806019116994061,105
1973–745131726818217514581,209
1974–756341278216947666491,415
1975–7675615594201378888881,776
1976–7783027111225321,2071,0692,277
Local Government Sector
1972–731055021510171222393
1973–741184524512180246426
1974–751394726515202288489
1975–761664830619230339569
1976–7718010133720302431733
Nominal Industry (for imputed bank service charge)
1972–73 –154......–154154
1973–74 –185......–185185
1974–75 –188......–188188
1975–76 –236......–236236
1976–77 –264......–264264
Total Market Production Groups
1972–733,1222,7856226471327,0447,26914,313
1973–743,6803,2057027021648,1268,67516,801
1974–754,4422,9427997492548,67710,06518,742
1975–765,0653,3149379523759,89312,27322,166
1976–775,7474,1531,0881,11621511,88915,26327,152

GROSS FIXED CAPITAL FORMATION—Gross fixed capital formation tables record purchases of capital assets, reduced by the value of sales, plus the value of construction work done by an establishment's own employees; no deduction has been made for assets used up during the period of account. Land purchases and sales, other than land improvements, are excluded by definition.

The following table shows gross fixed capital formation by production group within each sector of ownership.

Production GroupYear Ended March
19731974197519761977*
*Provisiopal.
 $(million)
Market production groupPrivate Sector
Agriculture166184148197244
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging24455
Mining and quarrying79226782
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco6976112118126
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries1316242723
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture1216233029
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing7577814452
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products2231293648
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal813192034
Basic metal industries1958939
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment3748555158
Other manufacturing industries23212
Electricity, gas, and water122
Construction3450706468
Trade, restaurants, hotels145177194208252
Transport and storage Communication566487145156
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services110134162154170
Community, social and personal services
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings353497595650742
                Total market production groups1,1311,4081,6371,8272,131
Non-market production groups
Central Government services     
Local government services     
Private non-profit services to households3134374758
Domestic services of households     
                Total non-market production groups3134374758
                Total private gross fixed capital formation1,1621,4411,6741,8742,189
 Central Government
Market production groups
Agriculture569139
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging5581010
Mining and quarrying232079107
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries–1
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture11111
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing1111
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal
Basic metal industries
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment54397
Other manufacturing industries
Electricity, gas, and water11299156224247
Construction32885
Trade, restaurants, hotels43335
Transport and storage5669102116101
Communication3243567867
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services18235511788
Ownership of owner occupied dwellings..........
Community, social and personal services36131910
                Total market production groups246261435678658
Non-market production groups
Central government services180174223284284
Local government services..........
Private non-profit services to households..........
Domestic services of households..........
                Total non-market production groups180174223284284
                Total central government gross fixed capital formation426435658962942
Market production groupsLocal Government
Agriculture
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco112
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal.
Basic metal industries
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment
Other manufacturing industries
Electricity, gas, and water4543608170
Construction21
Trade, restaurants, hotels5532
Transport and storage2124263749
Communication
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services612172019
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings     
Community, social and personal services
                Total market production groups7389110143140
Non-market production groups
Central Government services..........
Local government services948393118111
Private non-profit services to households..........
Domestic services of households..........
                Total non-market production groups948393118111
                Total local government gross fixed capital formation167173203261251
Market production groupsTotal
Agriculture171191157210253
Fishing and hunting
Forestry and logging79121615
Mining and quarrying91242146189
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco6977113120126
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries1315242723
Manufacture of wood and wood products including furniture1317243130
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing7578824553
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber and plastic products2231293648
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal813192034
Basic metal industries1958939
Manufacture of fabricated metal products; machinery and equipment4252595965
Other manufacturing industries23212
Electricity, gas, and water158145215306318
Construction3753777372
Trade, restaurants, hotels149185202213259
Transport and storage133157216298307
Communication3243567867
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services137174247310286
Community, social and personal services
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings353497595650742
                Total market production groups1,4501,7582,1822,6492,929
Non-market production groups
Central Government services180174223284284
Local government services948393118111
Private non-profit services to households3134374758
Domestic services of households..........
            Total non-market production groups305291353449454
            Total gross fixed capital formation1,7552,0492,5353,0983,383

In the following table the composition of gross fixed capital formation is shown by type of capital good. The 1976–77 figures are provisional.

Year*Type of Capital GoodTotal
Residential BuildingsNon-Residential BuildingsOther ConstructionLand ImprovementsTransport EquipmentPlant, Machinery, and Other Equipment
*1977 figures are provisional.
$(million)
Private Sector
1972–7337920625371743411,162
1973–7453526625511843791,441
1974–7560635435372174251,674
1975–7666632878403024591,874
1976–7776538796443655322,189
Central Government
1972–7320133116448105426
1973–7416148102457108435
1974–75482101507103140658
1975–76892842209116246962
1976–77633042071082276942
Local Government
1972–73619103101217167
1973–7492410512914173
1974–751332115121418203
1975–761432148131935261
1976–77133213852142251
Total
1972–73405358244512344631,755
1973–74560438232662515022,049
1974–75668595300563335842,535
1975–76769644446624377403,098
1976–77841723440604688503,383

The next stage in the development of the new system of national accounts will be in the preparation of quarterly estimates in dollar values current in each period; such information will considerably increase the usefulness of the national accounts particularly for economic policy purposes. Following the completion of this project, work will concentrate on expressing both Production Accounts and the Consolidated Accounts of the Nation in terms of constant dollars to eliminate the effect of price changes and thereby obtain measures of the real contribution of industry groups to changes in Real Gross Domestic Product. Better information on structural changes in the economy and industry productivity can also be derived from such statistical series.

The introduction of the new series of national accounts from 1971–72 onwards produced a definite and clear hiatus between the existing and new series of statistics of which users should be aware. Work is proceeding on the 1977–78 accounts and a full and detailed report explaining classifications, definitions, working methods, and concepts is envisaged after the publication of that year's accounts.

25 B—BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

GENERAL—A country's balance of payments statement is a comprehensive account of its economic transactions with the rest of the world. The New Zealand balance of payments estimates are based on the principles set out in the Balance of Payments Manual (Fourth Edition), published by the International Monetary Fund and are in conformity with the methods used by other countries.

MAJOR PRINCIPLES—The major principles used in preparing a balance of payments statement are:

  1. Goods sold from one country to another are recorded at the time ownership changes, and other transactions are recorded at the time they occur.

  2. Exports and imports of merchandise are valued at f.o.b. (free on board) of the exporting country.

  3. As far as possible, all transactions are shown on a gross, rather than on a net, settlement basis.

  4. Wherever possible, all transactions are valued at market prices.

  5. All transactions are recorded in New Zealand dollars. Where another currency was used for the transaction the currency exchange rates ruling at the time the transaction occurred have been used to convert the transaction to New Zealand dollars.

COMPONENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND BALANCE OF PAYMENTS—The description overleaf refers to the summary table on a following page.

Exports/Imports (as Published in External Trade Statistics)—These are for March years and are otherwise identical with the figures published in Section 22, External Trade. Exports are valued f.o.b.; imports are valued c.i.f. (cost, insurance, and freight).

Adjustments to Balance of Payments Concepts—There are some imports and exports which are included in the balance of payments but not in external trade statistics. These include ships and aircraft purchased by New Zealand residents for use in international trade.

A considerable portion of New Zealand's exports are sold on consignment in the United Kingdom. The change of ownership occurs well after the goods have been recorded in New Zealand external trade statistics. Also, the valuation in external trade statistics is an estimate of future realisations. Adjustment's to bring trade statistics to balance of payments concepts show mainly as a credit entry.

The debit entry contains the adjustment of imports from c.i.f. value to f.o.b. value.

Some items, such as ships' stores and passengers' baggage, are removed from merchandise trade and shown elsewhere in the balance of payments statement.

Exports/Imports (f.o.b. Exporting Country)—New Zealand's exports and imports of merchandise on a balance of payments basis.

Balance on Merchandise Trade—The surplus of exports f.o.b. over imports f.o.b.

Transportation, Travel, Insurance, Other Miscellaneous Services, and Government Transactions—The exports of services from, and imports of services to, New Zealand. The balance on services is the difference between the sum of the credit entries and the sum of the debit entries for these items.

International Investment Income—The credit entries show the income accruing to New Zealand residents from overseas investments while the debit entries show the income accruing to overseas residents from their investments in New Zealand.

Balance on Invisibles—The balance on services plus international investment income credits minus international investment income debits.

Transfers—This item provides the counter-entries for gifts of goods, services, and financial assets to and from New Zealand. Examples are immigrants' transfers, gifts and donations, foreign aid payments, and relief supplies.

Balance on Current Account—The balance on merchandise trade plus the balance on invisibles plus transfer credits minus transfer debits. It is a measure of the surplus of outflows of goods, services, and transfers from New Zealand over the inflows of goods, services, and transfers into New Zealand.

Overseas Direct Investment in New Zealand, New Zealand Direct Investment Overseas, and Other Private Long-Term Capital Movements—These items show the changes in long-term claims on the rest of the world and long-term liabilities to the rest of the world of the private sector.

Government Capital Movements—Includes all Government capital movements except movements in Government-held reserve assets and Government borrowing to maintain New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves.

Capital Movements by Monetary Institutions—This item includes those capital movements by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand and the five trading banks which are not movements in reserve assets or borrowing to maintain reserves.

Residual—This is the balancing item. It is the difference between the sum of the credit column and the sum of the debit column. It covers any errors in the balance of payments estimates and all omissions. Included in the omissions are short-term private capital movements.

Balance Before Compensatory Financing—The sum of all transactions, other than reserve transactions and transactions undertaken to maintain reserves.

Compensatory Financing—Borrowing undertaken by the Government or the Reserve Bank to compensate for imbalances in New Zealand's transactions with the rest of the world.

Balance after Compensatory Financing—The sum of all transactions other than reserve transactions. The change in New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves due to transactions is the same in direction and magnitude as this balance.

Reserve Transactions—The movements in New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves during the year. Reserves measured in New Zealand dollars may change because transactions have occurred or because the value of the New Zealand dollar has changed relative to the currency in which the reserve asset is denominated. The presentation shows the total change in reserves and, separately, a counterpart to changes in reserves caused by exchange rate changes. The difference of these two items is equal to the change in reserves caused by transactions in reserve assets.

New Zealand's reserves may change because of an allocation of Special Drawing Rights by the International Monetary Fund. This is not regarded as a transaction and there is a counterpart item for such an allocation.

For a more detailed description of the concepts and methods used in preparing balance of payments estimates and the contents of items in the estimates refer to the latest edition of the Department of Statistics annual publication Balance of Payments obtainable from the Government Printer.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND EXCHANGE RECORD—There are several very important differences between a balance of payments statement and the statistics of overseas receipts and payments which are included in an exchange record, such as is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency. The main differences are:

  1. The balance of payments attempts to show all economic transactions between residents of one country and residents of other countries, whereas the exchange record shows only transactions involving remittances.

  2. The import and export figures in the balance of payments are based on trade statistics, which enable goods to be valued at a definite and uniform valuation boundary—viz, f.o.b., country of export. The exchange record, on the other hand, records remittances for imports and exports whenever these are made and without adhering to any valuation basis (f.o.b. or c.i.f.). The result is a difference both in timing and valuation between the two statements.

  3. Whereas exchange statistics record net settlements resulting from a number of possible contraentries or offsets, the balance of payments shows these transactions as far as possible on a gross basis.

Other differences arise from the fact that the balance of payments is constructed on a basis of country of purchase for imports and country of destination for exports, country of residence of remittor or remittee, and nationality in the case of shipping companies, whereas the record of exchange transactions is based on the country of monetary settlement.

In essence, the exchange record is a statement of cash flows, or using the terminology of commercial accounting it is the “cash book” of the nation's transactions with other countries; the balance of payments statement on the other hand approaches an “income and expenditure” account.

GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION—The regional break-up of the balance of payments is on a geographical (as distinct from a currency) basis. This means that it is not the currency in which any economic transaction is settled but the residence of New Zealand's immediate partner in the transaction which determines in which regional column the transaction is recorded. Any exception to this rule is due to statistical necessity—insufficiency of basic data, etc., rather than choice.

United Kingdom (including Channel Islands).

Australia (including Norfolk Island, but excluding Papua New Guinea).

USA—United States of America, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, and other American islands in the Pacific.

Canada, Japan.

EEC Countries—The 6 members of the European Economic Community which formed a common market in 1958; Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and the Federal German Republic, together with their associated and dependent overseas territories. From and including 1973–74 Denmark and Ireland were included with EEC. The United Kingdom has also become a member of the EEC but it is being shown separately.

Other OECD—Austria, Finland, Greece, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey.

Asia-Oceania—All Asian and Pacific countries except Australia, Japan, and New Zealand. Afghanistan is the most western country in this group.

Latin America-Caribbean—All the Americas except Canada and the USA.

Other Countries—All countries not included in any other group.

International Organisations—Transactions with the United Nations and its agencies, the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Finance Corporation, the Asian Development Bank, South Pacific Air Transport Council, and other international organisations.

ACCOUNTING PERIOD—All estimates are for financial years ended 31 March.

RESIDENTS AND NON-RESIDENTS—The balance of payments is a record of economic transactions between residents and non-residents.

Residents are all people living permanently in New Zealand (and who have their “centre of interest” in New Zealand). Subsidiaries and branches of overseas companies are treated as residents, while subsidiaries and branches of New Zealand companies operating overseas are regarded as residents of the country in which they operate.

In order to simplify the rather complex operations of overseas shipping companies, the shipping transactions of their branches in New Zealand (such as their receipt of freights, port disbursements, administrative expenses in New Zealand, etc.), are regarded as transactions of non-residents, by way of exception to the general rule stated above; on the other hand, their investment activity is included in the data on New Zealand branches of overseas companies and conforms to the general rule.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND THE EXTERNAL TRANSACTIONS ACCOUNT OF THE NATIONAL ACCOUNTS—As far as possible, the balance of payments account and the external transactions account are prepared using the same principles and definitions. However, they have different uses and there are some major differences in content. The most important of these is the inclusion of the undistributed earnings of direct investment enterprises in the balance of payments. This is the reason why the surplus of the nation on current account in the external transactions account is more favourable than the balance on current account as shown in the balance of payments accounts.

SUMMARY TABLE—The following table presents a summary of New Zealand's transactions with other countries during the four latest available financial years.

Item1974–151975–761976–771977–78*
CreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebit
*Provisional.
 NZ$(million)
Exports/imports (as published in external trade statistics)1,611.42,765.72,016.92,772.73,070.83,327.33,319.83,396.3
Adjustments to balance of payments concepts17.7–193.321.3–196.3–53.2–183.7–0.9–185.6
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)1,629.12,572.42,039.22,576.43,017.63,143.63,318.93,210.7
        Balance on merchandise trade–943.3–538.2–126.0108.3
Transportation264.5391.9349.0418.9410.7475.3513.6525.7
Travel107.0180.3143.1193.4160.8245.1160.7300.0
Insurancex1.7x–0.9x2.6x0.6x3.9x2.28.2
Other miscellaneous services59.5114.872.7164.978.2178.695.0259.9
Government transactions36.469.341.959.249.364.338.584.8
        Balance on services–290.6x–233.2x–267.6x–368.6
International investment income86.7x218.5x87.3x332.7x103.7x526.7122.8571.0
    Balance on invisibles–422.4x–478.6x–690.6x–816.8
Transfers123.1121.8142.7141.5141.7156.6162.8170.1
    Balance on current account–1,364.4x–1,015.6x–831.5x–715.8
Overseas direct investment in N.Z. (net)179.8...114.7...278.9...159.2...
N.Z. direct investment overseas (net)...15.0...17.7...35.8...32.9
Other long-term private capital movements—
    Increases in assets (net).........–11.9...–26.5...–0.1
    Increases in liabilities (net)209.3...147.5...25.0...109.7...
Government capital movements (excluding movements in Government-held reserve assets)—
    Increases in assets (net)...8.8...21.9...28.6...22.7
    Increases in liabilities (net)38.6x...198.7...168.1...–10.1...
Capital movements by monetary institutions (excluding movements in reserve assets)—
    Increases in assets (net)...8.2...8.4...6.2...
    Increases in liabilities (net).........3.4...
Residual (includes short-term private capital movements and errors and omissions)163.5x...47.7x...101.4x...239.2...
    Balance before compensatory financing–805.0–543.1–302.2–269.9
Government borrowing (net)301.8...371.6...178.4...463.0...
Reserve bank borrowing (net)106.1...70.7...15.9...53.4...
I.M.F. drawings (net)100.5...192.1...117.8...–6.4...
Total compensatory financing (net)508.4x...634.4...312.1...510.3...
    Balance after compensatory financing–296.5x91.39.9240.1
Monetary gold......... 0.9
Special drawing rights—
    Total change in holdings...–47.1x...4.9...11.5...27.1
    Counterpart to allocation/cancellation............
    Counterpart to valuation changes...0.1......1.9...2.9
    Change due to transactions...–47.2x...4.9...9.6...24.2
Reserve position at the I.M.F.—
    Total change in holdings...–45.1 ......13.8
    Counterpart to valuation changes... ......
    Change due to transactions...–45.1 ......13.8
Assets of the N.Z. banking system—
    Total change in holdings...–195.5...92.5...16.5...81.0
    Counterpart to valuation changes...23.2...26.4...9.7...
    Change due to transactions...–218.7...66.1...6.8...81.0
Treasury and other Government-held securities—
    Total change in holdings...38.0...41.4...10.6...144.2
    Counterpart to valuation changes...23.5...21.1...17.1...24.0
    Change due to transactions...14.5...20.3...–6.5...120.2
Summary of reserve transactions—
    Total change in reserves...–249.7x...138.8...38.6...267.0
    Counterpart to valuation changes...46.8...47.5...28.7...26.9
    Changes in reserves due to transactions...–296.5x...91.3...9.9...240.1
                Total reserves at 31 March (as shown in Reserve Bank Bulletin)542.1684.8720.6983.6

A summary of New Zealand's balance of payments transactions by regions during the years 1976–77 and 1977–78 is shown in the table on the following 2 pages.

Commentary—New Zealand is a small economy dependent on overseas trade. Export of merchandise over the period 1971–72 to 1977–78 averaged 19.5 percent of GDP and imports of merchandise averaged 19.9 percent. Current account receipts (credits) averaged 25.8 percent of GDP and current account payments (debits) averaged 30.5 percent.

Exports f.o.b. averaged 75.2 percent of total current account credits between 1971–72 and 1977–78 while imports f.o.b. averaged 65.0 percent of current account debits. Thus movements of aggregates in New Zealand's balance of payments are dominated by movements in the balance on merchandise trade.

The balance on merchandise trade is strongly influenced by changes in New Zealand's terms of trade (see Section 23) as well as by changes in the volume of exports and imports (export and import volume indexes, Section 22A).

During the year ended March 1972, New Zealand's terms of trade improved by more than 25 percent. There was a simultaneous increase in the surplus on merchandise trade, and, for the year ended March 1973, all balances (except invisibles) were in surplus.

During 1972–73 and 1973–74 import volumes increased sharply. However, over the same time-period export volumes showed a moderate decrease. By 1973–74 New Zealand had a current account deficit of $92 million. Over the next year New Zealand's terms of trade deteriorated by 40 percent with the result that at 31 March 1975 New Zealand had a current account deficit of $1,364 million (13.6 percent of GDP).

Import volumes declined sharply in March 1975 and since then have been falling at a moderate rate. Over the same period export volumes have risen (at a slightly faster rate than the fall in import volumes), and the terms of trade have shown a slight improvement.

The balance on current account for the year ended March 1978 showed a deficit of $716 million (4.7 percent of GDP).

During 1974–75, because of the massive current account deficit, the Government borrowed $508 million as compensatory financing and used $297 million of New Zealand's reserves. During 1975–76 compensatory, financing was$634 million, but reserves were replenished by $91 million. Compensatory financing during 1976–77 totalled $312 million. During the 1977–78 financial year compensatory borrowing totalled $510 million and there was a replenishment of reserves of $240 million.

REGIONAL SUMMARY 1976–77 AND 1977–78
RegionUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States of AmericaCanadaJapan
ItemcreditDebitcreditdebitcreditdebitcreditdebitcreditdebit
*Provisional
NZ$(million)
197677x
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)587.8593.7364.1695.6346.1550.675.881.2384.1445.1
Balance on merchandise trade–5.9–331.5–204.5–5.4–61.0
Services*202.3318.0252.0219.0130.9165.04.713.228.250.7
International investment income*19.1122.145.580.86.7158.01.49.44.818.9
Balance on invisibles*–219.2–2.3–185.4–16.5–36.7
Transfers50.633.646.937.914.812.55.43.60.62.6
        Balance on current account–208.1–324.8–387.6–20.1–99.7
Overseas direct investment in New Zealand100.6...92.1...58.8...4.8...12.3...
New Zealand direct investment overseas...4.8...5.6...15.6 5.4...2.5
Other long-term private capital movements1.4–5.5–34.1–16.525.20.5–0.2–0.6–2.7...
Government capital movements20.01.1–0.190.613.517.8
Capital movements by monetary institutions
Residual*43.5...240.3...163.9...7.0...100.4...
Balance before compensatory financing–41.9–14.4–64.20.225.6
Compensatory financing–1.4200.01.5
        Balance after compensatory financing–43.3–14.4135.80.227.1
Total change in reserves...–33.7...–14.0...143.5...0.4...29.2
Counterpart to valuation, etc., changes...9.6...0.4...7.7...0.2...2.1
Change due to transactions...–43.3...–14.4...135.8...0.2...27.1
1977–78*
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)673.4636.6420.2724.7404.1514.267.890.7445.1466.3
Balance on merchandise trade36.8–304.5–110.2–22.9–21.2
Services229.6376.0303.5309.6142.2179.16.113.736.746.5
International investment income15.8146.161.384.410.1127.02.59.13.715.7
Balance on invisibles–276.6–29.2–153.8–14.2–22.0
Transfers66.133.845.841.315.79.05.13.71.00.5
Balance on current account–207.8–329.3–257.3–35.8–42.5
Overseas direct investment in New Zealand97.8...75.4...–14.5...0.9...–2.7 
New Zealand direct investment overseas...–4.4...26.0...9.3...–1.9...
Other long-term private capital movements32.62.9–13.0–3.669.50.71.90.21.2
Government capital movements13.22.8–22.817.0–11.4
Capital movements by monetary institutions
Residual208.3...271.0...4.6...10.5......18.2
        Balance before compensatory financing145.9–15.5–230.5–3.8–73.6
Compensatory financing–24.0...4.2...88.9......106.3...
        Balance after compensatory financing121.9–11.3–141.6–3.832.7
Total change in reserves...132.8...–11.3...–131.3...–3.8...36.0
Counterpart to valuation, etc., changes...10.9......9.8......3.3
Change due to transactions...121.9...–11.3...–141.6...–3.8...32.7
E.E.COther O.E.C.DAsia-OceaniaLatin America-CaribbeanOther CountriesInternational OrganisationTotal
creditDebitcreditDebitcreditDebitcreditDebitcreditDebitcreditDebitcreditDebit
*Provisional
1976–77x
380.5290.1109.683.2372.3263.092.415.7304.9125.23,017.63,143.6
90.426.4109.376.7179.7–126.0
24.974.66.823.037.675.80.85.211.518.70.23.6699.6967.2
3.564.57.828.69.61.72.63.32.139.40.3103.7526.7
-110.6–37.1–30.3–5.1–44.3–3.1–690.6
9.43.12.11.49.150.30.41.12.35.25.3141.7156.6
-14.1–10.037.870.9132.5–8.4–831.5
4.5...3.4...0.9...1.8...–0.3 ......278.9...
...–0.3......1.0...1.3...–0.1.........35.8
-6.6–0.435.4–0.16.5–2.30.5...–0.4–0.6......25.0–26.5
10.227.32.810.31.00.91.4168.128.6
-6.26.2
23.4......128.6 59.865.7 189.4...33.5101.5...
-9.2–96.9–3.0–55.9–42.4–302.2
-114.196.93.074.1110.258.2662.4350.3
-123.318.29.69.9
...–117.4............19.0...11.5...38.6
...5.9............0.8...1.9...28.7
...–123.3............18.2...9.6...9.9
1977–78*
364.0258.889.559.6462.8285.778.414.3313.5159.73,318.93,210.7
105.229.9177.264.0153.8108.3
36.780.49.749.931.991.80.67.313.024.2810.01,178.6
9.962.34.661.19.26.03.51.22.058.10.1122.8571.0
-96.1–96.7–56.7–4.4–67.30.2–816.8
13.74.02.61.910.157.10.30.92.45.312.4162.8170.1
18.9–66.273.459.083.8–12.3–715.8
-5.5...5.8...5.4...–3.4............159.2...
.........2.1...1.4...0.4......32.9
0.4–0.712.13.9–1.01.8–0.71.4109.7–0.1
-2.222.7–3.9–2.0–0.8–10.022.7
-3.43.4
153.5  151.0 82.6 59.4 154.056.5 239.2...
143.1–203.2–3.0–72.743.4–269.9
81.4...203.2 3.0 ...53.4...–6.4 902.0392.0
224.5–19.337.0240.1
...224.5... ......–19.3 39.9...267.0
...... ...... 2.9...26.9
...224.5... ......–19.3 37.0...240.1

There has been a long-term trend towards a more diversified pattern of trade for New Zealand. During 1959–60, 54.9 percent of New Zealand's exports were sold to the United Kingdom and 46.8 percent of her imports were purchased from the United Kingdom. By 1976–77 the United Kingdom took only 19.5 percent of exports and was the source of only 18.9 percent of imports.

The table below shows New Zealand's merchandise trade with various regions during 1977–78 expressed as percentages of the total merchandise trade.

CountryExports f.o.b.Imports f.o.b.
U.K.20.319.8
Australia12.722.6
U.S.A.12.216.0
Canada2.02.8
Japan13.414.5
Other E.E.C.11.08.1
Other O.E.C.D.2.71.9
Asia-Oceania13.98.9
Latin America-Caribbean2.40.4
Other9.45.0
        Total100.0100.0

SURVEY OF COMPANIES WITH OVERSEAS AFFILIATIONS—The picture of international capital movements would be incomplete without the consideration of investment flows originating with private commercial firms. While such investment takes place in response to usual economic motivation, its effect on a country's balance of payments differs in no respect from other capital movements, such as Government lending or borrowing abroad, investment or repatriation of assets from abroad by private individuals, etc.

The type of investment referred to here is that defined as direct private investment. Subsidiaries (i.e., New Zealand companies under control of an overseas company), branches of overseas companies, companies where many of the shareholders reside overseas, or any other companies where overseas shareholders exercise a controlling interest, fall in this category. The question of control is decided in some cases on the strength of the parent company's holdings (a 25 percent holding of the subsidiary's ordinary share capital is deemed as the qualifying minimum), in others on the actual circumstances of the case. The same criteria apply for direct investment by New Zealand companies and residents overseas.

Direct investment flows assume various forms; they may be by remittances of cash, the provision of plant, machinery, or goods without corresponding payments, charging up of services rendered by the parent company, the re-investment in New Zealand of undistributed profits, or the partial remittance only of declared dividends and branch earnings. The inclusion of undistributed profits may require some explanation: the non-remittance abroad of the whole of the current year's earnings, or any portion of them involves, where no statutory constraints exist on remittances of current profits, a decision to invest which is in every respect equal to a decision to bring additional investment capital into the country. By treating, as mentioned previously, total earnings of subsidiaries and branches of overseas firms in New Zealand as a current account debit or payment to the rest of the world, the unremitted portions of such earnings are treated as an inflow of investment capital which, together with other forms of investment capital (cash, goods, services), make up the total of the private direct investment item in the capital account.

The information tabulated in the following tables is based on an annual survey of companies with overseas affiliations in which the companies report on the distribution of paid-up capital and its changes, dividends and dividend remittances, intercompany accounts with the parent company or affiliated company, and head office accounts in the case of branches.

It should be noted that investment figures given in the following 4 tables are in terms of annual changes at current prices. The total worth of direct investments assets is extremely difficult to establish in view of the fact that book values may bear little relationship to what such investments would realise on sale; annual changes on the other hand are capable of precise expression, and define exactly their relationship to other capital movements.

Overseas Private Direct Investment in New Zealand—Data on overall private investment in New Zealand are shown in the following table. The figures are totals reflecting investment changes in firms resident in New Zealand and controlled from overseas irrespective of their legal organisation. They include therefore subsidiaries incorporated in New Zealand, companies incorporated in New Zealand which have a majority of shareholders resident overseas or are controlled by overseas residents, and New Zealand branches of overseas companies.

The figures shown in the country or regional area columns refer to the country of incorporation of the New Zealand firm's parent company, head office, or other subsidiary of the parent associate company from which the investment flows, or to which the New Zealand company owes or is owed on outstanding accounts, or the country of residence of individual shareholders who collectively hold a controlling interest (as defined above) in the New Zealand company.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
*Provisional
NZ$(million)
1973–7461.936.148.83.52.4152.7
1974–7554.757.345.40.721.6179.7
1975–7629.238.727.56.712.6114.7
1976–77100.692.163.64.518.1x278.9
1977–78*97.875.4–13.6–5.55.1159.2

The graph now presented shows changes in overseas direct investment in New Zealand.

Figure 27.1. CHANGES IN OVERSEAS DIRECT INVESTMENT IN N.Z

CHANGES IN OVERSEAS DIRECT INVESTMENT IN N.Z

Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table provides a subdivision of total direct investment income derived by all enterprises controlled from overseas and operating in New Zealand. The investment income is given net (after payment of New Zealand taxation). The regional totals as well as the “All Countries” total correspond to the “Income from Direct Investment” debits shown in the regional current accounts.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
*Provisional.
NZ$(million)
Dividends
1975–7413.310.39.41.82.837.6
1974–7512.110.87.10.22.532.7
1975–7613.49.56.20.43.232.7
1976–7731.011.98.80.33.054.9
1977–78*32.512.913.40.44.663.8
Undistributed Earnings
1973–7438.929.026.71.43.499.4
1974–7528.522.312.5–0.40.363.2
1975–7641.822.913.8–1.12.680.1
1976–7756.643.157.32.7x11.1170.8
1977–78*69.638.115.1–0.710.4132.6
Net Earnings of Branches
1973–7416.28.43.10.8–0.428.1
1974–751.913.82.71.00.820.1
1975–7612.17.24.20.0–0.622.8
1976–7716.512.02.60.21.432.8
1977–78*6.418.52.90.71.429.9
Total Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand
1973–7468.447.739.24.05.8165.1
1974–7542.446.922.30.83.6115.9
1975–7667.339.524.2–0.75.3135.6
1976–77104.267.068.73.215.5258.4
1977–78*108.669.531.40.516.4226.3

Industrial Classification of Overseas Private Direct Investment and Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table shows details of overseas direct investment and income from overseas direct investment classified by major industry groupings.

Industry1974–751975–761976–771977–78*
*Provisional.
NZ$(million)
Direct Investment
Farming, hunting, and fishing1.0–2.80.31.0
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying3.24.4–0.30.4
Manufacturing—
    Food, drink, and tobacco21.5–7.819.418.1
    Meat and dairy products–35.219.120.24.9
    Textiles, clothing, and footwear4.40.32.42.3
    Wood, cork, and furniture production0.40.61.6
    Pulp, paper, and printing13.18.85.94.7
    Leather and rubber products5.40.15.0–1.2
    Chemical and mineral products20.321.035.81.3
    Metalworking9.519.913.0
    Engineering and transport equipment35.11.119.610.8
    Miscellaneous manufacturing9.94.116.59.7
Building and construction1.31.02.8
Electricity, gas, water
Wholesale and retail trade61.329.696.322.4
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property34.526.135.871.0
Transport and communications0.3–5.80.7–2.2
Services3.56.30.5–1.3
                Total179.7114.7278.9159.2
Income from Direct Investment
Farming, hunting, and fishing–0.3–0.40.31.0
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying4.96.11.11.3
Manufacturing—
    Food, drink, and tobacco7.05.212.89.8
    Meat and dairy products–15.017.016.4–1.6
    Textiles, clothing, and footwear2.40.63.02.8
    Wood, cork, and furniture production0.20.40.6
    Pulp, paper, and printing4.37.37.76.4
    Leather and rubber products1.32.12.81.8
    Chemical and mineral products9.19.326.721.0
    Metalworking0.87.916.27.5
    Engineering and transport equipment12.417.922.917.1
    Miscellaneous manufacturing5.57.718.211.2
Building and construction2.11.51.93.2
Electricity, gas, water
Wholesale and retail trade44.930.787.769.7
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property32.322.436.669.7
Transport and communications1.5–2.30.83.9
Services2.52.23.31.1
                Total115.9135.6258.4226.3

Investment by New Zealand Companies Overseas—The following table presents the converse picture of those immediately preceding viz, direct investment and income for direct investment by New Zealand companies in their overseas subsidiaries and branches.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States and CanadaOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
*Provisional.
NZ$(million)
Direct Investment
1973–747.08.9–0.7–1.713.5
1974–754.31.52.17.1x15.0
1975–764.05.08.40.3x17.7
1976–774.85.621.04.435.9
1977–78*–4.426.07.43.932.9
Income from Direct Investment
1973–745.08.00.53.717.3
1974–755.98.01.15.720.6
1975–763.314.81.05.324.4
1976–774.122.62.39.738.7
1977–78*2.837.43.27.250.6

25 C—INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES

Input-output analysis, a most important economic tool, was devised by Professor Leontief, an American economist, in the 1930s to define and measure the interdependence of the different industries within the economy. It provided a tool with which, for example, it was possible to measure the effects of a stated increase or decrease in the demand for houses on the timber industry, the cement industry, and the industries producing glass, steel, paint, bricks, tiles, concrete blocks, nails, plumbing requisites, and all the hundreds of other items that go into houses, as well as on the demand for imports.

An inter-industry study involves three distinct tasks. They are:

  1. The systematic collection, evaluation, and arrangement of a vast body of statistical information on production and consumption covering, as far as possible, every facet of the economy. This is the basic data on which the worth of the whole study depends.

  2. The formulation of an appropriate theoretical scheme.

  3. The application of theoretical methods and devices to the analysis of empirical data.

In a sense, input-output analysis brings together those who in economic research have always tended to drift apart—the producers of elegant theories, and those engaged in empirical research and the accumulation of data. Input-output analysis gives scope to the theorist but at the same time keeps him anchored firmly to the basic data, to the figures of goods poured out by factories, transported by ships, trucks, and trains, and sold over shop counters.

The term “Inter-Industry Study” refers to the whole task of investigation, compilation, and preliminary calculations as well as the mass of input-output tables and derived tables that forms the end product.

THE BASIC INPUT-OUTPUT TABLE—In the basic input-output table the entire economic activities of a country are divided into industry groups, which may number some hundreds. In New Zealand they range from 12 in the earlier studies to 130 in the latest study. A great deal of investigation and research is necessary in order to discover what each industry consumes, both in the form of the products of other industries and in the form of primary inputs such as labour; and what it produces, what it supplies to other industries in the form of raw materials, components, and semi-finished products, and what it supplies to final consumers such as households.

Each industry appears twice in an input-output table—in a row as a producer and in a column as a consumer. The rows and columns intersect, so that what appears in a row as part of industry A's output sold to industry B can also be read down the industry B column as part of industry B's input purchased from industry A.

DERIVED TABLES—If the straightforward monetary transactions table is subjected to a mathematical process, known as inversion of the matrix, a derived table or model is produced. This derived table will show on a unit basis (that is per $ or per $ million, etc.) what will be required in additional output from every industry in the economy to support an increase of one unit in the final output of a selected industry. Such an account is often known as a table of total requirements (direct and indirect) per unit of final demand. The words “direct and indirect” are used to indicate that the table includes not only the direct requirements of the selected industry, but also the additional requirements of industries supplying that industry with raw materials, components, and services, and the additional requirements of industries supplying those industries, and so on through an ever-widening circle of the economy until the economic reverberations die away.

UPDATING OF INPUT-OUTPUT STATISTICS—It is a common criticism of inter-industry studies (and not only in New Zealand) that they are invariably years out of date and therefore stale and of historical interest only. A considerable delay is inevitable with a full-scale study because of the enormous amount of preparatory investigation necessary and the fact that sometimes the detailed information required for input-output purposes is not available until a considerable time after the close of the year or other period that is the subject of the study.

The essential value of input-output tables lies not so much in the actual transactions portrayed as in the structural relationships revealed, which are found by experience in developed countries to remain reasonably stable for periods of several years. Nevertheless the Department has recently updated the 1971–72 basic transactions table to 1976–77. It was obtained using information from the 1971–72 Inter-Industry Study and the provisional National Accounts for 1976–77. Derived tables have also been recalculated for 1976–77 and have been published together with a description of the updating methodology in a statistical bulletin.

NEW ZEALAND INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES—The Department of Statistics has published three major inter-industry studies of the New Zealand economy. The Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1959–60 was published in four parts, the Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1965–66 in two parts, and the Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1971–72 in one part. The 1971–72 Inter-Industry Study updated to 1976–77 has been published as a statistical bulletin. The 1959–60 and 1965–66 Studies used similar methodology. The 1971–72 Study, however, adopted concepts used in the United Nations System of National Accounts (1968) and formed the basis for the Department of Statistics's revised National Accounts. The few differences between the 1971–72 Study and the revised National Accounts will be reduced further in the full 1976–77 Inter-Industry Study now in preparation. The 1959–60 and 1965–66 Studies are comparable, and the 1971–72 and 1976–77 Studies will be, but comparison between the 1965–66 and 1971–72 Studies should be made with considerable caution.

The table on the following pages provides the Inter-Industry transactions for the year 1976–77 (obtained by updating the 1971–72 Study) on a basis of twenty-five industry groups. These groups match those used in the revised National Accounts. The table is provisional. It has been revised for the purposes of the statistical bulletin and will be further revised when the results of the full 1976–77 study become available.

INTER-INDUSTRY TRANSACTIONS 1976–77 (UPDATED FROM 1971–72) In $(million) at approximate basic values (Provisional)
For the disposition of output of an industry read the row for that industry. For the origin of input into an industry read the column for that industry.AgricultureFishing and HuntingForestry and LoggingMining and QuarryingFood, Beverages, and TobaccoTextile, Apparel, and Leather ProductsWood and Wood ProductsPaper, Printing and PublishingChemical, Petroleum, and Plastic ProductsNon-Metallic Mineral Products
 12345678910
1 Agriculture473000859192000
2 Fishing and Hunting00140000
3 Forestry and Logging030000762600
4 Mining and Quarrying20018111041532
5 Food, Beverages and Tobacco130002011202100
6 Textile, Apparel and Leather Products12000111622141
7 Wood and Wood Products11001921081321
8 Paper, Printing and Publishing800085135186329
9 Chemical, Petroleum and Plastic Products2082546431264919010
10 Non-metallic Mineral Products901129021535
11 Basic Metal Industries15001414221
11 Metal Products and Machinery3685664718144512
13 Other Manufacturing0000131010
14 Electricity, Gas and Water28014297619117
15 Construction120534276510106
16 Wholesale and Retail Trade, Restaurants and Hotels912141319785559711427
17 Transport and Storage50116221542422413921
18 Communications110111053762
19 Insurance, Real Estate, Finance7915454211325227
20 Ownership of Dwellings
21 Social, Personal, Community Services351341644543
22 Central Government1000200000
23 Local Government1000110110
24 Private Non-profit Services to Households1000100010
25 Domestic Services
                Sub-total1,09616871151,843404350503514173
26 Compensation of Employees25410553347724414819917076
27 Operating Surplus9439601614153591168947
28 Commodity Indirect Taxes2012112122682
29 Non-commodity Indirect Taxes480211712221
30 Commodity Subsidies–69–1000
31 Non-commodity Subsidies–33–1–2–3
32 Consumption of Fixed Capital20851113732020382917
33 Imports1533117180140285855219
                Sub-total1,5252713969896470260419849162
                Grand total2,621432261842,7398746109221,363336
Basic Metal IndustriesMetal Products and MachineryOther ManufacturingElectricity, Gas, and WaterConstructionWholesale and Retail Trade, Restaurants and HotelsTransport and StorageCommunicationsInsurance, Real Estate, and FinanceOwnership of DwellingsSocial, Personal and Community ServicesCentral GovernmentLocal Government
11121314151617181920212223
000023711000130
00003000000
00001100000000
310184610006031
010002762000170
141011333020351
013102081320318250
1203427156963967204
296531637845383728275
040119451016110
1291362132181017120
202842629789100682418254
0210320013110
915120512576210135135
117111459609921994793118
2822571731521910695444564612
104729571131042515513303
11103108315041014192
4412257437733424612329345
-
110031613033226042304
00001445010120
0101035930302117
01021410201051
-
210930293191,9762,20256961480386242370182
53522231015371,2265852345632351,321120
481411313023596014851506239215
1381121129231822286
15028691926681732
000000
0–2–15–42–10–6
15442504719111323806822
654151417179239202623171251179
1831,166522991,0262,7981,0483161,2474076191,448137
3932,096816173,0035,0001,6173761,7267928611,818319
For the disposition of output of an industry read the row for that industry. For the origin of input into an industry read the column for that industry.Private Son-profit Services to HouseholdsDomestic ServicesSub-totalHousehold ConsumptionGovernment Services and Private Non-profit ServicesGross Fixed Capital FormationStock ChangeExportsStatistical DiscrepancySub-totalGrand Total
 2425...262728293031......
1 Agriculture11,73316219–877938882,621
2 Fishing and Hunting01820222543
3 Forestry and Logging014200582584226
4 Mining and Quarrying01644111520184
5 Food, Beverages, and Tobacco252996152001,0442,2102,739
6 Textile, Apparel and Leather Products134942362374525874
7 Wood and Wood Products141712637129193610
8 Paper, Printing and Publishing11650122413132272922
9 Chemical, Petroleum and Plastic Products31,092209157392711,363
10 Non-metallic Mineral Products12989971237336
11 Basic Metal Industries035828101635393
12 Metal Products and Machinery11,09738848342869992,096
13 Other Manufacturing1213921466081
14 Electricity, Gas, and Water7472140401145617
15 Construction131,10971,887001,8943,003
16 Wholesale and Retail Trade, Restaurants and Hotels131,8472,27524455742–1633,1535,000
17 Transport and Storage182316169195467951,617
18 Communications7251113706125376
19 Insurance, Real Estate, Finance71,23446129034921,726
20 Ownership of Dwellings792792792
21 Social, Personal, Community Services5379472108482861
22 Central Government032161,74520231,7861,818
23 Local Government08611215700233319
24 Private Non-Profit Services to Households124256108000164206
25 Domestic Services888
                Sub-total8713,1436,9582,0672,8393633,623–16315,68725,830
26 Compensation of Employees9687,2917,291
27 Operating Surplus4,2164,216
28 Commodity Indirect Taxes333148196250602933
29 Non-commodity Indirect Taxes3343232548391
30 Commodity Subsidies–72–36–200–38–109
31 Non-commodity Subsidies–106–106
32 Consumption of Fixed Capital101,0991,099
33 Imports72,584992425811611,6594,244
                Sub-total119815,6871,4595441061612,27117,959
                Grand total206828,8308,4182,0673,3834693,784–16317,95946,789

25 D—REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT

The Gross Domestic Product is the total value of all goods and services produced in New Zealand during a financial year (ended 31 March). The “Real” Gross Domestic Products for a number of years are estimates of the total production of goods and services in each of those years, all valued at the prices prevailing in one particular year; so that the totals for each year indicate the relative volumes of production, and the differences in these volumes in the respective years are apparent.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT—The index of Real Gross Domestic Product measures the relative levels of the volume of production in each year, with each sector of the economy represented in proportion to its contibution to gross domestic product at factor cost in 1965–66; the basis for these analyses being the input-output tables for 1965–66. The economy has been divided into 11 industry groupings representing the major divisions of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (N.Z.S.I.C.), but with major division 1 “Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry, and Fishing”, split into 3 groups, namely: Agriculture, Hunting and Fishing, Forestry and Logging.

The industry groupings, and the contribution made by each to the gross domestic product in the base year 1965–66, are shown below.

Industrial GroupsPercentage of Base Year Gross Domestic Product
Agriculture15.0
Hunting and fishing0.2
Forestry and logging0.6
Mining and quarrying0.7
Manufacturing21.7
Electricity, gas, and water2.6
Construction7.3
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels18.8
Transport, storage, and communication8.2
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services12.0
Community, social and personal services12.9
 100.0

The Index of Real Gross Domestic Product is presented in the following table, analysed by the industry groupings.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT
Industrial Groups1965–661972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77x1977–78*

*Provisional.

†From 1972–73 measures real net output.

Agriculture100010159661103117211751119
Hunting and fishing1000128012441268123213331389
Forestry and logging1000139914941491149817321659
Mining and quarrying1000123514061427131717662157
Manufacturing1000138415661639164316831578
Electricity, gas, and Water1000166617691838204621802214
Construction1000115612131296136311791186
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels1000120913191349132712981226
Transport, storage, and communication1000123314071363135113381334
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services1000124013061319134213741386
Community, social, and personal services1000115611891223126312701284
All industrial groups combined1000122613141367139013921354
Annual percentage increase—All industrial groups combined...4.47.24.01.70.1–2.7

INDEX OF EMPLOYMENT—The Index of Employment is based on the numbers of persons in the total labour force as estimated by the Department of Labour. The total labour force includes all persons actively engaged for 20 or more hours per week and excludes the unemployed.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT PER LABOUR FORCE MEMBER—Increases in real production are due partly to increases in the numbers of persons engaged, and in part to other factors (additions of productive fixed capital assets, improvements in management, organisational measures) as well as to greater labour effort or improved skills of the labour force. While the elements pertaining to labour input are relatively easy to qualify, the measurement of the other factors is exceedingly difficult.

The 3 indexes are compared in the following table. All 3 indexes are on base 1965–66=1000.

YearReal C.D.P.EmploymentReal G.D.P. per Labour Force MemberAnnual Percentage Increase
IndexAnnual Percentage IncreaseIndexAnnual Percentage Increase

*Provisional.

†Minus sign signifies a decrease.

1972–7312264.411181.410973.1
1973–7413147.211593.711343.4
1974–7513674.011892.611501.4
1975–7613901.711990.811590.8
1976–7713920.112080.81152–0.6
1977–78*1355–2.71197–0.91131–1.8

Chapter 28. Section 26; CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

26 A—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

GENERAL—The Central Government is concerned with the future of the nation and therefore with the economic, social, and cultural development of the people as a whole and the quality of their environment. In New Zealand the State is fairly broadly concerned in national development and social welfare. The Central Government budgets for and controls expenditure on capital works such as electricity supply, land settlement, housing, public buildings, forest development, railway and road construction, telecommunications, and on other functions such as social welfare, health, education, defence, and paying interest on the public debt.

Taxing, charging, and borrowing are the three alternative avenues of raising revenue to meet Government expenditure. The problem of choice between these avenues can be described as the choice of the most efficient and equitable way of paying for publicly-provided services. However, the problems of finance and of raising revenue cannot be considered in isolation. In the first place some Government expenditures, such as subsidies and transfer payments (for example, pensions and child benefits), can and do alter the equity of the tax system. For instance, subsidies and monetary benefits can be regarded as refunds of tax. In the second place, it is now generally accepted that a system of raising revenue must be in accord with the general objectives of Government economic policy. In the final analysis, any system of Government finance, embracing both expenditure and the raising of revenue, must be designed to achieve the economic objectives of growth, full employment, price stability, and external balance of payments in an efficient manner, tempered by the prevailing views about freedom and the equitable distribution of income.

The Central Government, by budgeting for a surplus (revenue exceeding expenditure) or a deficit, or by varying the impact of taxation or the level of Government expenditure on certain sectors of the economy, now uses these powers to regulate internal economic activity.

Until the coming into force of the Public Finance Act 1977 on 1 April 1978, the Public Revenues Act 1953 was the governing legislation on the administration of public money.

THE PUBLIC ACCOUNT—This is a single financial account held at the Reserve Bank. The following funds and accounts controlled by the Treasury were included in the Public Account under the Public Revenues Act 1953; the Consolidated Revenue Account, Works and Trading Account, Trust Account, Loans Redemption Account, National Development Loans Account, Reserve Fund, and National Roads Fund. The Trust Account represents only lodgements or withdrawals of (mainly) non-Government money.

The receipts and payments of the Consolidated Revenue Account over a long period will be found in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume.

The Public Finance Act 1977, which came into force on 1 April 1978, did not affect the public accounts for the year ended 31 March 1978 which were prepared in accordance with the law as contained in the Public Revenues Act 1953. In the 1978–79 year there will be significant changes in the accounts, mainly the abolition of the Works and Trading Account and the removal of three major trading undertakings to accounts outside the Public Account. There will also be changes to the National Development Loans Account including the effects of annual appropriation of expenditure out of that account.

A summary of the financing of Government expenditure in recent years prepared in accordance with the provisions of the Public Finance Act 1977 is included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

Fuller details of the Public Account are given in parliamentary paper B. 1 (Pt. I and II) The Public Accounts and in the Budget (parliamentary paper B. 6), both obtainable from Government Bookshops.

Financial Year—The financial year commences on 1 April and ends on 31 March. The expenditure of public money is authorised by an annual Appropriation Act, which lapses at the end of the financial year. However, the Minister of Finance is authorised to pay money for services for a period of 3 months from the commencement of the next financial year, pending the granting of supplies by Parliament.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—The following table shows gross Government expenditure and the net amount of expenditure which requires financing from the Public Account. The functional classification is intended to focus attention on the broad areas in the economy in which there is substantial Government activity. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook.

It is to be remembered that the Public Account as shown in this section is prepared on a receipts and payments (cash) basis, and consequently the accounts of the operations of various departments (prepared on an accrual basis) shown in other sections will differ to some extent from those appearing here.

The first 2 tables in this section, those showing the functional classification of Government expenditure and the financing of Government expenditure, are taken from the 1978 Budget (parliamentary paper B. 6) and have been amended to be consistent with the provisions of the Public Finance Act 1977.

The functional classification of Government expenditure is shown in the following table.

Item1976–771977–78
GrossNet*GrossNet*
*Net expenditure is generally arrived at by deducting trading and departmental receipts from gross expenditure.
Administration—$(million)
    General administration199.1157.8191.4160.8
    Law and order107.079.6136.4107.5
    Government services93.172.5113.089.2
    Miscellaneous services26.26.929.36.9
    Stabilisation71.571.5116.0114.8
 496.9388.3586.1479.2
Foreign relations—
    Defence214.8210.7252.2248.2
    Foreign Affairs81.678.083.180.8
 296.4288.7335.3329.0
Development of industry—
    Land use377.9211.7424.3253.9
    Fuel and power363.5201.5x458.4261.4
    Other industrial services97.891.7120.7114.5
 839.2504.9x1,003.5629.8
Education—
    Education704.7699.4813.9807.5
Social services—
    Social Welfare1,077.91,067.21,491.51,479.2
    Other social services130.691.7135.690.1
 1,208.51,158.91,627.11,569.3
Health-
    Health690.4689.1809.8808.5
Transport and communications—
    Transport516.9203.6x579.3223.6
    Communications379.127.0429.124.0
 896.0230.6x1,008.4247.6
Debt services and miscellaneous—
    Debt services371.3371.3471.3471.3
    Miscellaneous investment transactions106.838.2x133.445.5
    Miscellaneous financing transactions208.8208.8284.0281.0
 686.9618.3x888.7797.8
                Total5,819.04,578.2x7,072.85,668.7

The following table shows financing of Government expenditure. This table has been amended to conform with the provisions of the Public Finance Act 1977, in which the Ministry of Energy and N.Z. Railways became accounts outside the Public Account.

Item1975–761976–771977–78

*Includes the sale of Government securities to the Reserve Bank of $252.3 million in 1975–76 and $330.3 million in 1976–77 and the purchase of $540.0 million of Government securities in 1977–78.

†Excludes supplier's credit and currency realignments adjustments.

Expenditure$(million)
    Administration475.9388.3479.2
    Foreign relations271.0288.7329.0
    Development of industry573.1x504.9x629.8
    Education627.0699.4807.5
    Social services997.01,158.91,569.3
    Health605.7689.1808.5
    Transport and communications275.3x230.6x247.6
    Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions311.2x409.5x516.8
Sub-total4,136.2x4,369.4x5,387.7
Miscellaneous financing transactions308.1208.8281.0
Total expenditure4,444.3x4,578.2x5,668.7
Financed from
    Taxation—
        Income tax2,295.82,828.53,482.8
        Customs, sales tax, and beer duty576.9652.6703.0
        Highways tax101.2107.4126.2
        Motor spirits tax76.3100.4102.2
        Other taxation135.1156.0212.1
        Total taxation3,185.33,844.94,626.3
    Interest, profits, and miscellaneous receipts257.3x227.2x348.0
    Total taxation, interest, etc.3,442.6x4,072.1x4,974.3
    Amount to be financed from borrowing1,001.7506.1694.4
Borrowing in New Zealand*1,100.9629.4799.4
    Less repayments in New Zealand414.4238.6230.4
 686.5390.8569.0
    Plus sales (less purchases) of investments+15.7–12.8–134.6
    Net borrowing in New Zealand+702.2+378.0+434.4
    Internal surplus (+) deficit (–)–299.5–128.1–260.0
Borrowing overseas483.1421.4832.6
    Less repayment overseas156.6278.9424.6
 326.5142.5408.0
    Plus sales (less purchases) of overseas investments–39.4–12.7–142.2
    Net borrowing overseas287.1129.8265.8
    Cash surplus (+) deficit (–)–12.4+1.7+5.8

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—By including the receipts of both the Consolidated Revenue Account and the National Roads Fund the following table shows the total receipts of direct and indirect taxation during the latest five years. The term “taxation” throughout this section refers to Public Account Taxation.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19741975197619771978

*Interest received by State Advances Corporation, which was later restructured into two separate corporations, the Housing Corporation and the RBFC.

†Includes transfer from Reserve Fund ($115 million) and temporary transfer from National Development Loans Account ($55 million).

‡Includes temporary transfer of $4,000,000 from Loans Redemption Account to National Roads Fund.

 $(million)
Direct taxation—
    Income tax1,697.92,136.02,295.82,828.53,482.8
    Estate and gift duty33.841.154.254.748.7
    Land tax3.33.43.46.68.4
    Property speculation tax0.20.30.20.30.2
Total—Direct taxation1,735.22,180.82,353.62,890.13,540.1
Indirect taxation—
    Motor vehicle fees and charges21.620.623.920.642.6
    Customs duty201.2229.1217.0252.9272.8
    Beer duty44.746.248.446.558.7
    Sales tax206.4234.7311.4353.3371.5
    Racing duty19.221.926.729.933.8
    Other stamp duties29.425.926.233.730.8
    Motor spirits tax76.3100.4x102.2
    Highway taxation103.2104.8101.3107.4126.3
    Foreign travel tax.........4.913.7
    Energy resources levy.........4.032.5
    Payroll tax33.50.8
    Other taxation0.40.60.51.1x1.4
Total—Indirect taxation659.6684.5831.7954.8x1,086.2
Total—Taxation receipts2,394.82,865.33,185.33,844.9x4,626.3
Interest—
    On capital liability—
    Electric supply45.250.959.575.3119.6
    Post Office16.718.019.928.733.2
    Housing Corporation28.7*20.527.652.664.3
    Rural Banking and Finance Corporation13.318.328.538.6
    Other24.426.734.064.583.4
    On other public moneys12.516.325.628.325.6
Total—Interest127.5145.6184.9278.0364.6
Profits from trading undertakings16.025.713.811.820.6
Departmental receipts74.588.9104.9137.6153.9
Special and miscellaneous receipts2.525.3299.966.044.0
Total—Other220.5285.5601.5493.4583.1
Total—Receipts2,615.33,150.83,786.84,337.45,209.4
Total taxation as percentage of national disposable income28.3%31.2%30.3%30.3%33.6%

The following table shows expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1975197619771978

*Includes Reserve Bank compensation for depreciation of bank's investments because of devaluation of currency.

†Reclassified under Development of Industry.

‡Reclassified under Social Services.

Permanent appropriations—$(thousand)
    Under Special Acts of Legislature—
    Civil List1,6021,7301,8432,243
Debt services—
    Interest221,030270,013367,037464,524
    Transfer to Loans Redemption Account50,00050,00060,00065,000
    Administration and management7362,7484,2606,791
                Total—Debt services271,766322,761431,297536,314
Special Acts—
    Superannuation Act 195622,14625,33232,36947,839
    N.Z. Superannuation refunds (recoverable)  31,4421,488
    Miscellaneous12,3957,26922,14114,983
                Total—Special Acts34,54132,60185,95264,310
                Total—Permanent appropriations307,909357,092519,092602,867
Annual Appropriations—
    Administration—
        General Administration—
            Vote—
              Accident Compensation22252430
              Audit1,7252,0402,1762,541
              Broadcasting707384103
    Commission for the Environment......383456
              Customs6,6367,7859,00910,974
              Inland Revenue17,29522,50724,89927,880
              Internal Affairs22,29427,59432,27035,006
              Legislative2,3232,8363,7594,628
              Prime Minister's Department389639640835
              Rural Banking and Finance Corporation913
              Housing Corporation1618
              State Services Commission9,90823,78830,00331,867
              Statistics4,6035,91010,1347,873
              Treasury4,1124,6015,02316,348
              Valuation4,6845,2585,3486,343
              Total—General administration74,087103,087123,752144,885
    Law and order—
        Vote—
              Crown Law416574581680
              Justice29,69837,69840,72550,907
              Police40,61849,43454,71371,427
              Security Intelligence Service7288029051,210
              Total—Law and order71,45988,50896,924124,224
     Government services—
        Vote—
              Government Printing Office16,58418,59416,91521,598
              Works and Development47,43140,15640,29444,170
              Total—Government services64,01658,75057,20965,767
    Stabilisation—
        Vote—
              Stabilisation148,152182,55358,321105,072
              Total—Administration357,714432,898336,206439,949
Foreign relations—
    Defence—
        Defence166,854193,465214,831252,172
    Foreign Affairs—
              Foreign Affairs47,68381,39380,41581,541
              Total—Foreign relations214,537274,858295,246333,713
    Development of industry—
        Land use—
              Agriculture and Fisheries102,337205,106171,686177,319
              Forest Service6,7858,4598,83910,602
              Lands and Survey12,76616,00519,41424,015
              Rural Banking and Finance Corporation  6,0367,036
              Total—Land use121,888229,570205,975218,971
        Fuel and power—
              Energy Resources1975748111,728
              Mines3,1413,3672,724834
 3,3383,9413,5352,562
    Other industrial services—
            Trade and Industry15,70317,76517,73021,765
              Labour11,47423,48436,24648,804
              Scientific and Industrial Research22,90027,22029,90635,718
              Tourist and Publicity8,2399,48610,58812,283
              Total—Other industrial services58,31677,95594,470118,570
              Total—Development of industry183,542311,466303,980340,103
    Education—
        Education529,803631,751586,145689,405
     Social services—
              Housing Corporation......47,13354,254
              Social Welfare710,959884,6631,077,8861,491,528
              Maori Affairs15,0586,7157,13510,103
              Internal Affairs3,0255,3777,0137,595
                Total—Social services729,042896,7551,139,1671,563,480
    Health—
              Health491,367602,546685,785806,311
    Transport and communications—
              Transport—
                Roads, etc.1,25016,35021,00010,000
                Transport47,40958,49262,18675,732
                Total—Transport48,65974,84283,18685,732
                Total—Annual appropriations2,554,6653,225,1163,429,7154,258,694
Unauthorised expenditure18,73821,24111,9624,537
Defence credits and other special entries3,57780,642*54,34727,748
Additional contribution to Loans Redemption Account30,000100,000100,000
Transfer to National Development Loans Account120,00010,000
Transfer to Reserve Fund100,00080,000
                Total payments3,034,8893,684,0914,225,1175,073,845

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT LOANS ACCOUNT—Particulars of receipts and payments of the National Development Loans Account were as follows.

Item1975–761976–771977–78
Receipts$(thousand)
Stock issued1,116,634920,4221,291,000
Advance subscriptions22,94217,330
Securities issued to Asian Development Bank—
    Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes2,4871,400
Securities issued to EBRD—
    Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes478
Securities issued to IMF—
    Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes10,682113,77636,525
Transfer from Consolidated Revenue Account10,000
                Total1,129,8031,068,5401,345,332
Item1975–761976–771977–78
Payments$(thousand)
Contribution to Consolidated Revenue Account-capital equipment credit arrangements2,1285,6411,414
Charges and expenses on raising and repaying loans7,6186,82815,339
Transfer to Works and Trading Account—
    Public works115,000214,500252,900
    Electric supply208,500205,500262,200
    Land settlement29,50010,50025,000
    State Coal Mines10,50013,50022,800
    Railways49,50046,00031,800
Capital equipment credit arrangements58,09559,15843,317
Advance subscriptions from previous year allocated22,942
Advances to—
    Post Office53,00027,00024,000
    New Zealand National Airways Corporation2,0005,175
    Development Finance Corporation14,142275
    Tourist Hotel Corporation3,2354,7994,941
    Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand16,9008,000
    Natural Gas Corporation5,9471,791
    Offshore Mining Company Ltd.80,68875,552116,047
    Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Ltd.2,011
    Housing Corporation of New Zealand310,000180,000197,500
    Rural Banking and Finance Corporation93,00090,000150,000
    New Zealand Export-Import Corporation1,6801,512
    Linen Flax Corporation139
Calls on shares in Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Ltd.3,500
Acquisition of shares in New Zealand Steel Ltd.1,497
Acquisition of shares in Air New Zealand Ltd.4,0006,000
Acquisition of shares in Development Finance Corporation1,000
Encashment of securities in favour of Asian Development Bank650490787
Securities in favour of Asian Development Bank2,4871,400
Security in favour of IMF10,682113,77636,525
Encashment of securities in favour of IBRD405050
Subscription to IBRD53
Security in favour of IBRD478
Temporary transfer to Consolidated Revenue Account55,000
                Total1,137,4431,080,9321,209,606
                Balance at end of year53,66741,275177,002

WORKS AND TRADING ACCOUNT—The Works and Trading Account receipts and payments are shown in the following table.

Receipts1975–761976–771977–78
Administration—$(000)$(000)$(000)
    General administration—
    Works and Development (Programme VI)1,9931,180x2,842
    State Services Commission (Programme IV)221
    Law and order
    Justice (Programme LX)
    Government services
    Works and Development (Programmes VII and VIII)7571,3001,048
Development of Industry—
    Land use
        Forest Service37,64759,68757,327
        Lands and Survey42,96059,11758,102
        Maori Affairs18,59723,72327,276
    Fuel and power
        Electric supply128,147199,493276,269
        Mines20,05433,83737,991
Education—
    Education (Programme VI)25975
Foreign relations—
    Foreign Affairs (Programme VI)591424299
Transport and communications—
    Transport
        Railways172,337248,594271,862
        Transport4216x206
        Works and Development (Programme V)1203236
 423,245627,430734,255
Contributions from National Development Loans Account—
    Electric supply208,500205,500262,200
    Land settlement29,50010,50025,000
    Public works115,000214,500252,900
    Railways49,50046,00031,800
    State coal mines10,50013,50022,800
 413,000490,000594,700
Capital equipment credit arrangements—
    Electric supply31,00443,76835,329
    Railways26,11615,3906,842
    State coal mines975772
    Foreign Affairs137
    Transport237
 58,09559,15843,317
 471,095549,158638,017
Contributions from Consolidated Revenue Account—
    From vote “Mines”; For losses in State coal mines2,6002,000
    From vote “Stabilisation”:   
        For losses incurred in railways68,50016,00058,500
        For losses incurred in electric supply13,070
                Total978,5101,194,5881,430,772
Balances at beginning of year—
    Cash1,3671,4134,821
    Investments583335
    Imprests outstanding1,9502,443761
 3,3753,8895,618
Excess of receipts over payments5141,728126
                Total3,8895,6185,743
Annual appropriations—
    Administration—
        General administration
            Construction of public buildings23,96817,73516,714
    Law and order
                Justice5,0246,1787,477
                Police2,9232,1962,556
    Government services
                Works and Development (Progammes VII and VIII)24,16024,54936,582
    Development of industry—
        Land use
            Agriculture and Fisheries3,4612,3342,241
            Forest Service78,70494,522109,089
            Lands and Survey38,39136,83245,498
            Maori Affairs36,35434,59843,179
        Fuel and power
            Electric supply275,104310,177395,896
            Mines32,99547,24157,561
        Other industrial services
            Scientific and Industrial Research2,2412,3182,018
            Education118,533124,483
    Foreign relations—
        Foreign Affairs4,8331,0921,473
    Health—
        Health3,8584,6763,420
    Transport and communications—
        Transport
            Railways274,780295,883330,060
            Transport—airport development4,3367758,128
            Works—developmental roading2,7212,0132,120
 813,8531,001,6501,188,494
Contributions to Superannuation scheme9,5469,64810,269
Interest on capital liability paid to Consolidated Revenue.........
    Account—
    Electric supply58,67275,052119,504
    Land settlement11,71114,98116,224
    Railways3,5905,15719,197
    State coal mines1,8863,083
 73,97397,077158,008
Contributions to Loans Redemption Account for redemption of securities17,64421,27225,112
Capital equipment purchased under credit arrangements58,09559,15843,317
Land acquired other than under annual votes4,4483,4254,909
Miscellaneous expenditure435347537
Unauthorised expenditure284
Excess of receipts over payments5141,728126
                Total978,5101,194,5881,430,772
Balances at end of year—
    Cash1,4134,8214,930
    Investments333537
    Imprests outstanding2,443761776
                Total3,8895,6185,743

Works Programme—Details of the works programme and roading expenditure by special categories are shown in the following table.

ItemYear ended 31 March
1975*1976*1977*1978*

*Maintenance, and some capital expenditure for smaller departments are no longer included in the Works programme.

†Provision mainly for Clutha Valley development for hydro-electric purposes.

Administration—$(million)
    Works—
        National water and soil conservation10.214.114.919.6
        Development of natural resources1.96.6
    Public buildings—
        Government services10.515.017.716.7
        Law and order6.47.98.410.0
    Miscellaneous4.77.69.710.5
            Total31.844.652.663.4
Foreign relations—
    Defence2.95.95.55.3
    Public buildings-overseas posts4.64.81.11.5
            Total7.510.76.66.8
Development of industry—
    Energy148.0219.7222.8264.6
    Forestry6.47.68.111.1
    Land utilization6.58.25.58.3
    Tourism0.32.52.83.0
    Natural gas9.96.03.21.4
    Miscellaneous1.82.22.32.0
            Total172.9246.2244.7290.4
Education—
    Primary, secondary and special education—Buildings57.672.868.278.1
    Tertiary education—
            University buildings19.826.428.528.8
            Technical institutes6.513.615.211.6
    Teachers' colleges4.37.36.65.9
    Total88.2120.0118.5124.4
Social services—
    Housing construction67.489.158.058.3
    Public buildings—social welfare1.41.81.91.7
            Total68.890.959.960.0
Health—
    Health and hospital buildings2.23.94.73.4
Transport and communications—
    Railways16.420.119.220.4
    Roading116.6128.3129.4147.3
    Transport4.25.92.08.5
    Post Office47.156.757.651.6
    Broadcasting1.72.21.00.9
            Total186.0213.2209.2228.7
            Grand total557.4729.5696.2777.1

NATIONAL ROADS FUND—The National Roads Act 1953 established a National Roads Fund within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Consolidated Revenue Account. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Receipts and payments of the National Roads Fund were as follows.

Item1974–751975–761976–771977–78
Receipts$(thousand)
Motor spirits duty (less refunds)85,33380,82985,936106,696
Other taxation, etc.19,44720,42221,48119,560
Contribution from Consolidated Revenue Account1,25016,35021,00010,000
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account2,0004,000
Miscellaneous2,9063,0033,1563,048
Interest101415261
            Total109,037122,645131,625143,365
Payments    
State highways maintenance19,67625,90929,26537,191
State highways construction40,75941,68135,88137,240
Local authorities' subsidised works44,30447,44548,27856,858
Administration and general expenses9,61510,52713,94013,889
Repayment of temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account......2,000
Unauthorised expenditure4822
                Total114,358125,570129,366145,180
                Balance at end of year2,981562,315500

SUMMARY OF BALANCES—A summary of the balances in the Public Accounts is given in the following table.

AccountBalance at 31 March
19741975197619771978
*Cash received but not yet allocated.
 $(thousand)
Consolidated Revenue Account48,37459,54357,95760,62462,827
Works and Trading Account12,0493,3753,8895,6185,743
Loans Redemption Account140,935109,555232,756176,288238,795
National Development Loans Account65,33761,30653,66741,275177,002
National Roads Fund8,3012,981562,315500
Reserve Fund92,125105,6142,588102,654184,427
Suspense Account*369296803142711
Trust Account31,63834,50438,13731,40041,310
                Total399,128377,174389,852420,315711,315

The composition of the total balances is shown in the following table.

NatureAt 31 March
19741975197619771978
 $(thousand)
Cash90,22585,85073,38875,13280,982
Imprests23,29045,04746,40449,66358,027
Investments in New Zealand101,83426,80211,15223,974158,577
Investments overseas183,779219,474258,908271,546413,728
                Total399,128377,174389,852420,315711,314

26 B—PUBLIC ACCOUNT TAXATION

TOTAL PUBLIC ACCOUNT TAXATION—A summary of public account taxation revenue during 5 recent March years is given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchIncome TaxTotal Public Account Taxation
AmountPercentage of Total Taxation (All Sources)Amount
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Populationx
 $(million)$ $(million)$
19741,697.9568.5370.92,394.8801.90
19752,136.0701.0174.52,865.3940.37
19762,295.8741.2972.1x3,185.31,028.34
19772,828.5906.4173.6x3,844.91,232.07x
19783,482.81,113.1475.34,626.31,478.57

The following table shows receipts, under the various heads, of taxation during 5 recent years. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook.

ItemRevenue for Year Ended 31 March
19741975197619771978

*Included in National Roads Fund.

†Additional to portions paid into National Roads Fund.

Consolidated Revenue Account—$(million)
    Customs revenue201.2229.1217.0252.9272.8
    Beer duty44.746.248.446.558.7
    Motor spirits tax75.498.899.7
    Motor vehicles fees and charges21.620.623.920.642.6
    Sales tax206.4234.7311.4353.3371.5
    Film-hire tax0.40.60.50.60.6
    Mileage tax**0.91.62.5
    Estate and gift duties33.841.154.254.748.7
    Racing taxation19.321.926.729.933.7
    Payroll tax33.50.8
    Land tax3.33.43.46.68.4
    Income tax1,697.92,136.02,295.82,828.53,482.8
    Foreign fishing vessel entry tax.........0.50.8
    Foreign travel tax.........4.913.7
    Energy resources levy.........4.032.5
    Property speculation tax0.20.30.20.30.2
    Stamp duties—
    On instruments25.822.022.128.825.3
    On cheques, etc.2.72.62.93.43.4
    Lottery dutyx0.91.21.21.52.1
National Roads Fund—
    Highways revenue (less rebate)103.2104.8101.3107.4126.3
                Total public account taxation2,394.82,865.33,185.33,844.94,626.3

The sources of revenue are shown in the following diagrams.

Figure 28.1. REVENUE FROM TAXATION

REVENUE FROM TAXATION

Figure 28.2. REVENUE FROM TAXATION

REVENUE FROM TAXATION

A comparison of public account taxation revenue and national disposable income is afforded by the following table, which also shows taxation as a percentage of national disposable income.

YearNational Disposable Income xPublic Account Taxation
Total RevenuePercentage of National Disposable Income
*Provisional.
 $(million)percent
1973–748,4772,394.828.3
1974–759,1872,865.331.2
1975–7610,5053,185.330.3
1976–77*12,6763,844.930.3
1977–78*13,7764,626.333.6

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION—Revenue under the headings of Customs does not include receipts from motor spirits tax paid into the National Roads Fund. The following table shows customs and excise revenue, for ordinary revenue purposes, for the latest available 5 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCustoms Duties*Beer DutyTotal Customs and Excise DutiesProportion of Total Taxation
*Including excise duties other than beer duty.
  $(thousand) percent
1974201,16444,674245,83710.3
1975229,08546,233275,3189.6
1976217,02448,374265,3988.3
1977253,39646,457299,8537.8
1978273,67458,693332,3677.2

Information in regard to Customs and excise duties generally is contained in Section 22D—Customs Tariff and Revenue.

ROADS TAXATION—The National Roads Fund derives its revenues from a tax on motor spirits, heavy traffic licence fees, and a mileage tax on vehicles not using motor spirits. Other revenues of the fund, which are not classed as taxation, consist of a Government contribution, interest earned, and miscellaneous receipts—e.g., from the sale of materials, etc. For 1968–69, tax on petrol paid to the fund was 14.8c per gallon. From 1 April 1969 the rate was increased to 17.1c per gallon by the transfer to the fund of 2.3c per gallon previously credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account, and from 1 April 1971 to 18.1c per gallon by the transfer of a further 1c a gallon.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities in 21 tax areas covering the country to levy a local authorities petroleum tax at the rate of 1, 2, or 3 cents a gallon on motor spirits and 0.5, 1, or 1.5 cents a gallon on diesel fuel delivered in a tax area. All tax areas decided to make the levies at maximum rates from February or March 1971. The proceeds of any tax imposed may be applied to projects for the benefit of the region or distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenues. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden of taxpayers.

Taxation receipts for roads purposes paid into the National Roads Fund have been as follows during the latest five years. Refunds have been deducted.

Year Ended 31 MarchMotor Spirits DutyMileage TaxHeavy-traffic and other FeesTotal
$(000)
197485,4115,79711,958103,166
197585,3336,91512,532104,781
197680,8297,38313,038101,250
197785,9367,77213,709107,417
1978106,6969,11210,448126,256

SYSTEM OF TAXATION—The following precis of the New Zealand tax system takes into account all relevant amending legislation effective up to the year ended 31 March 1979.

Income tax is levied under the Income Tax Act 1976.

Tax Year—The New Zealand tax year is from 1 April to 31 March.

Income Tax—Income tax is chargeable on most forms of income received by individuals, companies, and estates.

Income, because of its many forms, is not exhaustively defined, but includes income from the following: property; labour or effort; pensions, estates, and trusts (pensions paid by countries with which New Zealand has a double tax agreement, are generally exempt from tax in the country of origin and subject to tax in New Zealand. If a pension is taxed in the country of origin, credit is allowed in a New Zealand income tax assessment for the overseas tax paid); value of benefit allowances received in cash or kind; wages or income (earnings-related compensation) paid by the Accident Compensation Commission where a taxpayer is unable to work because of personal injury or incapacity.

Capital Gains—There is no capital gains tax but certain “gains” are deemed to be income. These are profits on sale of patent rights, and profits on sale of property (land and buildings). Generally profits from ordinary sales of a person's private residence, business, or farm property, are exempt from tax.

Apart from ordinary sales of a person's residence, business, or farm property, profits on sale of property are subject to:

Property Speculation Tax—where the property is owned for less than 2 years, but there are exemptions (see later page).

Income Tax—where the property is not liable for Property Speculation Tax but the owner:

—acquires the property for the purpose or intention of resale,

—deals in property,

—is a builder,

—makes a profit which is primarily due to rezoning or likely rezoning,

—subdivides the property within 10 years of purchase,

—subdivides the property more than 10 years after purchase and carries out extensive subdivisional work before selling. (Only the “development profit” is taxable in this case.)

Exempt Income—Income is exempt from tax in New Zealand only if provisions are made in the New Zealand Tax Act.

Some of the more common items exempt from tax are the following: maintenance or alimony payments; the first $200 of interest from the Post Office Savings Bank, private savings banks, trustee savings banks, deposits with building societies, and mortgages under the Housing Corporation's housing mortgage guarantee scheme; any excess of interest over the $200 exemption outlined above plus interest from all other sources qualifies for a general $100 exemption; Social Welfare benefits (except the National Superannuation Benefit); war pensions and service disability pensions paid by any Government; interest on National Development Bonds and New Zealand Savings Certificates (not exceeding $500 in any one year); income derived by charitable and certain non-profit organisations; proceeds of certain insurance policies; and lottery and raffle prizes.

“Pay as You Earn” System—A “Pay as You Earn” (PAYE) system of collecting income tax is used for individuals and for companies.

How the PAYE System Works—Income for PAYE purposes falls into two general classes— Salaries and wages and all other forms of remuneration. With these, PAYE tax is deducted at time of payment.

Business, farming, investment, and professional incomes. With these incomes, tax is not deducted at time of receipt but the taxpayer pays “provisional tax”, usually based on the income tax paid for the previous year.

In both cases an adjustment or “square-up” is made when the return of income for the particular year is furnished.

Tax, which is called “Terminal tax”, is assessed on the basis of the annual return, and credit is allowed for the tax deductions or provisional tax paid during the year.

If there is an overpayment the taxpayer will receive a refund or credit against future tax—if insufficient tax was paid there will be further tax to pay.

Income Tax and the Individual: Residents of New Zealand—New Zealand residents are liable to New Zealand tax on all income including income from outside New Zealand. Credit is allowed for any overseas tax paid, but this is limited to the New Zealand tax payable on that income or the overseas tax paid whichever is the smaller.

Who is a Resident?—A New Zealand resident, for New Zealand tax purposes, is a person whose home is in New Zealand. As a general rule a person is regarded as having a home in New Zealand if he lives in New Zealand for longer than 15 months, or if leaving New Zealand is away for less than 15 months.

Generally this means persons who come to New Zealand with the intention of residing permanently, or to stay more than 15 months, are taxed on their total income from all sources, both inside and outside New Zealand, as from the date of arrival.

How the Wage Earner is Taxed—At the beginning of the year, or when a new job is started, the wage earner fills in a Tax Code Declaration. This form fixes the tax code used to work out tax deductions. The codes are—

  • “S” for a single taxpayer, or for a married taxpayer whose spouse receives income in excess of $520.

  • “M” for a married taxpayer with a dependent spouse.

  • “SEC” for a secondary job in addition to the person's regular job. Tax is deducted from these earnings at a rate of 18c in each dollar.

  • “S & F” For those taxpayers who are entitled to claim the young family rebate.

  • “M & F”

Employers Take Off Tax—The employer, when working out the tax, uses a tax table divided into “tax codes”. The tax payable is taken off the employee's earnings and paid to the Inland Revenue Deparment.

The Tax Code Declaration also incorporates a Tax Deduction Certificate. This is returned to the employee on termination of employment or at the end of the financial year.

The certificate shows the following: income earned; tax deducted; back pay relating to earlier years; overtime hours worked; shifts worked; extra pays; superannuation deducted; and the period of employment.

This information is used when the employee fills out a tax return at the end of the tax year.

Annual Returns of Income—Most salary and wage earners file tax returns each year and the majority of these receive refunds of overpaid tax. Refunds can arise as a result of exemptions and rebates being claimed which are not allowed for in the Tax Code Declaration, or of the wage earner having been employed for part of the year only.

Most salary and wage earners use the return form IR 5. It is required to be completed and sent to the Inland Revenue Department by 7 June. Salary and wage earners are assessed on their total taxable income, less any deduction for expenses and special exemptions. Rebates and the taxes previously paid are deducted from the tax assessed to give either a refund or further tax to pay. For more about exemptions and rebates see later pages.

All Other Individuals—Individuals who are self-employed, in partnership, or who receive income from investments pay provisional tax. Provisional tax is generally payable in two instalments, one in September and the other in the following March. Provisional tax is calculated using as a base the income received during the previous year.

Provisional taxpayers use form IR 3. which is required to be furnished by 7 September. Expenses are deducted from the gross business or investment income and tax is calculated on the net income less any special exemptions. Credit is given for the provisional tax already paid and for any rebates. If there is an overpayment the taxpayer will receive a refund or credit against future tax. If insufficient tax was paid there will be further tax to pay.

Deductions for Expenses: Persons in Business—Expenses which are incurred in producing income, and relevant and incidental to deriving that income, may be claimed as a deduction from income. Expenses of a private, domestic, or capital nature are not deductible.

Salary and Wage Earners may claim 2 percent of salary or wages up to a maximum claim of $52 without receipts, or actual and reasonable income-related expenses supported by receipts or other appropriate evidence.

Special Exemptions—Special exemptions are deducted from the income before tax is calculated. The following special exemption is available for the year ended 31 March 1979.

ExemptionAmount
Life insurance, personal accident and sickness premiums paid for self, wife, or children, and superannuation.The amount paid or contributed up to a maximum exemption of—
  $800 if a member of an employer-subsidised superannuation fund for the whole year with proportionate increases if a member for only part of the year.
  $1,000 in other cases.

Rebates—Rebates are deducted from the total tax payable. Rebates for the year ended 31 March 1979 are shown in the following table.

RebateAmount
Personal$77.50. In addition, children under 15 or still at school and who are working may personally claim a further rebate of $39.
Wife/husband$156, decreases by 25 cents for each dollar by which spouse's income exceeds $520. Where spouse's income exceeds $1,144—no rebate allowable.
Single income familyAllowable to the principal income earner of a single income family with a child under 12 years of age. Also available to widows and solo parents with a child under 12. The rebate is $260 a year. It decreases by 25 cents for each dollar of a claimant's spouse's income in excess of $1,144 a year and is extinguished when the spouse's income exceeds $2,184.
Housekeeper (under certain circumstances)Limited to the smaller of 40 cents for each complete dollar of payments made; or $156.
Dependent relativeLimited to the smaller of 40 cents for each complete dollar contributed to the support of a relative; or $60.
Back pay6 cents per $1 of back pay received which relates to a previous income year.
Overtime10 cents per hour for every hour of qualifying overtime worked.
Shift40 cents for each qualifying shift worked.
Young familyAllowable to principal income earner in a family with at least 1 child under 5 years of age. The rebate is $468 where the sole or principal income earner derives less than $7,800 per annum. Rebates decrease by 10 cents for each dollar of income over $7,800 per annum and is extinguished when the income reaches $12,480.
Special Home, Farm, or Fishing Vessel Ownership Account45 cents for each $1 of annual savings increase in Special Home, Farm, or Fishing Vessel Ownership account. Maximum rebatable savings are:
 Home ownership-$2,000 per year (rebate $900).
 Farm ownership—$4,000 per year (rebate $1,800).
 Fishing vessel ownership—$4,000 per year (rebate $1,800).
Home vendor mortgage interest20 cents for each $1 of net interest received in respect of a “Home Vendor Mortgage”, subject to a maximum rebate of $500. This rebate is in substitution for, and not additional to, the relevant interest exemption which would otherwise be available.
School fees and charitable donations50 cents for each dollar of payments made up to $350. Maximum rebate $175.
RatesUp to $25 in respect of rates paid to a local authority on an owner-occupied residence.

Rates of Tax—The following table shows the rates of income tax payable for the year ended 31 March 1979 on each dollar of taxable income. “Taxable income” is the income after deducting exemptions and expenses.

Taxable IncomeRate per DollarCumulative Total
$c$
0–2,00016.75335.0
2,001–2,50017.225421.125
2,501–3,00018.4125513.1875
3,001–3,50019.6611.1875
3,501–4,00020.7875715.125
4,001–4,50021.975825.0
4,501–5,00034.9125999.5625
5,001–5,50036.33751,181.25
5,501–6,00037.76251,370.0625
6,001–6,50039.18751,566.0
6,501–8,00040.61252,175.1875
8,001–10,00041.83,011.1875
10,001–12,00047.2753,956.6875
12,001–14,00047.754,911.6875
14,001–16,00048.2255,876.1875
16,001–18,00052.26,920.1875
18,001–20,00053.157,983.1875
20,001–22,00054.5759,074.6875
22,001 and over58.5...

Taxes for Visitors: Who is a Visitor?—Generally a person who comes to New Zealand and intends to stay less than 15 months is taxed as a visitor or non-resident. If he stays for a longer period he is normally deemed to be a resident for tax purposes. A person not resident in New Zealand is liable to New Zealand tax on income from New Zealand but not on income from outside New Zealand.

How the Visitor is Taxed—A visitor to New Zealand is taxed on income from a New Zealand employer for personal services while in New Zealand; income from an overseas employer for personal services in New Zealand (there are certain exemption periods which are outlined in the following paragraphs); and any other income from New Zealand sources.

Income From a New Zealand Employer—The employer deducts the tax from the salary or wages of a visitor in the same way as for a resident.

Special Exemptions and Rebates Allowable in an Annual Assessment—In an assessment the visitor is allowed a proportion of the rebates allowable to the New Zealand resident. The proportion is based on the amount of time spent working in New Zealand, e.g., present in New Zealand for 30 weeks of which 20 were spent working for wages, the proportion of personal rebate allowable is 20/52 of $77.50 = $29.81. Visitors are not entitled to claim any special exemptions in respect of life insurance, or superannuation payments.

Income from an Overseas Resident—A visitor (other than a public entertainer) who performs personal (including professional) services in New Zealand for an overseas resident is exempt from New Zealand tax if the length of the visit is not more than 92 days whether or not the period of the visit falls into one or more income years; the period in New Zealand in any one income year is 92 days or less, whether in one visit or several visits in the same income year; and the income is chargeable with tax in the country where the visitor normally resides.

Public Entertainers— Public entertainers are subject to a withholding tax of 20 percent on the gross income derived by them. This is a final tax unless the entertainer considers that the true rate will be lower. To be taxed at a lower rate a return of the income received and expenses incurred in New Zealand must be furnished.

Visitors from “Double Tax” Countries—Agreements to avoid double taxation have been entered into between New Zealand and Australia, Canada, Fiji, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the United States of America, and West Germany.

A visitor from one of these countries who gets income for personal services in New Zealand from an overseas employer should refer to the relevant Agreement. Depending on the circumstances and the terms of the particular Agreement, the exemption period of 92 days could be extended.

Non-Residents: Who is an Absentee?—An absentee is a person whose home has not been in New Zealand during the income year but who derives income from a New Zealand source. An absentee is not entitled to any exemptions or rebates.

Withholding Tax on Non-residents—The Tax Act imposes a withholding tax on the following classes of income derived from New Zealand by non-residents—dividends, interest, royalties, and “know how” payments.

The rate of tax is 15 percent on the gross payments except for interest payments to Australian and Fijian residents (10 percent), and royalties paid to United Kingdom residents (10 percent).

It is a final tax on dividends, cultural royalties, and on interest except where the borrower and the lender are associated persons. On other royalties, “know how” payments, and interest where the payer and payee are associated persons, it is a minimum tax. A later assessment may be made if the rate of income tax on the income is greater than the withholding tax.

These provisions may be varied by the double tax agreements and the relevant agreement should be referred to.

Taxation of Companies—Companies in New Zealand are taxed in a different way to individual taxpayers.

The main differences are that—

  1. A company does not get any of the special exemptions or rebates which the individual taxpayer may claim.

  2. A company does not get the interest exemptions.

  3. Dividends received by a company incorporated in New Zealand are exempt from income tax.

  4. The rate of income tax is different.

New Zealand Companies: Income Tax—Resident companies pay tax on their income at the flat rate of 45 cents in the dollar.

Bonus Issue Tax—A special tax of 17 1/2; cents in the dollar on the bonus issues made from income sources is levied on the company. Shareholders receive these issues tax-free.

Excess Retention Tax—Privately controlled New Zealand investment companies are liable for an “excess retention tax”.

Excess retention tax is payable if the investment company does not pay a dividend equal to at least 40 percent of its tax-paid profits and 100 percent of its dividends from other companies.

The rate of excess retention tax is 35 cents in the dollar on any “insufficient distribution”.

A refund of excess retention tax paid will be made if, in a later year, the investment company declares a dividend greater than the amount needed for that year.

Special Types of Companies—Differing methods of assessment apply to overseas shipping companies, life insurance companies, and certain types of mining companies.

Non-Resident Companies—Non-resident companies are taxed in the same way as resident companies except that they pay an additional tax of 5 percent of their income on top of the 45 percent rate payable by a resident company; income received from dividends, interest, royalties, and “know how” is liable to a withholding tax of 15 percent (10 percent in the case of interest received by Australian and Fijian companies and royalties received by United Kingdom companies). This is the final liability except for interest paid between associated persons, royalties (other than “cultural” royalties), and “know how” payments, when there may be an end-of-year assessment.

These provisions may be varied by a double taxation agreement and the relevant agreement should be referred to. Special concessions apply to non-resident investment companies receiving dividends or interest from approved “development investments”, and processors of minerals to the primary metal stage under a “special development project”.

Incentive Legislation—There are tax incentives to help New Zealand's export drive and to encourage agricultural development, mining, fishing, winemaking, and other industries. Full details of these are obtainable from the Inland Revenue Department.

Property Speculation Tax—Property speculation tax is payable on the assessable profit derived from the sale of real property owned for less than 2 years.

Certain transactions are exempt from property speculation tax. These include properties which have been held for more than 2 years, properties acquired for personal residences or business premises and subsequently sold for purposes other than for realising a profit, properties in respect of which substantial development costs have been incurred, and properties which have been substantially renovated.

Rates of tax are set out below.

Where the Period between Date of Acquisition and Date of Disposition isRate of Tax on Assessable Profit
 Percent
6 months or less90
Exceeding 6 but not exceeding 9 months85
Exceeding 9 but not exceeding 12 months80
Exceeding 12 but not exceeding 15 months75
Exceeding 15 but not exceeding 18 months70
Exceeding 18 but not exceeding 21 months65
Exceeding 21 but not exceeding 24 months60

Land Tax—Land Tax is assessed on the total “land value” of land owned at 31 March each year after allowing any special exemption. Both companies and individual taxpayers are liable to land tax which is due and payable on 7 October each year. The last day for payment is 7 November.

Various types of land, including land used solely or principally for farming or agricultural activities, and various land owners are exempt from land tax.

Special Exemption—The exemption is $175,000 reduced by $1 for every $1 by which the “land value” of the land exceeds $175,000. Thus no exemption is allowable when the “land value” exceeds $350,000.

Rates of Land Tax—Land tax is charged at a graduated rate according to the amount of the taxable balance after deducting any allowable special exemptions. These rates are as follows: 0.2 cents in the dollar up to $20,000; 0.4 cent in the dollar on excess over $20,000 up to $30,000; 0.6 cents in the dollar on excess over $30,000 up to $40,000; and 0.7 cent in the dollar on excess over $40,000.

Special Adjustments—There are special adjustments for absentee owners and in addition companies and estates can be subject to a special basis of assessment.

Estate Duty—Generally estate duty is a tax on the total net wealth of a deceased person. There is recognition, however, of the dependency which a widow, widower, or child may have on the estate and special exemptions and reliefs from estate duty are provided for. These are explained later.

Property Liable to Estate Duty—Estate duty is payable on the following: all property in New Zealand which passes under a deceased person's will or intestacy; all property outside New Zealand if the deceased was domiciled in New Zealand at the date of his death (relief is given if death duties have been paid overseas on the same property); and certain property, usually called “notional estate” which, although it doesn't pass under the will or intestacy, forms part of the dutiable estate. Examples of “notional” assets are gifts made within 3 years before death; property held by the deceased and another as joint tenants, except the joint family home; property disposed of by the deceased before death, but in such a way that income was received from it by the deceased during his lifetime; property in annuities or other interests, bought or provided by the deceased so that a beneficial interest in them arises on his death; and policies of life insurance on life of deceased assigned to relatives within 3 years of death.

Rates of Estate Duty—Estates with a net value of $25,000 or less are exempt from duty. When the final value is between $25,000 and $27,000 the rate is 7 percent on the amount over $25,000. The rates then gradually increase according to the value of the estate, but the overall rate never exceeds 40 percent.

Examples of the duty payable when there are no special exemptions are shown in this chart.

Net Value of EstateAmount of Duty
$$
25,000Nil
35,000900
45,0002,300
55,0004,200
75,0009,300
95,00015,000
125,00024,300
175,00041,700
255,00072,200

Special Reliefs from Estate Duty: Widow/Widower Relief—The duty at scale rates is reduced by the duty on the lesser of the value of her or his succession, or the sum of $60,000.

Infant Child Relief—If property is left to infant children the duty payable at scale rates is reduced for each child by the duty on the lesser of the benefit received from the estate, or the sum of $1,000.

The allowance for infant children is in addition to that for the widow or widower.

Succession of Orphan Infant Child—The infant child relief is substituted by relief for the succession of orphan infant children where a child suffers the loss of both parents before attaining the age of 20. The relief is calculated on the same formula as for the widows relief. The table of rates is as follows:

AgeRelief for Child
Under 5$10,000
Over 5 but under 10$7,500
Over 10 but under 15$5,000
Over 15 but under 20$2,500

Quick Successions—It sometimes happens that a person who gets property from another estate dies shortly afterwards. The property to which he succeeded may then become liable to estate duty again. Relief is available if the second death is within 5 years of the first.

Special Exemptions from Estate Duty: Joint Family Homes—A home registered under the Joint Family Homes Act 1964 is excluded from the dutiable estate of the first spouse to die.

Matrimonial Home Allowance—Where the deceased had an interest in a matrimonial home (other than a joint family home) that interest is excluded if the home or other property of equivalent value passes to the surviving spouse.

Pensions from Superannuation Funds—These are excluded from the estate up to $2,000 per annum if payable to the deceased's spouse for the rest of his or her life or until remarriage.

Personal Chattels—The value of any furniture and personal effects passing to the surviving spouse is excluded from the dutiable estate. In addition, the first $6,000 of personal chattels passing to any other person is also excluded from the estate.

Charitable Bequests—Bequests to charities of up to $25,000 are exempt from duty.

The leaflet Estate Duty, available from the Inland Revenue Department, supplies more information.

Stamp Duty—Stamp Duty is payable on documents, executed in New Zealand or elsewhere, affecting property situated, or to be situated, in New Zealand.

The rates of duty are shown in the chart below—

Type of DocumentRate of Duty
Transfer of—
    Mortgage, debenture, shares, share rights, mining rights40 cents for each $100 or part of $100 of the value of the property.
    All other property, including land$1 for each $100 or part of $100 of the value of the property. (Transfers involving people purchasing their first home or first farm, and transfers involving the sale of larger family houses by sole occupants or older persons to growing families and the subsequent purchase of suitable smaller accommodation, are only liable to duty of $1 as Deeds.)
Leases—
    Rentals40 cents for each $100 or part of $100 of 1 year's rent.
Premiums, fines, consideration other than rent$1 for each $100 or part of $100 of the consideration.
Deed$1.
Duplicate or counterpart40 cents.
Cheques2 cents for each form or 5 cents for 3.

Gift Duty—Gifts, whether to one or more persons, are liable for gift duty if the total value exceeds $8,000 in any 12-month period. In some cases small gifts, or those made for charitable purposes or for the maintenance or education of relatives, are exempted from gift duty.

Examples

Total Value of Donor's Gift Within 12 monthsAmount of Gift Duty
$$
8,000Nil
10,000180
12,000380
20,0001,380
24,0002,000
30,0003,080
36,0004,340
40,0005,280
Exceeding 40,0005,280 plus 25 percent of excess over $40,000.

If gift duty has been paid and, on the death of the donor, the gift becomes liable to estate duty, the gift duty is credited to the estate or whoever paid the duty.

The net revenue received from estate duty and gift duty during each of the latest 5 years is given below.

Year Ended 31 MarchEstate DutyGift DutyTotal Estate and Gift Duties
$(thousand)
197431,0182,80433,822
197538,3602,75141,111
197650,5243,64454,168
197751,6972,99054,687
197845,6683,04548,713

Taxation Review Authority—The Inland Revenue Department Act provides for the establishment of one or more authorities. There is at present only one authority. Every authority shall consist of one person who is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of not less than 7 years practice and is appointed by the Governor-General. The functions of the authority are to sit as a judicial authority for hearing and determining such objections to assessments of tax or duty or the decisions or determinations of the Commissioner as are authorised by the relevant legislation. A determination of an authority is subject to an appeal to the Supreme Court as to any question of fact where the tax or duty exceeds $1,000 and to any question of law.

ESTATES PASSED FOR DEATH DUTY—Statistics relating to deceased persons estates certified for duty during the year ended 31 March 1976 are given in the following tables. Estates of Maoris are included, but not hereditary interests in Maori land. Summary figures are included for the year ended 31 March 1977.

The following table analyses the estates certified by size of estate value.

Net Value of of EstateEstates of MalesEstates of FemalesTotal EstatesAggregate Net Value of EstatesEstate Duties Assessed
$(000)$(000) Number $(000)$(000)
Under 2 341405746928
2 andunder 45295941 1233,352
4 ““ 65044439474,706
6 ““ 85244299536,680
8 ““ 105113588697,830
10 ““ 124802947748,4894
12 ““ 143952836788,82727
14 ““ 1639229268410,264105
16 ““ 1836628264811,005150
18 ““ 2032932565412,399288
20 ““ 2233828161912,986298
22 ““ 2429425154512,548357
24 ““ 307276021 32935,6721,485
30 ““ 407435491 29244,6692,338
40 ““ 5045229574733,4482,981
50 ““ 6032017249226,8922,353
60 ““ 7024211035222,7462,330
70 ““ 801447822216,5812,050
80 ““ 901507122118,7022,519
90 ““ 1001205017016,1362,515
100 ““ 1201645722124,1973,998
120 ““ 1401263115720,2113,609
140 ““ 160912611717,5273,598
160 ““ 18050146410,8602,408
180 ““ 20047115811,0022,626
200 and over1573419163,63318,925
Totals, 1975–768 5366 33714 873462,28854,965
Total, 1976–778 5106 24014 750487,09951,633

The average net value per estate certified during 1975–76 was $31,082. Estates of males averaged $36,070 in value and estates of females $24,363. Duty assessed on estates of males amounted to $40.0 million and on estates of females $17.0 million.

The average amount of duty assessed within each of the various estate groups is now shown. The ratios of average duty to average estate value are also given.

Net Value of EstateAverage Duty AssessedAverage Duty as Percentage of Average Value of Estate
Estates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined AverageEstates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined Average
$(000)$(000)$$$percentpercentpercent
Under 10
10 andunder 124650.1
12 ““ 142561400.20.50.3
14 ““ 161351771530.91.21.0
16 ““ 181653172311.01.91.4
18 ““ 203914884402.12.62.3
20 ““ 223336594811.63.12.3
22 ““ 244568866542.03.82.8
24 ““ 307171,6001,1172.76.04.2
30 ““ 401,3732,4001,8094.06.95.2
40 ““ 502,5066,2663,9915.614.08.9
50 ““ 604,0576,1294,7817.411.28.7
60 ““ 705,5089,0636,6198.514.110.2
70 ““ 807,75611,9599,23210.415.912.4
80 ““ 9010,06014,22411,39811.916.913.5
90 ““ 10013,55417,77814,79614.318.815.6
100 ““ 12016,70722,07118,09015.320.216.5
120 ““ 14021,66828,33322,98416.822.417.9
140 ““ 16029,39735,49330,75219.623.920.5
160 ““ 18034,90447,34237,62520.627.622.2
180 ““ 20044,38849,07145,27623.425.723.9
200 and over101,51287,86599,08329.630.729.7
All estates, 1975–764,4482,6813,69512.311.011.9
All estates, 1976–774,3632,3233,50011.48.910.6

A summary showing gross assets, notional estate, and debts and charges, classified in broad groups according to size of estate, is now given. The figures refer to estates certified for duty during the year ended 31 March 1976.

ItemNet Value of Estate (Net Value)All Estates
Under $6,000$6,000 and under $10,000$10,000 and under $20,000$20,000 and under a $24,000$24,000 and under $40,000$40,000 and under $100,000$100,000 and under $200,000$200,000 and over

*Excludes any interests in Joint Family Homes.

†Only debts allowable under the Estates and Gift Duties Act are included.

‡No allowance is made for the Matrimonial Home Allowances.

Gross Assets—$(000), except average per estate $
    Cash4,7335,14511,8425,13415,69019,9168,7085,50276,671
    Average per estate1,6802,8233,4444,4105,9869,03614,11328,8055,155
    Furniture, effects, etc.4496651,7327262,0742,8131,34585310,658
    Average par estate1593645036237911,2762,1794,466716
    Farm stock, implements, etc.2825146442881,2892,3153,1437,278
    Average per estate101342371095853,75116,456489
    Private business interests911093121669544,2015,2151,27812,326
    Average per estate3259901423631,9068,4526,692828
    Assurance policies9631,4444,0651,5954,5437,8564,2111,87526,552
    Average per estate3427921,1821,3701,7333,5646,8259,8141,785
    Loans6061,4325,2562,53210,19223,15314,2079,44966,827
    Average per estate2157861,5282,1753,88810,50423,02549,4704,493
    Shares, stocks, etc.6131,0323,3161,8116,48019,42514,15814,61561,450
    Average per estate2175669641,5552,4728,81322,94776,5194,131
    Real property*2,2204,11119,91011,89334,90145,07828,57522,022168,710
    Average per estate7882,2565,79110,21713,31520,45246,312115,30011,343
    Other property4156381,9057223,2355,6133,2282,60418,361
    Average per estate1473505546201,2342,5465,23213,6341,234
    Notional estate6041,3515,4192,0015,0638,4403,5222,16928,570
    Average per estate2147411,5761,7191,9313,8295,70811,3561,920
    Foreign property791555692369912,7302,8303,65911,249
    Average per estate27851652023781,2384,58719,155756
Debts—
    Unsecured1,1739762,1678442,2013,8652,3662,13015,722
    Secured6446201,3224841,8692,1442,1521,40710,642
    Total1,8171,5963,4901,3284,0706,0094,5173,53726,364
    Average per estate, 1975–766458761,0151,1401,5522,7267,32118,5171,772
    Average per estate, 1976–777439951,1401,2201,3932,9006,96222,8211,985

Realty comprised 34.5 percent of gross New Zealand assets in 1975–76 while the proportion of cash was 15.7 percent. The 1976–77 figures were 33.8 percent and 16.5 percent.

In the following table deceased persons estates are analysed by occupations. These figures refer to the year ended 31 March 1977.

Occupational GroupUnder $6,000$ 6,000 to 9,999$ 10,000 to 19,999$ 20,000 to 23,999$ 24,000 to 39,999$ 40,000 to 99,999$ 100,000 and overTotal
 Number of Estates
Physical life scientists, technicians, etc.95101338
Architects, engineers, technicians, aircraft and ships officers15124016546911217
Medical, dental, and related workers147267364423157
Teachers, clergy and jurists26368130669126356
Artists, authors, athletes, sportsmen and related workers9716991262
Administrative and managerial workers414412349137192127713
Clerical and related workers10074225521391043697
Transport and communication workers131623112812 103
Sales workers63491634611713641615
Protective service workers, armed forces, etc.17225463118148
Housekeepers, cooks, waiters, maids, etc.222031926167131
Caretakers, launderers, hairdressers, and related service workers191329514787
Farmers and farm managers10062197812485243701 582
Agriculture, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters4933451629377216
Miners, quarrymen, well drillers, etc.211424417989
Metal and chemical processers9414511346
Spinners, weavers, knitters, dryers, etc.11121664756
Food, beverage, and tobacco processers3835631639273221
Tailors, dressmakers, etc.731647340
Shoemakers and leather goods makers26736428
Machinery fitters, assemblers, instrument makers, electrical fitters and related electrical and electronic workers57691544582406453
Glass formers, potters, printers and related workers20932915155105
Painters, bricklayers, carpenters and other related construction workers101101193641468820713
Stationary engine operators, material and freight handlers, transport equipment operators12411322972153647762
Labourers, and occupations not stated or not in employment1 3539521 8805841 2868522087 115
    Total2 2321 7133 6901 1542 7102 38286914 750

NOTE: In this table for the separate occupation classes, estates in any value group numbering less than three have been included with the number for the value group below; where this was not possible no net estate distribution has been shown. As the full distribution for each occupation or value group has been given in the totals, this procedure means that in some cases the sum of individual groups will not agree with the totals.

RACING TAXATION—The Government taxation on totalisator turnover from 1 September 1976 is at the rate of 8.5 percent on gross on-course investments and 9.0 percent on gross off-course investments, subject to a rebate of 2 1/2; percent on the first $100,000 of gross investments received by a club in any one year. Total deductions from gross on-course investments are as follows: (a) totalisator duty, 8.5 percent; (b) club or Totalisator Agency Board's commission, 7.5 percent in respect of win and place dividends and 10.18 percent on doubles, quinella and trebles investments; (c) 0.5 percent levy for the purposes of the Stakes Subsidy Account; and (d) 0.5 percent levy for the purposes of the Amenities Account. In the case of special races, win and place investments, a commission of 8 percent is deducted and on special doubles, quinellas, and trebles, a commission of 10.68 percent is deducted, and in these cases the 0.5 percent levy for the Amenities Account is waived.

The Racing Act 1971 came into operation on 1 August 1972. Under this Act the 1/2; percent levy on gross turnover for racecourse improvements, and an additional 1/2;: percent levy for supplementary stakes paid by clubs on specified races, are paid to the New Zealand Racing Authority for distribution to totalisator clubs. The Totalisator Agency Board pays its profits to the authority which determines its distribution to totalisator clubs.

The Racing Amendment Act 1977 came into force on 1 August 1978. It included provision for the issue of restricted totalisator licences to registered non-totalisator racing, trotting, and greyhound racing clubs. The Act also lowered the legal minimum betting age from 20 to 18 years.

The Minister of Internal Affairs granted totalisator licences for 489 days in the racing year 1977–78. Of these 489 days, 307 were allocated to racing and hunt clubs and 182 to trotting clubs.

The following table gives figures of totalisator duty, and the amount of turnover retained by clubs or the Totalisator Agency Board.

ItemYear Ended 31 July
19741975197619771978
*Retained by clubs and T.A.B.
 $(thousand)
Totalisator duty20,02223,18027,93232,10335,290
Amount of totalisator turnover retained by clubs or T.A.B.20,02923,02328,03532,992x36,142
Unpaid fractions*9391,1351,2301,3091,450
Amenities Account1,1481,3271,4621,5851,744
Stakes Subsidy Account1,1541,3331,603x1,8322,011

The following figures relate to the racing year, which ends on 31 July.

ItemGallopingTrotting
107619771978197619771978
Racing daysNo.295296307161162182
RacesNo.2 6462 6472 7621 4481 4561 638
Stakes$(000)6,2707,0258,0702,9813,4704,333
    Average per race$2,3692,6542,9222,0592,3832,645
Totalisator turnover— $ (million)
    On course 69.170.774.433.635.439.3
    With T.A.B. 153.3184.0199.364.676.389.2
                    Total 222.4254.7273.698.2111.7128.5
Amount paid in dividends 180.6206.2221.579.990.4104.0

Totalisator turnover for the year ended 31 July 1978 rose by 9.8 percent, from $366.4 million in the previous year to $402.2 million.

26 C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS

GENERAL—Following the repeal of the New Zealand Loans Act 1953, the principal legislative measure which is concerned with public indebtedness is the Public Finance Act 1977.

The money comprising the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of New Zealand. No portion of the public estate is pledged for either principal or interest.

Whereas in 1934, 56 percent of the public debt was owing to overseas investors, the percentage has in recent years dropped as low as 12.5 percent, and at 31 March 1978 was slightly over 32.7 percent. Some 32.2 percent of the public debt is held by Government-owned institutions, and by reserve accounts set up for the benefit of the primary industries.

Most of the present public debt was borrowed for national development. A National Development Loans Account was established within the Public Account, as from 1 April 1942, into which moneys for national development are paid. Moneys are transferred from this account as required, the amount transferred during the last three years being given in section 26A.

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT—The total public debt outstanding at 31 March of the two latest available years is shown in the following table.

Location or TypeOutstanding 31 MarchIncrease or Decrease
IncreaseDecrease
*Registered Treasury Bills
External debt—$(million)
    London, Europe, etc.1,3091,882+573
    U.S.A.461517+56
    IBRD5648–8
Internal debt—
    Long-term4,4604,885+425
    Short-term*3152+149
        Total6,2897,484+1,195

Movement of the overseas debt in recent years can be gauged from the table following. A detailed summary of movements in the total public debt during 1977–78 follows this.

Year Ended 31 MarchAmounts Outstanding InTotal Overseas Debt
London Europe, Etc.*IBRDU.S.A.

*Excludes debt transferred to New Zealand register.

†IBRD loans are in various currencies.

‡ Includes amounts drawn under credit arrangements and currency realignments.

$(million)
19743525658465
197568355125863
19761,158592461,463
19771,309564611,827
19781,882485172,447

The public debt outstanding on 31 March 1978 of $7,483.8 million represented a net increase during the year of $1,194.6 million. As shown in the following table, the increase comprises $620.1 million of external debt (which is inclusive of the increase of $136.9 million due to changes in currency values) and $574.5 million of internal debt. The last-mentioned amount is made up of an increase in mainly long-term debt secured by Government stock of $425.4 million and an increase in short-term registered Treasury bill debt of $149.1 million.

ItemAmount
External Debt
 NZ $(million)
Loans raised (gross value)—
    For national development—
        Deutschemark loans (2)206.7
        Japanese yen loans110.7
        Swiss franc loans (5)262.2
        United States dollar loans (2)105.5
    Capital equipment credit arrangements—
            Electric supply35.3
            Foreign Affairs0.1
            Health0.4
            Railways6.9
            State coal mines0.8
            State Services Commission1.0
            Transport0.2
 729.8
For redemption of loans—
    Multi-currency credit agreement121.7
    Swiss franc loan41.8
 163.5
For defence—
    U.K. military credits14.4
    U.S.A. military credits0.1
 14.5
    Total value of securities issued907.8
Increase in debt due to changes in currency values136.9
                Gross increase1,044.7
Loans redeemed—
    Multi-currency credit agreement261.4
    Deutschemark loans17.6
    Eurodollar loans9.9
    French franc loan0.5
    Netherlands guilder loans12.6
    Sterling loans26.4
    Sterling/Deutschemark loans8.0
    Swiss franc loan41.8
    Capital equipment credit arrangements19.3
    Export-Import Bank of Japan7.4
    U.K. military credits7.7
    U.S.A. military credits3.9
    World Bank8.1
    Total value of securities redeemed424.6
    Gross decrease424.6
Net increase in external debt during year620.1
External debt at 31 March 19771,826.6
Outstanding at 31 March 19782,446.7
Internal Debt
 NZ $(million)
Loans raised (gross value)—
    For national development—
    Public issues316.6
    Special issues—
            Government agencies, etc.133.2
            Private savings banks57.7
            Reserve Bank portfolio, etc53.7
 561.2
    Registered Treasury bills565.4
    For redemption of loans—
    Special issues—
            Government agencies, etc.94.9
    Conversion issues—
        Public issues24.3
        Special issues—
            Government agencies, etc.933.6
            Private savings banks26.2
            Reserve Bank portfolio405.0
 1,389.1
            Gross increase2,610.6
Loans redeemed—
    Public issues13.1
    Special issues—
            Government agencies, etc.14.6
            Private savings banks122.3
            Reserve Bank portfolio80.7
 230.7
    Registered Treasury bills416.3
    Conversion cancellations—
    Public issues24.3
    Special issues—
            Government agencies, etc.933.6
            Private savings banks26.2
            Reserve Bank portfolio405.0
 1,389.1
                Gross decrease2,036.1
Net increase in internal debt during year574.5
Internal debt at 31 March 19774,462.6
Outstanding at 31 March 19785,037.1

The net increase in the public debt during 1977–78 of $1,194.6 million amounted to 19 percent, compared with increases of 13.2 percent in 1976–77, 32.3 percent in 1975–76, and 12.5 percent in 1974–75. In the period from 31 March 1974 to 31 March 1978 the total debt outstanding has almost exactly doubled. Of the total debt at 31 March 1978, external debt represented 32.7 percent. This compares with 29 percent at March 1977, 12.5 percent at March 1974, and percentages ranging from 16.1 to 20.5 over the period March 1967 to March 1973.

A detailed allocation of the public debt as at 31 March 1978 is now given. It includes revenue money from the National Development Loans Account.

AllocationLoan CapitalInterest on Loan CapitalEquity Capital*Total Allocation

*The following dividends were received during 1977–78: (a) Air New Zealand Ltd. $2,000,000. (b) Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd. $450,000. (c) Bank of New Zealand $3,755,000. (d) New Zealand Steel Limited $4,010,733. (e) New Zealand National Airways Corporation $700,000.

†Includes Marconi Radar Equipment $237,194.

(a) Loans and investments in trading undertakings—$(000)percent$(000)$(000)
    Air New Zealand Ltd......40,00040,000
    Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand......38,90038,900
    Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.6,60011,920...
    Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.......2,00020,520
    New Zealand Export-Import Corporation1,512102,0003,512
    New Zealand Steel Ltd.6,000118,354...
    New Zealand Steel Ltd.1,8337–11...16,187
    New Zealand National Airways Corporation5,0001014,00019,000
    Bank of New Zealand shares......12,65612,656
    Development Finance Corporation of N.Z.33,1676½-7¼11,82544,992
    Offshore Mining Co. Ltd.14,184......
    Offshore Mining Co. Ltd.24,5728...38,756
    Petroleum Corporation of N.Z. Ltd.......45,00045,000
    Railways190,5506–10206,283...
    Railways (IBRD Railway projects)20,539Var.......
    Railways (Third Cook Strait Ferry)1,611......
    Railways (Fourth Cook Strait Ferry)5,067......
    Railways (North Island sleeper train)2576......
    Railways (G.E.C. Locomotives)12,364Var.......
    Railways (Silver Fern railcars)374......
    Railways (1500 LB wagons)8,3468⅛......
    Railways (ISO containers)454......
    Railways (ZA Wagons)4,374......
    Railways (Guards Vans)3,693......
    Railways (Conversion of Aratika)3,439Var.......
    Railways (Shunters and Engines)387Var.......
    Railways (DA Locomotive Rebuilds)4,1668.75......
    Railways (Aramoana Refit)2,2686.5...464,172
    Shipping Corporation of N.Z. Ltd.5,3617–1012,21017,571
    Housing Corporation1,054,7286–8½...1,054,728
    Housing Account (Housing Corporation)654,0396–8½...654,039
    Rural Banking and Finance Corporation666,7956–8½...666,795
    State Coal Mines63,1066–1015,000...
    State Coal Mines (Huntly Project)5617......
    State Coal Mines (Continuous Miners)724Var....79,391
    Tourist Hotel Corporation15,8278–106,28122,108
    Electric power1,643,1326–10......
    Revenue money57,0006–10......
    Electric power (IBRD projects)22,8415½-6¼.....
    Electric power (Marsden 'B' Power Station)17,876......
    Electric power (New Plymouth power station)13,644......
    Electric power (Stratford/Whirinaki)20,821Var.......
    Electric power (Stratford Power Station)1,6818......
    Electric power (Huntly Power Station)61,419Var.......
    Electric power (Marubeni-Ohau)6188...1,839,032
    Post Office509,9536–10...509,953
    Land settlement290,9306–8½......
    Revenue money8,0006–8½...298,930
    IBRD Harbour projects4,282...4,282
    Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand Ltd21,06510...21,065
 .........5,911,589
(b) Not earning interest though represented by permanent assets or development-works—
    Airport development.........45,672
    Foreign Affairs (Washington Chancery).........137
    Forests (State).........233,943
    General public works.........627,690
    International finance organisations—
    Cash portion of subscriptions.........20,639
(c) Non-productive debt—
    Capital Liability Remitted.........50,623
    Consolidated Revenue Account—
    Defence.........29,739
    State Services Commission (E.D.P. equip.).........5,026
    Health (E.D.P. equipment).........1,661
    Currency adjustments.........253,420
    National Development Loans Account.........149,672
    Revenue money.........10,000
    Loans Redemption Account.........218,988
 .........7,558,799
    Less total revenue money.........75,000
    Total public debt.........$7,483,799

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS—The gross indebtedness of the Central Government and the amount of indebtedness per head of population are given in the following table. Figures for previous years are shown in a table in the Statistical Summary.

As at 31 MarchAmountPer Head of Population
 $(m)$
19733,5031,180.75
19743,7351,232.07
19754,2001,359.17
19765,5581,778.82
19776,2892,002.69
19787,4842,378.91

INTEREST—The following table shows the payments of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchInterestInterest on Overseas Debt as Percentage of Export IncomeRecovery of Interest from Government Enterprises and InvestmentsNet Interest CostNet Cost as a Percentage of Total Taxation
OverseasNew ZealandTotal
$(thousand)
197434,056166,266200,3221.9127,49872,8253.0
197541,309179,721221,0302.5145,62175,4092.6
197668,817201,196270,0133.1184,91385,1002.7
1977110,359256,678367,0373.5277,96389,0742.3
1978133,204331,320464,5243.9364,57799,9472.2

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT—The maturity years of the debt outstanding at 31 March 1978 are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between overseas and internal debt.

Loans Maturing in Financial Year Ending 31 March*DueTotal Debt (Nominal Amount)
OverseasNew Zealand
PublicDepartmental and Other
*In respect of many of the loans the Government has the option to redeem the securities at an earlier date.
 $(thousand)
197990,001315,96984,581490,551
1980132,003326,371134,460592,834
1981269,59542,172239,814551,581
1982211,313313,48696,954621,753
1983242,556326,360139,310708,226
1984315,41594,070161,898571,383
1985400,28894,46456,220550,972
1986162,92145,115406,844614,880
1987176,736159,994230,792567,522
1988165,945248,553286,151700,649
198933,80638,39252,938125,136
199028,44692,84358,302179,591
199131,922167,32690,219289,467
199242,562150,254144,528337,344
1993143,22124,963150,182318,366
199427,19178,438105,629
Registered Treasury Bills 151,650151,650
Inflation Adjusted Savings Bonds 6,2656,265
                Totals2,446,7302,625,4382,411,6317,483,799

OWNERSHIP OF PUBLIC DEBT—As shown in the preceding table, a large proportion of the public debt outstanding is held by various Government departments and quasi-Government organisations. A summary of these investments for the latest three years is as follows.

StockholderAt 31 March
197619771978
 $(thousand)
Investments held by accounts within the Public Account5,9765,9715,971
Earthquake and War Damage Commission208,144242,244281,344
Government Life Insurance80,09182,12784,347
Government Superannuation Board351,887388,187445,487
Maori Trustee2,2502,2511,703
National Provident Fund25,80927,10944,500
Post Office891,728953,7281,053,728
Post Office: National Savings200200200
Public Trustee2,8762,8331,988
Reserve Bank554,355884,632344,596
Housing Corporation45,19251,18558,166
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation20,81523,31531,915
State Insurance Office6,3858,385400
“Meat Industry Account57,61157,28657,286
                Total2,253,3192,729,4532,411,631

Chapter 29. Section 27; LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The constitution and franchise of local authorities are described in Section 2, History, Government, and International Relations.

Local government is concerned with the provision of facilities for the population of a limited area, with finances levied from that area. The major authorities axe city, borough, and county councils. These authorities raise money mainly by rates on property and by loans. They expend it on the provision of roads, water supply, sewerage, transport, recreational, and other services. Electric power boards and harbour boards, among the larger of the other local authorities, collect revenue from consumers or users in payment for the facilities or services provided.

Detailed statistics relating to each local authority, other than hospital boards, are contained in the Report on the Local Authority Statistics, an annual publication of the Department of Statistics. Hospital boards, which supply their returns to the Department of Health, are omitted from most of the statistics contained in this section. A special note is made where they are included, while summarised data relating to hospital boards will be found in Section 5B.

In general, the local authority year ends on 31 March. Exceptions are harbour boards (other than Greymouth) where the year ends on the preceding 30 September, the Hutt Valley Drainage Board and the Wellington Regional Water Board where the year ends on the last day of February, the Marlborough Forestry Corporation where the year ends on the last day of November, and the Marlborough Nassella Tussock Board where the year ends on the last day of December.

RATING—Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are, except where the assets purchased provide revenue to meet the loan charges, ultimately liquidated by rate revenues—known then as special rates. The law relating to the making and levying of rates is contained in the Rating Act 1967. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:

  1. General, for general purposes.

  2. Special rates imposed to secure the repayment of loan money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be; and

  3. Separate rates levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land and buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

There are three main systems of rating: (a) by capital (land and improvements) value; (b) by annual value; and (c) by unimproved value or land value (as values are revised, the unimproved values system is being phased out in favour of land valuation).

For rating on either the capital value or the unimproved value, the rating roll is based on the district valuation roll prepared by the Valuation Department. Where the rating is on the annual value, the local authority generally prepares its valuation roll on the basis of the valuations made by its own valuers. Separate rates require to be struck on the annual value, and when the annual value has not been entered in the valuation roll, the annual value is required to be taken as 6 percent of the capital value. Provision is made for the Valuer-General to act as a local authority valuer where an annual roll is to be prepared.

For Chatham Islands county, import and export dues are charged in lieu of rates on land. In the case of pest destruction boards the system normally used is by rating on an acreage basis, though occasionally some boards rate according to the number of sheep and/or cattle carried.

The system of rating normally attributed to a local authority is that applicable to the general rate, but it is stressed that, in many instances, subsidiary rates of the local authority are levied in accordance with other systems.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities in 21 tax areas covering the country to levy a local authorities petroleum tax at the rate of 1, 2, or 3 cents a gallon on motor spirits and 0.5, 1 or 1.5 cents a gallon on diesel fuel delivered in a tax area. All tax areas voted to levy the tax at the maximum rate, mostly from 1 February 1971. The proceeds of any tax imposed may be applied to projects for the benefit of the region or distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenue. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden on ratepayers.

With harbour boards, two types of rates are applicable, namely: (a) harbour improvement rates, based on so much per ton of cargo by weight or measurement; and (b) harbour rates on rateable property, which are levied according to the system of rating in force by each of the local authorities within the harbour boards' rating areas. However, the Rating Act 1967 gives to harbour boards the power to have a system of rating different from that in force in all or some of its constituent local authority districts.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The sources of revenue of all local authorities, including electric power boards, are shown by broad classes in the following table. The figures for 1976–77 exclude fire boards, which were taken over by the Fire Service Commission on 1 April 1976.

Year Ended 31 MarchRates, Levies, Fines, etc.*Grants from Central and Local GovernmentSales of Commodities and Services incl. Water RatesOther ReceiptsTotal Receipts
*Includes rates other than water rates, $168,576,000, and other taxes, fines, etc., $26,480,000 in 1975 and rates, $207,150,000 and other taxes, fines, etc., $29,063,000 in 1976.
$(000)
1974167,69176,738383,98233,240661,651
1975195,056100,928429,00739,023764,014
1976236,213115,206488,44341,728881,590
1977272,54597,322627,03749,2331,046,139

Rates were equivalent to $70.54 per head of population in 1974–75, $84.89 per head during 1975–76, and $98.49 per head during 1976–77.

A fairly large proportion of the receipts of urban local authorities result from the sales of commodities or services, for instance, sales of electric power and gas, and fares collected for public transport.

The payments of all local authorities during each of the latest available 4 years has been as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchLabour and Related CostsPurchases of Commodities and ServicesAll InterestOther PaymentsTotal Payments
$(000)
1974202,090301,49942,48238,172584,244
1975237,014367,44446,28656,529707,274
1976285,899415,62552,00759,355812,886
1977295,983513,95659,21066,325935,475

Receipts and payments of various classes of local authorities for the year ended 31 March 1977 are shown below.

Receipts
Local AuthorityRates Levies, Fines, etc.Grants from Central and Local GovernmentSales of Commodities and ServicesOther ReceiptsTotal Receipts
$(thousand)
City and borough councils191,98226,872182,97925,184427,017
County councils56,50929,43418,6196,220110,783
District councils3,7871,6612,7644868,698
Electric power boards4536259,1692,536262,245
Harbour boards71217863,3186,82471,031
Regional authority1,64916,80525,2514,29347,998
Urban drainage boards7,7082,39090647411,477
Catchment boards4,6229,5003,0381,71518,875
Pest destruction boards2,5854,4901501657,391
Urban transport boards1,8861032,9312975,217
Other local authorities1,1015,35367,9121,03975,407
    Total272,54597,322627,03749,2331,046,139
Payments
Local AuthorityLabour and Related CostsInterestPurchases of Commodities and ServicesOther PaymentsTotal Payments
 $(thousand)
City and borough councils126,30423,559182,79827,211359,871
County councils34,5304,39956,0734,23899,241
District councils2,7133734,2931677,546
Electric power boards48,1147,663186,68415,710258,171
Harbour boards33,1869,39219,7828,19270,552
Regional authority19,0967,31011,2511,97839,635
Urban drainage boards3,4642,4331,9591187,975
Catchment boards6,3434563,96368811,450
Pest destruction boards3,663472,6932286,630
Urban transport boards3,4151961,0172554,884
Other local authorities15,1553,38243,4437,54069,521
            Total295,98359,210513,95666,325935,475

TERRITORIAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The following table shows total receipts and payments of territorial local authorities for the years ended 31 March 1976 and 1977. The local authorities petroleum tax introduced in February 1971 produced $17.8 million in 1974–75, $17.9 million in 1975–76, and $18.1 million in 1976–77 for the general purposes of territorial authorities.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19761977
 Receipts$(million)
Rates and grants in lieu191.9223.5
Other taxes and fines28.730.6
Grants and contributions from Central Government61.657.0
Grants and contributions from local authorities17.117.8
Sales of main product102.7130.8
Other commodities and services94.898.9
Interest8.210.9
Miscellaneous current receipts21.926.2
            Total526.9594.8
 Payments$(million)
Labour and related costs166.3182.8
Interest paid31.235.7
Levies and grants to Central Government and local authorities24.321.2
Bulk purchase for resale44.664.5
Other commodities and services178.7190.1
Other current payments10.012.4
            Sub-total455.1506.7
            Less capitalised payments24.524.9
            Total430.6481.8

A wide variety of public utilities and amenities are provided by territorial local government, the main activities being electricity supply, water supply, roading, sewerage, drainage, and refuse collection. The table below shows the current receipts and payments for a number of selected activities for the years ended 31 March 1976 and 1977.

Excluded from the figures are sales and purchases of fixed assets and repayments of loan monies.

Activity1975–761976–77
ReceiptsPaymentsReceiptsPayments
 $(million)
Electricity supply61.055.880.472.0
Passenger transport27.024.129.127.6
Water supply41.038.447.643.2
Road construction and maintenance96.590.0106.196.7
Refuse, sewerage, and drainage41.539.348.042.1
Abattoirs7.36.68.88.3
Libraries9.39.312.411.7
Parks and domains25.723.633.027.9

Many of the services provided are also trading undertakings. Generally speaking, territorial local authorities are restrained from operating trading undertakings that are particularly profitable. Public transport undertakings, which are usually a substantial burden upon ratepayers, are particularly unprofitable. The only major exception is electricity distribution, from which a few territorial local authorities make surpluses.

Grants and Subsidies—A substantial portion of local authority revenues is derived from grants and subsidies, especially those from the National Roads Board. Notes on some of these grants and subsidies are given below.

National Roads Board—The finance available from the National Roads Fund represents an important source of revenue for territorial local authorities (See section 12D.)

Forest Service Fifths—The New Zealand Forest Service distributes to territorial local authorities grants equal to one-fifth of net revenue received from the sale of timber, and in the case of national endowment land, one-tenth of net revenue from the sale of timber.

Water and Sewerage Subsidies—From 1960 until 1969 a sewage treatment subsidy was available to local authorities with populations of less than 20 000. In 1969 this scheme was replaced by a more comprehensive water and sewerage subsidy scheme administered by the Department of Health, which provided assistance towards certain loan repayments on existing works and towards the capital costs of new works. There was a subsidy limit of $100,000 for any one project. Up to 31 March 1972 $5.9 million had been approved in respect of this and the earlier scheme. In 1972 the subsidy limit was abolished. In 1977–78 water and sewerage subsidies totalled $16.6 million compared with $13.3 million the previous year.

Rural Water Supply Scheme—The Rural Water Supply Scheme is administered by the Ministry of Works and Development and provides for subsidies towards the cost of piped water supply to rural areas. As from December 1974 the Government subsidy rate has been $1 for $1.

Housing for the Elderly—Since 1950 this form of housing has been recognised as being, in the main, the responsibility of local authorities, with the Government providing the necessary finance through subsidies and long-term concessional loans. The cost of flats for the elderly is met by a $3,500 loan per flat, with the balance of the approved cost provided by subsidy. During the year ended 31 March 1978 some 952 flats were completed and the subsidy totalled $8.47 million. During the 5 years 1974 to 1978 the total subsidy was $31.1 million.

Urban Renewal—Grants for urban renewal have been available for local authorities since 1945. Since the passing of the Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act in 1969 a number of local authorities have exhibited a renewed interest in urban renewal projects.

Civil Defence—A dollar-for-dollar subsidy towards some items of civil defence costs is paid by the Ministry of Civil Defence.

Rural Electricity Distribution—The Rural Electricity Reticulation Council has since 1947 provided subsidies towards the cost of rural electricity distribution lines. The chief beneficiaries have been power boards, but small amounts have been paid to territorial local authorities.

Noxious Weeds Eradication—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates the subsidy scheme on the cost of noxious weeds eradication.

Urban Passenger Transport—Municipal and private urban passenger transport operators receive capital assistance from the New Zealand Urban Public Passenger Transport Council. This amounted to $0.5 million for 1977–78 compared with $1.2 million the previous year. The Auckland Regional Authority, Wellington City Council, Christchurch Transport Board, and Dunedin City Council no longer receive assistance from the Council, following the introduction by the Government in 1977 of the bus replacement programme amounting to $50 million over 5 years.

Local Authorities Petroleum Tax—Local authorities receive a tax of 3c per gallon on petrol and 1.5c on diesel fuel. For 1976–77 this tax produced $18.1 million, compared with $17.9 million in 1975–76 and $17.8 million in 1974–75.

BORROWING—Under the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Authorities Loans Board.

As a general rule, local authorities may raise a loan by special order and without a poll of ratepayers, but in the case of a local authority that is a rating body, a poll of ratepayers is to be taken if—

  1. The Local Authorities Loans Board requires a poll to be taken; or

  2. Before the date fixed for the meeting of the local authority to confirm the resolution to raise the loan not less than 5 percent of the ratepayers demand a poll; or

  3. The local authority itself decides to take a poll.

A poll cannot be required in cases such as renewal loans, loans raised for emergency expenditure by reason of flood, storm, earthquake, etc., or loans for work of national and local importance and carried out by an agreement between the Government and a local authority.

Where a poll is required it shall be deemed to be carried if a bare majority of the valid votes recorded is in favour of the proposal. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospitals Act 1957 a hospital board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow. Harbour boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour works from special empowering legislation and similar authority is given for the capital works of certain other local authorities.

The Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 places the determination of rates of interest in the hands of the Local Authorities Loans Board, subject to the approval of the Minister of Finance of the maximum rate.

The interest rates current on and from July 1977 are as follows: 1 year, 9.5 percent; 2 years, 10.0 percent; 3 years, 4 years, and 5 years, 10.25 percent; 6 years and over, 10.5 percent.

Loans Sanctioned, Authorised, Raised, and Uplifted—The following summary of the operations of the Local Authorities Loans Board during 5 recent years shows concisely the trend of local authority borrowing during that period. Hospital boards and the Fire Service Commission are included.

YearValue of Total ApplicationsSanctioned
New WorksRedemption Loans
 $(million)
1973–74262.0183.816.0
1974–75358.9285.129.3
1975–76441.7297.021.2
1976–77259.7168.120.2
1977–78308.2213.317.5

The following table shows loans authorised during year ended March 1978, with amounts raised and uplifted to 31 March 1978 on these authorisations.

Local AuthorityAmounts Authorised Year Ended 31 March 1978Amounts Raised to 31 March 1978Balance Sot Raised at 31 March 1978Amounts Uplifted to 31 March 1978
 $(thousand)
Territorial
    Cities and boroughs57,51717,19140,32616,337
    County councils13,1054,9168,1894,106
    District councils883375508225
    Regional authority872392480392
    Town districts53341934
Other
    Catchment districts1,7762411,535241
    Electric power and gas boards37,77710,11727,6609,899
    Harbour boards29,97210,07219,90010,072
    Harbour bridge authority183183183
    Pest destruction boards68204820
    Urban drainage boards5,3401,4523,8881,452
    Urban transport boards
    Valley authority
            Total147,54644,993102,55342,961

The following table shows comparative debt figures. Hospital boards are included.

Year Ended 31 MarchAmounts Sanctioned by Loans BoardGross Indebtedness at Beginning of YearAmount UpliftedPrincipal RepaidGross Indebtedness At End of Year
 $(thousand)
1973132,200782,969129,27247,929864,312
1974199,700864,312132,70179,211917,802
1975314,400917,802161,70592,439987,067
1976318,200987,067196,31277,3341,106,045
1977188,3001,106,045239,66266,1961,279,511

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross public debt of local authorities, and the annual charge thereon for the latest 5 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross Public DebtAnnual Loan Charge
AmountRate Per HeadAmountRate Per Head
 $(000)$$(000)$
1973722,431242.8673,54924.73
1974787,397258.7793,70830.77
1975840,843271.19107,61334.71
1976933,671298.36103,98333.23
19771,053,973335.94108,00734.43

In the following table gross public debt is classified by types of local authority. It should be noted that the debt of electric power districts shown in the following table does not represent the complete local authority debt on account of electric power activities, since a considerable portion of the city and borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose.

Year Ended 31 MarchCities, Boroughs and Town DistrictsCountiesElectric Power DistrictsHarbour DistrictsUrban Drainage DistrictsUrban Transport DistrictsOther DistrictsTotal
$(thousand)
1973300,36361,32985,628127,70935,5712,194109,637722,431
1974321,07770,57395,113136,89335,9132,134125,694787,397
1975355,66867,983101,941140,48636,9862,171135,608840,843
1976397,45878,295116,271148,49839,6372,345151,167933,671
1977435,20184,934134,189189,87542,8923,398163,4851,053,974

Chapter 30. Section 28; INCOMES AND INCOME TAX

Table of Contents

GENERAL—Particularly in times of relatively rapid inflation, comparisons between money incomes in different years should be made with caution. To be meaningful, comparisons should be made in terms of effective or real income, i.e., money in relation to the costs of goods and services. However, it is not easy to measure these changes as there is no one index that adequately gives a measure of the changing purchasing power in all circumstances. This is because the purchasing power of money is conditional to a large extent on the patterns of expenditure out of income, and these may and do differ substantially from person to person.

The elements of individual and company income and the taxation requirements of a modern welfare state are closely related. Statistics of incomes and income tax are compiled annually by the Department of Statistics. Complete details and methods of compilations are given in the annual statistical report on Incomes and Income Tax.

TREND OF INCOMES: Individuals—The data required for statistical compilation of incomes do not become available for a lengthy period after the end of the income year. This, coupled with the necessary time taken by the statistical processing, means a long time lag before final results of the compilation are available. To meet this situation provisional estimates are made on the basis of a restricted sample. Most of the tables in this section are presented on this basis.

The following table gives data for the principal sources of incomes of individuals.

Source of Total IncomeIncome Years
1974–751975–761976–77
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
Self employment— $(m) $(m) $(m)
    Agriculture and livestock production—
        Sheep farming24 000140.424 000184.823 900246.2
        Dairy farming25 500136.425 200139.925 000162.5
        Other farming22 000110.022 300129.322 500146.2
                Total, farming71 500386.871 500454.071 400554.9
    Manufacturing6 50037.06 50042.66 40048.0
    Construction15 700116.215 700128.015 500141.0
    Wholesale and retail trade11 80073.211 90080.911 90090.4
    Transport4 70029.54 80032.44 90039.1
    Services—
        Professional9 810165.810 060191.110 230204.4
        Other11 00055.011 20065.511 45075.6
    All other industries8 50038.18 50042.38 50047.4
                Total, self employment139 510901.6140 1601,036.8140 2801,200.8
Salary and wages1,430,0005,879.91,450,0006,770.61,465,0007,811.4
Investment incomes103 000301.1102 000330.5105 000367.2
                Grand total1,672,5107,082.61,692,1608,137.91,710,2809,379.4

The estimates for 1975–76 showed an increase of $67.2 million in the incomes of all farmers, with the incomes of sheep farmers showing an increase of $44.4 million, while the incomes of dairy farmers and other farmers increased by $3.5 million and $19.3 million respectively. In 1976–77 the estimated incomes of sheep farmers increased by $61.4 million while the incomes of dairy and other farmers increased by $22.6 million and $16.9 million respectively.

The estimate of the incomes of the non-farming section of self-employed individuals showed an increase of $67.7 million in 1974–75 followed by increases of $68.0 million and $63.1 million in 1975–76 and 1976–77 respectively.

The following table shows an analysis by the amount of total income for the 3 major sources (self employment, salary and wages, and investment incomes) combined.

ALL SOURCES
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1974–751975–761976–77
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
*An “unknown” group has been included to cover cases still under investigation mainly because of problems in matching tax deduction certificates for broken periods of work; this applies to salary and wage earners with incomes of less than $2,600 who were not required to furnish a return of income. This group has been provisionally estimated at a fixed value of $36.0 million for the years 1974–75 to 1976–77 inclusive on the basis of past experience.
$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)5 1603 9003 450
1–999282 500141.2245 500122.7237 900118.9
1,000–1,19937 40041.129 50032.522 50024.7
1,200–1,39933 40043.426 10033.920 50026.6
1,400–1,59934 40051.626 80040.219 00028.5
1,600–1,79934 00057.726 80045.519 80033.6
1,800–1,99937 40071.029 10055.221 50040.8
2,000–2,19943 70091.734 30072.024 30051.0
2,200–2,39942 10096.834 50079.424 80057.0
2,400–2,59941 700104.233 50083.724 20060.4
2,600–2,79941 700112.535 80096.723 40063.2
2,800–2,99940 200116.633 80098.023 50068.2
3,000–3,19944 000136.337 800117.227 40084.9
3,200–3,39938 500127.032 700107.825 40083.8
3,400–3,59937 700131.931 600110.525 30088.5
3,600–3,79937 000136.931 700117.224 20089.5
3,800–3,99944 600173.943 800170.932 500126.7
4,000–4,39994 800398.199 700418.7100 200420.8
4,400–4,79999 700458.6109 800505.1111 600513.4
4,800–5,19988 500442.5100 600503.0108 400542.0
5,200–5,59977 800420.188 500477.995 000512.9
5,600–5,99971 000411.784 500490.090 850526.9
6,000–6,39965 000403.078 500486.787 400541.8
6,400–6,79951 600340.562 200410.572 100475.9
6,800–7,19944 100308.759 500416.577 300541.1
7,200–7,59935 050259.444 250327.457 950428.6
7,600–7,99930 700239.442 250329.657 050444.9
8,000–9,99972 200649.891 300821.7112 2001,009.8
10,000–11,99928 500317.939 150430.650 100551.1
12,000–13,99910 800140.416 300211.925 500331.5
14,000–15,9997 300109.510 100151.518 400276.0
16,000–17,9995 38091.58 150138.613 800234.6
18,000–19,9993 77071.65 20098.810 130192.5
20,000–39,9998 800248.812 650359.319 200546.3
40,000–59,9991 14054.61 65079.82 520121.4
60,000 and over51046.766060.993085.6
Unknown*36.036.036.0
            Total1,672,5107,082.61,692,1608,137.91,710,2809,379.4

The next table provides an analysis of the incomes of self-employed individuals by income group.

SELF-EMPLOYED PERSONS
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1974–751975–761976–77
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)3 0002 1001 500
1–9999 5004.77 5003.75 9002.9
1,000–1,1991 9002.11 8002.01 1001.2
1,200–1,3991 9002.51 4001.81 1001.4
1,400–1 5992 4003.61 6002.41 2001.8
1,600–1,7992 5004.22 1003.51 4002.4
1,800–1,9992 4004.51 6003.01 3002.4
2,000–2,1992 7005.62 1004.41 6003.3
2,200–2,3993 1007.12 3005.31 8004.1
2,400–2,5992 7006.72 3005.71 7004.2
2,600–2,7992 5006.72 4006.51 7004.6
2,800–2,9993 1009.02 6007.52 1006.1
3,000–3,1993 50010.83 0009.32 3007.1
3,200–3,3993 0009.92 9009.52 3007.6
3,400–3,5993 30011.53 10010.82 5008.7
3,600–3,7993 60013.33 40012.52 90010.7
3,800–3,9993 50013.63 50013.73 00011.7
4,000–4,3996 30026.46 70028.16 00025.2
4,400–4,7996 70030.86 30029.05 80026.7
4,800–5,1996 30031.56 10030.55 60028.0
5,200–5,5995 80031.36 00032.45 80031.3
5,600–5,9995 40031.35 70033.05 70033.0
6,000–6,3994 50027.94 70029.15 20032.2
6,400–6,7994 20027.74 50029.75 00033.0
6,800–7,1994 30030.14 50031.55 00035.0
7,200–7,5994 30031.84 30031.84 70034.7
7,600–7,9993 90030.44 20032.84 70036.6
8,000–9,99910 40093.612 300110.713 800124.2
10,000–11,9997 10078.18 30091.310 100111.1
12,000–13,9994 20054.65 60072.86 70087.1
14,000–15,9992 90043.53 60054.04 80072.0
16,000–17,9992 10035.72 80047.63 40057.8
18,000–19,9991 60030.42 00038.02 90055.1
20,000–39,9994 300113.86 000159.88 500225.3
40,000–59,99946022.465032.590044.9
60,000 and over15014.521020.628027.4
    Total139 510901.6140 1601,036.8140 2801,200.8

The incomes of salary and wage earners are analysed by income group in the following table.

SALARY AND WAGE EARNERS
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1974–751975–761976–77
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
*An “unknown” group has been included to cover cases still under investigation mainly because of problems in matching tax deduction certificates for broken periods of work; this applies to salary and wage earners with incomes of less than $2,600 who are not required to furnish a return of income. This group has been provisionally estimated at a fixed value of $36 million for the years 1974–75 to 1976–77 inclusive on the basis of past experience.
$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)1 100730950
1–999247 000123.5214 000107.0209 000104.5
1,000–1,19931 00034.124 00026.418 00019.8
1,200–1,39927 00035.121 00027.316 00020.8
1,400–1,59928 00042.022 00033.015 00022.5
1,600–1,79927 00045.921 00035.715 00025.5
1,800–1,99930 00057.023 00043.716 00030.4
2,000–2,19936 00075.628 00058.819 00039.9
2,200–2,39934 00078.227 00062.118 00041.4
2,400–2,59935 00087.527 00067.518 00045.0
2,600–2,79936 00097.230 00081.018 00048.6
2,800–2,99934 00098.628 00081.218 00052.2
3,000–3,19938 000117.832 00099.222 00068.2
3,200–3,39933 000108.927 00089.120 00066.0
3,400–3,59932 000112.026 00091.020 00070.0
3,600–3,79932 000118.427 00099.920 00074.0
3,800–3,99939 000152.138 000148.227 000105.3
4,000–4,39985 000357.089 000373.890 000378.0
4,400–4,79990 000414.0100 000460.0102 000469.2
4,800–5,19980 000400.092 000460.0100 000500.0
5,200–5,59970 000378.080 000432.086 000464.3
5,600–5,99964 000371.277 000446.683 000481.4
6,000–6,39959 000365.872 000446.480 000496.0
6,400–6,79946 000303.656 000369.665 000429.0
6,800–7,19939 000273.054 000378.071 000497.0
7,200–7,59930 000222.039 000288.652 000384.7
7,600–7,99926 000202.837 000288.651 000397.8
8,000–9,99960 000540.077 000693.096 000864.0
10,000–11,99921 000231.030 000330.039 000429.0
12,000–13,9996 00078.010 000130.018 000234.0
14,000–15,9994 00060.06 00090.013 000195.0
16,000–17,9993 00051.05 00085.010 000170.0
18,000–19,9992 00038.03 00057.07 000133.0
20,000–39,9994 000120.06 000180.010 000300.0
40,000–59,99960028.290042.31 50070.5
60,000 and over30026.437032.655048.4
Unknown*36.036.036.0
            Total1,430,0005,879.91,450,0006,770.61,465,0007,811.4

The next table gives corresponding data for individuals whose incomes were principally derived from investment, i.e., from interest, rents and royalties, “estate” income, and also company dividends if there was no other major source of income.

INVESTMENT INCOMES
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1974–751975–761976–77
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)1 0601 0701 000
1–99926 00013.024 00012.023 00011.5
1,000–1,1994 5004.93 7004.13 4003.7
1,200–1,3994 5005.83 7004.83 4004.4
1,400–1,5994 0006.03 2004.82 8004.2
1,600–1,7994 5007.63 7006.33 4005.7
1,800–1,9995 0009.54 5008.54 2008.0
2,000–2,1995 00010.54 2008.83 7007.8
2.200–2,3995 00011.55 20012.05 00011.5
2,400–2,5994 00010.04 20010.54 50011.2
2,600–2,7993 2008.63 4009.23 70010.0
2,800–2,9993 1009.03 2009.33 4009.9
3,000–3,1992 5007.72 8008.73 1009.6
3,200–3,3992 5008.22 8009.23 10010.2
3,400–3,5992 4008.42 5008.72 8009.8
3,600–3,7991 4005.21 3004.81 3004.8
3,800–3,9992 1008.22 300902 5009.7
4,000–4,3993 50014.74 00016.84 20017.6
4,400–4,7993 00013.83 50016.13 80017.5
4,800–5,1992 20011.02 50012.52 80014.0
5,200–5,5992 00010.82 50013.53 20017.3
5,600–5,9991 6009.21 80010.42 15012.5
6,000–6,3991 5009.31 80011.22 20013.6
6,400–6,7991 4009.21 70011.22 10013.9
6,800–7,1998005.61 0007.01 3009.1
7,200–7,5997505.69507.01 2509.2
7,600–7,9998006.21 0508.21 35010.5
8,000–9,9991 80016.22 00018.02 40021.6
10,000–11,9998008.88509.31 00011.0
12,000–13,9996007.87009.180010.4
14,000–15,9994006.05007.56009.0
16,000–17,9992804.83506.04006.8
18,000–19,9991703.22003.82304.4
20,000–39,99950015.065019.570021.0
40,000–59,999804.01005.01206.0
60,000 and over605.8807.71009.8
                Total103 000301.1102 000330.5105 000367.2

In the 3 years covered in the above table, persons with certain types of investment income were not required to complete income tax returns unless they were normally in receipt of income from self employment or were applying for refunds. Returns were not required if:

  1. all income was from dividends and was less than $1,480 in 1974–75, $1,530 in 1975–76 and $1,560 in 1976–77.

  2. all income was from interest or building society dividends (after exemption), rents, royalties, or a share in an estate or trust and was less than $750 in 1975–76, and $775 in 1976–77.

  3. all income was from universal or national superannuation.

These changes affect the numbers of returns in the table.

Average and median incomes have been estimated from a restricted sample on a provisional basis. The averages are based on total income derived from all sources and not on income from self employment alone or salary and wages income alone. Incomes of self-employed persons include an element of interest return on capital investment as well as a reward for the person's own efforts.

The following table gives estimates of average and median incomes of self-employed persons in selected industries.

SELF-EMPLOYED PERSONS
Type of Self EmploymentIncome YearIncome Year
1974–751975–761976–771974–751975–761976–77
*Arithmetic mean.
 Averages* $Medians $
Agriculture and livestock production—
    Sheep farming5,8507,70010,3004,8006,2508,250
    Dairy farming5,3505,5506,5004,6004,8005,650
    Other farming5,0005,8006,5003,9004,5004,900
Manufacturing5,7006,5507,5004,6505,4006,050
Construction—
    Builders8,1508,5509,7006,6007,1007,300
    Building ancillary trades6,7007,6008,4005,9006,5006,900
Wholesale and retail trade6,2006,8007,6005,1505,6506,500
Transport—
    Road passenger5,2005,5006,1005,0505,3505,900
    Road freight7,7508,40010,4006,8507,4008,800
Services, professional—
    Medical practitioners (including surgeons, specialists, and physicians)22,55025,50024,60019,65022,00021,500
    Dental practitioners16,00018,45019,90015,25018,10018,700
    Legal practitioners18,50021,40022,80016,45018,65021,500
    Chartered accountants15,30016,75018,20013,15013,70014,600
Services, other5,0005,8506,6003,7504,2004,700

Companies—The provisional estimates of assessable income for companies are given in the next table. They are calculations based on the income trends revealed by a small sample of returns. The sample is confined to those income returns which are available at an early date. Companies with balance dates later than 30 June would be almost completely unrepresented in the sample.

The estimates are given with the warning that the figures are subject to a possible considerable margin of error and should therefore be used with caution.

Industry Group1974–751975–761976–77
Number of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income
  $(m) $(m) $(m)
Agriculture and livestock production6 85018.37 10023.87 40027.7
Manufacturing11 500319.611 900365.212 400410.3
Construction7 05051.97 55058.47 85056.2
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail trade20 500316.521 000346.721 500391.3
    Other21 100228.822 000259.223 000300.7
Transport, storage, and communication2 75022.32 80026.32 85031.4
Services6 25026.66 50031.26 70035.9
All other industries9504.99804.31 0004.3
                Total76 950988.979 8301,115.182 7001,257.8

FINAL DATA ON INCOMES—As stated at the beginning of this section, final data on incomes do not become available until a considerable time after the end of the income year. The previous tables in this section are all provisional estimates based on restricted samples of tax returns. The summary tables following show final figures, with 1973–74 as the latest year. Final figures are published in detail in the annual report Incomes and Income Tax, published by the Department of Statistics. In the case of individuals, the statistics are in normal years substantially based on a 5 percent sample for all incomes of less than $12,000; there is a complete enumeration of all incomes of $12,000 and over. The data for companies are derived from a complete enumeration.

The broad principle adopted in calculating the assessable income is that any expenditure or loss exclusively incurred in the production of assessable income for any year may be deducted from the total income from any assessable source for that year. Depreciation is allowed, varying rates for different classes of assets being fixed. The assessable income is approximately equivalent to the net profit as determined by the normal commercial accounting systems after the deduction of special taxation incentive allowances. Before the deduction of these allowances it is, on the whole, rather higher than the commercial net profit, since certain types of expenditure which are regarded as a revenue charge in commercial accounts are not permissible deductions for income tax purposes.

Capital profits are not assessable and capital losses are not deductible.

Classes of Taxpayers—“Individuals” comprise all assessments for individual persons. Partnership returns are ignored in the compilation, as the individual shares of partnership income are included in the individual tax assessments. The incomes of deceased persons' estates are not included, as the greater part of these are transferred to assessments of the beneficiaries.

The term “companies” not only covers companies incorporated under the Companies Act and other Acts relating to the formulation of companies, but also includes associations (incorporated or unincorporated), and aggregations of individuals (other than partnerships) which form separate and distinct entities for income tax purposes. Government departments which are liable to pay income tax are included, but most local and public authorities are not taxable even in respect of their trading operations, and consequently are not included in these statistics.

Summary—The following tables summarise the main items of information for income years.

INDIVIDUALS
YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersTotal IncomeExemptions*Taxable Income*Income Tax Assessed
*From 1969–70 exemptions and taxable income were estimated where incomes and tax data were derived from tax deduction certificates. The special exemption of $135 for each child was reduced to $35 for 1972–73 and repealed as from 1 April 1973.
   $(000)$(000)$(000)$(900)
1969–701,414,3501,296,9503,273,720781,9202,470,480524,330
1970–711,460,8201,359,6403,805,600842,4202,944,670689,290
1971–721,517,4901,420,4904,457,350892,9503,551,250873,810
1972–731,574,4601,487,1805,124,480830,3304,279,1201,021,900
1973–741,650,3701,566,0306,087,800834,8305,236,0001,295,890
COMPANIES
YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersAssessable Income*Returnable IncomeIncome Tax Assessed
*In ascertaining assessable income any expenditure exclusively incurred in the production of the income for the year may be deducted.
   $(000)$(000)$(000)
1969–7062 97045 066622,795682,066278,426
1970–7166 52247 476660,701737,473292,654
1971–7268 63948 408672,955738,591271,100
1972–7371 30450 299861,553942,853352,996
1973–7474 32052 5601,032,6871,132,121423,695

A strict comparison of the figures for any year with those of another is not possible, as changes in compilation practice and numerous amendments in income tax law have affected the comparability of the figures.

The next table shows some additional data concerning companies which relate to the income year 1973–74.

Industry GroupStocks at End of PeriodIncomeExpenditureGross Profit
Sales and ServicesInterest and RentsPurchasesSalaries and WagesInterest and RentsDepreciation
 $(million)
Agriculture and livestock production88.8345.55.388.680.524.818.9187.4
Forestry, hunting, and fishing1.737.60.4...11.41.63.319.4
Mining and quarrying2.778.20.5...16.34.74.8...
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco266.42,386.67.51,572.2297.225.744.5419.6
    Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear127.0582.84.0304.8136.816.011.0164.8
    Metals and metal products274.91,573.34.6966.0298.839.035.2395.8
    Other368.52,116.811.01,081.7435.445.069.4639.4
Construction147.41,096.65.5519.3255.515.425.7284.6
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1.614.10.15.93.30.80.94.0
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail1,185.78,722.647.46,803.5721.5137.971.11,544.7
    Other52.6785.6585.561.0204.6238.131.5 
Transport, storage, and communication4.7651.53.543.4187.518.049.6...
Services, community and business, and recreation20.0522.19.9176.5162.926.319.2139.3
Total 1973    –742,541.918,913.4685.311,623.02,811.7593.3385.13,798.8
1972–732,064.815,853.3554.59,720.72,382.7494.9323.43,229.5
1971–721,874.813,292.5492.07,958.82,076,8425.2282.22,606.0

One point which should be noted is that the purchases figures have not been given for the forestry and mining industry groups. It was found that there was a considerable lack of uniformity in such data for these 2 groups, which was probably connected with differing treatments of royalty and equivalent payments.

The amount of gross profit shown in the accounts is used in these statistics, despite the wide variations in the conceptions of gross profit. No attempt has been made to secure uniformity of calculation for individual companies, but of course the total gross profit for each industry should correspond with that industry's average conception of gross profit. In some industries, such as the transport industry, it is not normal practice to calculate gross profit, and in some cases the gross profit is recorded in these statistics as nil. Estimates of the amount of gross profit were, however, made when any company did not calculate the gross profit, and it was the custom of the industry concerned to show this figure.

The abridged version of the full industry classification for which data are given in this publication does not reveal the individual industries where the gross profit is not generally calculated. Apart from “Mining and quarrying”, “Commerce—other” and “Transport, etc.”, there are a number of industries included in “Services, community” which do not show a gross profit.

Companies with Overseas Affiliations—Two types of companies operating in New Zealand but subject to some degree of overseas control have been identified. The 2 types are:

  1. branches of overseas organisations operating in New Zealand;

  2. New Zealand-registered companies with 25 percent or more of their equity shareholding subject to overseas control.

The second category includes not only companies in which overseas residents have a 25 percent or greater shareholding, but also companies which are subject to this degree of control without themselves having any overseas owners. For instance, if a New Zealand company was 50 percent owned by another New Zealand company, which itself was 50 percent overseas owned, the company would qualify as having 25 percent overseas control. These are generally termed “second generation” companies.

Overseas companies whose only New Zealand income is from investments, patent rights, royalties, copyrights, and the like, are not included in the 1494 companies selected, as they are not considered to be active in the New Zealand economy. Also excluded are those overseas companies such as air and shipping lines, which enjoy exemption from New Zealand income tax under the terms of double taxation agreements with their own countries.

The 25 percent minimum equity criterion used to classify objectively a New Zealand company as subject to some degree of overseas control, approximates the definition of international private direct investment used by such organisations as the International Monetary Fund. Although the measure of overseas control of New Zealand firms varies according to a great number of circumstances, a minimum holding of 25 percent does provide a consistent and practical criterion for determining its presence.

In the following table, 4 significant values for the 1494 overseas controlled companies are shown in industry groups both as absolute values, and as percentages of the totals for all companies assessed for income tax in the 1973–74 income year. The figures for assessable income (and, incidentally, for shareholders' funds) indicate that overseas-affiliated companies are, on average, larger units than are wholly New Zealand controlled companies. On the other hand it must be remembered that the New Zealand companies include Government trading departments which may follow profit policies different from private sector companies and for which capital values are not included in shareholders' funds. The figures would also suggest that there is some concentration of branches and subsidiaries of overseas companies in the four manufacturing groups and mining and quarrying; these industries offer scope to large concerns with access to capital and technical expertise.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeIncome Tax AssessedSalaries and WagesDividends Paid

*Companies with overseas affiliations.

†All New Zealand companies including those with overseas affiliations.

‡Percentage of companies with overseas affiliations to all New Zealand companies.

   $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Agriculture and livestock production, forestry, hunting, and fishingOverseas*293581582,89812
All N.Z.7 12326,3619,89391,9294,829
Percent0.41.41.63.20.2
Mining and quarryingOverseas*434391341,0771,470
All N.Z.3592,9101,11716,3392,269
Percent12.015.112.06.664.8
Manufacturing—food, beverages, and tobaccoOverseas*5821,5799,71470,1864,873
All N.Z.94881,25736,490297,24325,776
Percent6.126.626.623.618.9
Manufacturing—textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textilesOverseas*317,4603,33119,6871,452
All N.Z.98135,95615,818136,7778,121
Percent3.220.721.114.417.9
Manufacturing—wood, paper and chemical products, and miscellaneous manufacturingOverseas*23050,47622,674108,88315,232
All N.Z.3 921155,65768,937435,35349,939
Percent5.932.432.925.030.5
Manufacturing—metals and metal productsOverseas*16330,76013,80465,2314,357
All N.Z.5 25081,51135,031298,75711,927
Percent3.137.739.421.836.5
ConstructionOverseas*291,0194846,968155
All N.Z.6 58142,61717,246255,4784,432
Percent0.42.42.82.73.5
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary servicesOverseas*
All N.Z.753511443,281343
Percent
Commerce—wholesale and retailOverseas*37493,78742,132118,53015,148
All N.Z.20 090335,078145,500721,49962,230
Percent1.928.029.016.424.3
Commerce—otherOverseas*42390,21629,76297,40416,113
All N.Z.20 314225,60974,922204,57975,423
Percent2.140.039.747.621.4
Transport, storage, and communicationOverseas*451,58772628,994175
All N.Z.2 64021,1388,854187,5367,125
Percent1.77.58.215.52.5
Services—community, business and recreationOverseas*692,6061,1337,604155
All. N.Z.6 03824,2439,742162,9245,149
Percent1.110.711.64.73.0
All industriesOverseas*1 494300,288124,051527,46259,143
All N.Z.74 3201,032,687423,6952,811,694257,564
Percent2.029.129.318.823.0

CENSUS 1976: INCOMES OF INDIVIDUALS—The following statistics on incomes were compiled from the Census of Population taken on 23 March 1976.

The table below divides into income groups the persons actively engaged in the labour force and also the total population.

The question asked for income for the year ended 31 March 1976 from all sources, without deduction of taxes, superannuation, life insurance, rates, etc. Social welfare benefits (age, family, etc.) and war pensions were not included.

Income GroupPersons Actively Engaged*Total Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*Working 20 hours or more per week.

†Includes part-time workers working less than 20 hours per week.

$      
Nil—5 624788513 509576 456905 8771,482,333
        1–99918 93833 17452 11284 263187 268271 531
  1,000–2,99972 831120 453193 284106 768196 993303 761
  3,000–3,99984 76182 384167 14593 36194 338187 699
  4,000–4,999129 45866 129195 587135 04372 521207 564
  5,000–5,999158 40/47 781206 188162 08051 431213 511
  6,000–6,999110 88419 956130 840113 00521 744134 749
  7,000–7,99981 3999 98691 38582 70310 95593 658
  8,000–8,99957 9094 52862 43758 9385 27164 209
  9,000–9,99935 0052 36437 36935 7302 88638 616
10,000–12,49948 5942 58151 17549 7183 42453 142
12,500–14,99918 16977218 94118 6671 17519 842
15,000–19,99914 10452214,62614 45185815 309
20,000 and over14 38749114 87814 79279515 587
Not specified14 6288 22922 85716 06711 80527 872
            Total865 098407 2351,272,3331,562,0421,567,3413,129,383

Persons actively engaged but with relatively small incomes would include considerable numbers of school leavers who began work late in 1975 or in early 1976 as well as persons unemployed but seeking work, and those assisting relatives without pay.

The following table provides 1976 Census incomes data by age of recipient, for persons 15 years and over.

Age Group (Years)Income GroupTotal Inc. Not Specified
Under $1,000$1,000-$2,999$3,000-$5,999$6,000-$8,999$9,000-$14,999$15,000 and over
Males
15–1974,78335,64738,6301,66613416153,335
20–248,72816,37178,46022,9812,477292131,644
25–346,28410,75688,1608,79527,5185,360226,515
35–443,6066,28456,98859,41330,0198,556167,616
45–6425,98916,784108,93179,74940,71813,617289,798
65 and over67,60920,64719,2476,0283,2471,402118,992
            Total186,999106,489390,416254,632104,11329,2431,087,900
Females
15–1983,37333,89927,706152255147,402
20–2450,23116,10155,2304,51220040127,931
25–34134,03332,29739,76111,8141,567284222,123
35–4478,62937,18533,7128,5031,783364162,112
45–64167,75054,18253,31811,4883,082677293,195
65 and over125,42223,0878,5111,491828283160,515
            Total639,438196,751218,23837,9607,4851,6531,113,278

Income Earners in Each Household—An analysis of income earners in each household was made from the information collected at the Census of Population in 1976. For this analysis an income earner was defined as one who received $500 or more a year, excluding social welfare benefits and war pensions. A summary of the analysis is given in the following table.

Number of Household MembersNumber of Private Households WithTotal Households
No Income Earners*1 Income Earner2 Income Earners3 Income Earners4 Income Earners5 or More Income Earners
*Includes a number of households where income of members was not specified.
155 31988 577143 896
244 59986 787126 392257 778
39 47259 15952 33827 494148 463
45 25777 89858 41519 6179 906171 093
52 84146 62337 46413 5486 3022 386109 164
61 51320 53117 2097 9293 8521 96552 999
77287 5546 4943 6281 9501 12521 479
83903 1702 6971 6661 0046679 594
9 or more4222 3282 2211 7311 0421 0478 791
                Total120 541392 627303 23075 61324 0567 190923 257

Chapter 31. Section 29; BANKING AND CURRENCY

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The core of the New Zealand banking system comprises a central bank (the Reserve Bank of New Zealand) and 5 commercial or trading banks. There are also 12 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank, while each trading bank has had a private savings bank since 1 October 1964. In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, etc., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits (short-term and long-term) to clients. In some instances deposits are repayable to the client's order at call—virtually a system of cheque issuing. Particularly during the 1960s, an expansion in the size and scope of rear-banks (or non-banking financial institutions) was a feature in New Zealand as in many other countries, but this trend has been reversed to some extent in recent years. Report No. 10 of the Monetary and Economic Council The New Zealand Financial System, published in March 1966, presents a comprehensive description of the financial and credit system, and Report No. 24, published in December 1972, reviews further developments in the financial system.

RESERVE BANK—The Reserve Bank was originally established in 1933 as a privately-owned institution, but became a fully State-owned institution in 1936. A brief survey of its historical development was included in this section in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks. The 1933 Act establishing the bank was the culmination of proposals ranging back to 1886 that a central bank or a State trading bank should be set up in New Zealand. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 and amendments provided the Reserve Bank with powers in line with modern central banking practice and monetary policy. It provided the Government and the Reserve Bank with flexible authority to take such monetary action as might be appropriate to the times with respect to any financial institution.

Functions of the Bank—Section 8 is the most important section in the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act. As amended in 1973, it restates the primary functions of the bank, its basic relationships with Parliament, the Government, and the Minister of Finance, and lays down the criteria for Government monetary policy. The section reads:

  1. The primary functions of the bank shall be—

    1. To act as the central bank for New Zealand; and

    2. To ensure the availability and conditions of credit provided by financial institutions are not inconsistent with the sovereign right of the Crown to control money and credit in the public interest; and

    3. To advise the Government on matters relating to monetary policy, banking, and overseas exchange; and

    4. Within the limits of its powers, to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government as communicated in writing to the bank under subsection (2) of this section, and to any resolution of Parliament in relation to that monetary policy.

  2. For the purposes of this Act, the Minister may from time to time communicate to the bank the monetary policy of the Government, which shall be directed to the maintenance and promotion of economic and social welfare in New Zealand having regard to the desirability of promoting the highest degree of production and trade, and full employment and of maintaining a stable internal price level.

  3. The bank shall, as directed by the Minister, regulate and control on behalf of the Government—

    1. Money, banking, banking transactions, any class of transactions of financial institutions, credit, currency and the borrowing and lending of money;

    2. Rates of interest in respect of such classes of transactions as may from time to time be prescribed;

    3. Overseas exchange and overseas exchange transactions.

  4. The bank shall make such loans to the Government and on such conditions as the Minister decides from time to time, in order to ensure the continuing full employment of labour and other resources of any kind.

    The bank also has a number of subsidiary functions including:

    1. Banking functions for the Government, Government trading organisations, and the primary produce marketing authorities as well as for the trading banks.

    2. Management of the note and coin issue.

    3. Management of public and local authority debt.

    4. Management of foreign exchange reserves.

    5. The administration of various acts including the Overseas Investment Act 1973, the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948, and the Private Savings Bank Act 1964.

    6. The administration of various regulations including the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1974 (as applied to financial institutions), and the Limitation of Directors' Fees Regulations 1976, as well as regulations concerning the trustee and private savings banks and the public sector securities requirements of other financial institutions.

    7. Maintaining relations with international organisations such as IMF, IBRD and OECD.

    8. Economic research.

Whilst the bank must give effect to Government monetary policy, or to resolutions of Parliament related thereto, the directors are given a fair degree of independence and responsibility in the carrying out of the policy laid down, and in the management of the bank and the conduct of its business.

The exercise of the Reserve Bank's powers is at the discretion of the directors, but the consent of the Minister of Finance is required in certain special cases. The consent of the Governor-General in Council is required before the bank can engage in trade or have a direct interest in any commercial, industrial, or financial institution, or purchase, or lend against, the shares of a trading bank or financial institution. The Government is required to entrust to the bank, and the bank to undertake, free of charge to the Government, all Government banking transactions.

The Reserve Bank has 10 directors, comprising the Governor, the Deputy Governor, the Secretary to the Treasury, and seven other directors appointed by the Governor-General in Council.

Bank Notes—The bank retains the sole right of issue, and has authority for the calling in, with the consent of the Minister, of any note or series of notes issued by the bank. Notes called in cease to be legal tender, but remain a liability of the bank. Provisions covering the defacing of bank notes and their reproduction or imitation without the prior consent of the bank are in the Reserve Bank Act.

Overseas Exchange—Part IV of the Reserve Bank Act 1964 deals with overseas exchange and other transactions affecting the overseas resources of New Zealand. The bank has the authority to fix the actual exchange rates used in its operations, and may also prescribe or approve rates of exchange to be used by other persons in foreign exchange transactions. These rates are fixed by the bank in accordance with directives given to the bank by the Minister of Finance. The Governor, with the prior consent of the Minister, may temporarily suspend dealings in foreign exchange.

Since the holding of external reserves is dependent on aspects of economic policy and conditions beyond the control of the Reserve Bank, the bank's duty is described as “to endeavour, within the limits of its powers, to maintain, in addition to any holdings of gold, an adequate level of overseas reserves”. The bank keeps the Minister of Finance informed of the overseas exchange position and prospects. To assist it in carrying out this duty to hold reserves, the bank has a statutory power to require trading banks to sell to it their foreign exchange holdings in excess of maximum amounts prescribed by the Reserve Bank.

Comprehensive permissive provisions for exchange control regulations are set out in Part IV of the Act, as are provisions for regulations covering dealings in gold. This part of the Act also provides for an indemnity under which changes in the New Zealand currency value of the bank's overseas assets (less offsetting changes in the New Zealand currency value of its overseas liabilities) are settled between the bank and the Government.

Regulation of Banking and Credit—In Part V of the 1964 Act, trading banks are required to make monthly returns to the Reserve Bank detailing their principal liabilities and assets. Statutory authority has been provided for obtaining such subsidiary returns and other information from trading banks as the Reserve Bank may require.

There is complete flexibility, subject to the approval of the Minister, in the application of reserve ratios or assets ratios. The trading banks may be required to hold balances at the Reserve Bank or to hold assets of a specified kind including balances at the Reserve Bank. The minimum requirements may be laid down as a percentage of deposit liabilities or of assets, as a percentage of parts of such deposit liabilities or assets, or as percentages of both, or in any other manner. Different percentages may be laid down for different classes of deposit liabilities or assets.

The Reserve Bank is authorised to give directions to trading banks as to the policy to be followed in relation to advances, discounts, and investments and in relation to rates of interest or discount.

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act 1973 extended the controls previously exercised over the trading banks to include all financial institutions. The Amendment Act provided the monetary authorities with forms of control over non-bank financial institutions including the power to make recommendations or give directives, to specify rates of interest, to require the holding of specified assets, and to inspect books and request information. Apart from these direct controls over financial institutions, the Reserve Bank may influence the financial system by buying and selling Government securities at rates which are subject to the approval of the Minister of Finance. Fuller information on instruments of monetary control and their operation is given later in this section.

Statistics collected from finance companies, the short-term money market, the commercial bill market, life assurance companies, stock and station agents, and all savings banks appear regularly in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Bank Profit—The bank's profit increased from $16.9 million in 1977 to $24.5 million in 1978. Overseas debt servicing costs rose, but increased income was received from New Zealand and overseas investments and exchange transactions. In addition, interest was received on the tax flow compensatory deposits with the trading banks.

Payment to Government in terms of section 40 of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 was $13,155,303.06.

Liabilities and Assets—Details of the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank at the end of June for the latest 3 years, and weekly averages for calendar years are shown in the following tables.

LIABILITIES OF RESERVE BANK
YearBank NotesDemand DepositsOther LiabilitiesTotal Liabilities
StateMarketingBanksOther
$(million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
1976382.8145.022.412.4466.7357.01,386.3
1977414.9164.933.411.4538.1455.61,618.4
1978447.4198.713.84.6507.1529.21,700.8
At End of June
1976367.5110.419.10.1472.1320.91,290.1
1977405.2155.037.015.2542.5438.31,593.1
1978432.9163.010.311.3494.0516.51,628.0
ASSETS OF THE RESERVE BANK
YearGoldOverseas AssetsInvest merits in New ZealandAdvances in Sew ZealandAll Other Assets in Sew Zealand
Short-term*InvestmentsSpecial Drawing RightsStateMarketing OrganisationsOther Advances and Discounts
*Current account balances and short-term bills.
$(million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
19760.7178.853.49.9583.393.9369.636.460.3
19770.7166.755.725.8796.9113.3377.134.547.8
19780.7242.953.351.2496.8256.5428.7123.447.3
At End of June
19760.7148.437.16.5564.011.8416.226.878.5
19770.7201.468.324.7780.0x47.9407.129.733.3
19780.7352.057.954.7466.5158.7462.736.838.1

TRADING BANKS—There have been trading banks in New Zealand since the early days of settlement and they have conducted their business according to the general principles which have long been traditional in British banking institutions. With the exception of the Bank of New Zealand, which became a fully State-owned bank with the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act 1945, the banks are owned by private shareholders. New Zealand has a branch banking system with nearly 1050 branches and agencies in New Zealand and a world-wide network of agents and correspondents. The general business of banking is governed by the Banking Act 1908. Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act 1908 and the Cheques Act 1960 are the laws relating to cheques drawn on a bank.

Banks accept deposits from the public for either a fixed term or on an “on demand” basis. Fixed term or time deposits bear interest, but unlike demand deposits cannot be operated on by cheque. Cheques drawn on current accounts are efficient and widely used instruments for the settlement of commercial and private debts. The fundamental principle of bank advances policy is to confine advances as far as possible to financing customers' current trade or seasonal requirements. The major form of bank lending to customers is still by way of overdraft but term lending, mainly for medium terms of from 2–5 years, has grown rapidly from approximately 3 percent of total bank lending in December 1971 to 37 percent in December 1978.

With the enactment of the Private Savings Banks Act 1964 the trading banks established savings banks from 1 October 1964 on a similar basis to that of the Post Office Savings Bank, offering ordinary, investment, thrift club, home lay-by, and special purpose accounts.

There are 5 trading banks in New Zealand, 2 of these institutions—the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand Limited—being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of New Zealand, although the National Bank was domiciled in the United Kingdom until recently. The other three banks—the Australia and New Zealand Banking Group Limited, the Bank of New South Wales, and the Commercial Bank of Australia Limited—are predominantly Australian institutions.

The close Australian affiliations of the Australian banks operating in New Zealand resulted in the past in an interlocking between the Australian and New Zealand financial structures, the separation of New Zealand business being one of the major motives leading up to the founding of the Reserve Bank.

The 5 trading banks jointly own a computer company, Databank Systems Ltd. Databank had a national network of computer centres operating by the end of 1969. This network handles the daily operations of the banks, including the clearing of cheques.

Bank of New Zealand—The Bank of New Zealand became a wholly State-owned trading bank on the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act in 1945. At 31 March 1978 it had 227 branches and 158 agencies in New Zealand, a branch and a sub-branch in London, 3 branches in Australia, and 6 branches, 1 sub-branch, and 15 agencies in Fiji. It also has representative offices in Japan and Singapore, and has recently opened a representative office in New York. The bank owns 50 percent of the shareholding of the Bank of Western Samoa and holds 20 percent of the capital of the Bank of Tonga. In addition, in common with other trading banks, it operates a savings bank. A finance company promoted by the bank commenced operations on 1 April 1966, and a separate merchant bank was established in 1973. These two companies merged in mid 1977 to form a new company in which the Bank retains the 40 percent shareholding it held in the 2 separate companies.

Trading income (including income from investments) of the Bank of New Zealand and its subsidiaries during the year ended 31 March 1978 was $88.6 million compared with $78.9 million the previous year and $66.0 million in 1975–76. Of this total of $88.6 million, operating expenses took $73.6 million and provision for taxation $7.6 million, leaving a net profit of $7.5 million compared with $7.5 million the previous year and $5.9 million in 1975–76.

The total assets of the bank and its subsidiaries as at 31 March 1978 amounted to $2,440.6 million. Among the main items were advances, bills discounted and sundry debts ($1,467.7 million), Government and local body securities ($661.4 million), and cash on hand, items in transit, and deposits with bankers ($181.5 million). Bank properties and equipment were valued at $74.5 million. The principal item of liabilities was deposits at $2,021.7 million.

Liabilities and Assets of Trading Banks—Since the Reserve Bank commenced operations the trading banks have been required to submit at monthly intervals a return of certain liabilities and assets in respect of New Zealand business. Monthly averages for the latest 3 calendar years and figures as at the last Wednesday in June are given in the next table.

SELECTED LIABILITIES OF TRADING BANKS*
YearLiabilities in Sew ZealandLiabilities Outside New ZealandTotal Liabilities
DepositsOther Liabilities
DemandTime

*Trading bank business only, excludes liabilities of savings bank subsidiaries, shareholders' funds, capital liabilities to overseas head offices, contingencies, interbank accounts, and transit items within New Zealand.

†Compensatory deposits included.

$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19761,305.81,329.160.484.52,779.8
19771,340.01,772.971.2107.83,291.9
19781,471.52,360.073.3112.94,017.7
At End of June
19761,353.91,329.375.584.92,843.6
19771,357.21,775.343.1112.13,287.7
19781,451.82,278.444.7118.43,893.3
SELECTED ASSETS OF TRADING BANKS
YearCoinReserve Bank NotesDemand Deposits Held in Reserve BankOverseas AssetsInvestmentsLoans*Other AssetsTotal Selected Assets

*Includes advances, discounts and term lending but excludes interbank lending.

†Includes interbank lending, land and buildings.

$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19765.568.914.1183.7666.31,814.5141.32,894.3
19775.770.1224.4638.82,342.2160.43,441.6
19786.568.44.3259.61,091.92,644.1162.74,237.4
At End of June
19765.062.3199.1736.01,780.6140.72,923.7
19775.262.915.2243.5639.62,350.1141.43,457.9
19785.762.110.4263.71,025.62,549.4166.84,083.7

Deposits and Advances of Trading Banks—The weekly averages of total deposits (together with the amount per head of mean population), and of total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits for each of the latest 3 calendar years, are given in the following table.

YearDepositsAdvances
Not Bearing Interest'Bearing InterestTotal*Per Head of Mean PopulationTotal AmountRatio to Deposits

*Including Government deposits.

†Exclusive of transfers by the Bank of New Zealand to its Long-term Mortgage Department but includes advances, discounts and term loans.

  $(m) $$(m)percent
19761,193.01,420.72,613.7838.751,808.769.2
19771,338.8x1,762.7x3,101.5991.622,342.575.5
19781,464.02,297.03,761.01,201.872,636.570.1

The following diagram illustrates the movements that have occurred in deposits and advances, the figures used, as in the previous table, being the weekly averages for calendar years.

Figure 31.1. TRADING BANKS - DEPOSITS AND ADVANCES

TRADING BANKS - DEPOSITS AND ADVANCES

Interest rates on trading banks advances are given in the following table.

Rate Charged PercentPercentage of Total Advances at Each Rate at 31 March
1975197619771978
Less than 644.039.05.64.6
6 and less than 732.425.27.40.4
7 and less than 823.635.841.49.5
8 and less than 919.323.9
9 and less than 1026.423.0
10 and less than 1115.0
11 and less than 129.2
12 and over14.6

The maximum permitted average interest rate on bank overdrafts was 6 percent from 31 August 1965 until 3 March 1976, when the restrictions on overdraft rates were abolished. This control had been in operation since early in World War II.

An analysis of overdrafts and term lending by the New Zealand trading banks is given in the following table.

Group12 March 197510 March 19769 March 19778 March 197814 March 1979
1. Farming, forestry, hunting, and fishing—$(million)
    (a) Mainly dairy farming43.245.751.958.270.7
    (b) Mainly sheep farming53.450.454.470.096.9
    (c) Other farming53.257.574.790.3124.1
    (d) Farm services13.213.517.420.224.6
    (e) Forestry, hunting, and fishing8.69.113.520.025.6
                Sub-total171.5176.1211.8258.8341.8
2. Mining and quarrying2.63.64.94.511.0
3. Manufacturing—
    (a) Dairy companies, factories, etc.20.321.928.131.338.7
    (b) Freezing works, meat companies, etc.195.6206.2266.4273.6367.7
    (c) Other food, beverages, and tobacco49.450.557.364.274.0
    (d) Textiles, footwear, and clothing34.740.064.858.976.9
    (e) Pulp and paper and paper products23.432.125.837.050.5
    (f) Metal products, machinery, and engineering85.880.3112.6142.2169.6
    (g) Transport equipment28.923.127.765.437.2
    (h) Other manufacturing115.291.6128.7147.5179.7
                Sub-total553.2545.7711.5820.2994.3
4. Construction71.082.6113.9117.7142.9
5. Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services6.28.64.74.04.0
6. Transport, storage, and communication34.038.645.059.486.7
7. Commerce, trade, and finance—
    (a) Wholesalers, mainly importers68.4101.371.982.5103.5
    (b) Wholesalers, other31.933.146.258.565.5
    (c) Retailers81.597.8141.8154.1174.3
    (d) Woolbuyers48.284.6104.798.7122.2
    (e) Stock and station agents59.426.653.961.458.8
    (f) Finance companies (mainly hire-purchase)11.65.822.113.316.3
    (g) Other financial institutions58.954.362.170.080.5
                Sub-total360.1403.6502.7538.5621.0
8. Local bodies, n.e.i.6.97.39.98.813.1
9. Services92.3111.0157.3160.1214.2
10. Personal—
    (a) For housing purposes76.8125.7196.3207.1324.1
    (b) Other138.4120.5174.4170.0279.0
                Sub-total215.2246.1370.7377.1603.1
                Total1,513.01,623.22,132.32,349.1,032.3

The following diagram illustrates the level of trading bank advances in March of the last 3 years.

Figure 31.2. TRADING BANKS - CLASSIFICATION OF ADVANCES

TRADING BANKS - CLASSIFICATION OF ADVANCES

Trading Bank Credit Authorities—The following table shows calendar-year averages and end of June figures for unexercised overdraft and term-loan authorities, total credit limits, and the percentage utilisation of credit limits.

YearUnexercised Overdraft and Term Loan AuthoritiesTotal Credit LimitsUtilisation of Credit Limits
 $(million)$(million)Percentage
Average for Calendar Year
1976787.42,601.969.8
1977821.23,163.474.0
19781,016.23,577.072.3
At End of June
1976750.82,531.470.3
1977785.33,135.375.0
19781,020.33,569.771.4

MONEY SUPPLY—The following table shows the money supply and selected liquid assets of the public as at 31 March of each of the latest 4 years.

After reaching a peak of 19.5 percent for the first quarter of 1976–77, the annual rate of increase in the money supply and selected liquid assets flattened out at around 13 percent during 1977–78. However, from June 1978 the rate of increase commenced to rise once more as a result of an easing of monetary policy. (See sub-section Recent Monetary Conditions and Policies.)

ItemAs a: 31 March
1975197619771978

*Notes and coin on issue from Reserve Bank minus till money of trading banks.

†Trading bank demand deposits minus Government deposits and trading bank deposits held by financial institutions included in table.

‡Net of deposits of included institutions with each other.

Money supply (M1)$(million)
    Notes and coins*311.7342.3367.6403.5
    Demand deposits1,016.11,243.91,303.91,290.1
    Savings bank cheque accounts4.19.818.126.8
                Total1,331.91,596.01,689.61,720.4
Other demand deposits
    Private savings banks366.4423.0446.9462.8
    Trustee savings banks578.7637.5673.7674.0
    P.O. savings bank709.3819.9837.4887.7
    Stock and station agents49.169.687.567.2
    Finance companies31.723.343.648.8
    Money market20.626.623.920.4
                Total1,845.81,999.92,113.02,160.9
Total demand deposits and money supply (M2)3,177.73,595.93,802.63,881.3
Time and fixed deposits1,793.72,221.92,922.93,739.7
Money supply and selected liquid assets of the public (M3)4,971.45,817.86,725.57,621.0
Annual rate of increase2.8%17.0%15.6%13.3%

RECENT MONETARY CONDITIONS AND POLICY—During 1972 and early 1973, the monetary policy stance was one of ease as credit expansion was encouraged in an endeavour to revive demand in a below-capacity economy. This, coupled with the expansionary budgets of 1972 and 1973 and a balance of payments inflow, resulted in an excessive monetary expansion. The growth of bank lending that occurred in December 1972 and early 1973 was extremely high, being equivalent to over 50 percent in annual terms. Several measures were announced in mid-1973 to dampen the rate of credit expansion and reduce existing private sector liquidity, including the introduction of the reserve asset ratio scheme relating to trading banks at a high level; a subsequent 2 percentage point policy increase in the ratios; and the introduction of a farm income equalisation scheme.

The tightening of the supply of loanable funds as a result of these measures and the impact of a marked turnaround in the balance of payments happened suddenly. The institutions whose borrowing rates were controlled tended to lose funds and experience liquidity problems while the uncontrolled financial sector attracted funds by raising interest rates.

The reserve asset ratios of the trading banks were progressively eased because of the liquidity drain on bank reserves throughout most of 1974. By October, the trading banks' lending-to-deposit ratio had reached what was considered a maximum prudent level and the Reserve Bank introduced a special deposits scheme. The reserve asset ratios were maintained at a constant level and the level of special deposits approved by the Reserve Bank became the variable element.

The tight liquidity situation was felt strongly by the housing sector. To maintain investment in housing, the Government security ratios of the trustee and private savings banks were reduced on 3 occasions during 1974 and again in March 1975. The Housing Corporation also expanded its lending activities significantly.

The liquidity position in the economy improved during 1975, primarily as a result of a large Government sector deficit which more than offset the balance of payments drain, but also because of demand factors. The special deposit assistance for the trading banks was phased out except for some special aspects relating to particular categories of trading bank lending. From July 1975, the reserve asset ratios were adjusted monthly so as to maintain a constant pressure on bank lending. In January 1976 a policy adjustment was made which increased the reserve asset ratios. The higher reserve ratios were introduced so that the growth in credit limits would fall to a more acceptable level.

The introduction of 2 policy packages in 1976 had important implications for monetary policy in New Zealand; the wool and export meat prices stabilisation schemes have dampened the influence of external factors on monetary aggregates in New Zealand, and the measures announced in the 2 March 1976 package represented a move towards a more flexible interest rates policy and a more meaningful public debt policy. The March measures included:

  • the revocation of the Interest on Deposits Regulations;

  • the freeing from control of trading bank term deposit interest rates, except on deposits of $12,000 or less;

  • freeing the trading banks from the 6 percent maximum average rate on overdrafts;

  • the raising of investment account interest rates at savings banks;

  • more realistic prime lending rates for the Housing Corporation and the Rural Bank;

  • higher interest rates for new Government and local body stock.

In addition, to further reduce the demand for imports, tighter hire-purchase controls on motorcars and colour television receivers were announced. The Government security ratios on trustee and private savings bank deposits were lowered by 2 percentage points, to make additional funds available to home buyers. Other policy measures introduced during the first half of 1976 were the introduction of a limited import deposit scheme and increases in Government charges and reductions in subsidies. A selective tight monetary policy was maintained throughout 1976; and price and rent freezes, and a stringent incomes policy were also maintained.

In the latter half of 1976 and the beginning of 1977, the tighter budgetary stance of the Government was offset by the growth in lending to the private sector, especially from the finance companies and trading banks, and consequently there was no general tightening in monetary conditions. However, as a result of the large tax flow to the Government in March 1977 and high lending-to-deposit ratios, the rate of growth of trading bank lending eased substantially from June 1977 after nearly 12 months of rapid growth. This led to a tightening of liquidity in the private sector.

As a further step towards a flexible interest rate policy, and to encourage the development of an efficient and flexible financial system, the 1977 Budget contained the following measures—

—higher interest rates for new Government and local authority securities;

—greater freedom for the savings banks to set the structure of, and interest rates on, investment and other term deposit accounts;

—the introduction of inflation-adjusted savings bonds;

—reductions in the Government security ratios on trustee and private savings banks.

On 28 October 1977, the Minister of Finance announced the introduction of measures designed to ensure that spending did not decline and to maintain business confidence. These measures were expected to increase the deficit before borrowing for the March 1978 year by approximately $180 million. Included in this package were the following monetary measures—

—trading banks were to be directed to give higher priority to lending to finance stockholding

—reserve asset ratio policy was to be eased by increasing the margin of trading bank “free reserves”;

—the Government security ratio on life insurance offices was to be reduced by 1 percentage point, and the offices requested to invest the $24 million released, particularly in industrial projects with an export orientation;

—a scheme of compensating deposits by the Reserve Bank with the trading banks was to be instituted to offset the seasonal liquidity squeeze during the tax payment period;

—most consumer goods were to be exempted from hire-purchase restrictions;

—the 2 percentage point reduction in the savings bank Government security ratios scheduled for 31 January 1978 was brought forward to 31 October 1977, in addition to the reduction already approved for that date;

—the Post Office was to be authorised to lend up to 2 percent of total deposits on second and subsequent mortgages for housing;

—restrictions on trading bank and life office holdings of local authority securities were to be removed;

—interest rates on Treasury bills were increased by ½ percentage point, and rates on 1 and 2-year Government securities were reduced by 1 percentage point.

The increased Government deficit and some demand factors resulted in some easing in monetary conditions. The Government security ratios of the Trustee and Private savings banks were reduced by a total of 6 percentage points in 1977 including a 4 percentage point reduction in October, to provide additional finance for housing.

Whilst liquidity was relatively tight during 1977, especially in certain sectors such as housing, the growth in domestic credit remained nevertheless at relatively high levels.

A sharp downturn in activity towards the end of 1977, which saw trading bank lending grow by only 1.9 percent (in seasonally adjusted terms) in the second half of 1977–78 and the growth in the broad monetary aggregate (M3) flatten off at around 13 percent, prompted the easing of monetary policy in February 1978. In order to ensure that monetary policy did not act as a restraint on the recovery of economic activity that official policy was seeking to achieve, and to ensure that balanced recovery in the public and private sectors occurred, reserve requirements for trading banks, savings banks, and finance companies were eased. These measures, coupled with expansionary fiscal measures, saw a pickup in the rates of growth of monetary aggregates from the March quarter of 1978.

In March 1978 the Reserve Bank operated a scheme, known as the Compensatory Deposits Scheme, designed to smooth out the loss of reserve assets by the banking system at the peak tax-flow periods (March and September). The usual March loss of approximately 60 percent of reserve assets was smoothed out through to May 1978 by a return flow of deposits by the Reserve Bank with the trading banks. The scheme was operated again in September 1978.

The expansionary monetary policy measures taken earlier in the year, the injection from the stimulatory fiscal stance adopted during 1978, resulted in M3 growing at 19.5 percent annually over the year to September 1978. (This compares with an annual growth rate of 13.4 percent for the previous September year.)

On 14 August 1978 the Minister of Finance announced the introduction of a guideline for the growth of private sector credit from the main deposit-taking institutions of 10–15 percent for the year ended March 1979. The announcement of this guideline reflected the Government's views on what would be an appropriate growth rate of private sector credit given the economic recovery desired by the authorities.

In order to finance the budget deficit in a non-inflationary fashion, and also to increase the holding of Government debt by the private sector, interest rates on Government securities were increased in August 1978 (having also been increased in February 1978). A further move in this direction was made in October 1978 when the New Zealand Government Savings Stock issue was opened. The increase in interest rates, combined with the attractiveness of the instrument because of its security and liquidity, made the issue very popular. When the loan closed on 15 December 1978 subscriptions totalled $293.6 million from 73 700 applicants.

However, at the end of 1978 the economy remained very liquid, with increased trading bank credit limits presaging further increases in the growth rate of private sector credit (already running at an estimated 19.7 percent in the year ended September 1978).

MONETARY INSTRUMENTS: Trading Banks—In June 1973, a new system of controlling trading bank operations was introduced. The reserve assets ratio scheme consists of a conventional liquidity requirement with the minimum ratios expressed as percentages of trading bank demand and time deposits. The ratios are varied on two grounds. Firstly, to take account of seasonal and random influences on bank liquidity and, secondly, to put into effect a change in credit policy. A bank unable to meet its reserve requirement has to borrow the shortfall from the Reserve Bank on conditions determined by the Reserve Bank. The percentage requirements, which are usually set monthly, are less for time deposits than for demand deposits, in order to continue to give the banks an incentive to compete for term deposits. Reserve assets consist of trading banks' holdings of notes and Government securities and of the time and demand balances of the trading banks at the Reserve Bank. Details of the reserve ratios are published in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Savings Banks—All Post Office Savings Bank deposits are invested in Government and public corporation securities apart from cash requirements and personal loans (introduced in 1973 and extended slightly during 1977).

The trustee and private savings banks have been required to invest a proportion of their deposits, after allowing for statutory cash requirements, in Government securities. The savings banks ratios have been high compared with other financial institutions. Since March 1968 the ratios have been reduced in stages, primarily to increase investment in housing mortgages.

Finance Companies—Capital issues control on finance companies was abolished in 1962 and “voluntary” agreements on investments existed until capital issues control was reintroduced in February 1967. These controls were abolished again in June 1969. The finance companies were then required to invest a prescribed percentage of their “borrowings” in Government securities. The initial ratio of 10 percent which was to be attained by July 1970 was phased in over 4 quarters. This ratio has been varied since as a tool of monetary policy. In October 1975 it was increased from 10 percent to 15 percent; in February 1978 it was reduced to 12½ percent; and in October 1978 it was again raised to 15 percent.

Life Insurance Companies—Between 1965 and 1969 there were several “voluntary” agreements with the insurance companies regarding investment in Government securities. In October 1969 the bases of the present controls were introduced. The insurance companies “voluntarily” agreed to invest 30 percent of their “assets” in public sector (Government and local authority) securities with a minimum of 22½ percent in Government securities. By October 1973, when this arrangement was formalised, the minimum Government securities ratio had been reduced to 22 percent and it has since been reduced to 19 percent with an overall ratio of 29 percent.

Building Societies—From November 1970 the building societies were required over a 5-year transitional period to reach and maintain 5 percent of their “assets” in public sector securities (with a minimum of 3 percent in Government securities). The 1976 Budget announced the phasing-in over a 10 year period of 15 percent public sector securities requirement, with a minimum of 11 percent in Government securities. The savings banks operations of authorised building societies are also required to invest a proportion of their deposits in Government securities.

Private Superannuation Funds—In June 1970 the private superannuation funds were given a 5-year transitional period in which to place 30 percent of their assets in public sector securities in order to qualify for tax exemptions. This agreement was formalised in August 1975 and provision was made for the ratio to increase by 2 percent annually to 40 percent by April 1980. Up to 10 percent of the increased requirements could be met by authorised “housing” investments.

Official Money Market Dealers—From the time of their official recognition late in 1962, dealers have been subject to deposit limits and controls on assets they can hold.

Discount Rate—In effect, the Reserve Bank's discount rate is the minimum rate at which trading banks may borrow from the bank if they need to do so in order to maintain the statutory minimum ratio requirements, and the rate at which the bank lends to approved short-term money market dealers. The discount rate does not apply to advances to the State or marketing organisations.

The rate was increased from 10 percent to 12 percent from 1 May to 10 November 1977, but then reverted to 10 percent in order to reduce trading bank competition for short-term deposits and thus put downward pressure on interest rates in line with general economic policy at the time. On 20 November 1978 the discount rate was raised to 12 percent in order to maintain relationship with market rates, which had risen, and to reinforce the restraints on credit growth.

Interest Rate Controls—Until March 1976, when the fixed rates were changed to maximum rates, the interest payable on deposits at trustee and private savings banks was, like the POSB, absolutely controlled. While there have been no changes in the rate of interest on “other” accounts, the interest rates on investment accounts have been increased several times in recent years to make them more competitive with other deposit instruments. In 1977 the restrictions on savings bank investment accounts were largely removed.

As part of its stabilisation policy, the government introduced the Interest on Deposits Regulations in March 1972. These regulations prescribed maximum rates of interest payable by non-bank financial institutions. After being amended in 1974 and 1975, the regulations were revoked in March 1976.

Directives—The Reserve Bank can also issue directives to supplement the other instruments. For many years, the trading banks have been subject to qualitative lending directives which specify high and low priority lending categories. At present, farming, exporting, and housing are high priority sectors while personal (excluding housing), importing, and lending to financial institutions are low priority. Finance for stockholding was given higher priority from October 1976. The savings banks have also been issued with directives concerning the investment of funds released by reductions in the Government securities ratios in housing mortgages.

Public Debt Policy—On 14 August 1978 the Minister of Finance announced measures designed to develop public debt policy as an active monetary policy instrument. He also made public the intention to use open market operations as a monetary policy instrument. These policy instruments will be used to change the rate of growth of the money supply by making an alternative asset in the form of Government securities, relatively more or less attractive in the eyes of the private sector.

In line with this aim, interest rates on Government securities have been increased so that a market in Government securities can be developed.

INTEREST RATES ON DEPOSITS: Savings Banks—The interest rate paid on ordinary, thrift club, special purpose, and home lay-by accounts at the Post Office, trustee savings banks, and private savings banks is set at 3 percent. The Post Office Savings Bank (POSB) and trustee savings banks also offer school, home ownership, fishing vessel ownership, and farm ownership accounts with the same rate of interest. In addition qualifying home lay-by, home ownership, and farm ownership account holders are eligible for grants and subsidies of various sorts aimed at encouraging saving for home and farm purchase.

Deposits can earn 3½ percent interest in National Savings Accounts with the POSB and some trustee savings banks after a qualifying period.

No interest is paid on personal cheque accounts but non-profit institutions may receive 3 percent interest on accounts with cheque facilities.

Housing bonds, which were introduced in September 1976 by the POSB and trustee savings banks, can earn 9 percent interest for a 5-year term.

As from August 1977 the savings banks were given the freedom to set the structure of, and the interest rates on, investment and other term deposit accounts, and the deposit limits were removed. The Trustee Savings Banks and the POSB require the concurrence of the Reserve Bank and the Secretary to the Treasury respectively regarding changes in rates. Prior to August 1977 the structure and maximum interest rates of savings bank investment accounts were fixed by Order in Council.

Trading Banks—On deposits up to $12,000 individual trading banks can offer up to the maximum rates of interest payable by their savings bank subsidiaries on investment accounts. Interest is not payable on cheque accounts. All other interest rates are free from control.

Other Deposit-Taking Institutions—The Interest on Deposits Regulations were revoked in March 1976 and deposit rates with non-banks are now free from control.

Other Deposits and Interest Rates—References to rates of interest on mortgages will be found in Section 30A (Mortgages), while interest on Government debt is referred to in Section 26C (State Indebtedness), and interest on local authority debt in Section 27 (Local Government Finance).

SAVINGS BANKS—Savings banks include the Post Office Savings Bank, the trustee savings banks, and the savings banks operated by the trading banks. In recent years there have been major changes in savings bank operations. Following an amendment to the Trustee Savings Bank Act passed in 1957, the 5 trustee savings banks that had survived from the middle of the last century were joined by 8 new trustee savings banks between 1959 and 1964. In 1972, 2 of these banks merged and there are now 12 trustee savings banks. Another major change was the formation of private savings banks by the 5 trading banks, following the passing of the Private Savings Bank Act in 1964.

As from April 1973 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been able to advance personal loans. In March 1973 the responsibilities for the administration of the trustee savings banks and the private savings banks was transferred from the Treasury to the Reserve Bank. Trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been allowed to offer cheque facilities since 1974.

The following table shows the total amounts of transactions in savings bank accounts, including accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, private savings banks, National Savings accounts, and school savings bank accounts, but excluding National Savings bonds.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestAmount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March
*Includes interest paid out on Investment accounts.
$(million)
19743,157.465.82,969.3253.92,302.1
19753,337.071.93,290.3118.62,420.7
19764,155.877.93,964.9268.72,689.4
19774,853.488.04,713.8227.62,917.1
19785,712.9104.75,502.7314.83,231.9

In the following table the accounts in the 3 types of savings banks are classified by amount groups.

Balances in the Post Office Savings Bank and the trustee savings banks are as at 31 March 1978. In the private savings banks, balance dates range between 31 March and 31 October. National Savings and school savings accounts are included.

SAVINGS BANK ACCOUNTS BY AMOUNT GROUPS
BalancePost Office Savings BankTrustee Savings BanksPrivate Savings Banks
Number of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of Total
$      
Under 2652 37421.2317 26614.9130 9249.9
2–1991,767,68157.51,027,48348.3707 14353.7
200–999381 37912.4459 56721.6288 32821.9
1,000–1,999129 1444.2162 5077.793 6327.1
2,000–3,99986 5862.9101 9654.861 5984.7
4,000 and over55 6631.857 6532.735 4532.7
                All accounts3,072,827100.02,126,441100.01,317,078100.0

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK: Operation—The business of the Post Office Savings Bank started on 3 February 1867, when branches were established at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Hokitika. At 31 March 1978 there were 1 179 branches of the bank throughout New Zealand. Deposits may be made at any of these branches. A full demand withdrawal service is provided at 180 branches which have ledgers, and a limited service is provided at the remaining non-ledger offices.

New services recently introduced include Personal Housing Loans (27 June 1977), Ordinary and Special Fishing Vessel Ownership Accounts (1 November 1977), and Budget Service Accounts (24 October 1978).

Conversion of Post Office Savings Bank accounts to computer operation is near completion. At the end of November 1978 some 2.7 million accounts were operating through 659 terminals situated at 308 offices located in the 22 postal districts throughout New Zealand.

Bonus Bonds continue to attract investors, and savings held in this way totalled $177.2 million at 30 September 1978. The monthly prize fund then exceeded $763,000.

The following table covers the activities of the Post Office Savings Bank.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestTotal Amount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits, Plus Interest, Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

*Includes interest paid on investment accounts.

†Includes Ordinary National Savings and School Saving Accounts.

‡Excludes National Savings Bonds and coupons.

 (000)  $(thousand)  
19742 941912,98531,921843,803101,1031,139,827
19752 954976,64934,138963,69847,0901,186,917
19762 9371,175,69435,3071,132,13478,8661,265,783
19773 0761,328,13338,5491,296,60170,0811,335,864
19783 1571,558,73945,8741,495,343109,2701,445,134

The Post Office Savings Bank assets as at 31 March 1978 included investments in the name of the Postmaster-General totalling $1,412 million, made up as follows:

 $(000)
Government Stock1,051,927
Housing Corporation of New Zealand Stock217,408
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation of New Zealand Stock122,700
Personal loans20,198
 1,412,233

Depositors and bondholders balances held at 31 March 1977 and 1978 are set out in the following table.

Accounts19771978
 $(thousand)
Ordinary777,230819,813
6 months investment5,1267,807
1 year investment95,37391,530
2 year investment104,35192,988
3 year investment82,322131,506
National Savings16,79814,362
Thrift club35,19035,343
Home ownership9,6089,974
School7,1308,238
Home lay-by343285
Farm ownership243366
Cheque21,84727,468
Bonus bonds138,275156,843
National Development Bonds27,14522,185
New Zealand Savings Certificates8,00610,265
Housing Bonds5,3067,594
Special farm ownership4361,583
Special home ownership6893,363
Special fishing vessel ownership1
New Zealand Savings Bonds and coupons211209
Adverse Event Bonds66
Balance in transit4333,608
            Total1,336,0681,445,337

PRIVATE SAVINGS BANKS—The Private Savings Bank Act 1964 came into force on 1 October 1964. Under this Act the 5 trading banks all formed private savings banks. These savings banks may transact business only in premises ordinarily occupied and used by the parent bank. In addition to ordinary deposits, these banks may accept investments similar to the trustee savings banks, by way of deposits in Home Lay-by, Investment accounts, Thrift Club, and Special Purpose accounts.

The following table relates to private savings banks.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearInterest CreditedExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 (000)  $(thousand)  
1974954811,351773,03212,82451,143450,642
19751 075860,612857,51914,61917,712468,354
19761 1121,100,8781,029,04116,65788,494556,848
19771 2431,260,6661,214,82419,30465,146621,995
19781 3171,394,9351,365,55821,48750,863672,858

Private savings banks assets at 31 March 1978 included $387.0 million invested in Government securities, $26.4 million in local authority securities, $261.0 million in mortgages and other loans. Government securities must be held for amounts equal to 58 percent of deposits in ordinary and investment accounts.

TRUSTEE SAVINGS BANKS—The trustee savings bank movement is generally regarded as having originated in Scotland in 1810. The movement spread quickly, and the first such New Zealand bank was established in Wellington in 1846, 20 years before the New Zealand Post Office Savings Bank commenced business. By 1870 nine trustee banks were in existence but four, namely Lyttelton, Wellington, Napier, and Nelson, did not survive the turn of the century. The five remaining banks, Auckland (1847), New Plymouth (1850), Dunedin (1864), Southland (1864), and Hokitika (1866), grew in strength and their activities became an important factor in New Zealand's economic structure. Since 1957 a number of new trustee savings banks have been established, and the total is now 12. The legislation dealing with trustee savings banks is contained chiefly in the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948. In March 1978 the Government Stock requirement of the trustee savings banks was reduced from 41 percent to 39 percent of investments in order to provide greater funds for new housing. A proportion of depositors' balances must be kept as cash in hand or on current account, namely 5 percent up to $20 million, and 2½ percent of the amount in excess of $20 million. Repayment of deposits is guaranteed by the State.

In addition to ordinary deposits, trustee savings banks may accept investments similarly to the Post Office Savings Bank, by way of deposits in Investment accounts.

The following tables relate only to trustee savings banks.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest CreditedTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 No.  $(thousand)  
19741,648,4151,433,06121,0591,352,434101,686711,631
19751,750,5181,499,73223,1011,469,03753,796765,427
19761,857,2821,879,22825,9301,803,769101,390866,816
19771,962,5222,264,57730,1952,202,37492,398959,215
19782,126,4412,759,21837,3452,641,858154,7051,113,920

NOTE—This statement includes national savings accounts.

The following table shows the results of the transactions, inclusive of National Savings accounts, of each of the trustee savings banks during 12 months ended 31 March 1978.

BankNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest CreditedTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 No.  $(thousand)  
Auckland878 727909,95715,598869,37056,185461,192
Waikato161 556238,0792,666230,13810,60774,371
Bay of Plenty101 603205,6781,869200,5576,98955,076
Taranaki92 274134,3061,909130,4805,73551,242
Eastern and Central133 184233,9571,934227,8538,03958,605
Wanganui57 12767,53991465,4203,03324,715
Wellington District105 097124,3821,345120,4085,32039,852
Westland23 62626,94757725,4032,12114,842
Canterbury293 483403,3055,163375,09633,372161,329
South Canterbury35 60458,43670555,7463,39521,011
Otago156 398163,5252,662150,72415,46384,300
Southland87 762193,1052,003190,6634,44667,385
            Total2,126,4412,759,21837,3452,641,858154,7051,113,920

Following is a summary of trustee savings banks' assets at 31 March 1978. The total assets include an amount of $752,000 securing National Savings deposits, all of which is invested in New Zealand Government securities. Under the Trustee Savings Banks Act, however, National Savings deposits are not regarded as assets of the Trustee Savings Banks, and for this reason are shown separately.

BankMortgagesNew Zealand Government SecuritiesLocal Authority DebenturesCash in Hand and on Call at BankTotal Assets*(Includes Other Assets but not National Savings Deposits)National Savings DepositsTotal Held Including National Savings Deposits
*Total assets include $112 million in fixed deposits and money at call.
$(thousand)
Auckland200,079176,72929,0978,813472,258405472,663
Waikato36,73428,6731,3541,27871,22871,228
Bay of Plenty27,20621,5661,08646555,79955,799
Taranaki24,41219,71315351152,5223052,552
Eastern and Central29,27622,1672391,17156,98956,989
Wanganui12,4809,41736715224,86524,865
Wellington District20,55816,4161551,21840,85140,851
Westland7,8565,5792501,08915,53015,530
Canterbury73,38262,1906,9212,304162,323162,323
South Canterbury8,6468,0001,56863921,40421,404
Otago38,98834,2673,76681186,75213086,882
Southland24,84626,3086,7782,70567,5122767,539
                Total504,463431,02551,73421,1561,128,0335921,128,625

STOCK AND STATION AGENTS—Many of the existing stock and station agents first commenced business as general merchants or retailers in the early days of the country's settlement. However, during the greater part of their history, the main financial operations have been in the supply of merchandise, machinery and implements, and the provision of finance to the farming community. The companies have developed a specialised banking business involving the maintenance of current accounts for farmers, the acceptance of time deposits and the granting of secured and unsecured advances. It is a widespread practice for farmers to have current accounts with their stock and station agents to which the proceeds of the sale of livestock and produce are placed and farm and personal expenses charged. Any surplus may be left on current account or placed with the agents on fixed deposit. Stock and station agents have top-tier borrowing priority with the trading banks in order to obtain additional funds to lend for seasonal and farming development needs.

Financial data as at 30 June are given of deposits, advances, etc., for the stock and station agents operating in New Zealand. The statistics refer to the whole of the companies' trading operations including, in some cases, activities additional to normal stock and station transactions, such as retail trading in consumer goods.

The deposit figures include only moneys received for an agreed term and rate of interest and exclude amounts secured by mortgage or debenture, and amounts in credit on current account. Secured advances to customers include those made on mortgage or chattel security. The figure for merchandise and commodity stocks includes all types of trading stock which are regarded as current assets, but excludes livestock, goods held on consignment, or motor vehicles used by the company.

The following table summarises the financial statements of 21 stock and station agents. Quarterly information, including details of interest rates, is published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ItemAt 30 June
19741975197619771978
*7 percent and over.
 $(thousand)
Deposits held43,92736,24138,78637,87240,129
Customers' credit balances on current account57,77347,47779,97486,79169,118
Advances to customers—
    (a) On current account (unsecured)104,12286,90881,128108,166107,319
    (b) Other advances (secured)50,37856,64942,69049,31153,071
Investments—
    (a) Government securities1,8041,6171,4431,4981,118
    (b) Fixed deposits4,5825,65312,8898,1326,663
    (c) Other investments17,05212,48825,91332,57536,790
Cash balances (in hand and at bank)2,7411,1686073,9665,094
Bank overdrafts outstanding49,47136,94024,05565,86649,356
Merchandise and commodity stocks62,18760,56169,25994,341100,101
Interest rates paid on deposit—Percentage of Deposits
    Under 5 percent26.723.414.711.35.0
    5 percent and under 6 percent31.320.820.819.18.1
    6 percent and under 7 percent32.733.729.221.514.3
    7 percent and under 8 percent9.3*22.1*21.521.913.1
    8 percent and under 9 percent......11.018.014.9
    9 percent and under 10 percent......2.84.37.1
    10 percent and under 11 percent......2.919.9
    11 percent and under 12 percent......0.27.1
    12 percent and over......0.810.5

FINANCE COMPANIES—In 1971 there were 27 finance companies designated “large” by the Reserve Bank for statistical purposes. Their assets amounted to 90 percent of the total assets of 526 surveyed finance companies. There has been rapid growth of these large companies in recent years as people have responded to higher interest rates on deposits and debentures and to the improved services offered. The large finance companies have developed simple and easily operated means of accepting money. Furthermore, many companies offer flexible deposit plans to depositors with large sums. In April 1977 the statistical coverage was expanded, and since then 30 “large” finance companies (i.e., those with outstanding advances at that time in excess of $1 million) have been providing regular data.

Total deposits (including debentures and notes) of finance companies continued to grow steadily during the year ended March 1978. The finance companies put up a strong performance relative to other intermediaries, particularly when the improvements in the competitive position of the savings banks are borne in mind.

Finance companies' interest rates reached historically high levels during 1977–78, and large companies were advertising rates of 14 percent for secured deposits of 3 years and over at the end of 1977. These rates started to fall again in February 1978 and advertised maximum rates had fallen to 13 percent by the end of March.

Outstanding loans, advances, leasing and factoring totalled $814.0 million at the end of the year. For reasons mentioned earlier, no comparison with the previous year's figures is possible but, even so, it appears that there was a slowdown in the rate of growth of advances. This initially reflected a response to the directive issued in December 1976 that the companies reduce their rate of growth of advances, but later it indicated a decline in demand for funds as the domestic economy slowed down.

In March 1978, as one of a number of measures taken by the Government to stimulate domestic economic activity in the face of rising unemployment, the Government security ratio applicable to finance company borrowings was reduced 2.5 percentage points from 15 to 12.5 percent. This measure released about $15 million for private sector investment by all finance companies.

In addition, hire purchase restrictions were eased on two occasions during the year. In October 1977 hire purchase restrictions on all goods, other than motor vehicles and colour television sets, were abolished completely. The second relaxation in February 1978 saw the reintroduction of hire purchase for new vehicles (prohibited with a few exceptions since March 1976), and a lengthening of the term of repayment permitted for used cars from 12 to 18 months. (For new cars, the repayment term is 12 months, and in both cases the deposit requirement is 60 percent.) The easing of restrictions on hire purchase finance of new and used cars considerably stimulated demand for finance company accommodation.

Statistics of deposits, debentures, and notes held by the large companies for which the Reserve Bank collects statistics are shown in the following table.

TermAt 31 March
19741975197619771978*
*Owing to changes in coverage, the 1978 figures are not directly comparable with those for earlier years.
 $(million)
At call31.827.320.034.140.5
Under 3 months21.916.919.644.594.0
3–5 months22.716.615.331.766.3
6–11 months29.913.513.229.2126.1
12–23 months34.225.316.0102.6151.7
2 years and over72.299.7216.9203.9214.3
        Total212.7199.3301.1446.0692.9

Gross loans and advances of these finance companies outstanding at 31 March 1978 are shown in the following table.

Sectoral AnalysisAmount
*Includes advances to dairy and meat processing companies.
Agricultural—$(000)
    Farming/fishing51,499
    Forestry9,591
            Sub-total61,090
Industrial—
    Manufacturing*46,615
    Heavy construction, engineering, mining, and quarrying73,914
    Residential construction, property development58,136
            Sub-total178,665
Distribution/Transport—
    Transport, storage90,731
    Motorcars—retail, H.P.84,002
    Motorcars—wholesale, floor-plan42,463
            Sub-total217,196
Mercantile—$(000)
    Wholesalers, importers11,743
    Exporters3,273
    Retailers35,670
            Sub-total50,686
    Service industries n.e.i.26,762
Personal—
    Housing—
        (i) New houses and flats58,438
        (ii) Existing houses and flats46,273
    Other personal65,572
            Sub-total170,283
    Other, n.e.i.28,896
            Total733,578

The breakdown of these advances has been revised, so again no comparison with earlier years is possible.

A common feature of finance company lending is the regular repayment required on most loans and the short turnover period of assets, often averaging less than a year. This enables finance companies to switch their lending rapidly from one purpose to another. Interest rates range from about 12 percent to a more common 17 to 20 percent for most instalment loans. Despite the high costs, businesses have grown to appreciate the fast and efficient services offered by finance companies, which process loan applications quickly and accept greater risks than other lenders.

MERCHANT BANKS—The major expansion of merchant banking in New Zealand occurred in 1971, when the Government allowed overseas companies to participate in their establishment. The merchant banks offer a wide range of financial services to industrial clients and also manage investment portfolios and deal in and accept commercial bills. The merchant banks engage in underwriting new share issues by companies, advise on and finance mergers and takeovers, and lend money for expansion to growing companies. The merchant banks played an important role in the expansion of the commercial bill market.

STRUCTURE OF FINANCIAL SYSTEM—The changing structure of the New Zealand financial system is shown by movements in the money supply and other major liquid assets of the public; a comparative table of selected liquid assets is now given. (Source: Reserve Bank Bulletin.)

Deposits, etc.At 31 MarchPercentage at 31 March
1977197819771978
(a) On an institutional basis$(m)$(m)  
Trading banks2,747.23,134.340.941.1
Private savings banks622.0672.09.38.8
            Sub-total3,369.23,806.350.149.9
Post Office Savings Bank1,336.01,445.319.919.0
Trustee savings banks959.31,113.314.314.6
Stock and station agents110.490.41.61.2
Finance companies555.9735.68.39.7
Official money market27.126.60.40.3
Notes and coins367.6403.55.55.3
            Total selected liquid assets6,725.57,621.0100.0100.0
(b) On a functional basis    
Money supply1,689.61,720.425.122.6
Other demand deposits2,113.02,160.931.428.3
            Sub-total3,802.63,881.356.550.9
Time and fixed deposits2,922.93,739.743.549.1
            Total selected liquid assets6,725.57,621.0100.0100.0

COINAGE AND CURRENCY: Decimal Currency—Under the Decimal Currency Act 1964 a system of decimal currency was introduced in New Zealand on 10 July 1967 with the dollar as the monetary unit. The dollar is equivalent to the previous 10s. The equivalent in decimal currency of the shilling is 10c. There are coins for $1 (not in general circulation), 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c, and Reserve Bank notes for 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 100 dollars. The coins are cupro-nickel, except for the one and two cent pieces which are bronze. Notes and coins have distinctive New Zealand designs.

Issue of Notes and Coin—Since 1 August 1934 the Reserve Bank has had the sole right to issue bank notes in New Zealand. Coin is the responsibility of the Treasury but is distributed by the Reserve Bank. Notes and coin are issued solely in response to the demands of the public. In assessing likely requirements there are seasonal factors to be considered, as well as basic economic conditions, such as national income, the levels of salaries and wages, changes in price levels generally, and the total volume of money. In addition, methods and frequency of payments affect the amount to be issued.

Legal Tender—Under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 notes issued by the Reserve Bank are constituted legal tender for any amount. In terms of the Decimal Currency Act 1964, dollar coins are legal tender for any amount, coins of 5, 10, 20, and 50c for any amount not exceeding five dollars, and coins of 1 and 2c for any amount not exceeding 20c.

Restrictions on Export of Currency—Under the Exchange Control Regulations 1978 the taking or sending of money from New Zealand is forbidden except with the consent of the Reserve Bank. The Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1978, permits travellers to take out up to $50 of New Zealand money in notes of $5 or $2 or $1 or in coin up to $4. The export of any other New Zealand notes or coin or the currency of any other country requires specific consent.

NEW ZEALAND EXCHANGE RATES—The relationship between the New Zealand pound and sterling previous to the 1960s was described in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

In 1961, New Zealand became a member of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), an institution established in 1948 at a United Nations conference at Bretton Woods, U.S.A. In accordance with one of the principal objectives of the Fund—the promotion of a stable international monetary system based on fixed exchange rates—each member country was required to establish a par value for its currency, expressed in gold. New Zealand adopted the relationship NZ£1 = 2.47130 grammes of fine gold (the equivalent of U$42,7809). Par values could be altered with the consent of the IMF to correct a fundamental disequilibrium in a member's balance of payments; although if the proposed change, together with all previous changes, did not exceed 10 percent of the initial par value, the Fund's concurrence was automatic.

Until 1971 members were required to confine buying and selling rates for foreign exchange transactions for immediate delivery within a margin of one percent either side of its par value and in the case of other than spot transactions, buying and selling rates could not differ from parity by more than a margin that the Fund considered “reasonable.”

Following the United Kingdom devaluation by 14.3 percent on 18 November 1967, New Zealand devalued its dollar by 19.45 percent to move to parity with Australian currency. The new par value for the New Zealand dollar was NZ$1 = 0.99531 grammes of fine gold. This was equivalent to US$1.12 and the sterling relationship on par values was NZ$2.1429 = £1 sterling. New Zealand continued to maintain sterling as its intervention currency and the fixed public telegraphic rates for sterling were established at equal margins either side of the revised sterling rate, at NZ$2.1492 (selling) and NZ$2.1367 (buying).

World Currency Realignment—During 1971 the value of the United States dollar underwent severe pressure on overseas currency markets. The United States Government reacted by suspending the gold convertibility of the dollar in August 1971. The U.S. dollar was then floated against all other currencies, against which it rapidly depreciated.

The consequent breakdown of the Bretton Woods international monetary system and the introduction of widespread floating necessitated a re-establishment by the International Monetary Fund of a system which, while being more flexible, would promote an orderly basis for conducting foreign exchange transactions. The Smithsonian Agreement of December 1971 introduced a temporary regime intended to facilitate the resumption of fixed par values and stable exchange rates on a more liberal basis. The United States dollar was devalued at this time by a change in the official price for fine gold from US$35 to US$38 per troy ounce and, at the same time, there was a general realignment of several other important currencies.

As part of the arrangements, member countries had the choice of maintaining their existing par values against gold as the basis for their exchange rates, or of establishing a “central rate” against another currency as its “official” exchange rate. To retain an existing par value resulted in a currency revaluation against the United States dollar (after the change in gold price to US$38 per ounce); New Zealand along with the United Kingdom and Australia opted for this arrangement. At the same time New Zealand, like Australia, nominated the United States dollar as its intervention currency instead of sterling as previously. This enabled New Zealand to quote fixed rates upon the United States dollar while the rates for sterling fluctuated from time to time according to the relationship between the U.S. dollar and sterling in free overseas currency markets.

In addition, the Smithsonian arrangements established wider margins within which spot exchange rates were permitted to move and New Zealand availed itself of this facility. The revised margins were 2¼ percent either side of parity or central rate (previously 1 percent) and, where an intervention currency was used to establish rates for other currencies, twice this margin for currencies other than the intervention currency. New Zealand established its fixed United States dollar selling rate (US$1.1887) at the maximum permissible level below the United States dollar (US$1.2160).

It was evident soon after the Smithsonian agreement was introduced that the arrangements made to promote exchange stability were not flexible enough to accommodate the rapidly changing economic circumstances between nations. A further breakdown occurred in 1972 when 18 currencies including sterling were floated, and the United States dollar again came under severe pressure. In February 1973 the United States dollar was devalued by 10 percent to US$42.222 per fine ounce of gold (from US$38). New Zealand maintained its gold parity, thus appreciating against the United States dollar to an equivalent par value of US$1.35111 = NZ$1. The fixed telegraphic selling and buying rates NZ/USA became US$1.3207 and US$1.3337, respectively.

New Zealand's Currency Basket and Recent Exchange Changes—With the continuation of widespread floating through 1973, the New Zealand dollar, tied to the United States dollar, was experiencing a gradual depreciation against most other currencies, since most were strengthening against the United States dollar on the overseas currency markets. This depreciation was not warranted as far as New Zealand's balance of payments was concerned, and as it was inducing inflationary pressures, it was decided to terminate the fixed relationship between the New Zealand and the United States dollar.

On 9 July 1973, the New Zealand dollar was adjusted upwards by 3.24 percent relative to the United States dollar, the amount needed to restore the relationship existing in mid-February, immediately following the devaluation of the United States dollar. From that date, New Zealand's exchange rates have been calculated daily in a manner which preserves unchanged the average value of the New Zealand dollar against a “basket” comprising the currencies of New Zealand's main trading partners. Thus, from 9 July 1973 until the revaluation in September 1973, the average value of the New Zealand dollar was held at the level that existed on 15 February 1973. The average is a trade weighted one, and thus movements in the overseas value of the currencies in the basket are reflected in alterations in their value against the New Zealand dollar according to their relative importance in New Zealand's international trade and other current overseas payments. This method of calculating New Zealand's exchange rates obviates some of the fluctuations that would occur in some rates if its currency were pegged to one particular currency. At that time New Zealand advised the IMF that it would no longer maintain a fixed relationship relative to the United States dollar.

On 9 September 1973, the New Zealand dollar was revalued by a further 10 percent against the basket of currencies in view of a very strong balance of payments and in an effort to reduce domestic inflation.

A devaluation of the New Zealand dollar by approximately 6.2 percent against the basket of currencies was made on 24 September 1974. At the same time the Australian dollar was devalued by 12 percent. This was a time of reversal in New Zealand's terms of trade and a heavy drain on overseas reserves following rapid domestic expansion.

In view of a continuing deterioration in the terms of trade and weaknesses in the balance of payments, the New Zealand dollar was again devalued on 14 August 1975, this time by 15 percent against the basket of currencies. It had become evident that the anticipated increase in export receipts expected to follow from a recovery from the world recession of 1974 was not eventuating. The objective of the devaluation was to restore the income of farmers and to stem New Zealand's rising import bill.

Following the devaluation of the Australian dollar by 17.5 percent on 29 November 1976 the New Zealand dollar was devalued by 2.73 percent against the basket of currencies, with effect from 30 November 1976. After a number of minor revaluations of the Australian dollar during December 1976, the New Zealand dollar was revalued by 2 percent on 20 December 1976.

New Zealand's exchange rates are still calculated daily employing the basket of currencies of New Zealand's main trading partners as discussed in the above paragraphs. The currency composition of the basket is updated regularly in accordance with changing trade patterns.

A New International Exchange Rates System—During the period since the Smithsonian Agreement, extensive international discussions have taken place on aspects of international monetary reform, including the question of an agreed set of principles to replace that Agreement. These discussions resulted, inter alia, in a quite wide-ranging amendment to the International Monetary Fund's Articles of Agreement. The amendment was formally implemented on 1 April 1978. The amended Articles introduced a revised code of conduct for exchange rate policies and practices of member countries, intended as a permanent international frame-work. Although the amended Articles allow for the reintroduction of a par value system (i.e., a fixed rate system) along the lines of the one in existence prior to 1971, it is now understood and widely accepted that a more flexible framework is required in present circumstances. Under the amended Articles, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has adopted a set of principles for the guidance of members, which call for countries to collaborate with the IMF and with each other in order to assure orderly exchange arrangements and to promote a stable system of exchange rates. These objectives are similar to those sought in the past, but attention is now focused more on surveillance of economic policies which have a bearing on exchange rates, rather than on the rates themselves. Thus, members are now permitted greater flexibility in altering their exchange rates consistent with the Articles, and have greater freedom to alter their exchange rate practices than existed formerly. IMF surveillance of exchange rate policies in the current international environment will be largely a judgmental matter, in which due consideration is to be paid to the social and economic circumstances of the individual countries.

The “currency basket” method used in New Zealand to determine exchange rates is in line with the amended IMF framework, and thus introduction of the amended Articles had no implications for New Zealand's exchange rate practices.

OVERSEAS RESERVES—The trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly intervals showing among other things overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on account of New Zealand business.

Statistics of New Zealand's official overseas reserves are shown in the following table and, over a longer period, in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook. The figures are as at the last Wednesday of the month. (Source: Reserve Bank of New Zealand).

As atAssets of N.Z. Banking System*Treasury-held Overseas SecuritiesGovernment-held Overseas SecuritiesGoldReserve Position at I.M.F.Special Drawing Rights§Total

*Comprises foreign exchange and overseas investment of the Reserve Bank and the trading banks in respect of New Zealand business. A small item “Liabilities in Other Currencies” has been deducted from the Reserve Bank's overseas assets while gross foreign liabilities on account of New Zealand business have been deducted from the trading banks' overseas foreign assets.

†Gold holdings of the Reserve Bank at cost.

‡ Equal to the gold subscription less any drawings of the gold tranche.

§Allocations less exchange transactions.

NZ$(million)
End of June
1976299.1239.326.30.76.5571.9
1977399.3286.723.90.72.524.7737.8
1978554.4287.323.90.713.954.7934.8
End of December
1976359.3285.323.90.79.8679.0
1977257.6258.523.91.62.540.5584.6
1978292.3175.230.82.527.856.2584.7

The following diagram shows the overseas reserves.

Figure 31.3. OVERSEAS RESERVES

OVERSEAS RESERVES

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS—For the year ended December 1978 a current account deficit of $392 million was recorded, an improvement of $211 million on the deficit recorded in the previous year. The deficit for the December year comprised a surplus on trade transactions of $607 million and a deficit of $999 million on “invisible” (non-merchandise) transactions.

Export receipts, at $3,671 million, were 8.6 percent higher than the $3,380 million recorded in 1977. Most categories of exports contributed to the increase of $291 million, with meat, butter, other animal products, and manufactured exports showing the greatest growth in receipts in 1978. Declines in export receipts occurred in cheese, some dairy products, and miscellaneous exports during 1978.

Total import payments at $3,065 million for the calendar year 1978 decreased by 3 percent from the level of $3,159 million recorded in 1977. This decrease was the result of reduced volumes of imports and occurred despite an increase in import prices in the region of 7 percent.

The “invisibles” transactions balance continued to deteriorate during 1978, moving from the deficit of $825 million registered in 1977 to one of $999 million. Large increases in payments for travel, interest and investment income, emigrants' transfers, overseas expenses of New Zealand firms, official debt interest, and miscellaneous Government payments accounted for the major share ($185 million) in the increase of $205 million which occurred. Payments at $1,772 million were up 13.1 percent while receipts increased by only 4.1 percent to $773 million.

Capital transactions for the year resulted in a net capital inflow of $424 million. This inflow comprised net official receipts of $398 million and a private capital inflow of $26 million. In the preceding year the net official inflow was $248 million and private capital inflow totalled $225 million. The totals given for these loans are the New Zealand dollar equivalents received at various times during the year by the New Zealand banking system and do not take into account exchange rate changes since the date of receipt which will affect the amount repayable in New Zealand currency terms when the loans fall due.

At the end of December 1978 official overseas reserves amounted to $585 million, the same amount recorded in December 1977.

A full classification of overseas exchange transactions for the 5 latest calendar years is given in the following table.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS: YEARS ENDED DECEMBER
Item19741975197619771978
 NZ$(million)
Exports—Receipts
    Meat532.9513.7783.6892.8977.1
    Wool337.1318.9610.7663.2667.4
    Butter109.6146.8199.0178.0241.5
    Cheese44.473.771.289.687.7
    Other dairy products167.8171.0241.2297.7299.2
    Other animal products130.9132.6206.8284.2321.7
    Forest products142.9153.7243.0282.4292.5
    Other primary products74.385.5120.3163.7178.9
    Manufactured exports195.3266.8435.8503.0582.4
    Miscellaneous11.613.116.625.622.6
                Total export receipts1,746.71,875.82,928.33,380.13,671.1
Other current—
    Cook Islands exports0.20.91.4
    Transport109.7145.4182.2222.4235.4
    Insurance14.219.614.923.823.8
    Travel (excluding fares)94.5130.4157.1162.4161.8
    International investment income—
        Interest and dividends54.047.542.345.436.7
        Other investment income4.36.88.913.622.8
    New Zealand Government receipts and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand22.621.430.040.839.7
    Miscellaneous—
        Commissions, royalties17.120.420.226.422.4
        Expenses of business firms10.310.513.817.327.4
        Personal receipts, legacies, and immigrants transfers119.1135.0137.7155.8166.4
        Other current transactions17.223.725.334.2x35.0
                Total current receipts2,209.62,436.43,561.04,122.04,443.8
Capital transfers—
    Government borrowing232.7511.4430.9496.9644.7
    Other official receipts106.1166.798.055.995.8
    Private270.4360.7435.8409.7392.6
                Total capital receipts609.21,038.6964.7962.51,133.1
I.M.F.—
    Drawings78.5161.1170.8
    Allocations of SDRs
                Total receipts2,897.33,636.44,696.55,084.55,577.0
 Payments
Imports—
    Private2,179.42,286.02,784.12,999.22,876.5
    Government97.5189.6153.7159.7188.1
                Total import payments2,276.92,475.62,937.83,159.03,64.6
    Cook Islands imports0.40.20.50.30.4
    Transport175.6243.5334.0426.4420.3
    Insurance—
        Premiums5.16.69.710.918.2
        Claims1.11.01.43.13.0
        Other transfers12.118.219.722.921.4
    Travel (excluding fares)179.2186.5235.4294.6365.3
    International investment income—
        Private75.0103.8147.1169.8222.2
        Government interest36.089.6156.9196.1217.8
        Local authority interest0.1
    Government expenditure overseas72.376.278.0116.3134.9
    Miscellaneous—
    Commissions, royalties and rebates28.930.146.553.556.8
    Expenses of business firms53.977.990.0117.5128.6
    Film hire and entertainment6.35.45.34.96.9
    Religious and charitable10.617.917.716.516.7
    Personal remittances, legacies, and emigrants transfers62.056.870.390.0112.8
    Transfers by temporary residents14.620.824.213.59.8
    Other current transactions15.111.69.730.036.4
                Total current payments3,025.43,421.94,184.04,725.44,836.2
Capital transfers—
    Government debt repayments49.2136.4234.8304.9283.4
    Other official payments5.680.1104.024.2
    Private128.5157.4179.7185.2366.3
    Local authorities debt repayment0.70.8
                Total capital184.0374.6518.4490.1673.9
                IMF repurchases34.9
                Total payments3,209.43,796.54,702.55,215.55,545.0
                Surplus of receipts over payments–312.0–160.1–6.0–131.0+32.0

NOTE—Minus sign (–) denotes a deficit.

The next table gives overseas exchange transactions in summary form for a number of June years, which fit more closely to the farm-production export season than do calendar years.

ItemYear Ended 30 June
19741975197619771978
 NZ$(million)
Exports—Receipts
    Meat565.4484.8674.5874.1896.8
    Wool371.4286.1512.1687.8619.2
    Butter108.5113.2185.9211.8233.0
    Milk powders91.4116.4116.7149.7157.8
    Other dairy products114.286.7171.0221.5228.9
    Forest products120.1145.8197.6267.1288.2
    Manufactured exports171.0208.1343.6491.0511.6
    Other205.8216.9289.2427.5483.1
        Total exports1,747.91,658.02,490.53,330.43,418.7
Other current receipts423.7493.1616.9698.5752.3
        Total current receipts2,171.62,151.13,107.44,028.94,171.0
Capital receipts—
    Government borrowing0.5497.6393.5457.3761.7
    Other official receipts14.092.7190.675.355.5
    Private189.4378.5381.3383.6509.8
        Total capital receipts204.0968.8965.4916.21,327.0
I.M.F.—
    Drawings100.5250.259.7
    Allocation of SDRs
        Total receipts2,375.63,220.44,323.15,004.85,498.0
ImportsPayments
    Government68.7147.1172.7158.2172.9
    Private1,780.42,227.62,554.22,988.42,823.6
        Total imports1,849.02,374.72,727.03,146.72,996.5
Other current payments—
    Government95.5147.1203.1277.7339.9
    Private561.0696.1881.71,135.01,323.6
        Total current payments2,505.53,217.93,811.84,559.44,660.0
Capital payments—
    Government debt repayments67.732.5237.4264.5394.4
    Other official repayments7.04.9181.0
    Private190.4103.0198.5171.1227.3
        Total capital payments265.0140.4617.0435.7621.8
I.M.F. repurchases14.6
        Total payments2,770.53,358.34,428.94,995.05,296.4
Balance on trade transactions–101.2–716.7–236.5+183.7+422.2
Balance on current account “Invisible” transactions–232.8–350.1–468.0–714.2–911.1
Balance on current account–333.9–1,066.8–704.4–530.5–488.9
Balance on capital account–61.0+828.4+348.4+480.5+705.2
I.M.F. transactions (incl. SDRs)+100.5+250.2+59.7–14.6
Change in official overseas reserves–499.9–29.4+7.7+165.9+197.0

Overseas Travel Allowances—Since 1938, there have been restrictions on the amount of overseas travel funds made available. From June 1973 trading banks have been able to sell overseas exchange to travellers up to $1,000 a month with a maximum of $4,000 a year. Requests for higher amounts need to be referred to the Reserve Bank, which is prepared to approve all reasonable requests.

Exchange Control—Transactions affecting overseas exchange are governed by the Exchange Control Regulations 1978, made under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964. An exemption in respect of dealings in foreign currencies and securities in the hands of New Zealand residents is contained in the Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1978.

Certain measures in exchange control and related fields were introduced by the Minister of Finance in the Budget of 16 June 1966, and are set out in paragraphs (a) to (d).

  1. Overseas Securities and Currencies: The facility previously available to New Zealand residents to sell overseas sterling area securities for New Zealand currency or other assets in New Zealand was withdrawn. These securities could then be sold only for other sterling area securities or for sterling area currencies. Therefore, if a New Zealand resident sought cash in New Zealand for his sterling area securities the only avenue available at law was to sell overseas and transfer the proceeds to New Zealand through the banking system.

    This measure, in effect, closed the market in sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency. A limited market was re-opened in October 1966 (see (f) below).

    In June 1972 the United Kingdom made changes in its exchange control system. As a result the sterling area and the non-sterling area were redefined. For New Zealand exchange control purposes the sterling area incorporates the United Kingdom (including the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, and Gibraltar) and the Republic of Ireland. The non-sterling area covers all other countries outside New Zealand except Rhodesia. Exchange control transactions with Rhodesia are strictly limited because of the United Nations sanctions against that country. Therefore, all currencies and securities domiciled outside New Zealand (except Rhodesia) may now be dealt with freely, i.e., in the same manner as sterling area currencies and securities were previously (see also paragraph (f)).

  2. Export and Import of New Zealand Notes: A limit was set in June 1966 on the export of notes at $10 for all travellers, regardless of destination.

    The importation of New Zealand money (including postal notes, money orders, cheques, and promissory notes, but excluding travellers' cheques) was also prohibited, except that travellers to New Zealand could bring in with them up to $10 in New Zealand notes.

    From June 1971 travellers from New Zealand have been able to take out up to $50 (of which not more than $4 may be in coin and the denominations of the notes may not exceed $5). For travellers to New Zealand there is now no restriction on bringing in notes of $1 or $2 or $5 or coin of any denomination.

  3. Supervision of Non-Residents' Accounts in New Zealand: The Reserve Bank was given power to exercise supervision over specific accounts in New Zealand of non-residents, with banks or elsewhere.

    The following accounts were initially declared to be controlled accounts:

    1. Those of non-resident banks;

    2. Those of non-resident travel agents;

    3. A group of seven individual accounts connected with international currency dealers.

    A subsequent notice to banks had the effect of bringing under control any accounts for the credit to which New Zealand money was received from overseas without the consent of the Reserve Bank. No change of policy was involved, this being a technical measure to ensure that transfers of funds outside the banking system were not facilitated by the operation of New Zealand accounts.

  4. London-domiciled New Zealand Government Stock: In 1920 provision was made for New Zealand residents to transfer holdings of London-domiciled New Zealand stock to the New Zealand register, a facility which provided a means of transferring funds to New Zealand outside the banking system. The volume of such transactions in subsequent years became excessive, and the following conditions were therefore applied to transfers to the New Zealand register on 16 June 1966:

    1. Stock must have been registered in the applicant's name for at least 6 months;

    2. After stock has been transferred to the New Zealand register it may not be sold for 6 months.

      Since 5 September 1969 the transfer to the New Zealand register has been limited to stock held on or prior to that date. Stock purchased subsequently may not be transferred to the New Zealand register.

  5. Overseas Investment in New Zealand: In 1973 the Overseas Investment Act was passed to make better provision for the supervision and control of overseas investment in New Zealand. The Overseas Investment Commission established under that Act administers the Overseas Investment Regulations 1974 which came into force on 28 May 1974 to give administrative effect to the Act. The secretariat for the Overseas Investment Commission is at the Reserve Bank.

    The new legislation consolidated and repeated the provisions of the Capital Issues (Overseas) Regulations 1965 and the Overseas Takeovers Regulations 1964 which formerly governed overseas investment in New Zealand. In addition, the opportunity was taken to close some avenues through which the existing takeover regulations could in some circumstances be evaded.

    The Overseas Investment Regulations cover such transactions as borrowing overseas by any New Zealand incorporated company; borrowing in New Zealand or overseas, or the issue of any shares by any New Zealand incorporated company which is 25 percent or more overseas owned; borrowing in New Zealand by a New Zealand branch of an overseas company; and the issue of shares to overseas residents by a New Zealand incorporated company.

    Consent under these regulations is also required to the acquisition by any overseas resident individual or organisation of:

    1. 25 percent or more of any class of shares of, or the exercise of 25 percent or more of the rating power of, a New Zealand incorporated company.

    2. all, or substantially all, of the property in New Zealand used in carrying on a business in New Zealand where the value of the property is more than NZ$100,000.

    Any New Zealand incorporated company also requires the prior consent of the Reserve Bank before it borrows overseas or issues shares to overseas residents.

  6. Market in Overseas Securities: Trading in overseas securities in exchange for New Zealand currency is confined to New Zealand residents, and to securities which were registered in the names of New Zealand residents on 16 June 1966 or which devolve from such securities. All dealings must be effected through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, and both seller and purchaser must supply details of the transaction to an approved depository, with whom the scrip must be lodged. Securities so purchased may be sold for New Zealand currency under the same conditions, or sold for overseas currency through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, provided the proceeds are either remitted to New Zealand or re-invested in similar securities within three months. The new scrip must also be lodged with an approved depository. The approved depositories are the Reserve Bank in Wellington and its branches in Auckland and Christchurch.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION—New Zealand became a member of these three organisations on 31 August 1961 under the International Finance Agreements Act 1961. Their objectives and the implications of New Zealand membership are set out in parliamentary paper A. 12, 1961. One of the purposes of the International Monetary Fund is to give confidence to members by making the fund's resources available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity. The bulk of a member's subscription, or quota, is paid in its own currency. The balance is paid in gold, foreign exchange, or Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) and constitutes the member's reserve tranche which may be drawn against automatically. Increasing conditionality applies to successive drawings under the 4 credit tranches, each equal to 25 percent of quota. In addition, drawings may be made under the fund's compensatory financing facility and the various special funding arrangements which are set up from time to time, such as the oil facilities of 1974 and 1975 and the supplementary financing (Witteveen) facility which is expected to come into operation during 1979. The level of quotas is periodically reviewed as the value of world trade increases. An increase of 50 percent was agreed on in December 1978 to be paid in by November 1980. To supplement international reserve assets SDRs are allocated to members from time to time in proportion to their quotas. New Zealand is being allocated SDR 24.1 million ($29.4 million) at the beginning of each of the years 1979 to 1981.

New Zealand's position with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as at the end of a number of recent years is shown in the following table.

As at End of YearQuotaDrawing Outstanding*General Account Position*Special Drawing Rights (SDRs)
ColdN.Z. Currency SubscriptionGold TrancheCredit TranchesOil FacilitiesCompensatory FinancingIMF Holdings of N.Z. CurrencyHoldings as % of QuotaN.Z.'s AllocationHoldings by N.Z.

*Drawings are made by obtaining usable foreign exchange from the Fund in return for New Zealand currency which the Fund then holds in its General Account until drawings are repaid.

†From time to time the IMF allocates SDRs to members with the objective of increasing international liquidity and promoting world trade. Holdings alter when SDRs are sold or purchased in exchange for foreign currency, or when payments in SDRs are made to the IMF in settlement of interest or other charges.

‡From 1 July 1974 the previous exchange rate of SDRs 1.12 = NZ$1 was replaced by a system of fluctuating rates determined by the IMF in consultation with participating nations. At the end of 1974 the exchange rate was SDRs 1.0744 = NZ$1; at the end of 1975 it was SDRs 0.8916 = NZ$1; at the end of 1976 it was SDRs 0.8177 = NZ$1; at the end of 1977 it was SDRs 0.8394 = NZ$1; and at the end of 1978 it was SDRs 0.8187 = NZ$1.

SDR(million)
197450.5151.550.585.7287.714269.40.5
197550.5151.550.5191.750.5444.222069.40.8
197650.5151.550.5_238.7151.5592.229369.48.4
197750.5151.548.4238.7151.5590.129269.434.2
197849.0188.026.0209.7151.5570.224669.446.1

INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION—The purpose of the International Development Association (IDA) is to promote economic development in developing countries too poor to meet the costs of IBRD or other loans. Its highly concessional credits are financed by contributions from its developed country members. The IDA shares the same staff as the IBRD (and to some extent the IFC) and the three organisations are collectively known as the World Bank.

New Zealand joined the IDA in 1975, having earlier made a voluntary contribution of $5 million payable in instalments from 1970–71. As a member of the IDA, New Zealand has contributed to the fourth replenishment of its funds ($7.9 million in instalments from 1974–75) and more recently to the fifth replenishment ($8.0 million from 1977–78).

The principal purpose of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) is to promote the economic development of its member countries, by providing loans to governments (or loans guaranteed by governments) for development projects, and related technical assistance. The International Finance Corporation (IFC) promotes the growth of the private sector by lending or investing in business enterprises that are not guaranteed by governments. Both organisations now concentrate their efforts in the developing countries.

New Zealand has subscribed to 1807 shares in the IBRD, with a par value of SDR 180.7 ($219.9) million. Of this sum 90 percent has not been called up, but, together with the uncalled subscriptions of other member countries, acts as a guarantee for the IBRD's major source of funds, namely borrowing in the financial markets. The balance has been paid in US dollars ($2.1 million) and New Zealand currency and promissory notes ($14.6 million). New Zealand has subscribed to 923 shares in the IFC, with a fully paid-up value of $0.9 million.

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK—New Zealand is participating in the Asian Development Bank whose main objective is to accelerate the economic development of the ESCAP region. New Zealand's initial contribution to the capital stock of the bank is US$22.56 million, half of which is callable. Of the paid-in portion, 50 percent is paid in convertible currency, a total of US$5.64 million, while the balance is paid in New Zealand currency. In 1971 the capital subscription was increased 150 percent, increasing New Zealand's contribution from US$22.56 million to US$56.4 million. Of the increase 20 percent is paid in and 80 percent is callable, with a total of US$3.24 million to be paid in convertible currency. In 1977 the bank's capital was increased by a further 135 percent. New Zealand's contribution increased from US$56.4 million to US$148.3 million. Of this second capital increase, 10 percent is paid in and 90 percent is callable, with a total of US$3.7 million to be paid in convertible currency.

New Zealand also makes contributions to 2 special funds—the Technical Assistance Special Fund to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$975,000, and the Asian Development Fund (ADF) to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$8.15 million.

Two-thirds of the contributions to ADF I were tied to the procurement of goods and services from New Zealand, but all of the contributions to ADF II are fully convertible. The multi-purpose Special Fund, to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$822,370, has been consolidated with the Asian Development Fund. All New Zealand's contributions to the Technical Assistance Special Fund, along with the New Zealand currency portion of the equity capital of the bank, are non-convertible.

MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL-In early 1978 the Monetary and Economic Council was disbanded after 17 years of operation and its functions merged with those of the New Zealand Planning Council formed in 1977.

DEVELOPMENT FINANCE CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND (DFC)—This corporation is a development bank established by Act of Parliament for the purpose of encouraging investment in industry, and providing financial assistance and advisory services to industry. The share capital of the Development Finance Corporation is owned by the Crown and is vested in the Minister of Trade and Industry, who appoints a board of directors to control the corporation's business. The board consists of 2 Government officials and 5 others drawn from the private sector.

The corporation's principal activity is the provision of term loan finance to manufacturing, processing, construction, transport, and service industries for the purchase of plant and equipment. Other forms of financial assistance including equity participation, hire purchase and leasing finance, commercial bill and mortgage money, and sub-underwriting are also provided. In addition it offers guarantee schemes to other institutions for the provision of mortgage and overdraft facilities. It also administers two suspensory loan schemes on behalf of the Government for the specific encouragement of export industries and regional development.

The Development Finance Corporation is concerned primarily with the support of projects which will advance the economic growth of New Zealand, make better use of the country's natural resources, and provide employment opportunities.

The corporation's Act requires it to “evaluate each proposal having regard to the economic worth of the industry concerned, its usefulness to the New Zealand economy, the extent to which it will be owned or effectively controlled by persons domiciled in New Zealand, and the prospects of it becoming profitable within a reasonable time”.

During the year ended June 1978 the corporation gave assistance, mainly in the form of loans, to a total value of $44.3 million.

In the 1976 Budget it was announced that, in order to rationalise Government assistance in the development of new industrial products and processes, a number of Government agencies were to be amalgamated under the administration of the Development Finance Corporation. These agencies were the Inventions Development Authority, the Industrial Research and Development Grants Scheme, and the National Research and Development Scheme. All these have now been integrated into the Applied Technology Programme inaugurated in November 1976 by the Development Finance Corporation.

Chapter 32. Section 30; INVESTMENT AND FINANCE

30 A—MORTGAGES

MORTGAGE LAW—The borrowing of money on mortgage is a principal means of financing the erection or purchase of houses and commercial buildings, and the purchase of farms. Under the Land Transfer Act 1952 “mortgage” means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing:

The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt.

The repayment of future advances, or payment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise.

The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable, or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge.

The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, see Section 10E, the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act; they take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property registered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

SUMMARY OF MORTGAGES REGISTERED—A table is given showing the number of registrations and amounts involved.

Year Ended 31 MarchMortgage RegistrationsArea Amount Secured
0.4 Hectares and UnderOver 0.4 HectaresTotalOver 0.4 Hectares0.4 Hectares and UnderOver 0.4 HectaresTotal
  No. ha(000)$(m)$(m)$(m)
1974117 94221 051138 9932 341958.9342.71,301.7
1975110 79920 871131 6702 1621,067.1410.11,477.2
 Under 2 Hectares2 Hectares and OverTotalTotal AreaUnder 2 Hectares2 Hectares and OverTotal
  No. ha(000)$(m)$(m)$(m)
1976126 03021 620147 6503 3441,213.9398.61,612.4
1977137 94722 474160 4212 8371,375.7494.41,870.1
1978121 04822 501143 5493 1231,263.6546.11,809.7

NOTE—These figures exclude certain miscellaneous registrations, but may include minor duplications.

The 143 549 mortgages in 1977–78 were in the following categories: first table 37 901; first flat, 45 079; subsequent table, 20 163; subsequent flat, 31 981; increases in amount, 8425.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED: Value by Districts—The total amount for which mortgages were registered under the Land Transfer Act, together with the number of mortgages and the area of properties involved, is shown by registration districts in the following table.

Auckland urban area, the largest centre of population in New Zealand, is in the North Auckland district.

Land Registration District1976–771977–78
NumberAmountAreaNumberAmountArea
  $(m)hectares $(m)hectares
   (000)  (000)
North Auckland53 609643.130544 985541.6315
South Auckland24 287302.454220 969288.1472
Gisborne1 59221.01511 69625.9200
Hawke's Bay6 80179.41696 09079.4256
Taranaki4 56958.2984 33561.5169
Wellington29 078319.950025 416301.6540
Marlborough1 84821.2871 68521.1105
Nelson3 71235.21053 93044.998
Westland7086.4338137.123
Canterbury20 268230.935520 516267.8437
Otago8 61783.12608 382103.1263
Southland5 33269.22314 73267.7244
        Total160 4211,870.12 837143 5491,809.73 123

Classification by Amounts—The following table shows mortgages by amount groups for 1976–77 and 1977–78.

Amount Group1976–771977–78
NumberAmountPercentage of TotalNumberAmountPercentage of Total
$ $(000)  $(000) 
Under 1,0001 3617870.11 0486160.1
  1,000–1,9995 0266,6330.44 1705,5290.3
  2,000–3,99917 13146,8232.514 08238,6462.1
  4,000–5,99918 33885,8064.616 37076,9674.3
  6,000–7,99910 15966,9463.69 24161,1283.4
  8,000–9,9998 14969,5553.77 42563,3983.5
10,000–14,99926 760327,78517.522 917279,06215.4
15,000–19,99919 235319,27217.118 096304,24116.8
20,000–49,99918 604489,81026.219 223503,36527.8
50,000 and over4 547456,66324.44 873476,72926.3
Unspecified31 11126 104
        Total160 4211,870,080100.0143 5491,809,682100.0

Rates of Interest—The average rate of interest on new mortgages over the last 50 years is given in a table in the Statistical Summary at the end of this Yearbook.

The average rate of interest for 1977–78 was 10.30 percent. The comparable rate for 1976–77 was 9.85 percent.

In 1977–78 the number of 3-percent mortgages decreased from 965 to 901, although the amount advanced increased from $15.6 million to $16.9 million.

An analysis showing amounts classified by interest rate groups is given below. It should be noted that some mortgages, notably those of trading banks, do not specify the rate of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchNot ExceedingOver 5% to 5½%Over 5½% to 6½%Over 6½ to 7½%Over 7½ to 8½%Over 8½ to 9½%Over 9½% to 10%Over 10% to 12%Over 12%
$(million)
197430.4125.043.0284.8464.8121.272.616.819.9
197546.3163.647.8189.9342.3233.7205.468.531.0
197664.1253.144.5146.1217.6183.8294.8176.169.6
197753.490.027.5221.4165.3227.8280.7416.2180.5
197853.523.920.1207.9151.5187.3219.6430.4287.3

A similar analysis by interest rate groups is shown (together with the annual average interest rate) in the following diagram.

Figure 32.1. NEW MORTGAGES

NEW MORTGAGES

Mortgages by Class—In this section mortgages are tabulated by class, i.e., as first flat, subsequent flat, first table, subsequent table, and as increases on existing mortgages. The majority of housing mortgages, especially those from Government agencies, are table (or instalment) mortgages. At the 1976 Census, out of a total of 939 340 inhabited permanent private dwellings, 391 860 were owned with mortgage, 260 590 dwellings were owned without mortgage, 253 340 were rented or leased, and the balance of the dwellings were free with job, loaned without payment, or the tenure was unspecified.

The following table shows the amounts advanced and average interest rates of mortgages by class. Mortgages for which the interest rates are not specified are excluded from the calculations of average rates.

Year Ended 31 MarchClass of Mortgage
First FlatSubsequent FlatFirst TableSubsequent TableIncrease of MortgageTotal
Amount Advanced $(m)
1974514.1111.5559.583.732.91,301.7
1975592.2162.4551.994.576.11,477.2
1976585.2209.7603.3125.588.71,612.4
1977719.6249.9664.0164.472.21,870.1
1978667.3273.2630.7172.665.91,809.7
Average Interest Rate (percent)
19748.358.587.267.847.437.85
19759.079.257.237.958.368.29
19769.789.857.128.468.878.61
197710.6910.788.629.919.379.85
1978     10.30

From 12 February 1958 the State Advances Corporation and its successor, the Housing Corporation, have made housing loans with provision for rebate of interest to 3 percent where the income of applicants does not exceed prescribed limits. If mortgages at 3 percent interest are excluded from the calculations, the average rate of interest on all mortgages during recent years becomes 7.66 percent in 1973–74, 8.34 percent in 1974–75, 8.70 percent in 1975–76, 9.91 percent in 1976–77, and 10.38 percent in 1977–78.

SOURCES OF MORTGAGE FINANCE—The following table indicates the sources of finance for mortgages registered. Of the new mortgages registered in 1977–78, 20.5 percent of the aggregate advances were obtained from Government agencies (of which the principal one is the Housing Corporation) compared with 17.4 percent in 1976–77.

Year Ended 31 MarchProducer EnterprisesCentral Govt.Local Govt.Trading Banks*Trustee Savings BanksBuilding SocietiesInsurance and Pension FundsHouseholdsOtherTotal

*Includes related savings banks from 1976.

†Includes solicitors nominee companies.

$(million)
0.4 Hectares and Under
1974 142.31.410.473.7108.979.2174.4368.7958.9
1975 198.21.715.868.395.979.9233.4373.91,067.1
Under 2 Hectares
1976228.6268.42.832.880.573.192.7241.1193.91,213.9
1977280.7202.12.424.3106.6113.8122.1275.6248.11,375.7
1978264.0209.62.128.6109.9104.2105.7253.0186.61,263.6
Over 0.4 Hectares
1974 79.70.2239.713.328.8106.5102.2342.7
1975 82.90.32.97.111.828.7160.6115.8410.1
2 Hectares and Over
197647.7102.50.73.05.17.227.0143.262.2398.5
197771.8125.10.23.28.911.830.4187.255.7494.4
197867.5162.20.42.78.98.138.0211.446.9546.1

Points to note in considering statistics of mortgages by source of finance are that most trading bank mortgages specify neither interest rates nor the amounts involved; and that, from 1976, the Government Life Insurance Office and the State Insurance Office have been included among Insurance and Pension Funds, not Central Government, as previously.

30 B—STATE FINANCE FOR FARMS AND OTHER PRIMARY INDUSTRY

The Government first entered the field of mortgage finance in 1894 with the passing of the Government Advances to Settlers Act—the objective being to provide loans at economic interest rates and on stable terms and conditions to farmers for land development purposes. The functions of the office, later known as the State Advances Department, were subsequently enlarged to allow loans for the erection and purchase of houses and to local authorities for the provision of public facilities. A public corporation was established with the passing of the Mortgage Corporation Act 1934–35—the share capital of $2,000,000 being subscribed equally by Government and public. In terms of the State Advances Corporation Act 1936, the Government acquired the privately-owned share of the Mortgage Corporation, extended its functions and changed its name to the State Advances Corporation of New Zealand. Under the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation Act 1974 the rural lending activities of the State Advances Corporation passed to the newly-established Rural Banking and Finance Corporation from 1 April 1974.

RURAL BANKING AND FINANCE CORPORATION—The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation provides loans to individuals or organisations engaged in any type of farming, to the fishing industry, or to support industries in these areas. The Rural Bank consists of a chairman and 4 other directors appointed by the Minister of Finance. Two of the directors are appointed after consultation with the Federated Farmers of New Zealand (Inc).

The principal functions of the Rural Bank are to carry on the business of making loans and providing other assistance in its discretion for farming, other primary industries, and related service industries. Its powers include the acquisition of land and other property by purchase or lease and the management, development, sale, or lease of such property. The Rural Bank also has powers to give guarantees and indemnities to other lenders. In the execution of its functions and powers it is required to give effect to Government policy.

Farm Purchase—Loan finance is granted by the Rural Bank for the purchase of farm properties. Present policy is directed toward assisting young farmers and farm workers who can demonstrate a need for finance from the Rural Bank, and who have not previously owned an economic property. Loans may be granted for the purchase of land and improvements and for stock and plant.

The policy of average amounts for particular types of loans, which allows a higher sum to be granted in appropriate cases, has been continued. These lending guidelines now run at $70,000 for dairy farms and $95,000 for sheep farms under standard settlement policies.

A special settlement scheme has also been introduced under which a limited number of above-average farmers can be settled each year with loans of up to 85 percent of the available security. Lending guidelines are $110,000 for dairy farms and $200,000 for sheep farms.

Farm Development—Loan policy in the area of farm development is to stimulate increased production, strengthen marginal farms, and provide buildings and other essential development. In appropriate cases, loans may be advanced on second or subsequent mortgages.

To encourage the development of unproductive land, Land Development Encouragement Loans have also been introduced. These provide up to $250 per hectare for development to the grassing-down stage of undeveloped or reverted country. If the conditions of the loan are complied with, all interest and half the principal may be written off over a period of 1.5 years.

Refinance—The Rural Bank has limited funds for refinancing onerous farm debts but will normally not provide assistance to repay existing mortgages unless the mortgagor is facing serious hardship through inability to obtain a renewal.

Loans on Stock and Plant—Loans which are essentially for the purchase of stock and plant, e.g., sharemilking propositions, are available on the security of the stock and chattels being purchased.

Sharemilkers' Suspensory Loans—A sharemilker or other short-term lessee purchasing his first farm, who faces a tax liability through having to reduce stock may qualify for a suspensory loan if the carrying capacity of the farm he is purchasing is less than that of the property he has been farming and the stock reduction is more than 20 head. The loan is calculated on $30 cow reduction with a maximum of $7,000 and is interest free. Subject to the borrower owning and farming the property for 10 years the suspensory loan may be written off.

Co-operative Rural Intermediate Credit Associations—Loans may be granted by the Rural Bank to cooperative rural intermediate credit associations operating in terms of the Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927 and amendments. At 31 March 1978, there were 4 co-operative rural intermediate credit associations in operation. The loans authorised through this channel during the 1977–78 year amounted to $1.73 million.

Farm Mortgage Guarantees—In recognition of the need for farmers to have access to more capital for future reorganisation and reconstruction than the Rural Bank can make available by direct loans, the Rural Bank operates a Farm Mortgage Guarantee Scheme. Under this scheme the Rural Bank protects prudent lenders with soundly administered mortgage against loss of capital.

Forestry—Where it is considered that tree planting is the best use of the land, the Rural Bank will lend to farmers for forestry projects and associated development works.

Climatic Relief—In adverse conditions, such as drought, flooding, or damage to crops from gales, the Rural Bank may provide, by way of loan, emergency funds to enable a disaster victim to resume or continue operations. The criterion is need—whether or not adequate security is available—and the motive is relief, not compensation for loss.

Farm Ownership Savings—The Farm Ownership Savings Scheme, administered by the Rural Bank, allows farm workers, sharemilkers, others associated with farming, and also students the opportunity of opening savings accounts for the purpose of buying a first farm or for the purchase of stock and plant to go sharemilking or share farming for the first time. These accounts can be opened with the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, and some building societies. Depositors have the option of operating one or other of the following types of accounts under the scheme:

  1. Ordinary Farm Ownership Accounts which provide for tax free purchase grants; or,

  2. Special Farm Ownership Accounts which allow depositors tax benefits on their savings.

Fishing Vessel Ownership Savings—This scheme is administered by the Rural Bank and is similar to the Farm Ownership Savings Scheme. It gives fishermen, students, and other persons connected with fishing, the opportunity of opening savings accounts to purchase their first vessel of 9 m or more, or to acquire an interest in a vessel of this size.

The accounts can be opened with the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, and some building societies. Like the Farm Ownership Accounts, depositors have the option of operating one or other of the following types of accounts under the scheme:

  1. Ordinary Farm Ownership Accounts which provide for tax free grants.

  2. Special Farm Ownership Accounts which allow depositors tax benefits on their savings.

Industrial Lending—Loans are available to those industries in the rural sector which have export potential, which will assist regional development, or which service the primary industries. Examples include veterinary clinics, packing sheds, cool stores, grain dryers, and milk treatment plants as well as agricultural contractors. The bank assists farmers and agricultural contractors with loans for the purchase of plant and machinery.

Export Suspensory Loans—To promote the export of non-traditional agricultural, horticultural and fish products, the Rural Bank will grant to exporters suspensory loans of up to 40 percent of qualifying expenditure on plant and equipment, including fishing vessels. Upon achievement of an export target, each loan is converted to a grant and written off.

Fishing Industry—It is the policy of the Rural Bank to encourage the development of the fishing industry on a sound basis, and, to this end, it will provide loans for the purchase, building, or refinance of larger or more efficient vessels. Loans are also available for carrying out improvements, including re-engining, to already owned vessels. Similar loans are offered for the acquisition of replacement or additional fishing gear. The Rural Bank also helps with the purchase of modern equipment and buildings for the handling, storage, freezing, and discharge of fish. Rock oyster and mussel farmers are eligible for loans assistance for development work provided they hold a lease or licence and themselves contribute a minimum of 50 percent of the risk capital.

Special Fishing Boat Loans—These are available to experienced fishermen of proven ability and who only have modest means to obtain a loan of up to 80 percent for the purchase of a new or used vessel including gear and equipment.

Fishing Vessel Construction Suspensory Loans—These are intended to encourage the building of larger fishing vessels in New Zealand shipyards for the development of fishing for less traditional fish species. Suspensory loans of up to 40 percent of the total cost of the vessel are provided by the bank and will be written off if the catch targets set by the bank are met.

The bank also provides special suspensory loans for fishermen excluded from controlled fisheries to assist them to diversify into alternative forms of fishing.

LOAN AUTHORISATIONS—A summary of loans authorised by the Rural Bank during the years ended 31 March 1977 and 1978 is given in the following table.

Loans1976–771977–78
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
Standard settlement94846.071 04952.44
Special settlement858.8910512.14
Additional land (strengthening existing farms)2758.1932511.00
Sharemilkers' suspensory (farm purchase)1520.341420.38
Development2 83438.114 02562.47
Irrigation1923.801553.21
Irrigation suspensory160.10190.23
Stock and plant loans7887.9792510.34
Advances to RIC associations2611.912061.73
Refinance4438.581 20122.22
Climatic relief560.41890.71
Estate duty361.08491.36
Department of Lands and Survey settlements381.41271.33
Industrial (including fishing)14517.3924419.91
 6 269144.258 561199.47
Livestock Incentive Scheme, loan option1 1679.803 14728.43
Seasonal finance support880.29......
 7 524154.3411 708227.90
Livestock Incentive Scheme, tax option1171.973246.00

A breakdown of the item, industrial (including fishing) loans in the above table is given below.

Item1976–771977–78
NumberAmountNumberAmount
Non-fishing $(m) $(m)
    Rural industries300.92474.24
    Producer boards17.6943.92
    Co-operatives134.1271.80
    Special plant110.14130.40
    Agricultural contractors400.83561.12
    Rural export suspensory loans50.12130.48
                Total10013.8214011.96
Fishing industry
    Loans to fishermen363.30887.04
    Loans for processing facilities70.24150.75
    Rural export suspensory loans20.0310.16
                Total453.571047.95

30 C—STATE FINANCE FOR HOUSING

HOUSING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—Under the Housing Corporation Act 1974 the functions of the State Advances Corporation in housing were amalgamated with those previously performed by the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works and Development to constitute the Housing Corporation of New Zealand, responsible to the Minister of Housing.

Housing Loans—The Housing Corporation continues to concentrate the bulk of its residential lending on the provision of loans for the erection of houses or the acquisition of houses not previously occupied. Loans to assist home seekers to purchase previously occupied houses, reinstated in 1964, are available to the extent of available funds and to applicants within strictly defined priority categories.

All loans are made on security of a first mortgage of land. Each case is considered on its merits, taking into account the financial position of the applicant and the cost of the proposition. Each applicant is expected to make the maximum possible contribution from available resources.

There are no fixed loan limits but an average loan concept is applied which provides loans of a greater amount in areas where housing costs are highest. The maximum loan available for either erection or purchase will, however, generally not exceed 90 percent of the corporation's assessed value of the security offered.

The prime interest rate since 22 July 1977 is 8½ percent. This rate is subject to review at 3-yearly intervals. Rebated interest rates of 3 percent, 5 percent, and 6½ percent are also available. To qualify for a rebated interest loan, borrowers must not have owned a property within 5 years prior to the date of the loan application and the breadwinner's gross income (including overtime, bonus payments, and secondary employment) must not exceed certain limits—for 3 percent $85 per week increased by $5 for each dependent child, for 5 percent between $85 and $120, and for 6½ percent between $120 and $160, with both similarly increased by $5 for each dependent child. Loans now being granted with an interest rebate provide for an automatic increase to the next higher rate at 3-yearly intervals.

Since February 1978 anyone granted a loan at the prime interest rate has been able to choose between:

  1. a standard table mortgage for 30 years;

  2. interest payments only for 3 years, then a standard table mortgage for 30 years;

  3. or, if the loan exceeds $15,000, repayments as follows for 3 years, then a 27-year table mortgage.

Net Loan $Weekly Repayments for first 3 years $
15,000–17,00025
17,001–18,50028
18,501–20,00031

Of the 10 111 housing loans for erection or purchase approved during the year ended 31 March 1978 (involving $169.1 million), 4242 loans (involving $78.05 million) carried interest rebates.

Loans are also granted for essential alterations and alterations to corporation securities as where the housing of an elderly or dependent relative is involved. Loans, together with any prior mortgage debt, must be within 90 percent of the value and where housing of an elderly relative is involved may be by way of second or subsequent mortgage security.

Housing improvement loans, introduced in 1972, were extended in 1975 to all localities, but with particular emphasis continuing to be placed on the inner areas of the 4 main centres. Loans are entertained for owner-occupier or tenanted properties on subsequent mortgage for the purposes of upgrading older housing stock.

Loans to refinance existing mortgages on a residential property where family income is under undue strain caused by high interest rates and/or onerous terms of repayment, were introduced in the 1973 Budget. This policy was extended in August 1977 to provide for refinance where a mortgage had fallen due and could not be renewed or replaced within the private sector. For the year ended 31 March 1978 a total of 440 loans for $4.17 million were advanced. Security may be on first and subsequent mortgage.

Family Benefit Capitalisation—Applications for advances under the Family Benefit (Home Ownership) Act 1964 are received only from applicants who have already been declared eligible by the Department of Social Welfare. For the year ended 31 March 1978, 2361 advances totalling $3.03 million were authorised by the corporation under this agency, compared with 2354 advances totalling $3.03 million in 1976–77.

Mortgage Guarantee Scheme for Housing—The corporation has statutory authority to guarantee mortgages and operates a scheme whereby an approved lender may be guaranteed repayment of a housing loan granted by the institution. In 1977–78 there were 1424 guarantees involving $18.11 million.

Loan Authorisations—A summary of loans authorised by the corporation for the latest 2 financial years ended 31 March is given in the following table.

Class of Loan1976–771977–78
NumberAmountNumberAmount
Housing loans— $(m) $(m)
Erection8 421133.57 063124.58
Purchase2 19930.23 04845.51
Other purposes9854.91 6057.30
Refinance1380.94404.17
                Total housing11 743169.512 156181.56
Loans to industry103.091.51
                Grand total11 753172.512 165183.07

The above figures include rehabilitation loans to ex-servicemen for housing purposes. They do not include loans to local authorities.

A summary of the number of housing loans under administration as at 31 March 1978 is as follows:

Loans on Mortgages*
*These figures do not include loans administered by the Housing Corporation on an agency basis (e.g., hotel investment account, gas companies) or industrial loans.
Urban151 948
Local authority265
Urban housing1 182
Rural housing740
Approved securities53
                Total154 188

HOUSING ACT 1955—In addition to its lending activities the Housing Corporation has the function of administering the Housing Act 1955 on behalf of the Crown. The following are the main operations:

  1. Letting and administration of corporation rental houses and flats.

  2. Sale of State rental houses to tenants desiring to purchase.

  3. Loans to local authorities for the erection of rental accommodation.

Corporation Rental Housing—The number of additional dwelling units taken over by the corporation during the year ended 31 March 1978 totalled 1713, including 102 older houses purchased by the Corporation. Rental properties under administration on a tenancy basis at 1 April 1977 totalled 56 567. After adding the new units taken over and allowing for sales and repurchases, there was a net total of 58 045 at 31 March 1978.

Rental accounts in arrears at 31 March 1978 were 8.43 percent compared with 6.57 percent a year earlier.

Rents received from tenancies amounted to $47,811,428 compared with $37,441,257 for 1976–77. Apart from interest, the largest single item of expenditure charged against rentals was the provision for maintenance of rental houses. For the year ended 31 March 1978 this amounted to $18.5 million against $14 million for the previous year. Rates payable to local authorities showed an increase for the year ended 31 March 1978 totalling $8,304,800 compared with the previous year's figure of $7,087,796.

References to corporation housing construction are contained in Section 19 (Building Construction and Housing).

Sale of Rental Houses—The Government reintroduced the sale of rental houses to tenants in March 1976 on the following terms:

  1. Sale price to be the current market value of the property.

  2. The minimum deposit to be 20 percent of the purchase price.

  3. The balance of the purchase price together with interest payable over a term of up to 30 years on an instalment table basis.

  4. Interest at 8½ percent reducible to 6½, 5½, or 3 percent reviewable 3-yearly while conditions of sale are complied with in the case of purchasers who would qualify for these rates for a corporation housing loan.

From the inception of the sale of rental houses up to 31 March 1978 the number of sales finalised amounted to 28 078 dwellings (excluding pensioner units transferred to local authorities) for a total consideration of approximately $191.60 million.

30 D—BUILDING SOCIETIES

GENERAL—Building societies are a relatively popular means of saving and investment in New Zealand and have about 480 000 members. There are 57 building societies with total assets of $613 million. They provided finance for home ownership to the extent of some $120 million in 1977. Building societies have assisted the national economy by attracting and encouraging savings. They are encouraged by legislation, as in other countries, and are exempt from income tax except for income derived from the letting of property. The relevant legislation is the Building Societies Act 1965, the Building Societies Savings Bank Regulations 1966, and the Building Societies Regulations 1967.

The Building Societies Investment Order 1977 requires building societies to hold 15 percent of their assets in qualifying public securities.

TERMINATING SOCIETIES—These societies accept deposits but most of their funds are obtained from periodical subscriptions paid by members on their shares. In general members contract to subscribe for a minimum period of 10 years. Subscriptions cannot be withdrawn within 10 years of membership without penalty. Field staffs are employed to recruit by direct canvassing of new members who take up subscription shares, each share entitling a member to compete for a loan of a specified amount. As funds allow, ballots are held for interest-free loans. A member winning an interest-free loan may use it to finance a home, but the popular feature of these societies is that they offer to ballot winners, as an alternative to an interest-free loan, a tax-free lump sum payment which is accepted by the great majority of ballot winners in preference to the interest-free loan.

Members may also compete for interest-bearing loans by a process of tendering or by application. The majority of loans are in fact made on an interest-bearing basis and generally if a member receives an interest-bearing loan he is then excluded from ballots. Terminating societies do not pay an annual dividend or interest on subscription shares but shareholders who maintain their subscriptions for 10 or more years receive their subscriptions back in full plus a proportion of the group's profit. Shares are segregated into groups which terminate after some 30 years. At 31 March 1978 there were 15 terminating societies with 403 773 shareholders and 470 terminating groups.

During 1977, 1587 interest-free loans won by ballot were taken up, while in 5447 cases members elected to receive payments for rights won by ballot: 1172 advances were made through tender or auction process, and 3390 other interest-bearing advances were made on mortgage to members.

PERMANENT SOCIETIES—Whilst encouraging systematic savings these societies rely more substantially for their funds on single investment deposits and fully paid shares. Some of these societies are authorised to conduct savings banks in a manner substantially similar to the Post Office and other savings banks. A number of permanent societies maintain financial ratios which have enabled them to qualify for designation as societies with which trustees may invest trust funds by way of deposit.

Permanent societies do not conduct ballots but make loans available to members on application. The structures of permanent societies differ, some being purely co-operative, others being partly proprietary, and others being fully proprietary with all fixed capital. Permanent societies are now providing offices in most central city areas, the types of investment they offer are becoming more widely known, and share subscriptions are rising substantially. At 31 March 1978 there were 42 permanent societies with 74 933 shareholders.

ACTIVITIES OF SOCIETIES—Societies do not have a common balance date. The following tables have been prepared from the annual returns of societies as at their various balance dates during the 1977 calendar year. The first of these tables gives a summary of results for the latest 3 available years.

Item197519761977
Permanent Societies   
Number of societies 474442
Paid-up capital$(000)86,770113,290137,055
Number of shareholders 55 43359 04374 933
Terminating Societies   
Number of societies 121515
Paid-up capital$(000)270,083294,828316,742
Number of shareholders 405 365405 627403 773

A summary of receipts and payments during 1977 is given in the following table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
*Ten societies are authorised by the Act to accept deposits on conditions substantially similar to the conditions pertaining to the Post Office, trustee, and private savings banks.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Receipts
Share subscriptions (excluding subscriptions on borrowing shares)102,71066,901169,611
Deposits received—
    Savings bank*6,0094156,424
    Other94,30423,841118,145
Interest and principal repaid—
    Advances on mortgage (including subscriptions on borrowing shares)36,53667,553104,089
    Advances on shares repaid28410,83711,121
Investments realised39,78939,14578,934
Payments
Share moneys withdrawn81,91042,063123,973
Deposits and interest withdrawn—
    Savings bank*5,7364226,158
    Other91,80316,681108,484
Advanced on mortgage45,39773,463118,860
Advanced on shares30211,81912,121
Investments made47,55345,61293,165

A summary of income and expenditure for the financial year ended in 1977 is given in the following table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

*Mainly levies on members as provisions against losses on mortgage.

†Mainly agency commissions.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Income
Interest earned on—
    Advances13,56822,74936,317
    Investments2,2682,7054,973
Fees, commissions and fines3211,2691,590
Income from properties65657722
Net credit from shares forfeited or withdrawn at a discount 2,3392,339
Mortgagors' contributions to reserves3608611
Other*117578695
                Total income16,34230,90547,247
Expenditure
Interest incurred on borrowings3,9762,6726,648
Directors' emoluments173147320
Auditors' fees67100167
Salaries1,2014,0995,300
Other administrative expenses8722,8293,701
Selling and establishment expenses—written off293,6613,690
Payments for ballot loan rights—written off 4,2414,241
Expenses on properties, including depreciation68771839
Discount on shares paid in advance—written off 4848
Other1251,1411,266
                Total expenditure6,51119,70926,220
                Excess of income over expenditure9,83111,19621,027

The purposes of advances on mortgage in the 3 latest available years are shown in the following table.

Purpose of LoanPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
197519761977197519761977197519761977
  $(m)  $(m)  $(m) 
Dwellings—
    Erections5.54.95.79.48.39.014.913.214.7
    Purchases15.924.129.522.426.533.338.350.662.8
Other purposes2.73.48.619.522.428.222.225.936.7
Business and other properties2.11.91.63.83.43.05.95.34.6
                Total26.134.345.455.160.773.581.394.9118.9

The following table summarises balance sheets for the financial year ended during 1977.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

*Most terminating societies bring the principal outstanding on interest-free loans into their balance sheets at its face value.

†For definition and analysis see Parliamentary paper B. 14 Report of the Registrar of Building Societies.

Assets$(000)$(000)$(000)
Land and buildings1,23524,16825,403
Other fixed assets3073,2043,511
Advances on security of mortgage (less credits on borrowing shares)*169,650316,712486,362
Advances on security of shares40115,53915,940
Investments33,86643,08876,954
Cash and bank81170881
Appropriations in trust debit balances2,0592,059
Other2761,8332,109
                Total assets206,546406,673613,219
Liabilities
Paid-up capital (excluding borrowing shares)137,056316,742453,798
Reserves9,82631,12340,949
Retained profits1,12430,77031,894
 148,006378,635526,641
    Less fictitious assets4221,02121,063
 147,964357,614505,578
Deposits—
    Savings bank2,7051332,838
    Other51,71937,29589,014
Appropriations in trust credit balances1,9811,981
Provisions1,8191,1002,919
Bank overdraft1,9304,3106,240
Other4094,2404,649
                Total liabilities206,546406,673613,219

30 E—COMPANIES

GENERAL—The method of carrying on business by companies is now a proved system, a system for the incorporation of persons into a separate entity for trading purposes and providing a convenient method for the investment of capital and for the limitation of liability of the people associated in the company. The incorporation of a company with limited liability provides the framework of commercial and industrial life; private companies have become a usual form of business organisation for the smaller trader.

LEGISLATION—Comprehensive legislation relating to companies is contained in the Companies Act 1955, which came into force on 1 January 1957. An important principle in the legislation is the protection of shareholders, creditors, and the general public by the requirement that there must be the fullest practicable disclosure of information concerning the activities of companies. The annual financial statements must exhibit a true and complete account of a company's affairs and transactions. A prescribed form of presentation is required, and comparative figures for the previous year must be shown. A prospectus must be deposited with the Registrar of Companies before it is issued.

Any number of persons from 2 to 25 may form a private company; a public company must have at least 7 members. A private company of not less than 7 members may, under certain conditions, be reregistered as a public company.

The Companies Amendment Act 1963 restricts company takeovers. The Companies Amendment Act 1966 deals with deposits and debentures, and came into force on 1 January 1967.

COMPANY REGISTRATIONS—The following table shows, for the latest available 5 years, the number of new companies registered, deleted from the company register, placed under receivership, and liquidated. In comparing company registration figures for one year with another, it should not be overlooked that registrations on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons, are included.

YearNew Companies RegisteredCompanies Dissolved or Struck OffCompanies Placed Under ReceivershipCompany LiquidationsTotal Number of Companies
Court OrderVoluntary
19726 4032 4022979738888 071
19738 8143 1711687323494 233
19747 7363 5891917831398 399
19758 0804 878207148319101 666
19766 3662 083282121288106 106

ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC COMPANY FINANCIAL STATEMENTS—Since 1953 the Reserve Bank of New Zealand has undertaken an analysis of the annual financial statements of a sample of public companies in New Zealand to obtain information concerning company finance and the capital market. Almost all companies whose shares are listed on the Stock Exchange are included, together with a few others. Results of these analyses are published in an annual supplement to the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

In 1977 the coverage was extended to include non-listed and overseas companies. Overseas companies are those with 25 percent or more of their voting share capital controlled by overseas interests, and include any branch of an overseas incorporated company. Only companies operating in New Zealand whose income is wholly or mainly from New Zealand sources are included.

The 1977 survey covers the analysis of the annual accounts of 1072 companies received during the calendar year 1977. Of these annual accounts, 61 percent related to balance dates in 1977, and the remaining 39 percent to dates in 1976. Of the 1072 companies, only 252 would have been included under the previous coverage.

The percentage distribution of sources and use of funds for the latest year is shown in the following table.

 1977
 percent
Source of funds—
    Retained profits and depreciation38.5
    Other long-term sources27.8
    All long-term sources66.3
    Short-term sources33.7
                Total100.0
Use of funds—
    Property and plant28.9
    Long-term investment8.7
    All long-term uses37.6
    Stocks25.2
    Debtors29.3
    Other short-term7.9
                Total100.0

The aggregate appropriation of income for 1072 New Zealand public companies in the latest 2 years is shown in the following table.

Annual Accounts19761977
 $(000)
Income for year—
    Trading851,3501,089,467
    Investment57,05158,459
    Other non-trading39,75637,384
                Total income948,1571,185,311
Less—
    Depreciation212,975240,557
    Interest on fixed liabilities116,937137,714
    Directors' fees4,8705,104
    Tax on current year income219,174262,806
    Minority interests9,86214,143
                Net profit after tax384,339524,987
Previous year's adjustments—
    Tax3,6365,128
    Other–4,02928,130
                Available for appropriation383,946558,248
Appropriations—
    Goodwill, etc., written off16,26717,744
    Ordinary dividends133,464158,316
    Preference dividends2,2465,154
    Retained in reserves231,969377,034
                Total383,946558,248

Net Profits and Net Profit Ratios—Net profits (after tax) and net profit ratios are shown in the following table. This analysis reflects trading conditions mainly from March 1976 to August 1977. Most industries experienced gains in net profits during the period, substantial improvements being recorded by the woollen mills and clothing manufacturers sectors. The drugs and chemicals, and financial sectors, which showed profit declines in the previous year, all recovered strongly according to the latest survey.

Of the 20 company groups set out in the table, all but the property investors sector recorded upward profit movements, although the mainly retail sector showed only a slight rise. The lower profits of the property investors sector were due mainly to the weak state of the property market, with higher interest rates also playing a role. Falling real turnover, an accumulation of stocks, and increased costs were responsible for the slow profit growth in the mainly retail sector.

The return on shareholders' funds improved in all but 3 of the 20 sectors. The mainly retail sector maintained its rate, while that for property investors fell. The return on total resources fell in 5 sectors. Both these measures must be interpreted with some care since there is no consistent basis for the valuation of assets among the companies covered by the survey.

Continuing price and wage increases have kept companies costs rising. The relatively high rates of inflation during the survey period, coupled with the conventional accounting procedures used for profit calculation, also mean that the recorded rates of growth in profits cannot be said to represent the “real” increase taking place.

Type of Company*Number of CompaniesNet ProfitReturn
TotalChange From Previous YearOn Shareholders FundsOn Total Resources

*For note on balance dates see opening paragraphs of this sub-section.

†The return on shareholders' funds is net tax-paid profit expressed as a percentage of shareholders' funds. This ratio demonstrates the earning power of the funds invested in the business by the shareholders.

‡The return on total resources is an expression of the percentage of net tax-paid profit to total tangible assets. This ratio is an indicator of the earning power of the business.

  $(000)percent
Manufacturing
    Meat processing2936,199+7,74212.76.0
    Beverages913,859+3,2105.02.8
    Other food8628,817+5,98313.17.4
        All food12478,875+16,93510.15.3
    Woollen mills714,916+6,06511.55.3
    Clothing manufactures186,177+2,50315.48.2
    Forestry and wood2449,518+3,99210.34.8
    Printing and publishing4112,319+2,63112.27.1
    Drugs and chemicals4445,074+27,99518.15.8
    Non-metallic minerals4020,273+7,15212.88.4
    Metals and machinery6958,158+15,97114.17.2
    Electric machinery and appliances3614,683+1,84214.57.0
    Other manufacturing6729,735+9,98013.97.2
        Manufacturing other than food346250,855+78,13313.36.3
        All manufacturing470329,730+95,06812.46.0
Other (excluding financial)
    Construction2817,582+1,87710.34.5
    Gas81,157+74210.64.8
    Mainly wholesale14068,947+18,53413.35.5
    Mainly retail10528,982+2,74511.45.6
    Stock and station agents7022,925+4,62210.23.7
    Transport4617,336+8,63311.55.0
    Property investors1024,261–1,4435.12.0
        Total other (excluding financial)499161,190+35,71011.44.8
        Total (excluding financial)969490,920+130,77812.05.5
Financial10334,065+9,8678.73.2
        Grand Total1,072524,987+140,64811.75.3

Chapter 33. Section 31; INSURANCE

31 A—LIFE ASSURANCE

DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE ASSURANCE—Life assurance is no longer restricted to its original function, but has been encouraged for its avenue of contractual savings accumulating to considerable capital investment. Its additional role as the basis of many private superannuation schemes gives to a large segment of the labour force a protection not available to it a generation ago. Whole-life assurance has been widely supplemented by endowment assurance. Under this category there are policies with titles such as “family-income”, “education”, “mortgage-protection”, or “retirement”, and persons taking out policies regard them as a means of systematic saving. Government encouragement is given by way of income-tax concessions on premiums paid, this approach being common to the governments of many countries.

The steady flow of funds to insurance companies by the payment of premiums are in the form of contractual saving, and the investment of these funds has become a major influence on the financial market. Life-assurance companies are leading lenders of long-term funds to the private sector and important investors in Government and local authority securities. Growth in life-assurance assets has exceeded $100 million a year in recent years and in 1977–78 they totalled $2,725 million of which 29.5 percent is invested in mortgages on property, 27.3 percent in Central Government and local authority securities, and 15.5 percent in company stocks, shares and debentures.

In the year 1977–78 there were 226,103 new policies issued for a total sum assured of $3,865.2 million, or approximately $1,235 per head of population. The total number of policies in force at the end of the year was 2 753 090 for a total life assurance of $19,808.2 million. (These totals exclude annuities.)

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON—On the basis of the ratio of the value of life assurance in force to the national income, New Zealand is fourth to Japan, United States and Canada, as shown in the following table of selected countries. (Source: Life Insurance Fact Book, 1978.)

Country19711976
*Figure relates to 1975.
 percent
Canada155154
United States156153
Sweden133128
New Zealand134149*
Japan144276
Australia9996
Netherlands111111
United Kingdom9499

In Sweden the introduction in 1963 of a large national group life plan sponsored by the Government but underwritten by private life companies helped to increase the ratio markedly. Term life cover is believed to constitute a higher proportion of the total coverage in Canada and the United States than in New Zealand, where permanent life cover is relatively high. (Purchase of assurance for a set term provides maximum immediate cover at the lowest cost and can be used to cover mortgage repayments on a house; insurance for a short term for travel purposes is also popular in the United States and Canada.) Group life plans are negotiated by groups of workers in other countries and typically provide for a death benefit equal to one or two times annual earnings.

GENERAL—The statutory provisions affecting life assurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act 1908, the Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910, and the Government Life Insurance Act 1953.

There are 34 life-assurance offices conducting business in New Zealand at the present time. Of these, 15 are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, Capital Life Assurance Ltd., Cuna Mutual Insurance Society, New Zealand Insurance (Life and General) Co. Ltd., Metropolitan Life Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd., the South British Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Superannuation and Mutual Savings Ltd., Primary Industries Insurance Co. Ltd., A.A. Mutual, Tasman Mutual Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Fidelity Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Marac Fire and General Insurance Co. Ltd., Equitable Life and General Insurance Co. Ltd., Invincible Life Assurance, and the Medical Life Assurance Society Ltd., whilst three, the Provident Life Assurance Co., Commercial Union Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd. (formerly Dominion Life Assurance Office of New Zealand Ltd.), and the Monarch Life Insurance Co. of New Zealand, are registered in this country. The balance dates of the offices vary between July and June of the following year, the financial year of the majority ending in December. The statistics given here relate exclusively to business transacted in New Zealand. Further information is available in the annual report Insurance Statistics prepared by the Department of Statistics and available in Government bookshops.

LIFE ASSURANCE: Ordinary and Industrial—The progress of life assurance in New Zealand is illustrated by the following diagram, which shows the amount of new business transacted.

Figure 33.1. LIFE ASSURANCE - NEW BUSINESS

LIFE ASSURANCE - NEW BUSINESS

A summary of annual life-assurance business is given in the following table.

YearValue of Policies IssuedValue of Policies DiscontinuedValue of Policies Existing at End of YearAnnual Premiums on Existing PoliciesNumber of Policies in Force
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)(000)
1973–742,212.9677.910,984.7221.82 534
1974–752,535.1792.412,858.9248.92 637
1975–763,392.01,109.315,150.2284.12 673
1976–773,514.1x1,298.4x17,371.9x312.92 723x
1977–783,865.21,428.919,808.2338.62 756

While the upward trend shown in the figures has been influenced both by the rate of monetary depreciation and the normal growth of population, the course of life-assurance business, particularly during the past decade, has been one of steady progress. In the last 12 years the face value of new business underwritten annually and the amount of cover in force has increased almost fourfold.

Total discontinuances include surrenders and lapses, as well as policies maturing or terminated by death.

A prominent feature of new insurances of recent years has been the increase in the average amount of the sum assured per policy.

YearAverage Amount*
*Excludes annuities and Industrial policies.
 $
1972–738,575
1973–749,916
1974–7511,210
1975–7615,242
1976–7715,358x
1977–7817,233

Reasons for the growth in the average amount of the sum assured per policy shown in the above table include the changing types of policies being issued, and the increasing numbers of such policies which have a high cover (for example, cover for staff superannuation purposes by business concerns, temporary insurance with a high death-risk cover, multiple death benefit and family benefit policies having a high initial cover, and “unit” policies whereby a single premium provides a high initial death cover). A further reason is the relatively high rate of inflation in recent years.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS—The principal items in the balance sheets of life-assurance companies are summarised below for the 3 latest years. As in the previous tables the figures relate to New Zealand business only. In the case of some companies other branches of insurance business are included.

Liabilities1975–761976–771977–78
 $(thousand)
Paid-up share capital6,0095,620x6,297
Life-assurance and annuity funds2,165,1882,398,472x2,617,940
Depreciation, reserves, and other special funds26,15727,91036,968
Claims admitted, but not paid16,03516,38418,072
Other liabilities35,04436,561x46,125
                Total2,248,4352,484,947x2,725,402

The assets of the New Zealand branches at the end of each of the 3 latest years were as follows.

AssetsAmountPercentage of Total
1975–761976–771977–781975–761976–771977–78
 $(million)percent
Mortgages on houses, etc.695.4744.1804.731.029.929.5
Loans on policies119.9133.2150.45.35.45.5
Central Government securities440.2482.4496.819.619.418.2
Local authority securities181.4208.1249.98.18.49.2
Real estate373.0431.9489.516.617.418.0
Company shares and debentures353.9395.3421.715.715.915.5
Outstanding premiums21.924.728.11.01.01.0
Interest accrued, etc.25.328.633.81.11.21.2
Cash14.715.626.20.60.61.0
Other assets22.720.924.31.00.80.9
                Total2,248.42,484.92,725.4100.0100.0100.0

The Government has made agreements with life-assurance companies regarding the proportion of their new funds invested in Government and local authority securities. By September 1976 the proportion to be held in Government Securities was lowered from 21 to 20 percent, of which up to 10 percent could be in local authority securities. In addition, Life offices were required to hold 20 percent of their assets in housing and farming investments.

For 1976–77 the average rate of interest earned on the life funds of insurance companies was $8.05 percent, compared with $7.59 percent during 1975–76.

The following diagram illustrates the expansion that has taken place in recent years in the assets of the New Zealand branches of life-assurance companies and the manner of their investment. In composite-insurance offices, receipts of life assurance and annuity business must be treated as a separate fund, and the interests of the policyholders are safeguarded by the fact that these funds are available only for liabilities arising from such business.

Figure 33.2. LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES - TOTAL ASSETS

LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES - TOTAL ASSETS

31 B—ACCIDENT INSURANCE

GENERAL—Until 1974 there were three principal classes of accident insurance transacted in New Zealand. These were: (a) personal, covering accidents, sickness, etc.; (b) employers' liability under statutory or common law; and (c) motor vehicle insurance. Other classes of accident insurance include the insurance of plate glass, television sets, luggage, and livestock.

The Accident Compensation Act 1972, effective from 1 April 1974, provides continuous cover against accidents for all persons in regular employment, whether at work or not, through an earners' scheme financed by levies averaging 1 percent of incomes payable by employers on behalf of employees: the levies replace employers' liability premiums under the Workers Compensation Act. (See Section 35 A.)

Until 1974 there were two classes of motor vehicle insurance—comprehensive coverage, and compulsory third-party risks cover. Owners of motor vehicles were compelled to insure against their liability to pay damages on account of the death or bodily injury of another person caused through the car-owners' negligence. However, this compulsory scheme was replaced from 1 July 1974 by a new scheme under the Accident Compensation Act 1972. The new scheme provides financial compensation for personal injuries suffered in motor vehicle accidents irrespective of blame. It is financed by levies similar to the previous insurance premiums paid by motor vehicle owners.

The number of accident insurance offices represented in the statistics for 1977–78 was 59. The head offices of the companies concerned were in the following countries: Great Britain, 10; Australia, 10; United States of America, 4; Hong Kong, 1; and New Zealand, 34.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The following table shows the principal items of revenue and expenditure. Premiums and claims are net, i.e., after deductions for acceptances of reinsurance, whether effected locally or overseas, have been taken into account.

YearNumber of OfficesRevenueExpend
PremiumsOther RevenueTotal*ClaimsCommissionSalariesOther ExpensesTotal*
*Excluding reserve provisions.
$(million)
1973–7464137.49.1146.599.88.713.213.0134.7
1974–7562121.912.1134.0103.48.713.815.8141.7
1975–7664120.810.1130.997.59.415.311.0133.2
1976–7759141.111.5152.6108.211.216.914.9151.2
1977–7859164.913.7178.7119.211.617.720.7169.3

Premium receipts in 1977–78 were 16.8 percent above the 1976–77 figure, while claims rose by 10.2 percent.

A review of the expenses incurred in transacting all accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of 5 years are shown in the form of percentages of revenue to expenditure under various heads. The percentages do not take into account reserve provisions.

YearClaims to PremiumsCommission to PremiumsSalaries to PremiumsOther Expenses to PremiumsTotal Expenses (other than Claims) to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to Total Revenue
percent
1973–7472.66.39.69.525.498.092.0
1974–7584.87.111.313.031.4116.2105.8
1975–7680.77.812.79.129.5110.2101.7
1976–7776.77.912.010.630.5107.299.1
1977–7872.37.010.712.630.4102.794.7

Working expenses (excluding taxation) amounted to $34,897,000 in 1975–76, $40,477,000 in 1976–77, and $43,635,000 in 1977–78. The ratios of working expenses to premium income for each of the 3 years were respectively 28.9, 28.7, and 26.4 percent.

31 C—FIRE INSURANCE

GENERAL—Fire is still the main cause of property damage, but today many property owners seek protection not only against fire damage, but also against a wide range of other dangers including water, windstorm, explosion, breakages, theft, aircraft, and impact by motor vehicles. Under houseowners' and householders' comprehensive policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, many thousands of additional claims are now dealt with each year. Increasing numbers of commercial property owners, too, are extending their fire policies to include damage from other causes.

In 1978 there were 44 fire-insurance companies conducting business in New Zealand. Of these the head offices of 27 were in New Zealand, 9 were in Great Britain, 4 in Australia, 3 in the United States of America, and 1 in Hong Kong. The statistics in this section relate to the calendar year for about two-thirds of these companies; for the remaining companies the financial year nearest to the calendar year is used.

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS—The statistics in the following summary of business relate to the business conducted with the insuring public. Reinsurance transactions are not taken into account. While the bulk of the claims represent fire losses the figures also include the numerous, frequently minor, claims made under comprehensive policies for damage from other causes.

YearPolicies at 31 DecemberCross Cover at 31 DecemberPremium IncomeGross LossPercentage of Claims to Premium Income
 No.$(m)$(000)$(000)percent
1973–742,149,59824,832.860,77524,80440.8
1974–752,259,37732,842.577,90233,14542.5
1975–762,274,69541,131.997,91545,59646.6
1976–772,328,66248,767.5x111,18748,530x43.6x
1977–782,313,98459,172.3121,84762,63251.4

LIABILITIES—The following table shows whole-world liabilities of fire-insurance offices. The figures refer to all departments of business underwritten. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act 1908 life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available for other classes of insurance transacted. Of the 44 fire offices, 3 also engage in life-assurance business in New Zealand.

Item1975–76 Total1976–77 Total1977–78
Overseas CompaniesLocal CompaniesTotal
 $(million)
Paid-up capital791.6x535.3402.963.4466.3
Reserves4,491.8x3,997.11,932.8138.32,071.1
Other liabilities11,215.9x8,327.45,858.0512.36,370.3
                Total16,499.2x12,859.88,193.7714.08,907.7
Life funds13,576.8x9,453.66,680.01,982.58,662.5
                Total liabilities30,076.0x22,313.4142,696.517,570.2

ASSETS—The following table gives the amount of assets in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last 5 years classified under various heads. The figures given include all investments in New Zealand securities and do not relate merely to the assets held by the New Zealand branches of the companies concerned. The assets of other departments— accident, life, marine, etc.—are also included.

Assets in Sew Zealand1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78
 $(million)
Real estate47.2156.062.778.686.7
Central Government securities33.8635.832.941.136.5
Local authority securities31.4034.328.826.632.1
Company shares and debentures88.93104.5109.7143.0157.7
Mortgages, etc.41.1649.548.463.673.5
Outstanding premiums34.9139.746.249.659.5
Cash and other assets in New Zealand69.2867.952.665.576.4
                Total New Zealand assets346.75387.6381.3468.0522.4

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—A statement of the total revenue and expenditure, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross figures include reinsurance business accepted, while the net figures comprise insurances with the public, plus re-insurances accepted, and less amounts reinsured with other offices.

It should be noted that at the closing date of the accounts it is customary to transfer to a reserve a proportion of the income received during the year. If the amount transferred to reserve in the latest year is greater than that transferred at the end of the previous year the net effect is equivalent to an increase in the latest year's expenditure and appears in the statement of net expenditure. Similarly, if the amount transferred in the latest year is less than in the previous year, the net effect appears in the statement of net revenue.

Item1976–771977–78
GrossNetGrossNet
Revenue$(thousand)
Change in reserve provisions 475 488
Amount of fire premiums received during year141,96891,457171,113112,908
Interest and dividends 7,291 9,252
Rents 1,353 1,750
Other revenue 2,085 2,910
                Total141,968102,661171,113127,307
Expenditure    
Change in reserve provisions9,7146,80611,6767,726
Amount of fire claims paid during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage56,28139,43173,82248,848
Fire authority levies13,0909,91316,95212,710
Central Government taxes2,7453,0846,4906,199
Rents1,2181,2121,3791,381
Depreciation1,0761,081974968
Allowance and commissions on premiums to agents, subagents, and others17,8447,96219,3059,202
Salaries and wages, including commissions, on profits or bonuses15,64815,58018,21118,204
Other expenses of management8,7269,41711,58611,742
                Total126,34294,486160,395116,978

31 D—STATE INSURANCE

LIFE ASSURANCE—The New Zealand Government Life Insurance Office was founded in 1869 at a time when New Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities in regard to life assurance. The payment of all policies has always been guaranteed by the Government.

From a total of 59 policies, assuring a sum of $60,005, issued during 1869–70, the business of the office has grown to a stage when, at the end of 1977, policies numbered 467 203 and the total sum assured reached $2,347 million. Among life assurance companies, the Government Life Insurance handles the second largest volume of business in New Zealand.

Income and expenditure figures of the Government Life Insurance Office are now given for each of the latest 4 years.

YearPremium Income (Including Purchase of Annuities)Total IncomeManagement Expenses and CommissionsTotal ExpenditureRatio of Management Expenses to Total IncomeRatio of Management Expenses to Premium Income
  $(thousand) percent
197433,01555,6586,08626,26910.9318.43
197541,25866,5957,18235,65410.7917.41
197645,72574,4368,80839,89611.8319.26
197743,22176,1139,28039,74212.1921.47

During the year ended December 1977, 7725 policies became claims by death of the life assured or by maturity. The amount paid in respect of these claims was $16,050,322. A further sum of $657,522 was paid to annuitants, and $10,383,375 was paid to policyholders who cashed bonuses or surrendered policies.

Figures showing the progress of the office during the latest 4 years are contained in the next table. Annuities and bonuses are excluded.

YearNew BusinessPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies in Force at End of Year
Number of PoliciesSum AssuredAnnual*PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
*Excludes single premiums.
  $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m)
197428 251267.34.021 19081.91.7453 3131,643.929.7
197529 390340.23.723 803118.72.7458 9001,865.430.8
197630 191373.34.425 132124.32.4463 9592,114.532.8
197727 723367.94.324 479135.52.5467 2032,346.834.6

The following table shows the progress of business of the Government Life Insurance Office from the date of establishment until 31 December 1977.

 PoliciesAnnuities
NumberSum AssuredReversionary BonusesAnnual Premiums
  $(million)$(000)
Total issued1,058,1893,590.9281.362,83830,769
Total void590 9861,244.195.628,21020,166
Total in force at 31 Dec 1977467 2032,346.8185.834,62810,603

The office's total assets at 31 December and their class of investment are shown in the following table.

Class of InvestmentAmountPercentages
197519761977197519761977
*Mainly premiums and interest due and accrued interest.
 $(million)percent
Mortgages on property153.9161.3173.040.2138.7338.15
Loans on policies24.025.528.06.276.136.18
Government securities77.782.984.120.3019.9018.54
Local authority securities31.337.043.28.188.879.53
Real estate40.146.956.610.4811.2612.48
Company shares and debentures46.350.855.212.1012.2112.18
Miscellaneous assets*9.312.013.32.432.902.94
                Total382.7416.4453.5100.00100.00100.00

FIRE, ACCIDENT, AND OTHER INSURANCE—The State Insurance Office is empowered to carry on any class of insurance business other than life assurance. As the State Fire Office it commenced business in 1905. In 1925 accident business was transferred to it from the Government Life Insurance Office and since 1947 it has undertaken marine insurance.

Its growth is indicated in the following table.

YearNet PremiumsClaimsWorking Expenses
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
197433,83129,4765,545
197542,25934,5695,912
197654,39238,4947,440
197765,78342,5527,054

Prior to 1974, the main classes of accident insurance transacted were motor vehicle (comprehensive and third-party risk), employer's liability, personal accident, public risk, and plate glass. With the implementation of the Accident Compensation Act on 1 April 1974, all classes of business involving the insurance of liability for personal injury by accident ceased to be risks insured by the office. The major classes of business affected were employer's liability insurance and Transport Act insurance.

Fire insurance is more accurately described as property insurance, since the houseowners' and householders' policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, provide coverage not only against fire but also against a wide range of other possible causes of damage. Commercial property owners, too, are increasingly extending their fire policies to cover other dangers.

The total assets of the State Insurance Office at 31 December 1977 amounted to $88.8 million which included $54.8 million in the form of investments ($8.3 million in Government securities, $14.7 million in local body securities), and $23.4 million in fixed assets, mainly land, buildings, and plant. Of the total liabilities, reserves amounted to $30.7 million, unexpired risks to $28.4 million, and unadjusted claims to $10.6 million.

EARTHQUAKE AND WAR DAMAGE INSURANCE—The Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944 is administered by a Commission, of which the Minister of Finance is chairman. All property insured against fire is deemed to be insured to the extent of the indemnity value against earthquake and war damage. Premiums at the rate of 5c for each $100 of insurance cover are collected by the insurance companies and paid into the Earthquake and War Damage Fund (less commission of 2½ percent).

Advances may be made from the Consolidated Revenue Account if at any time the amount in the Earthquake and War Damage Fund is not sufficient to meet the claims thereon.

“Earthquake damage” is defined as damage occurring as the direct result of earthquake or of fire occasioned by or in consequence of earthquake. In 1950 an extension of the scheme was instituted to provide some measure of protection to the insured against storm and flood of an abnormal or widespread nature. In 1954 the definition of disaster damage was extended to include volcanic eruption, and authority was given to the commission to accept insurance against landslip. This latter type of cover does not apply automatically. Finance is provided by crediting 10 percent of the premiums compulsorily collected under the Act to a special Disaster Fund.

Since 1 June 1967 the commission has had power to underwrite the geothermal activity insurance on a voluntary basis.

The following is a comparative statement for the last 5 years of the financial operations under the Earthquake and War Damage Act.

Item1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78
*At end of each period.
Income—$(thousand)
    Premiums—
        Earthquake and war damage10,75113,62317,24720,34123,175
        Disaster1,1951,5141,9162,2602,575
        Interest9,85311,41413,34215,43618,600
                Total21,79926,55132,50538,03744,350
Outgo—
    Claims—
        Earthquake and war damage9242018233780
        Disaster5771,2635,2114,414266
    Salaries and expenses of management65709498105
    Discount to insurance offices298378479563639
                Total1,0322,1315,9665,4121,090
Surplus20,76724,42126,54032,62443,260
Earthquake and War Damage Fund*181,969208,270239,968267,773310,535
Disaster Fund*3,2493,6774993,2555,706

For the year ended 31 March 1978 a total of 1916 claims were received, compared with 3935 for the previous year. The breakdown of claims was as follows: earthquake 853; extraordinary disaster 845; landslip 218. Respective figures for the previous year were 2113; 1538; and 284.

Earthquake Claims—A total of 853 claims were registered this year and the amount paid out totalled $80,198. During a year of relatively minor seismic activity there were several earthquakes of magnitude 5 or more registered on the Richter scale, but only 2 resulted in claims. One on 1 June 1977 with a magnitude of 5.25 centred near Edgecumbe resulted in 360 claims, whilst another on 24 April 1977 resulted in 11 claims. This earthquake was centred near Nelson and recorded 5.6 on the Richter Scale. Minor shocks were also felt in Waikato, Wellington, and Christchurch.

Disaster Claims—No major widespread floods or storms occurred during this year, and of the 845 claims received, 106 were from the Canterbury flood of July 1977, 154 from a storm on 28 June 1977 which affected several areas, and 149 from a storm on 17–18 May 1977. The rest arose from local storms in different parts of the country.

The majority of claims were from the industrial and commercial sectors.

Landslip Claims—A total of 218 claims for this year resulted in payment of $346,367. Of the 218 claims, 7 dwellings were a total loss.

Chapter 34. Section 32; EMPLOYMENT

Table of Contents

LABOUR FORCE—Important factors affecting the proportional size of the labour force to population include the age-structure of the population, the usual age of completion of full-time education, the percentage of married women engaged in full-time paid employment, and net migration flow. The fluctuations in the growth of the labour force follow those of births some 15 to 20 years earlier. There is a relatively greater importance of the 15–24 year age groups in the labour force as the majority of females are actively engaged at this period of their lives before taking on home-making responsibilities. At the time of the 1976 Census, 18.5 percent of the female labour force was below 20 years of age, compared with 10.0 percent of the male labour force.

The estimated annual growth of the labour force in recent years is shown in the following table.

As at AprilMalesFemalesTotalLabour Force as a Percentage of Total Population
NumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual Increase
 (000)percent(000)percent(000)percentpercent
1973814.72.2335.52.91 150.22.438.7
1974834.22.4357.16.41 191.33.639.2
1975843.21.1364.52.11 207.71.438.9
1976849.50.7372.52.21 222.01.239.1
1977841.7–0.9388.44.31 230.10.739.2

The following table shows the male and female members of the labour force by age groups at 5 censuses.

Age Group (Years)19561961196619711976
*Includes Not Specified ages at 1956 census.
Under 20(m)53 84862 39678 66975 97386 341
 (f)48 83958 22474 35872 59875 295
20–24(m)66 40775 68291 155108 686120 029
 (f)33 63438 88449 32163 36775 206
25–34(m)155 628153 128159 117175 557221 787
 (f)32 65830 58636 87551 68779 497
35–44(m)138 820149 691164 492158 185165 006
 (f)32 55838 31746 54557 20675 002
45–64(m)184 497209 456229 693244 476252 684
 (f)42 34654 93868 60884 09897 816
65 and over(m)22 93520 15322 46922 09219 251
 (f)3 7933 9084 7374 9104 419
Total*(m)622 758670 506745 595784 969865 098
 (f)194 094224 857280 444333 866407 235

Though year-to-year fluctuations were considerable during the 10 years to 1967, the average migration gain to the population was about 10 000 a year, representing approximately one-fifth of the annual increase in the population as a whole. As immigrants as a body have a higher proportion in the working-age group than the normal cross-section of population, a period of high net immigration adds rapidly to the percentage of the population in the labour force and is particularly valuable where vacancies requiring particular skills are filled by migrants. In 1968 and 1969 there was a migration loss with a loss of some workers to Australia and a consequent slowing down of the labour force growth. During the years ended March 1970 to 1974 the net annual inflow from migration rose from only 800 in 1969–70 to 33 576 in 1973–74. There was a slight decline to 29 643 in 1974–75, followed by a sharp decline to 6567 in 1975–76.

During the 3 latest March years, 1976–77, 1977–78, and 1978–79, there has been a substantial population loss from net migration. In 1977–78 figures for permanent and long-term migrants showed 36 972 arrivals and 63 680 departures, a net loss of 26 708 compared with 19 072 the previous year. Of this net loss, 19 880 (74.4 percent) were in the labour force. The net loss from the labour force included 7196 craftsmen, production process workers, and labourers, 4608 clerical workers, and 3152 professional, technical and related workers (teachers and nurses were included in this group). A table showing long-term migrants during 1977–78 by occupation is included in the Population section of this Yearbook. The greatest proportion of movements of permanent and long-term migrants continued to occur in the age group 20 to 29 years. For the year ended March 1978, this group accounted for 41.5 percent of permanent and long-term arrivals, compared with 40.9 percent in 1977, and for 46.6 percent of permanent and long-term departures as against 47.2 percent the preceding year.

Figures of permanent and long-term migrants during the year ended March 1979 showed 40 808 arrivals and 81 008 departures, a net loss of 40 200, of whom 28 332 were in the labour force. More detailed figures of migration during the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE—The growth of population has been accompanied by a changing emphasis in employment. In the nineteenth century the major activities of farming, mining, and lumbering gave rise to manufacturing industries and to commercial and professional occupations. In 1881, 11.2 percent of the total population was engaged in agriculture, 13.1 percent in industries, which included mining, and 6.6 percent in commercial and professional occupations. By 1901 the proportion in tertiary activities and fanning had increased, while that in secondary industries had remained constant, and mining had declined relatively in importance. The proportions were then 14.5 percent in farming, 13.1 percent in secondary industry, and 11 percent in services.

The more recent rapid development of larger urban centres has been associated with a trend away from primary into secondary industries, a trend which developed noticeably after the depression of the 1930s and which was given marked impetus by the war. The broad changes in the economy are indicated by the following table. Decreases in the proportions engaged in primary production are typical of advanced economies, although it has to be noted that the farming community makes greater use of the services sector in the development of farm productivity.

Production Group1966 Census1971 Census1976 Census
Persons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour Force
Primary production140 93613.7134 15912.0133 95910.5
Secondary industry381 58937.2388 07134.7433 19034.1
Services503 51449.1596 60553.3705 18455.4

From April 1971, estimates of the industrial distribution of the total labour force have been made according to the revised New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification. Only the figures for “Total in industry” and “Total labour force” are comparable with earlier estimates.

The following figures show the estimated size and distribution of the labour force in April 1977.

Industrial Group S.Z.S.I.C.April 1977
MalesFemalesTotal
 (000)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing117.423.5140.9
Mining and quarrying4.40.24.6
Manufacturing industry—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco60.414.474.8
    Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather17.332.149.4
    Wood and wood products21.92.624.5
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing21.68.129.7
    Chemicals, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastics16.56.322.8
    Non-metallic mineral products10.41.411.8
    Basic metals, metal products, machinery and equipment, and other manufacturing industries76.718.795.4
        Total, manufacturing industries224.883.6308.4
Electricity, gas, and water14.01.615.6
Construction87.53.791.2
Wholesale and retail trade110.482.5192.9
Transport, storage, and communication89.021.8110.8
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.44.235.179.3
Community, social, and personal services—
    Public administration, etc.37.916.954.8
    Sanitary and similar services4.52.36.8
    Social and related community services54.297.4151.6
    Recreational services7.44.311.7
    Personal and household services33.912.546.4
        Total, community and personal services137.8133.4271.3
        Total in industry829.6385.41 215.0
Armed forces in New Zealand10.20.811.0
Registered unemployed1.92.24.1
        Total labour force841.7388.41 230.1

LABOUR FORCE PROJECTIONS—The alternative labour force projections for the period 1979–2011, shown in the table which follows, are integrated with the 31 March 1978 base-population projections, included in the population section, and the same mortality, fertility, and net migration assumptions apply. The definition of “labour force” used in deriving these projections includes those “unemployed but seeking work” and consequently they should be regarded as indicating the future potential supply of labour in terms of the stated assumptions. The “changing” labour force participation assumption employed in these projections implies an increasing participation by women in most economically active age groups, a declining level of male participation in most age groups and a declining participation by both sexes at the older economically active age groups.

At 31 MarchProjected Total Sew Zealand Labour Force*Assuming “Changing” Age-Specific Labour Force Participation Rates and Net Immigration Variant Designated:
LowMediumHigh
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*These projections have as base the estimated labour force at 31 March 1978. The mortality, fertility, and net immigration assumptions on which the projections are based, are the same as those for the population projections appearing in the Population Section.

†Projections based on “changing” labour force participation assume the continuation of 1956–76 trends in age-and-sex-specific labour force participation rates until 1986, after which time participation rates are assumed to remain constant.

(thousand)
1978 (Base)8784271 3058784271 3058784271 305
19798794331 3128814351 3168834361 319
19808824411 3238854441 3298894471 336
19818864501 3368914551 3468964591 355
19828924621 3548984671 3659074731 380
19839004751 3759094811 3909204871 407
19849104891 3999224961 4189335021 435
19859235041 4279355101 4459465171 463
19869365181 4549475251 4729585311 489
19911 0105571 5671 0225641 5861 0335711 604
19961 0665801 6461 0795881 6671 0915961 687
20011 1116001 7111 1266101 7361 1406191 759
20061 1546261 7801 1706361 8061 1866461 832
20111 1926471 8391 2086571 8651 2256661 891

EMPLOYMENT SITUATION—The 1974 figure of 955 for the average monthly total of unemployed was the lowest since 1966. From mid-1974 registered unemployment rose, reaching 5303 by mid-September 1975. From here the figures stabilised and then declined to 3911 in November 1976. Unemployment then began to increase again, and after reaching 8075 at the end of September 1977, increased rapidly to reach 26 307 in July 1978. During the remainder of 1978 the number of unemployed declined slightly until the normal seasonal increase during the Christmas-New Year period. The position in the early months of 1979 is shown in the Latest Statistical Information section.

The following table shows numbers of registered unemployed and also those employed on special work or under one of the private sector job-creation programmes set up by the Government in an attempt to alleviate unemployment.

PeriodRegistered UnemployedEmployed on Special WorkPrivate Sector Job Creation Programmes
MalesFemalesTotalWith Government DepartmentsSubsidised Work With Local Authorities
*Average of March to December 1978.
Monthly average for December year
197527131 4534 1662 969124...
19763 1332 2235 3565 593581...
19774 3183 0677 3856 195906...
197813 4988 83222 3309 9394 4225 430*
At end of month
1978—Jan11 5477 27118 8187 4352 245...
            Feb10 3558 29918 6547 6151 732...
            Mar10 9638 88119 8448 1821 7191 944
            Apr12 2789 22421 5028 7812 2892 514
            May13 5839 35222 9359 6073 2693 343
            Jun14 6999 33624 03510 1384 1054 038
            Jul16 8209 48726 30710 6554 9584 974
            Aug16 5688 92525 49311 6225 9186 196
            Sep15 9658 44524 41011 6116 4457 177
            Oct13 7418 01721 75811 3806 6457 953
            Nov12 2598 80421 06311 1136 8117 936
            Dec13 2009 94423 14411 1326 9348 230

PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT—The functions and duties of the Department of Labour are set out in the Labour Department Act 1954. On the employment side the duties include: the provision of a complete employment service for the purposes of placing workers in employment, assisting employers to provide employment, helping persons to find better or more suitable employment, and aiding persons who require occupational readjustment or training; the collection and publication of information relating to employment and unemployment; the making of surveys and forecasts of the classes of employment required or available; the promotion of voluntary placing of suitable persons in such employment; and in general, the promotion and maintenance of full employment. The department also operates hostels for workers, and arranges for the selection of immigrants.

To sum up, the department seeks to maintain a policy of full employment at the highest productive level. As an aid to this, it operates 22 district employment offices and a number of satellite offices and administers employment schemes, subsidised where necessary, for those unfit to compete in the ordinary labour market.

Five hostels are operated by the department, comprising workers' hostels, Public Service hostels, and a Maori youth hostel.

The department's employment service has been restructured and strengthened to cater for the needs of a much wider spectrum of the work force and potential members of it. The aim of the new service is to provide the co-ordinating point for employment and related services for the labour force. It offers advice and assistance to both workers and employers to promote the best use of available labour resources. Piloted initially in Auckland, the new service has been extended to all 22 district offices and has been substantially improved and extended over the pas: year. Vocational counselling services have been extended to more districts following the 1 April 1978 merger of the Vocational Guidance and Employment Services. Counselling services are now also available in Palmerston North, and arrangements for the introduction of services in New Plymouth and Whangarei are proceeding. A 5-year plan has been drawn up for the extension of counselling services throughout the country in association with an extended career guidance network in schools.

A feature of district employment service developments is the involvement of community interests in the work of the new service. Employment advisory committees have been established in Auckland, Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, Rotorua, Gisborne, Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, Buller-Westland, Canterbury, and Southland. Further committees are planned for New Plymouth, South Canterbury, and Wanganui. The committees act on a local level as a direct link between the community and the Employment Service. Their membership comprises representatives of employer and employee-related organisations and other groups active in the community. Their role is to provide guidance in the operations of the service within the context of the local labour market, so that the needs of employers, job seekers, and those who have special problems in employment are interpreted and met in the best possible way. At present they have a major role in identifying and establishing skills-training courses under the Young Persons Training Programme.

In September 1978 a meeting of chairmen of these committees was held for the first time in order to share particular local problems and experience. It is intended that such meetings should become a regular means of exchanging ideas on a national level.

Staffing of the District Employment Service is being steadily strengthened, and at present totals around 300.

The availability of the service to job seekers has been improved by the opening of satellite offices, which are now located at Takapuna, Panmure, Henderson, Upper Hutt, Porirua, Tokoroa, Kaitaia, Paeroa, and Oamaru.

A core responsibility of the new service is to match the training, experience, aptitudes, and desires of workers or potential workers, with the job opportunities offering. To help achieve this, considerable emphasis is placed on personal contact and continued liaison with employers and other organisations. This, in turn, leads to the notification of an increased number and wider range of vacancies as well as a better appreciation of the regional labour market. The result is that clients can be interviewed in greater depth and more and better matched placements made.

The service also administers job-creation programmes and the number of these offered has increased in both the public and private sectors. The Temporary Employment Programme provides employment in Government departments, local authorities, education boards, and hospital boards. The group work schemes provide a controlled and helpful work environment for mainly young persons who, for social or ethnic reasons, may be considered as unable to cope with normal patterns of employment. In the private sector, the Additional Jobs Programme with the Farm Employment Scheme provide formerly-unemployed persons with full-time subsidised employment. During 1978, 2 other schemes operated in the private sector, viz., the Skill Promotion and the First Job Programmes.

In addition to the Job Creation programmes, the Department of Labour, in association with the Department of Education, has instituted a programme of training courses for young persons experiencing difficulty in finding employment because of a lack of work skills and experience. The programme is known as the Young Persons Training Programme.

The new employment service recognises that many clients do not wish to formally register for employment. They do, however, require informed advice to satisfy their own employment or training needs. In this category are short-term or part-time farm or seasonal workers, those considering apprenticeships, trade and vocational inquirers, school leavers, women contemplating returning to the work force, those seeking employment or training opportunities in other districts, and many others.

This level of assistance also encompasses the development of better information resources, occupational and careers displays, and facilities for a “job self-service”.

VOCATIONAL TRAINING—Meeting the employment needs of industry and commerce in order to improve productivity growth rates and enhancing an individual's chances of contributing to his/her development and to the economy are vital functions of vocational training. The development and organisation of training within New Zealand on a national basis is the responsibility of the Vocational Training Council (VTC).

The council has the following membership, appointed jointly by the Ministers of Education and Labour: a chairman; the Director-General of Education; the Secretary of Labour; 2 members nominated by the N.Z. Employers' Federation: 2 members nominated by the N.Z. Federation of Labour; 1 member nominated by the N.Z. Manufacturers' Federation; 1 member nominated by the Technical institutes Association; 1 member nominated by the Technicians Certification Authority of New Zealand; and not more than 5 other members (3 appointments have so far been made under this provision).

In addition, the council has 3 associate (non-voting) members: an appointee of the State Services Coordinating Committee; an appointee of the Combined State Services Organisations; and the chairman of the University Grants Committee.

Under the Vocational Training Council Act 1968 the council's functions are prescribed as advisory to Government, State departments, industry, commerce, agriculture, social welfare, and other interested organisations.

The objectives of the Vocational Training Council within the constraints of the Act are to:

  1. encourage the implementation of systematic training and development schemes to ensure that New Zealand has the people at all levels of employment with the requisite knowledge and technical skills to perform their tasks efficiently.

  2. Ensure that people as individuals have the opportunity to continue to develop.

  3. Raise the standards of knowledge, skill and effectiveness.

  4. Encourage those directly responsible for achieving the foregoing objectives.

Recommendations may relate to improved training, the development of new or established facilities, the co-ordination of training schemes, levies or other methods for the financing or encouragement of training, the award of scholarships, the fostering of research, the carrying out of inquiries and investigations in any field of training, and maintenance of an adequate information service.

However, the activities of the council considerably exceed that of an advisory or recommendatory role. Council has been, and still is, deeply involved in the promotion of fully integrated and meaningful training in the majority of industries and local authorities.

The Vocational Training Council encourages a systematic approach to training at all levels in all sectors of the economy, linked to proper manpower development policies with in-built tangible recognition for proven efficiency. There is emphasis on industry self-help and on joining in company manpower schemes.

Representative voluntary industrial and commercial training boards have been established for 26 industries. Boards include members from employer, employee, educational, and other specialist groups. A major incentive has been the Government grant of 518,600 a year to encourage the appointment of executive training officers to work for industry training boards. There are now 57 of these positions established. Industry training boards, among other things, examine existing training and assess the need for revised or new schemes. This involves both the identification of the level of ability of the person required (machine operator, graduate, tradesman, supervisor, etc.) and the numbers required at each level.

Further, the council has concerned itself with “back-up” research and investigational studies and with promoting training programmes for particular groups within the community. This is done through a series of advisory committees. Specialists in areas such as women and employment, apprenticeship and trade training, management and supervisory training, and Polynesians in the work force meet to organise projects in these areas and to make recommendations to the council.

APPRENTICESHIPS—Under the Apprentices Act 1948 orders governing apprenticeships are made by the Industrial Court, which consists of a judge, a workers' member, and an employers' member. Orders are made on the recommendations of New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees, which consist of 4 representatives of employers, 4 representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of each committee. The New Zealand committees are in effect policy-making committees. There are 36 committees, which normally meet once or twice a year. Committees covering larger industries, e.g., engineering, carpentry, printing, meet 3 or 4 times per year.

Day-to-day administration of the Apprentices Act and the apprenticeship orders is carried out by the District Commissioners of Apprenticeship in conjunction with local apprenticeship committees, of which there are 246. They consist of 3 representatives of employers, 3 representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the District Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of all committees for the district for which he is appointed. District Commissioners delegate chairmanship to other officers of the Department of Labour when necessary.

In the majority of industries there are provisions in apprenticeship orders for the attendance of apprentices at technical classes, both during working hours and in the evening. In most industries technical training is concentrated into an annual course of 3 or 4 weeks' duration. In some cases courses are longer with the advent of extended institute training, as in the carpentry and joinery, engineering, and aircraft engineering industries.

The general policy regarding apprentice education is determined by the Department of Education in co-operation with New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees. That department itself operates a Technical Correspondence Institute, which provides courses of instruction for those apprentices who live too far from any school to allow them to attend evening classes.

A statutory body, the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, conducts examinations for apprentices (see Section 7A, Education). The examinations are voluntary and, except in the electrical trade and in plumbing (where registration is required), no examination test is required for the practice of a trade. Trades which have extended trade training, e.g., carpentry and engineering, have internal assessment conducted by technical institutes in place of the 1st and 2nd qualifying examinations. There is very close liaison between New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees and the board, the Commissioner of Apprenticeship being a member of the board.

In 1972 the Apprentices Act was amended so that apprenticeships in all trades are now open to women as well as to men.

The number of apprenticeship contracts registered and the number completed during the 2 latest March years, and in force at the end of each year, are indicated in the following table.

TradeApprenticeship Contracts
Registered During Year Ended 31 MarchCompleted During Year Ended 31 MarchIn Force at 31 March
197719781977197819771978
Aircraft881095959454490
Baking971025147252273
Boilermaking61604751243228
Bricklaying75545169271231
Carpentry1 4819471 3571 9766 2114 877
Clothing44364145124101
Coachbuilding5265123343101 8531 861
Dentistry756
Electrical6096344605982 3092 250
Engineering8978905496363 0073 131
Footwear repair and making4521015
Footwear manufacturing56521617145158
Furniture3592072042571 058905
Glazing57454061195165
Greenkeeping231810125756
Hairdressing6417112652591 5431 657
Keating and ventilating33282623115111
Horticulture78873652259270
Industrial instrumentation212412141
Jewellery46502130175181
Masonry1323109
Motor trades1 5171 4841 1671 3125 3695 224
Moulding132011175747
Painting and paperhanging262216180169738701
Photo-engraving61452432150157
Piano repairing and tuning12244
Plastering46493241158149
Plumbing3692951962411 3841 336
Printing268256183190879894
Radio1659891136486410
Refrigeration engineering53433829159157
Retail meat3854032322061 0941 172
Saddlery, leather, etc.4019121910491
Sheetmetal working1041325673396421
Shipbuilding64422628176177
Signwriting33311119113116
Timber industry43443229106108
Woollen milling411165
Others44502529141151
                Total8 6697 8045 8957 08429 83828 330

In addition to the numbers of apprentices shown above, there were at 31 March 1978, 3208 apprenticeship contracts in force in Government departments, of which 1150 were registered during the year ended 31 March 1978.

TRAINING COURSES FOR MAORIS AND PACIFIC ISLANDERS—Trade training is one approach that has been adopted to broaden employment opportunities for Maori and Polynesian youths. The trade-training schemes have the approval of the. educational and apprenticeship authorities. Time spent on a course is credited towards the normal apprenticeship, which is completed with employers in the usual way. The schemes are run in conjunction with the technical institutes at Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Petone, and Christchurch. Special tuition is also given in other subjects to help the boys adapt themselves to urban living.

Entry into the schemes is generally restricted to school leavers from country areas where apprenticeships are not normally available. Trainees taken into the schemes and their parents enter into a training agreement with the Department of Maori Affairs, whereby the trainees are required to live at approved hostels, regularly attend evening technical classes, and to sit the appropriate trade examinations. The trainees are paid a weekly training allowance.

In 1978 a total of 35 courses in 22 separate trades and vocations were conducted at technical institutes in Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Wellington, and Christchurch and at the Telford Farm Training Institute, Balclutha. Trades and occupations include carpentry, motor mechanics, plumbing, electrical wiring, coach and body building, ladies hairdressing, meat retailing, sheetmetal work, bricklaying, fitting and welding, joinery, painting and decorating, general merchandising, and secretarial and typing. In addition, 30 school leavers were also recruited for social work training, making a total intake of 719 trainees.

Further expansion of these schemes in 1979 provides for training to be instituted at technical institutes in provincial centres in the home districts of school leavers. The new courses include secretarial/typing (Rotorua, Gisborne, Palmerston North, Whangarei, Tauranga, Auckland, and Wellington), catering, and fitting and welding (Hamilton), and fishing (Nelson).

Short-term “basic skills” courses designed to enhance job-placement of school leavers are also to be conducted in most of the provincial centres mentioned above. These courses include agriculture (Whangarei and Gisborne), horticulture (Tauranga), and office related and building studies (Whangarei, Gisborne, Napier, Tauranga, Wanganui, Auckland, and Wellington).

Sixty-two sponsorships are also made available to students with the necessary educational qualifications to study computer programming and accounting commerce at technical institutes, thus broadening the base of career opportunities for Maori and Polynesian school leavers.

In conjunction with employer organisations, education authorities, and church organisations a total of 766 positions for pre-apprenticeship and career vocational training are being made available. The range covers farming, agriculture, and horticulture (4 courses), automotive work (3 trades), building (6 trades), engineering (3 trades), other careers and vocations (11 occupations), and 6 courses in short-term basic skills training.

Farm Training—Special arrangements have been made for 6 Maori boys to enter Telford Farm Training Institute this year. This is a comprehensive 1-year course covering important theoretical and practical aspects of farming and farm management. The department meets full cost of board and school fees at the institute.

Agriculture and Horticulture—Agriculture and horticulture courses are spread over 24 weeks—10-weeks induction at Flock House, Feilding, and 2-weeks local block course, followed by 12 weeks with local farmers and horticulturists. Trainees are fully integrated into the appropriate regional cadet scheme at the completion of the period.

Automotive, Building, and Engineering Trades—Except for carpentry, which is of 2 years' duration, all courses in this group involve 1 year's training.

Other Careers and Vocations—With the exception of general merchandising, social work trainees, clerical cadets, and computer/accounting sponsorship courses, all other courses are of 1 year duration.

General Merchandising—A 6-month course, allowing for 2 intakes each year, with normal standard training allowance being paid during the period of training.

Special Work and Clerical Cadet Trainees—These are recruited and appointed to the Department of Maori Affairs in terms of the provisions of the State Services Act. Training is over a 2-year period, the first year with this department and secondment to other statutory welfare agencies in the second year to broaden the cadets' experience and skills. Permanent placements are found at the conclusion of the 2-year period. These are not necessarily with Department of Maori Affairs. Salaries are in accordance with educational qualifications.

Computer and Accountancy Sponsorships—Sponsorships are being offered in computer and accountancy/commerce courses to be conducted at both provincial and urban technical institutes as a means of encouraging more school leavers into the private sector. Eligibility is open to both urban and rural youth who must have the requisite educational qualifications for acceptance into the courses. Sponsorships involve the Department of Maori Affairs meeting tuition fees, and an amount towards the cost of books. Additional assistance is provided where parental hardship is established. Students will also be eligible for the standard tertiary bursary.

Short-term Basic Skills Courses—These courses were instituted in 1979 to replace former pre-employment courses. They are planned to meet the needs of those who would not qualify for trade training. Structure and content of courses are designed for employment opportunities relevant to local conditions in provincial centres, as well as in Auckland and Wellington.

Basic Skills Training for Urban Youth—This type of training was established at Petone in September 1978 as a pilot scheme. It provided for 6-weeks' basic training over a variety of job occupations, such as welding, car engine repairs, panelbeating, spray painting, and typing. The course started out of concern for unemployed youth and was supported by business firms, industry, and the Maori community in the Petone/Hutt Valley area. The project is currently being evaluated with a view to establishing similar training facilities in other urban centres.

STATISTICS OF EMPLOYMENT: Half-yearly Surveys—The Department of Labour carries out at half-yearly intervals a general survey of employment in New Zealand. These surveys are conducted by means of inquiries sent out to employers of labour, the results being published in the Labour and Employment Gazette. Returns are required from all establishments in which at least 2 persons (including working proprietors) are engaged. Government and local authority employment is included. Employers in farming, hunting, trapping, fishing, waterfront work, seagoing work, private domestic service, and armed forces are not required to submit half-yearly returns. The following tables are based on these surveys.

A summary of employment is given in the following table.

Date of SurveyFull-rime Employees and Working ProprietorsPart-time WorkersHalf-yearly Percentage Rate of Labour Turnover*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemales
*The relationship between the number of terminations over the previous half-year and the average number of employees during the same period.
April—      percentpercent
    1975634 937293 178928 11532 78693 302126 0882334
    1976641 961299 754941 71532 13196 623128 7542029
    1977644 735307 513952 24832 800102 586135 3862129
    1978638 597303 402941 99933 548106 447139 9951725
October
    1975625 552291 850917 40232 61396 070128 6832027
    1976628 342299 289927 63132 895100 806133 7011926
    1977624 631302 939927 57033 696106 200139 8962026
    1978625 623305 828931 45133 942109 337143 2791727

EMPLOYMENT BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Employees of local authorities are principally engaged in the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric, and water supply, and transport), and community services.

In the following table particulars are given of the number of all direct wage-earning employees who were actually in the employ of the various classes of local authorities (hospital boards excluded) at 15 April of each of the latest 3 years inclusive. Besides permanent staff, including administrative and professional employees, the statistics include part-time, casual, and temporary employees, and subsidised workers, but exclude those employed by contractors.

Local Authorities*Employees at 15 April
191519761977

*For numbers see Section 2.

†As at 30 September.

‡Taken over by Fire Service Commission.

§Gas board employees are included with electric power board employees.

||Total includes employees of licensing trusts (2760 employees in 1977) and hydatids districts (28 employees in 1977).

Catchment boards823824856
City and borough councils18 64319 41119 449
County councils5 6625 5645 484
Crematorium board21
District council142465
Electric power boards6 391||6 638||6 568||
Fire boards2 0902 169
Gas boards§§§
Harbour boards3 8553 8323 765
Harbour bridge authority131128122
Land drainage boards443231
Local railway board101111
Museum authority133130142
Nassella tussock boards4747157
Plantation board61013
Pest destruction boards737735780
Regional authority2 3132 5082 404
River boards657
Road tunnel authority403743
Town boards333219
Urban drainage boards458461468
Urban transport boards446454473
Valley authority343836
Water supply boards123129149
                Total44 735||45 844||44 232||

PUBLIC SERVICE EMPLOYMENT—Permanent staff in the Public Service as at 31 March 1978 totalled 62 017, of whom 41 543 were males and 20 474 females. In addition, the Public Service gave employment to 1677 temporary staff and 19 548 wage workers, giving a total for all employees of 83 242 (57 572 males and 25 670 females) compared with 78 894 as at 31 March 1977. These figures do not include the staffs of the Post Office, the railway service, the Police (except civilian staff), education boards, hospital boards, or universities.

UNEMPLOYMENT—Except for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available. Such information is, however, available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Department of Labour (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade unionists were collected from trade union secretaries by the Department of Statistics from 1925 to 1930. A table showing figures of unemployment from June 1931 to March 1939 will be found on page 854 of the 1940 Yearbook. Monthly average figures of registered unemployed for each year from 1946 are given in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

Census Data on Unemployment—The great disadvantage of the population census as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only. Unemployment figures from the 1971 Census were 8757 males and 7411 females. Figures from the 1976 Census give a total of 14 392 males and 11 945 females. Of these, 4205 of the males and 6112 of the females were in the 15–19 years age group.

The following table gives relevant census data on unemployment during this century. Prior to 1951 Maoris were not included.

CensusNumber of Males UnemployedProportion per 1000 Male Wage and Salary Earners
31 March 19018 46748
12 April 19068 18939
2 April 19117 15230
15 October 19165 92026
17 April 192111 06139
20 April 192610 69434
24 March 193635 77496
25 September 19455 82316
17 April 19517 90218
17 April 19565 55812
18 April 19614 6749
22 March 19665 1258
23 March 19718 75713
23 March 197614 392x21

The 1936 figure includes men on rationed relief work, but excludes men (16 222) partly unemployed but not on relief work. The 1945 figure includes ex-servicemen recently returned from overseas who had not then resumed work. At the time of the 1951 Census the waterfront strike was in progress and it was estimated that approximately 15 000 workers in that and other industries were on strike. Evidently many of these were not returned as unemployed; it is likely that a number changed to other industries, while some may not have considered themselves to be unemployed.

Unemployment Benefit—Unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act have been payable since 1 April 1939. The number in force at 31 March 1978 was 17 484 compared with 3651 at the same date in 1977, 5127 in March 1976, and 2894 in March 1975.

Subject to the conditions set out in Section 6A, the unemployment benefit may be claimed as of right. Registration at a district office of the Department of Labour is a compulsory prerequisite to eligibility for the benefit. Hence it is considered that the great majority of workers becoming involuntarily unemployed would register for employment in order to validate a claim for the benefit.

Close liaison is maintained between the Department of Social Welfare and the Department of Labour to prevent the payment of benefit where work is available. In addition to the requirement that a benefit applicant must register for work at an employment office, all unemployment beneficiaries must report once weekly at the employment office.

VACANCIES, PLACEMENTS, AND UNEMPLOYED PERSONS—In addition to to the half-yearly survey of the employment position, the Department of Labour maintains a weekly record of registered unemployed persons and a half-monthly record of vacancies and placements. The following tables are derived from this record and hence relate only to the department's operations as an employment service.

The following table contains a summary of the numbers of notified vacancies, placements, and registered unemployed persons as recorded by the Department of Labour.

DateNotified Vacancies at End of MonthPlacements During MonthRegistered Unemployed Persons at End of Month
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Monthly Average For Calendar Years
19743 3861 1704 5561 0673451 412607348955
19751 6404112 0512 0235432 5662 7131 4534 166
19761 2873791 6662 3567793 1353 1332 2235 356
19771 1973261 5232 1888563 0444 3183 0677 385
1978......1 7514 3241 6846 00813 4988 83222 330

Registered unemployed, vacancies, and placements are classified by occupation in the following table on the basis of monthly averages. Because of rounding, individual components in this and the following table do not always add to the total given.

Occupation GroupRegistered Unemployed (Monthly Average)Vacancies (Monthly Average)Placements (Monthly Average)
19771978*19771978*19771978*
*Except for the total, figures given are averages for 11 months, i.e. they exclude October, therefore figures for individual occupation groups do not add up to the total.
Professional, technical, and clerical7102 170142218166248
Sales4561 2307314093134
Farming, fishing, logging3711 0155076191825
Transport and communications2478551311255569
Manufacturing and trades1 9825 922807761463780
Service6021 72098130144159
Labouring1 6434 984159174408569
All other occupations1 3734 48663911 5243 244
All occupations7 38522 3301 5231 7513 0446 008

A finer breakdown of the monthly average numbers of unemployed by usual occupation and sex is shown in the following table for the 2 latest calendar years.

Usual Occupation19771978§
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

*Includes typists, machinists, and other related workers.

†Includes sawmill workers.

‡Includes those who have been attending university full-time.

§See footnote to previous table.

Professional, technical, and clerical*2414697621 407
Storemen, storewomen, packers1643050999
Sales workers, shop assistants, etc.103353338892
Farm and forestry workers234137689326
Drivers210970442
Tradesmen and tradeswomen206891331
Freezing workers402201 04528
Process/factory workers4287251 2482 049
Cooks and other domestic workers, etc.1084943731 346
Labourers1 596484 729255
All other occupations244148983602
School leavers (no previous full-time job)3846261 1831 828
                Total4 3183 06713 4988 832

STATISTICS FROM CENSUS OF POPULATION—Figures of the industrial and occupational distribution of the labour force by industry major divisions and occupation major groups at the 1976 Census of Population are given in the 2 following tables.

Industry Major DivisionAge Group (Years)Total
15–2425–4950 and Over
 Number of Persons
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing27 49872 07229 330128 900
Mining and quarrying9632 8661 2305 059
Manufacturing85 369158 63361 722305 724
Electricity, gas, and water3 7077 8843 73815 329
Construction30 59862 38419 155112 137
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels56 239110 87749 006216 122
Transport, storage, and communication26 82761 71822 742111 287
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services27 81738 49513 48079 792
Community, social, and personal services81 877131 83549 537263 249
Activities not adequately defined15 97613 4275 33134 734
                Total356 871660 191255 2711,272,333
Occupation Major GroupAge Group (Years)Total
15–2425–4950 and Over
*Includes related workers.
 Number of Persons
Professional and technical*52 11298 50728 202178 821
Administrative and managerial1 28727 26112 36040 908
Clerical*75 07590 62740 216205 918
Sales workers24 06971 27829 933125 280
Service workers26 01749 43320 53195 981
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers fishermen, and hunters27 89571 96930 826130 690
Production workers*, transport equipment operators and labourers138 397241 50288 937468 836
New workers seeking employment4 2583414 293
Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately described6 8539 0134 13720 003
Workers not reporting any occupation9085671281 603
                Total356 871660 191255 2711,272,333

Employment Status—The following table shows the employment status of persons in the labour force, and also persons not actively engaged, excluding children under 15 years, at the 2 latest censuses. Part-time workers, i.e., those working less than 20 hours per week, have been classified as “not actively engaged.”

Employment Slants1971 Census1976 Census
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Employer of labour59 8158 10367 91870 98712 50083 487
Own account worker62 18510 10172 28676 75114 76091 511
Wages or salary earner651 499307 064958 563699 326363 8441,063,170
Unemployed8 7577 41116 16814 39211 94526 337
Relative assisting, unpaid2503536036703 2053 875
Not specified2 4638343 2972 9729813 953
Total, actively engaged in the labour force784 969333 8661,118,835865 098407 2351,272,333
Not actively engaged181 375652 798834 173222 802706 043928 845
                Grand total966 344986 6641,953,0081,087,9001,113,2782,201,178

Industrial Distribution: Divisions—The industrial distribution of the labour force analysed by industrial major divisions and divisions as recorded at the 1976 Population Census is shown below.

Industrial Major Division and DivisionMalesFemalesTotalPercentage
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing—
    Agriculture and hunting95 42822 754118 1829.3
    Forestry and logging7 4833517 8340.6
    Fishing2 786982 8840.2
                Total 1976105 69723 203128 90010.1
                Total 1971110 66518 229128 89411.5
Mining and quarrying—
    Coalmining1 590601 6500.1
    Crude petroleum and natural gas production690677570.1
    Metal-ore mining29820318
    Other mining2 261732 3340.2
                Total 19764 8392205 0590.4
                Total 19715 0881775 2650.5
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco56 28212 50568 7875.4
    Textile, wearing apparel, and leather industries16 92431 44448 3683.8
    Wood and wood products including furniture22 2092 71524 9242.0
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing23 3918 33431 7252.5
    Chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products17 4106 97324 3831.9
    Non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal10 1391 59311 7320.9
    Basic metal industries5 7096006 3090.5
    Fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment68 80015 67984 4796.6
    Other manufacturing industries2 8572 1605 0170.4
                Total 1976223 72182 003305 72424.0
                Total 1971207 08874 022281 11025.1
Electricity, gas, and water—
    Electricity, gas, and steam12 7521 52714 2791.1
    Waterworks and supply1 016341 0500.1
                Total 197613 7681 56115 3291.2
                Total 197112 1051 16813 2731.2
Construction—
    Building and construction68 7652 86071 6255.6
    Allied trades38 5301 98240 5123.2
                Total 1976107 2954 842112 1378.8
                Total 197190 6713 01793 6888.4
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels—
    Wholesale trade43 40415 23058 6344.6
    Retail trade66 11057 733123 8439.7
    Restaurants and hotels13 74519 90033 6452.6
                Total 1976123 25992 863216 12217.0
                Total 1971117 23781 078198 31517.7
Transport, storage, and communication—
    Transport and storage67 5429 14276 6846.0
    Communication20 22214 38134 6032.7
                Total 197687 76423 523111 2878.7
                Total 197184 86118 320103 1819.2
Finance, insurance, real estate, and business services—
    Financial institutions11 27111 33322 6041.8
    Insurance9 3165 86715 1831.2
    Real estate and business services24 30117 70442 0053.3
                Total 197644 88834 90479 7926.3
                Total 197137 81126 96364 7745.8
Community, social, and personal services—
    Public administration and defence41 97017 63759 6074.7
    Sanitary and similar services4 0943 3777 4710.6
    Social and related community services53 65693 493147 14911.6
    Recreational and cultural services10 4135 10115 5141.2
    Personal and household services21 92910 78132 7102.6
    International and other extra-territorial bodies5372617980.1
                Total 1976132 599130 650263 24920.7
                Total 1971110 887105 640216 52719.4
Activities not adequately defined
Total 197621 26813 46634 7342.7
Total 19718 5565 25213 8081.1
                Grand total 1976 actively engaged865 098407 2351,272,333100.0
                Grand total 1971 actively engaged in the labour force784 969333 8661,118,835100.0

Occupations—The occupational classification in major and minor groups is given for 1976 in the following table, with major group totals for 1971.

Occupational Major Group and Minor GroupMalesFemalesTotal

*Includes related workers.

†Including workers not classifiable by occupation.

Professional and technical*
    Physical scientists and technicians3 3121 5404 852
    Architects, engineers and technicians29 8921 75531 647
    Aircraft and ships officers3 177223 199
    Life scientists and technicians3 7552 5026 257
    Medical, dental, and veterinary workers*11 71429 19840 912
    Statisticians, mathematicians, systems analysts and technicians1 7764302 206
    Economists647116763
    Accountants9 80976110 570
    Jurists3 4531673 620
    Teachers22 78530 32653 111
    Workers in religion2 7713773 148
    Authors, journalists, and writers*2 0959333 028
    Sculptors, painters (artists), photographers3 0261 2054 231
    Composers and performing artists1 6849902 674
    Athletes, sportsmen*838128966
    Professional, technical n.e.c.*4 1233 5147 637
                Total 1976104 85773 964178 821
                Total 197181 95057 440139 390
Administrators and managerial workers—
    Legislative officials and government administrators76349812
    Managers (excluding those in wholesale and retail trade, catering and lodging services, and in farming)37 2722 824096
                Total 197638 0352 8740 908
                Total 197127 3481 05528 403
Clerical workers—
    Clerical supervisors5 5281 6047 132
    Government executive officials5 4204565 876
    Stenographers, typists, and card-and tape-punching machine operators45237 25337 705
    Bookkeepers, cashiers*14 43525 50939 944
    Computing machine operators8426 2377 079
    Transport and communication supervisors6 1972766 473
    Transport conductors5555560
    Mail distribution clerks2 0341 8603 894
    Telephone and telegraph operators1 2615 6296 890
    Clerical n.e.c*33 29557 07090 365
                Total 197670 019135 899205 918
                Total 197170 034110 347180 381
Sales workers—
    Managers (wholesale and retail trade) ..14 9282 91817 846
    Working proprietors (wholesale and retail trade)11 9817 14419 125
    Sales supervisors, and buyers6 8441 0147 858
    Technical salesmen, commercial travellers, and manufacturers' agents13 36296914 331
    Insurance, real estate, securities and business services salesmen, and auctioneers10 54186011 401
    Salesmen and shop assistants*19 85334 72154 574
    Sales workers n.e.c.10936145
                Total 197677 61847 662125 280
                Total 197176 54338 683115 226
Service workers (incl. Armed Forces)—
    Managers (catering and lodging services)2 2141 5323 746
    Working proprietors (catering and lodging services)3 7072 8876 594
    Housekeepers and related service supervisors2852 7653 050
    Cooks, waiters, bartenders*6 43213 22519 657
    Maids and related housekeeping service workers n.e.c.7388 4929 230
    Building caretakers, charworkers, and cleaners*5 7835 46311 246
    Launderers, drycleaners, and pressers1 0442 4703 514
    Hairdressers, barbers, beauticians*1 0644 5075 571
    Protective service workers10 50539510 900
    Service workers n.e.c.3 9537 15811 111
    Armed Forces10 62673611 362
                Total 197646 35149 63095 981
                Total 197142 48546 36388 848
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters—
    Farm managers and supervisors5 4251795 604
    Farmers57 2049 95767 161
    Agricultural and animal husbandry workers35 76511 71147 476
    Forestry workers6 7381156 853
    Fishermen and hunters*3 518783 596
                Total 1976108 65022 040130 690
                Total 1971112 41517 235129 650
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers—
    Production supervisors, overseers and general foremen (non-clerical) and excluding agriculture, transport, sales and service supervisors, overseers and foremen)17 8491 74919 598
    Miners, quarrymen, and well-drillers*2 15022 152
    Metal processers2 6991602 859
    Wood preparation workers and paper makers8 6413669 007
    Chemical processers*1 9143382 252
    Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers*4 6123 7818 393
    Tanners, fellmongers, and pelt dressers8562251 081
    Food and beverage processers38 3584 52142 879
    Tobacco preparers and tobacco product makers141319460
    Tailors, dressmakers, sewers, and upholsterers*4 86520 16325 028
    Shoemakers and leather goods makers2 0102 7034 722
    Cabinet makers and related woodworkers5 5794636 042
    Stone cutters and carvers 8205
    Blacksmiths, toolmakers, and machine tool operators7 0656327 697
    Machinery fitters, machine assemblers, and precision instrument makers (except electrical)50 5551 93752 492
    Electrical titters and electrical and electronics workers26 6893 53330 222
    Broadcasting station and sound equipment operators and cinema projectionists400102502
    Plumbers, welders, sheet-metal and structural metal preparers and erectors25 59571626 311
    Jewellery and precious metal workers8382481 086
    Glass formers and potters*2 3526693 021
    Rubber and plastics product makers4 5181 8186 336
    Paper and paper-board products makers6144621 076
    Printers*8 4252 90111 326
    Painters14 16525814 423
    Production and related workers n.e.c.3 2611 7925 053
    Bricklayers, carpenters, and other construction workers53 46115753 618
    Stationary engine and related equipment operators n.e.c.3 217133 230
    Material handling and related equipment operators, dockers, and freight handlers37 0387 82144 859
    Transport equipment operators40 9551 70042 655
    Labourers n.e.c.34 0436 20840 251
                Total 1976403 07165 765468 836
                Total 1971366 16857 959424 127
Workers not classifiable by occupation—
    New workers seeking employment1 7112 5824 293
    Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately described13 8216 18220 003
    Workers not reporting any occupation (excluding armed forces)9656381 603
                Grand total 1976, actively engaged865 098407 2351,272,333
                Grand total 1971, actively engaged in the labour force784 969333 8661,118,835

NOTE: n.e.c. denotes—not elsewhere classified.

WOMEN IN THE LABOUR FORCE—During the past 40 years there has been a marked change in the composition of the New Zealand labour force. The female component of the labour force has increased from 21.2 percent in 1936 to 32.0 percent in 1976.

The percentage of women and girls of 15 years of age and above who were actively engaged in the full-time labour force for each population census during the past 40 years is as follows: 1936, 24.9; 1945, 26.0; 1951, 25.0; 1956, 26.0; 1961, 27.7; 1966, 30.9; 1971, 33.8; and 1976, 36.6. Between 1936 and 1976 the male labour force increased by 64.0 percent and the female labour force by 186.9 percent.

Despite these marked increases the New Zealand female participation rate in the labour force is not as high as that in some overseas countries.

The following table shows for a selected group of countries the percentage of the females in each age group and in the female population as a whole who are actively engaged in the labour force. As with all international statistics, comparisons should be made with caution owing to differences in definitions of “actively engaged” (especially as regards women assisting without pay in family businesses), different methods of data collection, and the different age-structures of the populations.

CountryFemale Labour Force Participation Rate
Age Groups (Years)Female Population 15+
15–1920–2425–2930–4445+
Percentage
Japan (1970)35.770.845.155.446.250.9
United Kingdom (1971)55.760.143.053.032.739.9
Sweden (1970)29.353.349.049.828.237.3
United States (1970)29.256.145.448.334.740.6
Canada (1971)37.062.847.243.029.939.9
Australia (1971)52.158.639.142.423.137.1
New Zealand (1971)56.954.929.634.621.433.8
Source: ILO Year Book 1975.

Compared with the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand, the United States and Sweden report considerably lower participation rates by 15 to 19-year-old girls, reflecting the longer time spent in formal education. This trend is also appearing in New Zealand and may be expected to continue. There is a rather lower New Zealand participation rate in the 25 to 29 years age group and this may be due to the higher incidence of marriage, the higher New Zealand birth rates, and differing positions about child-care facilities. It seems apparent that the likely continued rise in the female labour force will be due mainly to the re-entry of married women after their children have reached school age.

Married women in the labour force have increased until, in 1976, 56.7 percent of the total female labour force consisted of married women.

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of the female labour force are given in the following table.

ItemCensus
19451956196619711976
Number of married women in labour force29 60662 033116 314166 472231 104
Percentage of female labour force17.732.041.549.956.7

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of all married women increased from 3.6 in 1936 to 32.6 in 1976.

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of all married women in the same age group are given in the next table.

Age (Years)Census
193619451956196619711976x
Percentage of Married Women in the Labour Force
16–195.718.218.523.530.340.3
20–244.317.419.426.734.344.0
25–293.710.311.715.820.728.8
30–343.68.011.316.424.331.5
35–393.68.413.921.831.841.7
40–443.98.716.626.935.346.3
45–494.47.817.527.735.944.2
50–544.26.115.525.230.737.8
55–594.24.610.818.522.025.4
60–642.82.55.29.511.211.4
65+1.61.01.62.12.42.4
All ages—
16+3.77.712.919.926.132.6

Participation of married women in the labour force may be said to follow this pattern—higher than average percentages below 25 years of age when the economic desirability of a second income in the purchase and furnishing of a home is likely to be at its greatest; lower than average percentages between 25 and 34 years when younger families are being cared for; higher than average percentages at 35–54 years when family responsibilities have diminished; and lower than average percentages at 55 years and beyond when retirement causes increasing withdrawals from the labour force.

The increasing tendency for women to continue in employment after marriage until the birth of the first child and to re-enter the labour force as family responsibilities lessen has been aided by a combination of factors, including the progressively younger ages at marriage, changing social attitudes particularly toward the role of married women, and possibly to a greater awareness and acceptance of family planning.

LEVEL OF EDUCATION ATTENDED—The 1976 Census of Population included a question on educational levels attended. Figures of educational levels attended by members of the labour force of 15 years of age and above, are given by occupation major group in the following table. Part-time members of the labour force (less than 20 hours weekly), are included in the relevant major group. It should be noted that each person is included under every applicable level, and so may be included more than once. For example, a person who proceeded through secondary school to a university, technical institute, or teachers college will be included under Secondary School and also under the appropriate tertiary institution. The final column, “Attendance at other tertiary levels”, covers the remaining vocational training institutions, including nursing schools, business and secretarial colleges, and professional institutes.

Occupation Major GroupEducation Level Attended
Secondary School (Form III Onwards)UniversityTechnical InstituteTeachers CollegeNo Attendance at Sec. School, Uni, Tech Inst or Teachers CollegeAttendance at Other Tertiary Levels

*Includes related workers.

†Not engaged in any paid employment.

Males
Professional, technical*102 88952 63633 06219 4982 44811 780
Administrative and managerial workers34 3367 2438 0438623 5172 509
Clerical*63 2948 20810 1881 4867 4263 290
Sales workers70 6826 32710 8931 1539 3803 023
Service workers40 8363 0165 4389137 4989 601
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters88 9876 2136 30587021 4672 039
Production*, transport equipment operators, and labourers335 7238 13681 3733 46467 1819 156
New workers seeking employment1 687594062410
Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described9 6475847301434 483144
Workers not reporting any occupation7595735191988
Not applicable119 27222 6567 5682 40488 1182 394
                Total868 112115 135163 67530 818211 74043 954
Females
Professional, technical*84 87724 2188 58731 0261 85733 663
Administrative and managerial workers2 905368262208365225
Clerical*143 1556 34715 3344 8429 4558 867
Sales workers48 4891 2852 0011 2639 7011 568
Service workers55 6881 8153 2301 41514 0193 040
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters22 7951 0528171 5723 6911 245
Production*, transport equipment operators and labourers57 0309091 84091214 5851 170
New workers seeking employment2 552416993031
Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described5 2022041851361 633113
Workers not reporting any occupation5602322227812
Not applicable426 39127 24917 33823 537205 27720 242
                Total849 64463 51149 68564 942260 69170 176

WORKING LIFE EXPECTANCIES—A table of working life displays the manner in which rates of participation in, entry to, and withdrawal from, the labour force vary with age for the given population group. Also included are expectancies of future working life and retirement life, assuming that the rates displayed in the table continue unchanged. The main applications of these tables are to economic and social studies relating to large groups of people. Individuals frequently do not conform to group patterns and, therefore, applications of any statistics from the tables must be made with caution.

Abridged tables of working life for males and females, based on labour force data from the 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings and the 1970–72 Life Tables (Total Population), are now given.

Exact Age (Years)Percentage of Population in Labour ForceNumber in Labour Force, per 100 000 Live BirthsChanges in the Labour Force in the Following 5 Years of Age, per 100 000 Live BirthsExpectation of Work Life of Person in Labour Force (Years)Expectation of Retirement Life of Person in Labour Force (Years)
Total Entries*Total Withdrawals

*Entries of females into the labour force below the horizontal line are secondary entries by those who withdrew at younger ages for family formation.

†The working life expectancies for females allow for the possibility of a second spell of labour force membership after a period of non-membership due to family formation.

‡Difference between life expectancy and working life expectancy.

§These are withdrawals at all ages 80 and above.

Males
1582 37546646.78.7
2084.881 90911 14671042.08.8
2596.492 3451 96762837.38.9
3098.493 68433171732.58.9
3598.893 298151 05527.89.0
4098.892 258 1 90923.19.1
4598.490 3493 40218.59.2
5097.386 9476 04214.19.2
5595.080 90515 26710.09.4
6083.565 63829 4736.59.2
6552.436 16522 2164.87.8
7024.713 9499 5954.25.6
7510.54 3543 0633.83.6
805.11 2911 291§3.22.4
Females
1588 10718 36618.243.0
2071.569 7416 61139 54316.240.1
2537.836 8091 61812 29922.129.4
3026.926 1288 6343 25125.221.5
3532.631 5116 8942 11422.619.3
4037.936 2913 1261 26618.818.3
4540.338 1511 8034 27614.418.2
5038.435 6786247 68910.717.4
5531.728 6131019 9928.015.9
6021.618 72210 1945.714.0
6510.58 5285 1935.011.0
704.63 3352 2254.48.0
751.81 1107624.05.4
800.8348348§3.13.6

Chapter 35. Section 33; WAGES

Table of Contents

GENERAL—For many years the basis for determination of wages and salaries for the majority of employees has been a system of conciliation and arbitration supplemented by general wage orders. About half of New Zealand's wage and salary earners are subject to awards and collective agreements falling under the jurisdiction of the Industrial Relations Act 1973.

The State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977 retained the principle of fair relativity prescribed in the superseded 1969 Act, and other measures introduced in the Wage Adjustment Regulations which more closely aligned State and private sector procedures were incorporated, for example, the negotiation of pay and conditions of State employees in “blocks” at intervals of no less than 12 months, and procedures for dealing with disputes of rights. A State Services Co-ordinating Committee was established under the 1969 Act as the principal coordinating body for Government and as the main official negotiating body on issues having significant inter-service or “across the board” application. Hospital and education services committees have been appointed to conduct negotiations on matters affecting respectively the hospital service alone and the education service (teachers) alone. There is a Public Sector Tribunal, under the chairmanship of a Judge of the Arbitration Court, to hear appeals by employee organisations, and also a Government Service Tribunal, a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, a Post Office Staff Tribunal, and a Hospital Service Tribunal. The chairman of the Public Sector Tribunal is also chairman of these single-service tribunals.

Pay and allowances for the Armed Services are prescribed by the Secretary of Defence in accordance with provisions of the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977. A Police Staff Tribunal, established under the Police Act 1958, makes orders as to the remuneration and conditions of service of members of the Police.

A significant feature of recent years has been the exceptionally high rate of both price rises and wage and salary increases. Average weekly earnings have increased at 3 times or more the average annual rate of 4.8 percent for the 10 years prior to 1970. Following the 1970 experience of a rise of 13.6 percent, consideration of deflationary measures began with discussions between the Government and representatives of the Employers' Federation and the Federation of Labour with a view to slowing down the accelerated trade-by-trade leap-frogging which was occurring with wage bargaining. These discussions showed that the relativities issue was but one aspect of a total problem contributing to the inflationary spiral. Attention then turned to positive wage and salary stabilisation as part of an overall stabilisation programme and on 25 March 1971 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act was passed. This Act stipulated that new awards and agreements had to remain in force for at least 12 months and established an independent Remuneration Authority to administer certain arrangements under the Act. The Remuneration Authority continued to operate until December 1972, although in April 1972 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act was superseded by the Remuneration Regulations.

After the abolition of the Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations in December 1972 there was a return to free collective bargaining within the framework of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954. However, in response to increasing pressure on the level of wage settlements during the early part of 1973, direct Government intervention in the wage-fixing process was again deemed necessary and the Economic Stabilisation Regulations became effective on 10 August 1973. Under the regulations a partial wage pause until June 1974 was introduced with a Wages Tribunal being established to deal with various administrative aspects of the regulations, including the settlement of wage relativity anomalies caused by the regulations.

Following the expiry of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations on 30 June 1974, and in response to continued inflationary pressures within the economy, the Government introduced long-term wage stabilisation measures. The Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 became effective on 1 July 1974 and formed an integral part of a much wider economic stabilisation policy.

In their original form the Wage Adjustment Regulations represented a significantly less restrictive and more flexible wage control system than that previously operating; one of the major relaxations was a return to free collective bargaining for wages and conditions of employment. However, subsequent amendments to the regulations, particularly changes made in 1976, greatly tightened the criteria under which increases in remuneration might exceed those general adjustments prescribed under the regulations. Restrictions were eased by a further amendment in August 1977. A modicum of free bargaining was allowed provided the existing wage rates had been in force for at least 12 months.

GENERAL WAGE ORDERS—Following the re-establishment of the Arbitration Court under the Industrial Relations Amendment Act 1977, the General Wage Orders Act 1969 was consolidated and amended to form the General Wage Orders Act 1977, which came into force on 17 April 1978.

The general purpose of the Act is to provide for the making from time to time by the Arbitration Court of a just and equitable review of rates of remuneration in awards and collective agreements. The Court is required to give paramount importance to the promotion of the economic stability of New Zealand, but other considerations to be borne in mind include the maintenance and promotion of Living standards, the promotion of industrial harmony, export promotion, the maintenance of full employment, and movements in the Consumers Price Index and in relative income levels.

The General Wage Orders Act 1969 was previously suspended by the Wage Adjustment Regulations gazetted in June 1974. Prior to this the Act had been suspended during the currency of the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971 and later by the Economic Stabilisation Regulations in August 1973. However, a 1976 amendment to the Wage Adjustment Regulations provided for the making of a “wage order” on the basis of criteria similar to those of the General Wage Orders Act 1969 and, as described later in this section, such an order was made in March 1977.

Historically, general wage orders have been the principal source of a large number of general adjustments made to salary and wage payments in the economy. Before 1970, general wage orders were made by the Court of Arbitration under the authority of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1953. In recent years the empowering legislation has been the General Wage Orders Act 1969; and, following the enactment of the Industrial Relations Act 1973, responsibility for making such orders was placed on the Industrial Commission.

Amendment 9 to the Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974, dated May 1976, made provision for the establishment of a Wage Hearing Tribunal. On the application of the New Zealand Federation of Labour or the New Zealand Employers' Federation Inc., the tribunal was empowered to make an order simultaneously amending the rates of remuneration prescribed in awards and collective agreements. Wage increases authorised under the stabilisation legislation between 1971 and 1977 are shown on a later page in this section.

General wage orders from 1964 have been as follows:

Date of OrderEffective DateIncrease in Minimum Wage Rates

*Application limited to first $40 a week for male workers, $30 for female workers and $25 for junior workers. Earlier, in June 1968, after a general wage order hearing, the Court had decided not to issue a general wage order.

†Limited to 57 per week, i.e., 7 percent on first $100 of weekly income.

  percent
19 August 196410 September 19646
10 November 19661 December 1966
5 August 196819 August 19685*
3 November 197023 November 19703
4 July 197817 July 19787

INCOME STABILISATION—Stabilisation of Remuneration—On 25 March 1971 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971 was passed. This act, among other things, limited the renegotiation of new agreements affecting remuneration to a minimum period of 12 months (subject to certain exceptions), and generally aimed to restrict the annual increase in such agreements to a maximum of 7 percent. In addition, a Remuneration Authority was established to administer certain arrangements under the Act.

Under the Act the Remuneration Authority was required to make cost of living orders as soon as possible after the Consumers Price Index has been prepared by the Government Statistician for the quarters ended 30 June 1971 and 31 December 1971. Two orders were made by the Remuneration Authority—the first of 4.8 percent applying from 21 July 1971, and the second of 9.1 percent (including the order of 4.8 percent) applying from 31 January 1972. The orders applied automatically to all awards and agreements which, based on the rate of 1 January 1971, had not changed.

As from 1 April 1972 increases in pay were subject to the Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations 1972, which were made under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948. The Remuneration Authority continued to operate until 17 December 1972 when it was discontinued with the change in Government.

In accordance with a provision made by the Government, a cost-of-living order of 4.2 percent was made by the Remuneration Authority following publication of the Consumers Price Index for the September 1972 quarter. The order applied automatically from 26 October 1972 to minimum rates in awards and industrial agreements as at 1 February 1972, and by agreement between the parties, could be applied to other rates of pay.

As with the orders made under the 1971 Act, negotiated increases effective from February 1972 were offset against the order. But increases approved by the authority explicitly on the grounds of productivity not involving price increases were not to be offset.

Economic Stabilisation Regulations—Following the abolition of the Remuneration Authority in December 1972, New Zealand experienced a return to free collective bargaining during the earlier part of 1973. However, in response to the high level of wage and salary increases in the period of free bargaining, deflationary measures were considered necessary and resulted in the promulgation of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1973. These regulations became effective on 10 August 1973, the section relating to wages being designed to expire on or before 30 June 1974.

The main features of the regulations are now covered.

All instruments in force at the date of making of the regulations were to continue in force without amendment until the expiry of the regulations. All new instruments made subsequent to 10 August 1973 were to cover a period of not less than 12 months.

A wage adjustment order of 8.5 percent, up to a maximum of $5.80 per week, was introduced to be applied to all rates payable under any award or industrial agreement. The increase could also be applied to other rates of pay by agreement between the parties concerned. However, this order was to be offset by any increase effected during the period 1 February to 10 August 1973 (inclusive). The application of the wage adjustment order to State employees was limited to 6.2 percent up to a maximum of $4.60 per week.

A Wages Tribunal was established to remove or relieve any serious anomalies created by the regulations. Provision was also made for the tribunal to consider applications for wage increases on the basis of productivity gains.

Under the regulations a further wage adjustment order effective from 11 February 1974 was made on the basis of movements in the Consumers Price Index during 6 months ended 31 December 1973. The amount was 2.7 percent based on a 4.7 percent rise in the index over the period abated by 2 percent.

Wage Adjustment Regulations—Subsequent to the expiry of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations on 30 June 1974, a new long-term wage stabilisation policy became effective. The Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 provided for the control and adjustment of salaries and wages in both the private and State sectors and, as well, delineated specific guidelines for the control of special salaries such as those of members of Parliament and senior employees in the State services, public bodies, and local authorities.

Upon introduction the Wage Adjustment Regulations created an initial round of adjustment in 3 distinct tiers. The first of these provided for a general wage adjustment of 9 percent, effective from 1 July 1974, applying automatically to the rates of remuneration payable on 30 June 1974 under all awards and collective agreements. Its application to other types of industrial instruments (such as ruling rates or house agreements) was subject to agreement between the parties to the instrument concerned. State employees and officers of public bodies and local authorities automatically received the 9 percent order but the salaries of members of Parliament were specifically excluded from its scope. The general increase applied to every payment expressly stated in money terms, including piece rates and allowances.

In addition to the wage adjustment order the regulations restored freedom for a majority of those groups in the State and private sectors to negotiate a supplementary increase of up to 2.25 percent of the rate of remuneration payable on 30 June 1974. Members of Parliament and specific groups in the higher salaries category were excluded from this provision. Freedom for all groups to negotiate improvements in conditions of employment (such as sick leave, annual holidays, etc.) was restored.

The third tier of wage adjustment contained in the regulations enabled parties to negotiate wage and salary increases beyond the 2.25 percent limit, subject to the consent of the Industrial Commission or other appropriate wage-fixing tribunal.

As first introduced, the Wage Adjustment Regulations also empowered the Industrial Commission to grant cost-of-living increases (based on movements in the Consumers Price Index) at intervals of not less than 6 months. The filing of applications for such orders was restricted to a central organisation (i.e., the Employers' Federation or the Federation of Labour) or to the Minister of Labour. All groups covered by the regulations received the cost-of-living orders, although in the private sector their application was subject to the same conditions that applied to the general wage adjustment of 30 June 1974.

In addition to the provision for making cost-of-living orders, the Wage Adjustment Regulations established a Higher Salaries Commission; its functions include the determination of salaries and allowances of members of Parliament, the salary of the highest paid executive officer of each of a number of corporations and other public bodies, salaries of the highest paid officers of local authorities, and the salaries of certain university positions.

The Industrial Commission (private sector) and the State Services Tribunal (public sector) were vested with the authority to approve wage increases in order to remove or relieve any “serious anomalies”.

Since their promulgation the Wage Adjustment Regulations have been the subject of considerable amendment. The major amendments have been as follows: Amendment 3 provided for the first cost-of-living adjustment to be applied as from 15 January 1975: the amount was 4 percent on the first $75 of gross weekly earnings.

The main purposes of Amendment 4 were to absorb the 15 January cost-of-living order into a new cost-of-living order and to extend the coverage of the regulations to individual worker/employer instruments. Under this amendment every ordinary time rate of remuneration lawfully payable on 14 January 1975 was increased on and from 9 July 1975 by 11 cents per hour or $4.40 per week or $230 per year as appropriate. Piece rates were increased by 4.5 percent. In contrast to earlier provisions, the 2.25 percent free bargaining margin was negotiable on the 14 January 1975 rate, as increased by the application of the 9 July cost-of-living order.

A third cost-of-living order was made under Amendment 7. As from 27 January 1976 rates of remuneration payable in any award or collective agreement as at 26 January were increased by 9 cents per hour or $3.60 per week or $188 a year as appropriate. The second tier of the regulations, which enabled parties to negotiate a further 2.25 percent in addition to general adjustments, was removed.

Amendments 9 and 10, introduced in May and June 1976 respectively, substantially amended the Wage Adjustment Regulations. From a wage bargaining viewpoint, the net effect of these 2 amendments was to considerably tighten the conditions under which wage increases could be obtained. In summary form, Amendments 9 and 10 provided for—

  1. A cost-of-living order of 7 percent to a maximum of $7 per week or $365 in any one year. Application was to all taxable earnings and the order was effective on and from 25 June 1976.

  2. The establishment of a Wage Hearing Tribunal with power to make an order effecting a general wage increase under similar criteria to those of the General Wage Orders Act 1969.

  3. A change in the definition of “remuneration” to include conditions of employment such as paid leave (sick leave, annual holidays, etc.)

  4. A further tightening in the criteria under which the parties to an industrial instrument could negotiate, and have approved, wage increases in excess of those provided for by general orders. Under the “exceptional circumstances” clause employers and workers are required to make a joint application to the appropriate wage fixing authority when seeking approval to increase rates of remuneration payable under any industrial instrument. Increases in remuneration can also gain approval if they form part of a new genuine productivity agreement or are matters specifically deferred until the next renegotiation of the instrument.

  5. Continued freedom to negotiate reimbursing payments and conditions of employment not involving rates of remuneration. Coincident with Amendment 9 to the Wage Adjustment Regulations, separate regulations were introduced to “freeze” professional charges and to limit directors fees and company distributions to shareholders for a period of 12 months.

In November 1976 the Federation of Labour lodged an application for a wage order to be made under the Wage Adjustment Regulations. Following a series of hearings from interested parties, the Wage Hearing Tribunal made a General Wage Order for a 6 percent increase on basic rates applicable from 14 March 1977.

Wage increases authorised under the stabilising legislation are summarised as follows:

AuthorityEffective DateRate of Increase

*This increase absorbed that effective from 21 July 1971.

†Limited to 2.8 percent for State employees.

‡Maximum $5.80 per week, application to State employees limited to 6.2 percent (maximum $4.60 per week).

§A supplementary increase of 2.25 percent could be negotiated.

||On first $75 of gross weekly earnings.

¶$4.40 per week, $230 per year. Piece rates increased by 4.5 percent. A supplementary increase of 2.25 percent could be negotiated.

**Cost-of-living allowance which applies each time the rate of remuneration changes. Maximum $7 per week.

††Applies to rates of ordinary pay only, not to cost-of-living allowances.

Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 197121 Jul 19714.8 percent
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 197131 Jan 19729.1 percent*
Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations 197226 Oct 19724.2 percent
Economic Stabilisation Regulations 197311 Aug 19738.5 percent
Economic Stabilisation Regulations 197311 Feb 19742.7 percent
Wage Adjustment Regulations 19741 Jul 19749.0 percent§
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197415 Jan 19754.0 percent||
Wage Adjustment Regulations 19749 Jul 197511.0 cents per hour
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197427 Jan 19769.0 cents per hour
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197425 Jun 19767.0 percent**
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197414 Mar 19776.0 percent††

The regulations were again substantially amended in August 1977 when the general freeze on increases in rates of remuneration ceased. Existing rates of remuneration could be amended provided they had been in force for 12 months; and new rates of remuneration set after 14 August 1977 were to remain in force for 12 months. The 6 percent General Wage Order effective from 14 March 1977 and the 7 percent cost-of-living allowance effective from 25 June 1976 could be absorbed into rates of remuneration when negotiation of a new award or collective agreement was carried out.

As described in section 34, dealing with industrial relations, under the Industrial Relations Amendment Act 1977 the Industrial Commission was abolished and a new Arbitration Court established, among the functions of which was the making of general wage orders. In March 1978 the Federation of Labour lodged an application for a general wage order under the General Wage Orders Act 1977. The Court made a general wage order authorising an increase of 7 percent with a limit of $7 per week, i.e., 7 percent on the first $100 of weekly income.

EQUAL PAY—The Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Equal Pay (Parliamentary Paper H.54 1971) was tabled in Parliament in September 1971. An Equal Pay Act giving effect, in the main, to the commission's recommendations was passed in October 1972. It provided for the phasing in of equal pay in 5 annual steps, ending in 1978, but an amendment to the Act in 1973 required the phasing in to be completed by 1977.

The Act was further amended in 1976 as a consequence of the recommendations made by the Equal Pay Review Committee. Among other things, an employer is required to keep a record of his equal pay determinations as well as to provide his employees, on request, with details of their entitlements under the Act. Full equal pay was to be implemented by not later than 1 April 1977.

WEEKLY EARNINGS—The Department of Labour carries out surveys at half-yearly intervals; returns are required from all establishments in which at least 2 persons (including working proprietors) are engaged. Government and local authority employment is included, but not farming, hunting, fishing, waterfront and seagoing work, or domestic service in private households. The armed forces are excluded.

The following table shows the average weekly payout per person (covering males and females, adult and juvenile) derived from this survey during the latest 5 years. Comparison is made with the weighted average nominal wage rate for adult males as used in the wage rates index covering rates prescribed by all determining authorities.

Date of SurveyWeekly Wage Payout per Person*Nominal Minimum Weekly Wage for Adult Males as at End of Preceding Month
Aggregate Payout Including Overtime for 1 week Divided by-Aggregate Ordinary-time Earnings Divided By Full-time and Half Part-time Employees
Full-time and Part-time EmployeesFull-time and Half Part-time Employees

*Including allowances and special payments (bonuses, penal and shift allowances, paid leave, and commission).

†Relates to adult males only up to and including 1977. From 1978 relates to all adult workers. Weighted average of the sample rates used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index.

 $$$$
1974—April80.89586.32477.07077.422
            October88.46994.87785.63387.000
1975—April94.388100.83691.60590.656
            October97.333104.20595.66295.559
1976—April104.994112.227102.835100.218
            October110.773118.809109.748106.665
1977—April120.538129.164118.165117.385x
            October123.906133.305124.000118.604x
1978—April132.754142.683132.176131.451
            October140.398151.252140.654141.448

HOURLY EARNINGS—In the following table average hourly earnings from the half-yearly surveys are shown; estimated average ordinary time worked by full-time employees has been obtained by dividing aggregate ordinary-time hours worked during one week by the sum of full-time employees plus half of the part-time employees; hence if there are any part-time workers the sum of the average ordinary-time hours and overtime hours will not be equal to the average time worked by full-time and part-time employees as shown in the last column.

DaleAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For: All Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary-Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For: Full-time and Pan-time Employees Combined
 $$$hourshourshours
1974—April2.0683.0002.13937.33.337.8
            October2.3043.2602.37237.23.137.3
1975—April2.4533.4822.52137.42.837.4
            October2.5683.6092.63037.22.537.0
1976—April2.7643.9842.83737.22.537.0
            October2.9474.0483.01037.22.436.8
1977—April3.1764.4013.25337.22.737.1
            October3.3394.5543.40237.12.236.4
1978—April3.5695.0273.64737.02.336.4
            October3.7885.2413.86337.12.236.3

The preceding table combines all industries. The following table shows a dissection by industrial groups of the last line of that table according to the major headings of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification. It relates to the October 1978 survey.

Industrial GroupAverage Hourly Earnings For All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For: All Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For: Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $$$hourshourshours
Forestry and logging3.4585.0483.56337.22.739.4
Mining and quarrying4.3145.4434.44737.45.042.0
Manufacturing—
    Seasonal food processing4.3995.6134.53134.44.338.2
    Other food, beverages and tobacco3.4664.8073.60136.54.437.6
    Textiles, clothing and leather3.2484.5813.30736.91.836.8
    Wood and wood products3.5255.1333.64137.63.039.4
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing4.1576.3704.33937.43.538.9
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics4.0285.2384.12637.83.439.9
    Non-metallic mineral products3.7865.3283.92838.24.041.2
    Metal products and engineering3.8745.3784.00037.73.540.2
    Machinery3.7595.4303.86837.82.739.6
    Electrical equipment3.6115.1233.68937.72.138.8
    Transport equipment3.8295.8243.97437.63.040.2
    Other manufacturing3.4034.6803.44437.51.336.8
                Sub-total3.8005.4153.92437.03.238.8
Electricity, gas, and water3.9295.4974.03037.62.639.7
Construction3.6355.0203.75839.13.842.9
Wholesale, retail, etc.—
    Wholesale trade3.9374.8173.96438.11.237.7
    Retail trade3.1314.2973.16836.61.531.7
    Restaurants, hotels, etc.3.1864.3683.23432.62.423.9
                Sub-total3.4534.4963.48736.51.532.0
Transport and communication—
    Transport and storage3.9875.5464.15138.04.641.5
    Communication3.4755.4583.57439.32.239.9
                Sub-total3.7815.5263.92838.53.640.9
Financing, insurance, etc.—
    Finance3.9704.8353.98038.10.537.2
    Insurance4.3696.2784.37937.50.236.5
    Real estate and business services4.1285.4034.14736.60.634.1
                Sub-total4.1105.2644.12437.30.535.6
Community and personal services—
    Government services (not elsewhere classified)4.1505.2944.17837.20.937.3
    Sanitary services, etc.3.2424.7113.29032.42.321.9
    Education services4.1614.4294.16235.80.133.2
    Research and scientific institutes4.8095.3724.81737.10.537.0
    Health services3.8724.8013.89737.61.233.3
    Other community services3.7264.8613.74736.00.930.3
    Recreational services4.1535.6524.22533.92.229.0
    Personal and household services3.2114.7833.26837.91.536.5
                Sub-total3.9305.0053.95336.70.933.8
                Total, all surveyed industries3.7885.2413.86337.12.236.3

NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE RATES—A revised Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index was introduced in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for January-February 1979. The revised index, which is shown in the following table, represents the movements in all minimum or mandatory rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court or any special industrial tribunal or determined from time to time by some statutory authority. It covers all adult male and female employees, whereas the index it replaced related to adult males only. In selecting the occupations to be used for measuring wage and salary rate changes regard has been paid to all significant awards, agreements and determinations and the more important occupations (from the point of view of numbers employed) described by these documents. The index covers 284 awards and agreements within the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court (Part 1 of the Index) with 461 selected occupations from these awards and agreements. For other agreements and determinations within the jurisdiction of other industrial tribunals and determining authorities (Part 2 of the Index) 210 occupations have been selected.

The awards and agreements used in Part 1 define only the legal minimum rates of pay, although in many cases, particularly with industrial agreements, these are the rates actually paid. On the other hand most of the rates used in Part 2 are normally mandatory.

The following factors were taken into account in selecting the representative awards and agreements:

  1. The numbers of workers covered by the respective awards and agreements. All of the more important awards and agreements—so far as numbers of workers covered are concerned— are included in the index;

  2. The industrial coverage. The selection of awards and agreements appropriate for the various narrowly defined industry groups ensures that each industry is represented by its own award or agreement, or that for a closely related industry; and

  3. The geographic coverage. Not all district awards or agreements could be used but a balanced representation of the major industrial districts was obtained.

The new index is much wider in scope than the old index it replaced. Because of this, any linking of the 2 indexes for the purpose of measuring long-term trends in nominal wage and salary rates must suffer some limitations. Nevertheless some such measure is required and linked series at All Groups level have been supplied back to the December quarter 1975. These are shown in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

The following table shows the industry and occupation grouping of the revised index. The industry grouping conforms to the Production Groups of the New Zealand System of National Accounts, and the occupation groups are major groups of the New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations. It is not therefore possible to link the groups between the old and the new series.

The use of standard production groups means that the classification is consistent with National Accounts, the General Price Index, and the Integrated Economic Census series. The integration of these statistics should improve the usefulness of all of them.

The revised index is calculated for rates existing at the middle of a quarter, that is at 15 February, 15 May, 15 August or 15 November.

NOTE: Index numbers in the following table were correct at the time of going to press but, because of the possible incorporation of retrospective increases in wage and salary rates in awards, collective agreements, and determinations, they may be subject to later revisions. They may be checked against the appropriate table in the latest Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

INDEX NUMBERS OF NOMINAL WEEKLY WAGE RATES—ADULT EMPLOYEES*
Base: For each group, average rates ruling for December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
GroupDec Quarter 19771978Dec Year 1978
Mar QuarterJun QuarterSep QuarterDec Quarter

*Comparisons of the index numbers for one grouping of rates with those for other groupings indicate relative movements in average rates in the different groups, not relative levels of average rates of wages and salaries. Because of possible retrospective increases in the wage or salary rates in forthcoming awards, collective agreements or determinations, etc., the more recent index numbers should be treated as provisional.

†These indexes measure changes in the rates (minimum and mandatory) within the jurisdiction of the stated wages and salary determining authorities.

‡Derived in each case by dividing the nominal (or money) Wage Rate Index Number by the corresponding Consumers Price Index Number and multiplying by 1000. See following paragraph.

Part 1—Rates within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court
Industry Group      
Agriculture100010151018126612671142
Fishing and hunting100010421053118111811114
Forestry and logging100010681074113811511108
Mining and quarrying100010271062118012001117
Food, beverages, and tobacco100010171072114911861106
Textiles, apparel and leather100010601080115211581112
Wood and wood products100010661070113711391103
Paper, printing and publishing100010251049112511381084
Chemicals, petroleum and plastics100010471052112111751099
Non-metallic mineral products100010471082116911871121
Basic metals100010321041110111991093
Machinery and metal products100010211033109811641079
Other manufacturing100010291079114811541102
Electricity, gas, and water100010291046110011461080
Construction100010731081114811591115
Trade, restaurants and hotels100010711096116812141137
Transport and storage100010481060116711761113
Communication..................
Insurance and financing100010271062112911451091
Community and personal services100010241031112211581084
Central Government100010591069113311361099
Local Government100010191042109410981063
Private non-profit services100010231030109611061064
                All industries combined100010431064114511751107
Occupation Group      
Professional, technical and related workers100010261056112611421088
Administrative and managerial100010301063112811281087
Clerical and related workers100010621083114611481110
Sales workers100010941097116512431150
Service workers100010641065115211741114
Agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters100010121026124712501134
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers100010311056113211681097
                All occupations combined100010431064114511751107
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups100010231016106710671044
Part 2—Rates Prescribed by Other Industrial Tribunals or Determining Authorities
Industry Group      
Agriculture100010001019105310531031
Fishing and hunting..................
Forestry and logging100010001000105310531026
Mining and quarrying100010001000105210801033
Food, beverages, and tobacco..................
Textiles, apparel, and leather..................
Wood and wood products100010001000104510451022
Paper, printing, and publishing100010001003104710471024
Chemicals, petroleum, and plastics100010001006119311931098
Non-metallic mineral products..................
Basic metals..................
Machinery and metal products100010001000105010501025
Other manufacturing..................
Electricity, gas, and water100010001002104110411021
Construction100010001000104610461023
Trade, restaurants and hotels100010001002104910491025
Transport and storage100010511053110011001076
Communication100010001005104810481025
Insurance and financing100010001005104310431023
Community and personal services100010001000103510351018
Central Government100010001004104310461023
Local Government..................
Private non-profit services..................
                All industries combined100010051008104910511028
Occupation Group..................
Professional, technical, and related workers100010001002104110411021
Administrative and managerial100010001030105510551035
Clerical and related workers100010001006104910491026
Sales workers100010001003103910391020
Service workers100010001000103910641026
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters100010001018106410641036
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers100010281028107710781053
                All occupations combined100010051008104910511028
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups1000985963978955970
Part 3—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of all Determining Authorities
Industry Group      
Agriculture100010151018126112631139
Fishing and hunting100010421053118111811114
Forestry and logging100010321035109311001065
Mining and quarrying100010121028111011351071
Food, beverages, and tobacco100010171072114911861106
Textiles, apparel, and leather100010601080115211581112
Wood and wood products100010661069113611371102
Paper, printing, and publishing100010241047112111331081
Chemicals, petroleum, and plastics100010471052112111751099
Non-metallic mineral products100010471082116911871121
Basic metals100010321041110111991093
Machinery and metal products100010201031109411561075
Other manufacturing100010291079114811541102
Electricity, gas, and water100010211034108311161064
Construction100010511057111811261088
Trade, restaurants and hotels100010711096116812131137
Transport and storage100010491058113511401096
Communication100010001005104810481025
Insurance and financing100010211048110811211074
Community and personal services100010201026110911381073
Central Government100010031008104810511028
Local Government100010191042109410981063
Private non-profit services100010231030109611061064
                All industries combined100010291043111011301078
Occupation Group      
Professional, technical, and related workers100010031010105210541030
Administrative and managerial100010101041107810781052
Clerical and related workers100010351049110311041073
Sales workers100010911094116112361146
Service workers100010411042111211351082
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters100010101024121512171116
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers100010301052112411541090
                All occupations combined100010291043111011301079x
Index of Effective Rates—All Groups10001009996103410261018x

EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES—The index numbers quoted in the foregoing tables relate to nominal weekly wage rates only—that is, they are based on actual or equivalent money rates without any allowance being made for changes during the period under review in the prices of those goods and services which are purchased out of wages earned. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance, for a rise in wage rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing power of money. Index numbers of effective (or “real”) wage rates are arrived at by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices (both series of index numbers having first been set on a common time base) and multiplying the result by the base value of 1000.

The following table accordingly shows a comparison of nominal and effective weekly wage rates of adult male* workers. The base of the index numbers is in each case December quarter 1977 (= 1000).

YearConsumer Prices (All Groups)Nominal Weekly-Wage Rates Adult Males*Effective Weekly Wage Rates Adult Males*
*From 1978 the index covers all adult workers.
19725145171 006
19735565781 040
19746186571 063
19757087471 055
19768288351 008
19779479491 002
19781 0601 079x1 018x

The continuous index of consumer prices required for the foregoing table has been obtained by linking together the successive series of the Consumers Price Index and converting the whole to the base: December quarter 1977 (= 1000).

In making use of these results it should not be overlooked that the index numbers of nominal rates apply only to full-time employment at award or mandatory rates of pay. They do not take into account either, on the one hand, above-award rates or overtime earnings, or on the other, short-time deductions. Nor do the consumer prices index numbers take cognisance of all classes of household expenditure; income tax, charitable and other gifts, overseas travel, domestic help, etc., are omitted (see section 23).

MINIMUM WAGE—Enforceable minimum wage rates are determined under various statutes, the most universally applicable being the Minimum Wage Act 1945. This Act provides that workers of age 20 years and upwards must receive not less than the rates prescribed under the Act. In the great majority of cases, however, workers are subject to wage orders, awards, or industrial agreements relating to the particular industries in which they are employed and which provide somewhat higher enforceable minimum rates. The minimum wage for males is currently set at a rate which is lower than the standard rate for unskilled labour.

As from 17 July 1978 the minimum rates for all workers (male or female) became 186c an hour if paid by the hour or on piecework, $14.76 a day if paid by the day, and $73.75 a week in other cases. On and after 1 April 1977, minimum rates for female workers became the same as for males.

FARM EMPLOYEES—The numbers of paid permanent employees on farms at 30 June 1976 and the aggregate totals of salaries and wages (including bonuses) paid during the year ended 30 June 1976 are shown by types of farm in the following table. The table does not include paid part-time employees (of whom there were 9458 at 30 June 1976) or paid casual employees, of whom there were 9469 at the same date.

Farm Type**Paid Permanent Employees on 30 June 1976Salaries and Wages Year Ended 30 June 1976
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

*Gross income of 75 percent or more is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first-named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

||More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

**These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

   $(000)$(000)
Dairy farming*4 16781719,0492,014
Sheep farming*4 99454021,424931
Beef farming*497742,310144
Pig farming*262171,37458
Cropping*1752081227
Dairy farming with sheep1734379192
Dairy farming with beef21044986102
Dairy farming with other1012245741
Sheep farming with dairy39516713
Sheep farming with beef3 93030317,215535
Sheep farming with cropping491632,03691
Sheep farming with other1511166322
Beef farming with dairy27515311
Beef farming with sheep539382,28572
Beef farming with other4131775
Cropping with sheep326211,35747
Cropping with other3952055
Pig farming with other49320210
Mixed livestock1 9481618,690309
General mixed farming§556502,563115
Poultry farming||3901591,888512
Market gardening and flowers||5621382,736488
Orchards||8851334,589481
Tobacco growing||140111784324
Nurseries||5993372,9361,022
Plantations||2 8505214,178198
Other farming734703,789247
                Total, all farm types24 8753 245113,8177,914

Chapter 36. Section 34; INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND WORKING CONDITIONS

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The rules underlying the New Zealand system of industrial relations have traditionally been embodied in legislation. In the private sector, statutes confer bargaining rights on certain registered/recognised organisations and specify various procedures for the conduct of negotiations. Various institutions are also available to assist the parties in resolving their differences.

RULES GOVERNING INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS—The main body of rules covering industrial relations in the private sector is contained in the Industrial Relations Act 1973. By a process of registration, unions secure bargaining rights for the class of workers they represent, and also access to various procedures for the settlement of disputes associated with the renegotiation of the collective agreement (disputes of interest) and its subsequent application (disputes of right).

In the case of disputes of interest, the emphasis is on the parties reaching a settlement through the processes of collective bargaining. The parties may agree to negotiate a voluntary settlement of the dispute. Alternatively, either party may apply for the dispute to proceed through the more orthodox conciliation and arbitration channels. It should be stressed that the applicant may, at any time, withdraw his claims from conciliation. Moreover, the Arbitration Court may refuse to arbitrate (i.e., make an award) if it considers that the parties have not made a genuine attempt to settle in conciliation.

In the case of disputes of right, the emphasis is on their peaceful resolution, and accordingly the process of arbitration is rather more in evidence. The disputes proceed through a system of disputes committees chaired by an independent person who may either make a decision in the event of the parties failing to agree or refer the matter to the Arbitration Court for a decision. Personal grievance issues proceed directly to the Court for a decision in the event of the parties failing to agree.

The Act provides for the registration and enforcement of collective agreements. An agreement so registered is binding on the immediate parties to it (and their members). Additionally, an agreement arrived at through the process of conciliation, or an award of the Court, automatically binds any person who subsequently becomes connected with or engaged in the industry to which it relates.

Separate enactments cover bargaining relationships in the agriculture sector, on the waterfront, and in the aircrew services.

INSTITUTIONS: The Arbitration Court—The 1973 Industrial Relations Act split the functions of the old Court of Arbitration between 2 new bodies: the Industrial Commission and the Industrial Court. The Industrial Commission assumed responsibility for the registering of settlements as collective agreements and for the making of awards. The Industrial Court was given jurisdiction for the settlement of disputes of right referred to it under the Act.

Under the Industrial Relations Amendment Act 1977, the functions of the Commission and Court were once more merged. The body responsible for the exercise of the merged functions is the Arbitration Court. The establishment of the Court was associated with moves to achieve, by means of a common membership, consistency in the decisions of the various wage fixing tribunals.

The constitution of the Court varies according to the matters before it and the wishes of the parties. The full Court comprises 5 persons: 1 Judge and 2 sets of members, nominated by the Employers' Federation and the Federation of Labour. The full Court is limited to hearing disputes of interest and then only at the request of 1 or both of the parties. In all other circumstances, the Court comprises 3 persons: being 1 Judge and 1 set of nominated members. An establishment of 3 Judges (with jurisdiction over other wage fixing tribunals) together with 2 sets of nominated members creates the possibility of 2 courts and 1 tribunal (or 1 court and 2 tribunals) sitting simultaneously.

The Court has jurisdiction for the settlement of disputes of interest and the making of awards and for the settlement and determination of disputes of right. The Court also has jurisdiction for making general wage orders under the General Wage Order Act 1977. More specifically the Court may:

  1. hear and determine any question connected with the construction of any award or collective agreement;

  2. hear and determine any question connected with the construction of the Industrial Relations Act or any Act relating to industrial matters;

  3. make an order determining the rights of parties under any award or collective agreement;

  4. order compliance with any award or collective agreement;

  5. make an order determining the validity of any award or collective agreement (this power was not in the 1973 Act and is designed to cope with situations in which a union negotiates an agreement which covers workers who are not covered by its membership rule);

  6. hear and determine enforcement and recovery actions;

  7. hear and determine appeals from disputes committees;

  8. hear and determine matters referred to the Court relating to the grievance procedure;

  9. hear and determine questions relating to the registration and jurisdiction of unions;

  10. inquire into and determine questions relating to disputed elections.

The Industrial Conciliation Service—The New Zealand system of industrial relations has historically been governed by a formal system of conciliation and arbitration—and the Industrial Conciliation Service has long been an integral part of that system.

The service consists of conciliators appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister. The conciliator acts to convene conciliation councils for the hearing of disputes of interest, and to take any other steps considered advisable in reaching fair and amicable voluntary settlements of such disputes. More specifically, a conciliator sets dates for the hearing of disputes, appoints assessors to constitute the council, and calls or strikes out parties to a dispute. He is also responsible for recording and reporting the procedures of a conciliation to the Court and referring unsettled disputes to the Court for determination.

In practice, what does this mean? The conciliator really has 2 roles. During the formal proceedings he acts as a chairman. That is, he occasionally calls the council to order, ensures that they stick to the topic, and suggests the time for a break in the formal proceedings. It is during the break in formal proceedings that the conciliator really gets into action. He moves from one room to the other, listens to what each party is saying, drops hints, and makes suggestions. In short, he acts as a link between the parties and assists them in moving to common ground. Above all, he ensures that the negotiations keep going.

The Industrial Mediation Service—The mediation service is relatively new to the industrial relations scene. It was established by an amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1970.

The service consists of mediators appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister after consultation with the central organisations. A mediator acts to “assist employers, unions, and workers to carry out their responsibilities to establish and maintain harmonious industrial relations”. The mediator has no power to impose his services on the parties to a dispute and may merely offer his assistance. With the agreement of the parties however he may decide issues referred to him. The mediator is on no account to be involved in a dispute of interest while conciliation or arbitration proceedings are in progress.

Once involved in a dispute, the mediator's approach is, of necessity, a flexible one. As with the conciliator, his objective is to assist the parties in arriving at a settlement themselves. This involves getting the parties talking to one another, and keeping them talking. In certain circumstances, it might be appropriate for the mediator to request that the Minister appoint a compulsory conference, perhaps with himself as chairman with decision-making powers. At other times, it might be appropriate to get the parties together in an informal way as a prelude to more formal discussions.

The Industrial Relations Council—This is an advisory body comprising representatives at national level of employer organisations, worker organisations, and the Government, under the chairmanship of the Minister of Labour. The council provides permanent machinery for tripartite consultation on industrial affairs. Some specific matters to which the council gives consideration are: the formulation and implementation of manpower policies; the formulation of codes of practice relating to industrial relations; and ways and means of improving industrial relations, industrial organisations, and industrial welfare. Various sub-committees have been formed to consider a range of policy issues.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS—The New Zealand system of conciliation and arbitration is based on the voluntary registration of industrial unions and industrial associations. The Industrial Relations Act 1973 simplified and consolidated procedures developed over the years under the former Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. A sliding scale operates to determine the minimum number required to form a union depending on the number of industrial districts in which the union has coverage. A union of employers with coverage of up to 1 full industrial district is to have a minimum of 6 members or more than 75 percent of employers engaged in the industry in the area concerned who together employ more than 75 percent of the workers so engaged, with an absolute minimum of 3. A union of workers with coverage of up to 1 full industrial district is to have a minimum of 30 members or more than 50 percent of the total number of workers engaged in the industry in the area concerned, with an absolute minimum of 10 members. The prime minimum and the absolute minimum figures increase progressively with coverage of a greater number of industrial districts. If the membership of a union falls below the minimum requirements the union may be deregistered. The great majority of unions of workers and employers in the private enterprise field are registered under the Industrial Relations Act.

Further provisions of the Industrial Relations Act 1973 operate to deter multiple unionism and simplify the procedures for amalgamation of unions. It is hoped that this will give impetus to amalgamation of unions.

Restrictions on the exercise of welfare activities by unions have been removed and unions are able, subject to membership approval, to devote any percentage of subscription to welfare activities. A union may apply funds to futherance of political objects if this is decided by a secret ballot of members.

Awards and collective agreements may, by agreement of the parties or by wish of the majority of the workers concerned, contain a provision making membership of a union a condition of employment, but not so as to restrict an employer's right to engage a worker who at the time of engagement is not a member of the union.

UNIONS OF WORKERS—In the years subsequent to 1936, when changes in the law enabled national unions of workers to be formed and introduced compulsory membership of unions, 2 tendencies were visible. The first was the immediate creation of many new small unions, the number of unions jumping from 410 in 1935 to 499 in 1937, as many small groups of workers for the first time became unionised and secured an award. Later, a tendency for small unions to amalgamate into New Zealand unions became evident, so that the total number of unions declined at the same time as the number of larger unions increased. By 1942 the result of these changes was to leave the number and membership of the small unions little different from what they were in 1928, but substantially to increase the number of large unions, and to increase greatly their membership.

Compulsory unionism resulted in a great numerical strengthening of the existing unions with consequential increase in their financial strength, while the legislation enabling national unions to be formed helped to consolidate these gains: at the same time it resulted in the unionisation of many small groups of workers who were previously unorganised. Since 1962 the State has not imposed compulsory union membership.

The union movement remains diverse, with 292 separate registrations and some important unions and the professional associations outside it*. In size, the registered unions range from over 43 000 members down to 10, with many of them having fewer than 100. Amalgamation is proceeding and significant consolidation has occurred in recent years.

Most unions are still occupational, or craft-based, and the industry agreements that are becoming more common—especially at the informal bargaining level—require the co-operation of numerous unions.

The Act provides for a worker to seek a certificate of exemption from any union-membership provision on grounds of conscience.

Federation of Labour—The great increases in the membership of the trade unions brought about by compulsory unionism and the formation of national unions were factors facilitating the formation of the Federation of Labour in 1937 as an organisation representative of the trade union movement as a whole on a national basis.

The supreme authority of the Federation of Labour is the annual conference of delegates representing affiliated unions. Between conferences the business of the federation is carried on by a National Executive Committee and a National Council. The executive consists of the president, vice president, secretary, and 6 members elected directly by the conference. The National Council, which meets regularly twice a year, and at other times as required, consists of members of the National Executive and is representative of each local trades council. It is the governing body of the federation between meetings of the conference. The local organs of the federation are the local trades councils, 20 in number, and 1 trade union committee, to which all local unions and branches of unions affiliated to the Federation of Labour are entitled to send representatives. The trades councils meet once a month to carry on the local business of the federation and they maintain close contact with the National Executive by means of exchange of minutes of meetings. Within each district the trades council has local autonomy, but where any matter affects other districts the National Executive or the National Council usually deals with it.

*Mainly the State Services organisations, and the pulp and paper workers.

†The Engineers Union.

‡More than a dozen, for example, in the forest products agreements and in the Hurt Valley motor vehicle assembly plants agreement.

UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS—By registering, the employers secure all the rights of a union and can exercise them, with only minor differences, in the same manner as a union of workers.

Compulsory membership of unions does not apply to employers and in many cases their unions are maintained with a nominal membership.

Employers are more organised for negotiations with unions than figures of membership and the prevalence of local unions of employers might suggest. The New Zealand Employers Federation is the central organisation of employers and the chief co-ordinating body of employers in all matters of industrial relations and employment. It comprises 4 regional divisions (the Auckland Provincial, Wellington Regional, Canterbury, and Otago-Southland Employers Associations) plus national and North or South Island organisations that are admitted to membership of the Federation's General Council. There are nearly 70 in this latter category.

Individual company membership of the 4 regional divisions of the federation now exceeds 10 000, and these employers receive advice, assistance, and representation from the associations' specialist industrial staff. In addition to work in the negotiations and advocacy field, the Employers Federation has staff handling research and information services.

A new constitution adopted by the federation in 1971 was designed to achieve greater unity amongst employers and employer organisations associated with the federation, and greater employer sector participation has been provided in the formulation of the federation's policies.

STATISTICS: Unions of Workers—The numbers and membership of workers' unions at the end of the year according to industry groups is shown in the following table. Where the members of a union are employed in more than 1 industry they have been classified to the predominant industry for the union concerned.

Industrial Group197519761977
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.517 354516 418517 130
Mining and quarrying447344864487
Manufacturing—
    Metal products and engineering1651 0421551 8541552 047
    Texiles, clothing, and leather2230 2912232 0322329 901
    Food, beverages, and, tobacco, including seasonal4348 7154150 9324049 814
    Wood and wood products, including furniture916 838917 093816 960
    Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing510 02759 935510 580
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics104 047104 372104 026
    Non-metallic mineral products71 74071 76571 753
    Other manufacturing973588148694
Construction1245 1781344 8281344 664
Road and rail transport1736 2911736 1751737 217
Air transport51 86851 86351 979
Shipping and stevedoring3114 2393114 3283013 986
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.2966 0902967 1952970 725
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.,3380 1463481 3183686 204
Government and local authority, n.e.c.1012 4831014 1961015 130
Recreational services104 902103 629103 467
Social community services including health, education, etc.,41 27742 92843 991
Other personal and community services1111 2551312 2921312 677
            Total292454 991292464 453292473 432

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership.

At 31 DecemberUnder 100100 -199200 -299300 -499500 -9991 000 -1 9992 000 -2 9993 000 -4 9995 000 -9 99910 000 and OverTotal
Number of Unions
197590262333343418101410292
197687292132373613131311292
197786282329433116121311292
Membership
19754 3243 5985 70513 27823 75045 13543 65636 497100 476178 572454 991
19763 9924 1165 13612 60824 87350 09231 47948 48692 601191 070464 453
19774 1813 9855 65911 05929 28444 14037 45444 74494 533198 393473 432

The following table shows the total membership of industrial unions of workers at intervals since 1940. In 1936 the membership of industrial unions had more than doubled, growing from 80 929 in 1935 to 185 527 in 1936. This was a result of the 1936 amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act which made union membership compulsory whenever an award or industrial agreement existed.

As at End of YearNumber of Members
1940248 081
1945229 103
1950275 779
1955304 520
1960332 362
1965353 093
1970378 465
1971386 275
1972394 748
1973427 692
1974436 623
1975454 991
1976464 453
1977473 432
1978...

Unions of Employers—The numbers and membership of registered industrial unions of employers as at the end of the year are shown in the following table according to industrial groups. Some are employers belonging to two or more unions.

Industry Group197519761977
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.104 116104 445104 438
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing—
    Metal products and engineering, etc.91 17181 16381 154
    Textiles, clothing, and leather114631145510476
    Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal225872249221480
    Wood and wood products, including furniture950695389501
    Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing1442585398511
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics823082478213
    Non-metallic mineral products245245245
    Other manufacturing166121120
Construction566 849567 159567 163
Road and rail transport51 81141 80241 820
Air transport234234234
Shipping and stevedoring1313341424101
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.41 10151 55451 535
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.5815 5455615 5675513 194
Government and local authority, n.e.c.437343724299
Recreational services190192181
Social community services, including health, education, etc.282227822784
Other personal and community services773677186735
            Total23835 10322036 16721633 584

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS—Associations of 2 or more unions in different districts in the same industry can be registered as industrial associations. As at 31 December 1977 there were 13 industrial associations of employers and 28 of workers, the former having 106 affiliated unions and the latter 136.

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS—The following table shows the proportion of workers belonging to registered unions to the total number of wage earners in the country. The figures for total wage earners are derived from census enumerations.

Census YearTotal Wage EarnersEnd of Year Nearest to Census DateNumber of Workers on Rolls of Registered Unions*Percentage of Wage Earners on Rolls of Registered Unions*
*There are a number of associations of employees not registered. These include many State servants and mine workers, chemical fertiliser workers, agriculture workers, etc.
1956 (Apr)653 3581955304 52047
1961 (Apr)750 8821960332 36244
1966 (Mar)870 8131965353 09341
1971 (Mar)958 5631970378 46539
1976 (Mar)1,063,1701975454 99143

STATISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES—In the tables which follow only those disputes are included which resulted in a strike, penalty, or lockout, or where organised “go slow” or other passive-resistance methods were clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes. Stoppages in which no demand is made on the employer (or the employees in the case of a lockout) are not included—for example any stoppage which is the result of disagreement by workers with measures taken (or not taken) by Government or other authority, as distinct from employers, is excluded. To avoid confusion with the term “dispute” as used in industrial relations legislation, these statistics have been called “industrial stoppages”. A long-term series of stoppages is given towards the back of this Yearbook.

The figures for stoppages include details of stopwork meetings unless, as on the waterfront, provision is made for these in the relevant award or agreement. In all cases unauthorised stopwork meetings are included, also unauthorised delays in resuming work after recognised stopwork meetings. A single stoppage may include or may consist of one stopwork meeting or several stopwork meetings; if several such meetings are included, these may be held at different times or at different places, provided all relate to the same issue.

The following table shows incidence rates of stoppages during recent years.

YearNumber of Wage and Salary Earners*Workers Involved in Stoppages as Percentage of Wage and Salary EarnersWorking Days Lost per 1000 of Wage and Salary Earners

*October estimates.

†Ratios for 1977 and 1978 are worked on 1976 number of salary and wage earners.

 (000)  
1972948.56.37141.81
1973987.411.73275.17
19741 015.86.98180.83
19751 024.57.30209.50
19761 034.319.44472.24
1977...15.41422.32
1978...15.12367.64

Industrial stoppages during recent years are summarised in the following table. The totals of stoppages include lockouts (if any). Where several occasions have been grouped as 1 stoppage the largest number of firms affected and the largest number of workers involved on any 1 day have been included under the relevant headings. Workers indirectly involved have also been included. “Partial strike” indicates a reduction of the normal rate of output.

Calendar YearNumber of StoppagesDurationNumber of Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostAverage Days Lost per Worker InvolvedApproximate Loss In Wages
Complete StrikePartial Strike*TotalTotal (Working Days)Average (Working Days)

*Reduction of normal rate of output.

†Includes lockouts and penalties (none in the latest 3 years).

      (000)(000) $(000)
1974348293801 5304.03711842.593,332
1975396314281 8294.27752152.874,219
1976453344871 9864.082014882.4310,840
1977538245622 1713.861594302.7010,310
197840664121 3453.261563802.4310,941

Figure 36.1. INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES

INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES

In the following table industrial stoppages are classified according to the industry in which they took place. The figures relate to stoppages which terminated during 1978.

INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES 1978
IndustryNumber of StoppagesDuration (Working Days)Number of Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
*From 1976, when there were 16 cases, a stoppage which involved workers in more than 1 industry has been counted once in each respective industry but as a single stoppage in the total of all industries. In 1978 there were 10 extra cases and 17 extra days' duration.
     $(000)
Agriculture, hunting1½3001502.4
Forestry, logging
Fishing
Mining, quarrying715½25432913.8
Meat export works149294106 719172 0765,784.9
Other slaughtering, preparation, and preserving meat648½4181 91758.2
Dairy products; fruit, vegetable, and fish canning and preserving; vegetable oils, animal oils and fats5741654216.0
Grain milling, bakery products, sugar, confectionery, etc3251 6069 777228.4
Beverage industries, tobacco1½208780.1
Textile, wearing apparel, leather goods612½6141 13417.8
Wood, wood products (incl. furniture)13672526.7
Paper, paper products; printing and publishing321686 08180 4012,274.3
Chemicals; chemical, petroleum, and coal products1127½5901 44241.3
Rubber and plastic products513½1 3862 34378.0
Non-metallic mineral products9459113 37991.0
Basic metal industries854½1 41111 228337.4
Metal products; machinery including electrical1678½1 5133 20188.1
Transport equipment13592 11910 774292.3
Professional and scientific equipment
Other manufacturing
Electricity, gas, water27521404.1
Building contracting361263 0068 001293.9
Civil engineering, contracting7815383 01477.5
Owner builder and allied building trades21161535.4
Wholesale trade9367381 67453.9
Retail trade317022190.7
Restaurants and hotels427½652612.7
Land transport198118 99051 000866.6
Water transport52634 8027 615101.4
Air transport11138603.5
Services allied to transport
Communication
Financing, insurance, real estate, etc335695527.7
Community, social, and personal services1147½2 1468 539192.5
Several industries
                Total, all industries *4121 345156 415380 25110,940.5

The following table gives a more detailed analysis of stoppages by duration during 1977.

DurationNumber of StoppagesNumber of Workers InvokedNumber of Working Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
    $(000)
1 day and less30364 64140 069943.9
Over 1 day but not over 2 days769 79712 337307.1
Over 2 days but not over 3 days3513 06924 909650.4
Over 3 days but less than 1 week296 40418 849413.4
1 week but less than 2 weeks6637 183122 7922,803.8
2 weeks but less than 4 weeks355 30826 381647.6
4 weeks but less than 8 weeks1215 576108 9632,335.8
8 weeks and over67 42982 5082,457.7
        Total562159 407436 80810,559.8

CAUSES—In the next table the causes of stoppages occurring during 1977 are shown. A breakdown in negotiations over a range of matters rather than over any 1 or more of the other categories of cause is recorded under “General Breakdown in Negotiations”.

Under the heading “Wages” are included stoppages concerning wages, overtime, or rates of piecework. Stoppages concerning the hours of work, leave and holidays are included under the heading “Period of Work”.

“Conditions of Work” includes safety, health, and general working conditions. Such matters as supervision, work allocation, manning levels, dismissals, redundancy, etc., are included under “Managerial Practice”.

Stoppages caused by workers striking in sympathy with demands of other workers, demarcation, victimisation, and other union matters are included under “Union Matters”.

The number of stoppages, number of workers involved, and working days lost are shown for each cause.

InvolvementCause of StoppageTotal
General Breakdown in NegotiationsWagesPeriod of WorkConditions of WorkManagerial PracticeUnion Matters*and other Causes
*Union matters: 76 stoppages; 30 391 workers involved; 77 614 working days lost.
Number of—
    Stoppages22164199617091562
    Workers involved12 85851 11216 71222 49219 60036 633159 407
    Working days lost58 878154 11432 86242 02162 71886 215436 808

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT—Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes causing stoppages in 1977. “Private negotiations” take place when discussions have occurred between employers and workers without intervention of a third party. Third parties intervening may include the industrial mediator, conciliators, the Department of Labour, the Minister of Labour, the Federation of Labour, etc.

A settlement is classified as “Voluntary return to work” where no negotiations have taken place, no conditions are changed, and workers simply return to work or decide to drop their claims.

Method of SettlementNumber of StoppagesNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
    $(000)
Private negotiations11821 27650 0521,033.1
Intervention of third party6917 20884 1372,321.8
Voluntary return to work365120 365300 3747,182.6
Other105582 24522.3
      Total562159 407436 80810,559.8

WORKING CONDITIONS—A considerable proportion of the persons comprising the labour force of New Zealand have their working conditions determined either directly or indirectly by virtue of the provisions of the Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971, the Factories Act 1946, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Shops and Offices Act 1955, the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, the Agricultural Workers Act 1977, the Construction Act 1959, the Machinery Act 1950, the Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act 1960, the Bush Workers Act 1945, the Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937, the Shearers Act 1962, and the Industrial Relations Act 1973. Legislative authority covering the working conditions of substantially the greater portion of the remaining participants in the labour force is contained in the State Services Act 1962, the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, the Government Railways Act 1949, the Post Office Act 1959, the Police Act 1958, the Fire Services Act 1975, the Education Act 1964, the Hospitals Act 1957, the Hospital Employment Regulations 1963, and the Waterfront Industry Act 1976.

Notes on Acts which have as their prime purpose the protection of workers from accidents in the course of their employment have been included in Section 35D, Occupational Safety.

HOURS OF WORK—Employees in most occupations have had the benefit of a 40-hour 5-day week since 1946, with the first legislation in this regard being enacted in 1936.

HOLIDAYS—The Annual Holidays Act 1944 provides for an annual holiday of 3 weeks duration paid at the worker's average weekly earnings during the year of entitlement. A worker who has been employed for less than 1 year, on termination of his employment, is entitled to proportionate annual holiday pay for the period of employment An employer is required to keep a record (holiday book) containing particulars of employment, annual holidays, and amounts paid in respect of each worker in his employment.

Public holidays include Christmas Day, Boxing Day, New Year's Day, 2 January (or a day in lieu), Waitangi Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Anzac Day, Labour Day, the Sovereign's Birthday, and the provincial anniversary day (or a day in lieu). Labour Day is deemed to be the fourth Monday in October. Waitangi Day is 6 February. Anzac Day (the 25th day of April) is a day of commemoration, being the anniversary of the first landing of troops on Gallipoli in 1915, and in terms of employment is observed as if it were a holiday. Observance of Waitangi Day and Anzac Day cannot be transferred to another date.

Other statutes dealing with holidays are the Anzac Day Act 1966, Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952, and the Waitangi Day Act 1976.

FACTORIES ACT—The Factories Act 1946 applies to “any building, office, or place in which 2 or more persons are engaged or in which 1 or more persons are employed ... directly or indirectly, in any handicraft, or in preparing or manufacturing goods for trade or sale ...”

Restrictions on Employment—No boy or girl under 16 years of age may be employed in any factory unless a certificate of fitness is issued by an Inspector of Factories.

Safety, Health, and Welfare—The safety measures have reference to dangerous liquids, harmful noise, means of access and safety of employment, and means of escape in case of fire. The employer is required to keep a register of all accidents of which he has any knowledge, and first-aid appliances must be provided and maintained. The health and welfare provisions are very extensive and include reference to such matters as air space, cleanliness, ventilation, canteens, the care of employees, amenities, and other things to be supplied by the employer to secure employees' health or welfare.

SHOPS AND OFFICES ACT: Hours of Work—For shop assistants the hour of commencing work for persons under 16 years must not be earlier than 7 a.m., except that newspapers may be delivered from 6 a.m. by persons aged 12 years and under 16, and milk by persons aged 14 years and under 16 from the same hour. Persons under 18 years may not be employed after 10.30 p.m. The Act also provides that persons under 18 years cannot be employed in restaurants before 5 a.m. or after 10.30 p.m.

Shop Trading Hours—On 1 October 1977, the Shop Trading Hours Act 1977 replaced the trading hour provisions of the Shops and Offices Act 1955 and the various awards and collective agreements.

Shops may now open at any time between 7 a.m. and 9 p.m. Mondays to Fridays inclusive but are to be closed outside these hours and on Saturdays, Sundays, and statutory holidays unless an extension of opening hours has been authorised by the Shop Trading Hours Commission.

The Act provides that “approved” goods may be sold at any time and that “special” goods may be sold between the stated hours on Saturdays only. Goods other than those on the “approved” or “special” list are “restricted” goods. If an occupier is authorised to open his shop to sell “approved” or “special” goods outside the hours mentioned above, then all “restricted” goods must be out of sight of the public or kept in a part of the shop that is closed off.

Provision is made for the granting of orders authorising a shop occupier to open at times other than those mentioned above. The majority of the shop occupiers in an “area” (which may be a street, mall, or municipality area) can also apply for such an order to cover the whole of the area.

“Approved” and “Special” Goods—These are listed in Schedules to the Act. “Approved” goods include bakers' and pastrycooks' goods, building supplies and handyman requisites, condiments, confectionery, dairy produce, drinks, fish, frozen foods, fruit and flowers, fuels, gardening supplies, aquarium flora and fauna, miscellaneous groceries, magazines and periodicals, meats and smallgoods, medicinal and household goods, motor accessories, photographic goods, plants, prepared and cooked foods, tobacco, etc., vegetables, and a number of miscellaneous lines. “Special” goods which can be sold outside the normal weekday trading hours on Saturdays only include cut flowers, wreaths, vegetables, new and used motorcars, and motor cycles.

Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions—The Shops and Offices Act 1955 also makes provision for the safety, health and welfare of assistants. Particular matters that are covered relate to dangerous liquids and noxious gases, limitation of loads, safe means of access, construction and maintenance of floors, passages, and stairs, fire precautions, lighting, cleanliness, ventilation, drinking water, drainage, washing facilities, clothing, accommodation, seating and first-aid facilities, rest rooms for women, sanitary conveniences, temperature and heating appliances, accommodation for meals, etc.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT—Under the Agricultural Workers Act 1977 regulations have been made setting out minimum standards of accommodation to be supplied for agricultural workers.

Restrictions on Employment of Children—Under the Agricultural Workers Act no child under the age of 15 years may: (a) be employed in any agricultural work during such times as the child is required to attend school under the Education Act; (b) be required to lift any weights, or to perform any task, likely to be injurious to his health; (c) work more than 8 hours in any 1 day.

Safety and Health—The Agricultural Workers Act requires employers to take reasonable precautions for the safety and health of employees and provides for the instruction of employees as to dangers and precautions, miscellaneous protection, and the provision of protective clothing or equipment as appropriate.

Fixing of Wages and Conditions of Employment—The Act institutes a new system for fixing wages and conditions of employment somewhat akin to that which operates for workers in other industries. The emphasis is on voluntary and conciliated settlement of disputes, but in cases of no agreement a specialised Agricultural Tribunal can make an award. A significant new concept is the registration of a single employers' organisation and a single employees' organisation for each class of agricultural work. The registered organisations have exclusive rights of representation for the particular class. Certain classes of work are defined and certain organisations are deemed to be registered from the commencement date of the Act, November 1977. Machinery is provided in the Act for amendment of the definitions of classes of work and for the registration of replacement organisations. This whole new system has been integrated into the all-encompassing wage fixing machinery under the newly-constituted Arbitration Court. A Judge of that Court is the President of the Agricultural Tribunal.

SHEARERS ACT—Under the Shearers Act 1962 an employer is required to provide amenities for all shearers employed by him. Where 5 or more shearers are to be accommodated on the farm suitable accommodation must be provided. Minimum standards of amenities and accommodation are prescribed by the Shearers Regulations 1963.

SHIPPING AND SEAMEN LEGISLATION—The general superintendence of matters relating to merchant ships and seamen in New Zealand is the responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport.

Competence, Safety, and Welfare Provisions—The Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 makes provision to ensure competence on the part of navigational officers, engineers, and certain crew members. Rules or regulations under that Act set out the qualifications and examination standards for persons to obtain the appropriate certificates in New Zealand, and there are provisions for the acceptance of certain certificates granted in other Commonwealth countries. The number and qualifications of persons required to man ships of various classes are set out in statutory scales.

The seaworthiness of ships is covered by annual survey for compliance as to condition and equipment, and regulations govern the day-to-day operations of ships to ensure their safe navigation and operation.

The pay and many conditions of employment are determined by industrial awards or agreements between shipowners and employee organisations. There are also legislative measures to ensure compliance with some of the international conventions or recommendations relating to the employment of seafarers.

MINING LEGISLATION—Consolidating legislation was passed as the Mining Act 1971 and this became law after its attendant regulations were gazetted early in 1973.

Working Conditions—In the coal-mining industry working conditions are determined by agreement reached at annual conferences between the coal-mine owners and the employee organisations.

Restrictions on Employment—No person under the age of 16 years may be employed underground in any coal mine, or in any alluvial mine, or on or about any dredge; while the minimum age in respect of underground work in a quartz mine is 19 years. No youth may be employed in a mine for more than 8 hours per day or 48 hours per week except in cases of emergency.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY—Measures for occupational safety, involving the Machinery Act 1950, the Construction Act 1959, and a number of other Acts, are discussed in Section 35D.

WORKING CONDITIONS OF STATE SERVANTS—Apart from remuneration (which is discussed in Section 33—Wages) the working conditions of State servants are controlled by legislation set out in the following paragraphs.

Members of the Public Service are governed by the State Services Act 1962 and the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977. Included in the functions of the State Services Commission are the provision of suitable office accommodation, the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions, and also the regulations of a variety of points connected with control—e.g., leave, hours of work.

The Government Railways Act 1949 and the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977 furnish the legislative framework for determination of the working conditions of railway employees. There is a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, the principal function of which is to adjudicate on single service conditions of work in respect of railway employees.

Working conditions for Post Office employees are determined by the administrative authority, the Postmaster-General, with the Director-General as executive head. Power is vested in the Minister by virtue of the Post Office Act 1959. There is a Post Office Staff Tribunal whose function it is to hear and determine applications referred to it in respect of conditions of employment of Post Office staff.

There are other legislative enactments which apply to the relevant sections of general Government employees. Members of the Police are governed by the Police Act 1958 and the Police Regulations 1959, while there is also a Police Staff Tribunal. The 3 armed services are controlled by the Defence Act 1971.

The Education Act 1964 and amendments authorise, either by regulation or through the agency of education boards, the determination of the conditions of employment, leave of absence, etc., for the members of the teaching profession.

WATERFRONT INDUSTRY—Work within the waterfront industry is governed by the Waterfront Industry Act 1976. The Act defines waterside work as the loading and unloading of ships, barges, lighters, and other vessels, together with certain other work customarily performed within wharf limits by waterside workers. Work within the waterfront industry includes waterside work and certain other work carried out within wharf limits such as the driving or operation of mechanical cargo-handling equipment, tallying, the shoring and unshoring of cargo, and the work of foremen stevedores and timekeepers. Separate bodies are empowered by the Act to carry out, on the one hand, legislative and judicial functions, and on the other administrative functions only.

Waterfront Industry Tribunal—The legislative and judicial body is the Waterfront Industry Tribunal, which consists of 2 members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister, and as chairman the Chief Judge of the Arbitration Court or a judge of the Arbitration Court nominated by him. The members are appointed for a term of 3 years. The tribunal is a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The functions of the tribunal are, firstly, to prescribe the terms and conditions of employment for work within the waterfront industry, and here the tribunal's procedure is similar to that followed by the Government Service Tribunal. To assist with this function, the Act also provides for the Minister of Labour to direct the establishment of conciliation councils each consisting of an independent chairman and an equal number of employers' representatives and workers' representatives. These councils conduct conciliation proceedings on any application to the tribunal which concerns 2 or more ports and the chairman is appointed by the Minister for a term not exceeding 1 year. Secondly, the tribunal is required to settle any disputes that arise in relation to work within the waterfront industry and for this function has the assistance of Port Conciliation Committees which consist of an equal number of employers' and workers' representatives with an independent chairman. Thirdly, the tribunal is a general appeal court from decisions of Port Conciliation Committees (with certain limitations) and to determine appeals from any orders or decisions of the Waterfront Industry Commission imposing levies or charges and in respect of the provision of amenities for waterside workers, as well as against refusal of the commission to register an applicant for entry on the Register of Employers of Waterside Workers.

Waterfront Industry Commission—The Waterfront Industry Commission, which is the administrative body, consists of an independent chairman, 2 members nominated by the Union of Employers, and 2 members nominated by the New Zealand Waterside Workers' Federation. All 5 members are appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour for a term not exceeding 3 years. The functions of the commission are, firstly, to carry out all administrative work in connection with guaranteed wage payments, annual and statutory holiday payments, and systems of payments by results for waterside workers, and to perform these functions for other workers in the waterfront industry if requested by the employers and workers concerned. Secondly, the commission is responsible for the supervision of amenities for waterside workers and for the equipping, operation and management of these amenities which include waiting rooms or assembly halls, restaurants, canteens, and first aid rooms. The commission provides such amenities costing not more than $50,000 each at any port and approves schemes for the provision by harbour boards of amenities costing more than $50,000 each at any port.

Of the remaining functions of the commission, the main ones are the determination of the number of workers to be entered on the Bureau Register for each port so as to ensure the supply of sufficient waterside labour for its efficient working, to be the sole employer of waterside workers for the purposes of the Accident Compensation Act 1972, to train waterside workers in first aid, to publish statistical information in relation to the waterfront industry, and to register employers of waterside labour providing they meet the statutory requirements.

The organisation of “registered” waterside workers is on the basis of separate port unions with one association or federation of unions. The port unions and the association are registered through the Registrar of Industrial Unions in the Department of Labour.

LEGISLATIVE PROVISION FOR CERTAIN OTHER GROUPS: Hospital Board Employees—The provisions relating to working conditions of hospital board employees, such as nurses, etc., will be found in the Hospitals Act 1957 and the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977.

Chapter 37. Section 35; PERSONAL SAFETY

35 A—ACCIDENT PREVENTION, REHABILITATION, AND COMPENSATION

ACCIDENT COMPENSATION ACT—The Accident Compensation Act 1972, which took effect from 1 April 1974, was undoubtedly one of the most significant developments in social welfare for many years.

The 3 main objectives of the legislation are: (a) to promote safety in every walk of life; (b) to urge forward the concept of prompt and effective rehabilitation of all people injured by accident so as to restore them to the fullest physical, mental, social, vocational, and economic usefulness of which they are capable; and (c) to provide prompt, fair, and reasonable compensation so that every accident victim will be treated according to his real needs.

Cover, embracing all 3 objectives, extends to virtually everyone in New Zealand, from the smallest child to the oldest citizen.

Accident prevention, which is of great importance to the Accident Compensation Commission, is promoted by a safety division which aims at co-ordinating existing organisations and maintaining its own advisory programme.

Similar stress is laid on rehabilitation, and a staff of field officers has been established in main centres to make personal contact with the injured person and to ensure that all necessary rehabilitative measures are effectively undertaken.

As far as compensation is concerned, the Accident Compensation Act:

  1. provides immediate benefits for every person who suffers personal injury by accident in New Zealand, regardless of his or her fault and wherever the accident occurred in New Zealand;

  2. entitles the injured person to compensation both for permanent physical disability and also for loss of earnings on an income-related basis;

  3. provides for regular adjustment in the level of payment to injured persons in accord with variations in the value of money; and

  4. provides for everyone an effective insurance against personal injury by accident in New Zealand.

In all, New Zealand has a comprehensive system, the essence of which is that the community itself recognises its responsibility for both the accident toll and its effects, and finances and provides for the victims of all accidents however their injuries are caused.

ACCIDENT COMPENSATION COMMISSION—To administer the Act, the Accident Compensation Commission, comprising 3 persons, is appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour.

The head office of the commission, based in Wellington, has safety, medical and rehabilitation, compensation, legal, research and planning, finance, and administration divisions each headed by a director. There is a branch office in Dunedin. Regional offices are in Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, and Christchurch; district offices at Whangarei, Rotorua, New Plymouth, Napier, and Invercargill; and liaison services at Gisborne, Wanganui, and Nelson.

SAFETY—By virtue of its legislative duty as a matter of prime importance to take an active and coordinating role in the promotion of safety in all the different areas where accidents can occur, the commission is involved in the prevention of accidents of every kind, whether they happen at work, on the roads, in the home, on the playing field, or in the outdoors. It has been recognised by industry that accidents have no economic boundaries, since a worker's productivity is affected equally whether he is injured on the job or off the job.

As accidents are reduced there is a corresponding reduction in the need for compensation and rehabilitation and a lessening of the financial drain on the whole community of which compensation and other “direct” costs are only a portion.

The commission's safety division comprises specialists in various aspects of accident prevention— including occupational, rural, home, and recreational safety.

Education and training form the cornerstone of their activities. An extensive range of residential and in-plant training courses is available, each course tailored to meet the requirements of a different level of employee—top and middle management, safety officers and engineers, supervisors, apprentices, and the rank-and-file worker.

The safety division also assists and co-ordinates the efforts of organisations already doing valuable work in accident prevention, and makes financial grants for specific projects.

REHABILITATION—Prompt and successful rehabilitation reduces the need for compensation by returning people to economic usefulness more quickly, as well as in some cases providing them with a vocation and self-respect they might otherwise have lost altogether.

In many ways, however, rehabilitation goes hand in hand with compensation. By removing anxiety and economic fear, adequate compensation in itself helps to achieve rehabilitation of the injured. From the outset, earner and non-earner alike are assured of retaining a reasonable enjoyment of life and a reasonable standard of living, despite even the most severe disability.

The commission's interests in rehabilitation extend to co-operating with existing work—some of it of an extremely high standard already—and to developing the whole concept to give the injured person the best possible treatment.

Rehabilitation extends to such matters as reducing the possibility of permanent disability; assisting those who are disabled to make the best possible use of what ability remains or can be inculcated by new training, further education, or other special help; re-establishing people in employment; modifying homes or workplaces to provide for incapacitated people; providing a wide assortment of rehabilitation aids; and adapting a car to hand-control so that transport to work is available.

To achieve these objectives, the commission employs a field force of rehabilitation liaison officers whose function it is to counsel and advise claimants in respect of their needs and who recommend to the commission what should be done to assist them.

Their services are readily available to all who have cover under the Act, earners and non-earners alike.

COMPENSATION—People are covered against personal injury by accident under 3 schemes in the accident compensation system:

  1. Earners' scheme—This provides for everyone who receives remuneration either as an employee or as a self-employed person in New Zealand. Persons who have cover under the earners' scheme are entitled to both earnings-related compensation and other benefits as summarised below.

  2. Motor vehicle accident scheme—This covers everyone injured by the use of a motor vehicle. Motor accident victims qualify for all benefits including, if they receive earnings in New Zealand, earnings-related compensation.

  3. Supplementary scheme—This brings in all those not otherwise covered, among them tourists and visitors to New Zealand; and people not earning, such as housewives, children, students, and retired people. Persons who have cover under the supplementary scheme do not normally qualify for earnings-related compensation but they are eligible for all other benefits.

BENEFITS PROVIDED: Earnings-Related Compensation—The earners' scheme provides for the payment of compensation for loss of earnings at the rate of 80 percent of normal average earnings at the time of the accident, subject to a present maximum of $288 a week. No payment is made by the commission for the first week following the accident but if it happens at work (including travel to and from work), an employer is generally required to pay an employee his normal rate of pay (excluding overtime) for this period.

If the injured person has more than one job he receives full pay for the first week from his employer on the job on which the accident occurred and the commission pays compensation based on the amount he would have earned from the other jobs.

After the first week, earnings-related compensation is paid by the commission to all earners, regardless of how or where the accident occurred.

Weekly payments generally cease at the age of 65 years, but can continue until the normal retiring age for a particular job. If the accident occurs after 60 years of age, payment continues for a further 5 years; if it occurs after 65 years of age then up to the age of 70 years; and if the accident happens after the age of 70 compensation is payable for 1 year; assuming in all these cases that the injured person was an earner at the time of the accident.

Appropriate adjustments to the amount of compensation payable are made for partial incapacity. In some special circumstances, compensation for loss of potential earnings may be awarded.

Earnings-related compensation constitutes taxable income, PAYE tax being deducted at source.

Other Compensation—Provision is made for a wide range of benefits, including compensation for medical and hospital expenses, cost of transport to hospital, or wages paid to an attendant or nurse, and for reasonable expenses resulting directly from the accident.

In addition, the injured person may qualify for payment of a lump sum for permanent loss or impairment of bodily function up to a maximum of $7,000; and for loss of capacity to enjoy life, for pain and mental suffering, and for disfigurement, up to a maximum of $10,000.

Fatal Claims—In the event of a fatal accident the commission pays reasonable funeral expenses.

Also, the dependent spouse of an earner who has died as a result of an accident can qualify for half the earnings-related compensation the deceased would have received had he or she been totally incapacitated but still living. For each of up to 3 dependent children, an additional one-sixth may be paid. Thus a widow with 3 or more children could qualify for the full earnings-related compensation her husband would have received had he been totally incapacitated. In addition, a lump sum of up to $1,000 is payable to the totally dependent widow, plus up to $500 for each dependent child, to a maximum of $1,500 for the dependent children. Partially dependent widows and children receive a proportion of these amounts.

The same provisions would apply to dependent or partially dependent widowers.

Housewives—As well as the appropriate benefits listed under “Other Compensation” and “Fatal Claims”, housewives who are injured in an accident may, if justified, qualify for the cost of home help; or, in certain circumstances, the husband may be compensated for loss of earnings while he is looking after the house until the injured wife can resume her duties.

FINANCING OF COMPENSATION FUNDS—Accident compensation is a form of compulsory insurance in which the community as a whole accepts responsibility for the accidents which inevitably will afflict a proportion of its members, as a consequence of the kind of life that society today demands as its right.

The community pays in these ways:

  1. Levies on employers (including the Crown) and on self-employed to pay for the earners' scheme. They are paid through the Inland Revenue Department (as agent for the commission).

  2. Levies on vehicle owners are paid to another agent for the commission, the Post Office, to pay for the motor vehicle accident scheme.

  3. General taxation pays for the supplementary scheme through the Consolidated Account.

The employer pays levies on a risk-related scale, ranging from 25 cents to $5 per $100 of wages paid, and he classifies his employees for the appropriate levy in accordance with the industrial activity in which he is engaged. There are special classes for staff on clerical-management and commercial travelling duties, so that the employer can pay for them at a lower levy rate than that for employees engaged directly in his industrial activity. The maximum amount on which levy is payable is $18,720 a year for each employee.

A levy of 1 percent of earnings applies to self-employed people, regardless of their industrial activity, but the limit of income on which the levy may be imposed is $18,720 a year. Hence, the maximum payable by any self-employed person is $187.20 a year.

Levies for the motor vehicle accident scheme are collected when motor vehicles are registered or reregistered.

HANDLING OF CLAIMS—The commission itself deals with claims in Otago. In all other areas the State Insurance Office is the claims handling agent for all cases except New Zealand seamen, whose claims are dealt with by P. & I. Services Limited. Claims are made by a worker injured at his place of employment notifying his employer and filling in a claim form which the employer then forwards to the State Insurance Office; or, in other cases, by direct notification to the State Insurance Office. Claims need to be supported by a medical certificate.

It is intended that there should be no long delays in providing compensation. An injured worker who is hurt at work will receive his pay in full from his employer for the first week if he is unable to work. If his incapacity continues beyond the first week, earnings-related compensation should become available promptly, so that, effectively, there is no break in his flow of income. He will continue to be paid locally, without delay.

The commission's objective for the self-employed is that earnings-related payments should begin equally promptly, after the first week. Difficulties often arise, however, in determining the weekly amount which on a fair and just basis truly reflects loss of earning capacity. More complex arrangements are necessary and these are set out in pamphlets available from all commission and State Insurance offices.

Naturally, it will take time to assess permanent disability, loss of faculty, potential earnings, pain and suffering, loss of enjoyment of life, and the like; but here again it is firmly intended that delays will be minimised and early payments made once the disability has reached a stable condition.

REVIEWS AND APPEALS—Decisions by the commission acting either itself or by its agents are subject to a right of appeal. The claimant can first apply to the commission for a review of the decision. This review will be conducted by the commission itself, or by a hearing officer appointed by the commission. From any decisions made on a review there is a right of appeal to an appeal authority, who has full power to confirm, modify, or reverse any decision by the commission. There is a further right of appeal to the Supreme Court, on a question of law, a matter of general or public interest, or a matter which for any other reason should be heard by the Supreme Court, and to the Court of Appeal on questions of law only.

35 B—COMPENSATED ACCIDENTS

The main tables in this section cover accidents in the calendar year 1977. They are confined to claims compensated by the Accident Compensation Commission, that is, where victims or their dependants have been compensated for one or more of the following:

  1. loss of earnings beyond the first week of incapacity;

  2. permanent incapacity;

  3. non-economic loss;

  4. funeral expenses;

  5. damage to teeth, artificial aids, or clothing;

  6. medical treatment and transport expenses;

  7. cost of home help;

  8. rehabilitation costs; or

  9. certain other unusual costs.

The tables largely exclude injuries causing less than 8 days' incapacity (for which the commission is not required to pay compensation) and those only entailing medical treatment (for which the doctor is normally reimbursed direct). In addition, the commission does not always receive claims in the case of non-earners who are injured, which limits the significance of the tables of non-work injuries, especially where children are concerned.

The following special classifications are used:

Industry: New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC).

Occupation: New Zealand Standard Classification of Occupations (NZSCO).

Injury: World Health Organisation's International Classification of Diseases, 1965 revision (ICD).

Cause: (i) for work accidents, the International Labour Organisation's Classification of Industrial

Accidents According to Agency of Accident, Source of Injury, and Type of Accident, 1962 revision.

(ii) for non-work accidents, the code of external causes of accidents, poisonings, and violence, International Classification of Diseases, 1965 revision (ICD).

Suicides and self-inflicted injuries: Such cases are not normally compensable. Those appearing in the tables are the results of the commission's discretion to pay compensation under certain circumstances or the fact that some compensation was paid before it was established that injury was self-inflicted.

Dental injuries: Where the only injury to a claimant is dental, no detailed information is at present recorded. Dental-only cases are summarised in the next table, but are excluded from the detailed tables that follow it.

CLAIMS RECEIVED—The following table sets out, for the 4 years of the Accident Compensation Commission's operation, the number of claims received, analysed according to the fund to which they were allocated. (The claims shown opposite “Provisional Fund” are those the allocation of which had not been finally determined at the end of that financial year.) It should be noted that not all claims result in compensation being paid—especially those made to protect the claimant's entitlement when incapacity has not yet arisen but may do in the future.

ClaimsYear Ended 31 March
1975197619771978
Claims made—
    Earners' Fund—
        Work accidents63 21271 47168 06762 717
        Non-work accidents28 12538 46039 03340 584
            Total91 337109 931107 100103 301
    Motor Vehicle Fund9 40511 04210 46411 563
    Supplementary Fund4 2769 46912 54417 394
    Provisional Fund215127180
            Total claims105 018130 657130 235132 438

COMPENSATION PAID—The following tables analyse compensation paid and medical expenditure incurred during the 4 years of the commission's operation, according to the fund charged and the type of payment. It must be pointed out that in many cases compensation will continue to be paid beyond the year in which a claim is made, sometimes until the claimant is aged 65. Hence the claims shown above for any given year are not identical with the claims for which compensation was paid in that year. It could therefore be misleading to attempt to match claims with compensation payments. The true cost of any year's claims is not likely to be known until many years later.

Total Compensation and Medical ExpenditureYear Ended 31 March
1975197619771978
 $(thousand)
Earnings-related compensation or loss of potential earnings, payable to victims19,14333,70139,67044,303
Non-economic permanent loss2,9919,37218,110
Dependants' earnings-related compensation or remarriage grants7252,5933,5745,117
Funeral expenses or dependants' allowances1,2771,505
Medical treatment6,91312,40311,15812,800
Hospital treatment1,9162,303
Dental treatment1,6892,121
Conveyance for medical attention9041,491
Rehabilitation aid, training, or grants168220
Other items1,0881,212
              Total26,78151,68870,81689,182
Fund ChargedYear Ended 31 March
1975197619771978

*Comprising $36,421,000 paid on current year's claims and $29,356,000 paid on prior years' claims.

†Comprising $5,202,000 paid on current year's claims and $8,039,000 paid on prior years' claims.

 $(thousand)
Earners' Compensation Fund21,31140,76654,47965,777*
Motor Vehicle Compensation Fund2,6936,0739,22113,241
Supplementary Compensation Fund2,7774,8497,11610,164
              Total26,78151,68870,81689,182

ENVIRONMENT—The following table summarises accidents in 1977 for which compensation has been paid and shows, for earners and non-earners, the environment in which the accident occurred.

EnvironmentEarnersNon-earnersTotal
Work—
    Working at place of work47 202...47 202
    Working away from work1 755...1 755
    On the way to or from work3 171...3 171
                Total52 128...52 128
Non-work—
    Road7 1711 5098 680
    Home10 8282 35513 183
    Place of sport or recreation10 87677311 649
    Other5 9151 7527 667
                Total34 7906 38941 179
Not classified (including dental-only claims)10 9476 92217 869
                Total, all environments97 86513 311111 176

WORK ACCIDENTS—The following table analyses compensated work injuries occurring in 1977 by the industrial groups in which the victims were working, and whether the accident resulted in fatality or permanent disability, or temporary incapacity only. At the time of going to print, separate figures for fatalities were not available.

Because “first-week” incapacity does not usually result in a claim on the Accident Compensation Commission, it is not possible to compile injury frequency and severity rates as in the past. However, a column is included in the table showing the labour force engaged in each industrial group according to the 1976 Census of Population. From this has been calculated an “injury rate”—that is, the number of compensated accidents per 1000 workers. Although not a comprehensive figure this rate will give a guide to the relative frequency of more serious injuries between the various industrial groups.

IndustryCompensated Work InjuriesLabour Force*Injury Rate
Fatal or Permanent DisabilityTemporary DisabilityTotal

*As recorded at 1976 Census of Population.

†Compensated claims per 1000 of labour force.

Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing—
    Agriculture and hunting3965 2155 611118 18247
    Forestry and logging409841 0247 834131
    Fishing131461592 88455
              Total4496 3456 794128 90053
Mining and quarrying—
    Coalmining132262391 650145
    Crude petroleum and natural gas production2112114757151
    Metal ore mining1151631850
    Other mining91001092 33447
              Total254534785 05994
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco24511 18211 42768 787166
    Textile, apparel, and leather industries561 0611 11748 36823
    Wood and wood products, including furniture1541 7281 88224 92476
    Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing4993898731 72531
    Chemicals and products of chemicals, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic781 0451 12324 38346
    Non-metallic mineral products3563967411 73257
    Basic metal industries517397906 309125
    Fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment1912 8783 06984 47936
    Other manufacturing212322535 01750
              Total88020 44221 322305 72470
Electricity, gas, and water—
    Electricity, gas, and steam3380884114 27959
    Water works and supply332351 05033
              Total3684087615 32957
Construction3235 8776 200112 13755
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels—
    Wholesale trade761 2951 37158 63423
    Retail trade1071 6761 783123 84314
    Restaurants and hotels4077881833 64524
              Total2233 7493 972216 12218
Transport, storage, and communication—
    Transport and storage1884 1784 36676 68457
    Communication2880383134 60324
              Total2164 9815 197111 28747
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services—
    Financial institutions5919622 6044
    Insurance6525815 1834
    Real estate and business services991 2741 37342 00533
              Total1101 4171 52779 79219
Community, social, and personal services—
    Public administration and defence891 8601 94959 60733
    Sanitary and similar services144034177 47156
    Social and related community services841 9962 080147 14914
    Recreational and cultural services2130432515 51421
    Personal and household services5873279032 71024
    International and other extra-territorial bodies798
              Total2665 2955 561263 24921
    Not adequately defined1218920134 734
              Total, all industries2 54049 58852 1281,272,33341

ROAD ACCIDENTS—The analysis of accident types in this and the other tables of non-work accidents follows the list of external causes of injury in the International Classification of Diseases, which should be consulted for definitions of the terms and descriptions used. Road accidents occuring during work or travel to or from work qualify as work accidents and are included in the preceding table. As previously stated, statistics of injuries to children and other non-earners are limited by the fact that such people do not usually qualify for compensation.

External Cause*Age (In Years)Total
0–45–1920–2930–3940–4950–5960 and Over

*According to International Classification of Diseases.

†Includes persons of unspecified age (69 males and 41 females).

Railways accidentsM22
F11
Motor vehicle traffic accidents—
    Involving collision with trainM831316
F3115
    Involving collision with another motor vehicleM764349313911290771 585
F424922193687380800
    Involving collision with other vehicleM225113534403539544
F4645739232327237
    Involving collision with pedestrianM14957323354272358
F10602311192454207
    Other, involving collisionM22532266417269605
F1804623141616200
    Non-collision, loss of controlM66695601368647281 542
F119713232353330465
    Non-collision, boarding or alightingM2112966660
F111675101959
    Non-collision, otherM235525954191510719
F1614051159135
    Of unspecified natureM31049130131316272
F4423414121217141
              TotalM362 3991 8524903282742605 701
F267675602241881962522 249
Motor vehicle non-traffic accidents—
    Involving collision with moving objectM116744234
F24332519
    Involving collision with stationary objectM2327391266
F9622121
    Boarding or alightingM6431116
F1111116
    Other or unspecifiedM4628933292
F1225121
              TotalM19166151796208
F22612639767
Other road vehicle accidents—
    Pedal cycle accidentsM601812543102
F275422748
    Other non-motor road vehicle accidentsM9233118
F1021115
              TotalM692015853120
F377532763
Accidental poisoning by solid or liquid substance (not drug or medicament)M
F111
Accidental fallsM1111741151161
F15566143067
Accidents due to natural or environmental factorsM314
F111115
Other accidentsM202513124380
F54285428
Suicide or self-inflicted injuryM11
F
Homicide or injury purposely inflicted by some other personM4104220
F22
              Total, all categoriesM382 5991 9905423782972846 197
F288445882442092283012 483
T663 4432 5787865875255858 680

HOME ACCIDENTS—The term “home” is used here to signify the victim's own home, i.e. dwelling and grounds; other domestic premises are included under the heading, “Other Accidents”.

External Cause*Age (In years)Total
0–45–1920–2930–3940–4950–5960 and Over

*According to International Classification of Diseases.

†Includes persons of unspecified age (98 males and 59 females).

Motor vehicle traffic accidentsM 2018252351
F16412216
Motor vehicle non-traffic accidentsM43947151396135
F182557533
Other road vehicle accidentsM5207834148
F18512127
Accidental poisoning by drugs or medicamentsM1113
F112
Accidental poisoning by other solid or liquid substancesM2114
F123
Accidental poisoning by gases or vapoursM112
F1135
Accidental fallsM302315464364614743352 541
F161422792993374748952 471
Accidents caused by fires or flamesM327463023188158
F5151511861880
Accidents due to natural or environmental factorsM271810169770
F31010796349
Other accidentsM866211 3461 0548597833185 124
F492264134413792941922 016
Surgical or medical complications or misadventuresM1113
F12115
Late effects of accidental injuryM12
F12
Suicide or self-inflicted injuryM13217
F11
Homicide or injury purposely inflicted by other personsM141703626144196
F314462615134125
Legal interventionM112
F
Undetermined whether accidentally or purposely inflictedM12
F
              Total, all causesM1311 0082 1051 5931 4111 3166868 348
F784407777957598061 1214 835
T2091 4482 8822 3882 1702 1221 80713 183

SPORT AND RECREATIONAL ACCIDENTS—Only victims actually engaging in a sport or recreation at the time of the accident are included in the following table. Accidents to spectators and others are included among “Other Accidents”.

External Cause*Age (In Years)Total
0–45–1920–2930–3940–4950–5960 and Over

*According to International Classification of Diseases.

†Includes persons of unspecified age (108 males and 17 females).

Motor vehicle non-traffic accidentsM2243258581571589
F1610522237
Other road vehicle accidentsM19064292381219
F177582135166
Water transport accidentsM10302117203102
F78356231
Air transport accidentsM183661263
F4610
Accidental poisoning by solid or liquid substances (not drugs or medicaments)M
F11
Accidental fallsM129271 93249313777463 661
F1212248105555531714
Accidents caused by fires and flamesM75411119
F12115
Accidents due to natural or environmental factorsM117321412886
F1341464364
Other accidentsM111 1872 453749298126364 920
F3234286178732818827
Late effects of accidental injuryM 112
F
Suicide and self-inflicted injuryM11
F
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other personM1346019714126
F2226
              Total, all categoriesM282 5344 8701 394511251929 788
F758963232114399531 861
T353 1235 5021 71565435014511 649

OTHER ACCIDENTS—The following table covers compensated claims in respect of accidents not included in the preceding tables—namely, other than work, road, home, and sport or recreational accidents.

External Cause*Age (In Years)Total
0–45–1920–2930–3940–4950–5960 and Over

*According to International Classification of Diseases.

†Includes persons of unspecified age (56 males and 24 females).

Railway accidentsM 41111210
F1113
Motor vehicle traffic accidentsM13429847589
F21765451049
Motor vehicle non-traffic accidentsM199631810139218
F4431688921109
Other road vehicle accidentsM148201335293
F274311137
Water transport accidentsM4412213
F123
Air transport accidentsM11115
F213
Accidental poisoning by drugs and medicamentsM
F11
Accidental poisoning by other solid and liquid substancesM112
F
Accidental poisoning by gases and vapoursM112
F11
Accidental fallsM123514012052011791821 544
F81881611451622705361 485
Accidents caused by fires and flamesM216211275165
F23229
Accidents due to natural and environmental factorsM2131691191474
F314127411759
Other accidentsM37573700389248184952 254
F1516913196816982651
Surgical and medical complications and misadventuresM1477717650
F11151686552
Late effects of accidental injuryM22
F11
Suicide and self-inflicted injuryM21115
F
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other personsM117629712562327705
F18181741260
Legal interventionM1719
F
Undetermined whether accidentally or purposely inflictedM11114
F
              Total, all categoriesM591 3221 5687975594583255 144
F364833692972723776652 523
T951 8051 9371 0948318359907 667

35 C—FARM ACCIDENTS

While the increasing mechanisation on 68 500 farm holdings in 1977 is responsible principally for the high output per unit of labour engaged in farm production, it is equally responsible for the high number of accidents to persons associated with agricultural production.

Normal farm activities and the bringing into production of new land, utilised in 1977 some 33 000 trucks, 52 000 discs and harrows, 89 000 agricultural tractors, and 20 000 fertiliser spreaders. These have taken a high annual toll in accidents and deaths. These figures are further aggravated by the use of some 50 000 chain saws, 32 000 farm bikes, and large numbers of chemical-spraying plants.

The increasing use of chemicals in agriculture for weed control, and as pesticides and therapeutants, has added to the hazards to which those engaged in the agricultural industry are subjected. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries undertakes educational activities to endeavour to reduce the accident rates.

Tables in this section present information compiled by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health on accidents and deaths sustained on farms. Domestic accidents or accidents in farm homes are excluded.

Accidents on Farms—The following table shows the number of patients treated in public hospitals in 1974 after treatment for injuries sustained in farm accidents (excluding motor vehicle accidents).

Cause of AccidentsAge of Patients (In Years)Total Patients
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
Machinery, n.e.c.63232258103
Falls7351335113221
Animals19597834710432
Accidental poisoning31416134
Firearms482721
Fire and flames6342116
Hot substances, corrosive liquids, or steam1047122
Struck by falling object511149342
Cutting or piercing instruments135653397168
Other and unspecified farm mishaps7675101719332
              Total, 1974391351345253511 391

Deaths from Accidents on Farms—Causes of deaths from accidents on farms are shown in the following table. Injured persons who died after admission to a public hospital are also included in the preceding table. (Motor vehicle accidents on farms are included.)

Cause of Fatal AccidentAge of Deceased (In Years)Total Deaths
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
197319741973197419731974197319741973197419731974
Farm machinery5452472741624
Electric current1212
Falls131133
Firearms1111132
Blow from falling or projected object12322275
Drowning or submersion44
Other and unspecified53311312145
              Total1711103910711564841

35 D—OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

GENERAL—The legislation on occupational safety is principally contained in the following statutes (and the regulations made under them). The last 2 items were actually made under the Public Works Act 1928 but are always quoted in their own right.

The Factories Act 1946, section 44 to 79; the Machinery Act 1950; the Bush Workers Act 1945; the Construction Act 1959; the Shops and Offices Act 1955, First Schedule; the Accident Compensation Act 1972; the Coal Mines Act 1925; the Mining Act 1971; the Explosives Act 1957; the Dangerous Goods Act 1974; the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950; the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952; the Quarries Act 1944; the Health Act 1956 so far as it relates to occupational health (see Section 5A); the Petroleum Act 1937; the Geothermal Energy Act 1953; the Electricians Act 1952; the Electric Linemen Act 1959; the Agricultural Workers Act 1977; the Electrical Wiring Regulations 1976; and the Electrical Supply Regulations 1967.

Department of Labour—This department has the largest overall responsibility for the prevention of accidents in industry. The principal statutes it administers are: the Factories Act 1946, which is concerned with safety, health, and welfare in factories; the Construction Act 1959, which covers safety, health, and welfare of workmen on construction work as defined in the Act; and the Machinery Act 1950, which is concerned with the inspection of all machinery (with some exceptions covered by other legislation) in work places and the safety of persons working with such machinery. The department also administers regulations under these Acts, and other statutes dealing with specific spheres of occupational safety, health, and welfare, e.g. the Bush Workers Act 1945, the Agricultural Workers Act 1977 (section 6) and the Shops and Offices Act 1955. In addition the department supervises more than 1141 collective agreements and awards, many of which include specific safety, health, and welfare provisions relating to particular occupations and processes.

The administration of this safety legislation is based primarily on regular inspection of work places and requisitioning for improvements, together with investigation of reported breaches of legislation by employers and workers and investigation of a large number of accidents including serious and fatal accidents in industries coming within the scope of the legislation. The department employs some 186 inspectors of factories (including 10 who specialise in bush undertakings), together with some 55 safety inspectors appointed under the Construction Act 1959, all of whom are qualified by special examination. Their work is substantially preventive. The department also engages in a large amount of occupational safety education.

A Joint Committee on Occupational Health and Safety of the Departments of Labour and Health and the Accident Compensation Commission ensures that the educational work in this field is co-ordinated and that unnecessary overlapping of functions is avoided.

Machinery Act—The Machinery Act 1950, with certain exceptions, applies to all machinery and places an obligation on the owners of machines to securely fence moving and dangerous parts. The Act also covers amusement devices, which require a certificate from a registered engineer that the device is mechanically and structurally safe for the purpose intended. The Act also requires the testing and certification of tractor safety frames used in agricultural operations.

Construction Act—The Construction Act 1959, the provisions of which are in addition to and not in substitution for the safety provisions of any other Act, promotes the safety and welfare of persons engaged in construction work, a description which covers a wide variety of work including new construction, maintenance, and demolition of buildings, roads, harbour works, railways, canals, bridges, dams, pipelines, earthworks, etc. Certificates of competency are issued after examination to scaffolders, safety supervisors, construction blasters, and powder-powered tool operators.

A register of divers competent and fit to undertake underwater construction work is maintained.

Ministry of Transport: Safety of Ships—A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960 and the International Load Line Convention 1930, to both of which New Zealand is a signatory. Both conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters.

Aircraft—The Ministry of Transport is responsible for promoting the safety of aircraft and crews engaged in private and commercial carriage of the public and commercial carriage of goods, including agricultural aviation.

Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes—All boilers and power cranes are inspected and certificated once a year and lifts twice a year. In the calendar year 1977 there were 25 703 inspections of boilers and unfired pressure vessels, 6691 inspections of lifts, and 4500 inspections of cranes. Sixty accident investigations were carried out under the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act.

Ministry of Energy—The Mining Act 1971 and the Quarries Act 1944 make provision for the safety of persons working in mines (both underground and opencast) and in quarries. The definition of a quarry covers the construction of electric power generation works, dams for public water supply, tunnels, and opencast coal quarries.

The ministry is also responsible for the administration of Acts designed to ensure the safety of electrical apparatus and installations and of electrical workers.

Department of Internal Affairs—The Department of Internal Affairs, through its Explosive Branch, administers legislation which has as its purpose the protection of life and property from the hazards associated with the handling, storage, transport, manufacture, and use of explosive and dangerous goods.

Ministry of Works and Development—On each major construction project the Ministry of Works and Development appoints a senior technical officer to act in the capacity of safety officer.

Occupational Health Centres—The Department of Health provides occupational health centres at strategic points in Auckland, Rotorua, Mount Maunganui, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Attendances at occupational health centres and waterfront clinics in 1977 totalled 24 661 first attendances and 24 265 re-attendances.

Chapter 38. Section 36; COOK ISLANDS, NIUE, AND TOKELAU

Table of Contents

General—The Cook Islands were proclaimed a British protectorate in 1888 and in 1901 they were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand under the Colonial Boundaries Act 1895. In 1965, under United Nations supervision, the people of the Cook Islands in an act of self-determination opted for a status of full self-government in free association with New Zealand.

Niue was also brought within the boundaries of New Zealand in 1901 and in 1974, also in an act of self-determination under United Nations supervision, opted for a similar status to that of the Cook Islands.

The Governments of the Cook Islands and Niue enjoy exclusive legislative and executive competence in all matters. They are free to amend their own constitutions and by their own unilateral act to opt for complete severance of the free association status at any time. The people of the Cook Islands and Niue remain New Zealand citizens and accordingly have a free right of entry to New Zealand. Under the constitutional relationship New Zealand has agreed to act on behalf of the Cook Islands and Niuean Governments, after consultation with the Premiers, in matters of foreign affairs and defence. However, New Zealand does not retain any reserve powers in these fields. Moreover in a wide and growing range of matters (including the conclusion of treaties and membership of regional organisations) the Cook Islands and Niue deal independently in matters of foreign affairs.

Tokelau was formerly part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. It was administered by New Zealand on behalf of Britain from 1925 until 1949 when it became part of New Zealand. The people of Tokeiau are New Zealand citizens. Tokelau is a non-self-governing territory. However a system of self-administration has been introduced. Reports on Tokelau are forwarded annually to the United Nations and in June 1976 a delegation from the UN Committee on Decolonisation visited Tokelau at New Zealand's invitation to gather facts and ascertain the wishes and aspirations of the people.

COOK ISLANDS: Descriptive—There are 15 islands in the Cook Group, scattered over an area of some 2,204,000 square kilometres of ocean, and extending from Penrhyn, situated 9° south of the equator, to Mangaia, which is just north of the Tropic of Capricorn. The Cook Islands are bounded on the east and west by the 156th and 167th meridians of the west longitude respectively, and on the north and south by the 8th and 23rd parallels of south latitude. The total land area of the 15 islands is approximately 236 square kilometres.

Of the islands of the Southern Group, Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Atiu, Mitiaro, Mauke, and Mangaia are elevated and fertile, while Manuae and Takutea and the islands of the Northern Group, comprising Penrhyn, Manihiki, Rakahanga, Pukapuka, Palmerston, Nassau, and Suwarrow, are sea-level coral atolls. As a consequence the southern islands support the greater population. The Northern Group island of Penrhyn possesses a good harbour while Avatiu harbour in Rarotonga can accommodate vessels of approximately 1000 tons.

All of the Cook Islands lie within the hurricane zone, and a number of destructive storms have been experienced. The Cook Islands are covered by a meteorological service with headquarters in Fiji, and advance warning of the intensity and path of tropical storms is available and enables precautions to be taken to protect life and property. From December to March the climate is warm and humid, and there is always the possibility of serious storms. In the remaining months of the year the climate of the Southern Group is mild and equable. The mean annual temperature in Rarotonga taken over the last 40 years was 23.6°C, and the average yearly rainfall over the same period was 213.4 cm.

Administration: Executive Government—The Executive Government of the Cook Islands is vested in the Crown. The Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964 provides for the appointment by the Governor-General of a High Commissioner of the Cook Islands as the representative of Her Majesty the Queen in the Cook Islands, and also as the representative of the Government of New Zealand. The Chief Justice of the Cook Islands presently holds the position, in terms of the Constitution, as acting Representative of the Head of State, while the New Zealand Government has its own office headed by the New Zealand Representative.

Executive Government lies with a Cabinet of Ministers comprising the Premier of the Cook Islands and six other Ministers. The Premier is appointed by the High Commissioner as the member of the Assembly commanding the confidence of the majority of members in the Assembly, and the other Ministers are appointed by the High Commissioner on the advice of the Premier. An Executive Council of the Cook Islands, consisting of the High Commissioner of the Cook Islands and the members of Cabinet, may be summoned by the High Commissioner or the Premier to consider any Cabinet decision, and has power to ask Cabinet to reconsider its decisions. If Cabinet, after reconsideration, reaffirms its original decision, this decision is forthwith put into operation.

The departments of the Cook Islands Government are structured in the following Ministries: Financial Services; Supportive Services; Health and Education; Agriculture, Marine and Scientific and Industrial Research; Trade, Industry, Labour and Commerce; Internal Affairs, Justice, Lands, Survey and Conservation; and Planning and External Affairs. The Premier is responsible for the portfolios of Civil Aviation, External Affairs, Police, and Tourism.

The House of Ariki—The House of Ariki of the Cook Islands consists of up to 15 Ariki, representing all islands in the group, and is required to meet at least once every 12 months. The House considers any matters relative to the welfare of the people of the Cook Islands which may be submitted to it for consideration by the Legislative Assembly and has such other functions as may be prescribed by law.

Island Councils—Island councils exist in each of the main islands of the Cook Islands and have done so for many years. All island councils were reconstituted by the Local Government Act 1966, the major effect of which was to provide that the chairman was to be elected from among the councils' members. Previously the Resident Agent (except on Rarotonga) was Chairman ex officio. The Resident Agents are still members ex officio, but without vote, and their primary function is of advisers.

The councils meet regularly and are empowered to make bylaws for the imposition of tolls, rates, taxes, and other charges (except customs duties); to regulate, control, or prohibit many activities; and to carry out various works and services on each island.

Legislative Government—The Legislative Assembly of the Islands, as constituted by the Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964, consists of 22 members, all elected by secret ballot under a system of universal suffrage by the electors of the following islands: three members from Aitutaki and Manuae; two members each from Atiu and Mangaia; one member each from Manihiki, Mauke, Mitiaro, Penrhyn, and Rakahanga; one member from Pukapuka and Nassau; nine members from Rarotonga and Palmerston.

General elections are normally held at 4-yearly intervals. There is a common roll for both Maoris and non-Maoris. The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly is elected by members from persons within or without the assembly.

The Legislative Assembly may make Acts for the peace, order, and good government of the Cook Islands. (These powers extend to the making of laws having extra-territorial operation.) The responsibilities of the Crown in right of New Zealand for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands are discharged after consultation by the Prime Minister of New Zealand with the Premier of the Cook Islands.

The Constitution of the Cook Islands is the supreme law of the Cook Islands and the Legislative Assembly alone has power to amend or repeal it. Such repeal or amendment, however, can only be made by a two-thirds affirmative vote of the Assembly followed by an interval of not less than 90 days.

Health—All Cook Islanders receive free medical and surgical treatment. School and pre-school children also receive free dental treatment.

Although lying within the tropics, the Cook Islands are singularly free from the common diseases prevalent in other tropical islands. Malaria is unknown, but filariasis is endemic, and this provides the main health problem of the group.

A general hospital equipped with dispensary, X-rays, and laboratory facilities, is maintained in Rarotonga. In the outer islands dispensaries with accommodation for a few patients are operated by assistant medical practitioners. Cottage hospitals have been built at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mauke, Penrhyn, Manihiki, Pukapuka, and Mangaia.

Education—Primary education in the Cook Islands is provided by the Government, the Roman Catholic Mission, and the Seventh Day Adventist Mission. The Government also provides secondary education.

Education is free, compulsory, and secular from the time of a child's sixth birthday to his fifteenth birthday. In 1976 the total number of pupils on the rolls was 6572, and there were 268 teachers.

Population and Vital Statistics—The Cook Islands Maori is Polynesian and has a common ethnic origin with the New Zealand Maori. There is a strong resemblance between the two peoples in tradition, language, and custom. Many of the tribes in both places are able to trace their descent back to a common ancestor.

A census of the Cook Islands, taken in December 1976, recorded a total population of 18 112, a decrease of 3211 on the population recorded at the 1971 Census. The main drop was in 1973 and 1974 following the opening of the international airport. Recent quarterly estimates suggest that the population has stabilised for the time being at around 18 513–9587 males and 8926 females. Details of population of the islands of the group as at December 1976 are set out in the following table.

IslandArea Sq kmMalesFemalesTotal
Rarotonga67.085 0994 7129 811
Aitutaki18.131 2071 2072 414
Mangaia51.807737571 530
Atiu26.947006121 312
Mauke18.39341369710
Mitiaro22.27163142305
Manuae6.22
Palmerston2.07252853
Pukapuka1.29373413786
Nassau1.295756113
Manihiki5.44132131263
Rakahanga4.14142141283
Penrhyn9.84274257531
Suwarrow1.5211
Takatea0.29
        Total236.509 2878 82518 112

Labour and Employment—On the atolls in the Northern Group the people subsist largely on coconuts and fish, and apart from making copra, there is little opportunity for them to engage in other economic pursuits. It is in the fertile islands of the Southern Group that most of the population is concentrated, and labour is required for the growing, harvesting, packing, and shipment of fruit. As most of the land in these islands is held by family groups under customary title, many of the people are engaged in work on their own plantations. There is, however, opportunity for wage and salary earners in Government departments, in plantation work, in the handling of fruit for export, and in commerce.

In Rarotonga secondary industries have been established in the form of 2 clothing factories, a fruit cannery, and factories manufacturing local artifacts. Products from these industries are exported to the New Zealand market.

Agriculture—Fresh fruit exports are now almost limited to bananas and mandarins, but canned pineapple and fruit juices processed locally have become major exports. Agricultural statistics are limited. The first agricultural census was taken in Rarotonga in 1975. The following figures of areas planted in major crops are taken from that census: citrus fruits, 249 hectares; coconuts, 151 hectares; maniota, 65 hectares; taro, 58 hectares; and kumaras, 35 hectares. In addition, other vegetables, melons, pawpaws, and other fruit are grown. In the group as a whole, it is estimated that 5747 hectares are growing coconuts and 598 hectares citrus fruit.

Transport and Communications—The New Zealand Shipping Corporation operates fortnightly shipping services between the Cook Islands and New Zealand ports.

An international airport was opened for full international services in December 1973. Rarotonga is connected by jet service with Auckland, Nadi, Tahiti, and Honolulu; and by turboprop with Niue and Western Samoa. Air New Zealand flies in 4 times a week, and there are regular services between Rarotonga and the principal islands run by Cook Islands Airways.

Radio communication has largely removed the former isolation of the islands, there being now no permanently inhabited island without a radio station. The chief station is Rarotonga Radio, which maintains direct communication with the substations and with Wellington, Apia, and Suva. Postal and telegraph services are available in all the islands. There is a telephone service in Rarotonga and smaller services operate on Aitutaki and Mangaia.

Trade—There is free trade between the Cook Islands and New Zealand, which takes almost all the exports of the Cook Islands and supplies over 80 percent of their imports. Import licences are required for goods imported from countries other than New Zealand.

The principal exports are fruit juice, canned fruit, and fruit pulp; copra; and bananas. The main imports are foodstuffs, followed by drapery and piece goods, petrol and oil, and vehicles and spares.

Tourism—Following the establishment of an international airport at Rarotonga, high-class hotel accommodation has been built to accommodate the growing tourist trade. Visitor arrivals have increased from 2882 in 1973 to 16 823 in 1977.

Public Finance—The New Zealand Government has continued to give financial aid to the Cook Islands Government through grants for social services and ordinary administrative expenditure, plus grants and loans for capital works and economic development. The level of aid is reviewed triennially.

NIUE: Descriptive—Niue Island, discovered by Captain Cook in 1774, became part of New Zealand in 1901. The island is situated in latitude 19°2′ south and longitude 169°52′ west, approximately 483 km east of Tonga, 653 km south-east of Samoa, and 933 km west of Rarotonga. The island, which has an area of 26 265 hectares, is an elevated coral outcrop with a coral reef fringing a precipitous and broken coastline. The central saucer-shaped plateau, rising to a height of 67 m, is encircled by a narrow terrace about 27 m above sea level. The soil, though fertile, is not plentiful, and this feature, combined with the rocky and broken nature of the country, makes cultivation difficult. The climate is mild and equable, but the island is in the hurricane belt. The mean annual temperature is 24.7°C, and the average rainfall is 217.7 cm.

Administration—On 19 October 1974 (Constitution Day), Niue became self-governing in free association with New Zealand. The Leader of Government became the Premier of Niue and the Executive Committee became the Cabinet. Under the Constitution the Niue Assembly consists of 20 members elected by universal suffrage, 14 members each representing a village constituency, and 6 members elected on a common roll.

Niueans are Polynesians with close ethnic ties with the Tongans and Samoans. The language is a Polynesian dialect peculiar to the island, but closely related to that of Tonga and Samoa, with some elements from eastern Polynesia. Niueans are New Zealand citizens.

The population at the last census (28 September 1976) was 3843, the continued decline being principally due to emigration to New Zealand.

The principal exports of Niue are passion fruit, limes, copra, plaited ware, and honey. The bulk of the trade is with New Zealand.

TOKELAU: Descriptive—Situated some 480 kilometres to the north of Western Samoa, between 8° and 10° south latitude and between 171° and 173° west longitude, forming a border area between Micronesia and Polynesia, are the 3 atoll islands of Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo, of the Tokelau Group. A fourth island, Olohega, belonging to the United States of America and lying 160 kilometres to the south of Fakaofo, completes the group.

Each atoll is composed of a number of coral islets surrounding a central lagoon. These islets vary in size from 100 metres in length, while none is wider than 400 metres nor, with but few exceptions, higher than 3 metres above sea level. The land area of each atoll is approximately as follows: Fakaofo, 263 hectares; Atafu, 202 hectares; Nukunonu, 546 hectares. The atolls do not lie in close proximity, there being 64 kilometres of open sea between Fakaofo and Nukunonu, and 92 kilometres between Nukunonu and Atafu.

Owing to the absence of humus in the soil, the vegetation is practically restricted to coconut palms, although one islet of each atoll is reserved for growing the tauanave, a short stubby tree, which yields to the people of Tokelau their only timber for the construction of canoes and utensils.

Administration—Tokelau was included under the protection of Great Britain in 1877. In 1916 the islands, at the request of the inhabitants, were formally annexed to Great Britain by an Order in Council, which also extended the boundaries of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony to include the Tokelau Group (then known as the Union Islands) and their dependencies. The group was governed by the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific and administered by the District Officer at Funafuti, in

the Ellice Group. In 1925 the New Zealand Government, at the request of the British Government, agreed to administer the islands. By Order in Council the group was separated from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and by a further Order in Council in the same year the Governor-General of New Zealand was empowered to make laws for its peace, order, and good government.

By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 the Tokelau Group was included within the territorial boundaries of New Zealand; legislative powers are now vested in the Governor-General in Council. In December 1976 the territory was officially redesignated 'Tokelau', the name by which it has customarily been known to its inhabitants. The inhabitants of Tokelau are New Zealand citizens.

Because of the very restricted economic and social future in the atolls, the Tokelauans agreed to a proposal put to them by the Minister of Island Territories in 1965 that over a period of years most of the population be resettled in New Zealand. Up to the end of March 1975, 528 migrants had entered New Zealand as permanent residents under Government sponsorship. Many others have settled in New Zealand of their own accord. However, as a result of the assisted resettlement scheme, overpopulation is not at present a problem and, in 1975, with a decline in the number of people seeking resettlement assistance and a threat of social distortion through the drain of able-bodied manpower to New Zealand becoming apparent, the scheme was suspended.

Village affairs are managed by the Council of Elders “fono” comprising representatives of the families, and this body also exerts influence over the “aumaga” or village labour force. In this way the traditional form of patriarchal authority has been preserved and regulates Tokelau society, performing a service alongside, and in addition to, the public duties of government which are carried out by local officials such as the Faipule and the Pulenuku.

Population—The people are closely allied to the Samoans.

On 25 October 1976 a census snowed a total population of 1575.

IslandMalesFemalesTotal
Atafu263283546
Fakaofo315351666
Nukunonu169194363
Total7478281 575

General Economic Conditions—The physical characteristics of the atolls allow very little scope for economic development and the few natural resources are sufficient only to meet the needs of the simple pattern of life followed by the people. There has, until recent years, been little demand for the material standards of more developed countries, but increasing contacts with Western Samoa and New Zealand have stimulated a desire among the people for wider opportunities to advance their living standards. The high copra price assisted the economy during 1974–75.

The economy of Tokelau is based mainly on the resources of the sea and on the coconut and pandanus palms. Employment on the works programme has diverted much of the islands' labour force from food gathering and copra production although care is taken to limit such dislocation. Most families obtain part of their cash income from relatives working in New Zealand. Funds are also sent by the Tokelau communities in New Zealand for village and church projects.

Public Works—New hospital buildings on all three atolls were completed during 1976–77. A reef channel improvement programme is well under way, and administration buildings have been built on each island. To improve the supply of fresh water, additional water tanks have been installed in each village.

Land Tenure and Usage—The numerous uninhabited islets at each atoll are used as food plantations. Local timber is used for canoe making, house building, and domestic utensils, while woodwork and plaited ware are marketed on a small scale. The coconut palm, which is predominant in the atolls, provides a staple export in the form of copra.

Practically all land is held by customary title in accordance with the customs and usages of the inhabitants. Land holdings pass from generation to generation within the families, being held by the head of a closely related family group, although some land is held in common.

Apart from the manufacture of copra, agricultural products are of a basic subsistence nature. Food crops consist of coconuts, pulaka, breadfruit, ta'amu, pawpaw, the fruit of the edible pandanus, and bananas. Numerous other seeds have been tested but because of the poverty of the soil very poor results were achieved.

Livestock consists of pigs which, except in Fakaofo, are kept apart from the village areas, and fowls. Ocean and lagoon fish and shellfish are available in quantity and form a staple constituent of the diet, the most common species of fish caught being tuna, bonito, trevally, and mullet.

Labour and Employment—Copra production and the manufacture of plaited ware and woodwork are the only industries and no supervision of employment conditions in these industries is necessary. Between trading calls the people devote their labour to procuring food from lagoon, ocean, or plantation, to village maintenance, and to the production of woven mats, fans, and curios. Many of the men also work on the Administration's building projects.

Housing Conditions—Most Tokelau houses are constructed of kanava and pandanus timbers with walls and roofs of plaited pandanus. The style of house is well suited to the climate.

The villages are well laid out. The people of Atafu live in one village which occupies part of a motu (islet). At Nukunonu the village occupies about half of one motu which is connected by bridge to a neighbouring motu where some families have settled.

The village at Fakaofo is situated on a small but comparatively high and well-shaded motu. Until recently some overcrowding has been evident but emigration to New Zealand has lessened this. The Administration is helping to establish a new village on a larger, nearby motu where the school is located and the new hospital and other facilities are being built.

Health—The health authorities in Tokelau receive advice and guidance from Apia. The incidence of disease in the islands is comparatively slight.

A Fiji-trained Tokelauan medical practitioner is stationed on each atoll. Other medical staff consists of staff nurses, nurses, and dressers, who obtain their training at Apia hospital in Western Samoa. In addition, each atoll has an active women's committee, and to these committees much credit is due for their work in village health and sanitation.

Education—During 1977–78 there were 38 trained Tokelauan teachers and 16 teacher-aides in the islands. All necessary school equipment, stationery, and textbooks are supplied by the New Zealand Government; the schools also receive copies of the Samoan Teachers Monthly Guide and of Samoan and New Zealand School Journals. In addition, they are equipped with filmstrip and movie projectors and also with radio sets so that the daily educational broadcasts of the Western Samoan Education Department may be utilised. Attendance at schools is very close to 100 percent, parents being most enthusiastic in supporting the schools. Pre-school classes are run in each village.

Tokelauan pupils are included in the training scheme for education in New Zealand, and selected students also receive schooling and training in Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, and Fiji.

Communications—Trading voyages between Western Samoa and Tokelau are made at regular intervals by an Administration-chartered vessel.

Radiotelegraph receivers and transmitters are operated on each atoll. In addition, radio receiving sets are installed in all villages and enable the people to listen to broadcasts from the Apia broadcasting station.

Trade and Finance—The quantity of copra shipped for the year ended 31 March 1977 amounted to 85.97 tonnes valued at $NZ24,298. Apart from copra, the only other exports are handicrafts.

Revenue is derived principally from export duty on copra, Customs duty of 12½ percent ad valorem on all goods entering the islands, trading profits, radio and telegram services, and the sale of postage stamps. New Zealand's financial aid to Tokelau in 1977–78 amounted to $NZ1,049,000.

Chapter 39. Section 37; TRAVEL AND TOURISM

Table of Contents

EXPANSION OF TRAVEL AND TOURISM—Travel between countries in and around the Pacific has developed rapidly in recent years and international jet air services have made New Zealand fairly easily accessible to tourists of all countries. During the last two decades the tourist industry has become a fast-growing sector in international commerce; in some countries it has become the largest industry. The industry has grown so fast and is having such an impact on the international balance of payments that the economics of tourism are receiving increasing attention.

In New Zealand a healthy domestic tourist industry has led to the growth of all services necessary for New Zealand's wider participation in this expanding industry. There has been a considerable surge in building of hotels and motels and the provision of complementary transport and other service facilities. New scenic routes have been developed, while facilities have been improved and extended in major resort areas. There is a network of convenient air services.

Travel Arrivals and New Zealand Residents Departing Temporarily—Overseas travel, until recent decades largely the prerogative of the wealthy or the adventurous, has become something of a barometer of economic conditions in developed countries. Holidays overseas are among the most easily dispensable luxuries when money becomes tight and the economic future uncertain. Between 1965 and 1970 the surge in overseas travel resulted in almost doubling the annual total of overseas visitors to New Zealand. In more recent years the rate of increase has slackened, reflecting less favourable conditions on the world economic scene.

The following table shows overseas visitors to New Zealand during recent years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTouristsPersons on BusinessTemporary Work or Working HolidayOtherTotal Overseas Visitors*
Holiday or VacationStay with Relations or FriendsTotal
*Does not include through passengers, defined as passengers (mainly on cruise ships) who do not stay ashore in New Zealand. They totalled 117 441 in 1974–75, 136 927 in 1975–76, 140 920 in 1976–77, and 162 733 in 1977–78.
1974187 82257 013244 83533 00020 48519 924318 244
1975217 96567 367285 33234 44621 31320 103361 194
1976243 24869 576312 82437 98610 95022 826384 586
1977236 49069 888306 37839 8388 46825 538380 222
1978234 59274 840309 43244 0609 01228 436390 940

The number of New Zealanders going overseas on temporary visits has been affected by economic conditions in the same way as overseas visitors coming to New Zealand.

New Zealand residents departing temporarily (i.e., for less than 12 months) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchTouristsPersons on BusinessTemporary Work or Working HolidayOtherTotal N.Z. Residents Departing Temporarily
Holiday or VacationStay with Relations or FriendsTotal
1974120 19044 941165 13125 93911 8515 393208 314
1975151 07149 879200 95028 19511 7079 032249 884
1976136 70850 362187 07031 39410 56011 634240 658
1977136 92450 150187 07433 17211 59213 160244 998
1978153 20064 268217 46837 99212 37216 452284 284

Some of the permanent movement shown in migration statistics in Section 3 concerns travel. Persons intending to be absent for 12 months or more are shown as permanent departures; when they return to New Zealand after 12 months' absence they are shown as immigrants intending permanent residence. Persons arriving on working holidays or for educational purposes are not normally classified internationally as visitors or tourists.

Auckland is the main point of arrival and receives initially 68 percent of all visitors: most of the visitors arrive by air.

Travel Receipts and Payments—Travel receipts and payments (excluding fares) as recorded by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchAustraliaUnited StatesCanadaUnited KingdomJapanOtherTotal
 NZ$(million)
 Receipts
197566.518.21.613.50.56.7107.0
197694.224.12.012.50.89.4143.1
1977102.635.42.410.41.48.6160.8
197894.738.42.313.72.39.3160.7
 Payments
197572.122.22.446.01.136.5180.3
197670.029.53.148.11.141.6193.4
197788.043.14.853.21.654.4245.1
1978115.546.24.266.42.165.6300.0

From a survey made by the Tourist and Publicity Department a few years ago it was estimated that overseas visitor expenditure in New Zealand during the 12 months ended October 1973 was $76.7 million. This was broken down into expenditure per visitor from selected countries and regions as shown in the following table.

ItemVisitors from
AustraliaUnited States and CanadaUnited KingdomJapanEuropeOther
Total expenditure ($m)41.717.94.71.42.28.8
Expenditure per tourist ($)—
    Accommodation1068974969173
    Meals353637273835
    Transport576648465650
    Excursions12798107
    Social181225142016
    Souvenirs and gifts373231332229
    Personal9793520
    Other1620931610
        Total290269242230258240
Average length of stay (days)16.511.327.45.716.620.0

This survey refers to all overseas visitors. In addition to tourists, it includes persons from overseas visiting relatives or friends, and expenditure by persons in New Zealand on business.

Countries of Origin—The countries or areas of origin of all visitors other than through passengers to New Zealand during years ended 31 March are given in the following table.

Country1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78
Australia169 390213 301231 358222 804216 444
Canada11 36412 23012 55012 87012 808
United States54 99846 31349 54052 36454 288
United Kingdom22 85423 68726 41225 46827 964
Other countries59 63865 66364 72666 71679 436
All countries318 244361 194384 586380 222390 940

Visitors who are not New Zealanders require permits to enter the country, and temporary permits or student permits are issued as appropriate. Those people who are accorded the right of free entry are not required to apply to make visits. They are granted entry on arrival. Others may make visits without visas under agreements we have entered into with a number of countries, including Japan and United States. Residents of other countries must obtain entry authorities before they set out and these are obtained through the various New Zealand posts overseas. The British posts also have some authority to act in the absence of an accredited New Zealand post. Short-term visitors are asked to submit to very little formality. Those coming under the visa abolition agreements must intend remaining no longer than the periods set out in the agreements, which vary from 30 days to 3 months, and all visitors must have sufficient funds for maintenance, and fully paid tickets which will take them out of the country.

In 1977–78 48 percent of New Zealanders touring overseas went to Australia, and 12 percent to Fiji. In order of popularity, Fiji was followed by the United Kingdom, with 10 percent, and the United States, with 7 percent. The balance was spread over a large number of countries.

Internal Tourism—The Tourist and Publicity Department estimates that New Zealanders' aggregate expenditure on holiday travel within New Zealand is of the order of $215 million annually. This includes accommodation and miscellaneous holiday expenditure.

ACCOMMODATION IN NEW ZEALAND—Accommodation has been developed by the private and public sector, with the Government's Tourist Hotel Corporation (THC) operating establishments in 12 areas. The THC has mainly concentrated its activities in isolated resort areas where private enterprise finds it uneconomic to operate. The development by both sectors has provided hotels of an excellent standard in all main centres and resorts. These establishments usually operate on a room-only basis with meals as an optional extra.

There are large numbers of high standard motor hotels and motels throughout New Zealand and scores of motor camps.

Motor camping is a popular form of holidaymaking during the summer months (December to Easter). Campers provide their own tents and equipment (a number of companies specialise in hiring out camping equipment) and the camps provide community washing, cooking, and toilet facilities. Some camps offer limited cabin accommodation.

Tourist arrivals are highest from October to March. These arrivals taken in conjunction with the demand from the New Zealand summer holiday period, can impose a strain on available hotel accommodation at the major tourist resorts.

Inventory of Accommodation—An inventory of accommodation has been compiled by the Tourist and Publicity Department. It relates only to hotels licensed to supply liquor and to motels. Licensed hotels have been grouped, as far as possible, according to physical standards provided:

Group 1—are hotels having all or most rooms with private bath/shower and toilet, ample good quality public rooms, and excellent standards of maintenance.

Group 2—are hotels of good overall quality. They have a sufficient proportion of their rooms with private bath/shower and toilet to meet normal demands from people requiring these facilities. A much greater proportion than of Group 1 are older hotels.

Group 3—are hotels providing good, simple accommodation but which are not able to be included in Groups 1 and 2.

Establishments of a motel character having a tourist hotel licence or restaurant licence are counted as hotels in that they may provide hotel facilities for their guests. Motel units when run as part of a hotel are included as accommodation of that hotel.

Motels are defined as establishments providing self-contained units or apartments with bath/shower and toilet. They may include kitchen and dining-room facilities. They may (but usually do not) provide restaurant services on the premises. Tourist flats and holiday flats which do not supply ready made-up beds, and where linen, etc., is available for hire, are excluded

Private hotels and guest houses (also holiday flats not catering for overnight travellers) have not been included. Private hotels and guest houses, however, provide a significant proportion (up to 20 percent) of all available commercial accommodation. In the following table statistics for licensed hotels and motels are set out by regional areas, as at 31 March 1978.

RegionRooms in Licensed HotelsUnits in Motels
Group 1Group 2Group 3
Northland255257232887
Auckland1 5173041511 447
Waikato142205126448
King Country76803038
Coromandel-Thames2625138327
Rotorua - Bay of Plenty8123851841 434
Taupo1828344479
East Coast64205179238
Hawke's Bay25563205547
Taranaki19357199354
Wanganui - Tongariro National Park16395133230
Manawatu-Horowhenua17549193400
Wairarapa677680
Wellington1 012269191360
Marlborough13969143374
Nelson231136331
Westland380191164324
North and Mid Canterbury929447298795
South Canterbury-North Otago48283188343
Otago1 057299205651
Southland206136172235
Fiordland48696
        Total8 8493 3023 38710 418
NOTE—Licensed hotels are here grouped principally according to availability of rooms with private facilities: Group 1—all or most rooms so equipped; Group 2—sufficient private facilities for general availability; Group 3—a smaller proportion of rooms with private facilities.

Assistance to the Hotel Industry—Between 1962 and 1973 the New Zealand Government made available loan and guarantee finance to encourage the building of new hotels and motor hotels and the extension of existing hotels in areas where there was a shortage of accommodation.

Under this scheme, the Government made available $14.8 million by way of loan guarantees and $3.9 million by way of loans, resulting in the availability of an additional 3493 first class beds. Provision for guarantees was reintroduced in 1976.

A similar scheme of financial assistance in respect of tourist facilities other than accommodation was introduced in 1969 for both loans and guarantees, to encourage private enterprise operators to develop amenities, where necessary, in key tourist areas.

There are special depreciation allowances for taxation purposes which apply to approved visitor accommodation.

TRANSPORT—All main cities, towns, and tourist resorts are served by regular road or rail services and there is an extensive network of internal air services. In addition to the inter-island air services, the North and South Island are also linked by roll-on roll-off steamer services operating between Wellington and Picton.

Touring by drive-yourself hire car is a popular way of seeing the country. Several companies provide a nation-wide car-hire service. All main centres also have chauffeur-driven cars available. Coach tours of a high standard and covering a range of prices and periods are operated by a number of companies.

At several locations, but particularly in the alpine and lake regions of the South Island, set or charter air tours are available.

Travel Services—Fully accredited travel agencies are available throughout New Zealand. Most of the major international agencies are represented or have affiliates in the country and there are the Government Tourist Bureaus which offer a national service for overseas visitors and New Zealand travellers.

WIDE RANGE OF ATTRACTIONS—With features such as the amazing thermal areas, magnificent lakes and fiords, glaciers, alpine regions, and unrivalled fishing, and other sporting opportunities, New Zealand combines in a comparatively small area a host of attractions. In addition to these natural attractions, the dignity and charm of the Maori people offers for study a culture which is unique to New Zealand.

Thermal Areas—New Zealand is distinctive in having a wide range of volcanic phenomena and associated thermal spas. The chief concentration is in the volcanic belt north-east from the three major volcanoes (all usually quiet), in the centre of the North Island. The Rotorua locality is a noted centre of thermal activity, with a wide variety of geysers, mud-pools, pools of boiling water, and steam blowholes.

Many mineral springs are reputed to have a beneficial effect and mineral baths are maintained by private interests in many places.

Rotorua, with its great variety and abundance of hot springs, is a well-known New Zealand spa. At Taupo and Wairakei hot mineral waters feed into attractive swimming pools.

Weather—New Zealand lies wholly within the South Temperate Zone. The weather is sunny and rather changeable, but is neither excessively hot in summer nor uncomfortably cold in winter. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2000 hours of sunshine a year.

Seasons—The seasons in New Zealand are the opposite of those in the Northern Hemisphere:

Summer: December, January, February.

Autumn: March, April, May.

Winter: June, July, August.

Spring: September, October, November.

SPORTING ATTRACTIONS: Fishing—A wide variety of salt-water fish abound in the coasts, bays, and harbours and in both North and South Islands many streams, rivers, and lakes provide excellent rainbow and brown trout fishing.

Sizes of New Zealand trout vary from district to district depending on environment, climate, food available, and angling pressure. Average trout weights are as follows: North Island—rainbow 1 kg and brown 2¼ kg in the Rotorua lakes, rainbow 2¼ kg and brown 2 kg in Lake Taupo, rainbow and brown 1 kg in river systems; South Island—rainbow and brown 1–1½ kg in lake systems, sea-run brown 2¼ kg in West Coast rivers, sea-run “Quinnat” salmon 5½ kg in the east coast rivers, land-locked salmon 1–1¼ kg.

Big-game Fishing—The warm waters off the east coast of the North Island provide some of the best surf, line, and scuba fishing in the world. The main bases for line fishing from charter boats are at Whangaroa, Bay of Islands (Russell, Otehei Bay, and Waitangi), Tutukaka, Mercury Bay (Whitianga), and Tauranga (Mayor Island).

The most prized catches are broadbill, black marlin, striped marlin and blue marlin, while other types of big game fish found in New Zealand waters are mainly tiger shark, hammerhead shark, mako shark, thresher shark, kingfish (yellow tail), and tuna. The best catches are usually made in February but fishing is good from December to April.

Shooting and Hunting—The principal game birds are duck, swan, pheasant, quail, geese, and chukor, but the sport is limited, the main season usually extending for about 6 weeks from early May.

There are fewer restrictions, however, on stalking—no limit on the number of game animals that can be taken, no licence required, and the season is open all year round. However, commercial hunting operations have severely limited the numbers of some game animals (deer of several species, elk, chamois, and thar), that once abounded in the forest and alpine regions. Wild pigs, goats, and wallaby are still numerous in several areas of the country. A guide is essential for the success of a hunting expedition.

Ski-ing—The ski-ing in New Zealand extends from mid-July to late October in the North Island and from early July to late September in the South Island. With the operation of ski planes from the airstrip at Mount Cook very good spring ski-ing is also available for experienced skiers on extensive snowfields in the Westland and Mount Cook national parks.

In the North Island the main ski-ing centre is Mount Ruapehu in the Tongariro National Park. Equipment and instruction is available for skiers, and faculties include three chairlifts, 2 T bars, 4 poma lifts, and many rope tows. A new ski field is being developed at Turoa on the south-west slopes of Mount Ruapehu. Mount Egmont is the North Island's other principal ski area.

In the South Island the principal areas are Coronet Peak (Queenstown), Mount Hutt, Tekapo, Lake Ohau, Porters Pass, Wanaka, Arthur's Pass and Mount Cook (access by ski plane or helicopter). Coronet Peak, 19 km from Queenstown, has the best powder snow conditions in New Zealand lying on extensive undulating slopes of varying gradients; equipment and professional instruction is available for skiers, and facilities include chair lifts and a series of ski tows.

Mountaineering and Tramping—The proximity of mountain and forest to the main centres of population encourages tramping in New Zealand. Both North and South Islands have appealing tramping routes and parties can set out to enjoy the beauty and challenge of lonely country.

In the Waitakere and Hunua Ranges near Auckland, the central ranges of the North Island, at Mount Egmont, Tongariro National Park, and the Urewera area, and in the South Island's Fiordland and Golden Bay, there are numbers of tracks with high mountain traverses and passages through beautiful scenery.

Other Sports—A wide range of other sports is available. Golf courses are to be found in all parts of the country. Horse racing takes place throughout the year. Rugby football, soccer, and cricket are widely played during their seasons. There are facilities for bowls, tennis, skating, squash, and most other sports in most parts of the country.

Shopping and Souvenirs—Articles of a particularly New Zealand character include attractive jewellery made from paua shell, greenstone, and gem stones, Maori carvings in native timbers, records of Maori singing, pottery depicting Maori emblems, and natural or dyed lambskin rugs and clothing.

Tourist and Publicity Department—The Tourist and Publicity Department is responsible for the promotion of New Zealand overseas as a tourist destination and also operates a comprehensive travel service. Bureaus are sited in Auckland, Rotorua, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Queenstown, and Invercargill, with agencies in other parts of New Zealand. There are overseas offices in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, London, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York, Toronto, Tokyo, and Frankfurt. The department also supplies general New Zealand publicity material, publications, films, photographs, and displays for use within New Zealand and overseas to create a background knowledge of New Zealand, its people, and way of life.

Other Tourist Organisations—The New Zealand National Travel Association, an organisation representing private travel interests in New Zealand, is also concerned with the development of the tourist industry.

New Zealand is a foundation member of the Pacific Area Travel Association which was formed in 1952 as a tourist promotional body for the Pacific area.

Chapter 40. Section 38; MISCELLANEOUS

Table of Contents

HUMAN RIGHTS—An Act to establish a Human Rights Commission and to promote the advancement of human rights in New Zealand in general accordance with the United Nations International Covenants on Human Rights was passed by Parliament in November 1977.

The Human Rights Commission, established by the Act of the same name, has the general functions of promoting, encouraging, and co-ordinating programmes and activities in the field of human rights, and the specific functions of investigating alleged breaches of the wide-ranging provisions against discrimination on grounds of sex, marital status, or religious or ethical beliefs set out in Part II of the Act. (Part II also makes unlawful any discrimination on grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origin in a number of areas of activity not already covered by the Race Relations Act 1971).

The membership of the commission consists of the Chief Human Rights Commissioner (the Chairman), the Chief Ombudsman, the Race Relations Conciliator, and three others appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Justice.

An Equal Opportunities Tribunal was constituted under the same Act. The Tribunal consists of a chairman, who must be a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court, and two other persons appointed by the chairman for the purposes of each hearing from a panel maintained by the Minister of Justice. The principal function of the Equal Opportunities Tribunal is to adjudicate in civil proceedings brought by the commission alleging discriminatory practice under Part II of the Act.

RACE RELATIONS—The Race Relations Act 1971 was designed to affirm and promote racial equality in New Zealand and implements the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. Discrimination is unlawful on the grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins for; (a) access by the public to places, vehicles, and facilities; (b) provision of goods and services; (c) employment (including employment of independent contractors); (d) land, housing, and other accommodation. It is also unlawful to publish or display any advertisement or notice which indicates an intention to commit a breach of any of these provisions.

A breach of any of the provisions may be the subject of an investigation by the Race Relations Conciliator.

The Act also makes it an offence to incite racial disharmony.

The most important role for a race relations mediator is in situations where misunderstanding due to different racial backgrounds or concepts on the part of the parties has occurred. Potential racial incidents can often be avoided by a mediator with an explanatory role. This extension of the conciliator's duties from an area confined to complaints of racial discrimination to one where discrimination may not have occurred, but where racial misunderstanding exists, is in keeping with the aims of the Act of affirming and promoting racial equality in New Zealand.

METRICATION—The Metric Advisory Board was set up by the Government in 1969 to encourage, advise, and assist the progressive adoption within New Zealand of the metric system of weights and measures. The conversion to this system was substantially completed by the end of 1976.

New Zealand's decision to change to the metric system was based almost entirely on the necessity to keep in step with her overseas trading partners. The metric system is not only simpler and more efficient than the imperial system but also has the benefits of internationally agreed definitions and standardisation. The modern version of the metric system known as the “International System” (also called SI—“Systeme International d' Unites”) has been adopted for use in New Zealand. This system is also being adopted by all those other countries that have recently changed, or are in the process of changing, to the metric system. A table showing the relationships between British (Imperial) units and SI (Metric) units is included in the front pages of this Yearbook.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE MARKS—The legislation concerned with patents, designs, and trade marks is the Patents Act 1953, the Trade Marks Act 1953, and the Designs Act 1953. The total number of applications for the grant of letters patent, and for the registration of designs and trade marks during the financial year 1977–78 was 7335, which was 225 less than in the previous year.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade marks and designs for March years.

YearPatentsTrade MarksDesigns
1972–733 5183 515343
1973–743 5664 041369
1974–753 2383 618371
1975–763 3983 828416
1976–773 2723 757531
1977–783 0853 799451

Patents—The applications received during 1977–1978 were broadly classified as follows: chemistry, 1066; mechanical engineering, 844; building construction, 351; home science, 313; electrical engineering, 261; primary industries, 250.

Applications originating in New Zealand totalled 1 016; the United States, 732; the United Kingdom, 383; Australia, 179; Switzerland, 177; West Germany, 156; France, 81; Japan, 78; and the balance of 283 from 32 other countries.

Trade Marks—During the year 1977–78 applications for trade marks totalled 3799. The countries from which the applications for the registration of trade marks originated were: New Zealand, 1445; United States, 908; Great Britain, 397; Australia, 322; France, 138; Japan, 137; West Germany, 127; with the remaining 325 distributed among 31 other countries.

Trade marks registered during 1977–78 totalled 2528. Renewal of registration of 2977 trade marks was effected during the year.

Designs—A total of 594 industrial designs were registered during 1977–78.

COPYRIGHT—Under the Copyright Act 1962, copyright comes into existence automatically upon the completion of any original literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic work (including photographs). No registration is necessary (or even possible), nor is any other formality required for securing copyright protection.

Copyright also exists in New Zealand for sound recordings, cinematograph films, broadcasts, and published editions (typography) of literary, dramatic, and musical works.

Copyright in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works (except photographs) continues until 50 years after the author's death, if the works are published in the author's lifetime, and until 50 years after publication or 75 years after death (whichever is shorter) if they are unpublished at the death of the author. Copyright in photographs, sound recordings, cinematograph films, and broadcasts continues until 50 years after the making, and in editions until 25 years after publication.

Copyright in New Zealand in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works and in cinematograph films extends to all countries which are parties to the International Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Berne Copyright Union) and to all countries which are parties to the Universal Copyright Convention. In some cases sound recordings, broadcasts, and published editions are also protected overseas. New Zealand is a party to both conventions. Most countries of the world have acceded to the one or the other or both conventions.

In 1976, New Zealand acceded to the Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms against Unauthorised Duplication of their phonograms. The Convention obliges each contracting state to protect the producers of phonograms (i.e., records, cassettes, and other exclusively aural fixations of a performance or other sounds) against the unauthorised reproduction of their phonograms, and against the importation and distribution to the public of such unauthorised reproductions.

In New Zealand certain disputes relating to performing rights of copyright works, sound recordings, or films may be determined by the Copyright Tribunal.

INDUSTRIAL DESIGN COUNCIL—The New Zealand Industrial Design Council was established under the Industrial Design Act 1966 to promote the development of industrial design with the object of improving the quality, efficiency, packaging, and appearance of goods produced in New Zealand. It works closely with relevant Government departments, statutory bodies, and professional design organisations, and maintains regular contact with the manufacturers' and retailers' federations and other organisations interested in industrial design. Products which meet high standards of design and manufacture are awarded the prestige Designmark label and included in the Index of Designmark Products. The Council gives assistance through its field advisory service to improve products which do not meet these standards. This can include the recommendation of designers from its designer service. The Council publishes a monthly magazine Designscape and maintains a library at its Wellington headquarters.

STANDARDS COUNCIL—The Standards Act 1965 established the Standards Council as the governing body of the Standards Association of New Zealand (SANZ). Its aims are to improve efficiency and stimulate development in industry and commerce by providing standards documents, which will also assist in promoting public and industrial welfare, health, and safety. The association administers the standard certification mark scheme, which encourages improved quality control in industry with consequent improvement in the quality of consumer goods.

As technology moves ever more rapidly into completely new spheres, as New Zealand industry becomes more export-orientated, and as the energy challenge escalates, SANZ must keep up with and react to these far-reaching changes as they arise. Even more important are fields where standards must lead and where a standard in a developing area of technology can be produced before practices become established.

The council regards international standardisation as an important factor in facilitating international trade. The association is the New Zealand member of the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and the Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC). It has limited membership of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The library of the association includes about 167 000 overseas or international standards. The association publishes new and revised standards and amendments. Details of these and of other national and international standards activities are given in a monthly publication, Standards. An index, published annually, lists all the standards in use in New Zealand. New Zealand, British and all other overseas standards, and the publications of ISO and IEC, can be obtained from the SANZ sales section.

The association depends on the subscriptions of members and on sales of standards for a large proportion of its income. Sales of standards exceed $300,000 annually and the subscribing membership of the association, which includes most of the more prominent manufacturers and local authorities, totalled 1642 at 31 March 1978.

A new information service for exporters, Technical Help to Exporters, was set up in June 1978. This provides the standards and regulatory data needed by exporters in order to meet the import requirements of their overseas markets.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE—In the early years of settlement in New Zealand those who wished to make provision for the administration of their estates on their deaths often experienced difficulty in selecting a suitable person competent and willing to act as trustee. That difficulty was natural in a new country where the colonists were fully occupied with their own affairs, and were unable to give to the property or business of another the close attention that was demanded.

In these circumstances the Public Trust Office was established in 1872 (it is now constituted under the Public Trust Office Act 1957) under the administration of the Public Trustee, a corporation sole with perpetual succession and a seal of office. The main purpose of the original Act was to provide a means of overcoming the difficulties that have been mentioned and to make available to the public a trustworthy administrator of the estates of deceased persons at a reasonable cost, the integrity of the Public Trustee and his officers being guaranteed by the State. That continues to be the chief function of the Office, but since its establishment the range of services has been considerably extended. The Public Trustee now acts in many capacities, e.g., as administrator in intestate estates; executor and trustee under wills; trustee under marriage and other settlements; trustee of benefit or relief funds; agent or attorney for absentees or persons desiring to be relieved of business worries; sinking fund commissioner for local authorities; administrator of unclaimed lands and property; manager of the estates of protected patients; manager (when so appointed by the court) of the estates of aged and infirm persons unable to attend to their own affairs; and trustee of compensation moneys. The wills of persons desiring the Public Trustee to act as their executor and any subsequent will or codicil may be prepared and held in safe custody by him, free of charge. With certain qualifications the Public Trustee may act jointly with another person or persons.

In lieu of obtaining probate or other grant of administration, the Public Trustee may file in an office of the Supreme Court an election by him to administer an estate (testate or intestate) if the gross value of the property in New Zealand is estimated not to exceed $15,000. If after the filing of the election the value of the property is found to exceed $20,000 the Public Trustee must obtain a grant of probate or administration in the ordinary way.

During the year ended 31 March 1978, 9257 estates and funds valued at $101,486,917 were accepted for administration. Estates and funds under administration at 31 March 1978 numbered 32 860 and were valued at $425,788,131.

Capital moneys becoming available for investment either form part of the Common Fund of the Office or, at the option of the testator or settlor, are invested in such securities as he may specify. Interest is allowed on moneys in the Common Fund at the rate fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council and is free of all commission and other charges. Both capital and interest are guaranteed by the State, thus affording the complete security that it is the object of the Office to provide. On the other hand, moneys directed to be invested in specific securities do not carry the State guarantee and, subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee, any loss resulting from their investment falls upon the estate concerned. Commission is charged on the collection of the interest.

Charges and commission rates are contained in the Public Trust Office Regulations 1958.

New investments completed during the year ended 31 March 1978 totalled $15,011,063. The investments held by the Office at 31 March 1978 totalled $104,072,488. These figures relate exclusively to Common Fund investments, and do not include other special investments made on behalf of estates, or investments which constitute assets of estates when the latter came under the Public Trustee's administration and which are still held as assets of those estates.

During the year ended 31 March 1978, 16 533 wills appointing the Public Trustee executor were deposited with him for safe custody. The total number of such wills held on deposit at 31 March 1978 was 292 380. During the year ended 31 March 1978 effect was given in 11 699 cases to changes desired by testators.

BANKRUPTCY—The law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Insolvency Act 1967 and the Insolvency Regulations 1970. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of $10 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of the court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in this case. Not less than $200 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due to them. In such a case, after approval of the court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the assignee on a resolution by creditors. A person adjudged bankrupt is discharged three years after the date of adjudication unless discharged sooner.

Another form of financial failure is covered by private assignments, of which there was 1 in 1973, and 2 in 1974. Private assignments are not included in official bankruptcy statistics. There were none in 1975, 1976, 1977, or 1978.

Transactions in Bankruptcy—The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last 5 years is now given. A long-term record of the more important features will be found in the Statistical Summary given later in this volume.

YearBankruptciesCourt Orders for Liquidation of CompaniesTotal Commercial Failures
Petitions by DebtorsAdjudications on Petitions by Creditors
*Includes 2 estates relating to 1975.
19742044674324
197524969169487
1976209100150459*
1977290129207626
1978325182285792

In the case of a partnership, each partner is counted in the total of transactions and also the partnership. The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by official assignees.

In some cases of company liquidation, subsequent court orders are given for the winding up of companies to be transferred to private liquidators.

The table following shows for each of the last 6 years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the proportion of dividends, preferential claims, and secured claims, to debts.

YearAverage Debts Proved per EstateProportion of Dividends, etc., to Debts
 $percent
19739,09120.9
19749,28718.8
197518,7315.0
197620,7867.3
197722,903x4.8
197822,0665.2

Apart from dividends, preferential and secured claims, and Government commission, payments made from assets realised include cost of actions, solicitors' fees, and expenses incurred in managing estates for the benefit of creditors.

In the following table bankruptcies are classified according to amount groups of stated liabilities. With all partnerships the liabilities for each partner are included, but not the partnership. Company liquidations are included.

Liabilities19741975197619771978
*Excludes partnerships, 1974, 6; 1975, 6; 1976, nil;1977, 3; and 1978, nil; also companies (6 in 1974; 21 in 1975; 7 in 1976; 21; in 1977; and 95 in 1978) and private bankruptcies (1 in 1976 and 30 in 1978) for which no statements of liabilities were received. †Includes 2 bankruptcies for which liabilities were nil.
Under $5001517182413
$500–$9994432222226
$1,000–$1,9994458626176
$2,000–$3,9995782899099
$4,000–$9,99971107115157138
$10,000 and over81164145251313
    Total312*460*451*605*667*

Occupational Groups of Bankrupts—All persons adjudged bankrupt (whether self-employed, employers of labour, or salary and wage earners) have been classified in the following table according to the occupation in which they were last employed.

Occupational Group19741975197619771978

*Excludes partnerships as follows: 1974, 6; 1975, 6; 1976, nil; 1977, 3; and 1978, nil.

†Excludes 2 1975 estates shown in total figures for 1976.

‡Excludes 4 annulments.

§Excludes 1 annulment and 1 transfer.

Professional, technical, and related workers447417
Administrative and managerial workers8851121
Clerical and related workers381258
Sales workers3553295467
Service workers3032272325
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters3835344466
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers109140144219242
Not gainfully employed/actively engaged1732495259
                Total*244312307412505§

The occupational status of individual bankrupts is given in the following table. With all partnerships the occupation of each partner is included, but not the partnership.

YearOccupational Status
Working for Salary or WagesEmployer of LabourWorking On Own Account But Not Employing LabourNot Gainfully EmployedTotal*

*Excludes partnerships as follows: 1974, 6; 1975, 6; 1976, nil; 1977, 3; and 1978, nil.

†Excludes 2 estates relating to 1975 and 1 for which the occupational status is not known.

197486549014244
197598949921312
1976122619924306
19771717811350412
19781896718762505

INTERNATIONAL INDICATORS OF STANDARDS OF LIVING—Relative standards of living cannot be compared by taking per-head incomes or expenditure alone. Environmental and other factors are being increasingly recognised as components of quality of life, a much less easily measured concept. In assessing standards of living, the United Nations Economic and Social Council is now giving consideration to the development of social indicators parallel with purely economic terms of measurement. These include health and personal safety; equality of educational opportunity; employment and quality of working life; leisure satisfaction; social welfare provisions; social opportunity and quality; social, cultural, and communication capabilities; housing and community; and the physical environment.

Methods of measurement of these factors are being recommended on an international basis. In these wider terms of reference New Zealand's position is appreciably improved.

Some comparative indicators related to standards of living are set out in the following table. In other sections of the Yearbook there are international comparisons on food consumption, life expectancy, infant mortality, medical and dental services, energy, libraries, and newspaper circulation.

ItemNew ZealandUnited StatesCanadaAustraliaUnited KingdomSwedenJapan

*1974.

†1973.

‡1972.

§1975.

¶England and Wales.

Number per 1000 of population—
    Passenger cars (1976)384507388§368260350164
    Commercial vehicles (1976)7012294§87342098
    Radios (1975)8761 882959214*750380465
    Television sets (1975)259571*411274320352235
    Telephones (1978)545744632415415717442
Consumption per head (1976)—
    Coffee (kg)1.826.064.412.342.5114.961.41
    Sugar (kg)54.247.041.757.3...46.327.9
    Steel (kg)677604543346407725534
    Wool(kg)§3.90.20.21.52.00.21.2
    Cotton (kg)*9.87.57.810.14.57.86.3
    Artificial and synthetic fibres (kg)*8.714.411.712.59.311.37.0
    Newsprint (kg)38.141.538.830.425.533.220.3
Public education expenditure as a percentage of GNP at market price (1975)5.6*6.27.96.3...7.5*5.5
Persons per hospital bed (1974)93152§109*811176678

GAMING AND LOTTERIES—The Gaming and Lotteries Act, passed by Parliament during the 1977 session, came into force on 1 April 1978 This new legislation replaced the Gaming Act 1908, which was itself based on legislation passed in the 1870s. Since 1908 the law has become less than clear, with experts (let alone the ordinary citizen) finding it difficult to thread a way through the Act, amendments, and Court decisions.

The new legislation has discarded many of the former restrictions The basic principle that gambling may not be conducted for private gain has been retained, but for minor forms of gambling it is not necessary to obtain licences or permits provided conditions laid down in the Act are met. Provision has also been made for the authorisation of additional forms of gambling if the public demand for them becomes sufficient. Some prohibitions are necessary in the public interest. Where large numbers of participants and substantial amounts of money could be involved, licences continue to be required.

The 1977 Act identifies, and provides for the control of, 4 forms of gambling: games of chance (such as housie); bookmaking and betting (other than betting on horse racing and greyhound racing); prize competitions (such as football pools); and lotteries (previously called raffles). It is a selfcontained body of New Zealand statute law on gambling with the exception of betting on horse racing and greyhound racing which is still controlled through the Racing Act 1971.

During the year ended 31 March 1978, 61 Golden Kiwi jackpot lotteries were drawn. Two Sweepstake lotteries were drawn before they were replaced by the Golden Kiwi Half-Million-Dollar Lottery. Three of these were drawn. Although the number of lotteries drawn was eight less than the previous year, there was a considerable increase in their profitability. The confidence in the success of the Golden Kiwi jackpot lottery has been substantiated by a continuing demand for tickets, with an average of more than one draw per week.

Raffles licensed by the Department of Internal Affairs during the year totalled 12 227, compared with 18 290 during the previous year. This number is expected to be considerably reduced during 1978–79 as a result of the new Act which does not require a licence where the prizes do not exceed $500 in value.

The aggregate financial results of lotteries are shown for the last 5 years.

Item1973–741974–751975–761976–77*1977–78
*22 Golden Kiwi Jackpots, 43 Kiwi Jackpots, 4 Kiwi Supers, and 4 special sweepstakes. (In November 1976 Kiwi Jackpots and Kiwi Supers were discontinued and replaced by Golden Kiwi Jackpots.)
Number of lotteries 50626673*63
Gross sales$(000)9,50011,15011,62415,07319,476
Commission on sales$(000)8201,0021,0221,4191,971
Expenses$(000)318430521678730
Prizes$(000)5,0446,4916,2348,24010,906
Lottery duty$(000)9501,2151,1621,5071,975
Direct profit$(000)2,3682,9872,6853,2283,888

The net profits from these lotteries are required by the Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977 to be distributed for charitable, philanthropic, or cultural purposes or for other purposes beneficial to the community. The New Zealand Lottery Board has the responsibility of apportioning profits of lotteries to various distributing authorities which consider applications for assistance and make grants. Allocations made by the board in 1977–78 were as follows: $600,000 for the welfare of aged persons; $620,000 for the welfare services distribution committee; $250,000 each for the distribution committees for medical research and scientific research; $500,000 for the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council of New Zealand; $240,000 to the Minister of Internal Affairs for general distribution; $400,000 for recreation and sport (community use of school facilities); $300,000 for capital purposes for theatre and concert auditoria; and the balance of $976,000 for special allocations to such organisations as the Surf Lifesaving Association, the Water Safety Council, the Mountain Safety Council, the Historic Places Trust, and the Amateur Rowing Association.

LIQUOR LICENSING—The principal source of legislation governing the sale of liquor in New Zealand is the Sale of Liquor Act 1962. In terms of that Act no liquor may be sold without the appropriate licence, and licences may only be authorised if it is shown that they are necessary or desirable in particular localities. The Act also serves to regulate the conduct of the licensed trade and the provision and standard of accommodation, amenities, and service for the public.

The Licensing Control Commission established under that Act has the following functions:

To ascertain the requirements of the public as to the provision of accommodation services and other facilities on licensed premises; to determine what new hotel, tavern and touristhouse premises, restaurant, theatre, airport, cabaret, and wholesale licences and club charters are necessary or desirable; and to authorise their issue. It is also the Commission's function to prescribe and enforce standards of accommodation, facilities and services on licensed premises, to grant and renew club charters, and to hear appeals from Licensing Committees decisions.

There are 21 licensing committees throughout the country. These are serviced by the local Magistrate's Courts. Each committee has five members, of whom four are nominated by the local authorities in the area. The chairman is a magistrate. The functions of licensing committees are to issue licences, renew licences annually, and hear applications for the cancellation or suspension of licences on the grounds of lack of hygiene or fire safety or the failure of the licensee to conduct the premises in a proper manner.

There is a right of appeal to the Licensing Control Commission from most decisions of a licensing committee except on a matter of law or character, in which case the appeal is to the Supreme Court. Some of the Commission's decisions are themselves subject to appeal to the Supreme Court and an appeal may be brought in any case on a point of law. Such appeals lie with the administrative division of the Supreme Court.

In 1976 two new kinds of licence were introduced, i.e., caterers' licences and general ancillary licences. Ancillary licences are available to organisations and persons taking part in any sporting or recreational activity or holding social gatherings of persons sharing common occupational, educational, technical, cultural, ethnic, national, or regional interests. Caterers' licences are available to persons catering for social functions being promoted by any person or association not being the holder of the licence.

Two new types of permit were also created. A vineyard bar permit is now available to the holder of a wine makers licence. It authorises the sale of wine made by him for consumption on the premises. A permit is now available to the owners of unlicensed restaurants whereby patrons may bring their own liquor to the restaurant for consumption with their meal.

Licences either in force or authorised at 31 March 1976 comprised 781 hotel premises licences, 307 tavern premises licences, and 78 tourist house premises licences. A total of 303 chartered clubs were in existence. Wine resellers licences authorised totalled 354 and wholesale licences totalled 182. By 31 March 1978 the Licensing Control Commission had dealt with 530 applications for general ancillary licences and 52 applications for caterers licences.

New Licences—The Licensing Control Commission decides after a public inquiry, at which all interested parties may make representations, whether the issue of any new hotel or tavern premises licences or a wholesale or wine resellers licence are necessary or desirable in particular localities. In the case of a hotel or tavern premises licence the Commission prescribes the minimum standards of accommodation, services, and other facilities that must be provided. There is provision for a poll of residents to be taken to determine whether they desire that a hotel or tavern be established in their locality. If the majority of votes recorded at the poll is against the issue of the licence, the Commission may not authorise such a licence unless special circumstances exist.

Subject to the result of any such poll, the Commission may then call for applications for the licence and may grant it to the most suitable applicant. When the Commission decides to issue a new wholesale or wine reseller's licence the matter is then referred to the appropriate licensing committee, which then invites and considers applications for the licence. Applications for all other types of licences may be made at any time and are considered at public hearings in various centres throughout the country.

Hours of Sale—The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 governs the hours of sale. A special general poll was held on 23 September 1967 concerning the closing hours for the sale of liquor in hotels, taverns, and chartered club bar rooms. Since 1917 the closing hour had been 6 p.m. The proposal for later closing was carried, and the new hours of 11 a.m. to 10 p.m. came into effect from 9 October 1967. Hotels and taverns may also seek authority to open earlier than 11 a.m., but may not be open for more than 11 hours each day. The Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1976 allowed for further extensions upon application for individual hotels or taverns. Orders may be made permitting these to remain open until 11 p.m. on Friday or Saturday or on Christmas Eve and until 12.30 a.m. on the morning of New Year's Day. Any such extension is in addition to the 11 hours per day during which liquor may normally be sold to the public. With certain exceptions, sales from hotels and taverns are prohibited on Sundays and Christmas Day and Good Friday.

Legislation in 1960 authorised hotels to serve liquor to guests and lodgers partaking of a meal for consumption with that meal. A further amendment in 1976 extended the hours which are now from 9 a.m. on any day to 1 a.m. the following morning.

By the 1960 Act the hours during which licensed restaurants could sell and serve liquor to diners were fixed as 12 noon to 2.30 p.m. and 6 p.m. to 11.30 p.m. on any day. The 1976 Amendment extended these hours, which are now 12 noon on any day to 1 a.m. in the morning of the following day. The Act authorised the Commission to grant permits to a hotel for the sale of liquor in a lounge or lounge bar to diners during hours fixed by the Commission, but not later than 11.30 p.m. This has been extended to 1 a.m. It also provides for theatre, cabaret, and airport licences, and prescribes the hours of sale in each case. The hours in respect of theatres and cabarets have also been extended.

The hours of sale under a general ancillary licence are set by the Licensing Control Commission when granting the licence and are generally between 9 a.m. and 10 p.m. on any day. Caterer's licences authorise the sale of liquor between 9 a.m. on any day (except Good Friday) and 1 a.m. the following day. The permits for unlicensed restaurants authorise consumption by patrons of their own liquor until 11.30 p.m. on any day, and the vineyard bar permit authorises sales until 9 p.m. except on Sundays, Good Friday, or Christmas Day.

Drinking Age—The Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1969 made provisions from 24 October 1969 for the sale of liquor to persons of the age of 20 years; liquor may also be supplied to persons of 18 years of age or above if the person is accompanied by a spouse of 20 or more years of age or a parent. The 1976 Amendment to the Act also provided for a family lounge permit, whereby parents may take their underage children into designated parts of hotels, taverns, or chartered clubs. Liquor may be supplied to an unaccompanied person of 18 years of age or above as part of a meal provided in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

Licensing Trusts—The system of trust control in New Zealand is an alternative to the traditional means of controlling liquor outlets through privately-held licences supervised by licensing committees, and the Licensing Control Commission gives the public an indirect control over the conditions under which liquor is sold. Licensing trusts are elected by the residents and are responsible to them, similar to local bodies.

The first licensing trust in New Zealand was set up in 1944 following the carrying of restoration in the former Invercargill no-licence district. There are now eight district trusts—Ashburton, Clutha, Geraldine, Invercargill, Masterton, Mataura, Oamaru, and Porirua. In addition an increasing number of local trusts scattered throughout New Zealand are operating hotels and taverns. Because of the circumstances of the remaining no-licence districts and their relation to the metropolitan areas of Auckland and Wellington, legislation was introduced in 1963 providing a special procedure if any of those areas should carry restoration. A new form of trust control, known as suburban trusts, was introduced.

Prior to 1975, six suburban trusts had been constituted—Johnsonville; Terawhiti; Wellington South (in Wellington); and Mt Albert; Portage; and Waitakere (in Auckland). These trusts held licences under the Sale of Liquor Act and had a preferential right to all hotel, touristhouse, or tavern premises licences, or wholesale licences authorised by the Commission in their areas. In 1975 these trusts and the Birkenhead Local Licensing Trust were converted into district trusts, which did not hold such licences and were then not subject to the jurisdiction of the Licensing Control Commission. They were also free to choose the nature of the liquor outlets and where and when they should be established.

The 1976 Amendment to the Licensing Trusts Act converted these trusts back to suburban trust status, bringing them under a degree of supervision by the Licensing Control Commission but not to the same extent as that which prevailed prior to 1975. The trusts are still free to establish what outlets they see fit without the need to hold licences under the Sale of Liquor Act, but the Commission's approval must first be obtained. This allows the Commission to consider the requirements of the particular area of which the suburban trust is part, as well as providing an appropriate forum in which objections to the trust's proposals may be heard. Local residents also have the right to apply to the Commission for a poll to be conducted to determine if any proposed new premises should be established in their area.

There are also local licensing trusts which are established to operate a new hotel or tavern authorised by the Commission. Local trusts are set up following the carrying of a poll to determine if the residents desire that a new licence be issued to a trust.

The Licensing Trusts Act was again amended in 1977, principally to permit licensing trusts to operate catering facilities on the same basis as holders of a caterer's licence may operate their premises under the Sale of Liquor Act.

In addition the same right to apply for later hours on Fridays, Saturdays, Christmas Eve, and New Year's Eve that private licences enjoy under the Sale of Liquor Act was conferred on licensing trusts by this amendment.

GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS—A general election of Parliamentary representatives was held on 25 November 1978, voting in New Zealand for both General and Maori electorates taking place on that day.

The strength of the political party representation among members of Parliament after the 1978 election was National 51, Labour 40, Social Credit, 1. The relative strengths after the eight preceding general elections were as follows: November 1954, National 45, Labour 35; November 1957, Labour 41, National 39; November 1960, National 46, Labour 34; November 1963, National 45, Labour 35; November 1966, National 44, Labour 35, Social Credit 1; November 1969, National 45, Labour 39; November 1972, Labour 55, National 32; November 1975, National 55, Labour 32.

The total numbers of electors on the roll for the election in 1978 was 2,487,594, of whom 1,721,443 (69.2 percent) recorded their votes.

The following table shows for the last four general elections the number of votes recorded by the main political parties, along with the percentages that the various party votes represent of the total valid votes.

Political PartyVotes RecordedPercentage of Total Valid Votes
19691972197519781969197219751978
Labour592 055677 669636 319691 07644.1848.3739.7040.41
National605 960581 422760 365680 99145.2241.5047.4439.82
Social Credit121 57693 231119 123274 7569.076.657.4316.07
Values...27 46783 21341 220...1.965.192.41
Others20 57721 3633 75722 1301.531.520.231.29
        Total valid votes1,340,1681,401,1521,602,7771,710,173100.00100.00100.00100.00
Informal votes11 6459 0888 24311 270............
        Total votes recorded1,351,8131,410,2401,611,0201,721,443...........

NATIONAL LICENSING POLL—The licensing poll of 25 November 1978 held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the eighteenth at which the three issues—national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. Official figures of the 1978 poll, together with those of five preceding polls, were as follows:

Voting Issue196319661969197219751978
For national continuance791 767817 760903 962931 7781,094,4451,057,930
For State purchase and control157 581176 946242 499244 003235 374252 213
For national prohibition235 959198 859176 055203 791250 640374 233

POLL ON TERM OF PARLIAMENT—On 23 September 1967 a special general poll was held on a proposal that the term of the House of Representatives be changed. Votes for a maximum of 3 years, as at present, totalled 678 960; votes for a maximum term of 4 years totalled 317 973.

TIME-SERVICE ARRANGEMENTS—One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand. The New Zealand Gazette of 31 October 1868 contained a Government announcement to the effect that the time corresponding to longitude 172° 30′ east of Greenwich (exactly 11½ hours in advance of Greenwich time) was to be adopted as the New Zealand Mean Time throughout the colony.

This New Zealand Mean Time, 11h 30 min. in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.), was observed continuously up to 1927, when on 6 November clocks were advanced 1 hour until 4 March 1928. Summer Time, with clocks advanced only 30 minutes (to 12 h ahead of G.M.T.), became standard practice in the summer months under the Summer Time Act 1929.

The Daylight Saving Emergency Regulations of 1941 provided for the continuance of Summer Time throughout that year, and its continued observance during subsequent war years was provided for by regulations made annually.

By the Standard Time Act of 1945 the time of the meridian 180° east of Greenwich (12 h in advance of G.M.T.) was adopted as the Standard Time for New Zealand. Thus, what was formerly known as “Summer Time” became “New Zealand Standard Time” as from 1 January 1946.

The Time Act of 1974 consolidated the Standard Time Act of 1945 and also enabled the Governor-General, by Order in Council, to introduce 1 hour of daylight saving for specified periods. This time is designated New Zealand Daylight Time, and is 13 h in advance of Universal Time (or Greenwich Mean Time). The first period specified for the use of New Zealand Daylight Time was from 3 November 1974 to 23 February 1975.

Time in the Chatham Islands is 45 minutes ahead of that kept in New Zealand.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the New Zealand Time Service, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is kept as correct as possible by comparison with radio signals from observatories in other parts of the world, and the error rarely exceeds a few milliseconds.

The Observatory provides a time service over Station ZLW and stations operated by TV1, TV2, and Radio New Zealand.

BOOK PUBLISHING—The following table classifies the publications for 1977 and 1978 which have been included by the Alexander Turnbull Library in the New Zealand National Bibliography.

Subject19771978
BooksPamphletsTotalBooksPamphletsTotal
General313162453984
Religion, theology, philosophy224466363066
Sociology, statistics5667123423577
Political science, economics7113820999129228
Law, public administration, social welfare55671228783170
Education48661145960119
Trade, communications, transport182745223254
Linguistics, philology6511325
Sciences7313120469124193
Technology, and trades86148234112123235
Agriculture, forestry50581086358121
Domestic science20113130939
Commercial management323365334174
Fine arts, etc.63841474765112
Entertainment, sport4332755457111
Literature608214262127189
Geography, travel392766344478
History, biography74411158143124
            Total8471 0921 9399781 1012 079

The New Zealand National Bibliography, which commenced publication in 1967, is issued monthly and cumulated annually by the National Library of New Zealand. It lists works published in New Zealand and also works published overseas by authors normally resident in New Zealand, and works that deal in whole or part with New Zealand. It includes books, pamphlets, art prints, music scores, sound recordings, maps, new periodicals, and periodicals that have ceased publication.

As at 31 January 1979 there were 4177 periodicals (other than parish and school magazines) being received regularly under the legal deposit provisions of the Copyright Act.

PUBLIC HOLIDAYS—These are listed below.

Holiday19771978197919801981
*Actual date of Queen's Birthday, 21 April 1926.
New Year's Day1 January1 January1 January1 January1 January
Waitangi Day6 February6 February6 February6 February6 February
Good Friday8 April24 March13 April4 April17 April
Easter Monday11 April27 March16 April7 April20 April
Anzac Day25 April25 April25 April25 April25 April
Queen's Birthday*6 June5 June4 June2 June8 June
Labour Day24 October23 October22 October27 October26 October
Christmas Day25 December25 December25 December25 December25 December
Boxing Day26 December26 December26 December26 December26 December

In addition to the above, there is in each provincial district a holiday for the provincial anniversary. The actual anniversary days are as follows: Northland, 29 January; Auckland, 29 January; Taranaki, 31 March; Hawke's Bay, 1 November; Wellington, 22 January; Marlborough, 1 November; Nelson, 1 February; Canterbury, 16 December; Westland, 1 December; Otago and Southland, 23 March.

When Anniversary Day falls on Friday or later, the holiday is observed on the next Monday; if earlier, it is observed on the preceding Monday. In some cases the holiday is taken on the local show day or some other day; in Taranaki it is the second Monday in March to avoid a clash with Easter observance.

RECREATION AND SPORT—Although New Zealand has traditionally been considered an outdoor sporting nation preliminary results from a recent national survey indicate that activities based around the home may be the most popular form of recreation. Reading, gardening, and sewing appear to be the three most popular recreational pursuits. Other home-based activities such as knitting, visiting and entertaining friends, cooking and baking, and house maintenance are also enjoyed by many New Zealanders for their recreational value. The popularity of dining-out, as providing a change for the busy housewife and a break from the humdrum of every day living is reflected in the rise, over the last 10 years, in the number of restaurants and eating places catering for a wide variety of tastes and incomes.

Sport, however, does play an important part in the recreation of New Zealanders. Rugby Union is the most popular sporting activity and the leading winter sport. Soccer, netball, and indoor basketball are also popular winter sports. Swimming is a very popular summer activity and salt-water fishing, tennis, boating, bowls, and cricket also have large followings. Of the all-year round sporting activities, golf is the most popular followed by billiards, snooker and pool, indoor bowls, and squash. An interesting feature of sport in New Zealand is the large number of activities that involve small groups, such as swimming, fishing, tennis, boating, golf, etc., as distinct from the team sports. A substantial proportion of these small group activities are enjoyed more for their socially relaxing value than for any competitive element they may contain. As well as participating in sport, many New Zealanders enjoy watching sports as a recreational activity.

The New Zealand outdoors is enjoyed by many in other ways: of those activities regarded as recreational, driving, travelling, climbing, and tramping are all very popular. So too are hunting and shooting and fishing in New Zealand's many rivers, lakes, and streams. Many people enjoy picnics and barbecues.

Cultural pursuits are also an important part of recreation. Music is a popular recreational activity, and painting and sketching, going to the cinema or theatre, ballroom dancing, woodwork, making models and miniatures, and photography (while not as popular as music) are also enjoyed by a lot of New Zealanders.

Many of these recreational activities are organised into local clubs, some of which (especially in the case of the sporting activities) are affiliated to national organisations.

Promising players, performers, and artists have opportunities through a variety of ways, to reach national levels in their activities. In many sports the ultimate level to be reached is to represent New Zealand at the Olympic and Commonwealth Games.

Opportunities and facilities exist for those interested in outdoor education and recreation. The Youth Hostels Association of New Zealand operates 50 hostels in centres ranging from Kaitaia in the north to Invercargill in the south. In the more remote areas the New Zealand Forest Service and several tramping clubs have built huts.

Short courses in outdoor recreation are run by the Cobham Outward Bound School in Queen Charlotte Sound, and the Outdoor Pursuits Centre near Turangi. Educational authorities and some voluntary organisations, have established outdoor recreation and education camps throughout the country where young people are encouraged to enjoy and make use of the natural environment.

Outdoor recreation courses are not solely land-based. The sailing vessel Spirit of Adventure, administered by a trust board, operates an all-year-round programme enabling groups of secondary school pupils to undertake 10-day seagoing trips around the Hauraki Gulf. The course emphasises not only the skills of sailing and navigation, but community spirit and personal development.

Attempts have been made to introduce social education programmes into the schools and this has involved the introduction of a wider range of recreational activities with encouragement to continue with these activities after leaving school.

Most of the tertiary education institutions have facilities and staff available to serve the physical recreation needs of the student body.

In November 1972 a Minister of Recreation and Sport was appointed. The Recreation and Sport Act 1973 provided for the establishment of a Ministry of Recreation and Sport and a New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport. The general functions of the council are to foster and promote the total wellbeing of, and the fullest use of leisure by, the residents of New Zealand; to advise the Government on any matters relating to recreation and sport; to investigate developments in recreation and sport, and disseminate knowledge and information about such developments. The sum of $4.3 million was expended through the ministry during 1977–78 to support community recreational activities, together with an additional $400,000 made available by the Lottery Board of Control to provide funds for a community facilities-at-schools scheme, the intention of which was to encourage the wider use of school facilities by the whole community.

From the Government monks provided for the recreation and sport programme, $1,563,000 was distributed through local authorities to assist local activities, and $991,000 was allocated to national recreational organisations. Subsidy assistance for the salaries of new recreation advisers employed by local authorities totalled $83,000, and $170,000 was provided to national youth organisations by way of capitation and physical welfare grants.

The ministry also operates a new student community service programme to provide additional jobs for tertiary students over the summer vacation and thus to lessen the extent to which they compete with school leavers for job opportunities. This involves grants to a wide range of community organisations to enable them to mount holiday work programmes. Many of these involved the development or operation of recreational programmes.

This was complemented by a new youth activities fund providing financial help for projects carried out by young people, preferably on their own initiative. The projects were required to be of a social, cultural, recreational, employment, or community nature.

New Zealand is party with other Commonwealth nations in the Commonwealth Youth Programme. Established in 1973 the Commonwealth Youth Programme is a six-point plan of practical action: developing regional youth development centres, administering youth bursaries and study fellowships, investigating applied research, developing youth information services, assisting local youth projects, and supporting youth programmes. In New Zealand the Commonwealth Youth Programme is administered by a National Liaison Committee serviced by the Ministry of Recreation and Sport. The National Liaison Committee is composed of representatives from the Ministry of Recreation and Sport, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Department of Education, the Department of Maori Affairs, and the National Youth Council.

The New Zealand Mountain Safety Council and the New Zealand Water Safety Council, which are also serviced through the Ministry of Recreation and Sport, received allocations from lottery profits of $115,000 and $166,000 respectively in 1977–78. These councils work closely with 39 local mountain safety committees and 43 local water safety committees in promoting the safe use of New Zealand's mountain, bush, and water areas.

NATIONAL ANTHEMSGod Defend New Zealand, the words written by Thomas Bracken and the music composed by John J. Woods, was written in the early 1870s and formally adopted as the New Zealand national hymn in 1940. In November 1977 it was announced that, with the consent of Her Majesty the Queen, the Government had decided that the national anthems of New Zealand shall be the traditional anthem, God Save the Queen and God Defend New Zealand, both being of equal status as national anthems appropriate to the occasion.

GOD DEFEND NEW ZEALAND

  1. God of nations at Thy feet In the bonds of love we meet. Hear our voices, we entreat, God defend our Free Land. Guard Pacific's triple star From the shafts of strife and war, Make her praises heard afar. God defend New Zealand.

  2. Men of ev'ry creed and race Gather here before Thy face, Asking Thee to bless this place, God defend our Free Land. From dissension, envy, hate, And corruption guard our State, Make our country good and great, God defend New Zealand.

  3. Peace, not war, shall be our boast, But, should foes assail our coast, Make us then a mighty host, God defend our Free Land. Lord of battles in Thy might, Put our enemies to flight, Let our cause be just and right, God defend New Zealand.

  4. Let our love for Thee increase, May Thy blessings never cease, Give us plenty, give us peace, God defend our Free Land. From dishonour and from shame Guard our country's spotless name, Crown her with immortal fame, God defend New Zealand.

  5. May our mountains ever be Freedom's ramparts on the sea, Make us faithful unto Thee, God defend our Free Land. Guide her in the nations' van, Preaching love and truth to man, Working out Thy glorious plan, God defend New Zealand.

NEW ZEALAND ENSIGN—The national flag is the New Zealand Ensign described in a Gazette notice of 27 June 1902. Its specifications are given in an Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. The basis is the Union Jack in the upper left quarter, and on a blue ground to the right the Southern Cross is represented by four five-pointed red stars with white borders.

NEW ZEALAND COAT OF ARMS—The New Zealand Coat of Arms was pictured and described as a frontispiece in the 1969 and earlier issues of the Official Yearbook. It appears on the title page and the spine of the present volume.

Chapter 41. Section 39; OFFICIAL

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND

His Excellency The Rt. Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H.

Official Secretary—James Brown.

PREVIOUS VICE-REGAL REPRESENTATIVES

Governors since 1840 and Governors-General since 1917 are listed below.

Vice-Regal RepresentativeAssumed OfficeRetired
THE DEPENDENCY PERIOD  
Lieutenant-Governor  
Captain William Hobson, R.N.30 Jan 18403 May 1841
THE CROWN COLONY  
Governor  
Captain William Hobson, R.N.3 May 184110 Sep 1842
Captain Robert FitzRoy, R.N.26 Dec 184317 Nov 1845
Captain George Grey18 Nov 184531 Dec 1847
Governor in Chief  
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.1 Jan 18487 Mar 1853
THE SELF-GOVERNING COLONY  
Governor of New Zealand  
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.7 Mar 185331 Dec 1853
Colonel Thomas Gore Browne, C.B. (later K.C.M.G.)6 Sep 18552 Oct 1861
Sir George Grey, K.C.B. (later P.C.)4 Dec 18615 Feb 1868
Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.M.G. (later P.C)5 Feb 186819 Mar 1873
The Rt. Hon. Sir James Fergusson, Bt., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., P.C.(later G.C.S.I.)14 Jun 18733 Dec 187
The Rt. Hon. the Marquess of Normandy, K.C.M.G., P.C. (later G.C.B., G.C.M.G.)9 Jan 187521 Feb 187
Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, G.C.M.G. (later Lord Rosemead, P.C.)17 Apr 18798 Sep 188
The Hon. Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, G.C.M.G. (later Lord Stanmore)29 Nov 188023 Jun 188
Lieutenant-General Sir William Francis Drummond Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B.20 Jan 188322 Mar 1889
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G.2 May 188924 Feb 1892
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G.7 Jun 18926 Feb 1897
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Ranfurly, G.C.M.G.10 Aug 189719 Jun 1904
The Rt. Hon. Lord Plunket, G.C.M.G.. K.C.V.O. (later K.B.E.)20 Jun 19048 Jun 1910
The Rt. Hon. Lord Islington, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., P.C. (later G.B.E.)22 Jun 19102 Dec 1912
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.M.G.. G.B.E., M.V.O.19 Dec 191227 Jun 1917
Governor-General of New Zealand  
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O., P.C.28 Jun 19177 Jul 1920
The Rt. Hon. Viscount (later Earl) Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O.27 Sep 192026 Nov 1924
General Sir Charles Fergusson, Bt., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., D.S.O., M.V.O. (later G.C.B.)13 Dec 19248 Feb 1930
The Rt. Hon. Viscount Bledisloe, G.C.M.G., K.B.E., P.C.19 Mar 193015 Mar 1935
The Rt. Hon. Viscount Galway, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., O.B.E., P.C.12 Apr 19353 Feb 1941
Marshal of the Royal Air Force the Rt. Hon. Lord Newall, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.M.G., C.B.E., A.M.22 Feb 194119 Apr 1946
Lieutenant-General the Rt. Hon. Lord Freyberg, V.C., G.C.M.G., K.C.B, K.B.E., D.S.O.17 Jun 194615 Aug 1952
Lieutenant-General the Rt. Hon. Lord Norrie, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., C.B., D.S.O., M.C.2 Dec 195225 Jul 1957
The Rt. Hon. Viscount Cobham, G.C.M.G., T.D. (later K.G., G.C.V.O., P.C.)5 Sep 195713 Sep 1962
Brigadier Sir Bernard Edward Fergusson, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., D.S.O., O.B.E. (later Rt. Hon. Lord Ballantrae, K.T.)9 Nov 196220 Oct 1967
Sir Arthur Espie Porritt, Bt., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., C.B.E. (later Rt. Hon. Lord Porritt)1 Dec 19676 Sep 1972
Sir (Edward) Denis Blundell, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O, K.B.E., Q.S.O.27 Sep 19725 Oct 1977
The Rt. Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H.26 Oct 1977 
SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PRIME MINISTERS
SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856
Name of MinistryName of Prime MinisterAssumed OfficeRetired
  1. SewellHenry Sewell7 May 185620 May 1856
  2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May 18562 Jun 1856
  3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 Jun 185612 Jul 1861
  4. FoxWilliam Fox12 Jul 18616 Aug 1862
  5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug 186230 Oct 1863
  6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.30 Oct 186324 Nov 1864
  7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov 186416 Oct 1865
  8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct 186528 Jun 1869
  9. FoxWilliam Fox28 Jun 186910 Sep 1872
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sep 187211 Oct 1872
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse, M.L.C.11 Oct 18723 Mar 1873
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar 18738 Apr 1873
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 Apr 18736 Jul 1875
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 Jul 187515 Feb 1876
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb 18761 Sep 1876
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sep 187613 Sep 1876
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sep 187613 Oct 1877
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct 18778 Oct 1879
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct 187921 Apr 1882
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 Apr 188225 Sep 1883
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sep 188316 Aug 1884
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug 188428 Aug 1884
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug 18843 Sep 1884
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sep 18848 Oct 1887
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct 188724 Jan 1891
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan 189127 Apr 1893
27. SeddonRt. Hon. Richard John Seddon1 May 189310 Jun 1906
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 Jun 19066 Aug 1906
29. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bt., K.C.M.G.6 Aug 190628 Mar 1912
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar 191210 Jul 1912
31. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey10 Jul 191212 Aug 1915
32. Massey (National)Rt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey12 Aug 191525 Aug 1919
33. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey25 Aug 191910 May 1925
34. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C., M.L.C.14 May 192530 May 1925
35. CoatesRt. Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, M.C.30 May 192510 Dec 1928
36. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bt. G.C.M.G.10 Dec 192828 May 1930
37. ForbesRt. Hon. George William Forbes28 May 193022 Sep 1931
38. Forbes (Coalition)Rt. Hon. George William Forbes22 Sep 19316 Dec 1935
39. SavageRt. Hon. Michael Joseph Savage6 Dec 19351 Apr 1940
40. FraserRt. Hon. Peter Fraser, C.H.1 Apr 194013 Dec 1949
41. HollandRt. Hon. Sir Sidney George Holland, G.C.B., C.H.13 Dec 194920 Sep 1957
42. HolyoakeRt. Hon. Keith Jacka Holyoake20 Sep 195712 Dec 1957
43. NashRt. Hon. Walter Nash, C.H.12 Dec 195712 Dec 1960
44. HolyoakeRt. Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H.12 Dec 19607 Feb 1972
45. MarshallRt. Hon. John Ross Marshall, C.H.7 Feb 19728 Dec 1972
46. KirkRt. Hon. Norman Eric Kirk8 Dec 197231 Aug 1974
47. RowlingRt. Hon. Wallace Edward Rowling6 Sep 197412 Dec 1975
48. MuldoonRt. Hon. Robert David Muldoon, C.H.12 Dec 1975 

THE MINISTRY

Rt. Hon. R. D. MULDOON, C.H., Prime Minister, Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Legislative Department, Minister in Charge of the Audit Department, Minister in Charge of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service.

Rt. Hon. B. E. TALBOYS, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Overseas Trade.

Hon. D. MacINTYRE, D.S.O., O.B.E., E.D., Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Fisheries, Minister in Charge of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation.

Hon. L. R. ADAMS-SCHNEIDER, Minister of Trade and Industry.

Hon. D. S. THOMSON, M.C., E.D., Minister of State, Minister of State Services, Leader of the House of Representatives.

Hon. G. F. GAIR, Minister of Health, Minister of Social Welfare.

Air Commodore Hon. T. F. GILL, C.B.E., D.S.O., Minister of Defence, Minister of Police, Minister in Charge of War Pensions, Minister in Charge of Rehabilitation.

Hon. H. C. TEMPLETON, Minister of Customs, Minister of Statistics, Minister of Broadcasting, Deputy Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Inland Revenue Department, Minister in Charge of Friendly Societies.

Hon. J. B. BOLGER, Minister of Labour, Minister of Immigration.

Hon. C. A. McLACHLAN, Minister of Transport, Minister of Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services, Minister of Railways

Hon. W. L. YOUNG, Minister of Works and Development.

Hon. V. S. YOUNG, Minister of Lands, Minister of Forests, Minister for the Environment, Minister in Charge of the Valuation Department.

Hon. D. A. HIGHET, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Local Government, Minister of Recreation and Sport, Minister of Civil Defence, Minister for the Arts.

Hon. W. F. BIRCH, Minister of Energy, Minister of National Development, Minister of Science and Technology.

Hon. M. L. WELLINGTON, Minister of Education.

Hon. J. K. McLAY, Attorney-General, Minister of Justice.

Hon. D. F. QUIGLEY, Minister of Housing, Minister in Charge of the Public Trust Office, Minister in Charge of the Government Life Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the State Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission, Associate Minister of Finance.

Hon. M. B. R. COUCH, Postmaster-General, Minister of Maori Affairs.

Hon. W. E. COOPER, Minister of Tourism, Minister of Regional Development, Minister in Charge of Publicity, Minister in Charge of the Government Printing Office.

Parliamentary Under-Secretaries:

K. R. ALLEN, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to the Minister of Trade and Industry.

K. M. COMBER, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to the Minister of Internal Affairs, to Minister of Local Government, to Minister of Recreation and Sport, to Minister of Civil Defence, and to Minister for the Arts.

R. L. G. TALBOT, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to Minister of Agriculture and to Minister of Fisheries.

A. G. MALCOLM, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to Minister of Labour and to Minister of Immigration.

B. E. BRILL, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to Minister of Energy.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Prime Minister—Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, C.H.

Leader of the Opposition—Rt. Hon. W. E. Rowling

Speaker—Hon. J. R. Harrison

Chairman of Committees—J. F. Luxton

Clerk of the House—C. P. Littlejohn, LL.M.

NameElectoral District

*Government member.

‡Elected at by-election on 18 August 1979 following death of B. G. Barclay.

†Replaced M. Douglas as a result of Supreme Court decision in the matter of the Hunua Electoral Petition, May 1979.

For General Electorates 
Adams-Schneider, Hon. L. R.*Waikato
Allen, K. R.*Tauranga
Arthur, Hon. Sir Basil, Bt.Timaru
Austin, H. N.*Bay of Islands
Austin, W. R.*Awarua
Bailey, Hon. R. L.Heretaunga
Bassett, Dr M.Te Atatu
Batchelor, Mrs M. D.Avon
Beetham, B. C.Rangitikei
Bell, R.L.*Gisborne
Birch, Hon. W. F.*Rangiriri
Bolger, Hon. J. B.*King Country
Brill, B. E.*Kapiti
Burke, K.West Coast
Butcher, D.Hastings
Caygill, D.St Albans
Christie, G.Napier
Colman, Hon, F. MacD.Pencarrow
Comber, K. M.*Wellington Central
Connelly, Hon. M. A.Yaldhurst
Cooper, Hon. W. E.*Otago
Couch, Hon. M. B.*Wairarapa
Courtney, M. F.Nelson
Cox, M. E. C*Manawatu
Douglas, Hon. R. O.Manurewa
East, P. C.*Rotorua
Elliott, J. G.*Whangarei
Elworthy, J. H.*Waitaki
Falloon, S. J.*Pahiatua
Faulkner, Hon. A. J.Roskill
Fraser, Hon. W. A.St. Kilda
Freer, Hon. W. W.Mount Albert
Friedlander, A. P. D.*New Plymouth
Gair, Hon. G. F*North Shore
Gill, Hon. Air Commodore T. F., C.B.E., D.S.O.*East Coast Bays
Gray, R. M.*Clutha
Harrison, Hon. J. R.*Hawke's Bay
Hercus, Mrs A.Lyttelton
Highet, Hon. D. A.*Remuera
Holland, Hon. E. S. F.*Fendalton
Hunt, J. L.New Lynn
Hunt, T. de V.*Pakuranga
Isbey, E. E.Papatoetoe
Jones, D. M. J.*Helensville
Jones, N. P. H., Q.S.M.*Invercargill
Kidd, D. L.*Marlborough
Kirk, N.J.Sydenham
Lange, D. R.Mangere
Luxton, J.F.*Matamata
MacDonell, B. P.Dunedin Central
MacIntyre, Hon. D., D.S.O., O.BE., E.D.*East Cape
McKinnon, D. C.*Albany
McLachlan, Hon. C. C. A.*Selwyn
McLay, Hon. J. K.*Birkenhead
McLean, I.*Tarawera
Malcolm, A. G.*Eden
Marshall, C. R.Wanganui
Maxwell, R.Waitakere
Minogue, M. J.*Hamilton West
Moore, M.Papanui
Muldoon, Rt. Hon. R. D., C.H*Tamaki
O'Flynn, F., Q.C.Island Bay
Palmer, G.Christchurch Central
Peters, W.R.*Hunua
Prebble, R. W.Auckland Central
Quigley, Hon. D. F.*Rangiora
Ridley, J.Taupo
Rodger, S.Dunedin North
Rogers, F. L.Onehunga
Rowling, Rt. Hon. W. E.Tasman
Schultz, L. C*Hauraki
Shearer, Dr I. J.*Hamilton East
Talbot, R.L.G.*Ashburton
Talboys, Rt. Hon. B. E.*Wallace
Templeton, Hon. H. C.*Ohariu
Terris, J.Western Hutt
Thompson, G. W. F.*Horowhenua
Thomson, Hon. D. S., M.C., E.D.*Taranaki
Tizard, Hon. R. J.Otahuhu
Townshend, C. B.*Kaimai
Walding, Hon. J.Palmerston North
Wall, Dr G. A.Porirua
Waring, Marilyn*Waipa
Wellington, Hon. M. L.*Papakura
Wilkinson, Hon. P. I.*Kaipara
Young, T.J.Eastern Hutt
Young, Hon. V. S.*Waitotara
Young, Hon. W. L.*Miramar
    For Maori Electorates 
Rata, Hon. M.Northern Maori
Reweti, P. B.Eastern Maori
Tirikatene-Sullivan, Hon. Mrs T. W. M.Southern Maori
Wetere, K. T.Western Maori
PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS
ParliamentPeriod of Session
Thirty-fifth26 April 1967–24 November 1967
26 June 1968–19 December 1968
15 May 1969–24 October 1969
Thirty-sixth12 March 1970–13 March 1970
1 April 1970–3 December 1970
25 February 1971–25 March 1971
9 June 1971–17 December 1971
8 June 1972–20 October 1972
Thirty-seventh15 February 1973–16 March 1973
5 June 1973–23 November 1973
4 February 1974–29 March 1974
28 May 1974–8 November 1974
25 March 1975–10 October 1975
Thirty-eighth23 June 1976–14 December 1976
28 February 1977–4 March 1977
19 May 1977–16 December 1977
11 May 1978–6 October 1978
Thirty-ninth17 May 1979—

LEGISLATION 1978—During the Parliamentary session of 1978, 137 Public Acts, 11 Local Acts, and 1 Private Act were passed.

PUBLIC GENERAL ACTS OF NEW ZEALAND—The following list shows the departments responsible for the administration of the Public Acts of general application in New Zealand which were in force at January 1979 or which had been passed to come into force at a later date.

The list does not include references to Acts that are spent or expired or to amending Acts, Appropriation Acts, Finance Acts, or other Acts containing miscellaneous provisions, such as Statutes Amendment Acts, Local Legislation Acts, Reserves and Other Lands Disposal Acts, and Maori Purposes Acts.

ActDepartment
Accident Compensation Act 1972Labour
Accident Insurance Companies Act 1908Justice
Acts Interpretation Act 1924Justice
Administration Act 1969Justice
Admiralty Act 1973Transport
Adoption Act 1955Justice
Adult Education Act 1963Education
Age of Majority Act 1970Justice
Aged and Infirm Persons Protection Act 1912Justice
Agricultural and Pastoral Societies Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Chemicals Act 1959Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Pests Destruction Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Workers Act 1977Labour
Agricultural (Emergency Powers) Act 1934Agriculture and Fisheries
Agriculture (Emergency Regulations Confirmation) ActsAgriculture and Fisheries
Air Services Licensing Act 1951Transport
Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1977Labour
Airport Authorities Act 1966Transport
Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council Act 1976Justice
Alcoholics Act 1966Justice
Animal Remedies Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Animals Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Animals Protection Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Annual Holidays Act 1944Labour
Antarctica Act 1960Foreign Affairs
Antiquities Act 1975Internal Affairs
Anzac Day Act 1966Internal Affairs
Apiaries Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Apprentices Act 1948Labour
Arbitration Act 1908Justice
Arbitration Clauses (Protocol) and the Arbitration (Foreign Awards) Act 1933Justice
Architects Act 1963Internal Affairs
Archives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Armed Forces Canteens Act 1948Defence
Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971Defence
Arms Act 1958Police
Atomic Energy Act 1945Energy
Auckland Harbour Bridge Act 1950Works and Development
Auctioneers Act 1928Justice
Aviation Crimes Act 1972Transport
Bank of New Zealand Act 1971Treasury
Banking Act 1908Treasury
Beer Duty Act 1977Customs
Berryfruit Levy Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Bills of Exchange Act 1908Treasury
Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951Justice
Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950Transport
Broadcasting Act 1976.Broadcasting Corporation
Building Performance Guarantee Corporation Act 1977Housing Corporation
Building Research Levy Act 1969Scientific and Industrial Research
Building Societies Act 1965Justice
Burial and Cremation Act 1964Health
Bush Workers Act 1945Labour
Bylaws Act 1910Internal Affairs
Carriage by Air Act 1967Transport
Carriage of Goods Act 1977Justice
Charitable Trusts Act 1957Justice
Chartered Associations (Protection of Names and Uniforms) Act 1930Internal Affairs
Chateau Companies Act 1977Justice
Chatham Islands County Council Empowering Act 1936Internal Affairs
Chattels Transfer Act 1924Justice
Cheques Act 1960Treasury
Children and Young Persons Act 1974Social Welfare
Children's Health Camps Act 1972Health
Chiropractors Act 1960Justice
Cinematograph Films Act 1976Internal Affairs
Citizenship Act 1977Internal Affairs
Civil Aviation Act 1964Transport
Civil Defence Act 1962Internal Affairs
Civil List Act 1950Prime Minister
Clean Air Act 1972Health
Clerks of Works Act 1944Labour
Coal Mines Act 1925Energy
Commerce Act 1975Trade and Industry
Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908Internal Affairs
Commonwealth Countries Act 1977Foreign Affairs
Commonwealth Fabric Corporation Act 1962Treasury
Commonwealth Games Symbol Protection Act 1974Internal Affairs
Companies Act 1955Justice
Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act 1934–35Justice
Companies Special Investigations Act 1958Justice
Construction Act 1959Labour
Consular Privileges and Immunities Act 1971Foreign Affairs
Consumer Council Act 1966Trade and Industry
Consumer Information Act 1969Trade and Industry
Continental Shelf Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Contracts Enforcement Act 1956Justice
Contraception, Sterilisation, and Abortion Act 1977Justice
Contractual Mistakes Act 1977Justice
Contributory Negligence Act 1947Justice
Cook Islands Act 1915Foreign Affairs
Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964Foreign Affairs
Co-operative Companies Act 1956Justice
Co-operative Dairy Companies Act 1949Justice
Co-operative Forestry Companies Act 1978Forest Service
Co-operative Freezing Companies Act 1960Justice
Copyright Act 1962Justice
Cornish Companies Management Act 1974Justice
Coroners Act 1951Justice
Costs in Criminal Cases Act 1967Justice
Counties Act 1956Internal Affairs
Counties Insurance Empowering Act 1941Internal Affairs
Courts Martial Appeals Act 1953Defence
Crimes Act 1961Justice
Criminal Justice Act 1954Justice
Crown Grants Act 1908Lands and Survey
Crown Proceedings Act 1950Justice
Customs Act 1966Customs
Customs Law Act 1908Customs
Dairy Board Act 1961Agriculture and Fisheries
Dairy Industry Act 1952Agriculture and Fisheries
Dangerous Goods Act 1974Internal Affairs
Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act 1952Justice
Decimal Currency Act 1964Treasury
Declaratory Judgments Act 1908Justice
Deeds Registration Act 1908Justice
Defamation Act 1954Justice
Defence Act 1971Defence
Demise of the Crown Act 1908Internal Affairs
Dental Act 1963Health
Department of Social Welfare Act 1971Social Welfare
Deputy Governor's Powers Act 1912Internal Affairs
Designs Act 1953Justice
Development Finance Corporation Act 1973Treasury
Dietitians Act 1950Health
Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities Act 1968Foreign Affairs
Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975Social Welfare
Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act 1950Labour
Disabled Soldiers' Civil Re-establishment Act 1930Social Welfare
Distillation Act 1971Customs
Distress and Replevin Act 1908Justice
District Courts Abolition Act 1925Justice
District Railways Act 1908Works and Development
Dogs Registration Act 1955Internal Affairs
Domestic Actions Act 1975Justice
Domestic Proceedings Act 1968Justice
Domicile Act 1976Justice
Door to Door Sales Act 1967Trade and Industry
Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944State Insurance Office
Economic Stabilisation Act 1948Trade and Industry
Education Act 1964Education
Education Lands Act 1949Education
Electoral Act 1956Justice
Electric Linemen Act 1959Energy
Electric Power Boards Act 1925Energy
Electrical Supply Authorities Association Act 1930Energy
Electricians Act 1952Energy
Electricity Act 1968Energy
Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953Social Welfare
Employment Agents Act 1908Labour
Enemy Property Act 1951Public Trust
Energy Resources Levy Act 1976Energy
Engineering Association Act 1961Works and Development
Engineers Registration Act 1924Works and Development
English Laws Act 1908Justice
Equal Pay Act 1972Labour
Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968Inland Revenue
Evidence Act 1908Justice
Exhibitions Act 1910Trade and Industry
Explosives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Export Guarantee Act 1964Treasury
Extradition Act 1965Justice
Factories Act 1946Labour
Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964Social Welfare
Family Protection Act 1955Justice
Farm Ownership Savings Act 1974Treasury
Fees and Travelling Allowances Act 1951Treasury
Fencing Act 1978Justice
Fertilisers Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Fire Services Act 1975Internal Affairs
Fisheries Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Fisheries (Agreement with Japan) Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Fishing Industry Board Act 1963Agriculture and Fisheries
Fishing Vessel Ownership Savings Act 1977Treasury
Food and Drug Act 1969Health
Foreign Affairs Act 1943Foreign Affairs
Foreign Travel Tax Act 3976Customs
Forest and Rural Fires Act 1977Forest Service
Forestry Encouragement Act 1962Forest Service
Forests Act 1949Forest Service
Franklin-Manukau Pest Destruction Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Friendly Societies Act 1909Treasury
Frustrated Contracts Act 1944Justice
Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 (U.K.)Justice
Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977Internal Affairs
Gaming Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Gas Industry Act 1958Energy
Gas Supply Act 1908Energy
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Act 1948Customs
General Wage Orders Act 1977Labour
Geneva Conventions Act 1958Foreign Affairs
Geothermal Energy Act 1953Energy
Government Life Insurance Act 1953Government Life Insurance Office
Government Railways Act 1949Railways
Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960State Service Commission
Government Superannuation Fund Act 1956Treasury
Guardianship Act 1948Justice
Harbours Act 1950Transport
Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act 1967Lands and Survey
Health Act 1956Health
Heavy Engineering Research Levy Act 1978Scientific and Industrial Research
Higher Salaries Commission Act 1977Labour
Hire Parchase Act 1971Justice
Historic Places Act 1954Internal Affairs
Hive Levy Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Home Ownership Savings Act 1974Treasury
Hospitals Act 1957Health
Hotel Association of New Zealand Act 1969Justice
Housing Act 1955Housing Corporation
Housing Corporation Act 1974Housing Corporation
Hovercraft Act 1971Transport
Howard Estate Act 1978Public Trust Office
Human Rights Commission Act 1977Justice
Human Tissues Act 1964Health
Hunter Gift for the Settlement of Discharged Soldiers Act 1921Lands and Survey
Hydatids Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Illegal Contracts Act 1970Justice
Immigration Act 1964Labour
Impounding Act 1955Internal Affairs
Imprisonment for Debt Limitation Act 1908Justice
Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910Public Trust
Income Tax Act 1976Inland Revenue
Incorporated Societies Act 1908Justice
Indecent Publications Act 1963Justice
Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1908Justice
Industrial Design Act 1966Trade and Industry
Industrial Relations Act 1973Labour
Industrial Societies Act 1908Justice
Industrial Training Levies Act 1978Labour
Industries Development Commission Act 1961Trade and Industry
Infants Act 1908Justice
Inferior Courts Procedure Act 1909Justice
Inland Revenue Department Act 1974Inland Revenue
Innkeepers Act 1962Justice
Insolvency Act 1967Justice
Insurance Companies' Deposits Act 1953Justice
Insurance Law Reform Act 1977Justice
International Air Services Licensing Act 1947Transport
International Energy Agreement Act 1976Energy
International Finance Agreements Act 1961Treasury
Invercargill Licensing Trust Act 1950Justice
Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959Energy
Joint Council for Local Authorities Services Act 1977Internal Affairs
Joint Family Homes Act 1964Justice
Judicature Act 1908Justice
Juries Act 1908Justice
Kermadec Island Act 1887Foreign Affairs
Kitchener Memorial Scholarship Trust Act 1941Education
Labour Department Act 1954Labour
Lake Coleridge Water Power Act 1915Energy
Lake Waikaremoana Act 1971Maori Affairs
Lake Wanaka Preservation Act 1973Prime Minister
Land Act 1948Lands and Survey
Land Drainage Act 1908Internal Affairs
Land Purchase Act 1977Lands and Survey
Land Tax Act 1976Inland Revenue
Land Transfer Act 1952Justice
Land Transfer (Hawke's Bay) Act 1931Justice
Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948Justice
Law Practitioners Act 1955Justice
Law Reform Act 1936Justice
Law Reform Act 1944Justice
Law Reform (Testamentary Promises) Act 1949Justice
Legal Aid Act 1969Justice
Legislative Council Abolition Act 1950Legislative
Legislature Act 1908Legislative
Libraries and Mechanics' Institutes Act 1908Internal Affairs
Licensing Act 1908Justice
Licensing Trusts Act 1949Justice
Life Insurance Act 1908Justice
Limitation Act 1950Justice
Lincoln College Act 1961Education
Liquid Fuels Trust Act 1978Energy
Litter Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Art 1963Internal Affairs
Local Authorities Loans Act 1956Treasury
Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Elections and Polls Act 1976Internal Affairs
Local Government Act 1974Internal Affairs
Local Railways Act 1914Works and Development
Machinery Act 1950Labour
Magistrates' Courts Act 1947Justice
Manapouri-Te Anau Development Act 1963Works and Development
Maori Affairs Act 1953Maori Affairs
Maori Affairs Department Act 1968Maori Affairs
Maori Education Foundation Act 1961Education
Maori Housing Act 1935Maori Affairs
Maori Purposes Funds Act 1934–35Maori Affairs
Maori Reserved Land Act 1956Maori Affairs
Maori Soldiers Trust Act 1957Maori Affairs
Maori Trust Boards Act 1955Maori Affairs
Maori Trustee Act 1953Maori Affairs
Maori Vested Lands Administration Art 1954Maori Affairs
Maori Welfare Act 1962Maori Affairs
Margarine Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Marginal Lands Act 1950Lands and Survey
Marine and Power Engineers' Institute Industrial Disputes Act 1974Labour
Marine Farming Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marine Insurance Act 1908Justice
Marine Mammals Protection Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Marine Pollution Act 1974Transport
Marine Reserves Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marketing Act 1936Agriculture and Fisheries
Marriage Act 1955Justice
Massage Parlours Act 1978Justice
Massey University Act 1963Education
Master and Apprentice Act 1908Labour
Masterton Licensing Trust Act 1947Justice
Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968Health
Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963Justice
Matrimonial Property Act 1976Justice
Meat Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Control Act 1921–22Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Prices Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966Health
Medical Practitioners Act 1968Health
Medical Research Council Act 1950Health
Mental Health Act 1969Health
Mercantile Law Act 1908Justice
Merchandise Marks Act 1954Trade and Industry
Military Decorations and Distinctive Badges Act 1918Defence
Military Manoeuvres Act 1915Defence
Milk Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Minimum Wages Act 1945Labour
Mining Act 1971Energy
Mining Tenures Registration Act 1962Justice
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Ministry of Energy Act 1977Energy
Minister of Local Government Act 1972Internal Affairs
Ministry of Transport Act 1968Transport
Ministry of Works Art 1943Works and Development
Minors' Contracts Act 1969Justice
Misuse of Drugs Act 1975Health
Moneylenders Act 1908Justice
Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act 1936Treasury
Motor Spirits Distribution Act 1953Trade and Industry
Motor Spirits Duty Act 1961Customs
Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933Energy
Motor-Vehicle Dealers Act 1975Justice
Mount Egmont Vesting Act 1978Lands and Survey
Municipal Association Act 1939Internal Affairs
Municipal Corporations Act 1954Internal Affairs
Municipal Insurance Act 1960Internal Affairs
Music Teachers Registration Act 1928Education
Mutual Insurance Art 1955Public Trust
National Art Gallery, Museum, and War Memorial Act 1972Internal Affairs
National Expenditure Adjustment Act 1932Treasury
National Housing Commission Act 1972Housing Corporation
National Library Act 1965Education
National Parks Act 1952Lands and Survey
National Provident Fund Art 1950Treasury
National Research Advisory Council Act 1963State Services Commission
National Roads Act 1953Works and Development
National Savings Act 1940Treasury
Native Plants Protection Act 1934Lands and Survey
Nature Conservation Council Act 1962Lands and Survey
Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908Defence
New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement Act 1965Trade and Industry
New Zealand Bank Act 1861Treasury
New Zealand Boundaries Act 1863 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution (Amendment) Act 1947 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Amendment (Request and Consent) Art 1947Internal Affairs
New Zealand Council for educational Research Act 1972Education
New Zealand Council for Postgraduate Medical Education Art 1978Health
New Zealand Council of Law Reporting Act 1938Justice
New Zealand Counties Association Act 1949Internal Affairs
New Zealand Debt Conversion Act 1932–33Treasury
New Zealand Export-Import Corporation Act 1974Trade and Industry
New Zealand Film Commission Act 1978Internal Affairs
New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946Lands and Survey
New Zealand Government Property Corporation Act 1953Treasury
New Zealand Library Association Art 1939Education
New Zealand Maori Arts and Crafts Institute Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
New Zealand Planning Act 1977Works and Development
New Zealand Ports Authority Act 1968Transport
New Zealand Register of Osteopaths Incorporated Art 1978Health
New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969Justice
New Zealand Society of Accountants Act 1958Treasury
New Zealand Walkways Act 1975Lands and Survey
Newspapers and Printers Act 1955Justice
Ngarimu V.C. and 28th (Maori) Battalion Memorial Scholarship Fund Act 1945Education
Niue Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Niue Constitution Act 1974Foreign Affairs
Noxious Plants Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Nurses Act 1977Health
Oaths and Declarations Act 1957Justice
Occupational Therapy Act 1949Health
Occupiers Liability Act 1962Justice
Offenders Legal Aid Act 1954Justice
Official Appointments and Documents Act 1919Internal Affairs
Official Secrets Act 1951Justice
Ombudsmen Art 1975Justice
Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Act 1976Health
Orakei Block (Vesting and Use) Art 1978Lands and Survey
Orchard Levy Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Overseas Investment Act 1973Treasury
Overseas Representatives Act 1942Foreign Affairs
Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation Art 1972Education
Partnership Act 1908Justice
Passport Act 1946Internal Affairs
Patents Act 1953Justice
Patriotic and Canteen Funds Act 1947Internal Affairs
Pawnbrokers Act 1908Justice
Payment of Jurors Act 1919Justice
Penal Institutions Act 1954Justice
Perpetuities Act 1964Justice
Petroleum Act 1937Energy
Pharmacy Act 1970Health
Phosphorus Matches Act 1910Labour
Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937Internal Affairs
Physiotherapy Act 1949Health
Plant Varieties Act 1973Agriculture and Fisheries
Plants Act 1970Agriculture and
 Fisheries
Plumbers Gasfitters and Drainlayers Act 1976Health
Poisons Act 1960Health
Police Act 1958Police
Police Offences Act 1927Justice
Political Disabilities Removal Act 1960Labour
Pork Industry Act 1974Agriculture and Fisheries
Post Office Act 1959Post Office
Potato Industry Act 1977Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Board Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Regulations Confirmation Act 1978Agriculture and Fisheries
Private Investigators and Security Guards Act 1974Justice
Private Savings Banks Act 1964Treasury
Private Schools Conditional Integration Act 1975Education
Property Law Act 1952Justice
Property Speculation Tax Act 1973Inland Revenue
Protection of British Shipping Act 1936Transport
Public Authorities (Party Wall) Empowering Act 1919Works and Development
Public Bodies' Contracts Act 1959Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Leases Act 1969Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Meetings Act 1961Internal Affairs
Public Contracts Act 1908Labour
Public Finance Act 1977Treasury
Public Holidays Act 1955Labour
Public Safety Conservation Act 1932Justice
Public Trust Office Act 1957Public Trust
Public Works Act 1928Works and Development
Quantity Surveyors Act 1968Works and Development
Quarries Act 1944Energy
Queen Elizabeth The Second Arts Council of New Zealand Act 1974Internal Affairs
Queen Elizabeth The Second National Trust Act 1977Lands and Survey
Queen Elizabeth The Second Postgraduate Fellowship of New Zealand Act 1963Education
Queen Elizabeth The Second Technicians Study Award Act 1970Education
Race Relations Act 1971Justice
Racing Act 1971Internal Affairs
Radiation Protection Act 1965Health
Rangitaiki Land Drainage Act 1956Internal Affairs
Rates Rebate Act 1973Internal Affairs
Rating Act 1967Internal Affairs
Real Estate Agents Act 1976Justice
Reciprocal Enforcement of Judgments Act 1934Justice
Recreation and Sport Act 1973Ministry of Recreation and Sport
Regulations Act 1936Justice
Rehabilitation Act 1941Social Welfare
Rent Appeal Act 1973Labour
Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964Reserve Bank
Reserves Act 1977Lands and Survey
River Boards Act 1908Internal Affairs
Road Users Charges Act 1977Transport
Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind Act 1963Education
Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Royal Powers Act 1953Foreign Affairs
Royal Society of New Zealand Act 1965Scientific and Industrial Research
Royal Titles Act 1974Foreign Affairs
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation Act 1974Treasury
Rural Housing Act 1939Housing Corporation
Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927Housing Corporation
Safety of Children's Night Clothes Act 1977Trade and Industry
Sale of Goods Act 1908Justice
Sale of Liquor Act 1962Justice
Sales Tax Act 1974Customs
Sand Drift Act 1908Lands and Survey
Scientific and Industrial Research Act 1974Scientific and Industrial Research
Sea Carriage of Goods Act 1940Trade and Industry
Seal of New Zealand Act 1977Internal Affairs
Seamen's Union Funds Act 1971Labour
Secondhand Dealers Act 1963Justice
Secret Commissions Act 1910Justice
Securities Act 1978Justice
Securities Transfer Act 1977Justice
Securities Advertising Act 1977Justice
Services Export Development Grants Act 1973Trade and Industry
Sharebrokers Act 1908Justice
Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937Labour
Shearers Act 1962Labour
Shipping and Seamen Act 1952Transport
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973Transport
Shop Trading Hours Act 1977Labour
Shops and Offices Act 1955Labour
Shorthand Reporters Act 1908Justice
Simultaneous Deaths Act 1958Justice
Small Claims Tribunals Act 1976Justice
Social Security Act 1964Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1969Social Welfare
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941Works and Development
Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952Internal Affairs
Stamp and Cheque Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Standards Act 1965Trade and Industry
State Insurance Act 1963State Insurance Office
State Services Act 1962State Services Commission
State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977State Services Commission
Statistics Act 1975Statistics
Status of Children Act 1969Justice
Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Statutes Drafting and Compilation Act 1920Parliamentary Counsel Office
Statutory Land Charges Registration Act 1928Justice
Stock Foods Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Submarine Cables and Pipelines Protection Act 1966Transport
Summary Proceedings Act 1957Justice
Superannuation Schemes Act 1976Treasury
Surveyors Act 1966Lands and Survey
Swamp Drainage Act 1915Lands and Survey
Taranaki Harbours Act 1965Transport
Taranaki Scholarships Trust Board Act 1957Education
Tarawera Forest Act 1967Maori Affairs
Technicians Certification Act 1958Education
Technicians Training Act 1967Labour
Tenancy Act 1955Labour
Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977Foreign Affairs
Testing Laboratory Registration Act 1972Scientific and Industrial Research
Timber Floating Act 1954Forest Service
Time Act 1974Internal Affairs
Tobacco-growing Industry Act 1974Trade and Industry
Tokelau Act 1948Foreign Affairs
Tourist and Health Resorts Control Act 1908Tourist and Publicity
Tourist and Publicity Department Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
Tourist Hotel Corporation Act 1974Tourist and Publicity
Town and Country Planning Act 1977Works and Development
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act 1933Customs
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Canada) Ratification Act 1932Customs
Trade and Industry Act 1956Trade and Industry
Trade Unions Act 1908Treasury
Trademarks Act 1953Justice
Trades Certification Act 1966Education
Trading Coupons Act 1931Trade and Industry
Tramways Act 1908Works and Development
Transport Act 1962Transport
Treaties of Peace (Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Finland) Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Peace (Japan) Act 1951Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975Maori Affairs
Trespass Act 1968Justice
Trustee Act 1956Justice
Trustee Companies Act 1967Justice
Trustee Companies Management Act 1975Justice
Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948Reserve Bank
Tuberculosis Act 1948Health
Turangi Township Act 1964Works and Development
Unclaimed Moneys Act 1971Treasury
Underground Water Act 1953Works and Development
Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919Labour
Unit Titles Act 1972Justice
Unit Trusts Act 1960Justice
United Nations Act 1946Foreign Affairs
United Nations (Police) Act 1964Police
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration Act 1944Foreign Affairs
Universities Act 1961Education
University of Albany Act 1972Education
University of Auckland Act 1961Education
University of Canterbury Act 1961Education
University of Otago Ordinance 1869 and University of Otago Amendment Act 1961Education
University of Waikato Act 1963Education
Unsolicited Goods and Services Act 1975Justice
Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act 1945Works and Development
Valuation of Land Act 1951Valuation
Valuers Act 1948Valuation
Vegetables Levy Act 1957Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Services Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Surgeons Act 1956Agriculture and Fisheries
Victoria University of Wellington Act 1961Education
Visiting Forces Act 1939Foreign Affairs
Vocational Training Council Act 1968Education
Volunteers Employment Protection Act 1973Labour
Wages Protection Act 1964Labour
Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act 1939Labour
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act 1910Works and Development
Waikato Valley Authority Act 1956Works and Development
Wairarapa Cadet Training Farm Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Waitangi Day Act 1976Internal Affairs
Waitangi Endowment Act 1932–33Forest Service
Waitangi National Trust Board Act 1932Lands and Survey
Wanganui Computer Centre Act 1976Justice
War Expenses Act 1939Treasury
War Funds Act 1915Internal Affairs
War Pensions Act 1954Social Welfare
Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967Works and Development
Waterfront Industry Act 1976Labour
Weights and Measures Act 1925Labour
Western Samoa Act 1961Foreign Affairs
Westport Harbour Act 1920Transport
Wheat Board Act 1965Trade and Industry
Wheat Levy Act 1974Trade and Industry
Wild Animal Control Act 1977Forest Service
Wildlife Act 1953Internal Affairs
Wills Act 1837 (U.K.)Justice
Wine Makers Levy Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Act 1965Internal Affairs
Wool Industry Act 1977Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Labelling Act 1949Trade and Industry
Wool Testing Authority Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries

ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS—Administrative tribunals have gradually developed over a period of more than 50 years. As a rule they are set up by Act of Parliament or under powers conferred by statute. Their growth is related to the continuing expansion of governmental activity and responsibility for the general well-being of the community. This development is common to many countries. Useful references are The Citizen and Power: Administrative Tribunals—a survey by the Department of Justice, and the reports of the Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee, published annually.

Appeals from Administrative Tribunals—An Administrative Division of the Supreme Court was established by the Judicature Amendment Act 1968. The Division consists of up to four Judges of the Supreme Court, who are assigned to the Division by the Chief Justice. One of the most important functions of the Division is to determine appeals from such administrative tribunals as are specified by statute. It also hears and determines applications for judicial review and for prerogative writs and other classes of applications and proceedings referred to it by the Chief Justice or specified by statute. Judges who are at present assigned to the Division are the Chief Justice, the Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E.; the Hon. G. D. Speight; the Hon. J. C. White; and the Hon. D. W. McMullin.

JUDICIARY

Judges of the Court of Appeal and Supreme Court

Chief Justice: Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E.

Court of Appeal: Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E. (ex officio) Rt. Hon. Sir Clifford Richmond, K.B.E., President; Rt. Hon. Sir Owen Woodhouse; Rt. Hon. Sir Robin Cooke; Rt. Hon. I. L. M. Richardson.

Supreme Court: Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E.; Hon. L. F. Moller; Hon. G. D. Speight; Hon. C. M. Roper; Hon. J. C. White; Hon. D. S. Beattie; Hon. J. P. Quilliam; Hon. D. W. McMullin; Hon. P. T. Mahon; Hon. J. B. O'Regan; Hon. M. F. Chilwell; Hon. M. E. Casey; Hon. E. J. Somers; Hon. J. A. Ongley; Hon. R. I. Barker; Hon. J. F. Jeffries; Hon. M. H. Vautier; Hon. J. W. Bain; Hon. J. B. Sinclair; Hon. J. R. Mills, C.M.G.; Hon. T. M. Thorp; Hon. G. E. Bisson; Hon. A. D. Holland; Hon. L. M. Greig.

OMBUDSMEN

Since 1962 there has been an Ombudsman whose principal function has been to inquire into complaints from members of the public relating to administrative decisions of Government departments and related organisations, including hospital and education boards. Jurisdiction was extended under the Ombudsmen Act 1975 to local authorities and certain national boards and organisations. Provision was made under the new Act for the appointment of a Chief Ombudsman and one or more other ombudsmen, who may be permanent or temporary. The original ombudsman (since retired) was appointed Chief Ombudsman and two additional ombudsmen were appointed. Complaints must be made in writing. Investigations are conducted in private but an ombudsman can decide not to investigate where, for instance, the subject matter is trivial or the complainant has not a sufficient personal interest in the subject matter of the complaint.

An ombudsman is empowered to report his opinion, after such an investigation, to the organisation and to the Minister concerned, and if no action is taken he may report to Parliament. Nearly all complaints held to be justified are rectified by the department or organisation concerned. No complaints of actual malpractice have been found justified.

An analysis of the complaints made to the Ombudsmen and the resultant action both during the latest available year and during the entire period of the office is given in the following table.

Action on ComplaintYear Ended March 19781 October 1962 to 31 March 1978
Outside jurisdiction4414 871
Discontinued4782 705
Withdrawn1141 131
Investigated and considered justified3811 950
Investigated and considered not justified6505 128
Still under investigation as at 31 March409409
                Total complaints2 47316 194

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND HOLDERS OF CHIEF ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS
DepartmentChief Administrative Positions
TitleName
*General manager of Housing Corporation acts also as permanent head of Rural Bank.
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry ofDirector-GeneralM. L. Cameron, B.AGR.SC.
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralA. C. Shailes, B.A., A.C.A.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralR. C. Savage, Q.C., LL.B.
CustomsComptrollerJ. A. M. Kean, ACCTS. PROF.
Defence, Ministry ofSecretaryD.B.G. McLean, M.SC., B.A. (Oxon.)
 Chief of Defence StaffAir Marshal R. B. Bolt, C.B., K.B.E., D.F.C., A.F.C.
 Chief of Air StaffAir Vice-Marshall D. E. Jamieson.
 Chief of General StaffMajor-General B. M. Poananga
 Chief of Naval StaffRear-Admiral N. D. Anderson, C.B.E.
EducationDirector-GeneralW. L. Renwick, M.A.
Energy, Ministry ofSecretaryW. M. Duncan, B.E., M.I.C.E., M.A.S.C.E., M.NZ.I.E.
Foreign Affairs, Ministry ofSecretaryF. H. Corner, M.A.
Government Life Insurance OfficeCommissionerH. D. Peacock, F.I.A.
Government Printing OfficeGovernment PrinterP. D. Hasselberg, ACCTS. PROF.
HealthDirector-GeneralH. J. H. Hiddlestone, M.D., CH.B., F.R.C.O., F.R.A.C.P.
Housing CorporationGeneral ManagerE. J. Babe, B.COM., A.C.A., D.P.A., DIP.R.V.
Inland RevenueCommissionerR. T. Phillips, A.C.A.
Internal AffairsSecretary and Clerk of WritsJ. N. L. Searle, F.C.A., B. Com.
JusticeSecretary for JusticeJ. F. Robertson, A.C.A., D.P.A.
LabourSecretary of LabourG. L. Jackson, A.C.A.
Lands and SurveyDirector-GeneralN. S. Coad, B.COM., D.P.A., ACCTS. PROF.
LegislativeClerk of House of RepresentativesC. P. Littlejohn, LL.M.
Maori AffairsSecretary and Maori TrusteeI. P. Puketapu, B.A.
New Zealand Forest ServiceDirector-GeneralG. M. O'Neill, B.SC., B.SC. For. (Edb.)
New Zealand Security Intelligence ServiceDirector of SecurityP. L. Molineaux, M.A., LL.B.
PoliceCommissionerR. J. Walton, O.B.E., O.P.M., E.D.
Post OfficeDirector-GeneralG. M. Peters
Prime Minister'sPermanent PleadB. V. J. Galvin, B.A., M.P.A. (HVD.)
Public Trust OfficePublic TrusteeN. C. Kelly, LL.M.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerT. M. Hayward, F.C.I.T.
Rural Banking and Finance Corp.*  
Scientific and Industrial ResearchDirector-GeneralE. I. Robertson, O.B.E., M.SC., PH.D. (LOND.), F.R.S.
Social WelfareDirector-GeneralS. J. Callahan, A.C.A., D.P.A.
State Insurance OfficeGeneral ManagerN. R. Ainsworth, Q.S.O., ACCTS. PROF.
State Services CommissionGeneral ManagerR. M. Williams, M.A., PH.D. (CANTAB.)
StatisticsGovernment StatisticianE. A. Harris, B.A., M.COM., A.C.A.
Tourist and PublicityGeneral ManagerM. S. Roberts, MA.
Trade and IndustrySecretaryJ. W. H. Clark, B.A., ADMIN, PROF., D.P.A.
Transport, Ministry ofSecretaryA. J. Edwards, B.A. (Hon.), M.C.I.T.
TreasurySecretaryN. V. Lough, ACCTS. PROF., B.COM.
ValuationValuer-GeneralM. R. Mander, DIP. V.F.M.. R.V.
Works and Development, Ministry ofCommissionerN. C. McLeod, B.E.

FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS THE STATE SERVICES

The State services comprise, in the widest sense, all servants of the Crown other than those holding political or judicial office. They include the 34 departments of the Public Service, and the Post Office, Railways Department, Legislative Department, Parliamentary Counsel Office, and other State organisations such as Government corporations and agencies, the Police, the armed forces, and the teaching and health services.

Under the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, the State Services Co-ordinating Committee is constituted as the principal adviser to the Minister of State Services and the official negotiating body with service organisations on all personnel matters which in the opinion of the committee significantly affect more than one employing authority. The committee consists of the following or their representatives: Chairman of the State Services Commission; Secretary to the Treasury; Director-General of the Post Office; General Manager of Railways; Secretary of Defence; Director-General of Health; Director-General of Education. Other State service employing authorities may be co-opted as members of the committee from time to time.

Apart from proposals concerning salaries and related conditions of employment, the committee discusses more general personnel matters referred to it by the Government, individual employing authorities, and employee organisations, and tries to achieve a reasonable degree of inter-service uniformity.

Brief summaries of the functions of Government departments are now given.

Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of—The main functions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries are to promote and encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, and fishing industries with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing their production.

Audit Office—The Audit Office is responsible for auditing throughout the public sector—Central Government, local authorities, and most of the statutory corporations, marketing, and other boards.

The conduct of financial audits involves giving an independent opinion on financial statements and whether there is material compliance with statutory requirements. This may result in reporting to Parliament unreasonable, negligent, or wasteful acts or public disclosure of the financial effects of policy.

In addition, the office conducts operational reviews of the standard of financial management or the “efficiency and effectiveness” of management operations. These may result in special reports to Parliament.

Crown Law Office—The primary function of the Crown Law Office is to act as the legal adviser of the Government and Ministers in matters affecting the Crown and Government departments. In addition the Solicitor-General performs most of the statutory and ex officio duties of the Attorney-General's office and is himself entrusted by statute with various specific rights, duties, and functions. In range and activity the legal work of the Crown Law Office corresponds with the activities of the Government itself, and just as those activities have extended in the past 30 years into commerce and social services, as well as the purely governmental sphere, so the scope of the Crown Law Office's legal work has widened accordingly.

Customs Department—A principal function is the collection of indirect taxation—Customs duty, excise duty, sales tax, beer duty, motor spirits duty, foreign travel tax, and foreign fishing vessel entry tax. Advice is given to Government in matters of Tariff protection for local industry.

The department is also responsible for the prevention of smuggling and related offences, for the entry and clearance of ships and aircraft, passenger processing, and the control of exports from New Zealand.

Another principal function is the implementation of policy and procedural decisions in relation to import control. This involves the receipt of applications, issuing licences, exercising delegated authority, and ensuring that import licensing requirements are met at the point of importation.

Defence, Ministry of—Functions include the provision of the resources required to enable Defence Headquarters to undertake the central command, control, management, and administration of the defence forces and the Ministry of Defence, and also maintaining and operating the defence communications network.

Education, Department off—The primary objective of the department is to ensure that suitable education facilities and services are readily available for all children of compulsory school age (from 6 to 15 years); for children who by choice start school at the age of 5 years; for the rapidly increasing number of pupils over the age of 15 who stay on at school; for suitably qualified school leavers who seek or are required to undertake education and training on leaving school in secondary schools, teachers colleges, or technical institutes; and for adults wishing to continue their education, whether for vocational or non-vocational purposes. Associated with this objective is the responsibility for administering government policy in the maintenance and development of pre-school education.

In carrying out these objectives the department's main activities are the provision of professional and administrative services for the support of the education system, the administration of primary and secondary education, special education, the training of teachers, technical and continuing education, and the National Library.

Energy, Ministry of—The Ministry of Energy was established by Order in Council on 1 April 1978 following the passing of the Ministry of Energy Act late in 1977. The new ministry brought together the former “energy” departments of Electricity, Mines, and Energy Resources. It was established to advise the Government on the formulation, implementation, co-ordination, and continuing review of effective and efficient energy policies for New Zealand. In carrying out this function the ministry must take into account energy sources and resources; exploration, assessment, research and development, production, supply, distribution, consumption, and conservation; needs of industry, commerce, transport, and domestic users; needs of regions; international responsibilities; environmental and social issues; organisational and administration methods; and future patterns, changes, problems, and the need for planning.

The ministry is responsible for administering licensing for the prospecting and mining of petroleum, coal, and other minerals. This includes the regulation and inspection of mining operations to ensure acceptable operating safety standards.

One of the roles of the ministry is to encourage the active exploration and the proper development and use of the country's natural resources. To this end a substantial sum is provided for assistance to oil exploration. The policy of assisting the mineral industry with technical advice and financial help by way of grants and contingently repayable loans continues as in the past.

The ministry is also responsible for the production and marketing of coal from the State coal mines.

The primary purpose of the Electricity Division of the ministry is to operate and maintain the bulk electricity supply system and to extend it so that the electricity needs of New Zealand are supplied safely, continuously, and economically. A further requirement is to undertake or promote measures to achieve greater economy and efficiency in the use of electricity as a means of reducing the future rate of growth of electricity requirements.

Foreign Affairs, Ministry of—The ministry is responsible for the administration of foreign policy and the conduct of New Zealand's external relations generally, including relations with other countries and their representatives in New Zealand, and New Zealand's representation abroad.

The ministry's operating arm overseas is the network of diplomatic posts, consisting of embassies, high commissions, consulates-general, and other permanent missions, located in areas of direct and immediate concern to New Zealand. Attendance at international and regional conferences is undertaken both by staff attached to posts and by officials from the head office of the ministry in Wellington. The ministry also maintains liaison with the representatives of the other countries accredited to New Zealand and encourages cultural exchanges and visits to New Zealand by overseas journalists, officials, and others.

On 1 April 1975 the ministry also became responsible for the Island activities of the former Department of Maori and Island Affairs. From 1 September 1978 the ministry became responsible for all official New Zealand information and publicity activities overseas other than those specifically concerned with trade promotion or tourism.

Forest Service, New Zealand—Management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards maintaining an exotic forest estate sufficiently large and diverse to meet future domestic timber and other forest produce needs and to provide for exports whilst also protecting, conserving, and, where possible, perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests.

Development and management of a wood resource for new forest-based industries leads to continuing employment opportunities and other socio-economic benefits regionally.

Implementation of a multiple-use forest policy involves the establishment and maintenance of forests for wood production, soil, and water conservation, scenery preservation, the provision of recreational areas, and biological reserves.

Government Life Insurance Office—The operations of the Government Life Insurance Office are essentially a single activity which is to provide full and progressive life insurance and superannuation facilities for the people of New Zealand.

The office is a mutual life insurance office operating in active competition with private offices.

Government Printing Office—The function of the department is to supply the requirements of printing, stationery, and allied services to Government departments. It follows that the volume of demand from client departments regulates to a large extent the development or expansion of the Printing Office.

Health, Department of—The principal functions of the Department of Health are:

  1. To administer the Health Act 1956, the Hospitals Act 1957, the Mental Health Act 1969, Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, the Poisons Act 1960, the Clean Air Act 1972, and all other public Acts relating to the promotion or conservation of human health.

  2. To advise local authorities in matters relating to environmental health.

  3. To prevent, limit, arid suppress communicable and other diseases.

  4. To promote or carry out research and investigation in public health fields and the prevention and treatment of disease.

  5. To publish reports, information, and advice concerning public health.

  6. To organise and control medical, dental, and nursing services, so far as such services are paid out of public moneys.

  7. Generally to take all such steps as may be desirable to secure the preparation, effective carrying out, and co-ordination of measures conducive to public health.

Housing Corporation—The Housing Corporation is the chief government agency for providing finance for home ownership. It also provides home improvement loans, mortgage guarantees and refinance assistance.

Its other main function is the provision of publicly-owned housing. Activities include land acquisition and development, land sales, house construction, the management of its rental houses, sale of houses, loans and subsidy for pensioner accommodation, and urban development and redevelopment.

The corporation in its own right, or as agent, provides industrial loans and agency services including: administration of the Home Ownership Savings Act 1974; advances under the Family Benefit Capitalisation scheme; rehabilitation concessions to ex-servicemen; subsidies for hostel accommodation for young people; loans for hotel/motel accommodation, private schools, medical centres and home insulation; and loans and mortgage guarantees to provide tourist accommodation and facilities.

Inland Revenue Department—The main function of the Inland Revenue Department is to assess and collect various taxes and duties. The principal of these is income tax which is collected in part by PAYE deductions from salaries and wages, in part by the payment of provisional tax during the year of derivation of income, and in part by an end of the year assessment, Of the other revenues collected the most significant comprise stamp duty, estate and gift duties, land tax, and totalisator duty.

Internal Affairs, Department of—The department is primarily responsible for administering Government policies and legislation relating to local government, the development of cultural and recreational services, and the protection of indigenous wildlife.

The Local Government Division attends to formal constitutional matters relating to the summoning and prorogation of Parliament and administers policies and legislation relating to territorial local government, civil defence, dangerous goods and explosives, the New Zealand Fire Service, servicemen's cemeteries, the Chatham Islands, and the control of Lake Taupo. It also services the Local Government Commission schemes.

The Cultural Branch is responsible for administering Government policies and legislation and a number of funds and fellowships are also administered by this branch. The National Museum, National Art Gallery, the New Zealand Historic Places Trust, the National Archives, and the Film Censor are serviced by the department. The Historic Publications Branch is also part of the department.

The Ministry of Recreation and Sport administers Government policy on recreation and sport and services the New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport. The Youth Services Section within the Ministry has the function of encouraging and assisting local community participation in recreation and youth, and co-ordinates the work of the Commonwealth Youth Programme within New Zealand.

The Wildlife Service, in addition to managing the wildlife resources of two major acclimatisation districts, is responsible nationally for the protection of New Zealand fauna. It administers legislation on freshwater fishing, game hunting, and the conservation of rare native birds.

The department also administers the legislation relating to horse racing, gaming and lotteries, New Zealand citizenship, passports, and visas. It operates the translation service for Government departments and administers the cleaning of Government offices. Administrative matters relating to the office of the Governor-General and his staff are also the department's responsibility. Reception of guests of the Government, State functions, meeting the costs of internal and overseas travel by Ministers of the Crown and parliamentary delegations are other responsibilities.

Justice, Department of—The functions of the department may be classified broadly under the headings of penal policy and administration; law reform; the administration of justice; commercial affairs (including the administration of the Companies and Insolvency Acts); electoral; registration work including land titles, trade marks, patents, and births, deaths, and marriages; and social measures of a preventive nature. The Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, Legal Aid Act 1969, the Race Relations Act 1971, and the Summary Instalment Order provisions of the Insolvency Act 1967 have taken the department further into the broad area of social administration. The department is, through its Tribunals Division, responsible for the administration of the Sale of Liquor Act 1962, the Indecent Publications Act 1963, the Town and Country Planning Act 1953, together with other various tribunals.

Labour, Department of—The principal responsibilities of the Department of Labour are to promote and maintain full employment through the provision of a complete employment service, to ensure through the work of its field staff that workers are employed under safe and healthy working conditions, to promote good industrial relations, and to collect and publish relevant information. In addition, it administers a complex variety of statutes; among the most important are the Industrial Relations Act, the Factories and Construction Acts, and those dealing with weights and measures, apprenticeship, and immigration.

Lands and Survey, Department of—As the Government's major land administering agency, the department manages, controls, or is involved with the administration of about 10.3 million hectares of land which represents approximately 38 percent of New Zealand's land area. Some 5.7 million hectares of this area is Crown leasehold, 2.7 million hectares is national parks and reserves, 678,600 hectares is being developed for farming purposes while the balance falls into miscellaneous categories (mountain tops, vacant Crown land, lake and riverbeds, etc.).

The department is also the national survey and mapping organisation, thus providing economies and effective co-ordination of all activities. This work includes control surveys as the basis for cadastral surveys and basic topographic mapping, land title surveys, large scale topographical surveys for engineering and management purposes, land development servicing, fixing of marine and air navigation aids and aerodrome obstruction surveys, earth deformation studies, and land environmental planning.

Maori Affairs, Department of—The broad functions of the Department of Maori Affairs are to assist the Maori and Pacific Island peoples, particularly in social, economic, and cultural matters. For example, Maori land owners are assisted by the way of title reform and capital advances to make full use of their resources, and through its Social Services Division, the department gives encouragement in the fields of education, employment, housing, and health.

Police Department—The role of the Police is:

  1. To prevent offences and to detect and apprehend offenders.

  2. To preserve peace and good order.

  3. To protect life and property.

The role of the police in protecting life and property, contrasted with law enforcement, is not governed by statute. Search and rescue features largely in this area of police responsibility, and most search and rescue operations are carried out by the police alone or with the aid of interested voluntary organisations.

Post Office—The Post Office is charged with the operation and development of postal and telecommunications systems, both internal and overseas; the Post Office Savings Bank; and with handling a wide range of payments and receipts for Government departments and other organisations.

Prime Minister's Department—Since December 1975 the Prime Minister's Department has been established as a separately administered department with its own permanent head.

General services provided by the department include servicing the Cabinet, its committees, and the Executive Council; advising the Prime Minister on policy matters as required; and providing a public information service on ministerial matters for the news media.

The External Intelligence Bureau centralises the intelligence functions in the general field of international affairs; it receives direction and policy guidance from the New Zealand Intelligence Council.

Public Trust Office—The Public Trustee provides a wide range of services as trustee, executor, manager, and attorney. He also acts as sinking fund or depreciation fund commissioner for many local authorities when so appointed, and additionally holds other funds on their behalf. He is required to provide a number of statutory services irrespective of whether these are remunerative.

Railways Department, New Zealand Government—The fundamental and continuing aim of New Zealand Railways is to take its part in the operation and development of the nation's transport services by means of a strong, successful, and efficient organisation consisting of rail, road, and inter-island sea services which will help to increase the wealth and well-being of the community.

The main objectives are:

  1. To provide services of the highest standard possible consistent with an overall requirement of economic and safe operation, within the constraints imposed by available labour, equipment, and investment capital.

  2. To trade as a business enterprise.

  3. To earn sufficient revenue to cover operating and renewal costs, to build up a contingency reserve, and to provide whatever proportion of development capital circumstances allow.

Rural Banking and Finance Corporation—The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation was established on 1 April 1974 with the principal function of making loans and providing other assistance for farming and other primary industries and for related service industries.

Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of—The department has functions of providing background scientific research for economic development and environmental control in several major areas.

Agriculture—Agriculture is a priority area, it being the mainstay of the country's economy. Increasing emphasis is placed on (a) new crops, including those suitable for irrigated land and mechanical harvesting, to meet the demands of the rapidly expanding food processing industry; (b) the breeding of new and better varieties of pasture, particularly for hill country farming; (c) curing, drying, storage, processing, and packaging of agricultural products.

Manufacturing—Particular emphasis is given to improved industrial liaison and advisory services, electronic and electrical work, metal cutting and forming, industrial vibration and acoustic problems, and new product development.

Minerals—Continuing emphasis is given to prospecting for and testing the processing of local raw materials with a view to substantially increasing the “added value” component before export.

Energy—Aspects of prospecting for, storage, and processing of energy resources are investigated. Advice is given on building and maintenance of energy-generating installations and on efficiency of use and conversion of energy in building and appliances. Processes for production of motor fuels from crops, coal, and wastes are tested, including economic aspects. Increased emphasis is being given to investigating the extent and possible additional utilisation of indigenous energy resources such as coal, natural gas, oil, and geothermal steam. Alternative forms of energy, i.e., solar, wind, ocean, are being investigated.

Natural Environment—Studies involve freshwater research and pollution problems, and botanical studies associated with major development proposals.

Other Scientific Services—There are increasing demands for scientific services from Department of Health (food and drug analysis), Ministry of Transport (blood alcohol analysis), and Police Department (forensic), and for work related to road safety.

Social Welfare, Department of—The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are:

  1. To administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Children and Young Persons Act 1974; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; the Rehabilitation Act 1941; and the Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Minister may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities.

  5. Maintain close liaison with and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among any organisations and individuals engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

State Insurance Office—The State Insurance Office transacts all classes of fire, accident, and marine insurance in New Zealand. Its function is to maintain a competitive insurance service.

It also administers the Export Guarantee Office, which provides credit insurance for exporters.

Statistics, Department of—The Department of Statistics has the following broad functions:

  1. To collect, compile, analyse, abstract, and publish economic, financial, production, and social statistics, and to make estimates, forecasts, projections, and statistical models;

  2. To advise and inform the Minister of Statistics on statistical policy matters;

  3. To define and promote standard concepts, procedures, definitions, and classifications;

  4. To examine all proposals by other departments for commencing or commissioning new statistical surveys, and to prepare submissions to the Minister of Statistics for his approval;

  5. To review periodically the collection, compilation, analyses, abstraction, and publication of all official statistics;

  6. To maintain liaison with international organisations or agencies requiring or making use of New Zealand statistics.

Tourist and Publicity Department—The main functions of the Tourist and Publicity Department are to promote travel to, within, and beyond New Zealand; to develop domestic tourism and to stimulate off-season travel; to publicise New Zealand overseas in the national interests of tourism, trade, and prestige; to undertake research in the interests of tourist industry development; to administer schemes for financial assistance for the provision of accommodation and other tourist facilities; to operate and sell tours and provide a booking service to assist overseas travel agents; and to provide, within New Zealand, information and publicity services for Ministers and other departments and Government agencies. It provides administrative and research services for the Tourism Advisory Council, an advisory body established in 1977 to report and make recommendations to the Minister of Tourism on all aspects of tourism.

Trade and Industry, Department of—The principal statutory functions of the department are to promote and encourage the improvement and development of industry and commerce and promote and encourage the export trade of New Zealand.

New dimensions to the department's role, however, have emerged recently from New Zealand's rapidly changing economy. The Government's general stabilisation policies have involved the department in the formulation and execution of broader economic matters than formerly, and the development of pricing policy is now inextricably linked with decisions taken in the area of wages and general incomes policy.

The need for conservation of materials, and the drive to increase exports are other major areas of departmental activity resulting from a changing economic environment.

Transport, Ministry of—The ministry is responsible for providing Government with the information and advice necessary for the development of an efficient and economic transport policy.

The principal objective of Road Transport Division is to promote the safe and efficient movement of people and goods on the roads and streets of New Zealand.

The main objective of the Marine Division is to promote the safety of shipping in and beyond New Zealand waters, to ensure the safe handling of cargo at New Zealand ports, and the safe operation of boilers, pressure vessels, cranes, and lifts throughout New Zealand.

The main objective of the Civil Aviation Division is continuation of the existing high standards of civil aircraft operation. The ministry will continue its programme of providing improved facilities associated with the safe operation of aircraft particularly in regard to navigation aids, surveillance radars, aircraft and airport security, and general aviation supervision.

The Meteorological Service is responsible for the provision of information and advice to all sections of the community on the atmosphere, environment, weather, climatic conditions, and pollution of the air.

Treasury—The role of Treasury is:

  1. To control the receipt, custody, and payment of Government's finances as directed by statute and Government decisions.

  2. To keep Government informed on the existing external and internal economic situation, the effects of existing policy and trends and prospects for the future.

  3. To advise Government on the level and content of its expenditure and receipts, and assess the most effective allocations of limited resources among competing expenditure proposals.

  4. To advise on, and implement, various aspects of Government's financial and economic policies.

These general functions involve the financial, economic, and programme analysis and evaluation divisions of Treasury in the following particular tasks; the allocation of funds to departments; the investment of public funds; the raising, repayment, and conversion of loans; and the preparation of the Budget and the annual Estimates of Expenditure.

Valuation Department—The major activity of the department is the preparation of valuation rolls for all districts in New Zealand, to maintain these rolls up to date with changes in property holdings, ownership, occupancy, and development and to revise the values at not more than 5-yearly intervals.

Works and Development, Ministry of—In addition to the carrying out of Government works, the ministry has responsibility under the Minister's direction of executing projects and undertakings of national significance. Its objectives include investigation, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of these works, having due regard to standards and costs, and the best practical means whereby environmental conditions can be conserved, restored, or enhanced. In most cases, completed works are taken over for operation and maintenance by operating departments such as the Electricity Division of the Ministry of Energy, and New Zealand Railways.

Further roles of the department include the development of natural resources and the encouragement, investigation, and co-ordination of proposals for regional planning, as well as the task of assembling information on the building and construction industries, and the programming of national capital formation including Government works.

Specific statutes administered by the department include the Public Works Act (which inter alia, provides the Crown and local authorities with land acquisition powers), the Town and Country Planning Act, National Roads Act (the department services the National Roads Board), Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, Water and Soil Conservation Act (which involves the department in water allocation and quality control activities), and some local Acts.

Staff of State Services—The following table shows employment levels in the public sector.

OrganisationStaff Numbers at 31 March
1974x1975x1976x1977x1978

*Source: Annual Reports; calculated on head count basis.

†Includes Cook Strait ferry staff.

‡Comprises teaching, non-teaching, and ancillary staff and all university staff. Sources: Department of Education and University Grants Committee. Only the 1978 figure is counted entirely on head count basis.

§Source: Department of Health; calculated as full-time equivalents. Includes Legislation Department, Parliamentary Counsel Office, Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, N.Z. Council for Educational Research, Ombudsmen's Office, Privacy Commissioner's Office. Vocational Training Council, and other bodies financed by Government funds.

Public Service*72 14776 79579 19978 89483 242
Railways*21 36322 54322 20921 99321 915
Post Office*34 65236 90338 90738 23038 894
Education53 59357 33558 50959 10862 216
Hospital services§42 33743 94446 03246 89748 719
Armed forces*12 63012 67012 42012 45612 762
Police*3 7424 1194 3324 4664 700
Other (estimated)||700700700700700
                Total241 164255 009262 308262 744273 148
Percentage of total labour force20.4821.1221.4721.36...
Labour force as at April1,191,3001,207,7001,222,0001,230,100...

In New Zealand, with its long tradition of Government activity in many spheres, the work of the State services covers a broad field. The Government decides when a new service is to be provided or a new function undertaken. Work loads increase as a result of population growth, but are offset to some extent by improvements in efficiency. Recent trends have been for more staff for research and resource development and expanded social services.

The consumption expenditure of Central Government as a percentage of the appropriation of national disposable income is shown in the following table.

YearFinal Consumption Expenditure of Central GovernmentNational Disposable IncomePercentage
*Provisional.
 $(m)$(m) 
1973–741,0398,57112.1
1974–751,2649,14313.8
1975–761,51910,514x14.4
1976–771,73312,679x13.7
1977–78*2,08913,73815.2

STATE SERVICES COMMISSION—The State Services Act 1962 provides for a State Services Commission of up to four persons appointed by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.

In respect of departments of the Public Service, the Commission is responsible for—

  1. Reviewing: the machinery of Government, including the allocation of functions to and between departments, the desirability of or need for the creation of new departments and the amalgamation or abolition of existing departments, the co-ordination of the activities of departments, and the extent and nature of controls exercised by any one department over the operations of another department;

  2. Reviewing the efficiency and economy of each department;

  3. The provision of suitable office accommodation and the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions of all employees in the Public Service;

  4. Approving and reviewing establishments of staff;

  5. Acting as the central personnel authority for the Public Service;

  6. Prescribing basic training programmes, furnishing advice on and assisting with the training of staff, and making recommendations to the Minister on the facilities necessary for the proper training of staff;

  7. Providing management consultation services, including advice as to efficient work and control methods and techniques, data processing equipment, and problems of organisation.

It has complete independence in dealing with individual employees of the Public Service, but is made responsible to a Minister in all other matters.

When directed by the Minister charged with the administration of the Act, at the request of the Minister responsible for another part of the State Services, e.g., the Post Office or the Railways Department, the Commission must associate itself with the head of that particular part of the service in an investigation of its organisation, methods, or procedures. The Commission must also, when requested by the head of or the Minister in Charge of any part of the State Services, provide management consultation services.

Computer Services—The Computer Services Division of the State Services Commission is responsible for the control, co-ordination, planning, and provision of electronic data processing services within the Public Service. The Division's head office is at the Pipitea Computer Centre, Thorndon Quay, Wellington, and there are three other computer centres at Cumberland House, Willis Street, Wellington; Trentham; and Wairere House, Bate Street, Wanganui.

An engineering and scientific computer centre in the Vogel Building, Wellington, is operated by the Ministry of Works and Development as agent for the State Services Commission.

A law enforcement data system to service the Police, Transport, and Justice Departments has been established at Wanganui.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE: Recruitment—The recruitment of public servants is conducted by the State Services Commission through its recruitment officers and district representatives, and by departments in collaboration with the Commission. Details of career openings in the Service are regularly supplied to schools, and career leaflets are published.

Promotion—Promotion in the Public Service is based on merit. All vacancies above basic level are widely advertised, and appointments to these positions may be made either from people within the Public Service or from people outside the service. Public servants have certain rights of appeal to the Public Service Appeal Board.

Classification and Grading—Since 1963 the Commission has prescribed occupational classes, according to the nature of the duties required to be performed. Each occupational class is graded according to relative levels of responsibility and skills required.

Remuneration—Salary rates are prescribed in accordance with the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977 and are in general related to the levels of remuneration of persons doing comparable work in employment outside the Public Service. Adequate margins are maintained for skill and responsibility.

Efficiency and Economy—In fulfilling its responsibility for reviewing efficiency and economy in the Public Service, the Commission, in collaboration with departments, reviews and analyses systems, standards and controls; new training methods and materials; modern technical processes and equipment; and lays down clearly defined systems of delegation of authority and of discipline.

Staff Training and Education—A comprehensive Service training and education policy is provided, and future staffing needs of the Public Service are studied.

Statistics: Staff—The detailed distribution of staff among departments in the Public Service is shown in the Commission's annual report to Parliament (Parliamentary paper G. 3). At 31 March 1978 there were 62 017 permanent officers and 1677 temporary staff (excluding casuals) employed; a year earlier the comparable figures were 59 307 and 1735 respectively. These figures do not include wage workers, who totalled 19 548 in 1978.

STATUTORY BOARDS AND COMMITTEES—The following is a list of the main statutory boards and committees grouped according to the Government department responsible for the administration of the legislation or the servicing of the boards. The order of departments is generally that followed in the Yearbook for coverage of the main subject matter.

Health, Department of
Advisory Committee on Commercial, Household and Agricultural Poisons.
Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health.
Advisory Committee on Tuberculosis.
Ambulance Transport Advisory Board.
Board of Health.
Board of Health Committee on Care of Aged.
Central Committee on Training Orthopaedic Technicians.
Children's Health Camps Board.
Chiropodists Board.
Clean Air Council.
Committee on Drainage and Sanitary Plumbing.
Council of the Pharmaceutical Society.
Dental Benefits Central Advisory Committee.
Dental Council.
Dental Technicians Board.
Dietitians Board.
Drug Assessment Advisory Committee.
Epidemiological Advisory Committee.
Food Standards Committee.
Hospital Advisory Council.
Hospital Medical Officers Advisory Committee.
Laboratory Service Advisory Committee.
Maternal Benefits Negotiating Committee.
Medical Council of New Zealand.
Maternal Deaths Assessment Committee.
Medical Practitioners Disciplinary Committee.
Medical Research Council of New Zealand.
Medical Services Advisory Committee.
Medical Technologists Board.
Noise Advisory Committee.
Northland Health Services Advisory Committee.
Nursing Council of New Zealand.
Occupational Therapy Board.
Opticians Board.
Personnel Sector Advisory Committee.
Pharmaceutical Advisory Committee.
Pharmaceutical Benefits Negotiating Committee.
Pharmacology and Therapeutics Advisory Committee.
Physiotherapy Board.
Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers., Board.
Poisons Committee.
Radiological Services Advisory Committee.
Special Advisory Committee on Health Services Organisation.
Transfusions Advisory Committee.
Social Welfare Department
War Pensions and Rehabilitation
War Pensions Board.
War Pensions Appeal Board.
War Pensions Medical Research Trust.
Rehabilitation Board.
N.Z. Artificial Limb Board.
Advisory Council for the Community Welfare of Disabled Persons.
Education, Department of
Maori Education Foundation.
N.Z. National Commission for UNESCO.
National Council for Adult Education.
National Library Board of Trustees.
Ngarimu V.C. Scholarship Fund Board.
N.Z. Council for Educational Research.
Royal N.Z. Foundation for the Blind (Board of Trustees).
Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation.
Primary Teachers Appointments Appeal Board.
School Certificate Examination Board.
Teacher Assessment and Classification Appeal Board.
Teachers Court of Appeal.
Teachers Disciplinary Board.
N.Z. Technicians Certification Authority.
N.Z. Trades Certification Board.
University Entrance Board.
University Grants Committee.
Vocational Training Council. (Joint appointments Ministers of Education and Labour.)
Justice, Department of
Accident Compensation Appeal Authority.
Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council.
Borstal Parole Boards.
Prison Parole Board.
Town and Country Planning Appeal Boards.
Legal Aid Board.
Legal Aid Appeal Authority.
Co-operative Dairy Companies Tribunal.
Indecent Publications Tribunal.
Copyright Tribunal.
Crimes Compensation Tribunal.
Chiropractic Board.
Licensing Control Commission.
Licensing Committees (there are 22 of these committees).
Land Valuation Tribunals (there are 21 of these tribunals).
Motor Vehicle Salesmen Registration Boards.
Motor Vehicle Disputes Tribunals.
Hotel Investment Account Advisory Committee.
Law Reform Council.
Property Law and Equity Reform Committee.
Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee.
Representation Commission.
Small Claims Tribunals.
Contracts and Commercial Law Reform Committee.
Torts and General Law Reform Committee.
Criminal Law Advisory Committee.
Magistrates' Courts Rules Committee.
Real Estate Agents Licensing Board.
Release to Work Committee.
Rules Committee.
Ministry of Defence
Armed Forces Canteen Council.
Police Department
Police Staff Tribunal.
Transport, Ministry of
Air New Zealand.
Air Services Licensing Appeal Authority.
Air Services Licensing Authority.
Marine Council.
Maritime Appeal Authority.
New Zealand Ports Authority.
New Zealand Urban Public Passenger Transport Council.
Regional Transport Licensing Authority (Auckland).
Road Traffic Safety Research Council.
Shipping Industry Tribunal.
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand.
Transport Advisory Council.
Transport Licensing Authorities (5).
Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.
Transport Charges Appeal Authority.
Railways Department
Government Railways Appeal Board.
Government Railways Industrial Tribunal.
Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of
Agricultural Chemicals Board.
Building Research Association of N.Z. Inc.
Carter Observatory Board.
Cawthron Institute Trust Board.
Coal Research Association of N.Z. Inc.
N.Z. Dairy Research Institute.
Fruit Research Advisory Committee.
Hop Research Committee.
Logging Industry Research Association.
Meat Industry Research Institute of N.Z.
Mineral Resources Council.
N.Z. Atomic Energy Committee.
N.Z. Committee of Culture Collection of Microorganisms.
N.Z. Concrete Research Association.
N.Z. Fertiliser Manufacturers Research Association.
N.Z. Heavy Engineering Research Association (Inc.).
N.Z. Leather and Shoe Research Association Inc.
N.Z. Pottery and Ceramics Research Association.
Officials Committee on Eutrophication.
Potato Research Advisory Committee.
Research Institute of Textile Services.
Ross Dependency Research Committee.
Tobacco Research Advisory Committee.
Wheat Research Committee.
Wool Research Organisation of N.Z. Inc.
Testing Laboratory Registration Council.
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of
Agricultural Chemicals Board.
Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.
Animal Remedies Board.
Apple and Pear Marketing Board.
Apple and Pear Prices Authority.
British Phosphate Commission.
Canterbury Raspberry Marketing Committee.
Christmas Island Phosphate Commission.
Citrus Marketing Authority.
Dairy Factory Managers' Registration Board.
Dairy Industry Loans Council.
Dairy Products Prices Authority.
Egg Marketing Authority.
Fisheries Licensing Authority.
Fishing Industry Board.
Fruit Distributors Ltd.
Honey Marketing Authority.
Hop Marketing Committee.
Kiwifruit Marketing Licensing Authority.
Marlborough Nassella Tussock Board.
Meat Export Prices Committee.
Meat Industry Authority.
Milk Prices Authority.
National Hydatids Council.
Nelson Raspberry Marketing Committee.
N.Z. Agricultural Engineering Institute Management Committee.
N.Z. Dairy Board.
N.Z. Meat Producers Board.
N.Z. Milk Board.
N.Z. Potato Board.
N.Z. Poultry Board.
N.Z. Wool Board.
N.Z. Wool Testing Authority.
North Canterbury Nassella Tussock Board.
Otago Raspberry Marketing Committee.
Plant Varieties Office.
Pork Industry Council.
Pork Marketing Board.
Raspberry Marketing Council.
Veterinary Services Council.
Veterinary Surgeons Board.
(Excludes advisory or technical committees appointed under section 13 of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953).
Works and Development, Ministry of
Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority.
Building Industry Advisory Council.
Clerks of Works Registration Board.
Engineering Associates Registration Board.
National Roads Board.
National Water and Soil Conservation Authority.
Quantity Surveyors' Registration Board.
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council.
Water Resources Council.
Lands and Survey, Department of
Land Settlement Board.
Marginal Lands Board.
National Parks Authority.
Maritime Parks Boards.
National Parks Boards.
Nature Conservation Council.
N.Z. Survey Board.
N.Z. Geographic Board.
N.Z. Walkway Commission.
Land Use Advisory Council.
National Land Inventory Committee.
Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust.
N.Z. Forest Service
Forestry Development Council.
Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee.
Forest Disease Control Advisory Committee.
Forest Parks Advisory Committees (15)
Timber Preservation Authority.
Indigenous Forest Timber Advisory Committee.
Scientific Co-ordinating Committee for Beech Research.
Maori Affairs, Department of
Maori Land Board.
Maori Purposes Fund Board.
Licensed Interpreters Board of Examiners.
Valuation Department
Valuers Registration Board.
Housing Corporation of New Zealand
Housing Allocation Committees
Ministry of Energy
N.Z. Gas Council.
Coal Mines Council.
Coal Mining Districts Welfare and Research Fund Council.
Electricians Registration Board.
Electric Lineman Training Committee.
Rural Electrical Reticulation Council.
Committee on Electric Power Development.
Committee to Review Power Requirements.
Electrical Wiring Regulations Committee.
Trade and Industry, Department of
Advisory Committee on Heavy Engineering Industry.
Consumer Council.
Development Finance Corporation in relation to invention, development and industrial research and development.
Distribution Council.
Electronics Advisory Committee.
Emergency Protection Authority.
Industries Development Commission.
Manufacturing Development Council.
Metric Advisory Board.
Motor Spirits Licensing Authority.
N.Z. Industrial Design Council.
N.Z. Wheat Board.
Pacific Islands Industrial Development Committee.
Productivity Advisory Council.
Regional Development Councils (11).
Standards Association of N.Z.
Tobacco Board.
Overseas Trade
Export Development Grant Advisory Committee.
Export Guarantee Advisory Committee.
Trade Promotion Council.
Treasury
Dominion Salt Ltd.
N.Z. Woolpack and Textiles Ltd.
Local Authorities Loans Board.
National Provident Fund Board.
National Provident Fund Investment Committee.
Government Superannuation Board.
Taxation Board of Review.
Co-operative Pig Marketing Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.
Co-operative Milk Marketing Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.
Co-operative Dairy Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.
Snow Loss Reserve Committee.
Visiting Experts Advisory Committee.
Labour, Department of
Arbitration Court.
Advisory Committees on Employment (12).
Building Industry Technical Training Council.
Exempted Goods Committee under Shops and Offices Act.
Higher Salaries Commission.
Immigration Advisory Council.
Industrial Conciliation Service.
Industrial Mediation Service.
National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women.
Public Service Appeal Board.
Vocational Training Council. (Appointments made by Minister of Education and Minister of Labour, acting jointly.)
Construction Act Advisory Committee.
Public Service Classification and Grading Committee.
Aircrew Industrial Tribunal.
Equal Pay Review Committee.
Waterfront Industry Commission.
Industrial Relations Council.
Shop Trading Hours Commission.
New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees (37).
Dental Technician Training Council.
Conscientious Objection Committee.
Tourist and Publicity Department
Tourism Advisory Council.
Internal Affairs, Department of
Architects' Education and Registration Board.
Architects' Investigation Committee.
Fauna Protection Advisory Committee.
N.Z. Historic Places Trust.
Lottery Board of Control and Distributing Committees (4)
N.Z. Fire Service Commission.
N.Z. Canteen Fund Board.
N.Z. Patriotic Fund Board.
N.Z. Racing Authority.
Totalisator Agency Board.
Arts
ANZAC Fellowship Selection Committee.
Authors Fund Advisory Committee.
Cultural Facilities Advisory Committee.
Films Censorship Board of Review.
Films Licensing Authority.
Film Trade Board.
Literary Fund Advisory Committee.
National Art Gallery, Museum and War Memorial Board and Councils (4).
Art Galleries and Museums Fund Advisory Committee.
Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council.
Regional Arts Councils (3).
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Board.
Civil Defence
National Civil Defence Committee.
Local Government
Interdepartmental Advisory Committee on the Chatham Islands.
Local Authority Finance Committee.
Local Government Commission.
Lake Taupo Basin Co-ordinating Committee.
Recreation and Sport
N.Z. Council for Recreation and Sport.
State Services Commission
Classification and Grading Committee.
Education Service Committee.
Hospital Service Committee.
Government Service Tribunal.
National Research Advisory Council.
Public Service Appeal Board.
State Services Co-ordinating Committee.
Public Sector Tribunal.
Wanganui Computer Centre Policy Committee.
Wanganui Computer Centre Management Committee.

HONOURS AND AWARDS

Since the preceding issue of the Yearbook the Queen has been graciously pleased to approve the following awards, for services rendered in connection with New Zealand:

Queen's Gallantry Medal (Q.G.M.):

Inspector Melroy Kenneth Huggard.

Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct:

Constable Kerry James Borrows; Constable Gerard Prins; Constable James Aubrey Pierce; Ian Richard Smith; Mrs Jean Susan Donnelly; Captain Peter William Nelson.

NEW YEAR HONOURS LIST 1979

CIVIL LIST

Knights Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.): Mr Justice Gaven John Donne; Hepi Hoani Te Heu Heu.

Knights Bachelor:

Joseph Holmes Miller, O.B.E.; Robertson Huntly Stewart, C.B.E.

Companions of the Most Distinguished Order of St Michael and St George (C.M.G.):

Donald William Bain, M.B.E.; The Honourable John Raymond Mills; The Most Reverend John Hubert Macey Rodgers, S.M.

Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

James Luke Hazlett; Ernest Mervyn Hall Kemp, M.B.E.; Sidney Lewis Moses; James McLaren Ritchie; Peter Jensen Reid Skellerup; Laurence Houghton Stevens.

Officers of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Hardy Seymour Benton; Alan Francis Briesman; Henry Harford Buswell; Thomas Searle Ellingham; John Norman Stuart Flett; Peter Townshend Gifford; Dr Thomas Edwin Hall; Dr Paul Peter Heller; Dr Dennis Douglas McCarthy; James Henry McKenzie; Robert Alexander Milne; John Edward Rowles; Archibald James Scott; Leonard Alfred Sisam; Alan David Talbot; Sidney Ivan Wheatley; William Sealy Wood.

Companions of The Queen's Service Order for Community Service (Q.S.O.):

Mrs Joyce Doreen Flynn; Eric Harold Grocott, J.P.; James Earl Hunt; Tumokai Katipa; Mrs Olive Margaret McLeod Manning.

Companions of The Queen's Service Order for Public Services (Q.S.O.):

Neville Robert Ainsworth; John Mokonuiarangi Bennett; Edward George Buckton; Dr David Gordon Edgar; Trevor Freeman Horne, J.P.; Rex Thomas Morpeth, J.P.; Patrick George Sheehan, J.P.; Joseph Leslie Terry, J.P.

Members of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

George Kent Armstrong, D.S.O., M.C.; Eric Samuel Ayers, J.P.; Russell William Bond; Cleland James Graham Brass, J.P.; John Reginald Burford; Miss Thelma Patricia Burton; Robert Tertius Douglas; James Geoffrey Furness, M.C.; Miss Gwladys Louise Gardner; Sholto Hamilton Georgeson; Grahame Frederick Glaister; Ritchie Donald Hassed; Harold Ashworth Holmes, J.P.; Harry Tilson Kershaw; Robert Hugh Wither Kirton; John Harold Lucas; James Edward Milner; Stanley Guy Russell, J.P.; Maurice Barrington Smythe; Lincoln Francis Warren; Charles Edward Catlow Webb; Max Phillip Whatman; Mrs Elsie Hamer Wilkie; Harold Robert Williams.

Queen's Service Medal for Community Service (Q.S.M.):

Thomas Willie Abbott, J.P.; Miss Margaret Brenda Dillon Bell; Mrs Joyce Winifred Brown; Mrs Stella Adelaide Brown; Sydney Charles Burton; Mrs Rachel Chisholm; Maurice Walter Church; Mrs Beatrice Mary Clifford; Mrs Beatrice May Cousins; Mrs Mereana Kingi Davis; Louis Rodgers Fox; Cecil Henry Hilton; Clifford Holdsworth; Miss Winifred Edith Georgina Knight; William Morland Limpus, J.P.; Mrs Joan Anita Little; Mrs Maisie McNair; Mrs Clarice Mary May; Mrs Nancy Elizabeth Money; Mrs Marjory Catherine Ogg; John Edward Ord; Mrs Florence Gertrude Roberts; Mrs Rosa Olga Sansom; Mrs Elizabeth Mary Wheeler Shaw; Miss Ann Gladys Smith; The Reverend David Howard Vereker-Bindon (Brother David John, SSF); Mrs Jean Warren; Mrs Evelyn Grace Williams, J.P.; Mrs Margaret Mary Young.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

Mrs Mary Armstrong; Herbert William Beasley; Miss Lettice Marion Corsbie; Cecil Charles Day; Ronald Daniel Eastwood; Mrs Phoebe Mildred Frost; Charles Anthony Gallagher; James Benjamin Graham, J.P.: Eric William King; Miss Lillia Mabel Langridge; Leonard Joseph Lanigan, J.P.; Allister Park McDonald; John William McIntosh, J.P.; Mrs Sheilagh Rosalee Maxwell; Miss Tui Alfreda Mayo; Mrs Kathleen Patricia Redmond; Ole Ellegaard Sorenson; Mrs Florence Alice Vincent, J.P.; Fred John Williams; Kira Williams, J.P.; Harold Alfred Lewis Wright.

Queen's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.F.S.M.):

William Clarkson; Peter Kenneth Burton-Wood; Desmond Maurice Robertson; Arthur William James Plummer; William John Harrison.

POLICE LIST

Officer of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Graeme Augustine Dallow.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

Stewart Dudley Belcher; Henry Charles Hollander.

Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.P.M.):

Robert Josiah Walton, O.B.E., E.D.; William Edward Hollinshead.

MILITARY LIST

Companion of the Military Division of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (C.B.):

Air Vice Marshal Cyril Laurence Siegert, C.B.E., M.V.O., D.F.C., A.F.C.

Officers of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Commander Tom Alexander Riddell; Lieutenant Colonel Herbert Owen; Group Captain Bernard Joseph O'Connor, A.F.C.

Members of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Lieutenant Commander Albert Francis Prendergast; Warrant Officer Seaman Bertram Kairo McLean; Major Andrew Anderson; Temporary Major James Taia; Warrant Officer Class 1 Lawrence Melville Taylor, B.E.M.; Squadron Leader Henry Cecil Richardson; Warrant Officer Francis Derek Bailey.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C):

Squadron Leader Graeme James Wharton Goldsmith.

British Empire Medal, Military Division (B.E.M.):

Chief Petty Officer Seaman Anthony David Long; Temporary Chief Petty Officer Seaman Eric Nicholson Vickers; Temporary Warrant Officer Class 2 Brian Leslie Tolson; Staff Sergeant William Joseph Donoghue; Staff Sergeant Ronald Hughes; Temporary Sergeant Alan David Gundersen; Flight Sergeant William Keith Abbott; Flight Sergeant Roger Langley; Sergeant Raymond Durroch Allan.

Her Majesty The Queen has been graciously pleased to make the following appointment to the Royal Victorian Order:

Member of the Fourth Class (M. V. O.):

Temporary Surgeon Lieutenant Commander Peter Huntly Robinson.

QUEEN'S BIRTHDAY HONOURS LIST 1979

CIVIL LIST

Dame Commander of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (D.B.E.):

Mrs Daphne Helen Purves.

Knight Commander of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.):

Arthur Hugh Ward, O.B.E.

Knights Bachelor:

Lewis Edward Harris, O.B.E.; (Mountford) Tosswill Woollaston.

Companions of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.):

Lloyd Gilbert Brown; James Hunter Gemmell; George Hamish Ormond Wilson.

Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Mrs Margaret Hazel Cotterill; John Keith Dobson; Mrs Grace Shellie Hollander, J.P.; Oswald Henry Jackson, J.P.; Donald David Rowlands, M.B.E.; Henry Piet Drury Van Asch, M.B.E.

Officers of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

James Neil Aitken; William Stewart Armitage; Malcolm Cort Astley, J.P.; Thomas James Atchison; Mrs Audrey Ngaere Gale; Timothy Hurley; Dr Norris Roy Jefferson, E.D.; Edward Anthony Kennedy; Mrs Dorothy Pauline McNab; (James Frank) Edgar Mansfield; Maurice Noel Manthel; William Gordon Nolan, J.P.; Edward Ronald Prince; Lieutenant Commander Peter Maxwell Sanders, M.B.E.; Arthur Frederick Thomas; Lawrence David Tinkham; Emeritus Professor John Le Bailly Warren.

Companions of The Queen's Service Order for Community Service (Q.S.O.):

Mrs Dorothy Elizabeth Jane Dolan; Noel Alfred Kidd; Mrs Emily Pehipa Matiu Paki, J.P.; Alfred Lorraine Williams, J.P.

Companions of The Queen's Service Order for Public Services (Q.S.O.):

Rex Douglas Allen; John Simeon Blenkhorn; Wallace Colin Thomas Brunton; Mervyn Mackie Chisholm, M.B.E.; Lester Laurence Davis; Miss Beryl Overton Howie; Pita Tipunakore Kaua, J.P.; Edward Conway Keating; Mrs Emere Makere Waiwaha Kaa Mountain, J.P.; James Humphrey Rose; Iver Edgar Trask.

Members of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Gary Thomas William Butler; John Morton Dickey, J.P.; Robert Dossor; Charles Dudley; Alan Falconer Fraser; Miss Betty Fraser; Abraham Saul Goldsmith, J.P.; Rupert Garth Harris; Mrs Phyllis Mary Holley; Hugh Janson; Robert Dickson Jennings; Mrs Linda Christine Jones; Edward Joseph Lynskey; Mrs Rona Iris McCarthy; Mrs Isabelle Vincente Major; Robert Kenneth Malcolm; Campbell George Paterson, J.P.; George Ernest Perry; John Pym Gray Pring; Thomas Ram; Richard Newell Stevenson, J.P.; Clifford Vincent Tait; John Osborne Taylor; Roi Carl Te Punga; Roy Blount Walker; Keith Albert Fabian Wills.

Queen's Service Medal for Community Service (Q.S.M.):

George Livingston Baker; Mrs Margaret Alice Mary Bear, J.P.; Mrs Maude Harriett Lowry Bedingham; Mrs Kathleen D'bett Cottrell; Mrs Audree Clarence Larraine Curtis; Mrs Gladys Annie Freeland; Kelvin Robert Gay; Miss Olive Victoria Gordon; Mrs Elsie Grieve; Mrs Rita Henry; Miss Joan Phyllis Irvine; Everard Stanley Martin Kell; Ludwik Kowalczyk; Nathan Roy Low; Mrs Margaret Anne Lynch; Miss Margaret McDonald; Herbert Walter North, J.P.; Robert Allen Rogers; Mrs Annie Schuler, J.P.; George Alexander Telfer; Mrs Phyllis Ada Thomason.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

Dr Deidre Morag Airey; Alfred George Barwell; Mrs Isabel May Charles, J.P.; Russell Harold Coombe; Miss Josephine Corbett; Mrs Eileen Vera Crosby, J.B.; William Thomas Earley; Warren John Ellis; Joseph Grbavac; Peter James Hurley; Miss Lorna Winifred Leman; Michael Lawrence Moloney; Stanley Tetekura Newton, J.P.; Miss Phyllis Margaret Rolls; Mrs Patricia Anne Rowell; Francis Leslie Smith, J.P.; John Walker.

Queen's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.F.S.M.):

William Girling-Butcher; Arthur James Easton; Geoffrey Cyril Stephens; Ian James Walker; Albert William White.

POLICE LIST

Officer of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Maxwell Ian Hume.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

Thomas Edward Bowe; Alexander James Leyland.

Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.P.M.):

Brian Wilkinson.

MILITARY LIST

Knight Commander of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.):

Air Marshal Richard Bruce Bolt, C.B., C.B.E., D.F.C., A.F.C.

Commander of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Commodore Roy Herbert Longland Humby.

Officers of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Commander William Ferguson Jaques; Colonel Ian Hamilton Burrows, M.C.; Group Captain Arthur Gilbert Tringham.

Members of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Warrant Officer Marine Engineering Artificer John Russell Thorburn; Warrant Officer Radio Electrical Mechanician John Clive Lippross; Warrant Officer Class 2 Pat Dillon, M.M.; Lieutenant and Quartermaster Frederick Sydney Leef; Major Donald Houlton Crabb; Flight Lieutenant Charles Benedict Raddock; Warrant Officer Harold Douglas Lazarus.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C):

Lieutenant Adrian Grey Tunnicliffe; Squadron Leader Carey William Adamson.

Associate of the Royal Red Cross Second Class (A.R.R.C):

Captain Bruce Derby Rennie.

British Empire Medal, Military Division (B.E.M.):

Medical Chief Petty Officer William Charles Filmer; Chief Petty Officer Marine Engineering Mechanician First Class Denis Michael Shaw; Sergeant John Frederick Hayward; Corporal Brian Ramsay; Temporary Staff Sergeant Charles Frederick Boyes; Sergeant Kenneth Sydney John Dell; Flight Sergeant John Karatu Rotia Rogers.

Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air:

Master Engineer Robert John Moody; Sergeant Barry James Woodcock; Sergeant Robert Keith Foreman.

Her Majesty The Queen has been graciously pleased to make the following appointment to the Royal Victorian Order:

Knight Commander (K.C.V.O.):

The Very Reverend Martin Gloster Sullivan.

NEW ZEALAND'S REPRESENTATIVES OVERSEAS

Australia—High Commission, Commonwealth Avenue, Canberra, A.C.T. 2600.

Consulate-General, 60 Park Street (comer Park and Elizabeth Streets); Sydney, N.S.W. 2000 (G.P.O. Box 365, Sydney, N.S.W. 2001).

Government Tourist Office, 115 Pitt Street, Sydney, N.S.W., 2000 (G.P.O. Box 614, Sydney N.S.W. 2001).

Consulate-General, 330 Collins Street, Melbourne, Vic. 3000 (G.P.O. Box 2136T, Melbourne, Vic. 3001).

Government Tourist Office, 93–95 Elizabeth Street, Melbourne, Vic. 3000 (G.P.O. Box 2136T, Melbourne, Vic. 3001).

Consulate, Watkins Place Building, 288 Edward Street, Brisbane, Qld. 4001 (G.P.O. Box 62).

Government Tourist Office, Watkins Place Building, 288 Edward Street, Brisbane, Qld. 4001 (G.P.O. Box 62).

Consulate, 5th Floor, St. George's Court, 16 St. George's Terrace, Perth, W.A. 6000 (G.P.O. Box X2227, Perth, W.A. 6001).

Austria—Embassy, Hollandstrasse 2/XII, A-1020 Vienna (Postal address: Postfach 1471, A-1011 Vienna).

Bahrain—Consulate-General (Postal address: P.O. Box 5881 Manama, Bahrain).

Bangladesh—High Commissioner resident in New Delhi.

Barbados—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Belgium—Embassy, Boulevard du Regent 47–48, 1000 Brussels.

Britain—High Commission, New Zealand House, Haymarket, London S.W. 1Y.4TQ.

Brunei—High Commissioner resident in Kuala Lumpur.

Burma—Ambassador resident in Kuala Lumpur.

Canada—High Commission, Metropolitan House, 99 Bank Street, Ottawa, Ontario KIP 5L6.

Consulate-General, Suite 2616, 2 Bloor East, Toronto, Ontario M4W IA8.

Consulate, Suite 1160–701, West Georgia Street, I.B.M. Tower, Vancouver, B.C. (P.O. Box 10071, Pacific Centre) Vancouver, B.C. V7Y 1B6.

Chile—Embassy, Las Condes, Santiago.

China, People's Republic of—Embassy, Ritan Dongerjie No. 1, Chao Yang District, Peking.

Cook Islands—Office of the New Zealand Representative, P.O. Box 21, Rarotonga.

Czechoslovakia—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Denmark—Ambassador resident in Brussels.

Egypt, Arab Republic of— Ambassador resident in Rome.

European Communities—Ambassador resident in Brussels.

Fiji—High Commission, Ratu Sukuna House, corner of Victoria Parade and MacArthur Street (P.O. Box 1378), Suva.

Finland—Ambassador resident in Moscow.

France—Embassy, 7 ter, rue Leonard de Vinci, 75116 Paris.

Consulate-General, 4, Boulevard Vauban, Noumea, New Caledonia (Postal Address: Boîte Postale 2219).

New Zealand Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Ltd., rue du General de Gaulle, Papeete, Tahiti.

Germany, Federal Republic of—Embassy, Bonn Centre, HI 902, Bundeskanzlerplatz, D-5300 Bonn.

Government Tourist Office, Rathenauplatz 1A, D-6000 Frankfurt am Main.

Greece—Embassy, Leoforos Vasilissis Sophias 29, Athens T.T. 138.

Guyana—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Holy See—Ambassador resident in Paris.

Hong Kong—Commission, 3414 Connaught Centre, Connaught Road (G.P.O. Box 2790), Hong Kong.

Hungary—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

India—High Commission, 39, Golf Links, New Delhi 110003.

Indonesia—Embassy, Jalan Diponegoro No. 41, Menteng, Jakarta. (Postal address: Kotak Pos. 2439 DKT).

Iran—Embassy, Avenue Nadershah, Afshin Street, No. 29, (P.O.Box 128), Tehran.

Iraq—Embassy, 2D/19, Zuwiya, Jadriyah, Baghdad (near Baghdad University), (P.O. Box 2350 Alwiyah).

Ireland—Ambassador resident in London.

Italy—Embassy, Via Zara, 28, Rome 00198.

Jamaica—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Japan—Embassy, 20–40 Kamiyama-cho, Shibuya-Ku, Tokyo 150.

Korea—Embassy, 2nd Floor, Publishers Association Building, No. 105–2, Sayan-dong, Chongro-ku (G.P.O. Box 1059), Seoul.

Laos—Ambassador resident in Bangkok.

Luxembourg—Ambassador resident in Brussels.

Malaysia—High Commission, 193 Jalan Pekeliling (P.O. Box 2003), Kuala Lumpur.

Maldives—Ambassador resident in Singapore.

Malta—High Commissioner resident in Rome.

Mexico—Ambassador resident in Washington.

Mongolian People's Republic—Ambassador resident in Moscow.

Nauru—High Commissioner resident in Suva.

Nepal—Ambassador resident in New Delhi.

Netherlands—Embassy, Lange Voorhout 18, 2514 EE The Hague.

Niue—Office of the New Zealand Representative (P.O. Box 78), Niue.

Norway—Ambassador resident in The Hague.

O.E.C.D.—Mission, 7 ter, rue Leonard de Vinci, 75116 Paris.

Pakistan—Ambassador resident in Tehran.

Papua New Guinea—High Commission, 6th Floor, Australian Government Building, Waigani, Port Moresby (P.O. Box 1144, Boroko, Port Moresby).

Peru—Embassy, Avenida Salaverry 3006, San Isidro (Postal address: Casilla 5587), Lima.

Philippines—Embassy, 10th Floor, Philippine Commercial and Industrial Bank Building, 6756 Ayala Avenue (P.O. Box 2208, Makati Commercial Centre), Makati, Rizal, Manila.

Poland—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Romania—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Saudi Arabia—Ambassador resident in Rome.

Singapore—High Commission, 13 Nassim Road, Singapore 10.

Solomon Islands—High Commissioner, Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank Building, Mendana Avenue (P.O. Box 697), Honiara.

Spain—Ambassador resident in Paris.

Sri Lanka—High Commissioner resident in Singapore.

Sweden—Ambassador resident in The Hague.

Switzerland—Consulate-General, 28A chemin du Petit-Saconnex, CH-1209 Geneva (Postal address: Case Postale 84, CH-1211 Geneva 19).

Thailand—Embassy, 93 Wireless Road (P.O. Box 2719), Bangkok 5.

Tonga—High Commission, Tungi Arcade, Taufa'ahau Road, Nuku'alofa.

Trinidad and Tobago—Acting High Commissioner, Furness Withy Building, 84–86 Independence Square (P.O. Box 823) Port of Spain

United Nations—New Zealand Permanent Mission to the United Nations, One U.N. Plaza, 25th Floor, New York, N.Y. 10017.

New Zealand Mission to the Office of the United Nations in Geneva, 28A chemin de Petit-Saconnex, CH-1209 Geneva, (Postal address: Case Postale 84, CH-1211 Geneva 19).

United States—Embassy, 37 Observatory Circle, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008.

Consulate-General, Suite 530, 630 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10020.

Consulate-General, Alcoa Building, Suite 970, 1 Maritime Plaza, San Francisco, Ca. 94111.

Consulate-General, Suite 1530, Tishman Building, 10960 Wilshire Boulevard, Los Angeles, Ca. 90024.

New Zealand Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Ltd, Suite 1700, Waikiki Business Plaza, 2270 Kalakaua Avenue, Waikiki, Ha, 96815.

U.S.S.R.—Embassy, 44 Ulitsa Vorovskovo, Moscow, 121069.

Vietnam, Socialist Republic of— Ambassador resident in Peking.

Western Samoa—High Commission, Beach Road (P.O. Box 206), Apia.

Yugoslavia—Ambassador resident in Rome.

Officers of the Department of Trade and Industry, the Ministry of Defence, the Tourist and Publicity Department, and other Government departments can be found at many of the overseas missions listed above.

Fuller information and also details of official overseas trade representation in New Zealand are set out in the booklets New Zealand: Representatives Overseas and New Zealand: Diplomatic Corps and Consular and other Representatives published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Wellington.

DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR REPRESENTATION IN NEW ZEALAND

Argentina—Embassy of the Argentine Republic, 13th floor, Dalmuir House, The Terrace, Wellington.

Australia—Australian High Commission, 72–78 Hobson Street, Thorndon, Wellington.

Consulate-General, Lorne Towers, Lorne Street, Auckland.

BNZ House, Cathedral Square, Christchurch.

Austria—Hon. Consulate-General, Wool House, 139 Featherston Street, Wellington.

Belgium—Embassy of Belgium, 1–3 Willeston Street Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 40, Devore Street, St. Heliers Bay, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 132 Tuam Street, Christchurch.

Brazil—Hon. Consul, 5 Elliott Street, Auckland.

Britain—British High Commission, Reserve Bank Building, 2 The Terrace, Wellington.

Consulate-General, Norwich Union Building, Queen Street, Auckland 1.

Canada—Canadian High Commission, ICI House Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Chile—Embassy of the Republic of Chile, Robert Jones House, Jervois Quay, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Air New Zealand House, Queen Street Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 242 Condell Avenue, Bryndwr, Christchurch.

China—Embassy of the People's Republic of China, 2–6 Glenmore Street, Wellington.

Cook Islands—Cook Islands Government Office, 330 Parnell Rd, Parnell, Auckland.

Costa Rica—Hon. Consul-General, 2–12 Parnell Road, Auckland.

Czechoslovakia—Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, 12 Anne Street, Wellington.

Denmark—Hon. Consul-General, Princes Court, Princes Street, Auckland.

Danish Trade Representative, Princes Court, Princes Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consul-General, Commercial Building, The Square, Palmerston North.

Hon. Consul, 100 Cumnor Terrace, Woolston, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, 12–20 St. Andrew Street, Dunedin.

Ecuador—Hon. Consul, 19 Bolton Street, Wellington.

Egypt, Arab Republic of—Embassy of the Arab Republic of Egypt, Dalmuir House, The Terrace, Wellington.

El Salvador—Hon. Consul, Gladstone Buildings, 5 Anzac Street Takapuna, Auckland.

Fiji—High Commission, Robert Jones Building, Jervois Quay, Wellington.

Finland—Hon. Consul-General, Commerce House, 126 Wakefield Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Enfield Street, Auckland 3.

Hon. Consul, 6–8 Kingsley Street, Sydenham, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, 11 Bond Street, Dunedin.

France—Embassy of France, 1–3 Willeston Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, corner of Princes Street and Eden Crescent, Auckland 1.

Office of the Trade Representative for France, U.D.C. Building, cnr. Albert and Wyndham Streets, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 904–908 Colombo Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, cnr. French and Roberts Streets, Dunedin.

Germany, West—Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Columbus House, 14–18 Customs Street East, Auckland 1.

Greece—Hon. Consul-General, 270 Wakefield Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Prudential Assurance Building, 9 Manukau Road, Epsom, Auckland.

Holy See—Apostolic Nunciature, 112 Queen's Drive, Lyall Bay, Wellington 3.

Iceland—Hon. Consul-General, 88 Oriental Parade, Wellington.

India—High Commissioner for India, Lamphouse Chambers, 49 Willis Street, Wellington.

Indonesia—Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, 11 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington 1.

Ireland—Hon. Consul-General, Fletcher Office Building, Broderick Road, Johnsonville.

Hon. Consul, Dingwall Building, 87 Queen Street, Auckland.

Israel—Embassy of Israel, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Italy—Embassy of Italy, 38 Grant Road, Wellington.

Hon. Consular Agent, Victoria Arcade, Queen Street, Auckland.

Office of the Trade Representative for Italy, 95 Queen Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consular Agent, 68 Lichfield Street, Christchurch.

Japan—Embassy of Japan, Norwich Insurance House, 3–11 Hunter Street, Wellington.

Consulate-General of Japan, Bank of New South Wales Building, 79–85 Queen Street Auckland.

Consular Office of Japan, 210 Oxford Terrace, Christchurch.

Korea—Embassy of the Republic of Korea, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Rainger House, 150 Victoria Street West, Auckland.

Malaysia—High Commission of Malaysia, Chase-NBA House, 163–165 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 14 Hazeldean Road, Christchurch.

Mexico—Hon. Consul, Tatra House, 96 Tory Street, Wellington.

Nauru—Hon. Consul, P.O. Box 68–536, Auckland.

Netherlands—Royal Netherlands Embassy, Shell House, The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 79 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 161–163 Kilmore Street, Christchurch.

Norway—Hon. Consul-General, 38–42 Waring Taylor Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 13 Brighton Terrace, Mairangi Bay, Auckland 10.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 152 Manchester Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 365 Princes Street, Dunedin.

Papua New Guinea—Papua New Guinea High Commission, Construction House, 82 Kent Terrace, Wellington.

Peru—Hon. Consul, Hon. Vice-Consul, 79–83 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Philippines—Embassy of the Philippines, Williams City Centre, Plimmer Steps, Wellington.

Hon. Consul-General, care of Wilson and Horton Ltd., corner of Queen and Wyndham Streets, Auckland 1.

Poland—Embassy of the Polish People's Republic, 17 Upland Road, Wellington.

Portugal—Hon. Consul, P.O. Box 190, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, Challenge House, 105–109 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 352 Stuart Street, Dunedin.

Romania—Consulate-General, 100 Evans Bay Road, Wellington.

Singapore—High Commission, 17 Kabul Street, Khandallah, Wellington.

South Africa—Consul-General, Molesworth House, 101–103 Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Sri Lanka—Hon. Trade Commissioner, Huddart Parker Building, Wellington.

Sweden—Royal Swedish Embassy, Aurora House, 48–64 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 37 St Georges Bay Road, Parnell, Auckland.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 7 Liverpool Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 40 Jetty Street, Dunedin.

Hon. Vice-Consul, The Crescent, Invercargill.

Switzerland—Embassy of Switzerland, Panama House, 22–24 Panama Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 48 Carr Road, Mount Roskill, Auckland.

Thailand—Royal Thai Embassy, 2 Burnell Avenue, Wellington.

Tonga—New Zealand Agents for the Government of Tonga, Beachcroft Avenue, Auckland 6.

Tongan Government Liaison Officer, C.M.L. Centre, 159 Queen Street, Auckland.

Turkey—Hon. Consul-General, 228 Queen Street, Auckland.

U.S.A.—Embassy of the United States of America, 29 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington 1.

Consul-General, Northern Building Society Building, Cnr. Queen and Wellesley Streets, Auckland.

Consular Agent, 311 Manchester Street, Christchurch.

U.S.S.R.—Embassy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 57 Messines Road, Karori, Wellington.

Venezuela—Hon. Consul, Brooklyn Flats, Emily Place, Auckland.

Western Samoa—High Commission for Western Samoa, Europa House, Wellington.

Consulate-General, Caltex House, 7–9 Fanshawe Street, Auckland.

Yugoslavia—Embassy of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 24 Hatton Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, A.M.P. Building, comer of Queen and Victoria Streets, Auckland.

Countries with diplomatic representation in Canberra, Jakarta, or Tokyo with cross-accreditation to New Zealand are: Austria, Bangladesh, Brazil, Burma, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Ecuador, Finland, German Democratic Republic, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Laos, Mexico, Mongolia, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sri Lanka, Turkey, and Vietnam.

Chapter 42. STATISTICAL SUMMARY

Table of Contents

TOTAL POPULATION AND EXTERNAL MIGRATION
YearPopulationMean PopulationNatural IncreaseNet Migration*
At 31 MarchAt 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 March

*Excluding tourists on cruising liners, crews, and members of armed forces, etc.

†Does not include armed forces personnel overseas.

‡ Provisional.

19281,455,8211,467,3701,443,5511,456,07516 078–1 235
19291,471,1101,486,1341,460,3631,473,41915 639711
19301,489,2031,506,8091,478,0271,493,01915 6772 385
19311,511,7001,522,7621,498,4161,514,21515 8055 109
19321,525,5451,534,7351,517,9401,527,06214 660–3 172
19331,538,0281,547,1241,530,1191,539,59014 342–2 595
19341,550,1251,558,3731,542,6511,551,53213 410–2 335
19351,560,9921,569,6891,554,2971,562,23313 486–3 150
19361,573,9271,584,6171,565,2631,575,23113 737–1 114
19371,587,2111,601,7581,578,7571,589,97214 681–353
19381,604,4791,618,3131,594,2751,606,76313 9712 386
19391,624,7141,641,6391,611,3621,628,51216 9394 963
19401,640,9011,633,6451,633,4471,637,30521 0706028
19411,636,2301,631,2761,635,7151,630,94822 123714
19421,634,3381,636,4031,630,4191,639,57219 701209
19431,634,0941,642,0411,640,1911,635,63517 562541
19441,643,9001,676,2861,637,5701,655,79520 988107
19451,679,9721,727,8171,664,5851,694,64123 8481 018
19461,756,7561,781,2141,710,6801,759,52629 8042 343
19471,789,4761,817,4531,770,2911,798,26232 2563 038
19481,828,0251,853,8061,807,6111,834,65531 7775 756
19491,864,5601,892,0421,843,7671,871,74831 2634 181
19501,902,8831,927,6291,881,3171,909,09231 2477 880
19511,938,0321,970,5221,917,9341,947,52930 9707 522
19521,984,7302,024,5561,958,7291,996,14932 95015 664
19532,037,5532,074,7812,009,5062,048,82633 53422 032
19542,087,7402,118,4342,061,3762,094,91035 17915 441
19552,130,9272,164,7342,105,7672,138,94636 3717 030
19562,175,3732,209,1322,150,2902,182,83336 8358 092
19572,221,1692,262,8142,194,1082,232,59137 56311 492
19582,275,5152,315,9002,246,0932,285,85240 25515 408
19592,326,1292,359,7462,298,8142,334,61740 6709 992
19602,370,1662,403,5672,345,6022,377,01041 8873 213
19612,414,2962,461,2432,388,0042,426,65443 6081 620
19622,474,5882,515,8352,441,4002,484,87342 93318 832
19632,527,8682,566,9152,498,3572,536,91242 11113 639
19642,582,4072,616,9702,550,1142,589,15039 44115 484
19652,628,9002,663,8432,601,2192,635,35237 07111 991
19662,676,7782,711,3182,647,1962,682,60436 22512 021
19672,725,9142,744,9632,694,6802,727,65838 01514 435
19682,752,6622,772,9332,735,2072,753,51237 648–8090
19692,777,2102,804,0592,760,0772,780,10138 199–10 848
19702,815,9872,852,1372,788,8392,819,60237 210–2060
19712,861,0002,896,6002,831,300x2,864,20040 1517 845
19722,906,7002,954,400x2,875,5002,912,90038 41410 851
19732,967,000x3,015,8002,927,7002,970,80035 41525 475
19743,030,6003,079,0002,986,4003,031,900x34 07533 167
19753,089,0003,127,9003,047,0003,087,000x31 52529 141
19763,124,5003,148,300x3,097,5003,116,20029 6485 192
19773,140,4003,151,9003,120,7003,127,70028 218–16 270
19783,145,900x3,151,4003,128,900x3,129,40026 360–22 156x
19793,144,600...3,129,100......–26 544
VITAL STATISTICS
YearNumbersRates per 1000 of Mean PopulationDeaths Under 1 Year per 1000 Live Births*Marriages
Live Births*DeathsDeaths Under 1 YearLive Births*DeathsNumberRate per 1000 Mean Population
*Figures from 1926 have been revised to exclude registrations under Section 24 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1925 and Section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 (late registration).
192828 93812 8601 16619.878.8340.2910 9197.50
192928 85913 2201 08619.598.9737.6311 4037.74
193028 82213 1451 11219.308.8038.5811 4947.70
193128 86713 0621 07719.068.6337.3110 2546.77
193227 53512 8751 03918.038.4337.7310 4926.87
193327 20412 8621 04317.678.3538.3411 0677.19
193427 22013 8101 06017.548.9038.9411 7887.60
193527 15013 6641 12817.388.7441.5512 7448.16
193628 39514 6581 16818.039.3141.1314 4489.17
193729 89615 2151 17818.809.5739.4014 9739.42
193830 84516 8741 53719.2010.5049.8315 9599.93
193932 87215 9331 37120.199.7841.7117 79110.92
194036 94515 8751 36222.569.7036.8718 08411.04
194139 17017 0471 56224.0210.4539.8813 8308.48
194237 81818 1171 38823.0711.0536.7012 7757.79
194334 68417 1221 35021.2110.4738.9212 0217.35
194438 03717 0491 47322.9710.3038.7313 6468.24
194541 53417 6861 44924.5110.4434.8916 6939.85
194647 52417 7201 52427.0110.0732.0721 09611.99
194749 69817 4421 48727.649.7029.9219 04710.59
194849 06217 2851 35026.749.4227.5217 7509.67
194948 84117 5781 46826.099.3930.0617 3549.27
195049 33118 0841 36425.849.4727.6517 0998.96
195149 80618 8361 37425.579.6727.5916 9158.69
195251 84618 8961 47525.979.4728.4517 0618.55
195351 88818 3541 33525.338.9625.7317 2248.41
195454 05518 8761 30225.809.0124.0917 5578.38
195555 59619 2251 36525.998.9924.5517 7958.32
195656 53119 6961 31325.909.0223.2317 5318.03
195758 42520 8621 42026.179.3424.3017 6147.89
195860 55620 3011 41626.498.8823.3818 3058.01
195961 79821 1281 47726.479.0523.9018 3157.84
196062 77920 8921 42026.418.7922.6218 9097.96
196165 39021 7821 49026.958.9822.7919 4268.01
196265 01422 0811 33126.168.8920.4719 5727.88
196364 52722 4161 26925.448.8419.6719 8567.83
196462 30222 8611 19324.068.8319.1520 7208.00
196560 04722 9761 17422.798.7219.5521 7028.23
196660 00323 7781 06422.378.8617.7322 9498.55
196761 02223 0071 10222.378.4318.0623 5158.62
196862 11224 4641 16422.568.8818.7424 0578.74
196962 36024 1611 05722.438.6916.9524 9718.98
197062 05024 8401 04022.018.8116.7625 9539.20
197164 46024 3091 06622.518.4916.5427 1999.50
197263 21524 80198821.708.5115.6326 8689.22
197360 72725 31298520.448.5216.2226 2748.84
197459 33625 26192219.578.3315.5425 4128.38
197556 63925 11490418.358.1415.9624 5357.95
197555 10525 45776617.688.1713.9024 1547.75
197754 17925 96177017.328.3014.2122 5897.22
197851 02924 66970316.317.8813.7822 4267.17
EDUCATION
Roll Numbers at Educational Institutions
At 1 JulyPrimarySecondaryHigher
State SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsState SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsTechnical Institutes (Full-time Students)Teachers' CollegesUniversity Institutions (Including Extra-mural and Part-time Students)

†Does not include kindergarten trainees.

‡Includes kindergarten trainees.

1928221 16926 39427 0843 506...1 1154802
1929220 34726 55628 5133 877...1 1884 623
1930219 27426 61729 2844 513...1 1554 801
1931220 97626 44831 0534 602...1 1655 111
1932217 23626 39030 9444 512...9905 171
1933203 58926 09730 4734 315...4435 085
1934201 87026 58430 9154 430......5 059
1935200 13526 92331 6114 743...4295 101
1936213 49727 54031 8945 108...1 1855 218
1937212 07627 50732 1155 595...1 3465 238
1938209 96128 27134 3456 059...1 5225 707
1939208 64127 97235 6926 266...1 5885 979
1940208 43327 86835 2736 379...1 4575 528
1941208 59527 83633 2536 451...1 5035 065
1942208 72126 98332 3916 483...1 4634 373
1943206 88428 52134 8937 184...1 7755 953
1944207 29229 22340 7238 121...1 6787 267
1945211 74229 58344 2798 933...1 4318 425
1946218 12930 58144 9859 424...1 57511 361
1947229 80431 92945 2499 968...1 63411 874
1948235 24332 81845 1099 793...1 87511 964
1949244 37733 94146 51210 243...2 32111 598
1950254 66435 77548 23210 511...2 68411 515
1951265 23037 10950 68211 045...2 70410 956
1952282 69939 34254 12411 622...2 71010 691
1953298 48141 27759 55812 476...2 76910 831
1954311 54142 79766 34413 627...2 83410 803
1955320 58044 08672 11714 970...2 84710 851
1956332 04946 26175 35415 832...2 96311 077
1957344 95947 95378 84316 265...3 21811 761
1958356 21448 41882 69916 984...3 60212 881
1959365 76151 54989 50817 663...3 75314 388
1960371 82552 88799 36519 293713 83815 809
1961376 47554 079109 63220 7522213 81416 820
1962384 31355 293118 52322 2904414 22317 214
1963392 59556 341124 97823 6035324 53618 303
1964404 25757 154128 70924 4396204 69119 640
1965415 58257 244132 09425 0738574 79022 145
1966429 91656 050136 10425 5851 1635 02224 302
1967445 04554 910141 92226 2321 3555 15626 313
1968455 11953 782152 42227 0201 4856 09628 821
1969461 30552 407155 87327 9101 6616 91231 494
1970465 46050 904157 79728 4411 8827 58734 446
1971467 09751 009160 83929 2672 2367 79137 257
1972468 69250 859166 85129 8043 1188 08838 482
1973470 27350 711171 97830 2013 3787 81138 995
1974473 09950 574177 58231 0143 5617 61639 949
1975474 57850 745187 95031 8043 8407 21142 436
1976475 11349 899197 91232 3794 5137 52146 207
1977473 62149 309199 73432 2814 9466 83447 706
1978470 53848 893202 41832 2875 9606 23448 511
JUSTICE
YearMagistrates' Courts*Supreme CourtPrisoners in Jail at End of Year (Undergoing Sentence)
Summary ConvictionsRate per 1000 of Mean PopulationPersons SentencedRate per 1000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1000 of Population as at 31 Dec

*Revised series. Excludes minor traffic offences as well as applications for prohibition, affiliation, maintenance, and separation orders.

†Change in legislation resulting in more offences dealt with in Magistrates' Courts.

192824 50816.834780.331 4350.98
192925 18617.104730.321 3420.90
193025 19216.875380.361 5231.01
193123 25915.366000.401 6141.06
193223 23615.226360.421 5220.99
193320 35513.225310.341 4100.91
193419 65412.674900.321 1990.77
193519 67212.594720.301 1120.71
193621 45013.624620.299150.58
193723 56314.825070.327900.49
193823 76214.784880.307770.48
193924 77415.215710.358950.55
194025 67015.675470.338630.53
194124 52915.045420.339880.61
1942......4570.281 0340.63
1943......4940.301 0240.62
1944......5600.349450.56
1945......6190.379980.58
1946......6550.379920.56
194720 18711.227400.411 0880.60
194821 91011.947170.399860.53
194922 02111.766760.369410.50
195021 10211.056420.341 0430.54
195122 40911.506440.331 0400.53
195227 15113.607040.351 0830.54
195328 99414.15179†0.091 0880.52
195431 48815.031480.071 1960.57
195532 44415.161470.071 1180.52
195635 30216.172040.091 3620 62
195736 96916.551990.091 4740.66
195835 39315.482060.091 6420.72
195931 83713.362120.091 7140.73
196033 97014.292860.121 7770.75
196135 31814.552940.121 8180.75
196238 31215.412650.121 7070.69
196339 12815.423090.121 7650.69
196439 54915.242420.091 6890.65
196539 96515.163040.121 6530.63
196642 14915.702800.101 8980.71
196747 49117.403180.121 9830.73
196852 35119.013510.132 0230.73
196954 01019.423140.111 9670.71
197055 56019.703600.132 3650.84
197161 70121.544040.142 6360.91
197265 27422.424760.162 5310.86
197368 47723.064790.162 5670.85
197472 76224.005450.182 4400.79
197582 65526.786690.222 7520.88
197691 67529.427100.232 8430.90
1977......6870.222 8600.91
SUMMARYOF PRICE MOVEMENTS (i)
Base: December Quarter 1977. (= 100 for terms of trade. For all other indexes = 1000.)
YearImport Prices*Export Prices*Terms of Trade*Wholesale Prices
Pastoral and DairyAll ExportsImportedHome ProducedAll Commodities

*The complete series of index numbers of Import Prices, Export Prices, and Terms of Trade have been revised.

†Includes only home-produced items used by domestic industry and consumers.

‡Wholesale Prices Index replaced by General Price Index (which see) from December quarter 1977.

192910715214813895127112
193010611811610993122109
19319989899091108102
19329481818691102100
19339680818496100102
19349510110010595103103
193593979810595111107
19369311211111995114107
193799132130131103122116
193899122121122104125118
193999119118119106133122
1940114138136119125136136
1941127141140110140144149
1942140145143102154151161
194315515215097170153172
194416215915898175156177
1945165172170103178159180
1946184189186101177162181
1947219239233106181173187
1948224266259116204190209
1949204258251123199194207
1950223366355159211221226
1951261430416159246257263
1952285343334117278279292
1953269383372138264295290
1954265390379143252309287
1955270400389144256309290
1956277391380137263326301
1957287386374130270323305
1958285327319112279331313
1959279374364130286335318
1960282362353125282338319
1961284342334118283336318
1962277348341123283333316
1963277385373135289339322
1964282420407144289357334
1965282405393139295368343
1966282401389138300374349
1967287364355124311380357
1968338389382113348399382
1969351414405115364420401
1970372415407109387445425
1971395456441112416478457
1972411551531129444512489
1973433730680157471591551
1974549693669122556617595
197572464266392701661674
197689286987498849813825
197798010141003102966959961
SUMMARYOF PRICE MOVEMENTS (ii)
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
YearImport Prices (All Groups)*Export Prices (All Groups)*Wholesale PricesConsumers PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
ImportedHome ProducedAll CommoditiesFoodAll Groups

*The complete series of index numbers of Import Prices and Export Prices have been revised.

†Se.....te to previous table.

Year Ended 31 March
1935......9510510399112...
1940......108135124133137273
1945......176156177144159361
1950......200197209179185420
1955265383252311288277256490
1960279371285336318303299657
1962283332283336318311308736
1963274347284333317312315768
1964279387290343325322322887
1965282403290360337341335996
1966282391296370345348345946
1967282381302375350357356874
1968299355319384362381378805
19693413903544043873953951044
19703544073674254064134131234
19713784113944534334474461189
19723974634254854654824901078
19734175734495295025055211232
19744446944846055645735701373
19755936505886166066286371051
19767707107436917097147371059
19779239248798558638438551109
19789831000.........9769801023
1979...............107710871139
Year Ended 30 June
1935...9395107104100113...
1940...134113136128134139276
1945...167177157178144160364
1950213287203202213183187432
1955266378254311289279257499
1960282373284338319303299706
1962282332284335317312311733
1963276356286334318314317785
1964280402289348328326325917
19652813962923633393443381004
1966282393297372346351348929
1967282372305377353364361852
1968311361328387367383381831
19693463993584093924004001111
19703604083724304114194191249
19713854194024624424564581151
19724024864304934724894991087
19734216194545485165185311303
19744736935036135765885831326
19756266346226246236426601018
19768257787847297487467671059
19779419649098928988388831097
19789961012.........100410081044
1979...............112411191143
PRICE AND WAGE MOVEMENTS
Bases: December Quarter 1977 for CPI and share prices (= 1000); 31 December 1974 for wage rates (= 1000).
YearConsumers' PricesShare Prices (All Groups)Weekly Wage Rates (Adult Males)
FoodAll GroupsNominalEffective*
*Index numbers of effective or “real” wage rates are obtained by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices and multiplying by 1000. See Wages section of this Yearbook and Latest Statistical Information section for wage rates for all adult employees on new base.
1929127138327121568
1930122135283121582
1931106125228112583
193297115216103579
19339110925299586
193497111295100585
1935104115312102573
1936109119297113617
1937119127300123628
1938124131281129639
1939131136268131624
1940134142281135614
1941138148281139610
1942141152284145617
1943142156330150622
1944144159359152620
1945144161378164661
1946144162418171684
1947153167441177686
1948173181427189677
1949177184412200707
1950195194463213712
1951224216505243730
1952247232417255712
1953262243416272725
1954275254479293747
1955282260508303754
1956298269524309743
1957297275572323706
1958302287540327738
1959303298612333724
1960308300782349754
1961311306755355752
1962312314751364752
1963318320849373755
1964337331977385753
1965346343971408771
1966353352899420773
1967378373804442767
1968390389961459764
19694094091202485769
19704364351233548815
19714754811076672906
19724985141170734926
19735545561381819955
19746186181123932978
197568370810361059969
197681082811261184926
197794894710261346x921x
1978104910601114  
LABOUR FORCE, UNEMPLOYMENT, AND INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES
YearTotal Labour Force*Registered Unemployed Monthly AverageIndustrial Stoppages
MatesFemalesTotalNumberTotal Duration (Days)Workers InvolvedWorking Days Lost

*Estimated labour force as at 15 April of each year. The Department of Labour publishes estimates as at 15 April and 15 October of each year. April estimates are frequently a little higher than those for the following October because of seasonal employment.

†The National Employment Service was established as from 1 April 1946 under the Employment Act 1945. Prior to 1942 a State Placement Service had operated a system of local labour exchanges. From 1942 to the end of March 1946 this was merged in the Industrial Manpower Division of the National Service Department.

 (000)(000)(000)   (000)(000)
1948544.6170.3714.96710160828.593.5
1949550.8172.5723.39212367261.5218.2
1950559.2176.7735.93812956791.5271.5
1951560.4180.3740.7381093 46436.91 157.4
1952572.2182.4754.6475010816.328.1
1953588.1178.6766.7857314522.219.3
1954601.8185.2787.0586113616.220.5
1955609.2191.1800.3566521120.252.0
1956619.5194.4813.92595039013.623.9
1957629.6200.3829.93945116515.528.2
1958641.7206.2847.97854915213.718.8
1959651.3210.5861.81 1887322918.829.7
1960660.6215.0875.66336034414.335.7
1961670.5224.8895.33767135316.638.2
1962680.9230.7911.61 0409649839.993.2
1963693.7236.2929.98496036614.954.5
1964709.8248.1957.96509333334.866.8
1965728.9262.5991.451310528715.321.8
1966745.6280.41 026.046314546233.199.1
1967759.4293.11 052.53 8528934728.5139.5
1968756.2287.21 043.46 83115362237.5130.3
1969764.7296.51 061.22 92616968344.0138.7
1970779.2311.51 090.71 6003231 394110.1277.3
1971789.8322.21 112.03 1153131 38986.0162.6
1972796.9326.01 122.95 6842661 25760.4134.5
1973814.7335.51 150.22 3213941 892115.9271.7
1974834.2357.11 191.39553801 53070.9183.7
1975843.2364.51 207.74 1664281 82974.8214.6
1976849.5372.51 222.05 3564871 986201.1488.4
1977841.7388.41 230.17 3855622 174159.4436.8
1978   22 3304111 347157.9380.6
POSTAL AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Year Ended 31 MarchMail Posted*TelephonesTollsTelegramsMoney Orders and Postal Notes*RevenueExpenditure

*Calendar year until 1945.

†Installed as at 31 March. At 31 March 1978 there were 1,089,950 subscribers.

 million(000)millionmillionmillion$(m)$(m)
1929266152.510.76.34.76.86.8
1930271161.311.46.04.77.37.2
1931233161.710.75.53.67.47.4
1932218160.89.53.93.37.56.7
1933231155.69.03.43.56.66.5
1934243155.19.13.54.06.46.4
1935263159.19.93.44.56.66.6
1936267166.611.43.84.67.17.1
1937274178.613.14.34.57.87.7
1938304192.014.54.64.78.58.5
1939296206.215.64.94.39.19.1
1940266217.915.74.53.49.79.2
1941262228.316.14.23.210.19.6
1942...235.416.94.53.110.510.0
1943...238.417.65.73.011.210.4
1944...244.818.16.33.011.810.3
1945237256.719.56.53.012.611.8
1946...265.821.07.3...13.312.7
1947294282.322.77.13.316.414.3
1948301300.623.96.73.417.116.4
1949319322.825.36.73.418.018.0
1950343348.527.16.93.418.118.4
1951358370.027.26.93.321.821.2
1952347394.628.37.03.424.624.8
1953358425.229.37.03.426.626.7
1954359456.331.17.03.431.731.0
1955386496.334.07.33.534.734.0
1956408534.536.57.63.737.136.7
1957412568.338.87.53.640.039.9
1958439605.241.97.53.544.244.1
1959446641.343.97.23.645.345.2
1960464686.047.57.33.848.548.4
1961495744.851.77.54.153.353.2
1962507801.955.57.24.460.160.0
1963526850.658.27.14.264.964.8
1964534902.061.07.24.470.270.1
1965551962.664.47.24.677.876.6
19665731 025.167.67.34.787.084.9
19675761 085.169.17.24.991.593.6
19685681 119.467.76.14.8106.6100.8
19695751 155.568.35.94.9112.8106.6
19705951 202.667.05.74.9119.5117.1
19716151 262.467.95.55.5129.8143.5
19726221 304.764.85.15.4169.8169.5
19736451 358.167.15.05.5186.9188.9
19746691 444.073.94.95.4206.3212.5
19756991 531.277.64.65.2236.5x257.2x
19767071 610.480.74.35.1262.9301.6
19776621 674.179.43.64.3367.5346.3
19786511 715.383.03.14.1440.0402.3
1979.....................
GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS
Year Ended 31 MarchKilometres Open for TrafficRevenue Train-KilometresRail Passenger JourneysGoods and LivestockRevenue*Expenditure*
*Figures relate to railway operation only.
  (000)(000)tonnes(000)$(000)$(000)
19295 29017 88525 5757 73515,05012,750
19305 29019 34725 4147 91414,94813,696
19315 34618 15722 8147 07013,56212,812
19325 33516 36519 1515 91811,57810,604
19335 33515 81818 3675 57910,6789,668
19345 34316 35619 0475 73311,2589,754
19355 34317 10119 6546 12111,81610,278
19365 34317 78320 3586 28812,48811,046
19375 34319 10021 2356 92213,80812,676
19385 34820 56422 4417 63715,18414,584
19395 34121 03923 2667 66016,01015,328
19405 45621 51224 4547 79717,52415,886
19415 45621 82326 2778 56119,38816,814
19425 45622 49728 6118 61020,76817,806
19435 56824 36536 1339 03024,83020,040
19445 63924 67038 6119 17226,93022,732
19455 63920 60432 9959 09824,89623,394
19465 67821 65432 4189 35826,21025,100
19475 67821 19328 8699 47925,64827,290
19485 67522 06725 8879 67627,92830,180
19495 67522 36226 1689 82130,67833,576
19505 67523 20825 89510 10832,12434,722
19515 68322 77724 8249 77037,00037,450
19525 69519 90921 2929 98740,19443,030
19535 68921 58021 45510 18745,17845,510
19545 63922 07923 2729 79047,36447,242
19555 61523 20724 73510 50254,01851,084
19565 50723 95325 07510 84955,74253,550
19575 50124 30425 37710 49157,01457,388
19585 57823 85824 81710 49860,02062,128
19595 50423 50425 43710 53359,64661,010
19605 36923 30326 13410 71260,54261,516
19615 36423 77526 23311 00462,85862,978
19625 36224 05626 32410 99663,39063,632
19635 25123 45625 66510 20562,75266,874
19645 25424 00825 73411 26867,64867,946
19655 23724 66925 13712 16472,78671,932
19665 23224 82923 88912 07974,75373,228
19675 16924 71823 72311 71975,02875,151
19685 01822 27222 18610 75171,65371,880
19694 92921 64122 26110 97174,60272,892
19704 92921 39621 03111 77983,19479,836
19714 84721 87720 78412 04086,99996,502
19724 80721 37620 11511 493101,296107,277
19734 80521 39918 56512 322112,162117,197
19744 79922 44718 94413 378125,789135,363
19754 79722 22918 89412 883124,921166,657
19764 79722 05320 03513 197137,287194,829
19774 72421 30318 47813 601202,419214,796
19784 66820 07316 40212 577212,748251,863
19794 57720 15016 74911 721237,266287,241
AGRICULTURE
SeasonWheat for ThreshingYield of
AreaYieldYield per HectareOatsBarleyPeas for ThreshingPotatoes

*Includes yield of beans.

†Provisional.

 hectarestonnestonnestonnestonnestonnestonnes
1927–28105 618259 6802.4669 90319 55021 839*123 351
1928–29103 321240 3952.3355 61317 71514 357125 591
1929–3095 482197 0322.0654 47417 1248 008132 195
1930–31100 772206 2742.0561 26518 9996 570153 957
1931–32108 762179 1551.6551 13312 1888 420118 617
1932–33122 430300 8722.4693 11812 72415 933131 151
1933–34115 830245 9242.1258 83216 57819 005133 148
1934–3591 212161 4791.7734 29510 99311 881110 874
1935–36100 620241 1132.4059 92316 90515 315122 946
1936–3789 755195 1102.1763 96516 94113 091128 341
1937–3875 251164 4662.1947 91724 62910 138149 141
1938–3976 599151 4341.9847 26224 42110 53289 078
1939–40104 220218 0032.0937 76020 77015 327143 370
1940–4198 418226 0522.3056 51824 18620 18295 634
1941–42104 410235 9972.2662 50329 40823 19091 042
1942–43116 144267 2432.3050 96223 98724 201141 276
1943–4494 610196 1862.0733 28218 88824 187164 104
1944–4574 416190 3002.5676 37131 41128 238127 704
1945–4665 174148 0292.2750 74742 46422 233142 503
1946–4757 225146 0992.5548 73945 96833 508117 620
1947–4850 080123 5342.4751 77447 35431 008157 506
1948–4959 370162 1542.7367 47051 17432 528111 404
1949–5050 650133 3492.6347 54255 19933 822137 601
1950–5158 584170 6972.9133 16643 14717 031121 700
1951–5236 404105 8752.9144 80749 49219 87670 962
1952–5351 486123 1612.3943 27648 53316 72296 171
1953–5446 059130 1802.8317 15375 64725 957158 445
1954–5542 083111 9512.6629 06845 17624 098146 472
1955–5627 71272 3522.6135 33446 07517 278102 293
1956–5726 60580 2953.0252 40564 74223 015147 578
1957–5833 968101 4372.9926 49380 56528 491159 627
1958–5953 788164 3533.0628 59060 35422 585152 332
1959–6066 028236 7853.5933 11571 14325 142159 324
1960–6175 590253 3573.3542 62777 46725 331193 495
1961–6275 388213 2482.8334 22180 75320 765191 049
1962–6391 357249 1982.7318 66395 29327 230184 357
1963–6482 540273 9973.3228 080130 99529 985203 999
1964–6574 450250 2983.3645 249105 90723 891246 965
1965–6680 745291 7843.6143 520114 07728 798234 563
1966–6793 305347 7593.7328 180134 01432 185187 358
1967–68126 651442 3303.4944 754219 39936 300235 835
1968–69129 975456 6483.5152 148232 56956 617256 350
1969–70108 394287 2122.6557 712174 44649 601253 204
1970–7197 528325 6463.3459 752259 32051 856209 927
1971–72106 596389 1563.6549 457335 49057 519219 970
1972–73107 690376 1113.4944 965258 26159 733244 211
1973–7467 414214 5823.1863 226241 56952 882206 192
1974–7557 656179 8743.1250 219262 88147 522225 522
1975–76103 742388 1783.7441 820285 49554 515248 321
1976–7796 236354 0353.6857 997272 09645 023270 497
1977–7891 000329 0003.6252 000259 00059 000237 000
LIVESTOCK
YearBeef CattleDairy Cows in MilkTotal Dairy CattleTotal CattleSheepPigs
*Coverage to 1959 relates to holdings of 1 acre and over; thereafter to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries, except that Manukau City has been included since Manukau County was absorbed by the city. Since 1970 the coverage applies to 1 hectare and over. Figures are as at 31 January of year stated, except for sheep which are as at 30 June.
 (000)(000)(000)(000)(000)(000)
1929...1 291...3 44629 051557
1930...1 390...3 77030 841488
1931...1 479...4 04429 793469
1932...1 562...4 07228 692506
1933...1 703...4 15527 756584
1934...1 796...4 26428 649653
1935...1 807...4 25729 077755
1936...1 803...4 21730 114801
1937...1 785...4 35231 306795
1938...1 743...4 46932 379749
1939...1 724...4 52831 897676
1940...1 719...4 49631 063706
1941...1 759...4 53931 752769
1942...1 757...4 642...689
1943...1 715...4 448...605
1944...1 648...4 43933 200573
1945...1 679...4 59133 975594
19462 0661 6622 6004 667...549
19472 0481 6582 5864 63432 682546
19482 0781 7142 6384 71632 483548
19492 0411 7472 6814 72332 845545
19502 0881 8502 8674 95533 857555
19512 1491 8982 9115 06034 786564
19522 2821 9062 8835 16535 384566
19532 4781 9622 9685 44636 193628
19542 6341 9993 1105 74538 011649
19552 8081 9953 0795 88739 117681
1956............40 255...
19572 8611 9982 9485 80942 382602
19582 9151 9672 9705 88646 026628
19592 9701 9313 0045 97346 876692
1960*3 0191 8872 9735 99247 134660
19613 3341 9293 1116 44648 462655
19623 4621 9683 1366 59848 988686
19633 5581 9973 1336 69150 190766
19643 5682 0113 1286 69651 292771
19653 6282 0323 1746 80153 748716
19663 8562 0883 3627 21857 343667
19674 2412 1313 5067 74760 030603
19684 5492 2323 6988 24760 474614
19694 8122 3043 7938 60559 937553
19705 0482 3213 7298 77760 276578
1971*5 2802 2393 5398 81958 913617
19725 4142 2003 3608 77460 883580
19735 7332 1903 3559 08856 684507
19746 1422 1403 2739 41555 883507
19756 5282 0803 1259 65355 320500
19766 7692 0923 0089 77756 400505
19776 5052 0742 9669 47259 105536
19786 1972 0532 9329 12962 163539x
19795 5812 0402 9178 499...503
AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION
SeasonWool ProductionMilkfat ProductionSawn Timber Production*Meat Production§
Total Production (Greasy Equivalent)Average Price (Greasy Wool)Total ValueTotal ProductionYield per Cow in Milk||Average Revenue per kg

*Year ended 31 March.

†Milkfat for butter making only. These figures do not include payments for non-fat solids in the whole milk delivered for butter manufacture; therefore they cannot be used as a measure of total income from milk or manufacture.

‡Provisional.

§Year ended September.

||Calculated from 1966–67 on “at factory” basis.

 tonnes (000)c per kg$(m)tonnes (000)kgc per kgm3(000)tonnes (000)
1928–2911927.3432.613110234.00637...
1929–3011915.7218.714210329.39665...
1930–3111710.4312.31469821.12540...
1931–321229.6611.81549820.21363...
1932–331269.4611.918010416.53392...
1933–3413220.3526.819410716.53467...
1934–3512012.0214.418610217.46576...
1935–3613816.7823.119810922.97691...
1936–3713728.8639.720811525.18722...
1937–3813518.4524.919711227.93762...
1938–3914916.8425.118110430.31748...
1939–4014122.4433.219511230.69793...
1940–4115122.4935.521111930.69807...
1941–4215620.5137.019811230.86765...
1942–4315425.6441.318510631.42807...
1943–4415025.6640.217610533.44828...
1944–4516925.6845.319611537.30802...
1945–4616625.5144.116910038.96814550
1946–4716633.0054.518511043.54835569
1947–4816446.1475.819010948.881 017558
1948–4916647.4278.920711751.081 109565
1949–5017769.78123.421111353.641 128586
1950–51177161.38285.522211656.951 246538
1951–5218573.83136.322511763.561 357612
1952–5319084.86160.924012268.341 357587
1953–5419392.331 78422311171.471 354598
1954–5520691.25188.322811370.171 454647
1955–5621084.86177.823811869.821 477693
1956–57223100.60224,023511770.001 409681
1957–5822575.62170.125012767.791 409699
1958–5924566.27162.325012960.251 503743
1959–6026282.03214.724512969.451 638785
1960–6126774.12197.724912861.551 687770
1961–6226671.98191.724812560.801 635834
1962–6328178.70221.325312660.451 517841
1963–64279101.17283.126513164.291 572866
1964–6528377.40218.828213867.621 737836
1965–6631576.46241.129214068.941 787843
1966–6732264.77208.4296135x68.951 770905
1967–6833050.42166.5289124x65.541 6211 002
1968–6933261.86205.4301125x65.811 6971 030
1969–7032856.48185.3278113x66.181 8061 051
1970–7133453.42178.4279116x70.071 8531 055
1971–7232266.46214.2292127x73.541 7491 082
1972–73309143.96444.5280122x76.771 7871 097
1973–74285139.19396.4261118x76.662 054990
1974–7529491.75269.8273128x80.892 0861 089
1975–76312157.12489.9296137x74.422 0031 234
1976–77303219.58664.2303143x81.862 2121 152
1977–78311190.43591.927912896.801 9611 151
MANUFACTURING
YearEstablishmentsPersons*EngagedSalaries*and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsOther Expenses of ProductionValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)Value of Land and Buildings, Plant and Machinery

*For the year 1915–16 and earlier, figures refer to productive employees only.

†Figures based on Integrated Economic Census of Manufacturing (see Section 18 Manufacturing). Not directly comparable with figures for earlier years.

‡Includes ancillary units.

§Purchases and other expenses.

||Turnover.

¶Value Added.

 No.No.   $(million)  
1900–013 05938 6515.615.4 33.0 13.1
1905–063 38145 1987.226.6 43.2 19.1
1910–113 42142 1428.737.5 57.1 24.0
1915–163 65744 67310.659.7 83.8 31.6
1920–213 89462 97223.5106.0 151.0 51.4
1925–264 64370 21228.3102.614.5156.9 64.8
1930–315 04770 62527.890.616.9143.437.069.0
1935–365 39178 70126.2113.717.3167.537.566.4
1940–416 252104 78448.6186.022.4274.867.784.3
1941–426 225108 27553.6193.024.1291.275.587.5
1942–435 985106 17958.9203.825.1311.684.089.3
1943–446 062109 22162.8214.127.3329.789.892.0
1944–456 340113 53468.4233.029.1357.296.697.5
1945–466 847118 88675.8234.130.6367.1103.9103.6
1946–477 498124 92583.0262.734.6411.3115.8111.6
1947–487 822130 50495.9349.740.2518.4130.5126.6
1948–497 852132 427102.8390.143.9572.8141.0147.2
1949–507 815133 245112.5430.048.3634.7158.8156.0
1950–518 113138 435130.0533.857.7760.4171.6175.2
1951–528 546144 352150.1581.564.0862.0219.7195.0
1952–538 511143 164157.0637.970.5927.9222.9218.2
1953–548 377146 488173.2665.780.5990.4247.8244.5
1954–558 366153 575196.8730.695.71,101.2278.6276.5
1955–568 515158 238215.9769.6113.11,171.9294.4337.1
1956–576 793143 040203.3766.280.61,152.0277.7334.4
1957–586 774148 641219.8810.588.71,233.4303.5349.9
1958–596 757153 811235.3808.596.71,257.4321.9380.9
1959–606 709156 778250.0846.3101.51,345.0366.8415.7
1960–616 875165 572277.3905.0111.01,441.9393.9462.8
1961–626 984171 108296.9936.7120.51,532.4439.3521.6
1962–637 025174 417312.2964.1128.41,596.7461.9591.8
1963–647 317181 399338.61,115.0139.31,832.0531.7626.5
1964–657 554191 995378.81,292.5156.22,081.6580.6693.3
1965–667 659203 165418.81,360.0174.92,260.7664.0792.1
1966–677 838207 999451.71,402.3193.82,354.9691.0874.3
1967–687 788204 510454.21,427.1203.92,404.9704.0912.2
1968–697 667207 703483.51,591.0224.72,645.8757.1969.0
1969–707 686220 108559.61,791.4255.12,994.8867.11,130.4
1970–717 600229 104676.02,014.6306.73,407.4995.71,239.3
1971–727 783232 424780.32,288.6354.43,874.31,130.71,436.9
1972–737 669235 648875.42,787.2561.54,611.31,301.71,634.0
1973–747 690244 5221,042.23,112.8683.75,250.91,502.4...
1974–758 883292 4481,389.04,664.0§6,433.0||2,144.0...
1975–769 212298 6921,576.04,993.0§7,264.0||2,351.0...
1976–779 738306 1771,802.06,381.0§8,987.0||2,865.0...
COAL CONSUMPTION
YearFactoriesShippingRailGas WorksHouseholdsPublic Hospitals and Central HeatingElectricity GenerationTotal
*Estimated.
   tonnes(000)    
1927500328408232......1552 644
1928510324417225......1802 600
1929506321484232......912 588
1930499251440244......1732 615
1931402180375224......1882 249
1932396151394210......251 941
1933431141388207......82 012
1934443163425208......82 155
1935463157450208......102 240
1936508156466224......102 241
1937517155520225......152 317
1938550154522230......152 312
1939684128538246......342 449
1940693154572262......822 540
1941732125577268......1112 702
1942749148658276......752 759
1943746135671292......762 826
1944765121613305582...492 823
1945758126643315604...672 871
1946747111626320549...622 838
194778893601328607...622 856
1948...78586328630......2 842
194985856561316650...672 892
195083250486306610...912 778
195187538451264549...642 494
195290437442294599...1312 772
19539083442328355987452 555
195494636405270559881392 651
19551 00429377272528861202 612
19561 04933316265549861362 700
19571 07028273260559761792 627
19581 08825242275559802512 735
19591 04314231280549793632 753
19601 01592232815491006112 965
19611 0038219283544986122 917
19629698190266478963472 474
19631 04991862725251046072 807
19641 046101692624901075952 821
19651 02991432644901224402 664
19661 01010122245488*1284992 645
19679286101252427*1442322 270
1968938650231396*1552572 143
1969920513172376*1635462 311
197091010154345*1635422 306
19719255*109300*1644422 114
1972934*99290*1875582 188*
1973948*91284*1938272 461*
19741 120*109289*2818142 613*
19751 077*89234*2448442 488*
19761 149*80288*2407302 487*
19771 125*80290*2657502 510*
SUMMARY OF OVERSEAS TRADE*
YearExports (f.o.b.)Imports (c.d.v.)Imports (c.i.f.)
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population

*Figures are in terms of New Zealand currency. Gold and specie excluded.

†Previous to 1955 c.d.v. +10 percent.

‡Provisional.

 $(m)$$(m)$$(m)$
1929108.973.9188.660.1297.566.14
193088.859.4780.653.9988.759.39
193168.745.4048.231.8253.034.99
193268.945.1044.829.3449.332.28
193379.351.5246.530.2151.233.22
193492.059.2857.036.7262.740.39
193590.257.7266.042.2672.646.49
1936110.770.2880.551.0888.556.18
1937130.582.11102.164.22112.370.63
1938114.271.04100.862.71110.868.98
1939112.869.2989.855.1298.760.63
1940143.687.7089.154.4198.059.84
1941131.380.5089.454.8198.360.29
1942159.197.0597.959.72107.765.69
1943140.685.98173.2105.87190.5116.46
1944152.792.24157.194.87172.8104.35
1945160.794.85100.159.09110.265.00
1946200.2113.80130.173.95143.181.34
1947256.8142.78233.9130.06257.3143.06
1948294.4160.48233.7127.37257.0140.11
1949293.3156.72218.2116.59240.0128.25
1950364.9191.12287.1150.41315.9165.45
1951494.6253.95375.5192.80413.0212.08
1952479.5240.22458.9229.88504.8252.87
1953470.7229.74327.2159.70359.9175.68
1954488.0232.92426.3203.48468.9223.83
1955518.1242.20501.3234.37574.2268.47
1956554.5254.02469.5215.51536.8245.91
1957552.5247.48523.4234.42594.1266.09
1958499.9218.68505.5221.14570.0249.38
1959586.6251.26410.1175.64462.7198.21
1960604.6254.35506.2212.94564.5237.48
1961567.4233.76576.4237.48649.7267.64
1962 (Jan-Jun)332.6134.32237.495.88264.3106.74
Year ended June
1963627.5249.42523.7208.16576.6229.18
1964737.3286.72637.4247.88694.0269.91
1965742.2282.95662.7252.64724.5276.20
1966767.3288.54729.4274.31792.8298.13
1967727.2268.57752.2277.79813.2300.32
1968820.5299.04622.9227.03674.7245.91
1969989.1357.56799.2288.91852.9308.32
19701,086.7388.3944.3337.41,007.2359.9
19711,131.7398.21,070.6376.71,155.5406.6
19721,375.0476.41,152.7399.41,239.0429.3
19731,792.0609.31,282.2436.01,374.1467.3
19741,787.3595.51,861.8620.42,036.7678.5
19751,621.5529.72,492.0814.02,763.1902.6
19762,386.9768.72,730.1879.32,961.6953.8
19773,228.71,033.53,244.41,038.53,538.01,132.5
19783,313.51,058.73,018.2964.53,276.71,046.9
19794,068.61,300.93,560.91,138.63,826.91,223.6
EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE
YearWool
GreasyScoured and WashedTotal, including Slipe*
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
*Including fine animal hair.
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
192885 91627.14 9972.2102 87733.4
192989 97825.15 7862.3106 57430.7
193069 95411.25 7401.589 46715.3
193175 0688.25 0120.996 03411.0
193284 6838.66 5971.0108 03611.5
1933104 13011.39 1411.5129 86714.8
193495 07720.27 4992.0116 02825.0
193578 88910.37 1551.5100 99714.2
1936118 72421.17 6581.9142 61426.6
1937106 20430.94 9821.9128 06738.1
1938102 01219.45 7091.6123 05224.4
1939102 74818.45 8591.5125 82323.3
1940104 76224.29 3422.9136 20933.8
194173 31517.411 1643.797 85925.2
194297 77823.317 3985.8139 50136.7
194369 62318.511 3534.093 81327.0
194458 61815.813 4594.885 54725.4
194530 9968.425 1639.575 41425.4
1946119 94935.818 9267.5165 74553.2
1947116 75040.023 02511.6170 24563.9
1948147 23764.818 25311.8190 97289.0
1949148 44766.918 40011.7194 89793.1
1950137 201110.615 09716.4178 704149.3
1951111 820188.510 81524.5143 727256.4
1952154 629122.715 35416.6198 723164.0
1953137 903124.714 68618.2177 630169.2
1954137 692130.816 14220.4178 216176.9
1955146 417138.118 72323.2189 408187.9
1956151 350136.618 44922.0194 163183.1
1957153 478161.219 41125.3195 880212.1
1958162 595122.018 71317.7207 333160.1
1959188 118137.421 20919.4240 037179.5
1960182 542152.923 58925.3236 947205.0
1961197 367152.924 33824.3251 723200.7
1962 (Jan-Jun)128 18697.815 32514.6163 039127.5
Year ended June
1963204 338163.229 59628.5261 724214.5
1964195 139201.832 00939.7256 547271.6
1965180 920149.932 31436.1241 066208.6
1966212 149170.237 15837.8278 228231.9
1967158 468117.736 06732.9227 150174.1
1968182 29799.748 91535.6268 427158.2
1969205 260131.465 91355.1307 915212.4
1970196 430119.374 68463.3303 053204.2
1971173 926100.282 22565.7293 499187.9
1972177 990119.196 62984.1312 374228.6
1973160 325224.294 849152.5288 082424.0
1974120 927189.366 976131.3213 158361.6
1975102 871107.786 997125.4218 198261.7
1976142 605220.1105 432197.7272 369456.4
1977124 625283.3103 005304.6253 899648.2
1978111 346228.7106 385297.9242 913580.0
YearBeef and VealLamb and MuttonAll Meat
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
192838 4762.3144 03317.2192 73520.6
192919 7961.3138 77717.2169 48719.8
193021 2891.5173 23319.2205 07121.9
193123 9421.2175 93115.7210 26117.8
193227 1910.9195 63115.0236 00116.9
193347 1641.9193 92716.0264 33019.7
193445 6261.9177 24519.0252 46023.8
193547 0202.2184 48020.0264 50325.5
193643 2262.3177 18520.2260 09824.5
193750 9113.0184 92922.0274 88329.4
193852 5143.6184 85822.4272 97730.2
193962 1114.5203 87922.2300 05130.8
194075 9856.0237 85727.8354 42939.4
194140 2093.5192 19224.5268 48333.2
194246 6144.5221 01027.6291 67635.6
194325 8312.3188 74823.9224 17327.6
19447 1410.6194 01623.0211 13725.0
194529 9232.9243 11430.3287 22935.2
194662 4886.7255 78635.9343 08746.5
194768 4648.7259 64345.1353 36258.7
194868 9768.1253 43343.8349 00857.2
194959 9666.7261 04943.0349 55654.4
195059 9717.0258 00945.6343 44257.2
195143 5675.8212 07439.6278 92950.7
195257 42110.3299 71760.9384 16278.8
195345 0989.9256 12960.5329 04778.8
195460 48714.7281 44878.0367 237100.5
195595 58126.8262 34683.8383 562121.2
1956119 67529.2274 39487.2420 635127.7
1957117 40231.3254 66887.0394 531128.1
1958117 62751.1273 91085.5411 773146.9
195990 27944.4326 81087.0441 574142.4
196099 99244.4350 45497.2474 188152.3
196197 02444.4348 27889.9467 883144.2
1962 (Jan-Jun)49 55821.6218 81152.5282 28280.6
Year ended June
1963128 77758.8358 46698.2516 376169.5
1964121 19758.1368 993107.2522 744180.0
1965121 39357.4366 434135.0519 742208.5
1966101 19754.6369 234121.4501 983193.1
1967106 25163.9367 842119.5505 425200.8
1968129 33889.3413 227147.0581 251256.2
1969133 226109.1473 286175.5645 443304.5
1970177 704154.2439 344182.9658 534364.3
1971180 858170.4425 311186.5647 785385.7
1972185 390187.2446 913178.1674 335393.3
1973203 529241.3441 837257.5691 992535.5
1974183 326235.5348 950256.5570 406529.5
1975192 445161.8385 263238.7616 545438.0
1976228 111241.4397 408297.4674 867586.2
1977260 639312.1402 501387.5716 703756.5
1978225 776313.0374 888389.7647 057756.8
YearButterCheeseMilk, Dried and Condensed
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
192873 64222.679 62213.47 8100.8
192984 01726.590 38314.06 2300.7
193095 72423.792 10412.96 8950.7
1931101 02421.383 1308.95 8270.5
1932111 03121.390 9599.97 2730.5
1933133 87723.3100 7389.58 0010.6
1934132 82420.1100 8189.49 7800.8
1935141 70327.287 7648.89 4270.7
1936142 05130.684 24110.210 7690.8
1937151 19234.083 68010.711 2100.7
1938132 82533.081 81811.99 3150.6
1939124 12632.285 20911.711 1340.8
1940133 24036.5103 30716.511 9930.8
1941115 00731.6120 21119.713 4451.4
1942121 80633.9136 53823.712 5131.4
1943102 61929.4102 11018.311 8801.2
1944117 23137.178 95014.98 3601.1
1945105 16738.688 82919.015 3472.0
1946103 43839.776 96216.917 2682.4
1947129 75857.788 44123.220 3023.3
1948137 81167.576 83722.426 9664.4
1949150 04070.995 44625.334 9425.7
1950140 48671.7101 49329.141 2846.6
1951149 83083.0108 33033.347 4637.9
1952186 982112.392 72031.163 73913.1
1953161 660102.9102 98736.764 00112.6
1954134 60789.691 87432.845 9498.2
1955153 388102.086 40727.451 7427.2
1956170 137106.390 30344.552 9168.8
1957147 40376.989 89635.868 79811.5
1958178 20777.790 86324.853 8827.6
1959196 075111.684 79144.271 50911.5
1960159 572100.380 68837.161 28711.1
1961167 68978.889 01339.851 2678.4
1962 (Jan-Jun)86 07841.552 99021.330 7264.4
Year ended June
1963167 22790.993 68937.064 3679.5
1964184 875109.689 00035.173 76811.0
1965192 180119.694 74640.788 05018.9
1966193 472109.698 03741.7101 15222.0
1967203 163109.4104 36045.1135 23529.8
1968204 467112.2100 28147.4140 45030.3
1969206 378114.887 66142.6134 73323.1
1970198 021109.790 58244.3184 35131.1
1971194 464113.992 68148.0160 45234.1
1972187 680183.988 46466.3191 92576.5
1973176 619137.195 25579.2197 75787.4
1974162 146109.568 48161.8278 333130.6
1975164 171122.164 76348.4159 869103.1
1976206 788204.280 64078.0147 82684.6
1977212 929253.979 04684.9240 423108.5
1978177 265240.970 15476.6242 041129.5
YearCaseinApples and Pears*Grass and Clover Seeds
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
*Whole fruit only.
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
19282 1410.318 4241.0$$5520.3
19292 9060.318 2991.22 9390.4
19302 9110.324 0821.31 8570.3
19312 6880.224 3161.32 0810.3
19322 1730.128 6771.61 7440.2
19332 4730.226 0981.44 0800.3
19342 9330.328 4311.62 4770.3
19353 3100.318 8591.03 6400.4
19364 1070.422 3791.24 0630.5
19373 9390.517 1100.92 9520.4
19382 1030.228 0531.52 3110.5
19391 9570.119 0081.12 3280.6
19401 2370.110 7540.52 3240.7
19416300.11934 4801.1
19422501484 1911.2
19437500.1844 6091.3
194430598 0512.9
19458180.1728 4613.6
19467550.15 5150.37 6513.9
19472 6340.71097 4693.3
19484 1901.218 2361.78 8823.4
19495 5481.29 6910.88 2303.0
19505 6271.312 9741.48 3374.2
19515 9871.912 6751.44 4922.5
19528 4982.625 0694.18 3044.2
19538 7452.520 9203.49 1073.7
19548 2772.522 5413.19 3605.6
195512 4873.718 8872.64 0342.7
195613 6234.229 2504.17 4383.2
195714 3554.526 0313.68 2582.4
195820 3866.233 1754.67 5303.0
195929 6488.834 8154.84 6342.0
196028 6558.434 8394.86 5263.4
196129 4948.837 1224.86 7022.6
1962 (Jan-Jun)14 9564.640 7565.63 0511.2
Year ended June
196330 2468.433 7844.78 3083.6
196442 18911.338 5495.39 2583.5
196552 59416.844 0666.14 6342.0
196642 98520.051 5927.110 3223.2
196743 26518.640 1555.511 3373.2
196840 92318.141 5435.711 9193.7
196950 02621.744 0756.19 1613.5
197061 98925.857 7429.47 9393.6
197169 53430.255 5969.29 7194.9
197242 11325.460 63510.711 6404.4
197327 72822.069 56913.415 9546.5
197439 96528.668 96313.59 3098.9
197517 11914.781 11019.711 41110.0
197624 26327.177 93021.26 0714.5
197762 38459.760 66916.612 39610.8
197859 94060.581 70826.59 3209.9
YearHides and SkinsSausage CasingsTallow*
*From 1928 to 1948 figures cover only inedible tallow, and unrendered fats of bovine cattle, sheep, or goats are included in all figures.
 $(m)$(m)tonnes$(m)
19287.71.626 1611.6
19295.91.321 1661.4
19304.41.625 0231.4
19312.50.823 6370.8
19322.10.525 7840.9
19333.70.828 4701.0
19344.41.328 1061.0
19354.81.625 6831.3
19366.61.326 5141.3
19374.51.526 3561.3
19384.81.530 0881.1
19395.11.429 6050.9
19406.51.834 6861.4
19418.21.639 9591.6
19429.51.852 6102.3
19438.82.244 6602.1
19449.02.127 0511.2
194510.02.231 2191.8
194611.52.825 1532.1
194720.83.126 1384.7
194818.94.520 3854.3
194913.44.125 8405.1
195020.05.330 0714.3
195125.77.830 1345.1
195219.99.849 3959.4
195321.44.940 4333.9
195420.96.439 4965.1
195518.48.144 1315.7
195621.29.840 2545.3
195720.29.346 9496.1
195816.69.052 0836.8
195926.58.354 4196.6
196026.67.060 4225.9
196124.37.358 6496.3
1962 (Jan-Jun)15.26.036 6353.1
Year ended June
196325.410.560 3524.8
196430.412.077 3517.2
196531.711.158 8557.1
196640.010.951 5866.7
196733.612.066 4137.0
196839.89.974 6377.0
196955.410.971 7426.6
197048.714.073 5519.2
197150.614.165 83810.2
197262.215.469 6518.9
197395.914.272 9509.7
197467.017.253 76913.8
197562.718.871 63716.4
197677.423.596 13025.8
1977128.625.895 45133.0
1978144.027.085 30432.4
YearTimberWood PulpNewsprint
 $(m)tonnes(000)$(m)tonnes(000)$(m)
19280.8
19290.9
19300.6
19310.3
19320.5
19330.5
19340.6
19350.7
19360.5
19370.4
19380.4
19390.3
19400.4
19410.4
19420.2
19430.1
19440.1
19450.1
19460.3
19470.4
19481.0
19491.1
19500.7
19511.5
19521.2
19531.340.4
19541.8201.6
19552.5282.3
19562.1484.0263.1
19571.8665.3364.3
19582.9705.5425.3
19594.4785.8445.4
19604.2715.6506.2
19614.4655.0475.4
1962 (Jan-Jun)2.6332.7222.3
Year ended June
19634.1705.5738.0
19645.0675.510911.5
19656.5574.711311.9
19666.5716.011911.9
19677.3735.99610.1
196816.5766.212715.8
196928.5897.412310.1
197034.1827.212215.8
197137.1979.411114.0
197240.911311.313116.5
197345.614214.112316.2
197447.824325.710314.5
197528.231243.512120.8
197632.036058.813234.3
197750.442070.017651.8
197861.843169.919051.6
NEW ZEALAND'S OFFICIAL OVERSEAS RESERVES
End of QuarterAssets of N.Z. Banking SystemTreasury-held Overseas SecuritiesOther Government-held Overseas SecuritiesGoldInternational Monetary FundTotal
Reserve PositionSpecial Drawing Rights
NOTE: To take account of exchange rate fluctuations, the New Zealand currency value of official overseas reserves was increased by approximately $14 million in November 1967 and reduced by approximately $98 million at various dates during the year ended March 1973. Downward adjustments of approximately $90 million in September 1973, $49 million in December 1973 and $22 million in March 1974 were also made to record exchange rate fluctuations during the year ended March 1974. Upward adjustments of approximately $34 million, $65 million, and $31 million were made in October 1974, August 1975, and December 1976 respectively.
$(million)
1961—Mar107.077.55.82.0192.3
1962—Mar113.758.15.80.522.5200.5
1963—Mar167.265.05.80.522.5260.9
1964—Mar166.572.65.80.522.5267.8
1965—Mar159.367.118.10.522.5267.5
1966—Mar116.361.512.70.2190.1
1967—Mar116.356.613.10.3186.3
1968—Mar200.376.914.50.2291.8
1969—Mar183.180.515.31.2280.1
1970—Mar204.887.516.10.823.6332.7
            Jun216.887.916.10.823.5345.0
            Sep179.8118.516.10.835.00.3350.5
            Dec128.6117.516.10.745.10.3308.4
1971—Mar172.4117.317.40.745.119.6372.6
            Jun243.9132.817.40.745.119.4459.3
            Sep253.4170.717.40.745.119.4506.7
            Dec244.1146.517.40.745.124.8478.6
1972—Mar331.4186.318.90.745.147.5629.9
            Jun425.2216.218.90.745.151.6757.7
            Sep450.6210.218.90.745.152.1777.5
            Dec435.7209.825.60.745.152.1768.9
1973—Mar561.9235.022.30.745.152.1917.2
            Jun764.3209.122.30.745.151.91,093.5
            Sep656.0199.620.00.745.151.9973.3
            Dec502.1202.522.50.745.151.9824.8
1974—Mar477.1182.121.70.745.151.9778.5
            Jun289.4185.021.70.745.151.7593.6
            Sep324.4174.321.70.70.8521.8
            Dec335.8220.724.20.70.5581.8
1975—Mar281.8230.923.90.74.8542.1
            Jun316.2222.923.90.70.5564.2
            Sep322.4221.126.40.74.8575.4
            Dec290.9224.126.40.74.6546.7
1976—Mar374.2274.026.30.79.7684.8
            Jun299.1239.326.30.76.5571.9
            Sep303.5247.326.30.716.1593.9
            Dec359.3285.323.90.79.8679.0
1977—Mar390.7284.223.90.721.2720.6
            Jun399.3286.723.90.72.524.7737.8
            Sep250.4292.123.90.72.532.7602.2
            Dec257.6258.523.91.62.540.5584.6
1978—Mar471.7424.323.91.613.848.3983.6
            Jun554.4287.323.90.713.854.7934.7
            Sep341.4275.928.90.729.562.8739.2
            Dec292.3175.230.82.527.856.2584.7
1979—Mar424.8264.530.00.743.548.5812.0
            Jun386.1428.933.20.743.539.8932.2
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsDeficitSurplus
From TaxationFrom Other SourcesTotal

*Excludes duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act; $1.9 million in 1958–59, $4.7 million in 1959–60, $2.0 million in 1960–61, $0.8 million in 1961–62, $0.8 million in 1962–63, $0.8 million in 1963–64.

†Includes transfers from Loans Account ($730 million), Reserve Account ($90 million), and Trust Account ($20 million).

$(million)
CONSOLIDATED FUND
192935.711.547.248.41.2...
193039.011.750.750.4...0.3
193137.28.946.149.43.3...
193232.413.145.449.74.3...
193331.213.945.145.1...
193434.112.947.048.41.4...
193540.411.952.349.0...3.3
193643.19.252.351.8...0.6
193753.98.462.361.4...0.9
193863.326.389.688.0...1.6
193964.622.887.485.8...1.6
194065.628.293.893.2...0.6
194168.732.2102.998.5...3.5
194270.338.7109.1105.8...3.3
194372.437.8110.2101.8...8.3
194484.031.1115.1110.7...4.5
194591.428.5119.9117.4...2.4
194696.731.1127.8125.3...2.5
1947181.435.2216.6207.4...9.2
1948192.242.0234.2230.7...3.6
1949202.141.0243.0237.8...5.3
1950207.742.3250.0241.4...8.6
1951244.443.2287.5271.0...16.5
1952313.947.7361.6336.3...25.3
1953308.547.1355.6349.0...6.6
1954312.452.2364.6361.0...3.6
1955325.057.4382.4368.8...13.7
1956334.960.0394.9386.6...8.3
1957345.667.0412.6405.9...6.7
1958317.969.3387.2387.50.3...
1959409.771.1480.8*480.0*...0.8
1960552.976.8629.7*628.4*...1.3
1961474.894.0568.7*567.9*...0.8
1962508.393.0601.3*600.6*...0.6
1963471.5101.8573.3*581.2*7.9...
1964512.6120.6633.2*635.9*2.7...
CONSOLIDATED REVENUE ACCOUNT
1965783.2120.5903.7894.5...9.2
1966852.2122.2974.5970.9...3.5
1967918.8132.51,051.31,050.6...0.7
1968949.4147.31,096.71,095.3...1.4
1969992.1162.51,154.61,146.9...7.7
19701,102.0170.51,282.51,275.1...7.4
19711,363.0203.21,566.21,560.9...5.3
19721,617.3203.41,820.71,812.3...8.4
19731,830.9304.92,135.82,141.05.2...
19742,291.6220.52,512.22,509.8...2.4
19752,760.5285.53,046.13,034.9...11.2
19763,084.0598.53,682.53,684.11.6...
19773,737.5490.34,227.84,225.1...2.7
19784,500.0576.05,076.05,073.8...2.2
CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNT
19794,8301,6886,5186,513...5.2

Note—The figures shown in the above table are not on a comparable basis over the whole period.

GOVERNMENT CURRENT EXPENDITURE ON SOCIAL SERVICES*
Year Ended 31 MarchHealthEducationSocial Security and WelfareWar PensionsTotal

*Excludes capital expenditure.

†Includes hospital boards.

‡Provisional.

$(million)
195771.246.2119.217.9254.5
195878.251.4124.619.6273.8
195983.055.8142.521.9303.2
196089.659.8180.023.2352.6
196197.467.2192.027.4384.0
1962104.071.0196.327.5398.8
1963113.078.8196.528.3416.6
1964121.287.0205.929.7443.8
1965132.099.0210.329.9471.2
1966148.0110.4217.730.5506.6
1967161.7124.4225.430.9542.4
1968168.2136.8244.830.7580.5
1969178.8145.6254.830.8610.0
1970200.1168.4272.032.4672.9
1971238.7214.9301.333.5788.4
1972283.1279.6338.536.1937.3
1973333.8309.1468.540.21,151.6
1974390.1367.2574.244.61,376.1
1975480.9432.6652.850.31,616.6x
1976x589.5499.3838.452.71,979.9
1977668.9572.01,035.967.22,344.0
SOCIAL SERVICES EXPENDITURE (INCLUDING AND EXCLUDING EDUCATION) AS PERCENTAGE OF GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT, AND OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
Year Ended 31 MarchGross National ProductPublic A/c Administrative ExpenditureTotal Social Services ExpenditureSocial Services Expenditure less EducationTotal Social Services Expenditure as Percentage ofSocial Services Expenditure Less Education as Percentage of
Gross National ProductTotal Government ExpenditureGross National ProductTotal Government Expenditure
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)%%%%
19572,061462.9254.5208.312.355.010.145.0
19582,208489.6273.8222.412.455.910.145.4
19592,297527.9303.2247.413.257.410.846.9
19602,463385.4352.6292.814.360.211.950.0
19612,650631.4384.0316.814.560.812.050.2
19622,752654.9398.8327.814.560.911.950.1
19632,953691.2416.6337.814.160.311.448.9
19643,231738.2443.8356.813.760.111.048.3
19653,530802.0471.2372.213.358.810.546.4
19663,823872.1506.6396.213.358.110.445.4
19673,973935.6542.2418.013.758.010.544.7
19684,128966.5580.5443.714.160.110.745.9
19694,3551,031.8610.0464.414.059.110.745.0
19704,8091,142.5672.9504.514.058.910.544.2
19715,5341,346.6788.4573.514.258.510.442.6
19726,4521,579.7937.3657.714.559.310.241.6
19737,4981,907.51,151.6842.515.4x60.4x11.2x44.2
19748,682x2,244.51,376.11,008.9x15.9x61.3x11.6x44.9x
19759,452x2,635.51,616.6x1,184.0x17.1x61.3x12.5x44.9x
197610,914x3,292.01,979.91,480.618.160.113.6x45.0
197712,7863,764.62,344.01,772.018.362.313.947.1
INDEBTEDNESS OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—AMOUNT OF DEBENTURES AND STOCK IN CIRCULATION (Nominal Amounts)
As at 31 MarchDomiciled inTotalPer Head of Population
United States and World BankLondon and Europe, etc.AustraliaNew Zealand
*Provisional.
   NZ$(million) $
1929298.78.3221.4528.4359.80
1930293.28.6233.1534.8359.20
1931309.18.4234.7552.1365.20
1932268.97.8236.8511.5335.30
1933270.45.7236.7512.9333.50
1934269.45.8278.0553.2356.90
1935269.64.4234.9508.8325.90
1936265.03.2244.5512.7325.80
1937261.11.8260.1523.0329.30
1938261.51.$$264.9528.0329.10
1939261.31.$$292.5555.6341.90
1940263.31.8328.3593.4361.70
1941264.41.8380.4646.5395.10
1942255.11.7461.6718.4439.60
1943264.21.7609.4875.3535.60
1944265.91.7733.51,001.1608.90
1945266.21.7806.51,074.5639.60
1946189.11.7945.51,136.3646.80
1947189.11.7966.01,156.8646.40
1948166.41.6988.21,156.2632.50
1949159.91.31,068.81,230.0659.70
1950156.31.31,130.21,287.8676.70
1951155.61,178.81,334.5688.60
1952155.61,151.81,307.3658.70
1953155.61,179.81,335.4655.40
1954175.61,233.21,408.7674.80
1955195.61,261.61,457.2683.80
1956191.61,278.81,470.4675.90
19578.9200.91,304.51,514.2681.70
19587.9199.21,357.11,564.2687.40
195947.1236.61,349.01,633.1702.10
196037.9235.51,415.61,689.0712.60
196137.0216.31,483.01,736.3719.20
196225.1254.01,528.61,807.7730.50
196341.5272.51,620.41,934.3765.18
196441.8279.91,700.02,021.7782.89
196554.3276.51,908.82,139.6813.87
196688.3244.81,922.82,256.0842.78
1967107.3283.42,021.32,412.0884.42
1968170.7329.42,116.52,616.6950.56
1969179.2336.22,261.02,776.5999.74
1970184.2341.62,351.32,887.11,021.71
1971178.6397.82,430.53,007.01,051.06
1972159.4494.12,533.03,186.61,096.55
1973135.1428.92,939.13,503.11,180.75
1974113.3351.93,269.33,734.51,232.07
1975180.1682.63,336.94,199.71,359.17
1976304.91,158.34,094.75,557.91,778.82
1977517.11,309.54,462.66,289.22,002.75x
1978564.71,882.05,037.17,483.82,378.91x
1979483.72,436.45,899.48,819.52,804.65*
FINANCES OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES*
Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsTotal Gross Indebtedness
RevenueOther ReceiptsTotal
From Rates and LeviesFrom Other Sources

*Exclusive of hospital boards.

†Debt up to 1967 shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent. As from 1968 the gross public debt is shown in New Zealand currency only, including overseas debt.

§Excludes Fire Districts, which were taken over by the Fire Service Commission on 1 April 1976.

‡Includes petrol tax $14.9 million in 1971–72, $16.7 million in 1972–73, $18.0 million in 1973–74, $17 $$million in 1974–75, $17.9 million in 1975–76, and $18.1 million in 1976–77.

$(million)
192710.617.214.041.943.5128.0
192811.219.012.042.144.9132.8
192911.718.412.942.942.6138.6
193012.020.711.944.544.1142.4
193111.320.49.741.444.4145.4
193211.018.110.039.140.2144.8
193310.517.09.837.237.8145.0
193411.016.58.536.135.5142.0
193511.017.29.037.237.4142.5
193611.218.09.939.038.7140.8
193712.019.19.440.540.4137.1
193813.121.19.743.944.1136.1
193914.022.613.550.050.2136.4
194014.624.414.553.551.4139.0
194114.725.410.250.349.5136.0
194214.926.07.248.048.1133.2
194315.527.46.149.046.5130.3
194415.629.64.950.047.6126.5
194515.830.15.050.950.4122.5
194617.330.86.454.454.7120.0
194719.133.08.560.661.0115.6
194819.634.410.064.064.9114.2
194921.638.212.372.071.6113.2
195023.340.716.280.279.3112.6
195125.243.416.785.386.5112.2
195229.048.121.398.497.7115.7
195330.855.231.5117.4116.7128.9
195432.864.641.0138.5136.4146.9
195536.570.642.1149.2148.0158.6
195637.876.850.9165.4167.1176.0
195741.379.160.7181.2181.5198.2
195845.484.771.1201.2196.6229.4
195948.897.869.6216.2213.2255.9
196051.5101.783.6236.8231.2287.1
196155.0108.788.1251.8245.0318.8
196258.0118.978.7255.6267.5337.6
196362.4125.596.2284.1286.5370.2
196468.3153.2120.0351.5329.6401.8
196577.2164.0122.7363.8361.1436.2
196680.5176.4119.0375.8387.5461.4
196785.9191.2119.4396.5401.6485.0
196892.4200.2137.3430.0420.7533.5
196999.9223.714$$472.6456.6564.3
1970108.1240.2155.1503.3492.1597.2
1971117.9262.7155.5536.1539.2629.8
1972126.3297.6169.6593.5604.7667.1
1973148.5330.9216.6696.0674.2722.4
1974153.8395.3x274.0x823.1799.8787.4
1975192.2431.6345.7969.5985.8840.9
1976236.6490.5x402.11,129.2x1,139.4933.7
1977§277.8628.1444.91,350.81,291.91,054.0
POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK
Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest Credited to DepositorsTotal Amount of Withdrawals During Year*Excess of Deposits plus Interest over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year

*From January 1958 includes interest paid out on investment accounts; and from October 1969 includes interest paid on National Development Bonds redeemed.

†Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

‡Excludes 15,439 accounts credited with $0.6 million transferred to Apia, Western Samoa.

§Includes School Savings Accounts from 1 April 1964. From 1 October 1969 includes National Development Bonds, and from 1 March 1970 Post Office Bonds.

‖From 1968–69 includes Ordinary National Savings, and School Savings Accounts, with balance dates as at June, and December respectively.

Number $(million)
1928–29828 29654.53.556.21.897.3
1929–30852 75757.13.659.21.698.9
1930–31878 04349.13.556.1–3.595.3
1931–32877 09038.93.250.9–8.886.5
1932–33797 09733.92.939.3–2.484.1
1933–34798 26238.92.535.65.789.7
1934–35817 61748.42.641.99.198.8
1935–36840 67151.22.847.17.0105.8
1936–37880 85761.33.054.110.3116.1
1937–38920 80566.13.359.310.2126.3
1938–39946 82260.93.569.2–4.9121.4
1939–40960 56550.33.258.9–5.4116.0
1940–411,142,79258.53.350.611.2127.2
1941–421,298,48368.43.750.821.3148.5
1942–431,399,89680.33.853.830.3178.8
1943–441,494,136107.94.471.241.0219.8
1944–451,570,586121.35.584.642.2262.1
1945–461,605,981148.66.5114.041.0303.1
1946–471,634,548155.17.5129.333.3336.4
1947–481,652,765157.78.2143.522.4358.8
1948–491,679,692153.68.7142.020.3379.1
1949–501,730,072197.99.7161.646.0425.1
1950–511,760,541189.310.2179.619.9445.0
1951–521,800,709215.610.8198.927.5472.5
1952–531,835,552216.911.4207.620.7493.3
1953–541,868,788237.212.1214.934.4527.7
1954–551,900,649255.712.8243.624.9552.6
1955–561,927,422255.213.3256.412.1564.7
1956–571,971,731279.116.3265.829.4594.1
1957–582,013,664311.717.9291.238.5632.6
1958–592,052,626294.218.5307.45.3637.9
1959–602,084,837326.318.9311.034.1672.0
1960–612,116,675374.620.1350.144.6716.6
1961–622,143,586383.421.0383.720.7736.7
1962–632,190,757409.122.0397.233.9770.6
1963–642,245,339471.623.6442.952.3822.8
1964–652,563,154506.725.1501.730.0855.8§
1965–662,604,058507.825.8521.911.8867.6
1966–672,639,890525.626.0542.09.6877.3
1967–682646 284488.127.2512.42.9879.3
1968–692,677,631487.728.0507.97.8887.1
1969–702,710,202568.528.2561.834.9922.0
1970–712,745,267620.929.6626.424.1946.1
1971–722,769,190663.528.9676.216.$$962.4
1972–732,838,441782.430.5736.576.31,038.7
1973–742,941,206913.031.9843.8101.11,139.8
1974–752,953,893976.634.1963.747.11,186.9
1975–762,937,1101,175.735.31,132.178.91,265.8
1976–773,076,4131,328.138.51,296.670.11,335.9
1977–783,157,0331,558.745.91,495.3109.31,445.1
1978–79 1,977.453.41,858.2172.71,617.8
MORTGAGES AND LAND TRANSFERS
Year Ended 31 MarchMortgagesAverage Rate of Interest On New MortgagesLand Transfers
RegisteredDischargedNumberConsideration
*Land sales restrictions removed in 1950.
 tonnes$(m)$(m)percent$(m)
192866.448.06.4631 14160.3
192967.150.56.4630 76062.3
193077.756.76.3532 11261.7
193160.440.16.2525 62644.1
193226.820.16.2816 94326.4
193318.316.35.8815 38122.0
193415.618.25.5615 76019.1
193523.727.55.0618 62824.4
193632.535.14.7323 04431.2
193739.439.64.6025 17837.7
193838.038.74.6526 26946.7
193940.133.24.5828 96547.3
194035.228.24.6928 05744.2
194132.531.94.6928 82851.5
194229.130.24.7328 20746.5
194324.333.44.7227 65748.3
194431.240.14.6333 70176.3
194536.242.04.5133 28464.9
194645.046.64.1038 06076.7
194762.251.93.8542 99489.9
194864.150.83.9048 80180.9
194970.646.83.9836 56476.8
195072.046.23.9939 05881.3
1951*91.664.54.0957 938158.7
1952135.974.54.1556 609218.3
1953147.462.84.2948 378201.4
1954140.872.04.4952 615228.8
1955169.282.34.6956 571273.4
1956192.570.74.7649 100241.9
1957182.475.45.0945 334229.4
1958199.192.25.2450 573279.4
1959217.188.85.1549 153255.2
1960239.0102.35.0152 855285.4
1961300.8136.65.0161 412375.6
1962331.5133.85.2757 813360.1
1963295.1135.65.5153 566336.3
1964339.8168.85.7059 836419.9
1965420.0206.85.7869 548536.2
1966487.7230.06.0771 508592.6
1967493.4239.36.3168 639589.2
1968467.8236.16.6463 925541.8
1969482.3260.96.7465 655576.5
1970573.9328.16.7772 624724.4
1971703.0376.56.8883 610918.9
1972759.8415.87.4086 042985.4
1973940.7510.57.58x105 1931,339.9
19741,301.7672.97.86x125 7962,133.0
19751,477.2601.58.2596 8472,135.1
19761,612.4654.18.6198 0032,202.8
19771,870.1863.49.85x101 9682,691.6
19781,809.7851.510.3085 7052,538.6
19792,164.1  91 2292,964.6
BANKRUPTCIES AND NEW COMPANY REGISTRATIONS
YearBankruptciesNew Company Registrations*
Number of BankruptciesAmount Realised by Official AssigneeAmount of Debts ProvedNumber of New RegistrationsAmount of Nominal Capital

*Public, private, and overseas.

†The extraordinarily high figure for 1934 is due to the inclusion of all overseas companies (numbering 187 with an aggregate nominal capital of $386 million) which had previous to 1934 established places of business in New Zealand and which were reregistered in 1934 under Part XII of the Companies Act 1933.

‡Since 1954 company liquidations are included in the total.

  $(000)$(000) $(m)
1928806233.21,534.673622.0
1929687182.41,004.290324.9
1930780166.61,654.789313.4
1931848217.62,084.479516.6
1932661151.31,249.881213.7
1933450123.4979.883014.6
193432689.1517.8933401.5
193525782.1451.081048.5
193626066.0339.794219.9
1937222111.9343.488812.2
1938267129.0460.982413.2
193926788.3451.068117.8
194021384.8250.63917.6
194116570.9142.028822.5
19428259.564.51981.9
19434537.840.12703.1
19445126.9102.14643.0
19454537.1236.47416.8
19465241.997.01 43522.1
19477431.189.51 81319.2
1948148100.6286.61 75117.4
194917976.8406.32 15716.0
195014298.5251.82 07420.4
195114596.5273.62 02025.6
1952168112.5502.31 74466.8
1953215144.3762.02 04186.1
1954277165.1826.92 68555.5
1955304224.8764.62 69536.7
1956390261.11,095.53 25541.2
1957437360.71,564.53 502161.1
1958495369.61,638.33 03461.5
1959618389.81,510.42 73794.2
1960495331.21,337.83 76774.0
1961425303.61,415.83 56771.7
1962591446.12,138.43 35145.1
1963566441.11,660.34 16574.1
1964507325.51,784.95 05490.0
1965507335.62,337.55 56385.8
1966507378.52,033.55 609187.3
1967652373.92,312.24 829102.7
1968820487.23,743.55 010190.1
1969659746.53,743.56 403286.6
1970596466.53,660.16 431282.9
1971477604.43,471.75 490359.0
1972461698.54,138.56 5474,271.1
1973329783.02,991.08 837249.4
1974324606.03,009.07 749471.8
19754871,041.09,122.07 815104.6
1976459x1,392.09,541.06 366...
19776261,564.014,314.05 292...
19787922,860.017,410.45 473...

Chapter 43. CHRONOLOGY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS

NOTEWORTHY EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND

1642 European discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769 Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1791 Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792 First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1814 Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity, Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1820 Hongi's visit to England.

1823–28 Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1825 First attempt at colonisation, by an expedition under Captain Herd.

1827 Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1831 Tory Channel whaling station established. Application of 13 chiefs for the protection of King William IV.

1833 Mr James Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834 Waimate Pa, near Opunake, shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which HM troops employed in New Zealand.

1835 Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of “United Tribes of New Zealand”. Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1838 Pelorus Sound discovered.

1839 Governor of New South Wales authorised to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840 Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841 Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842 Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843 Affray with Maoris at Wairau.

1844 Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845 Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846 Arrival of first steam vessel (HMS Driver) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Maori hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847 Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848 Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Otago founded.

1850 Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852 Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854 Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855 First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government.

Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856 Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857 Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858 New Provinces Act passed.

1860 Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861 Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovery at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862 Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s. White Swan, with loss of many public records.

First electric-telegraph line opened—Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863 Wreck of HMS Orpheus on Manukau Bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Maori affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand, portion of Christchurch-Lyttelton line, opened.

1864 Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including battles of Rangiaowhia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. First major discovery of gold on West Coast of South Island.

1865 Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Maoris defeated at Wairoa.

1866 Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

1867 Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868 Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner Rifleman and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Maoris.

1869 Continuation of fighting with rebels and pursuit of Te Kooti. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870 Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail service. Possession taken of Bounty Island. Inauguration of Vogel public works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University.

1871 Commencement of railway construction under public works policy.

1872 Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873 Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Co.

1874 In pursuance of immigration and public works policy, 31 774 assisted immigrants arrived.

1875 Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company.

1876 New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877 Education Act passed, providing for free compulsory education.

1878 Completion of the Christchurch-Invercargill railway.

1879 Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata coal mine explosion, whereby 34 lives lost.

1881 Wreck of s.s. Tararua, with loss of 130 lives.

1882 First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883 Direct steamer communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1886 Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887 Annexation of Kermadec Islands.

1888 British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1890 Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1892 Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure.

1893 Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Prime Minister. Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. Wairarapa, with loss of 135 lives.

1896 Brunner Mine explosion, causing 67 deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898 Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899 Labour Day instituted. New Zealand contingent (the first of 10) sent to South Africa.

1901 Penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902 Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. Elingamite, with loss of 43 lives.

1903 Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1905 Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to “High Commissioner”.

1906 Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier. Advances to Workers Act passed.

1907 New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908 Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland.

1909 S.s Penguin wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of 75 lives. Battle cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910 Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provide$$ Fund Act passed.

1911 Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912 Public Service placed under Commissioner control.

1913 Extensive strikes

1914 Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal mine disaster, with loss of 43 lives.

1915 New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operation on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. Pensions for miners introduced.

1916 New Zealand Division transferred to Western Front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918 S.s Wimmera sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast, with loss of 26 lives. Otira Tunnel pierced. End of First World War. Great influenza epidemic, causing nearly 7000 deaths.

1919 Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, Prime Minister.

1920 Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921 Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate.

1922 Meat-export trade placed under control of a board.

1923 Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed, and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Dairy Produce Export Control Act passed.

1924 Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor Vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licencing of motor vehicles. Pensions for blind persons introduced. S.s Ripple foundered off Cape Palliser with loss of 16 lives.

1925 Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand.

1926 Family allowances Act passed.

1928 Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman Sea.

1929 Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused 17 deaths.

1930 Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed.

1931 Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 percent in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Mortgagors' relief legislation passed.

1932 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rentals, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference.

1933 Exchange rate raised to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (telegraphic transfers). Sales tax instituted. Conversion of internal public debt with reduction in interest rates, and provision made for local authorities interest reduction and loans conversion. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England.

1934 First official trans-Tasman airmail. Reserve Bank incorporated and commenced business. First licensed air transport service commenced operations.

1935 Rural Mortgagors' Final Adjustment Act passed, and Court of Review established. Labour Government assumed office for first of four successive terms.

1936 Inauguration of inter-Island trunk air services. Reserve Bank nationalised. System of basic prices for butter and cheese introduced. Forty-hour week became operative. Powers of Court of Arbitration restored.

1938 Social Security Act passed. Introduction of import selection and control.

1939 Declaration of war with Germany. Recruitment for 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Arrangements for purchase of farm products by Britain.

1940 Departure of First Echelon of 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Death of the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage; succeeded in office by Hon. P. Fraser. Declaration of war with Italy. RMS Niagara sunk off New Zealand coast by enemy mine.

1941 Declaration of war with Japan. Territorial Forces mobilised.

1942 Complete mobilisation of Military Forces ordered. Introduction of control of industrial manpower. Compulsory enrolment of all male British subjects between ages of 18 and 65 inclusive, in Emergency Reserve Corps. Lend-lease reciprocal aid extended to include Australia and New Zealand. Rationing introduced. Mobilisation of women for essential work.

1943 North African campaign brought to a successful conclusion. Railway accident near Hyde—21 persons killed. 2nd NZEF (3rd Division) took part in action against Japanese in the Pacific Area.

1944 Australia-New Zealand Agreement 1944, providing for collaboration on matters of mutual interest.

1945 War in Europe ended (8 May). Manpower controls in regard to women and young persons relaxed. Wartime press censorship abolished. War Cabinet dissolved. War in Pacific ended. Japan formally surrenders (15 August). Electoral Amendment Act providing for abolition of the “country quota” passed. South Island Main Trunk Railway opened, through rail connection from Picton to Bluff established.

1946 Restrictions on consumption of electric power imposed in North Island. Remaining manpower controls lifted in June. Family benefit of $1 per week made universal as from 1 April.

1947 Local Government Commission appointed. First woman Cabinet Minister in New Zealand appointed. Marketing of dairy produce taken over by Dairy Commission. Statute of Westminster adopted by New Zealand Parliament.

1948 Licensing Control Commission appointed. Adjustments of exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20 August.

1949 Polls on the establishment of off-course betting and on an alteration in hotel hours held in March. Referendum agrees to compulsory military training.

1950 Control of land sales, except of farm land, lifted. Control of sterling funds and securities relaxed. Abolition of petrol and butter rationing. Legislative Council Abolition Act passed. K-force sailed from Wellington for Korea.

1951 Prolonged waterfront strike resulted in proclamation of State of Emergency, and issue of regulations under the Public Safety Conservation Act. Servicemen kept essential cargoes moving. Waterfront unions deregistered. Establishment of Civil Emergency Reserve. United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed Pacific Security Treaty.

1952 Accession of Queen Elizabeth II.

1953 Power restrictions suspended in North Island, first time for 12 years. Armistice agreement signed in Korea. New Zealand's worst railway disaster occurred at Tangiwai on Christmas Eve, with a death roll of 154 persons. Arrival of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, on 23 December, the first occasion on which a reigning monarch had visited these shores.

1954 New Zealand took seat on United Nations Security Council. The Executive Council and Cabinet held meetings at Auckland on 25 May to mark the centenary of parliamentary government in New Zealand. New Zealand signed the South-east Asia Treaty at Manila.

1955 Pulp and paper mill at Kawerau began operation. Rimutaka tunnel opened for traffic in November.

1956 Roxburgh and Whakamaru power stations in operation. Colombo Plan Conference held in Wellington.

1957 New Zealand Antarctic Expedition established Scott Base at Pram Point, McMurdo Sound. Separate Court of Appeal constituted.

1958 Import selection and exchange allocation brought into force to conserve overseas exchange. PAYE taxation on incomes introduced. Power generated from geothermal steam at Wairakei and from coal station at Mercer.

1959 Auckland Harbour Bridge opened (May). Reconstructed Wellington Airport opened for traffic (July). S.s. Holmglen foundered off Timaru with loss of 15 lives. Twelve nations, including New Zealand, signed treaty to preserve Antarctica for peaceful scientific research for all time.

1960 Government signed agreement for company to use power from Te Anau-Manapouri Lakes system for large aluminium smelting industry. Regular television programmes began in Auckland.

1961 Tasman Empire Airways became wholly owned by New Zealand (later renamed Air New Zealand). New Zealand joined International Monetary Fund, International Bank For Reconstruction and Development, and International Finance Corporation.

1962 Western Samoa became first independent Polynesian State. Cook Strait rail-ferry service commenced with Aramoana. New Tasman cable link completed as part of Commonwealth Pacific cable.

1964 Three Cook Strait cables, each of 25 miles, laid as part of inter-Island transmission project. Start made on Tongariro hydro-electric power scheme. Oil refinery opened at Whangarei.

1965 Limited free trade agreement negotiated with Australia. Cook Islands became self-governing. Auckland International Airport came into use. Jet airliners (three DC8s) obtained by Air New Zealand. Haast Pass highway opened to link south Westland and Otago. Millionth telephone installed.

1966 Labour force reached 1,000,000. Licensed television sets reached 500 000. Collier Kaitawa sank off Cape Reinga with loss of 29 lives.

1967 Matahina electric power station brought into operation. Explosion at Strongman mine caused 19 deaths. Decimal currency introduced on 10 July ($2 equal to former unit of £).

1968 SEATO Conference held in Wellington. T.e.v. Wahine foundered in Wellington Harbour in severe storm with loss of 51 lives. Jet planes introduced in internal air services.

1969 Electric power generated from giant Manapouri project. Construction of aluminium smelter at Invercargill commenced. First output from steel mill at Glenbrook. Construction of thermal power station at New Plymouth commenced. Oil strike off shore at Taranaki. Voting rights extended to 20-year old persons.

1970 Council for Asian and Pacific Co-operation (ASPAC) met in Wellington. Physical Environment Conference held. Natural gas from Kapuni supplied to Auckland.

1971 Negotiations by Britain with members of European Economic Community secure New Zealand's position by special arrangement for her butter and cheese exports to the United Kingdom; Britain decides to join EEC in 1973 and later signs Treaty of Accession. First container ships loaded at Wellington and Auckland. Major shipments of ironsand to Japan from Taranaki coast. Bluff aluminium smelter in commercial operation and first exports made. All seven generators installed at Manapouri hydro-electric station. Silver Star express introduced on North Island main trunk line. Natural gas reticulation to Wellington completed. Introduction of first steps of metric conversion for weights and measures.

1972 Special measures for stabilisation of remuneration and prices. Sheep retention scheme payments. Containerised shipping service in operation from Auckland and Wellington to United Kingdom and Europe. Legislation passed for Wool Marketing Corporation, Equal Pay, and Accident Compensation. Labour Government assumed office under Right Hon. N. E. Kirk.

1973 Britain joins European Economic Community. Wool Marketing Corporation established. Farm income equalisation scheme extended. Trade negotiations with China; embassy opened in Peking. Extension of trade with Peru, Brazil and Chile. New Zealand becomes member of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). First DC10 jet aircraft in service with Air New Zealand Agreement reached for development of Maui field of natural gas off shore from Taranaki. Timber and pulp mill opened at Whirinaki, Napier. New Zealand currency placed on “near float arrangement” of relationships with major trading partners. Revaluations of 3 percent and 10 percent. Colour television introduced. First step of Equal Pay Act in effect. Industrial Relations Act passed. New Zealand Shipping Corporation established. Construction of 100-megawatt Rangipo hydro-power station and 550-megawatt Huntly coal-fired power station approved.

1974 Tenth British Commonwealth Games held in Christchurch. New Plymouth thermal power station in operation and projects approved during the year include three hydro stations, two thermal stations, and more gas turbines. Revised Customs Tariff introduced on 1 July in metric measure. State Shipping Corporation places order for container ship. Fourth Cook Strait rail-ferry brought into service. Self-government granted to Niue after referendum. Death of the Prime Minister, Right Hon. N. E. Kirk; succeeded in office by Right Hon. W. E. Rowling. Severe fall in overseas reserves. Shah and Empress of Iran visited New Zealand; trade agreement signed.

1975 New measures to assist fanners included $50 million for meat and wool income stabilisation schemes, increase in lamb prices of $1 on each lamb sold to export works, minimum wool prices, and suspension of meat inspection fees. Further Government participation in off-shore oil exploration announced. New trade deals established with Middle-East countries, Japan, and U.S.S.R. (Jul) New Zealand's terms of trade reached lowest level since the Second World War. (Aug) New Zealand dollar devalued by 15 percent. (Oct) Permanent stabilisation scheme for meat prices announced. Conversion of New Plymouth power station from oil to natural gas under way. Continued oil conservation measures introduced, including steep petrol price rises. Sharp rise in wool shipping freight rates. National Government, under Right Hon. R. D. Muldoon, assumed office.

1976 In February, cuts in food subsidies and in subsidies on electricity, rail charges, and Post Office charges resulted in substantial price increases. (Mar) Government review of monetary and housing policies resulted (among other things) in a tightening-up of hire purchase terms and higher interest rates on savings. (Apr) Subsidies on bread and flour abolished. Mini-budget abolished subsidies on eggs and butter and made cuts in Government spending. (Jun) Cost-of-living wage order of 7 percent or $7 per week, whichever was less, issued. E.E.C. set import quotas for New Zealand butter in the years 1978–80 of 125 000 tonnes, 120 000 tonnes, and 115 000 tonnes. Rail freight charges raised. (Jul) Wool Income Stabilisation Scheme introduced. (Aug) Price and rent freeze until end of year introduced. New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement extended for further 10 years. Controversy over New Zealand's sporting links with South Africa resulted in African nations walk-out at Olympic Games in Montreal. (Oct-Nov) Rises in freight rates for New Zealand exports. Inflation continued as major problem throughout the year. (Nov) New Zealand dollar devalued by 7 percent following Australian devaluation of 17.5 percent. (Dec) New Zealand dollar revalued by 2 percent in wake of Australian revaluation. Storm caused severe flooding in Hutt Valley.

1977 The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh visited New Zealand in February as part of the Silver Jubilee celebrations. Also in February the new national superannuation scheme came into operation. (March) General Wage Order of six percent announced. New Zealand Planning Council formed. (May) Announcement that merger of Wool Board and Wool Marketing Corporation was to proceed. Report of the Royal Commission on Contraception, Sterilisation, and Abortion published. (June) Commonwealth Heads of Government Conference sponsored Gleneagles agreement on sporting contacts with South Africa. (July) Budget included announcement that future energy policy will include on-shore oil exploration by the Government, continued Government involvement with oil companies in off shore exploration, and an increase in exploratory and development work on coal and geothermal steam resources. (September) Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act passed, establishing 200-mile-wide economic zone around New Zealand coast. (October) Act passed establishing Ministry of Energy, combining functions of Mines Department, Electricity Department, and Ministry of Energy Resources. Mildly stimulatory mini-Budget announced. Difficult economic conditions, with inflation as a major problem and an increasing problem of unemployment, continued throughout year. There were also continued population losses from net migration.

1978 Merger of New Zealand Wool Board and New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation came into effect on 7 February. Also in February, severe drought hit farmers in Wairarapa. (April) Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977 in force; Foreign fishing boats required to be licensed to operate within 200-mile limit. National Airways Corporation merged with Air New Zealand. Hire purchase restrictions eased on TV sets and motor vehicles. (June) Budget included major changes in personal tax rates, increased financial assistance to farming industry, and additional energy policy measures. (July) Registered unemployed topped 25 000. Arbitration Court made general wage order of 7 percent on first $100 of weekly income. (August) At Commonwealth Games at Edmonton (Canada), New Zealand won 5 gold, 6 silver, and 9 bronze medals. (September) Japan and New Zealand signed fishing agreement. Government approved programme for large-scale production of methanol from Maui gas by 1985–86 to cut oil imports. (Oct) Widespread floods in Southland. (Nov) National party retains power at General Election with greatly reduced majority. Another year of difficult economic conditions with relatively high unemployment and continuing population losses from net emigration.

Chapter 44. Select Bibliography New Zealand Books

Compiled in the Alexander Turnbull Library, National Library, Wellington

The following list of books has been compiled to give New Zealand and overseas readers a selective approach to the country's literature and sources of information. Entries are arranged alphabetically under appropriate subject headings which are in approximate order of the Dewey Classification. Selection has covered books published in New Zealand as well as books published overseas about New Zealand. Works of less than 75 pages have been indicated by an asterisk.

The New Zealand National Bibliography, published monthly and cumulated annually, lists books, pamphlets, music, maps, periodicals, and selected non-book materials. It is prepared in the Alexander Turnbull Library, and available from the National Library of New Zealand, Private Bag, Wellington.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY, AND ENCYCLOPAEDIAS

Bagnall, A. G., ed. New Zealand National Bibliography to the Year 1960. Wn, Govt. Print., 1890–1960. 3 v. A–H $10; I–O $13.50; P–Z $22.50.

The Dunmore Bookof New Zealand Records, edited by P. Dunmore. Palmerston North, Dunmore Press, 1977. $8.95.

Encyclopaediaof New Zealand, edited by A. H. McLintock. Wn, Govt. Print., 3 v. o.p. $15.

Fair, A. P. R. Guide to Book Values, New Zealand - Australia - Pacific - Antarctic; Book Auction Records 1971–1974. Wn, the author, 1975. $5.

Fischer, B. Guide to New Zealand Book Collecting and Handbook of Values. Dn, City Publishers, 1977. $15.95.

Guideto New Zealand Information Sources. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1975. Bibliographies have been published on Plants and animals, Farming, field and horticultural crops and Education.

Heinemann New Zealand Dictionary, edited by H. W. Orsman. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1979. $9.95.

Hocken, T. M. A. A. Bibliography of the Literature Relating to New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1909. o.p. Reprinted. Wn, Newrick Associates, 1973. $20.

New Zealand Associations, Societies, Clubs; A National Directory. Wn, The Library, Victoria University of Wellington. 1977. $3.

New Zealand Booksin Print 1976. Wn, New Zealand Book Publishers Association, 1976. $9.95.

New Zealand Library Association. Bibliography of New Zealand Bibliographies. Wn, 1967.

Oxford New Zealand Encyclopaedia. London. O.U.P., 1965. o.p.

Rodger, D. M. Theses on the History of New Zealand. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1968–72. 4 v.

Taylor, C. R. H. A Bibliography of Publications on the New Zealand Maori, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1972. $3.50.

——— A Pacific Bibliography. 2nd ed. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. o.p.

Union Catalogueof New Zealand Newspapers Preservedin Public Libraries, Newspaper Offices, and Local Authority Offices. 2nd ed. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1961. $1.30.

Union Listof Serialsin New Zealand Libraries. 3rd ed. Wn, National Library of New Zealand, 1969–70. 6 v. $25. Interim edition on microfiche. 1976. $45.

Union Listof Thesesofthe Universityof New Zealand, 1910–1954. Wn, New Zealand Library Association, 1956. o.p. Supplement, 1955–1962. $1.25. Supplement, 1963–1967. $4. Supplement, 1968–1971. $4. Supplement, 1971–1975. $9. See also Rodger above.

*Wilson, J. O. A. Finding List of British Parliamentary Papers Relating to New Zealand, 1817–1900. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1960. $1.

*Wood, G. A. A Guide for Students of New Zealand History. Dn, McIndoe, 1973.

SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Adolescencein New Zealand; A Book of Readings. Editor Robert A. C. Stewart. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1976. 2 v. $7.50 each.

* Alternativesto Anzus, edited by R. Phillips. Ak, New Zealand Foundation for Peace Studies, 1977. $1.

Burnett, A. A. and R. Burnett. The Australia and New Zealand Nexus. Canberra, Australian Institute of International Affairs, 1978. $5.

Clark, K. J. The Two-way Street; A Survey of Volunteer Service Abroad. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research. 1978, $8.

Cleveland, L. The Anatomy of Influence; Pressure Groups and Politics in New Zealand. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1972. $3.85.

Cleveland, L. The Politics of Utopia; New Zealand and its Government. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1979. $12.95.

Contemporary New Zealand. Essays on the Human Resources, Urban Growth, and Problems of Society, edited by K.W. Thomson and A. D. Trlin. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1973, $10.40.

*Dollimore, H. N. The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliament House. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973. 90c.

Energyandthe Environment, edited by D. M. Adcock. Wn, New Zealand institute of Public-Administration, 1975. $4.50.

Familiesin New Zealand Society, edited by P. G. Koopman-Boyden. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. $2.95.

Foreign Policy School, 12th, University of Otago, 1977. New Zealand Foreign Policy and Defence, 12–15 May, 1977. edited by E. Olssen and W. W. Webb. Dn, University of Otago, 1977.

Glynn, J. F. The New Zealand Policeman; The Developing Role of New Zealand Police. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1975. $4.25.

Grimshaw, P. Women's Suffrage in New Zealand. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $5.25.

Gustafson, B. S. Social Change and Party Organization; The New Zealand Labour Party Since 1945. London, Sage, 1976. £1.50.

Hill, L. B. The Model Ombudsman; Institutionalising New Zealand's Democratic Experiment. Princeton, N. J., Princeton University Press, 1976. US$16.50.

Industrial Relationsin New Zealand, by John Deeks and others. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. $13.95.

Jones, T. C. A Hard-won Freedom; Alternative Communities in New Zealand. Ak, Hodder & Stoughton, 1975. Hbk: $8.95. Pbk: $5.95.

Julian, R. Brought to Mind; A Study of Informal Family Day Care in Four Geographical Areas in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1977. $7.50.

Maclean, F. S. Challenge for Health; A History of Public Health in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $3.50.

N.Z. Dept. of Labour. Research and Planning Division. Immigration and Immigrants; A bibliography. Wn, Dept. of Labour, 1975.

New Zealand Foreign Policy; Occasional Papers, 1973–74. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1975. 75c.

New Zealand Foreign Policy; Statements and Documents, 1943–1957. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $9.

New Zealandin World Affairs, Vol. I. Wn, Price Milburn for the New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1977. Hbk: $8.50. Pbk: $4.50.

New Zealand Parliamentary Record, 1840–1949, edited by G. H. Scholefield. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. $3.50. Supplement 1950–1969, edited by J. O. Wilson. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969.

New Zealand Society; Contemporary Perspectives, edited by S. D. Webb and J. Collette. Sydney, J. Wiley, 1973.

New Zealand Planning Council; Planning Perspectives, 1978–1983. Wn, New Zealand Planning Council, 1978. $3.25.

New Zealand, South Africaand Sport, Background Papers. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1976. $1.

N.Z. Task Forceon Economicand Social Planning. New Zealand at the Turning Point. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $4.50.

Pacific Horizons. A Regional Role for New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1972. $2.

Policiesfor Regional Developmentin New Zealand, ed. by G. A. Town. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1972. $2.50.

Politicsin New Zealand, A Reader, edited by S. Levine. Sydney, Allen & Unwin, 1978. Hbk: $17.50. Pbk: $9.95.

Roth, H. O. Trade Unions in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

Social Classin New Zealand, edited by David Pitt. Ak, Longman Paul. 1977. Hbk: $6.95. Pbk: $4.50.

Social Welfareand New Zealand Society, edited by A. D. Trlin. Wn, Methuen, 1977. $12.95.

Spiritofan Age, New Zealand in the Seventies. Essays in honour of W. B. Sutch, edited by John L. Robson and Jack Shallcrass. Wn, Reed. 1975. $7.50.

Thompson, R. H. T. Retreat From Apartheid: New Zealand's Sporting Contacts with South Africa. Wn, Oxford University Press, 1975. $3.10.

Urbanisationin New Zealand; Geographical Essays, edited by R. J. Johnson. Wn, Reed Education, 1973. Hbk: $10.50. Pbk: $6.95.

The Welfare State Today, edited by Geoffrey Palmer. Wn, Fourth Estate Books. 1977. $19.50.

Woods, N. S. Industrial Relations; A Search for Understanding. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975. $4.65.

ECONOMICS AND BANKING

Blyth, C. A. Inflation in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, 1977. $3.95.

Burtt, D. J. Trans-Tasman Development and Trade. Wn. New Zealand Institute of Economic-Research, 1977. $3.

Carey, R. H., and F. W. Holmes. A Preliminary Bibliography of New Zealand Economics and Economic History. Wn, Victoria University of Wellington, 1967. o.p.

Equity Investment, 1978–79; A Ten Year Review of New Zealand and Selected Australian Companies Listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges. Wn, Berl Publications, 1978.

Figge, A. H. Introduction to Economic Policies in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn. Butterworth, 1972. $5.

Foreign Investment Policyin New Zealand, edited by R. H. Carey. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1975. $4.50.

Franklin, S. H. Trade, Growth and Anxiety; New Zealand Beyond the Welfare State. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. Hbk: $29.95. Pbk: $24.95.

Greensmith, E. I. The New Zealand Wool Commission. Wn, New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation, 1976.

Hawke, G. R. Between Governments and Banks; A History of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973.

Holmes, F. W. Money, Finance, and the Economy. Ak, Heinemann, 1972. $4.95.

Johnston, T. R. The Law and Practice of Company Accounting in New Zealand. 4th ed. Wn. Butterworth, 1972. $17.50.

Lane, P. A. Economy in the Balance; An Introduction to the New Zealand Economy. Wn, Methuen, 1976. $5.25.

Lloyd Prichard, M. F. An Economic History of New Zealand to 1939. Ak, Collins, 1970. $8.

——— Economic Practice in New Zealand, 1954/55–1967/68. Ak, Collins, 1970. $5.60.

Marris, E. C. New Zealand Investment Guide. Rev. ed. Wn, N.Z. Financial Times Publishers, 1976. $4.50.

N.Z. Committeeof Enquiryinto Inflation Accounting. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $1.75.

New Zealand Departmentof Industriesand Commerce. Investment in New Zealand; A Ready Reference for the Overseas Investor. Rev. ed. Wn, 1972. gratis.

Oliver, H. M. Printing and Publishing in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Economic Research, 1976. $2.

Organisationfor Economic Co-operationand Development. New Zealand. Paris, O.E.C.D., 1979. $3.20.

Rosenberg, W. Money in New Zealand; Banking, Credit and Inflation. Wn, Reed Education, 1973.

Sutch, W. B. Takeover New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1972. $3.50.

LAW

Brooks, B. T. The Practice of Industrial Relations in New Zealand. Ak. Commerce Clearing House (New Zealand), 1978. $16.75.

Doyle, M. W. Criminal Procedure in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1978. $8.95.

Duncan, P. C. The Layman and the Law in New Zealand. Rev. ed. Wn, J. McGregor, 1976. $1.95.

Essayson Criminal Lawin New Zealand, edited by R. S. Clark. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1971. Hbk: $8.50. Pbk: $6.

Holden, A. C. Family Law and You. Dn, McIndoe, 1978. $2.50.

The Matrimonial Property Act 1976, papers presented at the Legal Research Foundation Inc. seminar, 2nd February 1977. Ak, Auckland University Legal Research Foundation, 1977. $5.

Mulholland, B. D. Introduction to the New Zealand Legal System. 2nd rev. ed. Wn, Butterworth. 1976. Hbk: $13. Pbk: $11.

N.Z. Commissionforthe Environment. A Guide to Environmental Law in New Zealand. Wn, Commission for the Environment, 1976. $2.50.

New Zealand Laws, Statutes, Etc. Reprint of the Statutes of New Zealand, 1908–57. Wn. Govt. Print., 1958–1961. 16 v. $11.75 ea.

New Zealand Royal Commissiononthe Courts. Report of the Royal Commission on the Courts, 1978. Wn, Govt. Print., 1978. $5.80.

Northey, J. F. Index to New Zealand Legal Writing. Ak, Legal Research Foundation, 1977. Annual supplements also published.

O'Keefe, J. A. B. Introduction to New Zealand Law. 3rd ed. Wn, Butterworths, 1976. Hbk: $20. Pbk: $17.50.

Womenandthe Lawin New Zealand, edited by K. Turner and P. Vaver. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975. $3.60.

EDUCATION

Advisory Councilon Educational Planning. Directions for Educational Development. Wn, 1974. $2.25.

Artin Schools; The New Zealand Experience. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1978. $14.25.

Barrington, J. M. and T. H. Beaglehole. Maori Schools in a Changing Society, An Historical Review. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1974. $8.

Campbell, W. J. Realities of Teacher Development. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1977. Gratis.

Compulsory Educationin New Zealand. A Study Initiated by the National Commission for Unesco. Rev. ed., prepared by J. L. Ewing. Paris, Unesco, 1969. $1.90.

Cumming, I. and A. Cumming. History of State Education in New Zealand, 1840–1975. Wn, Pitman, 1978. $17.95.

Educationandthe Equalityofthe Sexes; Conference on Women and Education sponsored by the Committee on Women and the Department of Education, 23–27 November 1975, Victoria University of Wellington. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1976. Gratis.

Fitzgerald, T. K. Education and Identity; A Study of the New Zealand Maori Graduate. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1977. $8.

Forwardto Basics, edited by J. Shallcrass. Wn, New Zealand Education Institute, 1978. $9.95.

Gadd, D. B. H. Cultural Difference in the Classroom; The Special Needs of Maoris in Pakeha Schools. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1976. $2.

Issuesin New Zealand Special Education, edited by S. J. Havill and D. R. Mitchell. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton in association with University of London Press, 1972. $4.80.

McDonald, G. Maori Mothers and Pre-school Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1973. $4.

McLaren, I. A. Education in a Small Democracy, New Zealand. London, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1974. £3.25.

New Zealand Committeeon Healthand Social Education. Growing, Sharing, Learning; The report of the Committee on Health and Social Education. 2nd ed. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1978. $3.

New Zealand Committeeon Secondary Education. Towards Partnership. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1976. $2.80.

New Zealand Deptof Education. Education and the Equality of the Sexes; a list of resources. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1978. Gratis.

New Zealand Early Childhood Careand Development Convention. 1st, Christchurch, 1975. Early Childhood in New Zealand, edited by B. O'Rourke and J. Clough. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1978. $11.95.

New Zealand Post-Primary Teachers Association. Curriculum Review Group. Education in Change; report ... Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $2.50.

New Zealand Research Committeeon Open Plan Schools. Report on Open Plan Education in New Zealand Primary Schools. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1977. $3.25.

Outdoor Education. Wn, New Zealand Educational Institute, 1978. $12.95.

Policiesfor Participation; Trends in Educational Administration in Australia and New Zealand, edited by J. E. Watson. Wn, New Zealand Educational Administration Society, 1977. $7.

Ramsay, P. D. K. and others. The Family and the School in New Zealand Society; An Introduction to the Sociology of New Zealand Education. Carlton, Vic., Pitman, 1975. $7.75.

Ritchie, J. Chance to be Equal. Whatamongo Bay, Cape Catley, 1978. Hbk: $8.95. Pbk: $4.95.

Roth, H. O. A Bibliography of New Zealand Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1964. $2.25.

Seminaron Aspectsof Tertiary Education, Wellington, 1968. Trends and Issues in Higher Education; seven papers presented at a seminar organized by the Association of University Teachers of New Zealand ... Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research and the Association of University Teachers of New Zealand, 1970. $2.40.

Williams, B. M. Structures and Attitudes in New Zealand Adult Education, 1945–75. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1978. $10.

THE MAORI PEOPLE, PAST AND PRESENT

Te Ao Hurihuri; The World Moves On; Aspects of Maoritanga, edited by M. King. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975, reprinted 1977. Pbk: $6.95.

Best, E. Forest Lore of the Maori. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1942. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $17.95.

——— Games and Pastimes of the Maori. Wn, Board of Maori Ethnological Research for the Dominion Museum, 1924. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $17.

——— The Maori as He Was. Wn, Dominion Museum, 1924. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $6.50.

Biggs, B. G. Let's Learn Maori; a Guide to the Study of the Maori language. Wn, Reed, 1975. $3.50.

Bigwood, K. V., and H. Dansey. The Maori in Colour. Wn, Reed, 1976. $8.50.

Buck, Sir P. The Coming of the Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1974. $4.75.

Clark, P. J. A. Hauhau; The Pai Marire Search for Maori Identity. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975. $9.40.

Concise Maori Handbook; compiled by A. W. Reed. Wn, Reed. 1978. $7.50.

Conflictand Compromise; Essays on the Maori Since Colonization. Wn, Reed, 1975. $5.50.

Duff, R. S. The Moa-hunter Period of Maori Culture, 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $17.50.

Firth, R. W. Economics of the New Zealand Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $7.

Main, W. Maori in Focus. Wn, Millwood Press, 1976. $9.95.

Maoriis My Name; Historical Maori Writings in Translation, edited by John Caselberg. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. Hbk: $6.50. Pbk: $3.95.

The Maori Peopleinthe Nineteen Sixties, A Symposium edited by E. G. Schwimmer. Ak, Longman Paul, 1972. $9.95.

Metge, J. The Maoris of New Zealand: Rautahi. London, Routledge, 1976. Hbk: £4.50. Pbk: £2.95.

Pool, D. I. The Maori Population of New Zealand, 1769–1971. Ak. Auckland University Press, 1977. $8.35.

Reed, A. W. Treasury of Maori Exploration; Legends Relating to the First Polynesian Explorers of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1977. $12.50.

Ryan, P. M. A Dictionary of Modern Maori. Ak. Heinemann Educational, 1971.

Salmond, A. Hui; A Study of Maori Ceremonial Gatherings. Wn, Reed, 1975. Hbk: $9.95. Pbk: $5.95.

Schwimmer, E. G. The World of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1974. $3.50.

Selected Readingsin Maori; edited by B. Biggs, P. Hohepa, and S. M. Mead. Wn, Reed, 1967.

Simmons, D. R. The Great New Zealand Myth; A Study of the Discovery and Origin Traditions of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1976. $18.50.

Tihe Maori Ora; Aspects of Maoritanga, edited by M. King. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1978. $4.95.

Williams, H. W. A Bibliography of Printed Maori to 1900, and Supplement. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $4.50.

Williams, W. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. 7th ed., by H. W. Williams. Rev. and augmented by the Advisory Committee on the Teaching of the Maori Language, Department of Education. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $6.

SCIENCE, GENERAL

Biogeography Ecologyin New Zealand, edited by G. Kuschel. The Hague, Dr W. Juur, 1975.

Directoryof New Zealand Science. 5th ed., Wn, New Zealand Association of Scientists, 1975. $8.

Ellis, N. E. The New Zealand Environment; a bibliography of material available through New Zealand public libraries, including a select list of overseas publications, 1968–1974. Wn, Nature Conservation Council, 1975. Supplements also published.

*Hoare, M. E. Beyond the Filial Piety; Science History in New Zealand. Melbourne, Hawthorn Press, 1977.

Miller. M. C. Reef and Beach Life of New Zealand; An Introduction. Ak, Collins, 1973. $12.50.

Morton, J. E. and M. Miller. The New Zealand Sea Shore. 2nd ed. London, Collins, 1973. $12.50.

New Zealand's Nature Heritage. Ak, Hamlyn, 1976.

GEOLOGY

Adkin, G. L. and B. W. Collins. A Bibliography of New Zealand Geology to 1950. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1967. o.p. Index, compiled by D.L. Jenkins, published Wn, D.S.I.R., 1976. $5.50.

Beck, R. J. New Zealand Jade; The Story of Greenstone. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.95.

Bibliographyof New Zealand Geology, 1951–1969, compiled by Guyon Warren and others. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1977. $7. Updates Adkin.

Brown, D. A., K. S. W. Campbell and K. A. W. Crook. The Geological Evolution of Australia & New Zealand. Oxford, Pergamon, 1968.

Cotton, Sir C. A. Geomorphology. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1958. $3.25.

Eiby, G. A. Earthquakes. 2nd rev. ed London, Muller, 1967. $3.

Fleming, Sir C. A. The Geological History of New Zealand and its Life. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1979. $7.60.

Geochemistry, 1977; A Collection of Papers by New Zealand Geochemists in Honour of S. H. Wilson, compiled by A. J. Ellis. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1977. $20.

Grindley, G. W., H. J. Harrington, and B. L. Wood. The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2,000,000. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1959. $3.25.

Kingma, J. T. The Geological Structure of New Zealand. New York, Wiley, 1974. $69.

New Zealand Waterand Soil Division. Land Use Capability Survey Handbook; a New Zealand Handbook for the Classification of Land. Rev. ed. Wn, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, 1971.

Salmon, J. H. M. A History of Goldmining in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.70.

Soil Bureau, Soils of New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1968. 3 v. (Its Bulletin 26.) $15.

Stevens, G. R. Rugged Landscape; The Geology of Central New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.50.

Thompson, B. N. and L. O. Kermode. New Zealand Volcanology. 3 v. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1965.

Williams, G. J. Economic Geology of New Zealand. Parkville, Vic. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1974. $23.

ZOOLOGY

Buller, Sir W. L. Birds of New Zealand. New ed. by E. G. Turbott, Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1967. $16.50.

Bull, P. C. and P. D. Gaze and C. J. R. Robertson. Bird Distribution in New Zealand; A Provisional Atlas, 1969–1976. Wn, Ornithological Society of New Zealand, 1978. $10.

Chapman, M. A. and M. H. Lewis. An Introduction to the Freshwater Crustacea of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1976. $19.50.

Daff, L. A. An Album of New Zealand Birds. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

Doak, W. T. Fishes of the New Zealand Region. Rev. ed. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1978. $16.75.

Falla, R. A., R. B. Sibson, and E. G. Turbott. A Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand and Outlying Islands. 2nd ed. London; Ak, Collins, 1970. $9.25.

Forster, R. R., and L. M. Forster. Small Land Animals of New Zealand. Dn, McIndoe, 1970. Hbk: $7.95. Pbk: $4.95.

Forster, R. R. New Zealand Spiders. Ak, Collins, 1973. $10.60.

Gaskin, D. E. The Butterflies and Common Moths of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs 1966. o.p.

Laidlaw, W. B. R. Butterflies of New Zealand. Ak, Collins 1970. o.p.

Leslie, M. A. Animals of the Rocky Shore of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1968. o.p.

McDowall, R. M. New Zealand Freshwater Fishes; A Guide and Natural History. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1978. $24.75.

Marshall, J., F. C. Kinsky, and C. J. R. Robertson. The Fiat Book of Common Birds in New Zealand. 3 v. Wn, Reed, 1972–75. $7.50.

Miller, D. Common Insects in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $7.50.

Oliver, W. R. B. New Zealand Birds. Reprinted. Wn, Reed, 1974. $18.50.

Pendergast, J. G., and D. R. Cowley. An Introduction to New Zealand Freshwater Insects. Ak, London, Collins, 1966. $1.80.

Powell, A. W. B. Shells of New Zealand, An Illustrated Handbook. 5th ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $12.

Sharell, R. New Zealand Insects and Their Story. Ak, Collins, 1971. $9.20.

——— The Tuatara, Lizards, and Frogs of New Zealand. London, Collins. 1966. $8.40.

Soper, M. F. New Zealand Birds, 2nd ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $19.50.

Wild Animalsin New Zealand, compiled under the direction of A. L. Poole. Wn, Reed, 1970. $8.50.

BOTANY

Allison, K. W. and J. Child. The Mosses of New Zealand. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1971. $6.60.

Connor, H. E. The Poisonous Plants in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $9.75.

Eagle, A. L. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand in Colour, two hundred and twenty-eight botanical paintings. Ak, Collins, 1975. $50.

Also published 1978 in 2 volumes as Eagle's 100 Trees of New Zealand, and Eagle's 100 Shrubs & Climbers of New Zealand. $15 each.

Fisher, M. E. New Zealand Ferns in Your Garden. Ak, Collins, 1976. $9.95.

Floraof New Zealand. Wn, Govt Print., 1961. 3 v. 1 v. H. H. Allan, 1961. $10.50; 2 v. by L. B. Moore and E. Edgar, 1970. $4.50.

Heath, E. W. and R. J. Chinnock. Ferns and Fern Allies of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

Laing, R. M., and E. W. Blackwell. Plants of New Zealand. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $3.85.

Mark, A. F., and N. M. Adams. New Zealand Alpine Plants. Wn, Reed, 1973. Hbk: $19.50. Pbk: $13,50.

Martin, W. and J. Child. Lichens of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1972.

Moore, L. B. and J. B. Irwin. The Oxford Book of New Zealand Plants. Wn, O.U.P., 1978.

Parham, B. E. V., and A. J. Healy. Common Weeds in New Zealand; An Illustrated Guide to Their Identification. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $6.75.

Poole, A. L., and N. M. Adams. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.50.

Taylor, G. M. Mushrooms and Toadstools in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.50.

Wilson, H. D. Wild Plants of Mount Cook National Park; Field Guide. Ch, Field Guide Publication, 1978. $9.50.

TECHNOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE

Allsop, F. The First Fifty Years of New Zealand's Forest Service. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973.

Atkinson, J. D. Diseases of Tree Fruits in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. $7.50.

Atkinson, J. D. DSIR's First Fifty Years. Wn, Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1976. $5.

Calder, D. H. Seeing the Southern Sky. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1977. $7.95.

Churchouse, E. J. The Pamir Under the New Zealand Ensign. Wn, Millwood Press, 1978. $25.

During, C. Fertilisers and Soils in New Zealand Farming. 2d. ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $6.

The Engineering Historyof Electric Supplyin New Zealand, edited by L. B. Hutton and F. N. Stace. Wn, Electric Supply Authority Engineers' Institute of New Zealand, 1958–75. 3 v.

Fisher, M. E., E. Satchell, and J. M. Watkins. Gardening with New Zealand Plants, Shrubs, and Trees. Rev. ed. Ak, Collins, 1975. $12.50.

Hadfield, J. W. Arable Farm Crops of New Zealand. Rev. by J. H. Claridge. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1972. $9.50.

Harrison, R. E. Handbook of Bulbs and Perennials for the Southern Hemisphere. 2nd. ed. Rev. Palmerston North, R. E. Harrison, 1963. o.p.

——— Handbook of Trees and Shrubs for the Southern Hemisphere. 5th ed. Rev. Wn, Reed, 1967. $12.50.

Healy, A. J. F. Identification of Weeds and Clover. Wn, Editorial Services, 1976. $9.50.

Langer, R. H. M. Pastures and Pasture Plants. Wn, Reed. 1973. Hbk: $10.95. Pbk: $8.50.

Levy, E. B. Grasslands of New Zealand. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1970. $5.50.

Leitch, D. B. Railways of New Zealand. Ak, L. Fullerton; Newton Abbot, Devon, David and Charles, 1972, $9.10.

McCaskill, L. W. Hold This Land; A History of Soil Conservation. Wn, Reed. 1973. $9.50.

McLean, I. The Future for New Zealand Agriculture; Economic Strategies for the 1980s. Wn, Fourth Estate Books 1978. $4.50.

Matthews, B. W. Gardens of New Zealand. Ak; Hamlyn, 1975. $9.95.

Metcalf, L. J. The Cultivation of New Zealand Trees and Shrubs. Wn, Reed, 1972. $12.80.

Monro, M. N. and J. Munro, A Taste of New Zealand in Food and Pictures. Wn, Reed, 1977. $5.50.

New Zealand Farmers' Veterinary Guide. 4th. ed. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Exporter. 1972. $6.

New Zealand Insect Pests, edited by D. N. Ferro. Lincoln, Lincoln University College of Agriculture 1976. $15.

New Zealand Ministryof Agricultureand Fisheries. New Zealand Agriculture. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $6.

New Zealand Royal Commissionon Nuclear Power Generationin New Zealand. Nuclear Power Generation in New Zealand; Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry. Wn, Govt. Print., 1978. $4.

Noonan, R. J. By Design; A Brief History of the Public Works Department, Ministry of Works. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $18.50.

Schofield, J. C. Materials for the New Zealand Potter. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $3.75.

Simpson, T. E. Kauri and Radiata: Origin and Expansion of the Timber Industry of New Zealand. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1973.

Thorpy, F. Wine in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1971.

Troup, G. S. Steel Roads of New Zealand; An Illustrated Survey. Wn, Reed, 1973. $12.50.

Ward, A. H. A. Command of Co-operatives; The Development of Leadership, Marketing and Price Control in the Co-operative Dairy Industry of New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Board, 1975. $5.60.

Watkinson, J. G. and Smith, R. New Zealand Fisheries. Wn, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1972.

ARTS

Archey, Sir G. E. Whaowhia; Maori Art and its Artists. Ak, Collins, 1977. $15.

Barrow, T. T. Decorative Art of the New Zealand Maori. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1975. $4.50.

——— Maori Art of New Zealand. Wn, Reed; Paris, Unesco Press, 1978. $5.50.

——— Maori Wood Sculpture of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.50.

Brown, G. H. and H. H. Keith. An Introduction to New Zealand Painting, 1839–1967. Ak, Collins, 1969. o.p.

Cape, P. I. Prints and Printmakers in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1974. $19.50.

Docking, G. C. Two Hundred Years of New Zealand Painting. Wn, Reed, 1971. $29.50.

Downes, P. E. Shadows on the Stage; Theatre in New Zealand; The First Seventy Years. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. $9.50.

Downes, P. E. and P. Harcourt. Voices in the Air; Radio Broadcasting in New Zealand. Wn, Methuen, 1976. $9.50.

Ellis, E. M. and D. G. Ellis. Early Prints of New Zealand, 1642–1875. Ch, Avon Fine Prints, 1978. $80.

Fearnley, C. Early Wellington Churches. Wn, Millwood Press, 1977. $19.95.

Fields, J. and J. Stacpoole. Victorian Auckland; Photographs of the Earlier Buildings of Auckland. Dn, McIndoe, 1973. $5.60.

Hamon, R. P. F. Rei Hamon; Artist of the New Zealand Bush. 2 v. Ak, Collins, 1971–76. $37.50.

Harcourt, P. M. A Dramatic Appearance; New Zealand Theatre, 1920–1970. Wn, Methuen, 1978. $11.95.

Harris, M. M. and A. Brodie. Potters in New Zealand; An Illustrated Directory of Members of the New Zealand Society of Potters. Wn, New Zealand Society of Potters, 1978. $3.

*Hill, P. M. New Zealand Architecture. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1976. $1.25.

Knight, F. H. Photography in New Zealand; A Social and Technical History. Dn, McIndoe, 1971.

McLean, M. E. and M. Orbell. Traditional Songs of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1975. $30.

N.Z. Art & Antiques Yearbook, 1977/78, volume 1; incorporating N.Z. art auction records. Wn, Newrick Associates, 1977. $14.95.

New Art: Some Recent New Zealand Sculpture and Post-object Art, edited by J. Allen and W. Curnow. Ak, Heinemann, 1976. $11.90.

*New Zealand Folksongs: Songs of a Young Country, compiled by N. Colquhoun. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed. 1972. $2.95.

The New Zealand Poster Book, 1830–1940, compiled by E. Ellis. Wn, Reed, 1977. $9.50.

New Zealand Potters; Their Work and Words, edited by D. Blumhardt. Wn, Reed, 1976. $15.95.

Northcote-Bade, S. Colonial Furniture in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. o.p.

Stacpoole, J. M. Colonial Architecture in New Zealand. Wn. Reed, 1976. $11.50.

——— and P. Beaven. Architecture, 1820–1970. Wn, Reed, 1972. $4.95.

Taylor, R. A. H. and J. Glen., C. F. Goldie, 1870–1947; His Life and Painting. Martinborough, A. Taylor, 1977. $200 o.p.

Trotter, M. M. and B. McCulloch, Prehistoric Rock Art of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $2.95

Wilson, T. L. R. P. van der Velden, 1837–1913, Wn, Reed, 1976. $13.95.

SPORT, INCLUDING MOUNTAINEERING

Agnew, I. J. Kiwis Can Fly. Ak, Marketforce, 1976. $7.95.

Allan, W. J. D. Power and Sail; A Complete Guide to Yachting and Boating in New Zealand. Ak, Heinemann, 1975.

Bisman, R. W. New Zealand Trotting Greats. Ak, Moa Publications, 1977. $8.95.

Brittenden, R. T. The Finest Years; Twenty Years of New Zealand Cricket. Wn, Reed, 1977. $12.50.

Bull, M. A. Vintage Motor Cycling; A Record of Motor Cycling in New Zealand from 1899 to 1931. Masterton, Hedley's Bookshop, 1970. o.p.

Carman, A. H. New Zealand International Cricket, 1894–1974. Tawa, Sporting Publications, 1975. $12.95.

Castlesinthe Air; Menand Mountainsin New Zealand, edited by P. Temple. Dn, McIndoe, 1973.

Chester, R. H. and N. A. C. McMillan. Men in Black. Ak, Moa Publications, 1978. Standard ed. $12.95. Limited edition $350 o.p.

Costello, J. B. New Zealand Galloping Greats. Enl. ed. Ak, Moa Publications, 1977. $8.95.

Cuthbertson, K. E. Pighunting in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

Doogue, R. B., and J. M. Moreland. New Zealand Sea Anglers' Guide. 5th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $5.50.

Forrester, R. and Illingworth, N. Hunting in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1973. $4.50.

Howitt, R. J. New Zealand Rugby Greats. Ak, Moa Publications, 1975. $7.50.

Kelly, G. M. Golf in New Zealand; A Centennial History. Wn, New Zealand Golf Association. 1971. $4.50.

Lousley, D. P. Guide to the Ski Fields of the South Island, New Zealand. Dn, McIndoe, 1976. $2.95.

MacLean, P. J. The Veteran Years of New Zealand Motoring. Wn, Reed, 1971. $5.95.

Roberts, G. Game Animals in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1968.

Swan, A. C. They Played for New Zealand; A Complete Record of New Zealand Rugby Representatives 1884–1972 and Their Matches. Wn, N.Z. Rugby Football Union, 1973. $1.50.

Temple, P. Ways to the Wilderness; Great New Zealand Walking Tracks. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1977. $17.50.

Todd, S. P. DB Sporting Records of New Zealand. Ak, Moa Publications, 1976. $9.95.

LITERATURE, GENERAL

Curnow, W. T. L. Essays on New Zealand Literature. Ak, Heinemann, 1973. $5.50.

McCormick, E. H. New Zealand Literature; a Survey. London, O.U.P., 1959. o.p.

Orbell, M. R., comp. Contemporary Maori Writing. Wn, Reed, 1970. $3.95.

Reid, J. C., ed. A Book of New Zealand. Ak. Collins, 1964. $3.95.

POETRY

*Adcock, K. F. The Scenic Route. London, O.U.P., 1974.

Alley, R. Winds of Change; poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1972.

Anthologyof Twentieth Century New Zealand Poetry, selected by V. O'Sullivan. 2nd ed. Wn, O.U.P., 1976. Hbk: $10.50. Pbk: $7.

Baxter, J. K. The Labyrinth; Poems, 1944–72. Wn, O.U.P., 1974. Hbk: $4.35. Pbk: $2.95.

Bertram, J. M. Charles Brasch. Wn, O.U.P., 1976. $3.65.

Brasch, C. O. Home Grown. Ch, Caxton Press, 1974. $4.50.

Campbell, A. Kapiti; Selected Poems, 1947–71. Ch, Pegasus, 1972. $3.50.

Curnow, T. A. M. Collected Poems, 1933–73. Wn Reed, 1974. $5.95.

*Dallas, R. Walking on the Snow; poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1976.

Doyle, C. D. James K. Baxter. Boston, Twayne, 1976.

Fairburn, A. R. D. Collected Poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1966.

Glover, D. Enter Without Knocking. Enl ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972.

*Ireland, K. Literary Cartoons. Ak, Islands/Hurricane, 1977. $5.

James K. Baxter; A Memorial Volume. Wn. A. Taylor, 1972.

*Kidman, F. J. On the Tightrope, poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1978. $3.75.

*McAlpine, R. Stay at the Dinner Party. Dn, Caveman Press, 1977. $3.25.

Mason, R. A. K. Collected Poems. New ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972.

Mitcalfe, B. Maori Poetry; The Singing Word. Wn, Price Milburn, 1974.

*Mitchell, D. R. Pipe Dreams in Ponsonby, poems. Dn, Caveman Press, 1975. $3.50.

Nga Moteatea, edited by A. T. Ngata. 3 v. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1959–72. Collection of Maori songs.

*New Zealand Love Poems, chosen by J. Bertram. Dn, McIndoe, 1977. Hbk: $8.95. Pbk: $4.95.

O'Sullivan, V. G. Butcher and Co. Wn. O.U.P., 1977. $3.65.

——— James K. Baxter, Wn, O.U.P., 1976. $2.95.

Penguin Bookof New Zealand Verse, edited by T. A. M. Curnow. Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1966.

Poetry New Zealand, vol. 3. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1976. Pbk: $3.50.

Ten Modern New Zealand Poets, edited by H. J. McQueen. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973.

These Islands, A Collection of New Zealand Verse, edited by G. M. Jones. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973.

*Thomson, J. E. P. Denis Glover. Wn, O.U.P., 1977. $2.95.

*Tuwhare, H. No Ordinary Sun. 3rd ed. Dn, McIndoe, 1977. $3.95.

*Wedde, I. C. Earthly; Sonnets for Carlos. Akaroa, Amphedesma Press, 1975.

FICTION

Anthony, F. S. Follow The Call, together with an unfinished novel entitled 'Dave Baird'. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975.

Ballantyne, D. W. The Cunninghams. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. Hbk: $8.50. Pbk: $4.50.

Campion, E. A Place to Pass Through and Other Stories. Wn, Reed, 1977. $7.50.

Copland, R. A. Frank Sargeson. Wn, O.U.P., 1976.

Cowley, C. J. The Growing Season. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1979.

Critical Essaysonthe New Zealand Novel, edited by Cherry Hankin. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1976. $6.95.

Cross, I. R. The God Boy. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1972.

Crump, B. J. The Best of Crump. Ak, Crump Productions, 1974.

Davin, D. M. Roads from Home. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1976. $8.40.

Duggan, M. N. O'Leary's Orchard and Other Stories. Ch, Caxton Press, 1970.

Escott, M. Show Down. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1973.

Evans, P. D. Janet Frame, Boston, Twayne, 1977.

Frame, J. Daughter Buffalo. Wn, Reed, 1973.

——— Owls Do Cry. London, W. H. Allen, 1961.

——— A State of Siege. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1967.

Gant, P. The Fifth Season. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1976. $6.25.

Gee, M. G. Games of Choice. Wn, O.U.P., 1977. $4.50.

——— Plumb. London, Faber, 1978. $13.95.

Grace, P. F. Mutuwhenua; The Moon Sleeps. Ak, Longman Paul, 1978. Hbk: $7.95. Pbk: $4.95.

——— Waiariki. Ak, Longman Paul, 1975.

Hilliard, N. H. Maori Girl. London, Heinemann, 1971.

——— Send Somebody Nice. London, Hale, 1976.

Holcroft, M. H. Islands of Innocence; The Childhood Theme in New Zealand Fiction. Wn, Reed, 1964. o.p.

Hyde, R. The Godwits Fly. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1970.

Ihimaera, W. T. The New Net Goes Fishing. Ak, Heinemann, 1977. $8.95.

——— Tangi. Ak, Heinemann, 1974. $4.95.

——— Whanau, Ak, Heinemann, 1974.

Joseph, M. K. A Soldier's Tale. Ak, Collins, 1976. $7.50.

Lee, J. A. Children of the Poor. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1973.

Mander, J. Allen Adair. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1971.

Mansfield, K. Complete Stories. Ak, Golden Press, 1974.

Middleton, O. E. G. Selected Stories. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. Hbk: $7.95. Pbk: $3.95.

Morrieson, J. R. H. Pallet on the Floor. Palmerston North, Dunmore, 1976. $2.95.

——— The Scarecrow. Ak, Heinemann, 1976. $7.95.

Mulgan, J. A. E. Man Alone. 2nd ed. Ak, Longman Paul, 1975. $2.50.

N.Z. Listener Short Stories, chosen by B. Manhire. 2 v. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1977–78. $5.95, $5.65.

New Zealand Short Stories, Wn. O.U.P., 1975. 3 series. $13.95.

Owen, W. E. Tryphena's Summer. Ak, Collins Silver Fern, 1975. $2.95.

Pearson, W. H. Fretful Sleepers and Other Essays. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1974.

Pickard, A. G. All Part of the Game; The Stories of A. P. Gaskell. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1978. Hbk: $9.95. Pbk: $5.90.

Rhodes, H. W. New Zealand Fiction Since 1945. Dn, McIndoe, 1968.

Sargeson, F. Never Enough; Places and People Mainly. Wn, Reed, 1977. $6.95. Final volume of autobiography.

——— Stories. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973.

Satchell, W. The Greenstone Door. Ak, Golden Press, 1973.

Shadbolt, M. F. R. Among the Cinders. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1975.

——— The New Zealanders; A Sequence of Stories. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1974.

——— Strangers and Journeys. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1972. Hbk: $7.15. Pbk: $2.75.

Shirley Templeisa Wifeand Mother; 34 Stories, edited by C.C. Catley. Whatamongo Bay, Cape Catley, 1977. Hbk: $8.50. Pbk: $5.95.

Stead, C. K. Smith's Dream. Ak, Longman Paul, 1971.

Stevens, J. The New Zealand Novel, 1860–1965. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1966.

Sutherland, M. Getting Through, and Other Stories. Ak, Heinemann, 1977. $9.50.

Wedde, I. C. Dick Seddon's Great Dive. Ak, Islands, 1976. $2.10.

Wendt, A. Sons for the Return Home. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973.

DRAMA

Baxter, J. K. The Sore-footed Man (and) The Temptations of Oedipus, Ak, Heinemann Educational Books, 1971. $2.

Curnow, A. Four Plays. Wn, Reed, 1972. Hbk: $5.50. Pbk: $3.95.

Contemporary New Zealand Plays, selected by H. McNaughton. Wn, O.U.P., 1974. $2.95.

Hall, R. L. Middle-age Spread. Wn, Price Milburn, 1978. $3.50.

——— Glide Time; a play in four acts set in the Public Service. Wn, Price Milburn, 1977. $3.50.

McNaughton, H. D. New Zealand Drama; A Bibliographical Guide. Ch, Library University of Canterbury, 1974.

McNeill, B. The Two Tigers; a play on Katherine Mansfield and John Middleton Murry. Wn, Price Milburn, 1977. $3.25.

DESCRIPTION AND TRAVEL

Bigwood, K. V. New Zealand in Colour, Rev. ed. Wn. Reed, 1972, 2 v. $13.

Brake, B. J. and M. Shadbolt. New Zealand Gift of the Sea. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1973. $9.95.

Brathwaite, E. F. The Companion Guide to the North Island of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1970. $7.90.

——— The Companion Guide to the South Island of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1972. $6.80.

——— New Zealand and its People. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $9.95.

Francis Smith, R. V. and W. Jacobs and G. Billing. The New Zealanders, Ak, Golden Press, 1975. $13.95.

McLaughlan, G. The Passionless People. Ak, Cassell, 1976. $9.95.

New Zealand Atlas, edited by Ian Wards. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $33.

New Zealandin Maps, edited by A. G. Anderson. London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1977. £5.50.

New Zealand Automobile Association. AA Road Atlas of New Zealand. Rev. ed. Ak, Hamlyn, 1978. $7.95.

Pascoe, J. D., ed. National Parks of New Zealand 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $9.

Pope, D. M. and J. D. Pope. Mobil New Zealand Travel Guide, North Island. 3rd ed. Wn, Reed, 1977. $5.95.

——— South Island. 3rd ed. Wn, Reed, 1978. $5.95.

Reed, A. W. Place Names of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1975. $10.50.

Shadbolt, M. F. R. The Shell Guide to New Zealand. Rev. ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $9.95.

Siers, J. and J. Henderson. The New Zealanders. Wn, Millwood Press, 1975. $14.95.

Silcock, R. and C. Bollinger. New Zealand; Land of Scenic Contrast. Ak, Hamlyn, 1974. $5.95.

Wise's New Zealand Guide; A Gazetteer of New Zealand. 5th ed. Ak, Wises Publications, 1972.

HISTORICAL WORKS

Adams, P. W. T. Fatal Necessity; British Intervention in New Zealand, 1830–1847. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $13.60.

Bassett, M. Confrontation 1951; The 1951 Waterfront Dispute. Wn, Reed, 1972. $4.50.

Beaglehole, J. C. The Discovery of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, O.U.P., 1961. o.p.

Begg, A. C., and N. C. Begg. James Cook and New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969. $4.50.

Brett, H. White Wings. Ak, Brett Printing Co., 1924–28. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1976. 2 v. $50. Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

Cook, J. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Edited by J. C. Beaglehole. Cambridge, Hakluyt Society, 1955–5 v. to date. (Hakluyt Society. Extra series No. 34.)

Cowan, J. The New Zealand Wars. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955–1956. 2 v. $9.

Facsimilesofthe Declarationof Independenceandthe Treatyof Waitangi. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $12.95.

Holcroft, M. H. The Shaping of New Zealand. Ak, Hamlyn, 1974. $9.50.

Ingram, C. W. N. New Zealand Shipwrecks, 1795–1975. 5th ed. Wn, Reed, 1977. $14.50.

Jackson, W. K. The New Zealand Legislative Council; A Study of the Establishment, Failure and Abolition of an Upper House. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1972. $8.95.

Lissington, M. P. New Zealand and Japan, 1900–1941. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $5.75.

——— New Zealand and the United States, 1840–1944. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $3.

Looking Back; A Photographic History of New Zealand, compiled by K. Sinclair & W. Harrex. Wn, O.U.P., 1978. $16.50.

McLintock, A. H. Crown Colony Government in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958. $3.50.

McNab, R. The Old Whaling Days; A History of Southern New Zealand from 1830 to 1840. Ak, Golden Press, 1975. $4.95.

Maning, F. E. Old New Zealand; A Tale of the Good Old Times and A History of the War in the North Told by an Old Chief of the Ngapuhi Tribe. Ak, Golden Press, 1973.

Morrell, W. P. The Anglican Church in New Zealand; A History. Dn, McIndoe, 1973.

——— The Provincial System in New Zealand, 1852–76. 2nd rev. ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $4.50.

New Zealand Centennial Branch. Making New Zealand; Pictorial Surveys of a Century. Wn, 1939–40. 2 v. o.p.

New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Leaflets on various historic sites; Booklets. See under individual authors, e.g., Standish, M. W., in following section. gratis.

New Zealand War History Branch. Documents Relating to New Zealand's Participation in the Second World War, 1939–45. Wn, 1949–63. 3 v. 1 o.p.; 2, $1.25; 3, $2.50.

New Zealand's Heritage; The Making of a Nation. Ak, Hamlyn, 1977. 7 v. in 105 pts, issued weekly. $1 per issue.

Oliver, W. H. The Story of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, Faber, 1963. Hbk: $3.50. Pbk: $1.35.

Pascoe, J. D. Exploration New Zealand. Wn, Reed. 1971. $4.50.

Reed, A. W. It Happened Today in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1973. $1.95.

Ross, J. O. This Stern Coast; the Story of the Charting of the New Zealand Coast. Wn, Reed, 1969, o.p.

Sharp, C. A. The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman. London, O.U.P., 1968. $8.

Simpson, A. C. The Road to Erewhon. Ak, Beaux Arts, 1976. $8.95.

——— The Sugarbag Years. Wn, A. Taylor, 1974. Hbk: $8.95. Pbk: $5.95.

Sinclair, K. A. History of New Zealand. Rev. ed. Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1969. $1.35.

——— The Origins of the Maori Wars. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1974. $4.70.

Sutch, W. B. Poverty and Progress in New Zealand; A Reassessment. 2nd rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $4.95.

——— The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840 to 1966. Wn, O.U.P., 1966. Hbk: $6.50. Pbk: $3.

Taylor, R. Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.95.

Thirteen Facets; Essays to Celebrate the Silver Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth the Second, 1952–1977, edited by I. Wards. Wn, Govt. Print., 1978. $13.95.

Wakefield, E. J. Adventure in New Zealand. Ak, Golden Press, 1975. $3.95.

Wood, F. L. W. The New Zealand People at War; Political and External Affairs. Wn, Historical Publications Branch in conjunction with Reed, 1971. $5.95.

REGIONAL AND LOCAL WORKS

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

Acland, L. G. D. The Early Canterbury Runs. 4th. ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1975. $14.95.

Alington, M. H. Unquiet Earth; A History of the Bolton Street Cemetery. Wn, Wellington City Council, Govt. Print., 1978. $9.75.

Allan, R. M. Nelson; A History of Early Settlement. Wn, Reed, 1965.

Andersen, J. C. Place Names of Banks Peninsula, A Topographical History. Wn, Govt. Print., 1927. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1976. $12.

Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

Bagnall, A. G. Wairarapa. Masterton, Hedley's Bookshop, 1976. $19.50.

Barber, L. H. The View from Pirongia; The History of Waipa County. Ak, Richards Publishing, 1978. $12.50.

Begg, A. C. and N. C. Begg. Port Preservation. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1973, $12.50.

Buchanan J. D. H. The Maori History and Place Names of Hawke's Bay. Wn, Reed, 1973.

Butler, S. A. First Year in Canterbury Settlement. Hamilton, B. & J. Paul, 1964.

Campbell, M. D. N. Story of Napier, 1874–1974. Napier, Napier City Council, 1975. $7.

Carkeek, W. The Kapiti Coast; Maori History and Place Names. Wn, Reed, 1966. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1978. $30.

Field, T. A. Relics of the Goldfields, Central Otago. Dn, McIndoe, 1976. $6.95.

Gibbons, P. J. Astride the River; A History of Hamilton. Ch, Whitcoulls for the Hamilton City Council, 1977. $11.50.

Gillespie, O. A. South Canterbury; A Record of Settlements. 2nd ed. Timaru, South Canterbury Centennial History Committee, 1971.

Guthrie-Smith, W. H. Tutira; The Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969.

Hall-Jones, Fiordland Explored; An Illustrated History. Wn, Reed, 1976. $10.95.

A Historyof Canterbury. Canterbury Centennial Historical and Literary Committee; Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1957–71. 3 v.

Holcroft, M. H. The Line of Road; A History of Manawatu County, 1876–1976. Dn, McIndoe for the Manawatu County Council, 1977. $10.

Howard, B. H. Rakiura; A History of Stewart Island. Dn, Reed, 1974. $18.50.

Irvine-Smith, F. L. The Streets of My City; Wellington, New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1967.

Lambert, T. The Story of Old Wairoa and the East Coast District, North Island, New Zealand. Dn, Coulls Somerville Wilkie, 1925. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1977. $40.

McAllister, C. Old Taranaki and its Mountain. Wn, Millwood Press, 1976, $17.50.

McAra, J. B. Gold Mining at Waihi, 1878–1952. Waihi, Waihi Historical Society, 1978. $16.50.

Main, W. Auckland Through a Victorian Lens. Wn, Millwood Press, 1977. $14.95.

May, P. R. The West Coast Gold Rushes. 2nd. Rev. ed. Ch, Pegasus, 1967.

Ogilvie, G. B. The Port Hills of Christchurch. Wn, Reed, 1978. $13.50.

Oliver, W. H. Challenge and Response; A Study of the Development of the Gisborne East Coast Region. Gisborne, East Coast Development Research Association, 1971. $4.50.

Reed, A. H. The Story of Northland. Wn, Reed, 1975. $6.50.

Siers, J. and A. Bristow. Wellington. Wn, Millwood Press, 1974.

Smart, M. J. G. and A. P. Bates. The Wanganui Story. Wanganui Newspapers, 1972. $5.90.

*Standish, M. W. The Waimate Mission Station, Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. 70c. Also others issued by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust.

BIOGRAPHY

Honours, Titles, Styles, and Precedencein New Zealand, compiled and edited by P. P. O'Shea. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $13.50.

Who's Whoin New Zealand. 11th ed., edited by J. E. Traue. Wn, Reed, 1978. $16.50.

Bassett, J. Sir Harry Atkinson, 1831–1892. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975. $9.15.

Beaglehole, J. C. The Life of Captain James Cook. London, Black, 1974.

Bell, G. E. Ernes & Dieffenbach. Palmerston North, Dunmore Press, 1976. $10.75.

Condliffe, J. B. Te Rangi Hiroa; The Life of Sir Peter Buck. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971.

Cresswell, W. D. The Letters of D'Arcy Cresswell. Ch, University of Canterbury, 1971. $6.

Henderson, J. M. Ratana; The Man, the Church, the Political Movement. 2nd ed. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1972. $3.95.

Hillary, Sir E. P. Nothing Venure, Nothing Win. London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1975. $4.50.

King, M. Te Puea. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1977. $12.95.

Lush, V. The Auckland Journals of Vicesimus Lush, 1850–63, ed. by A. Drummond. Ch, Pegasus, 1971. $7.

Macgregor, M. F. Petticoat Pioneers, North Island Women of the Colonial Era. Wn, Reed, 1973. $8.95. 2 v. 1975. $9.95.

McCormick, E. H. Omai, Pacific Envoy. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $21.60.

Ogilvie, G. B. The Riddle of Richard Pearse. Wn, 1973. $4.95.

Olssen, E. N. John A. Lee. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1977. $14.95.

Raeside, J. D. Sovereign Chief, A Biography of Baron de Thierry. Ch, Caxton Press, 1977. $22.50.

Rogers, L. M. Te Wiremu; A Biography of Henry Williams. Ch. Pegasus, 1973. $7.50.

Rolleston, R. William and Mary Rolleston. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.50.

Scott, R. G. A Stake in the Country; Assid Abraham Corban and His Family, 1892–1977. Ak, Southern Cross Books, 1977. $25.

Shadbolt, M. F. R. Love and Legend; Some 20th Century New Zealanders. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1976. $8.45.

Sinclair, K. Walter Nash. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1976. $13.95.

Sinclair, K. William Pember Reeves; New Zealand Fabian. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. $6.90.

Stacpoole, J. William Mason; The First New Zealand Architect. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P. 1971. $7.40.

Stirling, A. M. Anuria; The Life Story of a Maori Woman, as told to Anne Salmond. Wn, Reed, 1976. Hbk: $13.95. Pbk: $9.95.

Chapter 45. ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS, AND ACRONYMS

An abbreviation or a contraction is a shortened form of a word or a phrase or (perhaps the commonest use) the name of an organisation. An acronym is a word made up of the initial letters of other words. Examples are UNESCO, GATT, and WHO.

Abbreviations save time, space, and tedious repetitions, and frequently they are more easily recognised than are the full names of the organisations they represent. Such acronyms as UNESCO. NAFTA, and ANZAC are far better known than the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, the New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement, or even the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps.

The following list includes only a selected number of abbreviations, contractions, and acronyms. A full list would be book-length; in fact, a number of full-length dictionaries of abbreviations exist. Many abbreviations in common use are included in the following list, but the principal criterion for inclusion has been the use of the abbreviation in the Official Yearbook or in other statistical publications. (This explains the large number of honours included; most of these are to be found in the Official section of the Yearbook.)

Abbreviations of the names of months and days of the week are not included in the list. These names are spelt out in full in textual matter, but in tables they are abbreviated to the first three letters of each word (e.g. Mon, Tue, Wed, etc., Jan, Feb, Mar, etc.) without full stops. Full stops are also omitted in acronyms, between initial letters representing the names of national and international bodies and agencies and well-known corporations; after abbreviations of units of measurement (except where the omission is likely to cause ambiguity, as in “in” for inch, always shown as “in.”); and after initial letters representing common statistical or technical terms such as CPI, GNP, and vhf.

*Following the change in the name of the organisation, CORSO, the official title of CORSO Inc., is no longer an acroynym.
 A
a.c.alternating current.
ABSAustralian Bureau of Statistics.
A.C.A.Associated Chartered Accountant.
Accts. Prof.Accounting Professional (Examination).
ACCAccident Compensation Commission.
A.C.T.Australian Capital Territory; Associated Container Transportation.
ACPAfrica, Caribbean, and Pacific (trade agreement).
A.D.anno domini (in the year of Our Lord).
ADBAsian Development Bank.
A.D.C.Aide-de-Camp.
Admin. Co.Administrative county.
AECAtomic Energy Commission.
A.F.C.Air Force Cross.
A.F.M.Air Force Medal.
Ak.; Auck.Auckland.
a.m.ante meridiem (before noon).
AMFAnhydrous milkfat.
ANLAustralian National Line.
ANZAustralia and New Zealand Banking Group Ltd.
ANZACAustralian and New Zealand Army Corps.
ANZECSAustralia-New Zealand Europe Container Service.
ANZUKAustralian, New Zealand, and United Kingdom (Force).
ANZUSAustralia, New Zealand, and United States (Pact).
APOAsian Productivity Organisation.
ARAAuckland Regional Authority.
ASACAsian Standards Advisory Committee.
ASEANAssociation of South-East Asian Nations.
ASPACAsian and Pacific Council.
ATCAir Training Corps.
ATPApplied Technology Programme (DFC).
AWASPAdjusted weighted average sale price (wool).
 B
B.Borough.
b.born.
B.A.Bachelor of Arts.
B. Agr.Bachelor of Agriculture.
BANZBahrain-New Zealand Trading and Storage Company.
B. Agr. Sc.Bachelor of Agricultural Science.
bblBarrel(s).
B.C.Before Christ.
B.C.A.Bachelor of Commerce and Administration.
BCNZBroadcasting Corporation of N.Z.
B.Com.Bachelor of Commerce.
B.E.Bachelor of Engineering.
B.Econ.Bachelor of Economics.
B.E.M.British Empire Medal.
b/fbrought forward.
bhpbrake horsepower.
BISBank for International Settlements.
BMABritish Medical Association.
BNZBank of New Zealand.
BSIBritish Standards Institution.
BtBaronet.
btlBottle.
B.T.N.Brussels Tariff Nomenclature.
BtuBritish thermal unit.
 C
CCity.
°Cdegree(s) Celsius.
ccent.
Cantab.Cambridge (University).
CAPCommon Agricultural Policy (EEC).
CARICOMCaribbean Common Market and Community.
CATCatalogue.
C.B.Companion of the Bath.
C.B.E.Commander, Order of British Empire.
cbrCrude birth rate.
cbucompletely built up (motor vehicles).
cccubic centimetres.
CCCCustoms Co-operation Council.
CCNCustoms Co-operation Council Nomenclature.
CCMSCommittee on the Challenges of Modern Society (NATO).
C.D.Civil Defence.
c.d.v.current domestic value.
centione-hundredth part.
CESCommonwealth Education Scheme.
CFFCommission for the Future.
c.f.compare.
c.f.carry forward.
CFTCCommonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation.
C.H.Companion of Honour.
Ch; Chch.Christchurch.
ch; chap.chapter.
CH.B.Bachelor of Surgery.
C.I.E.Companion, Order of Indian Empire.
c.i.f.cost, insurance, freight.
CISSComputerised Information Storage System.
ckdcompletely knocked down (motor vehicles).
C.M.G.Companion, Order of St. Michael and St. George.
cmcentimetre(s).
cm2square centimetre.
cm3cubic centimetre.
CNGcompressed natural gas.
Co.county; company.
c/ocare of.
COAGCommittee on Agriculture (FAO).
COFICommittee on Fisheries (FAO).
COFOCommittee on Forestry (FAO).
comm.community.
cont.continued.
COPECommittee of Officials on Public Expenditure.
CORSOCouncil of Organisations for Relief, Rehabilitation, and Development.*
CPIConsumers Price Index.
C.V.O.Commander, Royal Victorian Order.
cwthundredweight.
 D
daadecare.
DAC.Development Assistance Committee (OECD).
D.B.E.Dame Commander, Order of British Empire.
d.c.direct current.
d.comm.district community.
DDTdichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.
decaten times.
dept.department.
DFCDevelopment Finance Corporation; Distinguished Flying Cross
decione-tenth.
Dip.R.V.Diploma of Rural Valuation.
Dip.VFMDiploma of Valuation and Farm Management.
dmdecimeter.
DMCDeveloping Member Country (ADB).
Dn.Dunedin.
DNAdeoxyribonucleic acid.
doz.dozen.
D.P.A.Diploma of Public Administration.
DSIRDepartment of Scientific and Industrial Research.
D.S.O.Distinguished Service Order.
 E
ECAEconomic Commission for Africa (UN).
ECAFEEconomic Commission for Asia and the Far East (UN).
ECEEconomic Commission for Europe (UN).
ECLAEconomic Commission for Latin America (UN).
ECOSOCEconomic and Social Council (UN).
ed.edition; editor; edited.
E.D.Efficiency Decoration.
EDPElectronic Data Processing.
EECEuropean Economic Community (Common Market).
EEZExclusive Economic Zone.
EFTAEuropean Free Trade Association.
e.g.exempli gratia (for example).
EMGEconomic Monitoring Group.
ENEXEngineering Export Association (of New Zealand).
ERDCEnergy Research and Development Committee.
ESCAPEconomic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN).
etc.et cetera (and the rest).
EURATOMEuropean Atomic Energy Commission.
excl.excluding.
 F
FFemale(s).
FAOFood and Agriculture Organisation.
FAQfair average quality (meat).
F.C.I.T.Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Transport.
f.;ff.following page(s).
FFSFinancial Forecasting System.
F.I.E.E.Fellow of the Institute of Electrical Engineers.
fig.figure.
fl ozfluid ounce.
FMFrequency modulation.
F.N.Z.I.E.Fellow N.Z. Institute of Engineers.
f.o.b.free on board.
FOLFederation of Labour.
f.o.r.free on rail.
F.R.A.C.P.Fellow of the Royal Australian College of Physicians.
F.R.C.P.Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.
F.R.S.Fellow of the Royal Society.
ftfoot, feet (length).
F.T.E.Full-time equivalent.
 G
ggram(s).
galgallon(s).
GAQgood average quality (meat).
GATTGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.
G.B.Great Britain.
G.B.E.Knight (or Dame) Grand Cross, Order of the British Empire.
G.C.B.Knight (or Dame) Grand Cross, Order of the Bath.
G.C.M.G.Knight (or Dame) Grand Cross, Order of St. Michael and St. George.
G.C.S.I.Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India.
G.C.V.O.Knight (or Dame) Grand Cross, Royal Victorian Order.
GDPGross Domestic Product.
GMSGeneral Medical Service.
GMTGreenwich Mean Time.
G.M.V.Government Motor Vessel.
GNPGross National Product.
G.P.General practitioner (medical).
GSPGeneralised System of Preference (Customs).
GVAGrants by voluntary agencies (overseas aid).
GWhgigawatt hour (1 million kWh).
GWOGeneral Wage Order.
 H
hhour(s).
hahectare(s).
H.B.Hawke's Bay.
hbkhardback (book).
HLCHigher Leaving Certificate.
HMNZSHer Majesty's New Zealand Ship.
HMSOHer Majesty's Stationery Office
Hon.Honourable; honorary.
hpHire purchase; horsepower.
h.t.high tension (electric cable, etc.).
h.v.d.c.high voltage direct current (electricity).
Hzhertz (unit of frequency).
 I
IAEAInternational Atomic Energy Agency.
IATAInternational Air Transport Association.
IBRDInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
i/cin charge of.
ICAOInternational Civil Aviation Organisation.
ICDInternational Classification of Diseases.
ICITOInterim Commission for the International Trade Organisation.
ICRInter-departmental Committee on Resettlement.
IDAInternational Development Association.
i.e.id est (that is).
IEAInternational Energy Agency.
IECInternational Electrotechnical Commission.
IFCInternational Finance Corporation.
IGYInternational Geophysical Year.
ILOInternational Labour Organisation.
IMCOInter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organisation.
IMFInternational Monetary Fund.
in.inch(es).
Inc.Incorporated.
INCBInternational Narcotics Control Board.
incl.including.
IPRInstitute of Pacific Relations.
IRCInternational Rice Committee (FAO).
IRSInternational Referral System of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP).
ISAInternational Sugar Agreement.
ISCEDInternational Standard Classification of Education.
ISCOInternational Standard Classification of Occupations.
ISICInternational Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities.
ISOInternational Organisation for Standardisation.
ISONETInternational Standards Organisation Network.
ISSNInternational Standard Serial Number (library catalogue).
ITOInternational Trade Organisation.
ITUInternational Telecommunication Union.
IUDintra-uterine contraceptive device.
IWSInternational Wool Secretariat.
IWTOInternational Wool Textile Organisation.
 J
JJoule (measure of energy).
J.P.Justice of the Peace.
 K
K.B.E.Knight Commander, Order of the British Empire.
K.C.B.Knight Commander, Order of the Bath.
kckilocycles.
K.C.M.G.Knight Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George.
K.C.V.O.Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order.
kgkilogram(s) (weight).
kJkilojoule(s) (energy).
kmkilometre(s) (length).
km/hkilometres per hour.
KtKnight.
K.T.Knight of the Thistle.
kVkilovolt(s).
kWkilowatt(s).
kWhkilowatt hour(s).
 L
llitres.
LASH"lighter aboard ship" (cargo-handling system).
L.A.local authority.
lbpound (weight).
lat.latitude.
lin.lineal (measures).
LL.B.Bachelor of Laws.
LL.M.Master of Laws.
log.logarithm.
Lond.London.
long.longitude.
LPGliquified petroleum gas.
Ltd.Limited Liability (company).
LUACLand Use Advisory Council.
 M
Mmega (million); male(s).
mmillion; metres; milli.
m2square metres.
m3cubic metres.
M.A.Master of Arts.
MABMan and Biosphere (UNESCO) project).
MAFMinistry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
MASMonthly Abstract of Statistics.
M.B.Bachelor of Medicine.
M.B.E.Member, Order of the British Empire.
M.C.Military Cross; master of ceremonies; motor cycle.
M.C.I.T.Member, Chartered Institute of Transport.
M.Com.Master of Commerce.
M.D.Doctor of Medicine.
MEDSEAMinisterial Conference for the Economic Development of South-east Asia.
MFNMost Favoured Nation (Customs nomenclature).
mgmilligram.
MJmegajoule (energy).
mJmillijoule (energy).
M.L.C.Member of Legislative Council.
mlmillilitre.
mmmillimetre.
MOmoney order; medical officer.
MOTMinistry of Transport.
MOW; MOWDMinistry of Works and Development.
M.P.Member of Parliament.
M.P.A.Master of Public Administration.
mphmiles per hour.
MRCMedical Research Council.
M.Sc.Master of Science.
Mtmount (mountain).
MTNMultilateral Trade Negotiations (GATT).
M.V.motor vessel; motor vehicle.
M.V.O.Member, Royal Victorian Order.
MWmegawatt.
 N
n.a.not available.
NACNational Airways Corporation.
NAFTANew Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement.
NATONorth Atlantic Treaty Organisation.
N.B.nota bene (note well).
NCARNational Committee on Antarctica Research.
NDCNational Development Council (or Conference).
NDLNational Development Loans (Account).
n.e.c.not elsewhere classified.
NEDANational Electronics Development Association.
n.e.i.not elsewhere included.
n.e.s.not elsewhere specified.
NFLNational Film Library.
No.number.
n.o.d.not otherwise defined.
N.P.New Plymouth.
NPFNational Provident Fund.
NRACNational Research Advisory Council.
NRBNational Roads Board.
N.S.W.New South Wales.
NZCERN.Z. Council for Educational Research.
NZDBN.Z. Dairy Board.
NZEFNew Zealand Expeditionary Force.
NZFORSEANew Zealand Force, South-east Asia.
NZIERN.Z. Institute of Economic Research.
NZIMN.Z. Institute of Management (Inc.)
NZLAN.Z. Library Association.
NZPAN.Z. Press Association.
NZRN.Z. Railways.
NZSCIN.Z. Standard Classification of Imports.
NZSCON.Z. Standard Classification of Occupations.
NZSICN.Z. Standard Industrial Classification.
NZSNAN.Z. System of National Accounts.
NZSSN.Z. Standard Specification.
NZSTN.Z. Standard Time.
NZWRACN.Z. Women's Royal Army Corps.
 O
OAPECOrganisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries.
O.B.E.Officer, Order of the British Empire.
ODAOverseas Development Assistance.
OECDOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
OETOverseas Exchange Transactions.
OHMSOn Her Majesty's Service.
O.M.Order of Merit.
o.p.out of print.
OPECOrganisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries.
O.U.P.Oxford University Press.
Oxon.Oxford (University).
ozounce.
 P
PDPocket Digest of Statistics.
p.; pp.page, pages.
p.a.per annum (by the year).
PAGPlanning Advisory Group.
PASCPacific Areas Standards Congress.
PAYEPay as you earn (taxation).
pbkPaperback (book).
P.C.Privy Councillor; Police Constable; Planning Council.
pcs.pieces.
pd.paid.
PECPublic Expenditure Committee (Parliamentary).
per seby or in itself, intrinsically.
Ph.DDoctor of Philosophy.
PIProductivity Improvement.
PIIDSPacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme.
PJpetajoules (energy).
Pktpacket.
Pl.plates(s) (pictorial).
P.M.Prime Minister.
p.m.post meridiem (afternoon).
P.O.Post Office; postal order.
POSBPost Office Savings Bank.
PRProportional Representation; Public Relations.
p.s.i.pounds per square inch.
Ptpint(s);part.
PtPoint (geographical).
PVCpolyvinyl chloride.
 Q
Q.C.Queen's Counsel.
Q.F.S.M.Queen's Fire Service Medal.
Q.P.M.Queen's Police Medal.
Q.S.M.Queen's Service Medal.
Q.S.O.Companion, Queen's Service Order.
qtquart(s).
qtrquarter.
q.v.quod vide (which see).
 R
RBFCRural Banking and Finance Corporation.
RDrural delivery; refer to drawer (cheques).
R & DResearch and Development.
RICRural Intermediate Credit (Association).
re; refreference.
Rev.Reverend.
RNZAFRoyal New Zealand Air Force.
RNZNRoyal New Zealand Navy.
RNZNCRoyal New Zealand Nursing Corps.
RNZNVRRoyal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve.
rpmrevolutions per minute.
RSAReturned Services Association.
RTradio telephony; radio telegraphy.
Rt. Hon.Right Honourable.
R.V.Registered Valuer.
 S
S.A.Statistical Area.
s.a.e.stamped addressed envelope.
SACState Advances Corporation.
SALTStrategic Arms Limitation Talks.
SANZStandards Association of New Zealand.
SATScientific and Technical Information Service (Public libraries).
S.C.School Certificate.
SCORITEStanding Committee on Relationships in Tertiary Education.
S.D.Subdivision.
SDRSpecial Drawing Rights (IMF).
S. Div.Statistical Division.
SEAFDECSouth-east Asian Fisheries Development Centre.
SEATACSouth-east Asian Transport and Communications Centre.
SEAMEOSouth-east Asian Ministers of Education Organisation.
SEATOSouth-east Asia Treaty Organisation.
SGATARStudy Group for Asian Tax Administration and Research.
SIGMASystem of Integrated Government Management Accounting.
snfsolid non-fat (milk constituent).
S.I.South Island; Syst$eGme International d'Unit$eAs (metric system).
sicSo written.
SISSecurity Intelligence Service.
SITCStandard International Trade Classification.
smpskim milk powder.
SNASystem of National Accounts (UN).
SPATCSouth Pacific Air Transport Council.
SPCSouth Pacific Commission.
SPCASociety for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.
SPECSouth Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation.
sqsquare.
s.s.steamship.
SSCState Services Commission.
s.t.d.subscriber trunk dialling (telephone).
S&WSalaries and wages.
SWGstandard wire gauge.
 T
Ttownship; total.
ttonne(s).
TABTotalisator Agency Board; Technical Assistance Board (UN).
TAGTargets Advisory Group (NDC).
Tbtuberculosis.
TCPTechnical Co-operation Programme (FAO).
T.D.Town District; Territorial Decoration.
TELARCTesting Laboratory Registration Council.
TEVturbo-electric vessel.
THCTourist Hotel Corporation.
THETechnical Help to Exporters (UK).
TJTerajoule (energy).
TNTtrinitrotoluene.
Trigtrigonometrical.
TTtuberculin tested.
TVtelevision.
TWITraining Within Industry.
 U
U.A.Urban Area.
UDCUniversal Decimal Classification (libraries).
UEUniversity Entrance.
UGCUniversity Grants Committee.
UKUnited Kingdom.
UN; UNOUnited Nations (Organisation).
UNCTADU.N. Conference on Trade and Development.
UNDATU.N. Development Advisory Team.
UNDPU.N. Development Programme.
UNEPU.N. Environmental Programme.
UNESCOU.N. Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation.
UNFPAU.N. Fund for Population Activities.
UNHCRU.N. High Commissioner for Refugees.
UNICEFU.N. Children's Fund.
UNIDOU.N. Industrial Development Organisation.
UNRISDU.N. Research Institute for Social Development.
UPUUniversal Postal Union.
UPUniversity Press (preceded by name of University).
US; USAUnited States of America.
USSRUnion of Soviet Socialist Republics.
UV/LVUnimproved Value or Land Value (Valuation).
 V
Vvolt.
VDvenereal disease.
Vol.volume(s).
VATValue Added Tax.
vhf.very high frequency.
vizvidelicet (namely).
VSAVolunteer Service Abroad.
 W
Wwatt; west.
WAESWorkshop on Alternative Energy Strategies.
WHOWorld Health Organisation.
WFPWorld Food Programme.
WMOWorld Meteorological Organisation.
Wn; Wgtn.Wellington.
W&RWholesale and Retail (trade).
WRONZWool Research Organisation of New Zealand.
WRNZAFWomen's Royal New Zealand Air Force.
WRNZNSWomen's Royal New Zealand Naval Service.
WWWWorld Weather Watch.
 Y
YBYearbook.
ydyard(s) (length).
Y.E.Year ended.
yryear(s).

INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF THE CHILD

The year 1979 has been designated the International Year of the Child. Twelve themes, one for each month of the year, were selected by the New Zealand National Commission, which established 12 committees to study the present position in the areas represented by each theme and to make recommendations, both for activities during the appropriate months and for long-term developments. One activity which roused a great deal of public interest was the IYC Telethon Appeal, held on 30 June–1 July. The money raised is being distributed by an IYC Telethon trust to meet the needs of children in a wide range of areas, including child care, recreation, education, and parent support, and also the special needs of sick or handicapped children or children with developmental or other problems.

The special article in this year's Yearbook is a reprint of one chapter from a comprehensive report on The Child and Learning, produced by the Child and Learning IYC National Theme Committee under the chairmanship of Bryan Pinder. Reports were also prepared on the other themes by the appropriate committees. The subject of this chapter, The Child and Learning in a Multi-cultural Society, is one of particular interest to New Zealanders.

Chapter 46. THE CHILD AND LEARNING IN A MULTI-CULTURAL SOCIETY

In recent years it has been increasingly recognised that the values, attitudes, and customs that derive from cultural differences in New Zealand society—whether those differences are ethnic, religious, social, or economic—all affect the ways in which, and the extent to which, the child's learning will proceed.

There is growing recognition of the extent of cultural diversity in our society and growing understanding of the varied and flexible patterns of child rearing that exist in New Zealand and of the educational provisions and teaching methods that are necessary to cater for that diversity. It is a strength of New Zealand society that so many are trying to educate children as individuals in the context of their own cultural heritage.

BASIC NEEDS

Cultural Influences on Learning—Cultural differences, whether they are ethnic, language, religious, or social differences, influence the child's learning in three ways. They provide a set of models that influence the kind of characteristics the child develops: they establish a set of expectations for the child; and they affect the number and kinds of educational opportunities that will be open to the child.

Irrespective of the wide diversity in family living that arises from different cultural traditions, it is important to recognise that all young New Zealand children have common basic needs. Families belonging to widely different cultural traditions all need to develop a climate which assists learning by aiming for quality in the care of their children, by pursuing shared interests (including talking, listening, and reading) as normal activities, by mixing with a wide range of people, and by creating a close involvement with the school and other community facilities.

Ethnic Diversity—Ethnic diversity influences children's learning for a variety of reasons. First, ethnic groups such as Maoris and Samoans, have an ancestral tradition, and their members share a sense of peoplehood and have some distinguishing values, behaviour patterns, and interests which have an influence, often substantial, on the lives of all members of the group. Children from a particular ethnic group will bring to school preferences in regard to ways of acquiring learning, the choice of topics for study, ways of discussing learning, ways of asking questions and responding to them, ways of communicating in social settings, and the choice of environmental conditions that are most conductive to study.

Preferences such as these are all appropriate ways of achieving universal goals and they should not, of course, be viewed as disadvantages or advantages, or as better or worse ways to do things. It is equally important to recognise that the school and the community also have preferred ways of doing things, and that these ways will correspond with the preferences of some children but not with the preferences of others. It is where teachers and others dealing with mixed cultural groups in our society are not aware of preferred way of doing things that a break-down in communication and relationship occurs; and any such breakdown is detrimental to a child's learning.

The school has a special position in the community in that it is the common meeting place for people of all cultures. Because of this, the school has special responsibilities to develop the child in the context of his culture, and to develop his skills for New Zealand citizenship. These responsibilities are being met with increasing effectiveness and by growing numbers of primary and secondary schools. Indeed, the education system as a whole recognises in teacher training, staffing schedules, equipment and materials, school organisation, teaching methods, and support services that children from particular ethnic groups may have particular educational priorities. Much, however, remains to be done.

Language Diversity—Many languages besides English are spoken by particular groups in New Zealand. It is important for the community as a whole to appreciate something of the influence on a child's learning of language diversity.

Language competence is learned by the child within the family through imitation, practice, and his participation in physical and social activity with other members of his family. The process involves few problems when the child is participating with people he wishes to identify with, and when positive attitudes towards him are shown. For young children, learning a second language appears to be highly similar in many respects to learning a first language. To be fully bilingual requires a thorough understanding of two cultures, but in practice, a bilingual person may be only partly bi-cultural. Recognition and use of a child's first language can have real education benefits (particularly where it continues as a functional language by members of the ethnic group of which the child is a member) where the school expresses positive attitudes towards language variety and builds its programmes on the recognition and use of the child's first language. The school must also provide opportunities for the child to gain widespread experiences of the second culture and identification with its members, as well as expanding the use to which the second language is put.

Experience at pre-school, primary, and secondary levels in recent years has shown clearly that bilingual children are able to cope effectively and enthusiastically with bi-lingual programmes at all levels. This recognition in New Zealand schools is developing on the basis of new programmes in teacher training at both pre-service and in-service stages, and by substantial changes in school staffing and materials, in teaching methods, and in support services of different kinds.

Religious Diversity—Religious beliefs are reflected in the total life style of many families and provide models and values that can help a child in his search for meaning, purpose, and identity in life. Religious beliefs affect the way a child is able to respond to community activities and relate them to other experiences in his life.

Multi-cultural Education—When a particular child learns or fails to learn in a particular situation it is important to look at the characteristics of the situation—the characteristics of his or her cultural environment—as well as those of the child as an individual. In order to achieve satisfactory educational results for all New Zealand children, the parents, the teachers, and the community have first to ask searching questions about what makes an activity an educational one for children in a multi-cultural community. Parents, teachers, and community workers then have to develop approaches to multicultural education that will guide the child in his social relationships, his educational activities, and his preparation for citizenship.

On the first point it can be said, in broad terms, that an activity is an educational one for a particular child in New Zealand's multi-cultural society when three criteria are satisfied: when the activity is worthwhile; when the activity relates to other activities in the child's life; and when the child comes to care for the activity in some way with the support of his cultural group.

If New Zealand schools are to hope for real success in the education of children in the context of their cultural backgrounds they must keep the following needs in mind and measure their achievements in relation to them:

  1. The criteria of educational success should be broadened to include not only the general competencies needed by all in a multi-cultural society, but also particular competencies valued by various groups.

  2. Students from all cultural groups should be showing similar ranges of achievement.

  3. Some educational facilities should be places where each cultural group has interests which it fosters, and where each group has a say in shaping and carrying out of decisions which are binding on all. Common to the groups should be a set of values and beliefs. Other educational facilities should be alternative institutions in which people can freely elect to participate.

  4. There should be opportunities for children to work with members of their own culture in educational institutions.

It is also necessary to remember that there are important needs which children from different cultural groups have in common. These shared needs include assistance in developing a positive self-concept and a sense of cultural identity. It is also necessary for the school to have an educational programme that is sufficiently comprehensive to include special programmes in English in order to ensure that efficient use is made of the educational opportunities that are available. The language and cultural studies programmes in the school should both support the culture of particular groups and contribute to cross-cultural understanding. There should be a common core of values and skills that are agreed to by all the cultural groups concerned.

There needs to be harmony between the home and the school in respect of educational goals and common-core social values. The school must, of course, demonstrate respect for the language spoken in the child's home; and it must endeavour to recognise and take into account differences in the preferred learning styles of children coming from different cultural backgrounds.

THE PRESENT SITUATION AND ACHIEVEMENTS

The following table shows the number of people in various ethnic groups living in New Zealand at the 2 most recent Censuses of Population.

Ethnic GroupCensus
19711976
European2,568,5322,693,186
Maori227 414270 035
Other origins—
    Pacific Island Polynesian—
        Samoan19 54027 876
        Cook Island Maori12 91318 610
        Niuean4 1265688
        Tongan1 4723 980
        Tokelauan1 1831 737
        Other1 6843 463
          Sub-total, Pacific Island Polynesian40 91861 354
Chinese12 47014 860
Indian7 1409 247
Fijian1 1511 548
Syrian, Lebanese, and Arab890754
Other ethnic groups4 1166 424
    Sub-total, others25 76732 833
Not specified71 975
    Total2,862,6313,129,383

In 1974, there was 1 Maori for every 11 Europeans (or other Pakehas) in the population. The ratio for school age children was 1 Maori for 8 Europeans, and for pre-school children 1 Maori for every 7 Europeans.

Good educational standards and, certainly, satisfactory appropriate education for individual children are not to be judged by examination results. However, it is of importance to recognise the relatively poorer educational attainments, judged by formal qualifications, of Maoris compared with Europeans. This is illustrated in the following table showing the attainments of pupils leaving secondary schools in 1974.

COMPARATIVE EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT OF MAORI AND PAKEHA STUDENTS
Educational AttainmentMaoriPakeha
 percent
Without any educational qualifications73.834.6
School Certificate (1 or 2 subjects)11.013.6
School Certificate (3 or more subjects)4.711.9
Sixth Form Certificate (1 or 2 subjects)2.84.7
Sixth Form Certificate (3 or more subjects)3.17.0
University Entrance3.014.7
Higher School Certificate1.16.0
University Bursaries Examination0.57.2
University Scholarship0.3
    Total100.0100.0

In all, 4.9 percent of Maori students went on to full-time tertiary education in 1974 compared with 21.3 percent of Pakeha students.

During the past decade much has been done to strengthen Maori and Pacific Islands education. Some of the developments may be summarised as follows:

  • There is an increased percentage of Maori and Pacific Island children leaving school with qualifications and entering higher education.

  • Courses in Maoritanga have been started in many schools and are an increasing part of in-service and pre-service training. In 1977, 13 000 pupils in secondary schools (significant numbers of them were European) studied the Maori language. Two thousand of these students sat School Certificate Maori.

  • The training of teachers in the teaching of Maori language has been greatly increased.

  • Thirty itinerant teachers of Maori have been appointed throughout New Zealand to work with selected schools and teachers in developing Maori language and Maori studies programmes.

  • Extended training to enable Pacific Island teachers to lift their teaching qualifications to enable them to become members of the New Zealand teaching force has been introduced.

  • Inspectors, advisers, principals, and senior teachers have attended marae weekends and have been briefed on current policy and developments.

  • There has been increased involvement of Maori and Pacific Island parents and communities in the education of their children in many areas.

  • The establishment of the Pacific Islanders Resource Centre in Auckland has led to language and advisory services for the community.

  • A range of continuing education courses is offered in teaching English as a second language, in Maori, and in Maori studies.

  • Independent schools are able to integrate with the State system while retaining their special cultural characteristics.

  • Developments have continued in rural areas in the establishment of Intermediate Schools, Forms 1–7 Schools, and Area Schools.

  • Communities are showing increased goodwill towards multicultural provisions in New Zealand society.

New Zealand schools are responding to cultural diversity, and they are doing so in at least 3 different ways or in combinations of the 3 approaches:

  1. In the first approach, the school responds to cultural diversity by designing programmes that take into account the special needs of children from particular cultural groups. In this approach, the school may use culturally preferred ways of doing things in order to achieve developmental goals. The emphasis is on bridging the culture of the home and the mainstream culture of the school, without passing judgment on either culture.

  2. A second approach views cultural diversity as a valuable resource that contributes positively to the social cohesion of New Zealand society. Programmes are therefore designed by the school for all pupils, stressing awareness, tolerance, understanding, and pride in one's cultural identity.

  3. A third approach treats the school as a place where cultural pluralism can occur. Through a variety of organisational arrangements, the school attempts to give cultural groups the right to maintain themselves, together with parity in decision making. Each group has some interests which it fosters, but common to all the groups is a set of values and beliefs that serve to maintain the shared life of the school. Such values may include respect, concern for others, aroha (love), spirituality, and other qualities.

Whatever approach to cultural diversity is considered appropriate by individual schools, it is a fair assessment that schools in general recognise that guiding children's learning is a cultural and cross-cultural process in which value systems play an important part, and that many tasks have to be shared by parents, the teachers, and other community workers before the untapped potential of children is realised for the benefit of all.

In 1978 there were 2 important reviews of education for major minority groups within New Zealand. Following consultation with organisations represented on it, the National Advisory Committee on Maori Education reviewed progress in Maori education since its last report in 1971. This review, together with guidelines for the future direction of the Maori education, comprise the committee's report which has been presented to the Minister of Education.

The year 1978 also saw the holding of the first conference on the education of Pacific Islanders in New Zealand by the Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation. This conference was representative of a wide range of Pacific Island organisations and interests as well as other groups involved in education. It reviewed policies developed since the 1974 conference on “Educating Pacific Islanders in New Zealand” and set down a comprehensive set of recommendations aimed at improving early childhood educational schooling, teacher training, and continuing and vocational education for Pacific Islanders in New Zealand.

The presentation of these 2 reports to the Minister at the end of 1978 set the stage for further advances in Maori and Pacific Islands education in New Zealand in the 1979 International Year of the Child.

AREAS OF CONCERN AND PRIORITIES FOR ACTION

  1. Increasing numbers of Pacific Islanders have been coming to live in New Zealand in the past 15 years. To meet their different needs effectively there must be a particularly close and mutually supporting relationship between schools, pre-school centres, parents, other members of the particular group concerned, and a variety of Pacific Island communities.

  2. One of the greatest challenges facing New Zealand society is that of fostering good will, tolerance, interest, and co-operation among people from different cultural backgrounds, so that the diversity of a cultural background comes to be universally recognised as a strength rather than a weakness. Ways of increasing good will, tolerance, and co-operation should be discussed by all local school, church, and other organisations and groups on a community basis.

  3. Despite the success of an increasing number of Maori and Pacific Island children, these groups are still achieving less from their time at school than other groups in the community. One consequence of this is that the number of Maori and Island people entering professional and administrative positions is still much lower than for the population as a whole and, equally serious, many Maori and Pacific Islands students leave school with low achievement, little or no personal satisfaction, low aspirations, and ill-prepared to establish satisfying social or vocational skills.

    The first requirement to improve the present situation is for the community to be much better informed about the many constructive responses to cultural diversity and to the needs of children from different cultural backgrounds that already exist in many schools, and about the many and varied schemes that already exist and are planned to give support to teachers and to parents of Maori and Pacific Island children. The second requirement is to increase still further the involvement of parents in the work of the schools, and to strengthen the human and material resources available to schools to enable them to develop cultural and language studies and to diversify the curriculum and teaching methods to meet more effectively the needs of individual children from different ethnic, social, and religious groups.

    All schools, teachers, pupils, and parents should be asked to review continuously their policies and practices to ensure that schools are providing adequate opportunities for educational success on the basis of multi-cultural schooling. Many schools and other educational institutes need more teachers with adequate bi-cultural professional preparation for language and cultural studies.

  4. In most parts of the education system there is still only limited involvement of many cultural groups in, for example, membership of school committees, education boards, and other educational bodies, and on the staffs of pre-school centres, schools, teachers colleges, and other educational institutions and guidance services.

  5. The development and initial success of the Pacific Islands Educational Resource Centre in Auckland indicates that other areas (for example, Wellington, Tokoroa, and Christchurch) with significant numbers of Pacific Islanders would benefit from the establishment of similar centres.

  6. There are in society too few institutions which provide a link between generations, and which enable social values to be shared; and there is a need to find ways of making it easier for second-generation immigrants, as well as many young Maoris, to retain membership of their cultural groups and at the same time take an active part in the shared life of the community.

  7. Local community groups and organisations such as parent-teacher associations and teachers organisations which are interested in cultural influences on learning might study some of the key ideas covered in the previous pages. The following table illustrates possible ways in which specific topics and tasks might be related to a few key ideas. These examples may suggest to local organisations specific projects or tasks related to other key ideas which they have a special interest in promoting.

Examples of Key Ideas and Topics and Tasks Associated with Them
Key IdeasTopicsSpecific Topics and Tasks
Cultural diversity affects learning just as much as diversity of any other kind.Benefits of diversityUsing ethnic themes for industrial art, advertising, for architecture, etc.
 Human resources in a communityTeaching/learning exchanges across age and cultural groups.
New Zealand society is increasingly trying to educate people as individuals in the context of their own cultural heritage.Teaching/learning approaches in a multi-cultural community.Leadership training for community groups.
 Maintenance of minority cultures.Planning a school Maori or Pacific Island programme.
Key IdeasTopicsSpecific Topics and Tasks
Ethnic background, language, social class, religion, and region are variants of culture. Each give rise to individual differences of a cultural kind.Recognition of groups in a community.Forming community cultural groups to act as a link.
 Recognition of the range of individual differences within any one group.Developing individual skills, etc.
A person's cultural group influences learning in three ways:  
(i) It provides a set of models who influence the kind of characteristics the person develops.Conditions under which children imitate other people.The effect of children's literature or television on development.
 Developing realistic goals for people.Standards of behaviour in sports clubs, discos, etc.
(ii) It establishes a set of expectations for the person.Equality of opportunity.Forming a neighbourhood “Family Education Centre”. Opening the school library to parents with pre-school children.
(iii) It influences the number and kinds of education opportunities open to an individual.School community relationships. 

Chapter 47. LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

Later statistical information has become available during the course of printing the Yearbook. Some of these statistics are entered in the Statistical Summary (pp 881 to 910). Other information is given in the following pages with references to appropriate sections of the Yearbook. Readers are referred to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and the frequent Information Service releases of the Department of Statistics for the most recent information on many statistical series.

POPULATION

Population—See Statistical Summary.

Employment—The total labour force in April 1977 was estimated to number 1,230,100, of whom 841 700 were males and 388 400 females. Registered unemployed during recent months are shown in the following table:

PeriodRegistered UnemployedEmployed on Special WorkPrivate Sector Job Creation Programme
With Government Depts.With Local Authorities
MalesFemalesTotal
*Average of March to December 1978.
Monthly average—
  197813 4988 83222 3309 9394 4225 430*
End of month—
  1979—January14 18710 71724 90410 7496 8948 919
            February13 14110 99624 13710 3296 6829 413
            March13 62510 10923 7349 8526 6119 645
            April15 1149 78324 8979 9006 7078 991
            May15 1809 33324 5139 9276 7948 260
            June16 0039 36025 3639 9907 1197 844
            July17 1129 01926 13110 3487 2387 666

Migration—Total arrivals and departures are classified in the following table.

CategoryYear Ended 31 March
197719781979
*Mainly on cruise ships.
Arrivals   
Permanent and long-term arrivals37 02036 97240 808
New Zealand residents returning249 982287 868346 324
Temporary visitors380 222390 940418 744
              Total667 224715 780805 876
Crews183 786182 176172 825
Through passengers*140 920162 733176 586
              Grand total, all arrivals991 9301,060,6891,155,287
Departures   
Permanent and long-term departures56 09263 68081 008
New Zealand residents departing temporarily244 998284 284343 764
Temporary visitors departing382 404389 972407 648
              Total683 494737 936832 420
Crews181 243182 327173 187
Through passengers*140 920162 733176 586
              Grand total, all departures1,005,6571,082,9961,182,193
Net inflow (+) or outflow (–)–13 727–22 307–26 906

The following table shows permanent and long-term arrivals and departures by occupation during the 2 latest March years.

Occupational DivisionYear Ended March 1978xYear Ended March 1979
ArrivalsDeparturesArrivalsDepartures
* Included in above.
Professional, technical, and related workers6 4969 7007 68013 496
Administrative and managerial workers8121 1688241 916
Clerical and related workers3 8048 6203 9889 784
Sales workers1 2402 6481 0482 828
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forest workers, fishermen and hunters8801 5249321 912
Craftsmen, factory workers, transport equipment operators, and labourers5 76813 8526 08016 260
Service workers1 7563 0321 9363 672
Occupations not classifiable6761 3162 4203 372
Not actively engaged15 54021 82015 90027 768
                  Total36 97263 68040 80881 008
                  Net loss26 70840 200
 Actively engaged*
                  Total21 43241 86024 90853 240
                  Net loss20 42828 332

TRANSPORT

Railway Transport—Summarised statistics of railway transport for the latest available year are compared with previous years.

ItemUnitYear Ended 31 March
197719781979
*Including road services, rail-road ferry, and other subsidiary services.
Passenger journeys—
    Railways(000)18 47816 40216 749
    Railway road motor services(000)20 32319 90019 740
Freight carried (excl. parcels)tonnes(000)13 60112 57711 721
Revenue—
    Railway operation$(000)202,419212,748237,266
                Total*$(000)248,070266,404299,512
Expenditure—
    Railway operation$(000)214,796251,863287,241
                Total*$(000)260,073304,183346,786

Road Transport—Statistics of motor vehicles licensed at 31 March 1979 are compared with those for 31 March 1978.

ClassAs at 31 March
19781979
*Mostly farm tractors, etc.
Cars1,228,6681,257,016
Trucks236 691247 892
Contract vehicles1 2801 268
Omnibuses and service cars3 3063 416
Motor cycles103 926104 872
Power cycles2 1031890
Vehicles exempted from payment of licence fees*92 51189 104
Trailers and caravans353 007367 335
Miscellaneous14 64012 376
                  Grand total2,036,1322,085,169

International Civil Aviation—The following table shows passengers, freight (including excess baggage), and mail carried by international scheduled air services on scheduled routes.

Calendar YearPassengers CarriedFreight CarriedMail Carried
 (000)tonnes
19751 17930 8772 270
19761 24539 706x2 229x
1977x1 28641 6842 286
19781 41549 2092 366

Domestic Civil Aviation—During 1978 domestic scheduled services flying scheduled routes flew 28,212,000 kilometres and carried 2,520,000 passengers, 61 000 tonnes of freight, and 1,496,000 tonne/kilometres of mail.

BUILDING AND HOUSING

Building Permits—The following table presents statistics on building permits and authorisations issued during the 2 latest March years.

Type of Budding PermitYear Ended 31 March
1978x1979*
NumberValueNumberValue

*Provisional.

†Works which require building permits but are not in the nature of buildings, e.g. swimming pools, retaining walls, etc.

  $(m) $(m)
New houses and flats21 205503.719 050498.9
Alterations and additions to houses and flats44 355116.749 906138.7
Other buildings (including additions and alterations)17 226537.017 498511.7
                Total, all buildings82 7861,157.486 4541,149.4
Other construction6 82525.06 41630.9

Houses and Flats Completed—Provisional figures of houses and flats completed during the year ended 31 March 1979 give a total of 19 200 compared with 24 100 during the previous year. The 1978–79 total includes 1180 State rental dwellings built by the Housing Corporation (compared with 1427 during 1977–78). An additional 110 dwellings were created by the conversion of existing buildings.

MANUFACTURING

Manufacturing Main Indicators—This series of indicators, which is published quarterly, is based on a sample survey of approximately 1400 firms.

Year Ended MarchSalesStocksGross Capital Expenditure
MaterialsFinished Goods*
*Includes work in progress.
 $(million)
19789,905.71,063.21,107.2410.9
197911,391.51,115.81,191.6467.1
Year Ended MarchSalaries and WagesPurchasesOther Operating ExpensesHours Worked
†Includes all other operating expenses except interest, bad debts, and donations.
 $(million)(000)
19782,062.65,709.61,782.5532,887
19792,360.26,288.91,830.5537,721

MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

Wool—Weight, sale value, and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand in the latest 3 seasons are shown below.

SeasonWeight of Greasy-Wool SoldSale ValueValue per kgIndex Numbers*Base: 1974–75 (= 1000)
* Index numbers of price of new clip greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand adjusted to a clean f.o.b. New Zealand port basis. The base is the average over all sales of 1974–75 season (= 1000).
 kg(m)$(m)c 
1976–77200.9441.2219.582363
1977–78198.6378.2190/32066
1978–79204.4447.2218.852363

DOMESTIC TRADE

Retail Trade

Quarter EndedTotal TurnoverTurnover per Head of Population
In Current $In Constant December Quarter 1974 $In Current $In Constant December Quarter 1974 $
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally CorrectedAs RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$$$$
1979—
    March1,426.11,527.7777.7833.1453.0485.3247.0264.6
    June1,576.11,610.8818.6836.5505.1516.2262.3268.1

Details of retail sales and retailers' stocks by store-type group are shown in the table following.

Store-type GroupRetail StocksRetail Sales
As atQuarter Ended
31 March 197930 June 197931 March 197930 June 1979
 $(million)
Butcher, poulterer, etc.3.64.452.358.8
Grocer and dairy87.490.5343.1361.7
Other food10.110.899.0106.7
Footwear36.637.525.433.5
Apparel143 8141.5105.7132.2
Furniture and soft furnishings90.396.782.492.8
Household appliances, electrical goods, radios, T.V., etc.73.673.487.6105.2
Hardware, builders' hardware, paints, etc.78.079.3103.7108.2
Chemist37.137.357.658.7
General department and variety144.1145.9156.4196.2
Other255.5281.1312.9322.0
                Total, all retail stores960.0998.21426.11,576.1
                Total, seasonally corrected958.1999.41,527.71,610.8

Hire Purchase Trade—The following statistics show trade for the latest quarter (compared with the previous quarter) by surveyed businesses covering about 72 percent of total hire purchase business as recorded by the 1968 Census of Distribution. Since this time some businesses have used other forms of lending and the figures below include some lending by way of lease.

Quarter EndedValue of Goods Sold on Hire PurchaseTotal Amount Owing Under H.P. Agreements*
Motor VehiclesPlant and MachineryTelevision SetsOther Household and Personal GoodsTotal
*As at end of quarter.
 $(thousand)
1979—
    March70,07729,0433,06921,788123,978418,315
    June77,23832,0984,04129,413142,789438,501

Wholesale Trade

PeriodFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicals
Quarter ended—$(million)
1979—Sales or Turnover
    31 March379.199.950.8170.4179.6104.6
    30 June427.2113.958.7205.4197.1118.5
As at—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
1979—
    31 March139.374.744.4137.5150.765.0
    30 June150.679.741.7143.1150.472.6
PeriodGeneral MerchantsMachineryElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryMiscellaneousTotal
ActualSeasonally Corrected
Quarter ended$(million)
1979—Sales or Turnover
    31 March106.577.333.638.7277.51,518.21,625.4
    30 June118.181.337.747.9300.81,706.51,732.5
As at—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
1979—
    31 March61.596.831.029.2142.3972.4966.6
    30 June60.596.531.332.3151.31,010.21,011.2

EXTERNAL TRADE

Exports and Imports—The following table shows the values of exports and imports during the 3 latest June years.

Class of CommodityYear Ended June
197719781979*
*Provisional.
  $(million)
  Value of Exports (f.o.b.)
Food and live animals, beverages, and tobacco—
    Meat and meat preparations765.6765.21,093.8
    Dairy produce and eggs452.4453.7484.6
    Total (including other commodities)1,452.11,454.81,863.1
Crude materials (inedible) except fuels970.4939.11,123.3
Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials, animal and vegetable oils, and fats74.874.586.5
Chemicals91.9104.5123.3
Manufactured goods classified chiefly by material353.7382.6514.0
Other manufactures and miscellaneous153.8185.6227.1
                Total of New Zealand produce3,096.73,141.03,937.3
Re-exports132.0172.5131.3
                Total exports3,228.73,313.54,068.6
  Value of Imports (c.d.v.)
Food and live animals, beverages, and tobacco177.4181.9185.9
Crude materials (inedible) except fuels; animal and vegetable oils and fats136.5134.5201.3
Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials469.0466.3506.9
Chemicals423.9417.5452.1
Machinery and electrical equipment664.5636.3678.4
Transport equipment426.6316.5461.3
Iron, steel, and non-ferrous metals298.5234.4299.8
Textiles, clothing, and footwear238.5210.3275.0
Other manufactures and miscellaneous409.6420.7500.2
    Total merchandise importsc.d.v.3,244.43,018.23,560.9
c.i.f.3,538.03,276.73,826.9

PRICES

Retail Prices—Consumers Price Index figures for the latest available quarters are set out in the following table.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX
Base: Weighted average 25 centres, December Quarter 1977 (=1000)
Group or SubgroupDecember Quarter 1977March Quarter 1979June Quarter 1979
Food—
    Fruit and vegetables100010451152
    Meat, fish and poultry100012091361
    Other foods100010941179
                Food100011171224
Housing—
    Rentals100010851102
    Home ownership100010891113
                Housing100010881111
Household operation—
    Fuel and light100010521198
    Household furnishing100011471185
    Household supplies and services100010881107
                Household operation100011151164
Apparel—
    Clothing100011301172
    Footwear100011461197
                Apparel100011331177
Transportation—
    Public transport100012241269
    Private transport100011501206
                Transportation100011561211
Miscellaneous—
    Tobacco and alcohol100011491157
    Other supplies100011871220
    Other services100011791239
                Miscellaneous100011691198
All groups100011261177

Compared with June quarter 1978, the Consumers Price Index for June quarter 1979 showed a rise of 12.4 percent. Compared with March quarter 1979, June quarter figures showed a rise of 4.5 percent.

The Consumers Price Index for September quarter 1979 showed a rise of 5 percent above the June quarter 1979 as shown above, and of 15.2 percent above September quarter 1978.

General Price Index—The General Price Index replaced and considerably extended the Wholesale Price Index, which was discontinued from December quarter 1977. The following table shows the 2 latest quarters

Indexes in this series are centred on the mid-point of the period shown.

GENERAL PRICE INDEX
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
Industry GroupQuarter Ended
31 March 1979x30 June 1979
InputsOutputsInputsOutputs
Agriculture1262130314011504
Fishing and hunting1127101611501044
Forestry and logging1105112211511193
Mining and quarrying1134109111701167
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco1249121214061294
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries1148111911961164
Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture1162118512031212
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing1157116012141192
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products1055109711361123
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1130116011821197
Basic metal industries1109117612061244
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment1147116711691211
Other manufacturing industries1156114612081190
Electricity, gas, and water1090105915561443
Construction1172...1203...
Trade, restaurants and hotels1126115311721146
Transport and storage1094117411281210
Communications1145100011971000
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services1144...1193...
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings1188105912031072
Community, social, and personal services1110113011571186
Central Government services1134...1185...
Local Government services1136...1176...
Private non-profit services to households1132...1184...
    All industry1158...1231...

WAGES

Nominal and Effective Weekly Wage Rates Indexes—The following table of index numbers of nominal and effective weekly wage rates for adult employees is calculated from all adult rates effective at mid-quarter. It represents all industry and occupation groups.

The effective wage rates index, which relates wages to prices, is derived by dividing the nominal wage rate index number by the corresponding consumers price index number and multiplying by 1000.

Because of possible retrospective increases in wages or salaries in later awards, agreements, determinations, etc., the more recent index numbers should be regarded as provisional.

NOMINAL AND EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES INDEXES—ADULT EMPLOYEES
Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)
PeriodRates Within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration CourtRates Prescribed By Other Industrial Tribunals or Determining AuthoritiesRates Within the Jurisdiction of All Determining Authorities
IndexPercentage ChangeIndexPercentage ChangeIndexPercentage Change
NOTE—This table is derived from one of the wage rate tables in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics, which should be consulted for the latest figures or any revisions to figures.
Index of Nominal Wage Rates
December year—
            1976855+12.4800+11.0835+11.8
            1977967+13.1918+14.8949+13.7
            19781108x+14.61028+12.01079x+13.7
Quarter—
            1979—March1207+2.61067+1.51155+2.2
            June1237+2.51073+0.61177+1.9
Index of Effective Wage Rates
December year—-
            19761033–3.9966–5.11008–4.5
            19771021–1.2969+0.31002–0.6
            19781045x+2.4970+0.11018x+1.6
Quarter—
            1979—March1072+0.4948–0.710260.0
            June1051–2.0912–3.81000–2.5

General Wage Orders—The General Wage Orders Act 1977 was repealed under the Remuneration Act 1979. This Act conferred on the Government the power to make regulations authorising general wage increases in all wages and salaries fixed by awards or collective agreements. Under the Remuneration (General Increase) Regulations 1979 a general increase of 4.5 percent was authorised from 3 September 1979.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Public Account Taxation Receipts—This table shows direct and indirect taxation.

Source: Financial Statement (Budget).
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19781979*1980

*Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

†Estimated.

Direct taxation—$(thousand)
    Income tax3,482,7813,655,1794,560,000
    Estate and gift duty48,71353,07949,000
    Landtax8,3729,49410,000
    Property speculation tax19090
                Total—Direct taxation3,540,0563,717,8424,619,000
Indirect taxation—
    Customs duty272,825286,099311,000
    Beer duty58,69358,85359,000
    Salestax371,461449,694620,000
    Motor spirits tax102,202154,162182,000
    Payroll tax31
    Racingduty33,75038,52544,000
    Stampduties30,83833,60735,000
    Energy resources levy32,46728,94222,000
    Motor vehicle fees and charges42,60345,68446,000
    Other15,14516,95512,000
    Highways taxation126,256159,134145,000
                Total—Indirect taxation1,086,2431,271,6561,476,000
                Total—Taxation receipts4,626,2994,989,4986,095,000

The functional classification of gross Government expenditure is shown in the following table.

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF GROSS GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19781979*1980

*Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

†Estimated.

Administration—$(million)
    General administration191.4230.5248.0
    Law and order136.4172.7179.0
    Government services113.0152.5145.3
    Miscellaneous services29.333.534.1
    Stabilisation116.0135.6109.7
                Total586.1724.8716.1
Foreign relations—
    Defence252.2299.5312.4
    Foreign Affairs83.193.9108.7
                Total335.3393.4421.1
Development of industry—
    Land use424.3561.3532.3
    Fuel and power458.4485.9481.8
    Other industrial services120.7206.0242.5
                Total1,003.51,253.21,256.6
Education813.9936.7938.7
Social services—
    Social welfare1,491.51,804.22,072.5
    Other social services135.6121.8163.3
                Total1,627.11,926.02,235.8
Health—
    Health809.8981.21,041.2
Transport and communications—
    Transport579.3666.7700.3
    Communications429.1502.0532.7
                Total1,008.41,168.71,233.0
Debt services and miscellaneous investment and financing transactions888.7987.81,168.0
                Total7,072.88,371.89,010.5

The following table is a 5-year summary of the financing of Government expenditure. Where necessary, figures for earlier years have been revised in line with the provisions of the Public Finance Act 1977.

FINANCING OF GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE: A 5-YEAR SUMMARY
ItemFinancial Years (Years Ended 31 March)
1974–751975–761976–771977–781978–79
Net Expenditure$(million)
Administration400.3475.9388.3479.2603.4
Foreign relations214.2271.0288.7329.0384.7
Development of industry346.1573.1504.9629.8858.0
Education526.6627.0699.4807.5929.3
Social services789.5997.01,158.91,569.31,853.5
Health492.3605.7689.1808.5980.1
Transport and communications207.3275.3230.6247.6279.1
Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions289.4311.2409.5516.8592.3
                Sub-total3,265.74,136.24,369.45,387.76,480.4
Miscellaneous financing transactions196.5308.1208.8281.0368.0
                Total expenditure3,462.24,444.34,578.25,668.76,848.4
Financed from—
    Taxation—
        Income tax2,136.02,295.82,828.53,482.83,655.2
        Customs, sales tax, and beer duty510.0576.9652.6703.0794.6
        Highways tax104.8101.2107.4126.2159.1
        Motor spirits tax 76.3100.4102.2154.2
        Other taxation114.5135.1156.0212.1226.4
                Total taxation2,865.33,185.33,844.94,626.34,989.5
Interest, profits, and miscellaneous receipts206.5257.3227.2348.0413.0
                Total receipts3,071.83,442.64,072.14,974.35,402.5
Amount to be financed from borrowing390.41,001.7506.1694.41,445.9
Borrowing in New Zealand209.61,100.9629.4799.41,214.9
    Less repayments in New Zealand144.7414.4238.6230.4369.9
 64.9686.5390.8569.0845.0
    Plus sales (less purchases) of investments+75.0+15.7–12.8–134.6+152.6
    Net borrowing in New Zealand139.9702.2378.0434.4997.6
    Internal surplus (+) deficit (–)–250.5–299.5–128.1–260.0–448.3
Borrowing overseas316.8483.1421.4832.6554.4
    Less repayments overseas35.1156.6278.9424.6267.6
 281.7326.5142.5408.0286.8
    Plus sales (less purchases) of overseas investments–35.6–39.4–12.7–142.2+157.2
    Net borrowing overseas246.1287.1129.8265.8444.0
Cash surplus (+) deficit (–)–4.4–12.4+1.7+5.8–4.3

Consolidated Account: Expenditure—The Consolidated Account replaced the Consolidated Revenue Account in accordance with the provisions of the Public Finance Act 1977.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19781979
N.B.—More detailed notes on some items are given in the similar table in the Budget (Parliamentary paper B.6).
 $(thousand)
Permanent appropriations—
    Under Special Acts of Legislature—
        Civil List2,2432,906
    Debt services—
        Interest464,523590,111
        Transfer to Loans Redemption Account65,00075,000
        Administration and management6,7915,108
                Total—Debt services536,314670,219
    Superannuation49,38260,448
    Miscellaneous49,25173,699
                Total—Permanent appropriations637,190807,272
Annual appropriations—
    Administration—
        General administration—
            Accident Compensation3040
            Audit2,5413,054
            Broadcasting103121
            Building Performance Guarantee Corporation 12
            Commission for the Environment456556
            Customs10,97413,939
            Inland Revenue27,88033,227
            Internal Affairs35,00639,308
            Legislative4,6285,472
            Prime Minister's Department8351,086
            State Services Commission37,88644,075
            Statistics7,8749,503
            Treasury16,3487,700
            Valuation6,3437,514
                Total—General administration150,904165,607
        Law and order—
            Crown Law680818
            Justice58,38472,835
            Police73,98394,169
            Security Intelligence Service1,2101,674
                Total—Law and order134,257169,496
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19781979
N.B.—More detailed notes on some items are given in the similar table in the Budget (Parliamentary paper B.6).
 $(thousand)
Government services—
    Government Printing Office21,59824,773
    Works and Development91,447127,697
                Total—Government services113,045152,470
Stabilisation—
    Stabilisation105,072120,470
                Total—Administration503,278608,043
Foreign relations—
    Defence—
        Defence252,172299,506
    Foreign Affairs—
        Foreign Affairs83,01493,819
                Total—Foreign relations335,186393,325
Development of industry—
    Land use—
        Agriculture and Fisheries179,560288 608
        Forest Service119,692133,301
        Lands and Survey69,51380,472
        Maori Affairs43,17945,491
        Rural Banking and Finance Corporation7,0358,571
                Total—Land use418,979556,443
    Fuel and power—
        Energy2,56217,993
    Other industrial services—
        Labour48,804117,985
        Scientific and Industrial Research37,73647,179
        Tourist and Publicity12,28313,635
        Trade and Industry21,76526,635
                Total—Other industrial services120,588205,434
                Total—Development of industry542,129779,870
Education—
    Education813,887936,671
Social services—
    Housing Corporation54,25466,369
    Internal Affairs7,5958,723
    Maori Affairs10,10312,364
    Social Welfare1,491,5281,804,230
                Total—Social services1,563,4801,891,686
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19781979
N.B.—More detailed notes on some items are given in the similar table in the Budget (Parliamentary paper B.6).
 $(thousand)
Health—
    Health809,731981,050
Transport and communications—
    Transport83,86095,917
    Works and Development12,12016,743
                Total—Transport and communications95,980112,660
                Total—Annual appropriations4,663,6715,703,305
Unauthorised expenditure4,5371,822
Transfer to Loans Redemption Account100,000
Transfer to Reserve Fund80,000
Transfer to Trust Account404
                Total payments5,485,3986,512,803

National Roads Fund Income and Expenditure

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197719781979
 $(thousand)
Income   
Motor spirits duty85,936106,696109,674
Road user charges......48,302
Other taxation, etc.21,48119,5601,158
Contributions from Consolidated Account21,00010,00014,000
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account4,000
Miscellaneous, including interest3,2083,1093,542
                Total income131,625143,365176,676
Expenditure   
State highways maintenance29,26537,19143,691
State highways construction35,88137,24041,647
Subsidies to local authorities48,27856,85866,619
Administration and general13,94013,88914,204
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account repaid2,0004,000
Unauthorised226
                Total expenditure129,366145,180170,167

GENERAL FINANCE

SUMMARY OF BUDGET PROPOSALS—The 1979 Financial Statement (Budget) was presented to Parliament by the Minister of Finance, the Rt. Hon. R.D. Muldoon, on 21 June 1979. Main points included the following:

  • The implementation of a new system of exchange rate adjustment to enable smaller, more frequent changes to be made. There was an immediate 5 percent devaluation.

  • Further support for farmers designed to encourage increased output and to provide assured prices.

  • Assistance to the fishing industry and the meat freezing industry designed, in part, to assist the meat freezing industry to meet stringent hygiene requirements for overseas markets.

  • Announcement of a comprehensive and integrated system of export incentives to replace existing schemes in order to provide further stimulation to exporters of goods and services and to the tourist industry.

  • Changes in the administration of the import licensing system designed to enhance export competitiveness and encourage cost containment in domestic industries.

  • Reductions in personal income tax rates to assist those on lower and middle incomes.

  • Family benefit increased from $3 a week per child to $6. Child supplements for social security beneficiaries with dependent children also increased.

  • Sales tax of 30 percent and 15 percent respectively introduced on beer and tobacco, and sales tax on spirits increased to 40 percent.

  • New or higher taxes on home-heating oil, kerosene, diesel fuel, and jet fuel.

  • Incentives for the conversion of business vehicles to run on compressed natural gas (CNG).

  • Increased postal and telephone charges.

  • After-tax national superannuation rate for married couples adjusted to equal 80 percent of average ordinary-time wage after deduction of tax at married rate.

  • Changes in tax structure included the replacement of the foreign travel tax by an international departure tax; rises in exemption from gift duty and in the exemption level of estate duty; the property speculation tax abolished; unemployment benefits of persons without dependent children to be taxed; and customs duty and sales tax to be charged on motor vehicles brought back by New Zealanders returning from overseas.

  • Period of absence overseas for which national superannuitants and other social security beneficiaries can claim arrears reduced to 3 months.

  • Married women who are family breadwinners to qualify for unemployment benefit on same basis as married men.

  • Standard tertiary bursary for students to be replaced by system of grants.

Land Transfers

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197719781979
Properties of under 2 hectares—
Number 92 70276 93481 813
Consideration$(m)2,113.51,893.32,206.4
Average price per hectare$199,274211,120236,861
Properties of 2 hectares and over—
Number 9 2668 7719 416
Areahectares (000)723.2781.1x805.2
Consideration$(m)578.1645.3758.2
Average price per hectare$799826x942
All properties: Total consideration$(m)2,691.62,538.62,964.6

Mortgages—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the latest 3 financial years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchRegisteredDischarged
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
1977160 4211,870.1112 135863.4
1978143 549x1,809.7x105 116851.5x
1979169 3492,164.1131 195...

Overseas Exchange Transactions—The following statement gives statistics of overseas exchange transactions for the latest 3 March years and the latest June year.

(Source: Reserve Bank.)
ItemYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 30 June 1979
197719781979
Receipts$(million)
    Exports—
        Meat799.7903.21,090.91,196.4
        Wool688.4612.3701.6729.5
        Butter197.8217.5208.8208.1
        Cheese79.892.482.081.7
        Milk powders142.0150.9154.3154.9
        Other dairy products112.7156.0141.0154.9
        Other animal products229.7281.0349.8373.2
        Forest products256.6291.2292.9320.6
        Other primary products131.8163.2187.5200.9
        Manufactured exports464.0501.0613.5652.8
        Miscellaneous18.326.427.730.5
                Total exports3,120.93,395.13,849.94,103.5
    Other current receipts662.2747.3811.7836.2
                Total current receipts3,783.14,142.54,661.64,939.7
    Capital receipts—
        Government borrowing373.2852.1570.7760.0
        Other official receipts74.156.894.996.4
        Private373.5461.4330.6236.1
                Total capital receipts820.81,370.2996.21,092.5
    I.M.F.—
        Drawings117.8
        Allocations of SDRs29.429.4
                Total receipts4,721.75,512.75,687.26,061.6
Payments
    Imports—
        Government162.8166.9188.8193.0
        Private2,915.32,900.53,001.03,203.5
                Total imports3,078.13,067.53,189.83,396.5
    Other current payments—
        Government249.9321.5420.2439.6
        Private1,045.61,263.11,478.01,557.0
                Total other current payments1,295.51,584.61,898.21,996.6
                Total current payments4,373.64,652.05,088.05,393.0
    Capital payments—
        Government debt repayments232.8430.2266.7200.9
        Other official payments58.294.994.9
        Private162.4201.5381.8383.7
                Total capital payments453.4631.7743.4679.5
I.M.F. repurchases6.457.167.2
                Total payments4,827.05,290.15,888.56,139.7
Balance on trade transactions+42.8+327.7+660.1+707.1
Balance on invisible transactions–633.3–837.2–1,086.5–1,160.4
Current account balance–590.5–509.5–426.4–453.3
Official capital account balance+156.3+478.7+304.0+560.6
Private capital account balance+211.1+259.9–51.1–147.6
I.M.F. transactions (inc. SDRs)+117.8–6.4–27.7–37.8
Change in official overseas reserves+35.8+262.9–171.6–2.6
Official overseas reserves at end of period720.6983.6812.0932.2

NATIONAL ACCOUNTS

Provisional national accounts for the year ended 31 March 1978, together with revised accounts for the 1975–76 and 1976–77 March years, were released too late for incorporation in Section 25A National Accounts.

Major revisions in the estimates for years prior to 1977–78 arise from 2 conceptual changes. In the forestry and logging group opening and closing stocks of growing timber are now valued at the average price prevailing during the year, and data for the 9 manufacturing groups have been adjusted to a true 31 March balance date in line with information obtained from the quarterly survey of main manufacturing indicators. Other accounts have been revised as more up-to-date data became available.

The following 4 accounts represent the Consolidated Accounts of the Nation. A much wider array of accounts is available as a Supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and in a detailed report on the New Zealand System of National Accounts, to be published by the Department of Statistics.

CONSOLIDATED ACCOUNTS OF THE NATION GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT AND EXPENDITURE
Item1975–76x1976–77x*1977–78*
*Provisional.
 $(million)
Compensation of employees6,5207,3658,465
Operating surplus3,4374,5294,450
Consumption of fixed capital9581,0771,196
Indirect taxes1,1031,3011,479
Less subsidies–391–240–274
Gross Domestic Product11,62714,03015,316
Final consumption expenditure—
    (a) General government1,7321,9472,339
    (b) Private7,1728,3439,392
Increase in stocks356688571
Gross fixed capital formation3,1283,4483,393
Statistical discrepancy3334–105
Gross National Expenditure12,42014,46115,589
    Exports of goods and services2,6923,8184,194
    Less Imports of goods and services–3,486–4,248–4,467
Expenditure on Gross Domestic Product11,62714,03015,316
NATIONAL DISPOSABLE INCOME
Item1975–76x1976–77x*1977–78*
*Provisional.
 $(million)
Compensation of employees6,5207,3658,465
Compensation of employees from the rest of the world net   
Operating surplus3,4374,5294,450
Property and entrepreneurial income from the rest of the world, net–165–263–337
Indirect taxes1,1031,3011,479
Less Subsidies–391–240–274
National Income10,50412,69113,783
    Current Transfers from the rest of the world, net1–15–7
National Disposable Income10,50512,67613,776
Final consumption expenditure—
    Government—Central1,5191,7332,089
                        —local213214250
    Private—households7,0858,2399,276
                  —non-profit organisations serving households88104116
Savings1,6012,3862,045
Appropriation of National Disposable Income10,50512,67613,776
CAPITAL FINANCE
Item1975–76x1976–77x*1977–78*

*Provisional.

†Includes all Government-owned producer enterprises.

 $(million)
Increase in stocks356688571
Gross fixed capital formation—
    Private1,9042,2442,017
    Central Government9629421,080
    Local Government261262296
Purchase of intangible assets from the rest of the world, net   
Net lending to the rest of the world–957–708–618
Gross Accumulation2,5263,4283,346
Savings1,6012,3862,045
Consumption of fixed capital9581,0771,196
Capital transfers from the rest of the world, net   
Statistical discrepancy–33–34105
Finance of Gross Accumulation2,5263,4283,346
EXTERNAL TRANSACTIONS
Item1975–76x1976–77x*1977–78x
 $(million)
 Current
Exports of goods and services2,6923,8184,194
Compensation of employees from the rest of the world.........
Property and entrepreneurial income from the rest of the world727086
Other current transfers from the rest of the world143142163
Current Receipts2,9074,0304,442
Imports of goods and services3,4864,2484,467
Compensation of employees to the rest of the world.........
Property and entrepreneurial income to the rest of the world237333423
Other current transfers to the rest of the world142157170
Surplus of nation on current transactions–957–708–618
Current Disbursements2,9074,0304,442
EXTERNAL TRANSACTIONS
Item1975–76x1976–77x*1977–78x

*Provisional.

†Includes short-term capital movements and errors and omissions.

 $(million)
 Capital
Surplus of nation on current transactions–957–708–618
Capital transfers from the rest of the world.........
Net incurrence of foreign liabilities1,001590617
Capital Receipts44–118–1
Purchase of intangible assets from the rest of the world.........
Net acquisition of foreign financial assets11220258
Statistical discrepancy–69–138–259
Capital Disbursements44–118–1

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

Current Account Summary—The following table gives a summary of the current account of the balance of payments for the 2 latest March years.

Item1977–781978–79*
CreditDebitCreditDebit
*Provisional.
 $(million)
Exports/imports (as published in external trade statistics)3,319.83,396.33,8703,533
Adjustments to balance of payments concepts–0.9–185.6–30–270
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)3,318.93,210.73,8403,263
            Balance on merchandise trade108.3577
Transportation513.6525.7545534
Travel160.7300.0166388
Insurance2.28.2–17
Other miscellaneous services95.0259.9103269
Government transactions38.584.848134
Exports/imports of services810.01,178.68611,332
            Balance on services–368.6–471
International investment income122.8571.0123655
            Balance on invisibles–816.8–1,003
Transfers162.8170.1167204
            Balance on current account–715.8–462

FARMING

LAND USAGE BY TYPE OF FARM—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1977 by farm type is shown in the following table.

Farm Type**Number of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneLand in or Prepared for Fruit, Grain, Crops, Vegetables, etc.Plantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingOther Land on HoldingTotal Area of Holding

*Seventy-five percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity, and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

‖More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶The relevant percentage of income may be derived from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

**These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

 Hectares (000)
Dairy farming*15 3991 082.615.04.728.3104.21 234.8
Sheep farming*16 0273 503.0127.048.43 459.4765.77 903.5
Beef farming*6 555502.15.249.8276.3247.31 080.7
Pig farming*58510.01.60.10.51.613.8
Cropping*1 43228.445.40.30.83.178.0
Dairy farming with sheep39854.91.10.83.98.268.9
Dairy farming with beef62575.81.00.43.814.295.2
Dairy farming with other32719.72.00.20.62.224.7
Sheep farming with dairy12223.20.70.31.23.428.8
Sheep farming with beef5 4241 936.931.917.9733.3411.33 131.3
Sheep farming with cropping1 204188.644.71.559.38.2302.3
Sheep farming with other37355.43.60.728.55.793.9
Beef farming with dairy13311.80.20.21.914.1
Beef farming with sheep1 109224.72.53.931.856.9319.8
Beef farming with other27616.01.90.43.23.124.6
Cropping with sheep60050.235.50.22.82.791.4
Cropping with other2488.17.70.40.53.320.0
Pig farming with other1875.61.00.10.70.98.3
Mixed livestock3 726757.414.89.5210.4191.11 183.2
General mixed farming§1 485165.255.51.38.610.4241.0
Poultry farming6135.90.70.10.31.48.4
Market gardening and flowers1 62313.919.30.23.52.439.3
Orchards2 1496.316.60.71.63.528.7
Tobacco growing2304.12.10.41.32.810.7
Nurseries3701.02.14.5 7.615.2
Plantations5525.80.1667.39.21 385.02 067.4
Other farming1 35271.94.320.03.4861.2960.8
Idle land5 447123.72.21.218.41 991.22 136.7
                Total, all farm types68 5718 952.2445.7835.34 891.86 100.521 225.5

The following table shows, for the North and South Islands and for New Zealand, the areas of grass and lucerne and of exotic trees established prior to 30 June 1976 and 31 March 1976 respectively, and the areas established during the latest available year. Of the 539 800 ha of exotic trees in the North Island at 31 March 1976, 383 600 ha were in the South Auckland - Bay of Plenty Statistical Area. Over two-thirds of the total area planted in exotic trees during the 1977 season was in the South Island, 41 200 ha out of the South Island total of 69 300 ha in Marlborough Statistical Area. The South Island also recorded more than two-thirds of the area established in grass or lucerne during the latest year. Of the South Island total of 180 500 ha, 94 500 ha were in the Canterbury Statistical Area and 69 800 ha in the Otago and Southland Statistical Areas.

Geographic AreaNo. of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneCrops, Fruit, or NurseryPlantations of Exotic treesTussock or Danthonia Used for CrazingTotal Area of Holdings*
Established Before 30/6/76Established During Year Ended 30/6/77Area Prior to 31/3/76Planted in 1977 Season
*Including other.
 No.Hectares (000)
North Island45 9655 868.280.0120.0539.831.7364.89 503.0
South Island22 6062 823.5180.5325.7194.569.34 527.011 722.5
New Zealand68 5718 691.7260.5445.7734.3101.04 891.821 225.5

Livestock—In the following table, livestock numbers are shown by farm-type category as at 30 June 1977.

Farm Type**Beef CattleDairy CattleSheep and Lambs Shorn††Pigs

*75 percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

‖More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent.

**These farm types are defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

††Year ended 30 June 1977.

 (000)
Dairy farming*1412 47727150
Sheep farming*1 6971440 08512
Beef farming*825144076
Pig farming*9618248
Cropping*1021822
Dairy farming with sheep19573092
Dairy farming with beef65102363
Dairy farming with other4431019
Sheep farming with dairy8101881
Sheep farming with beef1 679718 5856
Sheep farming with cropping4612 5134
Sheep farming with other2916716
Beef farming with dairy191110
Beef fanning with sheep30731 1581
Beef farming with other341153
Cropping with sheep13 6033
Cropping with other102262
Pig farming with other552743
Mixed livestock7271095 31752
General mixed farming§101161 73914
Poultry farming42252
Market gardening and flowers162881
Orchards51442
Tobacco growing335
Other farming63134913
    Total, all farm types5 8392 89972 353485

The following table gives a summary of livestock on holdings at 30 June of the 3 latest available years.

LivestockAs at 30 June
197619771978
 (000)
Dairy cows and heifers in milk or in calf, 2 years old and over2 0362 0072 020
Total dairy cattle2 9302 8992 911
Beef cows and heifers used for breeding2 2322 1391 916
Total beef cattle6 0875 8395 507
Sows for breeding566156
Total pigs433485473

Chapter 48. SPECIAL ARTICLES IN PREVIOUS ISSUES

Table of Contents

Special articles published prior to 1946 were listed in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

SubjectYearPage
Alexander Turnbull Library1946914
National Film Unit1946724
Retail prices in New Zealand, with reference to the Consumers Price Index1947–49998
Economic policy and national income19501033
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research1951–521066
Standardisation1951–521076
Sources of statistical information19531016
Royal Tour of New Zealand, 23 December 1953 to 31 January 195419541121
New Zealand: Its tourist industry, tourist and sporting attractions19551143
Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems: Summary of Report19561201
Consumers Price Index—1955 Revision19571214
New Zealand's activities in the Antarctic19581247
New Zealand's international activities19591221
Grassland research in New Zealand19601243
University education for science and technology19611186
New Zealand and the European Economic Community19621150
Visit of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, 6 to 18 February 196319631167
The development of New Zealand's railway system 1863–196319631175
The arts in New Zealand, including the visual arts, literature, music and opera, and drama and ballet19641145
The Maori people as shown by the Population Census 196119651160
Industrial relations—The next ten years and beyond19661131
Population growth and economic development in New Zealand19661136
Scientific research in New Zealand19671118
Recent constitutional changes in the South-West Pacific19681104
National Development Conference 196919691103
Development of forestry and forest industries19691107
Captain James Cook and his three voyages of discovery in the Pacific 1768–7919691116
Metrication19701110
Human pressures on the natural environment19701115
Ministry of Works, 1871–197119711110
Evolution of social security in New Zealand19721015
Evolution of New Zealand dairy industry 1871–197119721024
Development of the meat industry 1922–7219731047
New Zealand membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development19731064
Tenth British Commonwealth Games 197419731068
New Zealand Ports and Shipping Developments19741065
Revision of Consumers Price Index 197419751039
Household Sample Survey 1973–7419751047
Input-output analysis: an abacus for economists19751052
Tourism: the invisible export19761030
One hundred years of Lands and Survey19761046
Royal Visit 19771977942
New Zealand at the turning point1977945
Education in the New Zealand community1977952
Abbreviations, contractions, and acronyms1978936
General Price Index1978943

Chapter 49. DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS SELECTED PUBLICATIONS

Table of Contents

General

Monthly Abstract of Statistics

Official Yearbook

Pocket Digest of Statistics

Catalogue of Statistics

Finance and Government

National Accounts

Balance of Payments

Incomes and Income Tax

Local Authority Statistics

Commerce and Industry

Agricultural Statistics

Building Statistics

Census of Manufacturing

External Trade

Prices, Wages, and Labour

Inter-Industry Study of the Economy

Transport

Census of Distribution

Census of Building and Construction

Insurance

Social and Demographic

Population and Migration

Justice

Household Survey

Vital Statistics

Population Projections

Life Tables

Social Trends

Population Census 1971

Vol. 1 Increase and Location of Population

          2 Ages and Marital Status

          3 Religious Professions

          4 Industries and Occupations

          5 Incomes

          6 Education

          7 Birthplaces and Ethnic Origin

          8 Maori Population and Dwellings

          9 Dwellings

        10 Households, Families, and Fertility

        11 Internal Migration

        12 General Report

Population Census 1976

Vol.1 Pt A Population Size and Distribution

          Pt B Population Density

A series of 13 bulletins for individual statistical areas and for New Zealand as a whole provide basic population, dwelling, and household statistics from the 1976 Population Census. Other census bulletins deal with individual subjects, e.g. Ages and Marital Status; Labour Force; Maori Population and Dwellings; Birth-places and Ethnic Origin; Education and Training; Incomes; Dwellings; Religious Professions; Cigarette Smoking, etc.

A wide range of statistical information is published in the form of statistical bulletins, frequently before publication in an annual volume. A detailed list of Department of Statistics publications is published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics or is available from the Department of Statistics, Private Bag. Wellington, from whence details of the Department's Information Service can also be obtained.

A leaflet showing further details of statistical publications can be obtained from Government Bookshops at the following addresses:

Auckland: Hannaford Burton Building, Rutland Street (P.O. Box 5344). Ph. 32 919

Hamilton: Northern Automobile Building, Alexandra Street (P.O. Box 857) Ph. 80 103.

Wellington: Head Office, Mulgrave Street (Private Bag). Ph. 737 320

Wellington: World Trade Centre, Cubacade (Private Bag). Ph. 849 572

Christchurch: Avon House, 130 Oxford Terrace (Private Bag). Ph. 797 142

Dunedin: T. and G. Building, Princes Street (P.O. Box 1104). Ph. 778 294

INDEX

NOTE—Where more than one reference to a subject is given, the chief reference, wherever it has been possible to determine it, is indicated by bold type. Two or more references to a subject so indicated signify major, and approximately equal, importance.

A

Abbreviations, 931–937
Abortion, 136
Accident Compensation—
Act, 240, 320, 805–816
claims received, 809
Commission, 116, 240, 245, 666, 805
compensation paid, 809–810
vote, 655–656
Accident insurance, 320, 751–752. (See Accident Compensation Act)
Accidents—
aircraft, 137, 330, 815, 816
cases treated in hospitals, 137–138
causes of, 137–138, 812–817
compensated, 808–816
deaths from, 95–96, 101–104, 317–319, 817
drowning, 101, 102, 103, 104, 817
environment of, 810
farming, 103, 104, 817
industrial, 104, 809, 810, 811–812
in home, 104, 138, 814
mining, 104, 811
motor-vehicle, 95, 101, 102, 103, 317–319, 813, 814, 815, 816
poisoning, 102, 103, 137, 813, 814, 815, 816, 817
railway, 304, 813, 816, 913
road, 95, 101, 102, 103, 137, 317–319, 812–813
shipping, 298
sport and recreational, 815
transport, 95, 101, 102, 103, 317–319
water, 101, 102, 103, 104, 137, 815, 816, 817
work, 811–812
Acclimatisation of fish, 405
Accommodation licences, 839–841
Accommodation services, 131–1132, 828–829
Accommodation, tourist, 828–829
Accounts—
national, 618, 633, 961–963
production, 622–629
public, 651–683
Acronyms, 931–937
Acts (see legislation)
Additional benefit, 152, 153, 161
Administrative tribunals, 856
Adolescent dental service, 120–121
Adoptions, 89, 154–155
Adult education, 198–199
National Council of, 198–199
Advances—
bank, 707–709
bank, control policy, 710–712
bank, reserve ratio, 704
building societies, 741–744
rural, 736–737, 738
Advertising, radio, television, and press, 120, 340, 342
Aerial—
land survey, 275–276
photography and mapping, 258, 275–276
topdressing, 329, 362–363
work operations, 329, 330, 362–363
Aeroclubs, 325
Aerodromes, 325
Age—
benefit, 146, 147, 153
distribution of population, 73–74, 76–77, 78–79
drinking, 840
Agricultural (see also Farms, Farming, Crops, etc.)—
aviation, 329, 330
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
clubs, 183
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
machinery, 350, 365–366, 439, 447, 524, 559
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
pests and diseases, 202, 207, 364
production, 201–202, 351–358, 891, 893
production account, 351–353
Production Council, 360
products exported, 498–516, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 570, 571
research, 201–202, 207, 362
services, 352
Training Council, 360
Workers Act, 802
Agriculture, 201–202, 603, 604, 623, 624, 629–632, 646–648, 649, 787–789, 822, 825, 891, 893, 923–924, 951, 957
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of, 207, 360, 361–362, 371, 399, 400, 403, 405, 656, 660, 688, 857, 859, 869
Aid—
legal, 240
overseas, 36–39, 199
Air—
Force, Royal New Zealand, 249, 252–253
freight, 330, 328, 329, 947
licensing and control, 326–327
mail, 327, 331–332, 947
navigational aids, 326–327
pollution, 114, 266
Air New Zealand, 325, 326, 327, 329, 423, 658, 914, 915, 916
Aircraft, 326, 327, 329, 330, 560
accidents, 137, 330, 815, 816
imports of, 581, 583, 584
manufacture, 423, 440, 448
safety of, 818
types in domestic services, 327
types in international services, 326, 329
Alcoholic liquors—
consumption of, 117, 615
duty on, 590, 591, 654, 663, 665, 959
household expenditure on, 609–612
imports of, 578, 582, 583
manufacture of, 435, 442, 454
sale of, 838–841
Alcoholism, 117–118
Alexander Turnbull Library, 216, 217–218
Aluminium (See also Non-ferrous metals), 423, 558, 559
Ambulance services, 131
Amenities of dwellings, 473–474
Americas, relations with the, 33–34
Angling, 405
Anhydrous milkfat, 354, 502, 503
Animal health, 207, 352, 361, 362
Animals, noxious, 387
Anniversary Days, 843
Annuities, 164–166
Antarctic, N.Z. activities in the, 211–212, 254, 914
Ante-natal services, 116–117
Antiquities, protection of, 216
ANZUK, 36, 253
ANZUS Treaty, 28, 35–36
Apiaries and apiculture, 382
Apparel (see also Clothing), 609–612, 948, 949
Apples, 366, 367, 373, 374, 375, 509
consumption of, 614
exported, 556, 557, 558, 570, 615, 900
marketing of, 362, 509
retail prices, 600
Apprentices, 764–765
Arable farming, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 352, 353, 366–376, 891
Arahunga, G.M.V., 291, 300
Aramoana, G.M.V., 291, 300, 680
Aranui, G.M.V., 291, 300
Aratika, G.M.V., 291, 300, 680
Arbitration Court, 792–793, 913, 916
Archeological sites, 216, 217
Area of New Zealand, 2, 56, 58–61, 64, 257
of farmland, 348–349, 964, 965
of forested land, 383, 384
Armed Forces, 248–255, 865
in war, 254, 913–914
pay, 240
persons engaged in, 760, 774
serving overseas, 253
strengths of, 250–253
superannuation, 164–166
Army, 251–252
Art galleries, 213, 214
Artificial aids (for physical disabilities), 127, 129
Artificial lakes, 5, 6
Arts in New Zealand, 213–217, 924–927
Asbestos, 416
Asia, relations with, 30–31
Asian Development Bank, 35, 38, 39, 635, 657, 658, 730–731
Assessment of—
income tax, 667–671
land tax, 671
Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN), 30, 563
Assurance, life, 683, 713, 748–751, 755–756
Auckland Harbour Bridge (see also Harbour Bridge Authority), 306, 310
Auckland Regional Authority, 47
Audio-visual teaching aids, 186
Audit Department, 655, 857, 859, 956
Australia—
communications with, 332, 334
exports to, 540, 544, 545, 546, 550, 562, 563, 564, 565, 568, 570–572, 573
Free Trade Agreement with, 33, 424, 539, 540, 543–544, 589
imports from, 540, 544, 545, 546, 550, 577, 578–581
investment in New Zealand, 641, 642
relations with, 32–33
shipping to and from, 290
social security reciprocity with, 152
trade relations with, 503, 539, 540, 543–544, 589, 638, 640
visitors and migrants from, 70, 827, 828
Aviation, 325–330, 947
agricultural, 329, 330
Awards, cultural, 213, 214–216

B

Bacon and ham curing, 434, 441
Balance of payments, 633–644, 963
overseas direct investments in New Zealand, 641–643
survey of companies with overseas affiliations, 640–644
Balance of trade, 544
Bananas—
consumption of, 614
imports of, 510, 587
Bank notes, 703, 704, 706, 728–729
Bank of New Zealand, 680, 681, 705–706, 911
Banking publications, 919
Bankruptcy, 835–837, 910
Banks and banking, 702–731, 908
assets and liabilities, 683, 704–705
merchant banks, 721
overseas assets of, 724, 903
savings, 667, 683, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714–718, 721, 908
Barley, 366, 367, 368, 369, 557, 558, 891
Basic metal industries, 431, 432, 434, 438–439, 446, 456, 457, 952
Beds, hospital, 131–132
Beech forests, 384, 385–386
Beef—
cattle, 377, 378, 380, 892, 965
consumption of, 613, 615
exports of, 498, 539, 540, 541, 556, 558, 565, 898
production of, 347, 349, 350, 356, 357, 368, 964, 965, 966
retail prices of, 600
Beer—
consumption of, 615
duty on, 590, 591, 654, 663, 665, 953, 955, 959
production of, 435, 442, 454
retail price of, 601
Bees and beekeeping, 362, 382
Benefits, social welfare, 126–129, 143–144, 145–153, 467, 667, 959
Bentonite, 407, 416
Berryfruit, 373, 374–375, 614, 615
Beverage industries, 430, 431, 433, 435, 442, 454, 747
Beverages, consumption of, 615
imports of, 575
Bibliography, New Zealand publications, 842, 917–930
Big-game fishing, 404–405, 830
Bird sanctuaries, 272
Birth rate, 51, 82, 83–84, 88, 90, 882
Birthplaces of population, 80
Births, 51, 82–89, 882
ex-nuptial, 87–88
first, 86–87
multiple, 85
of Maoris, 82, 83
registration of, 82–83
still, 85, 89, 99
Biscuit industry, 435, 442, 454
Blind, benefits for and education of, 150, 174
Board of Health, 113
Boarding of school children, 183
Boilers, lifts, and cranes, inspection of, 819
Bonds, National Development, 667–716
Bonus Bonds, 715, 716
Bonus issue tax, 670
Book publishing, 842
Books—
imports of, 581, 584
library, 217–221
New Zealand, 917–930
Boroughs and cities, 46, 58–59, 260, 684–701, 767
area of, 58–59
capital and unimproved values, 282, 283
councils, 48
debt, 688–690, 907
franchise, 46
number of, 48
population, 58–59
stores in, 520–521
Borstal institutions and training, 225, 227, 234
Botany, publications, 923
Bread bakeries, 435, 442
Breweries, 435, 442
Brick production, 466
Brides and grooms, 105–107
Bridges and bridging, 300, 305–306, 309, 310
Britain (see United Kingdom)
British—
Airways, 326
postal orders, 332
sovereignty, 23
trade preference, 588–589
Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, 213, 337, 655, 658, 661, 680
Broadcasting, radio and television, 337–340
for schools, 186, 338
local, 338
Broadcasting Tribunal, 337–338
Budget, 916, 958–959
Building and construction (see also Housing), 458–475
census of, 459–460
accidents at work, 811
employment, 465, 466
finance, 708–709
gross domestic product, 623, 624, 626, 649
gross fixed capital formation, 630–633
hourly earnings, 786
incomes, 691, 696, 698, 699
inter-industry transactions, 646–647, 648
labour force, 760, 770, 771, 772
overseas investment in and by, 643
persons engaged in, 460, 770, 771
price index numbers, general, 603, 604
profit, net, companies, 747
stoppages, 799
unions, 795, 796
wage rates, 787–789
of dwellings, 474
production of, 466
costs, 459, 467, 471, 952
accidents at work, 811
employment, 465, 466
finance, 708–709
gross domestic product, 623, 624, 626, 649
gross fixed capital formation, 630–633
hourly earnings, 786
incomes, 691, 696, 698, 699
inter-industry transactions, 646–647, 648
labour force, 760, 770, 771, 772
overseas investment in and by, 643
persons engaged in, 460, 770, 771
price index numbers, general, 603, 604
profit, net, companies, 747
stoppages, 799
unions, 795, 796
wage rates, 787–789
of dwellings, 474
production of, 466
government expenditure on, 660, 661
accidents at work, 811
employment, 465, 466
finance, 708–709
gross domestic product, 623, 624, 626, 649
gross fixed capital formation, 630–633
hourly earnings, 786
incomes, 691, 696, 698, 699
inter-industry transactions, 646–647, 648
labour force, 760, 770, 771, 772
overseas investment in and by, 643
persons engaged in, 460, 770, 771
price index numbers, general, 603, 604
profit, net, companies, 747
stoppages, 799
unions, 795, 796
wage rates, 787–789
of dwellings, 474
production of, 466
industry—
accidents at work, 811
employment, 465, 466
finance, 708–709
gross domestic product, 623, 624, 626, 649
gross fixed capital formation, 630–633
hourly earnings, 786
incomes, 691, 696, 698, 699
inter-industry transactions, 646–647, 648
labour force, 760, 770, 771, 772
overseas investment in and by, 643
persons engaged in, 460, 770, 771
price index numbers, general, 603, 604
profit, net, companies, 747
stoppages, 799
unions, 795, 796
wage rates, 787–789
of dwellings, 474
production of, 466
materials—
of dwellings, 474
production of, 466
on farms, 350
permits, 461–465, 947
work put in place, 465
Building—
Industry Advisory Council, 459
Performance Guarantee Corporation, 459, 956
societies, 468, 713, 735, 741–744
Special Character Zones, 260
Burials, 94
Bursaries—
ex-servicemen's children, 161
teachers, 188, 190
university, 188, 190, 959
war, 161
Buses, 305, 312, 315, 320, 322–325
Bush, 383, 384
Business—
failures, 835–837, 910
loans, 740
Butter (see also Dairy produce), 354, 377, 454, 498, 502, 503–504, 505, 506, 507, 512, 513, 600, 604

C

Cabinet, 43, 44, 849
Cables, overseas, 334
Cadet Forces, 254
Calves, slaughter and marketing of, 357
Campbell Island, 1, 2, 10
Camps, health, 117
Canada—
exports to, 546, 550, 562, 564–567, 569, 570, 573
imports from, 546, 550, 579, 580
relations with, 33
trade relations with, 499–500, 503, 539, 540, 541, 589, 638, 640
visitors and migrants from, 70, 827, 828
Cancer—
ages of decedents, 97
deaths from, 97–98, 135
lung, 97, 98, 118
site of disease, 98
Society of New Zealand, 97, 122, 130
Canned fruit and vegetables—
consumption of, 614
exports of, 615
production of, 435, 442, 454
Capital—
expenditure in manufacturing industries, 429, 433–434, 441–449, 452–453, 455, 456, 657–658
expenditure of Government, 336, 655–657, 658, 660, 661, 662
expenditure on farms, 350–351
expenditure, railways, 303, 658, 659, 660, 661
finance account, 618, 962
invested in electric-power undertakings, 487, 490, 658, 659, 660, 661
of companies, 744–747, 910
overseas, invested in N.Z. industries, 640–643, 698–699
transfers, 726–727
value of land, 282–283
Capitalisation of family benefit, 146, 150, 467, 739, 861
Cargo carried by air transport, 327, 328, 329, 330
Cargo handled at ports, 293–297
Caribbean, relations with, 33
Carpets and carpet yarns, 424, 435, 443, 454, 558, 559, 600
Casein exported, 498, 504, 505, 513, 555, 557, 559, 569, 900
Casein produced, 354, 454, 504
Catchment authorities, 48, 264, 685, 686, 689, 767
Cattle, 347, 349, 350, 352, 353, 377, 378, 380, 791, 892, 964, 965, 966
hides exported (see Hides, skins, and pelts)
slaughtered, 357
Cement—
industry, 438, 446
production of, 466
Census—
age distribution of population, 73–74, 76, 77, 78–79
benefits and pensions, 153
country of birth, 80
educational attendance levels, 197, 777–778
employment statistics, 770–778
ethnic groups, 79
income earners in each household, 701
incomes of individuals, 700–701
internal migration, 80
major industrial groups, 770, 771–772
marital status, 73–74, 77
occupations of population, 770, 773–775, 777–778.
of building and construction, 459–460
of distribution, 516–532
of dwellings, 472–475
of libraries, 218–220
of manufacturing, 428–453, 455
of mining and quarrying, 418–420
publications, 968
religious professions, 78
smoking habits, 118–120
transport to work, 315–317
Central Government finance, 145, 146, 621, 623, 624, 627, 628–629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 646–648, 651–683, 718, 736–741, 748, 750, 751, 754, 756, 866, 904–906, 953–958
Central Institute of Technology, 173, 194, 196
Cereals, 366–369, 435, 442, 560, 891
consumption of, 614, 616
imports of, 575
Cerebral palsy, 121
Cerebrovascular disease, 98
Certificates of title (land), 277
Chartered clubs, 839
Chatham Islands, 1, 10, 278, 325, 335
schools, 174, 186
Cheese (see also Dairy produce), 354, 377, 454, 498, 502, 503, 505, 506, 512, 513, 600, 604
Chemicals and chemical products industry, 430, 432, 433, 437, 445, 455, 456, 457, 948, 949, 951
exports of, 561
imports of, 574, 576, 578, 582, 583
Chemists, 125, 517, 519, 522, 524, 533
Child health and welfare, 117, 144, 154–158, 237–239
Childbirth accidents, etc., 95, 99–101, 136
Children and Young Persons Act 1974, 88, 155–157, 237
Children and Young Persons Court, 155–156, 222–223, 237–239
Children—
adopted, 89, 154–155
causes, 101–102
affected by divorce proceedings, 109
causes, 101–102
allowances, 143, 144, 145, 146–150, 152, 153
causes, 101–102
born, number, and sexes, 84, 882
causes, 101–102
deaths of (see Infant mortality), 91, 92, 101–102, 882
causes, 101–102
delinquent, 154, 155–157, 237–239
dental treatment of, 120–121
dependent, 148, 154–155, 160
handicapped, 117, 152, 154, 177, 938
heights and weights of, 141–142
intellectually handicapped, 117, 154, 177–178
International Year of the Child (IYC), 938–944
killed on roads, 101–102, 318–319
offences by, 237–239
restrictions on employment of, 801, 802, 803
school, 169–171, 174, 175–184, 883
under supervision, 157
Children's homes, 154, 155, 157
China, relations with, 30–31
Chiropodists, 125
Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel, 306–307, 310
Chronology of principal events, 911–916
Churches, 78, 246
marriages in, 108
Cigarettes and tobacco—
duty on, 590, 591, 959
imports of, 575, 578, 582, 583
production of, 430, 431, 433, 435, 442, 455
retail price of, 601
Cinemas, 246, 342–344, 600
Cities and boroughs, 46, 58–59, 260, 282, 283, 520–521, 684–701, 767
Citizen radio service, 335
Citizenship, 73
Citrus fruits, 366, 367, 373, 374, 822
consumption of, 614
imports of, 510, 587
marketing of, 510
Citrus Marketing Authority, 510
Civil—
aircraft accidents, 330
aviation, 325–330, 947
defence, 47, 254–255, 687, 871
jurisdiction, 239–240
List, 655
Clays, 407, 438, 446, 466
Clean Air Council, 114, 266
Clergy, marriages by, 108
Climate, 12–21
observations for year, 17–21
Clinics—
ante-natal, 116–117
child health, 117
dental, 120
Clothing and footwear, retail prices of, 600–601
Clothing, imports, 577, 587
exports, 560, 562
Clothing industry, 430, 431, 433, 436, 443, 454, 456, 457, 747
Clover (see also grass seed), 371, 372, 557, 559
Clubs, chartered, 839
Clutha River, development of, 486
Coal, 409–412, 418, 419, 420, 600, 617
and petroleum products industry, 430, 432, 433, 438, 445
persons, engaged in, 771
consumption of, 411, 476, 477, 895
persons, engaged in, 771
deposits, 8
persons, engaged in, 771
exports of, 561, 575
persons, engaged in, 771
mining, 409–412, 418, 419, 420, 811
persons, engaged in, 771
production of, 406, 407
research, 409–411
resources, 409–411, 480
State mines, 409, 411–412, 658, 659, 660, 680
used in gas industry, 494
Coastal shipping, 291–295
Coastline, 2, 259, 260–261, 386
Cocoa—
imported, 591, 614
manufacture, 435, 442
Co-education, 171, 180
Coffee—
Agreement, International, 591
consumption, 615, 837
imported, 578, 582, 583, 591
retail price of, 600
Coin and coinage, 721
held by banks, 706
Colleges—
teachers', 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 178, 184–185, 197, 661, 777–778, 883
Colombo Plan, 191
Colonisation, 23–24
Commerce Act 1975, 592–593
Commerce Commission, 538, 592, 593
Commercial failures, 835–837, 910
Commercial radio, 338–339
Commission for the Environment, 261–262, 655, 956
Commission for the Future, 286
Commission on Nuclear Power Generation, 480
Commodity sales—
retail, 516–526, 533–535, 948
wholesale, 516, 526–530, 536–537, 949
Common Agricultural Policy (EEC), 505, 506
Common Law, 222
Common Market (see European Economic Community)
Commonwealth, 28–29, 38
defence, 253
youth programme, 38, 844
Communications, 331–344, 603, 604, 952
overseas investment in, 643
radio, 335
satellite, 334–335
Communities, 46–47, 48, 60
Community centres, 199
Community colleges, 170, 171, 173
Community councils, 47, 48
Community nurses, 124
Community services available, 158, 159
Companies, 744–747, 910
finance, 708, 710, 712–713, 719–721, 745–747
income of, 696, 697–699, 746
joint stock, 744
overseas, 640–644, 745
private, 519, 744
profits of, 746–747
public, 519, 744, 745–747
registered, 519, 745, 910
share prices, indexes, 609, 886, 887
taxation of, 670–671, 697, 699
with overseas affiliations, 640–644, 698–699
Comparisons with other countries (see international comparisons)
Compensation—
accidents, 808–816
criminal injuries, 240
workers, 811–812
Comprehensive nurses, registered, 124
Compressed natural gas (CNG), 959
Computers, 204, 334
Conciliation service (industrial), 793
Concrete products industry, 438, 446, 466
Condensate, natural gas, 412, 413
Confectionery industry, 435, 442
Confinements, 85, 86–87, 127
Conjugal status of persons marrying, 105–106, 107
Conservation (see Physical environment)
Consolidated Account (or Consolidated Revenue Account), 113, 145, 163, 171, 308, 310, 311, 510, 651, 657–658, 659, 660, 662, 663–664, 681, 904, 956, 958
Consolidated Accounts of the Nation, 618–622, 961–963
Constitution of New Zealand, 23, 25–26, 39–40
Construction (see Building, Housing)
Construction Act, 818
Consultative planning, 284
Consumer—
affairs, 592–612
index, 594–601, 780, 886, 887, 950
Council, 594
index, 594–601, 780, 886, 887, 950
prices, 600–601
index, 594–601, 780, 886, 887, 950
protection, 593–594
Consumers Institute, 594
Consumption of food, 403, 613–617
Containerisation, 290, 291–292, 297
Convictions (court), 228–231, 884
for traffic offences, 230, 321–322
of juveniles, 238–239
of women, 231
Convictions in Magistrates' Courts, 227–231, 321–322, 884
Convictions in Supreme Court, 226–227, 884
Cook Islands, 10, 22–23, 28–29, 31, 32, 37, 52, 70, 71, 80, 164, 186, 335, 426–427, 820–823, 912
immigrants from, 70
population, 820
trade, 541–542, 545, 573, 587, 725, 726, 823
Cook Strait—
air freight services, 300
submarine power cable, 486–487
vehicular ferry service, 291, 300, 302, 303–304, 680, 914
Co-operative credit associations, 737
Copper ore, 415
Copra, 587, 823, 824, 825
Copyright, 833
Correspondence schools and classes, 170, 173, 174, 178, 183, 186, 199, 388
CORSO, 39, 932
Cotton piece-goods, imports of, 579, 582, 583
Council for—
Adult Education, 198
Educational Research, 196
Counties, 46, 60–61, 684–701, 767
area of, 60–61
capital and unimproved values, 282, 283
councils, 48, 260, 684–701, 767
debt, 688–690
franchise, 46
populations, 60–61
roads and roading, 306, 308, 310–311
Country Library Service, 218
Court of Appeal, 222–223, 225–226, 239, 856
Courts (see also Supreme, Magistrates, etc.), 155–156, 222–223, 884
Judges of, 222–223, 856–857
structures and types of, 44, 222–223
Cows in milk, 380
Cranes, boilers, and lifts, inspection of, 819
Cremation, 94, 767
Crime, law and, 222–247, 884
Criminal—
appeals, 223, 225–226
injuries compensation, 240
jurisdiction, 225–232
reformation and punishment, 224–237
Crippled children (see Handicapped children)
Crops, 348, 349, 350, 352, 353, 366–376, 791, 891
Crown land, 267–274, 277, 348
Crown Law Office, 655, 857, 859, 956
Cultivation, area in, 348–349, 964, 965
Cultural activities and awards, 213, 214–217
Cultural Exchange Programme, 213
Currency and banking (see also Exchange), 702–731, 908, 919
Customs Department, 552, 587–591, 655, 857, 859, 956
Customs tariff and revenue, 587–591, 653, 654, 663, 664, 665–666, 953, 955, 959

D

Dairy—
Board, New Zealand, 355, 502, 508
consumption of, 613, 616
exported, 294, 296, 498, 502–505, 506–507, 508, 539–544, 555, 556, 557, 558, 560, 567–569, 615, 725, 727, 899, 960
export price index, 551, 606
cows, 354, 376, 377, 378, 380, 892, 965, 966
consumption of, 613, 616
exported, 294, 296, 498, 502–505, 506–507, 508, 539–544, 555, 556, 557, 558, 560, 567–569, 615, 725, 727, 899, 960
export price index, 551, 606
factories, 354, 355, 434, 442, 708
consumption of, 613, 616
exported, 294, 296, 498, 502–505, 506–507, 508, 539–544, 555, 556, 557, 558, 560, 567–569, 615, 725, 727, 899, 960
export price index, 551, 606
farming, 345, 346, 347, 349, 350, 352, 353, 354–356, 368, 376, 377, 378, 380, 691, 696, 708, 791, 892, 893, 964, 965, 966
consumption of, 613, 616
exported, 294, 296, 498, 502–505, 506–507, 508, 539–544, 555, 556, 557, 558, 560, 567–569, 615, 725, 727, 899, 960
export price index, 551, 606
machinery, 365, 366
consumption of, 613, 616
exported, 294, 296, 498, 502–505, 506–507, 508, 539–544, 555, 556, 557, 558, 560, 567–569, 615, 725, 727, 899, 960
export price index, 551, 606
produce, 296, 345, 346, 347, 349, 350, 352, 353, 354–356, 434, 442, 454, 575, 600, 604, 893, 949
consumption of, 613, 616
exported, 294, 296, 498, 502–505, 506–507, 508, 539–544, 555, 556, 557, 558, 560, 567–569, 615, 725, 727, 899, 960
export price index, 551, 606
inspection of, 361
marketing of, 502–505, 506–507, 508
prices for, 512–513, 893
subsidies on, 617
Data service (Post Office), 334
Databank Systems Ltd., 705
Deaf, education of, 185
Death benefits, 146, 152
Death duty, estates passed for, 674–676
Death rates, 51, 82, 90–92, 99, 100, 882
Maori, non-Maori comparisons, 90, 91
Deaths, 51, 82, 90–104, 882
accidental (see Accidents)
by ages, 91
by causes, 94–98
distribution over year, 91
due to earthquakes, 9
from accidents on farms, 817
from air accidents, 330
from external causes, 102–104
in hospitals, 135–137, 139
in psychiatric hospitals, 141
international classification, 95
neo-natal, 99, 100
of infants, 99–100, 882
of Maoris, 82, 90, 91, 92, 99, 100
of pre-school children, 101–102
perinatal, 95, 99
registration of, 94
Debt—
hospital boards, 133
local government, 688–690, 907
public, 636, 678–683, 689, 713, 906, 954, 955, 956
Decimal currency, 721
Deer farming, 381
Defence, 35–36, 248–255
civil, 254–255, 871
expenditure on, 249, 652, 656, 661, 681, 954, 957
Ministry of, 248, 249, 857, 859, 868
policy, 35–36
services, strength of, 250–253
Degrees, university, 192
Delinquency, juvenile, 154, 155–157, 237–239
Demography, 51–81, 881–882
Demolition of buildings, 461
Dental—
benefits (social security), 127
Council, 123
health, 120–121
nurses, 120
research, 121
services, 113, 120–121, 127, 129
Dentists, 123, 696
Departments, Government, 849, 851–856, 857–871
Agriculture and Fisheries, 207, 360, 361–362, 371, 399, 400, 403, 405, 656, 660, 688, 857, 859, 869
Audit, 655, 857, 859
Crown Law, 655, 857, 859
Customs, 552, 587–591, 655, 857, 859
Defence, 248, 249, 857, 859, 868
Education, 117, 157, 169–170, 176, 177, 178, 181, 183, 186, 213, 360, 764, 844, 858
Energy, 409, 412, 418, 479, 481, 482, 488, 656, 819, 858, 860, 869–870, 916
Foreign Affairs, 28, 39, 199, 213, 844, 858, 860
Forest Service, 202, 261, 263, 385–388, 392, 395–396, 656, 659, 660, 687, 843, 858, 860–861, 869
Government Printing Office, 656, 858, 861
Health, 112–142, 144, 206, 819, 858, 861, 867
Inland Revenue, 655, 858, 861
Internal Affairs, 213, 655, 657, 819, 858, 861–862, 870
Justice, 157, 177, 224, 276, 858, 862, 868
Labour, 112, 115, 144, 475, 656, 762, 784, 818, 858, 862, 870
Lands and Survey, 258, 269, 275–276, 656, 659, 660, 858, 862, 869
Maori Affairs, 158, 274, 469–470, 657, 659, 660, 844, 858, 862, 869
Scientific and Industrial Research, 115, 201–207, 208–209, 211, 249, 263, 266, 369, 371, 373, 406, 482, 656, 660, 858, 863, 868–869
Social Welfare, 143–168, 177, 240, 657, 858, 863–864, 868
Trade and Industry, 369, 424–425, 426, 427, 552, 553, 592–593, 656, 858, 864, 870
Transport, 116, 290, 314, 319, 320, 321–322, 323, 326, 818, 858, 864, 868
Works and Development, 154, 265, 299, 306, 307, 418, 459, 481, 656, 819, 858, 865, 869
Dependants of servicemen, pensions for, 159–162
Dependent children, 148, 154–155, 160
Deposits—
interest on, 714, 716, 717, 718, 719
time, 706, 710
with building societies, 742, 744
with Reserve Bank, 704, 706
with savings banks, 714, 716, 717, 718, 908
with stock and station agencies, 718–719
with trading banks, 706, 707
Desertion in marriage, 109
Designs, registration of, 832–833
Detention centres, 225, 227, 234
Development Finance Corporation, 426, 481, 658, 680, 731
Diagnostic laboratory services, 127, 129
Diatomite, 407, 416
Diesel and diesel-electric rail transport, 300, 301
Dietitians, 124, 132
Diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus immunisation, 117
Diplomatic representation, 29–30, 32, 33, 874–879
Disabled Rehabilitation League, 121
Disability allowance, 146, 152
Disability war pension, 159–162
Disabled civilians, rehabilitation of, 121, 806
Disabled servicemen, 159–163
Discount rate, 713
Diseases—
deaths from, 95–101, 135–137
mental, 135, 139–141
occupational, 116
treated in public hospitals, 135–137
Displaced persons, 70–71
Disputes, industrial, 792–794, 888, 913, 914
Dissolution of marriage, 108–110
Distance tax, 308, 664, 666
Distribution—
census of, 516–532
by ages, 73–74, 76, 77, 78–79
of labour force, by industry and occupation, 760, 770–778
by ages, 73–74, 76, 77, 78–79
of population, 55–63
by ages, 73–74, 76, 77, 78–79
District Communities, 60
District Community Councils and Community Councils, 47, 48
District Councils, 46, 48, 685, 686, 689, 767
District Employment Service, 762
District high schools, 174, 181, 182
District planning, 258, 260
District Roads Councils, 308
Diversification of trade, 541–544
Dividends, totalisator, 677
Divorce, 105, 106, 107, 108–110
Divorced persons, 73, 74, 77
remarrying, 105, 106, 107
Doctors (see Medical practitioners)
Dolomite, 407
Domains, public, 272–273, 687
Domestic assistance, 127
Domestic proceedings, 241–242
Domestic purposes benefit, 146, 147, 148, 149–150, 153
Domestic trade, 516–538, 643, 691, 696, 698, 699, 760, 772, 786, 799, 812, 948
Dominion, 26, 27
Drainage boards, 48, 685, 686, 689, 690, 767
Drama publications, 927
Drinking age, 840
Drivers' licences, 311–312, 320
Drowning accidents, 101, 102, 103, 104
Drugs, 114–115, 126, 138, 437, 445
offences, 228, 244
therapeutic, 114
Drunkenness, 117–118, 228, 231, 233, 321, 322
Duties—
customs and excise, 587–591, 623, 653, 654, 663, 665
estate and gift, 664, 672–676
instruments, 664
lottery, 664, 838
Dwellings (see also Houses and flats), 245, 458–475, 739–741, 947
amenities, 473–474
insulation of, 475
materials used, 474
number of rooms and occupants, 475
tenure, 473, 475
type of, 472, 473

E

Earth resources satellite programme, 258, 266
Earthquake and War Damage Commission, 683, 756
Earthquake and War Damage Insurance, 756–757
Earthquakes, 9–11, 911, 913
Ecological survey, 205
Economic—
aggregates, 618–650
Monitoring Group (EMG), 285
pensions, 160
planning, 200
Economics publications, 919
Education (see also Schools), 169–199, 883, 939–944
Act, 169, 170, 803, 912
adult, 198–199
boards, 169, 170
buildings, 171, 173, 462, 463, 472, 661
community colleges, 170, 171, 173
continuing, 198–199
dental health, 121
Department of, 117, 157, 169–170, 176, 177, 178, 181, 183, 186, 213, 360, 764, 844, 858, 860, 865, 868
expenditure on, 171–172, 652, 653, 656, 659, 660, 661, 837, 905, 954, 955, 957
handicapped children, 177–178
health and social, 117–120, 184
higher, 187–188, 883
international, 199
Maori, 179, 180, 181, 197–198, 941–943
Pacific Islanders, 197–198, 821, 825, 941–943
pre-school, 171, 173, 174, 178
primary, 170, 171, 178–180, 883
psychological service, 177, 179
publications, 186, 920–921
road safety, 320
rural, 182–183
secondary, 170, 171, 180–183, 197, 777–778, 883
special classes, 171, 177–178
system, 169–171, 883
technical, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 193–196, 764–766, 883
training of teachers, 184–185, 883, 941
university, 187–193, 883
Educational—
attainments, 181, 941
attendance levels, 196, 777–778
planning, 169–170
qualifications of labour force, 777–778
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 34, 35, 191
Eels, 405
Effective weekly wage rates, 790, 887, 953
Eggs—
consumption of, 613, 616
export of, 615
marketing of, 381, 510
production of, 381
retail price of, 600
subsidy on, 617
Elderly, housing of, 130, 468, 469, 687, 739
Elections, general, 40, 43, 44–45, 841
Electoral—
Act 1956, 40, 44
Representation Commission, 45
roll, 45, 841
Electorates, 45, 850
Electric—
appliances in homes, 473
boards, 48, 488, 685, 686, 689, 690, 767
estimates, 487
finance of, 487, 490, 658, 659, 660, 661, 680
generation, 490–499
stations, 412, 489
power, 411, 412, 483–492
boards, 48, 488, 685, 686, 689, 690, 767
estimates, 487
finance of, 487, 490, 658, 659, 660, 661, 680
generation, 490–499
stations, 412, 489
railways, 301
Electrical machinery and appliances—
imported, 576, 580, 582, 584
industry, 431, 432, 434, 440, 447, 448, 454, 952
Electricity—
consumption of, 476, 477
price of, 600
Electronics, manufacture, 424
Embassies, 874–879
Emergency benefits, 145, 146, 147, 148, 152
Emergency Protection Authority, 553
Emigration, 66–70, 945, 946
Employers, unions, 795, 796
Employment, 758–779, 945, 946
advisory committees, 762
building, 465–466, 760, 771
by local authorities, 767, 945
centres, 761
forestry, 396, 771
in coal mining, 411
in industry, 429–431, 434–441, 449–453
in retail stores, 516, 518, 519, 524, 525, 526
in service establishments, 530, 531
in wholesale stores, 527, 530
index of, 650
on farms, 349–350, 790–791
placement service, 761, 768–769
programmes, 761, 762
promotion, 762–763
public service, 768, 865, 866–867
regulations affecting, 800–804
service, 762
status, 770–771
survey of, 766–767
vacancies, 768–769
women in labour force, 429, 434–441, 449–453, 758, 760, 761, 767, 771–775, 775–777, 779, 791
Endowment, land, 269–271
Energy, 200, 203, 476–497
conservation, 480–482
Ministry of, 409, 412, 418, 479, 481, 482, 488, 656, 819, 858, 860, 869–870, 916, 957
pricing policy, 480–481
research and development, 425, 482
Research and Development Committee, 203
Energy resources—
development of, 479–480
levy, 654, 664, 953
Engineering industries, 431, 432, 434, 439–440, 446, 448
Enrolled nurses, 124
Environment—
Commission for, 261–262, 655
physical, 205, 256–266
research in, 201–202, 205
Environmental Council, 262–263
Environmental health, 114
Equal Opportunities Tribunal, 832
Equal pay, 784
Erosion, 7, 8, 265, 329
protection, forest, 386–387
ESCAP, 35, 563
Estate duty, 654, 664, 672–676, 953
Estates—
administered by Public Trust Office, 834–835
passed for death duty, 674–676
Ethnic groups, 79, 939–944
Europe, relations with, 29, 499
European Economic Community (EEC), 28, 29, 498–500, 505–506, 539, 541, 588, 915
investment in New Zealand, 641, 642
trade with, 499, 500, 546, 639, 640
Ewes, breeding, 379
Examinations, 176–177, 187
Excess retention tax, 670–671
Exchange (currency)—
control of, 703, 722–724, 728–729, 959
rates of, 722–724, 959
Exchange transactions, overseas, 703, 725–729, 960
Exchanges, telephone, 333
Excise duties, 587–591, 653, 654, 663, 665–666, 953, 955, 959
Exclusive Economic Zone, 398, 400, 403, 425, 916
Executive council, 43, 44
Ex-nuptial infants, 87–88, 89, 154–155
ages of mothers, 88
births of, 87–88, 159
protection of, 154–155
registration of, 87–88
Exotic forest, 383, 384, 386, 397
Expectation of life, 92–94
Expenditure—
defence, 249, 652, 656, 661, 954, 957
education, 171–172, 652, 653, 656, 659, 660, 661, 837, 905, 954, 955, 957
Foreign Affairs, 652, 656, 659, 660, 681
Forest Service, 388, 656, 659, 660
Government (see Government Finance)
health, 113, 652, 653, 657, 659, 660, 661, 905, 954, 955, 958
household, 592–612
local government, 310, 311, 685–687, 907
National Roads Fund, 307–311, 662, 958
Post Office, 336, 889
Railways, 301, 302, 303, 304, 658, 659, 660, 661, 890
research, 209, 656, 660
roads, 307–311, 657, 660, 661, 662, 687, 958
social services, 146, 162, 163, 652, 653, 657, 661, 905, 954, 955, 957
transport, 652, 653, 657, 659, 660, 661, 954, 955, 957
Export Guarantee Office, 428, 554
Export-Import Corporation, 427, 554, 658, 680
Exports and Shipping Council, 511
Exports (see also under individual products), 294–297, 330, 357, 377, 539–554, 554–573, 620, 622, 725, 727, 896–902, 949–950, 960, 962, 963
by air, 330
value, 554–556, 558–562, 725, 727, 949, 950
volume, 556–558, 564–572
dairy produce, 498, 502–505, 506–507, 508
meat, 498–500, 506, 507, 508–509
index numbers, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 550–551
by ports, 294–297, 572
value, 554–556, 558–562, 725, 727, 949, 950
volume, 556–558, 564–572
dairy produce, 498, 502–505, 506–507, 508
meat, 498–500, 506, 507, 508–509
index numbers, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 550–551
classification of, 560–562
value, 554–556, 558–562, 725, 727, 949, 950
volume, 556–558, 564–572
dairy produce, 498, 502–505, 506–507, 508
meat, 498–500, 506, 507, 508–509
index numbers, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 550–551
commodities exported—
value, 554–556, 558–562, 725, 727, 949, 950
volume, 556–558, 564–572
dairy produce, 498, 502–505, 506–507, 508
meat, 498–500, 506, 507, 508–509
index numbers, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 550–551
control of, 551–552
dairy produce, 498, 502–505, 506–507, 508
meat, 498–500, 506, 507, 508–509
index numbers, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 550–551
destination of, 540–545, 546–550, 562–572, 573
index numbers, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 550–551
fish, 403
index numbers, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 550–551
incentive scheme, 552, 959
index numbers, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 550–551
licences, 551–552
index numbers, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 550–551
manufactured, 423, 424, 425
index numbers, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 550–551
meat, 508–509
index numbers, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 550–551
prices, 511–515
index numbers, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 550–551
pulp and paper, 394, 395, 902
index numbers, 550–551
timber, 394, 395
index numbers, 550–551
value of, 545–550, 554–556, 558–573, 896–902
index numbers, 550–551
volume of, 556–558, 564–572, 897–902
index numbers, 550–551
wood chips, 390
Ex-servicemen—
dependants of, 159–162
disabled, 159–163
pensions and rehabilitation, 159–163
External—
migration (see also emigration, immigration), 51, 52, 53, 66–70, 881
trade, 539–591, 896–902, 949–950
transactions account, 618

F

Factories (see also manufacturing industries), 421–457, 462, 463
Act, 115, 801
dairy, 354, 355, 434, 442
employees, 429–431, 434–441, 449–453
Factory production, 421–457, 894
Family—
and the law, 240–242
capitalisation of, 146, 150, 468, 739, 861
benefits, 143, 144, 145, 146–149, 150, 153, 467, 959
capitalisation of, 146, 150, 468, 739, 861
health, 116–117
planning, 117
Farm—
accidents, 103, 104, 817
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
production of, 439, 447
consumption of, 613–614, 616
export of, 296, 539–544, 897–901
marketing of, 498–516, 948
indexes of, 353, 649
advisory service, 361–362
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
production of, 439, 447
consumption of, 613–614, 616
export of, 296, 539–544, 897–901
marketing of, 498–516, 948
indexes of, 353, 649
area in cultivation, 348–349, 964, 965
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
production of, 439, 447
consumption of, 613–614, 616
export of, 296, 539–544, 897–901
marketing of, 498–516, 948
indexes of, 353, 649
capital expenditure, 350–351
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
production of, 439, 447
consumption of, 613–614, 616
export of, 296, 539–544, 897–901
marketing of, 498–516, 948
indexes of, 353, 649
cost price indexes, 605
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
production of, 439, 447
consumption of, 613–614, 616
export of, 296, 539–544, 897–901
marketing of, 498–516, 948
indexes of, 353, 649
employees, 349–350, 790–791
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
production of, 439, 447
consumption of, 613–614, 616
export of, 296, 539–544, 897–901
marketing of, 498–516, 948
indexes of, 353, 649
finance, 266, 708, 709, 736–737, 738
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
production of, 439, 447
consumption of, 613–614, 616
export of, 296, 539–544, 897–901
marketing of, 498–516, 948
indexes of, 353, 649
holdings, 348, 349, 363, 367, 964, 965
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
production of, 439, 447
consumption of, 613–614, 616
export of, 296, 539–544, 897–901
marketing of, 498–516, 948
indexes of, 353, 649
incomes, 686, 691, 698, 699
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
production of, 439, 447
consumption of, 613–614, 616
export of, 296, 539–544, 897–901
marketing of, 498–516, 948
indexes of, 353, 649
industry reserves, 515–516
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
production of, 439, 447
consumption of, 613–614, 616
export of, 296, 539–544, 897–901
marketing of, 498–516, 948
indexes of, 353, 649
machinery, 350, 365–366
imports of, 580, 582, 584, 585
production of, 439, 447
consumption of, 613–614, 616
export of, 296, 539–544, 897–901
marketing of, 498–516, 948
indexes of, 353, 649
ownership account, 716, 737
consumption of, 613–614, 616
export of, 296, 539–544, 897–901
marketing of, 498–516, 948
indexes of, 353, 649
produce—
consumption of, 613–614, 616
export of, 296, 539–544, 897–901
marketing of, 498–516, 948
indexes of, 353, 649
production, 201–202, 351–358, 366–391, 649, 891–893
indexes of, 353, 649
settlement and assistance, 267–269
subsidies, 364–365
tractors, 350, 365, 366
Farming, 24–25, 345–382, 623, 624, 629–632, 646–648, 649, 790–791, 891–893, 959, 964–966
arable, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 352, 353, 366–376, 891
cattle, 347, 349, 350, 377, 378, 380, 791, 892, 964, 965, 966
crops, 347, 349, 350, 352, 353, 366–376, 791
dairy, 345, 346, 347, 349, 350, 352, 353, 354–356, 368, 376, 377, 378, 380, 691, 696, 708, 791, 964, 965, 966
occupations, 349
sheep, 345, 346, 347, 349, 350, 352, 353, 368, 376, 377, 378, 379, 691, 696, 708, 791, 964, 965, 966
stud, 350
Fathers, ages of, 85
Federation of Labour, 511, 780, 781, 794
Feeding stuff for animals, export of, 557, 559, 560, 571, 575
Female suffrage, 912
Ferry services, 291, 300, 302, 303–304
Fertiliser—
imports of, 295, 576, 578, 582, 583
industry, 352, 437, 445, 455
land topdressed with, 362–363
research, 201–202, 207
sales, 524
spread from air, 329, 362–363
subsidy, 364–365
Fibreboard, 392, 393
Fibres, man-made, 435, 443
Film Commission, 214
Film-hire tax, 664
Filmmaking, 214
Finance—
account, capital, 618, 962
companies, 708, 710, 712–713, 719–721, 747
farm, 266, 708, 709, 736–737, 738
Government, 145, 146, 621, 623, 624, 627, 628–629, 630, 631, 632, 646–648, 651–683, 718, 736–741, 748, 750, 751, 754, 756, 866, 904–906, 953–958, 962
hospital board, 133
housing, 467, 739–741, 741–744
local government, 308–311, 684–701, 735, 907
Fines, 224
Fire—
boards, 767
calls, 245
insurance, 245, 753–754
losses, 753
prevention in forests, 387
regions, areas, and districts, 244
safety, 245
service, 244–247
Service Commission, 48, 244
Fires—
causes of, 245
on vessels, 298
properties involved in, 245–247
First births, 86–87
Fish, 5, 400–402, 435, 442, 600, 830
acclimatisation of, 405
and fisheries, 398–405
catch, 401–402
consumption of, 403, 613, 616
exported, 403, 404, 405, 556, 557, 558, 560, 572, 615
imported, 575
mercury level in, 403, 405
research, 399, 405
retail prices, 600
value of production, 401–402
Fishing, 398–405, 425, 736–738, 951, 959
big-game, 404–405, 830
foreign activity, 403
Government loans, 400, 736, 737, 738
grounds, 398–399
Industry Board, 400, 403
Industry Finance Committee, 400
methods, 398–399
persons engaged in, 771
vessels, 398, 399, 400
Vessel Ownership Accounts, 715, 716, 737
Flag, New Zealand, 845
Flats (see Houses and flats)—
pensioners', 461
Flax, linen, 435, 443, 658
Flood prevention, 5
Flour, production and retail price of, 454, 600
Fluoridation, 121
Food—
and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 34, 35, 616
and Drug Act, 114, 115
consumption, 613–617
household expenditure on, 609–612
imports of, 575, 578, 582, 583, 587
inspection and sale of, 115
production, 430, 431, 433, 434–435, 441–442, 454, 456, 457, 747
retail prices of, 600, 602
sales and stocks of, 517–519, 521–524, 527, 528, 533–536, 948, 949
subsidies, 617
Standards Committee, 115
Footwear and clothing, retail prices of, 600–601
Footwear industry, 430, 431, 433, 436, 443, 454, 577
Foreign Affairs, Ministry of, 28, 39, 199, 213, 844, 858, 860
expenditure on, 652, 656, 659, 660, 681, 954, 955, 957
Foreign citizenship, 73
Foreign fishing—
activity, 403
Vessel Entry Tax, 664
Foreign policy, 26–39
Foreign travel tax, 654, 664, 959
Forest—
beech, 1, 384, 385–386
conservation, 261, 387–388
exotic, 383, 384, 386, 397
fire prevention, 387
indigenous, 1, 383, 384, 385–386, 397
kauri, 384, 385
private, 388
produce exported, 393–395, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 570, 571, 572, 902
Research Institute, 388, 482
resources, 383–384
Service, 202, 261, 263, 385–388, 392, 395–396, 656, 659, 660, 687, 843, 858, 860–861, 869, 957
State, 261, 383, 384, 385–388, 681
utilisation, 388–393
Forestry, 1, 383–397, 649, 747, 785, 787–789, 811, 893, 951
development and future prospects of, 397, 425
employment, 396, 771
inter-industry transactions, 646–648
production accounts, 623, 624, 625, 629–632
research, 388, 395–396
training, 396
Forty-hour week, 801
Franchise, central government, 45, 912
Freehold land, 267, 268, 279, 348
Freight carried by—
air transport, 327, 328, 329, 330, 947
rail, 301, 890, 946
shipping, 293–297
Freshwater fisheries, 405, 830
Friendly societies, 153
Frost, 16, 17, 18, 20
Frozen foods—
consumption of, 614
export of, 557, 558, 565–567, 572, 615
production of, 454
Fruit—
berry, 373, 374–375, 614
citrus, 366, 367, 373, 374, 614
consumption of, 614, 616
export of, 297, 556, 557, 558, 570, 615, 900
imports of, 296, 587
industry, 346, 347, 349, 350, 352, 353, 361, 362, 363, 364, 366, 367, 368, 373–375, 435, 442, 454
juices, 587
marketing of, 361, 362, 509
pip, 366, 367, 373, 374, 375, 614, 615
stone, 367, 373, 374, 614
sub-tropical, 373, 374
Fruit and vegetable preserving industry, 366, 370, 435, 442, 454
Fuels and lubricants, imports of, 574, 575, 578, 582, 583
Furniture and fixtures industry, 430, 431, 433, 436, 444, 456, 457, 562, 577, 600, 948, 949

G

Gaming and lotteries, 838
Gas—
appliances in homes, 473
boards, 767
Council, 492
generation and supply, 406, 492–497
liquid petroleum, 407, 617
natural, 407, 412–413, 425, 476, 477, 486, 490, 492–497, 915, 916
prices, 600
subsidy, 495, 617
General—
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 32, 502, 588
Assembly Library, 217
Elections, 40, 43, 44–45, 841
nurses, 124
Price Index, 602–604, 951–952
Wage Orders, 780–784, 953
Genetic engineering, 201
Geological Survey, 203, 417–418
Geology, 7–9
maps and publications, 417–418, 922
Geothermal power, 203, 476, 480, 483–484, 485, 486, 914, 915
Geysers (see Thermal activity)
Gift duty, 654, 664, 673–674
Glaciers, 4, 8
Glass and glass products industry, 430, 432, 433, 438, 445
Glasshouses, production in, 371
Gleneagles Agreement, 916
Gold—
discovery of, 5, 911, 912,
mining and production, 407, 415
reserve, 703, 724, 730, 903
Government—
departments (see Departments, Government)
employees, 865, 866–867, 945
finance, 145, 146, 621, 623, 624, 627, 628–629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 651–683, 718, 736–741, 748, 750, 751, 754, 756, 866, 904–906, 953–958, 962
housing, 459, 461, 470–471, 741
Life Insurance Office, 683, 858, 861
Printing Office, 656, 858, 861, 957
securities, 657–658, 716, 717, 718, 748, 750, 751, 754, 756
Superannuation Fund, 163–166, 683
system of, 39–50
Governors-General, 846–847
power, duties, etc., 24, 40, 41, 43, 44, 46, 222–223, 237
Graduates, university, 185, 192
Grain—
crops, 366, 367, 368, 369, 891
milling, 435, 442
Grants (see also Subsidies)—
from lottery profits, 130, 205, 213, 214, 838, 844
various, 179, 196–197, 205, 206, 213, 214, 270, 273, 763, 823, 825, 844
welfare services, 113, 130, 468, 469
Grapes and vineyards, 366, 367, 373, 375, 510
Grass and clover seed, 366, 371, 372
exports of, 557, 559, 900
Grasses and grasslands, 345–347, 348, 349, 362, 363, 964, 965
Grasslands and grasses research, 201, 207
Greenstone, 407, 416
Groceries, retail prices of, 600
Gross—
domestic product, 602, 618, 619, 620, 623–629, 649–650, 961
of Central Government, 636–637, 678–683, 906, 955
of local government, 688–690, 907
fixed capital formation, 619, 620, 621, 629–633, 961, 962
of Central Government, 636–637, 678–683, 906, 955
of local government, 688–690, 907
indebtedness—
of Central Government, 636–637, 678–683, 906, 955
of local government, 688–690, 907
national product, 172, 311, 620, 905
Guardianship, 157

H

Hail, 15
Halloysite, 416
Handicapped children, 117, 152, 154, 177
Harbour boards, 48, 685, 686, 689, 690, 767
Harbour Bridge Authority, 48, 306–307, 310, 689, 767
Harbours (see also ports), 2
Health, 112–142
benefits, 113, 126–129, 145, 146
Board of, 113
camps, 117, 130
child, 117
dental, 120–121
Department of, 112–142, 144, 206, 819, 858, 861, 867
education, 117–120, 184
expenditure, 113, 652, 653, 657, 659, 660, 661, 681, 905, 954, 955, 958
family, 116–117
hazards, 116
insurance, 153
management services and research unit, 122
mental, 134, 139–141
occupational, 115–116, 819
Pacific Islanders, 821, 825
statistics, 122
Heart disease, 95, 96–97, 118–120, 136
Heavy traffic fees, 308
Heights and weights of children, 141–142
Herbicides, 266
Hides, skins, and pelts exported, 296, 498, 555, 557, 559, 569–570, 575, 901
High Commissions, 874–877
High Priority Activities Scheme, 426
Higher Salaries Commission, 42, 782
Higher School Certificate, 176
Highways, 306, 307, 309–310, 458, 662, 958
taxation, 653, 654, 662, 664, 666, 953, 955, 958
Hire purchase trade, 519, 537–538, 708, 710, 712–713, 949
Historic Places Trust, 213, 216–217, 272
Historic reserves, 272
Historical works, 928
History of New Zealand, 22–28, 911–916, 928–929
Holidays, public, 801, 843
Home nursing services, 127
Home ownership account, 716
Homes—
accidents in, 104, 138, 814
children's, 144, 154–155, 157
joint family, 471–472
old people's, 130
Homicide, 102, 103, 104, 138, 227, 813
Honey, 361, 362, 382, 510–511, 587, 600, 615
Honours conferred, 871–874
Hops and hop gardens, 367, 373, 376
Horse racing, 677
Horticulture, 346, 349, 350, 352, 353, 362, 363
Hospital—
accommodation, 131
benefits, 126–129, 146
Boards, 48, 131, 133
districts, 131
employees, 132–133, 865
expenditure, 133
finances of, 133
indebtedness of, 133
Hospitals (see also Patients), 130–141, 245, 462, 463, 472, 865
beds in, 131–132
deaths in, 135–137, 139
general, 118, 132
maternity, 116–117, 132
old people's, 130
private, 126, 130–131, 134
psychiatric, 118, 126, 132, 134, 139–141, 157
public, 134–139
staff of, 132–133, 814, 865
waiting lists, 132
Hostels, 245, 462, 463, 469–470, 762
pre-release, 236
Hot springs, 830
Hotels, licensed, 517, 828–829, 839–841
Hours of work, 785–786, 801
Hours worked, manufacturing industries, 455, 456, 457
House of Representatives, 40–44, 45, 841, 850, 911
members of, 41, 42–43, 841, 850
Households, 74–77, 472–475
age group of head, 76, 611
employment status of head, 75
expenditure, 592–612
incomes of, 76–77, 610, 611, 701
motorcar ownership by, 315
size of, 74–77, 612
Survey, 609–612
type of, 74–75
Houses and flats (see also dwellings), 458–475, 739–741, 947
census enumerations, 472–475
completed, 461, 947
conversion to flats, 461
finance of, 461, 467, 468, 469, 470–471, 739–741, 741–744
mortgages, 468, 469, 959
sale of State, 739–741
State, 459, 470–471, 739–741
Housing (see also Building and construction), 458–475, 596, 598, 599, 739–741, 947
bonds, 714, 716
household expenditure on, 609–612
Maori, 469–470
of elderly, 130, 468, 469, 687, 739
rural, 469
Housing Commission, 458, 459
Housing Corporation, 163, 461, 467, 468, 470–471, 480, 654, 655, 657, 658, 680, 681, 947, 957, 710, 711, 716, 739–741, 858, 861, 869
Human Rights Commission, 832
Humidity, 16–17
Hunting, 831
Hydro-electric power, 4, 5, 476, 480, 483–486
water sources, 4, 5
Hygiene, 112–114

I

Ice cream, 434, 442, 454, 613
Ilmenite, 406, 413
Immigration, 54, 66–72, 945, 946
ages of migrants, 68
assisted, 70–71
hostels, 762
original, 23–24
policy, 70–72
Immunisation, 112, 117, 120
Import price indexes, 605–606, 608, 609, 885, 886
Imports, 294, 295–296, 330, 539–554, 574–587, 620, 622, 646–648, 726, 727, 896
by air, 330
by end use, 584–586
by ports, 294, 295–296, 586
classification of, 574–577
licensing and control of, 551–552, 959
origin of, 540–545, 546–550, 578–581
pulp and paper, 394, 395, 579
timber, 394, 395
value of, 545–550, 574–581, 583–587, 726, 727, 950, 960, 962, 963
volume index numbers, 550–551
volume of, 582–583
Income—
assessable, 696, 697, 699
company, 696, 697–699
earners in each household, 701
industrial classification of, 691, 696, 698, 699
investment, 691, 695, 746
national disposable, 618, 620, 621, 665, 961, 962
of households in household survey, 610, 611
of individuals, 691–696, 697, 700–701
of salary and wage earners, 691, 694
of self employed, 691, 692, 693, 696
of women, 700
sources of, 691, 696, 698, 699 Income tax, 653, 654, 664, 665, 666–671, 691–701, 953, 955, 959
Indebtedness (see Debt)
Index numbers of—
building and construction, 649
commodity prices, 594–599, 601
consumers prices, 594–599, 601, 790, 886, 887
employment, 650
export prices, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
external trade, volume of, 550–551, 605–606
farm production, value and volume, 353
farming costs prices, 605
general price, 602–604
gross domestic product, 649
import prices, 605–606, 608, 609, 885, 886
reproduction, 84
retail prices, 594–599, 601, 790, 886, 887, 950–951
retail turnover, 533–534
share prices, 609, 886, 887
terms of trade, 608, 885
urban house property and section price, 468
wage rates, 786–790, 887, 952–953
wholesale prices, 885, 886
wool prices, 512, 948
Indigenous forest, 383, 384, 385–386, 397
Industrial—
and Staff Tribunals, 780
associations, 797
conciliation and arbitration, 792–794, 797–800
Conciliation Service, 793
Design Council, 428, 833–834
development, 424–425, 428
disputes, 792–794, 888, 913, 914
distribution of population, 770, 771–772
injuries, 809, 810, 811–812
Mediation Service, 793
production, 421–457, 894
relations, 781, 792–804
research, 203, 204, 208, 428
safety, 805–819
stoppages, 792–794, 797–800, 888
unions, 793–794, 795–796
Industrial accidents, 104, 809, 810, 811–812
deaths from, 104, 811–812
Industries—
bank advances to, 708, 709
aids to development, 426–428
export earnings, 425, 725, 727, 960
Development Commission, 426, 553
aids to development, 426–428
export earnings, 425, 725, 727, 960
manufacturing, 421–457, 894
aids to development, 426–428
export earnings, 425, 725, 727, 960
Industry—
environmental protection, 263–264
persons engaged in, 429–431, 434–441, 449–453, 759, 760, 767, 894
State aid to, 652, 653, 656, 659, 660, 661, 737, 740
wages and overtime, 429, 431–432, 434–441, 449–453, 785–786, 894, 952–953
Infant mortality, 99–100, 882
Injuries, industrial, 809, 810, 811–812
Inland Revenue Department, 655, 858, 861, 956
Insecticides, 329, 266
Insects and fungi, control in forests, 398
Insolvency, 910
Instalment credit trading, 537–538, 949
Instruments, duty on, 664
Insurance, 748–757
accident, 320, 751–752
agricultural, 352
earthquake and war damage, 756–757
fire, 753–754
industry, 772, 786, 787–789, 812
life, 713, 748–751, 755–756
overseas exchange transactions, 725, 726
sickness, 153, 668
State, 683, 755–757, 808, 858, 864
Insulation of dwellings, 475
Intellectually handicapped children, 117, 154, 177–178
Intelligence service, 255, 655, 858
Inter-departmental Committee on Resettlement, 71
Inter-industry studies and sector accounts, 644–648
Inter-island shipping service, 291
Interest—
controls, on rates, 713
fixed deposits, 707, 713, 719
mortgages, 909
public debt, 688
credit by savings banks, 714, 716, 717, 718, 908
fixed deposits, 707, 713, 719
mortgages, 909
public debt, 688
on local government debt, 688
fixed deposits, 707, 713, 719
mortgages, 909
public debt, 688
on public debt, 654, 680–681, 682
fixed deposits, 707, 713, 719
mortgages, 909
public debt, 688
rates on—
fixed deposits, 707, 713, 719
mortgages, 909
public debt, 688
savings banks, 714, 716, 717, 718, 908
stock and station deposits, 719
Internal Affairs, Department of, 213, 655, 657, 819, 858, 861–862, 870, 956, 957
Internal migration, 80
International—
air services, 325, 326, 329–330
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 34
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, (World Bank), 35, 635, 657, 658, 679, 680, 681, 729–730, 914
Coffee Agreement, 591
Development Association, 730
education, 199
Energy Agency, 29, 479, 482–483
Finance Corporation, 35, 635, 729–730, 914
indicators of standards of living, 837
investment income, 725
Labour Organisation (ILO), 34, 35
Monetary Fund, 35, 39, 633, 635, 657, 658, 680, 722, 723–724, 726, 727, 728, 729–730, 903, 914, 960
relations, New Zealand's, 26–36
Sugar Agreement, 591
telephone service, 334
Wool Secretariat, 359–360, 501, 509
Year of the Child (IYC), 938–944
International comparisons—
birth and natural increase rates, 82
consumption of foodstuffs, 616, 837
dairy produce, 503
deaths of pre-school children, 101
doctors and dentists to population ratio, 123
energy consumption, 483
expectation of life, 94
fish consumption, 403
heights and weights, 142
infant mortality rates, 99
libraries, 220–221
life assurance, 748
marriage rates, 105
motor accident death and injury rates, 319
newspapers, 341
population, 53–54, 81, 82
prices, 601–602
public expenditure on education, 172, 837
research expenditure, 210
sheep numbers, 501
standards of living, 837
telephones, 333, 837
wholesale prices, 604
women in the labour force, 775–776
wool consumption, 501, 837
wool production, 501
Invalids' benefits, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 153
Investment—
and finance, 732–747
in New Zealand and overseas, 640–644, 653, 705
incomes, 691, 695, 746
Pool—National Provident Fund, 167
Reserve Bank, 705
societies, 741–744
State, 680–681
Invisible imports and exports, 725, 726, 727
Iron and steel—
exports of, 557, 558, 559, 561
imports of, 295, 576, 579, 582, 584
industry, 413, 431, 432, 434, 438, 446
Iron ores and ironsands, 297, 406, 407, 413
Irrigation, 363
Islands, 1, 2, 820–825

J

Japan—
exports to, 540, 545, 546, 550, 562, 563, 565–572, 573
imports to, 540, 545, 546, 550, 577, 578–581
trade relations with, 30–31, 499, 500, 501, 505, 539, 540, 542, 590, 638, 640, 916
Job programmes, 761, 762, 945
Johnson report, 184
Joinery industry, 436, 444
Joint family homes, 471–472
Judiciary, 44, 164, 165, 222, 856–857
Juries, 223–224
Justice, 222–242, 884
Department of, 157, 177, 224, 276, 858, 862, 868, 956
Juvenile—
delinquency, 154, 155–157
offenders, 155–157, 237–239
working conditions, 801, 802, 803

K

Kauri, 384, 385, 416
Kermadec Islands, 1, 2, 10, 917
Kindergarten schools, 174, 175, 178
Kiwifruit, 373, 374
Knitting mills and hosiery industry, 435, 443
Kraft paper and cardboard, exports of, 558, 559, 570

L

Laboratory diagnostic services, 127, 129
Labour—
Department of, 112, 115, 144, 475, 656, 762, 784, 818, 858, 862, 870, 957
distribution of, 770–777
educational qualifications of, 777–778
projections, 760–761
force, 429–431, 434–441, 449–453, 516, 518, 519, 524, 525, 526, 530, 758–779, 888
distribution of, 770–777
educational qualifications of, 777–778
projections, 760–761
hours, 801
laws and working conditions, 780–784, 792–794, 800–804, 805
Lactose, 354
Lakes, 5–6, 259, 261, 483, 484, 485, 486
Lamb—
consumption, 613
exported, 498, 499, 500, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 556, 558, 566, 615, 898
London prices for meat, 513–514
production, 345–347, 356, 357, 376, 377, 378, 379, 965
retail price of, 600
Lambs, 378, 379
slaughtered, 357
Land, 256–283
capital value of, 282–283
classification by farm types, 349, 964
classification for soil conservation, 265
conservation, 257
Crown, 267–274, 277
development, 256–283, 471, 632–633
drainage boards, 48, 767
freehold, 267, 268, 279
holdings, 348, 349, 363, 964, 965
marginal leasing, 266, 279
Maori, 259, 261, 274–275, 277, 386
occupied, 348–349, 964, 965
public, 267–274
registration, 276–277
Settlement Board, 267–269
settlement promotion, 268–269, 277–278, 658, 659, 681
surveys, 275–276
tax, 654, 664, 671, 953
tenure, 267–268, 276–277, 348, 824–825
transfers, 278–280, 909, 959
use, 256–283, 348, 652, 656, 659, 660, 661, 824–825, 964, 965
Use Advisory Council, 258
Valuation Court (see Supreme Court)
valuation of, 280–283, 684
Lands and Survey Department, 258, 269, 275–276, 656, 659, 660, 858, 862, 869, 957
Landslip claims, 757
Latin America, relations with, 33–34
Law (see Legislation)
and order, 222–247, 652, 655, 658, 660, 661, 884, 954, 956
and the family, 240–242
publications, 919–920
Reform Council, 222
revision of, 222
Lawn mowers, 454, 600
Lead, 415
Leasehold land holdings, 268, 279, 348
Leather and leather products, 430, 431, 433, 436, 443, 559, 561, 576
Legal aid, 240
Legal profession, 224, 696
Legal tender, 722
Legislation—
civil aviation, 326
in force in January 1979, 851–856
labour and allied, 780–784, 792–794, 800–804, 805, 953
passed in 1978, 851
publications, 919–920
Legislative authority, 40–41
Letters, etc., posted, 331–332, 889
Libraries, census of, 218–220
Library school, 218
Library services, 186, 217–221, 236, 687, 842
Licences—
air service, 326
caterers', 839
drivers', 311–312, 320
export, 551–552
general ancillary, 839
hotel premises, 839
import, 551–552, 959
motor-vehicle, 311–314, 946
petroleum prospecting, 412
publicans', 839–841
radio and television, 340
restaurant, 839–841
tavern, 839
tourist house, 839
transport, 314–315
Licensing—
authorities (road services), 314–315
Control Commission (liquor), 839–841
poll, 841
trusts, 840–841
Licensing of—
commercial air services, 326
goods and passenger services, 314–315
lotteries and raffles, 838
motor vehicles, 311–314, 315, 946
private hospitals, 130, 131, 134
sale of alcoholic liquor, 838–841
shipping vessels, 398
Life, expectation of, 92–94
Life insurance, 713, 748–751, 755–756
Life Tables, 92–94
Lifts, inspection of, 819
Lighthouses, 298
Lime—
for agriculture, 352, 364, 365
industry, 438, 446
spread from air, 329, 362–363
Limestone, 407
Linen flax, 435, 443, 658
Linseed, 371
Liquid Fuels Trust Board, 482
Liquid petroleum gas (LPG), 407, 617
Liquor licensing, 838–841
Literary awards, 214–216
Livestock, 357, 376–382, 892, 964, 965, 966
Loans—
allocation of, 680–681, 720
by building societies, 741–744
dates of maturity, 682
domicile of, 906
farm, 736–737, 738
forestry, 388
hospital boards, 133
housing, 461, 715, 739–741
National Development, 654, 657–658, 662, 678, 680–681
of local government, 688–689, 907
on assurance policies, 750, 751, 756
overseas, 678, 679, 682
redemption of, 657, 660, 662, 681, 679, 956, 958
Local Authorities Loans Board, 469, 688
Local authorities (see under Local Government and individual names, e.g., Hospital Boards, Counties, etc.)
Local Government, 46–48, 684–690, 871
Act, 46, 47, 48, 259
advances to, 468, 740
Commission, 46, 48–49
debt of, 688–690, 907
district, 46–48, 59
employees of, 767, 945
expenditure of, 310, 311, 685–687, 907
finance of, 308–311, 684–701, 735, 907
franchise, 49
health and welfare responsibilities of, 114, 461
housing by, 461
investment pool, 167
number of local authorities, 48
powers of, 47, 49
rates, 684–685, 686
revenue of, 309, 310, 311, 685–687, 907
roading of, 306, 308, 310–311, 662
subsidies and grants to, 309, 310, 311, 461, 662, 685, 686, 687–688
subsidised work with, 761
superannuation, 167
taxation, 684–685, 686
urban transport operated by, 322–325
voting, 49
Lockouts, 797
Locomotives, 301
Logging, 203, 388–390
London prices for meat, 513–514
Lotteries, 838
duty on, 664, 838
grants, 130, 205, 213, 214, 838, 844
Lubricants and fuels, imports of, 574, 575, 578, 582, 583
Lucerne, 371, 372

M

Machinery—
accidents, 817
Act, 818
electrical, 431, 432, 434, 440, 447, 448, 454, 559, 576, 580, 582, 584
exports, 559, 561
farm, 350, 365–366, 439, 447, 580, 582, 584, 585
imports of, 295, 579–581, 582, 584, 585
industry, 431, 432, 434, 439–440, 447, 448, 454, 747
safety of, 819
Magistrates' Courts, 222, 223, 227–231, 239–240, 243, 884
Magistrates, Stipendiary, 44, 223
Mail, 331–332, 889
air, 327, 331–332, 947
Maize, 366, 367, 368, 369, 372, 557, 558
Malls, shopping, 524–525
Manganese ore, 415
Manila Treaty, 28
Manufacturing industries, 421–457, 894, 947, 951
accidents at work, 811
ancillary units, 429, 430–431, 434–441, 449–453
capital expenditure in, 429, 433–434, 441–449, 452–453, 455, 456, 947
Census of, 428–453, 455
coal consumed in, 411
depreciation, 429, 441–449, 453
development, 421–425, 427, 428
economic indicators, 455–457, 947
employment districts, 452–453
establishments, 429, 430–431, 434–441, 449–453, 894
export earnings, 425, 561–562, 725, 727
finance, 708, 709
geographical distribution, 449–452
gross domestic product, 623, 624, 625–626, 649
gross fixed capital formation, 629–632
hours worked, 455, 456–457, 947
incomes, 691, 696, 698, 699
inter-industry transactions, 646–648
labour force, 770, 771, 785, 787, 788, 789
net profits, 747
output, 625–626
overseas investment in, 643
persons engaged in 429–431, 434–441, 449–453, 760, 771, 894
production accounts, 623, 624, 625–626
properties involved in fires, 246
purchases and other expenses, 429, 431–432, 441–449, 452, 453, 455, 456, 457, 894, 947
sales, 455–456, 947
stocks, 455–456, 947
stoppages, 798–799
summary of operations, 428–434, 894
turnover, 429, 431–432, 441–449, 452, 453
unions, 795, 796
value added, 429, 433–434, 441–453, 894
wages in, 429, 431–432, 434–441, 449–453, 455, 456, 457, 785–786, 787–789, 894, 947
Maori (see also Maoris)—
Affairs, Department of, 158, 274, 469–170, 657, 659, 660, 844, 858, 862, 869, 957
Appellate Court, 223, 277
apprentices registered, 765–766
birth rate, 82, 83
community officers, 158
community services programme, 158
Council, 158, 273
death rates, 82, 90, 91, 99, 100
education, 179, 180, 181, 197–198, 941–943
Education Foundation, 197
electorates, 45, 850
housing, 469–470
Land Court, 164, 223, 274, 277
lands, 259, 261, 274–275, 277, 386
language teaching, 182, 939, 941
life expectancy, 93–94
Members of Parliament, 850, 912
population, 53, 62, 64–65, 92, 93–94, 940
pupils, 179, 180, 181, 197–198
Purposes Act 1951, 105
Trustee, 274–275, 683
wardens, 158
welfare organisations, 158
Women's Welfare League, 158
youths, trade training for, 765–766
Maoris (see also Maori)—
births of, 82, 83
children attending schools, 179, 180, 181, 941–943
deaths of, 82, 90, 91, 92, 99, 100
franchise, 45
history of, 22–24
infant mortality of, 99–100
natural increase of, 82
pre-employment courses, 765–766
publications and articles on, 921
scholarships for, 170, 197–198
settled on farms, 274
smoking habits of, 119
urbanisation of, 65
Maps—
factory production, 450, 451
mineral resources, 408, 414
rainfall, 15
topographical, 276
Marginal land, 266
Marine officers certificates, 297, 802
Marine pollution, 265, 298
Marital status, 73–74, 77, 105, 106, 107
Maritime parks, 260–261, 272
Maritime planning, 259–260
Market gardens, 346, 349, 350, 366, 368, 370, 371, 373, 377, 791, 964, 965
Marketing, 498–538
Marriage guidance, 110–111
Marriages, 105–111, 882
age of persons, 106–107
dissolution and nullity, 108–110
rates, 105
Married women in the labour force, 776–777
Materials used in manufacturing industries, 429, 431–432, 441–453, 894
Maternal deaths, 100–101
Maternal welfare, 116–117, 127, 129
Maternity—
benefits, 127, 128, 146
hospitals, 116–117, 127
Meat—
consumption of, 613, 616
export of, 294, 296, 357, 498, 499–500, 506, 507, 508–509, 551, 555, 556, 558, 560, 565–567, 615, 898, 949, 960
export price index, 606
freezing and preserving industry, 434, 441, 708, 798, 959
Industry Reserve Account, 516, 683
inspection of, 361
levy on, 508
marketing of, 499–500, 506, 507, 508–509
overseas exchange transactions on, 725–727
prices of, 513, 600
production, 356–358, 361, 434, 441, 893
retail prices, 600
Meat Producers Board, New Zealand, 357, 358, 359, 500, 508, 514
Mediation, industrial, 793
Medical—
advertising, 114–115
benefits, 126–129, 145, 146
care societies, 153
Council, 123
practitioners, 123, 126, 132, 696
Research Council, 113, 121, 122
services, 112–130
Medicine, physical, 121
Members of Parliament, 41, 42–43, 841, 850
salaries of, 42–43
superannuation of, 165
Mental—
diseases, 135, 141
health and psychology publications, 139
health services, 134, 139–141
hospitals, 134, 139–141
Merchant banks, 721
Merchant navy qualifications, 297
Mercury, 415
Mercury level in fish, 403, 405
Metal products industry, 431, 432, 434, 439, 446–447, 456–457, 558, 559, 561, 603, 604, 708
Meteorological—
observations for year, 17–21
publications, 12
Service, 205, 482
Meteorology (see also Climate), 12–21
Metrication, 832
Middle East—
relations with, 30
trade with, 500, 540, 543, 548
Midwives, 124
Migration, external, 51, 52, 53, 54, 66–70, 826–827, 828, 881, 945–946
ages of migrants, 68
internal, 80
occupations of migrants, 68–69, 946
Mileage of—
bus, etc., routes, 325
commercial air services, 327, 328
railways, 299, 890
roads, 306, 310
State highways and motorways, 306, 310
Mileage tax, 308, 664, 666
Military forces, 251–252
Milk—
Board, 510, 513
consumption, 613, 616
dried and condensed, exports of, 557, 558, 568, 899
dried and condensed, production of, 354, 454
levy on, 510
marketing of, 356, 498, 510
production and processing, 354, 355, 356, 434, 442, 454
subsidy, 510, 513, 617
Milkfat, 354, 355, 502, 503, 512, 513, 893
Milking machines, 365, 366
Mineral Resources Council, 406
Minerals and mineral production, 406–420, 430, 432, 433, 438, 446
imports of, 575, 576, 579, 582, 583
Miners' benefits, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150
Minimum wage, 790
Mining and quarrying, 263, 406–420, 603, 604, 623, 624, 625, 629, 632, 646–648, 649, 698, 699, 708, 709, 770, 785, 787–789, 795, 796, 798, 951
accidents, 104, 811
legislation, 409, 802–803
overseas investment in, 643
persons engaged in, 411, 760, 771
State aid to, 417, 656, 659, 660
taxation, 699
value of production, 407
Mining and quarrying, census of, 418–420
Ministers of each Church, and marriages by, 108
Ministers of the Crown, 42, 43, 849
Ministers, successive, 847–848
Minors, marriages of, 107
Molybdenum, 415
Monarch, the, 43
Monetary and Economic Council, 285, 731
Monetary policy, 710–712
Money orders, 332, 889
Money supply, 709–710, 721
Mortality (see Deaths)
Mortgage guarantee scheme, 467, 737, 740
Mortgages, 468, 718, 732–735, 750, 751, 754, 756, 909, 959
building societies, 742, 743, 744
discharged, 909
Housing Corporation, 468, 739–741
rates of interest on, 733–735, 909
R.B.F.C., 736–738
registered, 909
sources of finance, 735
Mothers—
ages of, 85–86, 87, 88
in ex-nuptial cases, 88
issue of, 85–86
Motor cycles, 312, 440, 448
Motor spirits—
consumption of, 312–313
imports of, 295, 578, 582, 583
price of, 601, 604
taxation on, 308, 653, 654, 662, 663, 666, 684, 688, 953, 955, 958
Motor vehicles—
accidents, 95, 101, 102, 103, 137, 317–319, 813, 814, 815, 816
assembly of, 424, 440, 448, 454
drivers' licences, 312, 320
imports of, 295, 581, 583, 584
inspection of, 320
numbers of, 306, 307, 312, 837
registration and licensing of, 311–314, 946
sales, 523
taxation, 311–312, 654, 664, 953, 955, 958
value of hire purchase sales, 538, 949
Motorways, 306, 309, 310
Mount Cook Airlines, 325
Mountaineering, 831, 925
Mountains, 1, 2–3, 7–9, 269
Multiple births, 85
Murder, 102, 103, 138, 227
Museums, 186, 213, 214, 767
Mutton—
consumption of, 613
exported, 498, 499, 539, 542, 556, 558, 566, 615, 898
produced, 356, 357
retail prices of, 600

N

Narcotics, 115, 228
Nassella tussock boards, 48, 364, 767
National—
accounts, 618–633, 904–906, 961–963
Airways Corporation, 325, 326, 327–328, 658, 680, 681
Anthems, 844–845
Archives, 216–217
Art Gallery and Museum, 213, 216
Audiology Centre, 114, 116
Cancer Registry, 97
Council of Adult Education, 198
disposable income, 618, 620, 621, 665, 961, 962
Development Bonds, 667, 716
Development Council, 284, 286
Development Loans Account, 303, 336, 654, 657–658, 659, 662, 678, 680–681
Drug Intelligence Bureau, 115
Film Library, 186
flag, 845
Health Institute, 122
Health Statistics Centre, 122
Housing Commission, 458, 459
Library of New Zealand, 171, 186, 217–218, 842
licensing poll, 841
Marriage Guidance Council, 110–111
parks, 260–261, 269–271, 484
planning, 200, 259, 284–287
Provident Fund, 163, 166–168, 683
Radiation Laboratory, 116
Research Advisory Council, 208–209, 249, 482
Roads Board, 48, 307–311, 687
Roads Fund, 307–311, 662, 664, 666, 958
superannuation, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 167, 916
Water and Soil Conservation Authority, 264, 265
Youth Council, 844
Natural gas, 407, 412–413, 425, 476, 477, 486, 490, 492–497, 915, 916
Natural Gas Corporation, 658, 661, 681
Natural increase of population, 51, 82, 881
Natural resources, 256, 383–384, 406–420, 424
Nature Conservation Council, 263
Nature Reserves, 272
Nautical schools, 297
Naval (see also Royal New Zealand Navy)
bases, 250
defence, 250–251
vessels, 250
Navigational aids, air, 326–327
Navigational aids, sea, 298
Net value added in manufacturing, 429, 433–434, 441–453, 894
Netherlands, immigration from, 70
New Zealand—
Aluminium Smelters Ltd., 423
Apple and Pear Marketing Board, 362, 509
area of, 2, 56, 58–61, 64, 257
Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 33, 424, 539, 540, 543–544, 589, 914, 915
Authors' Fund, 213
Ballet Company, 214
books, 917–930
boundaries of, 1–2
Broadcasting Corporation of, 213, 337, 655, 658, 661, 680, 956
Cadet Forces, 254
Citrus Marketing Authority, 510
constitution, 39–40
Council for Educational Research, 196
Council for Recreation and Sport, 844
Dairy Board, 355, 502, 508
Egg Marketing Authority, 510
Energy Research and Development Committee, 479, 482
Export-Import Corporation, 427, 554, 658, 680
Film Commission, 214
Fire Service, 244–247
Fire Service Commission, 48, 244
Forest Products Ltd., 390–391, 423–425
Forest Service, 202, 261, 26$$, 385–388, 392, 395–396, 656, 659, 660, 687, 843, 858, 860–861, 869
Gazette, 45
Government Savings Stock, 712
Historic Places Trust, 213, 216–217, 272
in the Commonwealth, 28–29
international relations, 26–36
Japan Exchange Programme, 199
Listener, 337, 340
Literary Fund, 213, 214
literature, 917–930
Meat Producers Board, 357, 358, 359, 500, 508, 514
Milk Board, 510, 513
Mountain Safety Council, 844
National Airways Corporation, 325, 326, 327-328, 658, 680, 681
Planning Council, 284–285, 916
population, 52
Ports Authority, 290
Potato Board, 509–510
Red Cross Society, 130
register of shipping, 292
representation overseas, 874–877
Shipping Corporation, 291–292, 658, 680, 822
Standard Industrial Classification, 428, 455, 456, 457, 622
Standards Association, 427
Steel Ltd., 423, 658, 680, 681
System of National Accounts, 618
Symphony Orchestra, 213, 337, 339–340
Technical Correspondence Institute, 170, 174, 194, 195–196, 199
Water Safety Council, 104, 844
Wheat Board, 369
Wool Board, 358, 359–360, 364, 500, 509, 511, 516, 916
Newspapers, 341–342
Newsprint—
exports of, 297, 394, 395, 556, 557, 559, 572, 902
imports of, 395
production, 390–392
Niue Island, 10, 22, 28–29, 31, 32, 37, 52, 70, 71, 164, 186, 335, 426–427, 541–542, 545, 573, 587., 820, 823, 915
immigrants from, 70
Noise control, 114
Non-ferrous metals industries, 431, 432, 434, 439, 446
Note issue, 703, 704
Notes in circulation, 704, 706
Noxious animals, 387
Nuclear power, 480
Nursing and nurses, 113, 116, 117, 120, 122, 123–124, 133
Nutrition, 115, 200

O

Oats, 366, 367, 368, 369, 604, 614, 891
Obstetric nurses, 124
Occupational—
health, 115–116, 819
safety, 803, 818–819
therapy, 121, 124, 132
Occupational classification of—
bankrupts, 836, 837
population, 770, 773–775, 777–778, 946
unemployed, 769
Occupied land, 348–349, 964, 965
Oceanographic Institute, 205, 266
Offices Act, Shops and, 801–802
Official Development Assistance (ODA), 36–39
Offshore Mining Co., 658, 680
Oil—
consumption, 476, 477, 478
drilling and prospecting, 406, 412, 418, 420, 479
imports of, 295
refineries, 438, 445, 478, 914
usage, 477, 478, 959
Oils and fats, vegetable, 435, 442
Old peoples' homes, 130
Ombudsmen (Parliamentary Commissioners), 441, 857
Onions, 366, 370, 371, 600, 614
exports of, 557, 558, 615
Openspace resources, 273
Opticians, registrations of, 124
Optometrists, registration of, 124
Orchards, 346, 349, 350, 366, 367, 373–374, 377, 791, 964, 965
Orchestras, N.Z. Symphony, National Youth, 213, 337, 339–340
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 29, 199, 482, 502, 546–547, 639, 640
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 30, 478–479
Orphans benefits, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150
Orthopaedic implants, 128
Ottawa Agreement, 587
Outpatients, 132
Outward Bound School, 844
Overseas—
Aid Programme, 36–39, 199
companies, 640–644, 698–699
exchange transactions, 703, 725–729, 960
Investment Commission, 424
investment, 640–644, 653, 698–699, 705, 729
representatives in New Zealand and New Zealand representatives overseas, 553, 874–879
reserves (banks), 724, 903
students, 175, 189, 190, 191
territories (see Island territories), 820–825
trade, 539–591, 870, 896–902
travel allowances, 728
Overtime, 494, 785–786
Oysters, 398, 399, 402, 404

P

Pacific Island Polynesians, 79, 940–943
Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme, 426
Pacific Islands (see individual islands)
Pacific Islands shipping service, 291
Pacific orientation, 31–33
Paint and varnish industry, 437, 445, 466
Paper and paper products industry, 389, 390–392, 423, 425, 426, 430, 432, 433, 437, 444, 455, 456, 457, 708, 951
Paper and pulp—
export of, 297, 393–395, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 570, 571, 572, 902
import of, 393–395, 575, 576, 579, 582, 583
Parcel post, 332
Parents—
ages of, 85
births to, by duration of marriages, 86–87
previous issue of, 86
solo, 148, 149–150, 160
Parks, National, 260–261, 269–271, 484
Parliament, 40–44, 222, 850, 911
Members of, 41, 42–43, 841, 850
term of, 841
Parliamentary—
Commissioners (Ombudsmen), 44, 857
elections, 44–45, 841
functions and controls, 40–41
procedure, 49–41
salaries, 42–43
Superannuation, 165
Parole boards, 237
Particle board, 392, 393, 423
Passenger services—
railway, 300, 302, 890
road, 300, 302, 305, 314–315, 322–325
urban local authority, 322–325, 687, 688
Passengers—
buses, etc., 305, 315, 323
commercial aircraft, 327, 328, 329, 947
overseas, 66–70, 826–827, 828, 945
railway, 300, 890, 946
Passports, 72–73
Pasture grasses, 366, 371, 372
Patents, designs, trade marks, 832–833
Patients—
psychiatric hospitals, 139–141
in public hospitals, 134–139
Paua, 405
PAYE taxation, 667, 914
Payments, balance of (see Balance of payments)
Pears, 366, 367, 373, 374, 375, 509
consumption of, 614
export of, 615, 900
marketing of, 362, 509
Peas, 366, 367, 368, 370, 372, 600, 891
export of, 557, 558
Peat wax, 406, 417
Penal institutions, 232, 233–237
Penal system, 224–225, 232, 233–237
Pensions—
social welfare, 143–149, 152–153
war, 153, 159–163, 667, 905
Perinatal mortality, 99–100
Periodic detention, 224–225, 229
Perlite, 407, 416
Permanent heads of departments, 857–858
Permits, building, 461–465, 947
Personal safety, 805–819
Pest destruction boards, 48, 685, 686, 689, 767
Pests and pesticides, 138, 201, 202, 266, 329, 364, 437, 445
Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand Ltd., 479, 680
Petroleum (see also Motor Spirit), 407, 412
exports of, 557, 559, 561
imports of, 575, 578, 582, 583
industry, 430, 432, 433, 438, 445, 478
prospecting, 412
usage of, 478
wholesale distribution of, 528–530
Pharmaceutical benefits, 126, 129, 145, 146
Pharmaceutical chemists, 125
Pharmaceutical Society, Council of, 125
Pharmaceuticals, manufacturing of, 437, 445
Phosphate rock, 416, 578, 582, 583
Physical environment, 205, 256–266
Physical medicine, 121
Physical welfare and recreation, 830–831
Physiotherapists, 121, 124, 132
Physiotherapy benefits, 127, 129
Pigmeats—
consumption of, 613
exports of, 615
prices of, 600
production of, 349, 350, 352, 353, 356, 357, 964, 965, 966 Pigs, 349, 350, 352, 353, 357, 377, 378, 380–381, 791, 892, 964, 965, 966
Pilots, air, 330
Pineapples, 510
Pipfruit, 366, 367, 373, 374, 375
Placement service (employment), 761, 768–769
Planing mills, 436, 444
Planning—
consultative, 284
Council, New Zealand, 284–285, 916
district, 258, 260
maritime, 259, 260
national, 200, 259, 284–287
regional, 47, 258–259, 260
town and country, 47, 50, 258–260
Plantations, timber, 348, 349, 351, 383–384, 791, 964, 965
Plastics industry, 430, 432, 433, 438, 445
Platinum, 415
Play centres, 158, 174, 178
Pleasure craft, 299
Plumbers, registration of, 125
Plunket Society, 117, 130
Plywood and veneer, 392, 393, 423, 436, 444, 466
Poetry publications, 925–926
Poisons and poisoning, 102, 103, 115, 116, 137, 138, 813, 814, 815, 816, 817
Police, 206, 242–244, 317, 319, 655, 660
Department, 858, 862, 865, 868, 956
superannuation, 164–166
youth aid section, 155
Political parties, 41, 841
Polling at general elections, 841
Pollution—
air, 114, 266
marine, 265, 298
mercury, 403, 405
water, 264, 265–266
Polynesian Education Foundation, 197
Population (see also Census), 51–81, 881
age distribution, 73–74, 76, 77, 78–79
density of, 63–64
distribution of, 55–63
ethnic groups, 79, 940–941
growth, 51–55, 65, 82
heights and weights, 141–142
increases, 53–55, 65, 82, 881
industrial distribution of, 770, 771–772
intercensal estimates, 52–53, 56–61
international comparisons, 53–54, 81, 82
Maori, 53, 62, 64–65, 92, 93–94
policy, 53
projections, 54–55
sex proportions of, 63
shipboard, 60
urbanisation of, 62–63, 65
vital statistics, 82–111
world, 81
Pork (see Pigmeats)
Pork Industry Council, 509
Port Agriculture Service, 362
Portfolios of Ministers, 849
Ports—
Authority, 290
exports by, 294, 295, 296–297, 572
fishing, 403
imports by, 586, 294, 295–296, 586
of arrival and departure, 293, 295–297
shipping and trade of, 292–293, 295–297
Post Office, 331–337, 617, 654, 658, 661, 681, 683, 711, 858, 862, 865, 889
employees, 336, 865
superannuation of, 164–166
Savings Bank, 467, 710, 712, 713, 714, 715–716, 721, 908
Postal notes, 332, 889
Potato Board, 509–510
Potatoes, 366, 370, 509–510, 600, 891
consumption of, 614, 616
export of, 557, 558, 615
Pottery, china, and earthenware industry, 430, 432, 433, 438, 445
Poultry, 349, 350, 352, 353, 377, 381–382, 434, 441, 600, 613, 615, 791, 964, 965
meat production, 382
Power Planning Committee, 480
Power stations (electricity), 476–477, 478, 480, 489–490, 914
Pregnancy, diseases, etc., 136
deaths from, 95, 136
Pre-school children health, heights and weights, 120, 142
Pre-school education, 171, 173, 174, 178
Preventive detention, 225, 227, 232–235
Price control, 592–593
Price index, general, 602–604, 951–952
Prices, 592–612, 885–887, 950–951
basic, for dairy produce, 512–513
index numbers, 594–599, 601, 950–951
comparisons with other countries, 601–602
index numbers, 594–599, 601, 950–951
consumer, 886, 887
index numbers, 594–599, 601, 950–951
export, 511–515
index numbers, 594–599, 601, 950–951
export, indexes of, 605–607, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 594–599, 601, 950–951
farming costs index, 605
index numbers, 594–599, 601, 950–951
import, indexes of, 605–606, 608, 609, 885, 886
index numbers, 594–599, 601, 950–951
retail, 600–601, 886, 887
index numbers, 594–599, 601, 950–951
share, index of, 609
stabilisation of, 592–593
wholesale, 602, 604, 885, 886
Primary products—
consumption of, 613–614, 616
by ports, 296–297
export of, 294, 296–297, 330, 539–544, 551, 615, 897–901
by ports, 296–297
marketing of, 498–516
Primary school children, heights and weights, 142
Primary schools, 169, 170, 171, 173, 178–180, 883
Prime Minister's Department, 655, 858, 862–863, 956
Prime Ministers, successive, 847–848
Principal events, 911–916
Printing and publishing industry, 430, 432, 433, 437, 444, 456, 457, 747
Prison service superannuation, 164–166
Prisons and prisoners, 233–237, 884
Private—
forests, 388
hospitals, 126, 130–131, 134
railways, 304
savings banks, 468, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714–715, 717, 721
schools, 170, 171, 174, 175, 180, 883
superannuation funds, 713
Privy Council, 223
Probation of offenders, 157, 224, 225, 229, 232–233
Production, 649–650
accounts, 622–629
building materials, 466, 893
beef, 368
clothing, 430, 431, 433, 436, 443, 454, 456, 457
dairy, 345, 346, 347, 349, 350, 352, 353, 354–356, 434,442,454 893
farm, 201–202, 351–358, 366–391, 649, 891–893
fisheries, 401–402
index numbers of, 353, 649–650
manufacturing industries, 421–457, 649, 894
meat, 347, 356–358, 361, 893
milk, 356
mineral, 406–420
pulp and paper, etc., 389, 390–392, 423, 425, 426, 430, 432, 433, 437, 444, 455, 456, 457, 708
timber, 389–390, 893
wheat, 366, 367, 368, 369, 891
wool, 352, 353, 358–360, 435, 443, 893
Productivity Advisory Council, 427
Projections—
labour force, 760–761
population, 54–55
school population, 175
Property price index, 468
Property speculation tax, 654, 664, 666, 671, 953, 959
Prospecting, 420
Provident funds, 163–168
Psychiatric health and hospitals, 118, 126, 134, 135, 139–141, 157
Public—
accounts, 651–683, 953–958
interest on, 654, 680–681, 682, 956
administration, publications, 917–919
interest on, 654, 680–681, 682, 956
debt, 636, 678–683, 689, 713, 906, 954, 955, 956
interest on, 654, 680–681, 682, 956
domains, 272
finance, 904–906, 953–958
health, 112
holidays, 843
lands, 267–274
safety, 222–247
Public Service, 865, 866–871
employees, 768, 803, 865, 866–867
superannuation, 164–166
Public Trust Office, 683, 834–835, 858, 863
Public works, 24–25
maintenance appropriations, 658, 659, 660
occupational safety, 819
railway construction, 299–300
road construction, 305–306, 657, 660, 661, 662
Publican's licences, 839–841
Publishing and printing industry, 430, 432, 433, 437, 444, 456, 457, 842
Pulp and paper—
export of, 297, 393–395, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 570, 571, 572, 902,
import of, 393–395, 575, 579, 582, 583
industry, 389, 390–392, 423, 425, 426, 430, 432, 433, 437, 444, 455, 456, 457, 708
Pumice, 407

Q

Quarries, 418–420
mining and quarrying accidents, 811
persons engaged in, 419
safety in, 819
Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, 213–214
Queen Elizabeth II National Trust, 273

R

Race relations, 832
Racing taxation, 654, 664, 677, 953
Radio—
communications, 335
New Zealand, 337, 338, 340
private, 338
time signals, 842
Radio and television, 337–340
advertising, 338, 340
assembly and manufacture of sets, 424, 440, 447, 454
international comparisons, 837
licences, 340
retail prices, 600
Radioactivity, protection against, 116
Radiographers, 132
Radiology, 116, 127, 129
Radiotelephone services, 335
Raffles, 838
Rail traffic—
goods, 301, 890, 946
passengers, 300, 890, 946
Railway construction and engineering, 299
Railway equipment, imports of, 581, 583, 584
Railways, 299–305, 858, 863, 865, 868, 890, 946
accidents, 137, 304, 813, 816, 913
air freight service, 300
capital expenditure on, 303
employees, 304, 865
licensing protection, 314
private, 304
revenue and expenditure, 300–305, 658, 659, 660, 661, 680, 890, 946
road-rail ferry service, 291, 300, 302, 303–304, 680, 914
road services, 300, 302, 305, 315, 946
rolling stock, 300, 301, 303
subsidies, 617
superannuation, 164–166
Rainfall, 13–15, 18
Rangemaking industry, 440, 447, 454
Raoul Island, 1, 10
Rates, local government, 600, 684–685, 686, 907
valuation for, 281–282
Rates of exchange, 722–724
Re-afforestation, 263
Real gross domestic product, 649–650
Reciprocal tariff and trade, 588–590
Records (gramophone), 454
Recreation, 387, 830–831, 843–844
Recreation and Sports, Ministry of, 843–844, 871
Recreational accidents, 815
Recreational land, 260–261, 269–274
Re-exports, 555, 562, 573, 950
Refineries, oil, 438, 445, 478, 914
Refrigerators, 454, 523, 558, 560, 600
Refugees, 70–71
Regional—
Authority, 47, 685, 686, 688, 689, 767
Councils, 47, 259
development, 426
government, 47–48
planning, 47, 259–260
schemes, 48
Registered comprehensive nurses, 124
Registrars, marriages before, 105, 108
Registration of—
adopted children, 89
apprentices, 764–765
births, 82, 83, 87, 88
building societies, 741–744
burials, 94
chemists, 125
child care centres, 155
chiropodists, 125
companies, 910
cremations, 94
deaths, 94
dental technicians, 123
dentists, 123
designs, 832–833
dietitians, 124
electors, 45
employers' unions, 795
ex-nuptial births, 87, 88
friendly societies, 153
land titles, 276–280
land owners, 267
land valuers, 283
land values, 280–283
marriages, 105, 108
medical practitioners, 123
mortgages, 732–735, 909
motor vehicles, 311–314
nurses, 123–124
occupational therapists, 124
opticians, 124
optometrists, 124
patents, 832–833
pharmaceutical chemists, 125
physiotherapists, 124
plumbers, 125
still births, 89
trade marks, 832–833
trade unions, 793–794
trading vessels, 292
unemployed, 768–769, 945
Rehabilitation, 121, 159–163, 806
Religious professions, 78
Remuneration Act, 953
Rental cars, 312, 320
Rental units, Housing Corporation, 459, 470–471, 740–741
Rents, 352, 475, 740
Representation Commission, 45
Representatives, House of, 40–44, 45, 841, 850, 911
Reproduction index, 84
Research—
agricultural, 201–202, 207, 362
animal health, 207
Antarctic, 211–212
building and construction, 204
coal mining, 409–411
dental, 121
energy, 203, 425, 482
environmental, 201–202, 205
expenditure, 209
fertilisers, 201–202, 207
fishery, 399, 405
forestry, 388, 395–396
grants, 205, 206
grassland and grasses, 207
in building and construction, 204
in transport, 204–205
industrial, 203–204, 208, 428
logging, 203
manufacturing, 203–204, 208, 428
medical, 113, 122
scientific and industrial, 200–210
soil, 207
wool, 202, 204, 206, 360
Reserve Bank, 636–637, 651, 702–705, 706, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714, 719, 721, 722, 745
assets and liabilities, 683, 704–705
Reserves—
air force, 253
farm industry, 515–516
military, 252
nature, 272
naval, 251
overseas (banks), 724, 903
public or scenic, 269, 271–273
wildlife, 272–273
Resource conservation, 424–425
Restaurant licences, 839–841
Retail prices, 600–601
index numbers, 594–599, 601, 790, 886, 887, 950–951
Retail trade, 516–526, 533–535, 643, 948–949
Retailers, bank advances to, 708
Retention Scheme, Individual Grower Income Levy (Wool), 360
Revenue—
broadcasting and television, 340
cinemas, 343
customs, 591
electric power, 490
Forest service, 388
Government (see Government finance)
local government, 309, 310, 311, 685–687, 907, 958
National Roads Fund, 307–308, 958
Post Office, 335–336, 889
railway, 300, 301, 302, 304, 305, 890, 946
urban transport, 323
River boards, 48, 767
Rivers, 4–5, 259, 273, 483, 484, 485, 486
access to, 261
control of, 264–265
hydro-electric development on, 5, 480, 483–486
Road—
accidents, 95, 101, 102, 103, 137, 317–319, 812–813
safety, 319–320
services, 322–325, 300, 302, 305, 315, 322–325
transport, 305–325, 946
Tunnel, Christchurch-Lyttelton, 306–307, 310, 767
Roads, 305–311
expenditure on, 307–311, 657, 660, 661, 662, 687, 958
taxation, 308, 662, 664, 666, 953, 955, 958
Rock lobsters, 398, 399, 402, 403, 404
exports of, 403, 404, 557, 558
Rolling stock, railway, 300
Roman Catholic schools, 180
Ross Dependency, 1, 2, 10, 211–212, 335, 417, 913
Royal New Zealand Air Force, 249, 252–253
Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve, 251
Royal New Zealand Navy, 249, 250–251
Royal Society of New Zealand, 206
Rubber and rubber products, 430, 432, 433, 438, 445, 454, 561, 575, 576, 578, 579, 582, 583
Rural—
Banking and Finance Corporation, 426, 654, 655, 656, 658, 680, 681, 711, 716, 736–738, 858, 863, 957
education, 182–183
Electrical Reticulation Council, 488
housing, 469
land transfers, 279
mail deliveries, 331
mortgages, 736–737, 738
population, 62–63
Ryegrass, 371, 372

S

St. John's Ambulance Association, 130, 131
Safe Air Limited, 325
Safety of—
machinery, 818, 819
ships, 298
vessels, 802
workers, 801, 802, 818–819
Salaries and wages, 691, 694, 780–804, 952–953
and social welfare benefits, 147
average, 784, 785–786
effective, 790, 887
hourly, 785–786
minimum, 790
nominal, 786–789, 887
weekly, 784, 785–790, 887
by industry groups, 785–786
average, 784, 785–786
effective, 790, 887
hourly, 785–786
minimum, 790
nominal, 786–789, 887
weekly, 784, 785–790, 887
equal pay, 784
average, 784, 785–786
effective, 790, 887
hourly, 785–786
minimum, 790
nominal, 786–789, 887
weekly, 784, 785–790, 887
hourly average, 785–786
average, 784, 785–786
effective, 790, 887
hourly, 785–786
minimum, 790
nominal, 786–789, 887
weekly, 784, 785–790, 887
in manufacturing industries, 429, 431–432, 434–441, 449–453, 455, 456, 457, 894
average, 784, 785–786
effective, 790, 887
hourly, 785–786
minimum, 790
nominal, 786–789, 887
weekly, 784, 785–790, 887
in retail stores, 516, 518, 519, 525
average, 784, 785–786
effective, 790, 887
hourly, 785–786
minimum, 790
nominal, 786–789, 887
weekly, 784, 785–790, 887
in service establishments, 530, 531
average, 784, 785–786
effective, 790, 887
hourly, 785–786
minimum, 790
nominal, 786–789, 887
weekly, 784, 785–790, 887
in wholesale stores, 527, 529
average, 784, 785–786
effective, 790, 887
hourly, 785–786
minimum, 790
nominal, 786–789, 887
weekly, 784, 785–790, 887
legislation, 780–784, 953
average, 784, 785–786
effective, 790, 887
hourly, 785–786
minimum, 790
nominal, 786–789, 887
weekly, 784, 785–790, 887
lost through industrial stoppages, 797–800
average, 784, 785–786
effective, 790, 887
hourly, 785–786
minimum, 790
nominal, 786–789, 887
weekly, 784, 785–790, 887
rates, 780–784, 887
average, 784, 785–786
effective, 790, 887
hourly, 785–786
minimum, 790
nominal, 786–789, 887
weekly, 784, 785–790, 887
Salaries of members of—
Executive Council, 42–43
House of Representatives, 42–43
Sales tax, 654, 664, 665, 953, 955, 959
Salt, 407, 417, 600
Sanctuaries, bird and other wildlife, 261, 269–271, 272–273
Sand and gravel, 407
Sand dunes, stabilisation of, 386
Satellite communications, 334, 335
Satellite, earth resources programme, 258, 266
Sausage casings, export of, 555, 556, 557, 559, 570, 901
Sausage casings, production, 434, 442
Savings—
accounts and bonds (National), 667, 714–718
deposits with, 714, 716, 717, 718
interest accredited, 714, 716, 717, 718
banks, 467, 667, 683, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714–718, 721, 908
deposits with, 714, 716, 717, 718
interest accredited, 714, 716, 717, 718
Sawmills, etc., 389, 436, 444
Scenic reserves, 269, 271–273
Scheelite, 415
Scholarships—
for Maoris, 170, 197–198
for Pacific Islanders, 198
university, 177, 188
School—
camps, 844
ages of, 179
duration of attendance, 181
intended occupations of, 181–182
medical examinations of, 117
roll numbers of, 174, 175, 176, 177–181, 183, 883
transport and boarding allowances, 183
Certificate, 176
ages of, 179
duration of attendance, 181
intended occupations of, 181–182
medical examinations of, 117
roll numbers of, 174, 175, 176, 177–181, 183, 883
transport and boarding allowances, 183
children, 169–171, 174, 175–184, 883, 939–944
ages of, 179
duration of attendance, 181
intended occupations of, 181–182
medical examinations of, 117
roll numbers of, 174, 175, 176, 177–181, 183, 883
transport and boarding allowances, 183
committees, 170
dental service, 113, 120
fires, 246
inspectors, 181
Journal, 186
Library Service, 186, 218
of Pharmacy, 125
teachers (see Teachers)
Schools—
broadcasts to, 186, 338
buildings, 173
community colleges, 170, 171, 173
consolidation of, 182
correspondence, 174, 178, 183, 186, 199
curricula, 178, 180, 182
denominational, 170
district high, 174, 181, 182
free textbooks for, 179, 185
integration of private, 170
intermediate, 174, 180
nautical, 297
primary, 169, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 178–180, 883
private, 170, 171, 174, 175, 180, 883
publications, 186
roll numbers, 174, 175, 176, 177–181, 183, 883
secondary, 169, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 180–183, 198–199, 883
sizes of classes, 179
special, 174, 177–178
State, 169–171, 174, 175, 179, 181, 183, 883
technical, 174, 175, 193–196, 883
Science in New Zealand, 200–210
budget, 209–210
publications, 205, 206, 921–924
Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of, 115, 201–207, 208–209, 211, 249, 263, 266, 369, 371, 373, 406, 482, 656, 660, 858, 863, 868–869, 957
Scientific services, 200–210
Sea fisheries, 398–405
Search and rescue operations, 252, 254
Secondary education (see Schools, secondary)
Secondary school boards and councils, 170
Securities, Government, 657–658, 716, 717, 718, 748, 750, 751, 754, 756
Security Intelligence Service, 255, 655, 858, 956
Seed certification, 371
Seed sowing, aerial, 329
Seeds, grass and clover, 366, 371–372
exported, 900
Seismic regions, 9–10
Seismology, 9–11
Self employed, incomes of, 691, 692, 693, 696
Separation, marital, 109, 241–242
Serpentine, 407, 416
Service-coach licences, 312
Service establishments (trade), 530–532
Settlement of land, 267–269, 277–278
Sex proportions of population, 63
Sexes of—
children born, 84
factory employees, 429, 434–441, 449–453
Sexual offences, 227, 228, 233, 238, 239
Share prices, index numbers, 609, 886, 887
Shearers' wage rates and amenities, 802
Sheep, 377, 378, 379, 501, 892, 964, 965, 966
and lambs slaughtered, 357
farming, 345, 346, 347, 349, 350, 352, 353, 368, 376, 377, 378, 379, 691, 696, 708, 791, 964, 965, 966
skins and pelts exported (see also Hides), 556, 557, 559, 570
Sheetmetal-working industry, 439, 446
Shellfish, export of, 403, 404
Ship building and repairing, 440, 448
Shipping, 289–299, 398, 400, 511
Shipping and Seamen Act, 802, 818
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand, 291–292, 658, 680, 822
Ships and boats, imports of, 581, 583, 584
Shooting, 831
Shops, 516, 538
and Offices Act 801–802
trading hours, 801
Short-wave radio broadcasting, 338
Sickness, 135–137
benefits, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 153
insurance, 153, 668
Silica, 407, 415–416
Silver, 407, 415
Sixth Form Certificate, 176
Ski-ing, 831
Skim-milk powders, 502, 503, 504, 513
Skins (see Hides, pelts, and skins)
Smoking habits, 118–120, 200
Snow, 16, 20
Soap industry, 437, 445
Social Development Council, 286–287
Social planning, 200, 286–287
Social sciences publications, 917–919
Social services, expenditure on, 146, 162, 163, 652, 653, 657, 661, 905, 954, 955, 957
Social welfare, 143–168, 905, 954, 955, 957
benefits, 126–129, 143–144, 145–153, 667
Department of, 143–168, 177, 240, 657, 858, 863–864, 868
reciprocity with other countries, 152–153
taxation, 145
Soil conservation, 264
Soil erosion, 265, 329, 386–387
Soils, 207, 345–347
Solar heating, 203
Soldiers, 251–252
Solo parents, 148, 149–150, 160
South Pacific—
aid, 36–37, 39
Bureau for Economic Co-operation, 32, 39
Commission, 32, 39
Forum, 32, 541–542
Medical Research Committee, 122
relations with, 31–33
students from, 175, 191
trade training for youths from, 765–766
trade with, 539, 540, 541–542, 547, 563, 564, 573, 587
South-east Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO), 36, 915
Southern Alps, 3, 8, 16
Sovereignty, 43
Soviet Union, relations with, 29–30, 501, 505
Special Drawing Rights (IMF), 726–728, 729–730, 960
Special education, 171, 177–178, 179
Special work, employees, 761, 945
Speed limits, 320, 321
Spirits—
consumption of, 615
duty on, 590, 591
imports of, 578, 582, 583
production of, 435, 442
Sports, 830–831
accidents, 815
publications on, 925
Stabilisation of Prices Regulations, 592–593
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act, 781–782
Standard time, 842
Standards Association of New Zealand, 427, 482
Standards Council, 834
Standards of living, international, 837
State—
aid to private schools, 170, 171
accident and fire, 756
earthquake and war damage, 756–757
life, 755–756
Commission, 655, 681, 858, 866, 871
coal mines, 409, 411–412, 658, 659, 660, 680
accident and fire, 756
earthquake and war damage, 756–757
life, 755–756
Commission, 655, 681, 858, 866, 871
departments, 857–871
accident and fire, 756
earthquake and war damage, 756–757
life, 755–756
Commission, 655, 681, 858, 866, 871
finance, 145, 146, 621, 623, 624, 627, 628–629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 646–648, 651–683, 718, 736–740, 748, 750, 751, 754, 756, 866, 904–906, 953–958, 962
accident and fire, 756
earthquake and war damage, 756–757
life, 755–756
Commission, 655, 681, 858, 866, 871
forests, 261, 383, 384, 385–388, 681
accident and fire, 756
earthquake and war damage, 756–757
life, 755–756
Commission, 655, 681, 858, 866, 871
highways, 306, 307, 309–310, 458, 662, 958
accident and fire, 756
earthquake and war damage, 756–757
life, 755–756
Commission, 655, 681, 858, 866, 871
housing, 459, 470–471, 739–741
accident and fire, 756
earthquake and war damage, 756–757
life, 755–756
Commission, 655, 681, 858, 866, 871
indebtedness, 636–637, 678–683, 906
accident and fire, 756
earthquake and war damage, 756–757
life, 755–756
Commission, 655, 681, 858, 866, 871
insurance, 683, 755–757, 808, 858, 864
accident and fire, 756
earthquake and war damage, 756–757
life, 755–756
Commission, 655, 681, 858, 866, 871
placement services, 761, 768–769
Commission, 655, 681, 858, 866, 871
schools, 169–171, 174, 175, 179, 181, 183, 883
Commission, 655, 681, 858, 866, 871
Services, 780, 859–871, 956
Commission, 655, 681, 858, 866, 871
wards, 156–157
Statistical—
areas—
area and population of, 56, 64
cinemas in, 343
industrial production by, 449–452
irrigation in, 363
livestock in, 378
building permits, value of, 464, 465
dwelling completions, 464, 465
populations of, 56–57
divisions—
building permits, value of, 464, 465
dwelling completions, 464, 465
populations of, 56–57
Information, Latest, 945–966
publications, 545
Summary, 880, 910
Statistics, Department of, 655, 858, 864, 956
Statute of Westminster, 40, 222, 914
Statutes (see Legislation)
Statutory boards and committees, 867–871
Steel and iron, imports of, 295, 576, 579, 582, 584
Steel industry, 413, 423, 431, 432, 434, 438, 446
Stewart Island, 1, 2, 14, 61, 415
Still births, 85, 89, 99
Stock and station agents, 708, 710, 718–719, 721, 747
Stocks—
retail, 519, 524, 525, 526, 533, 948
wholesale, 527, 529, 949
Stone fruit, 367, 373, 374, 614
Stoppages, industrial, 792–794, 797–800, 888
Stores, self-service, 523–526
Stud farming, 350
Students, 173–174
overseas, 175, 189, 191
projected, 175
teachers' college, 174, 184–185, 883
university, 174, 187–192, 883, 959
Studentships, 184–185
Submarine power cable, Cook Strait, 486–487
Subscriber toll dialling (STD), 333
Subsidies, 270, 273, 617, 915
agricultural, 364–365
coal gas, 617
gas, 495
highways, 309, 310, 311, 662, 958
on eggs, 617
on food, 617
on milk, 510, 513, 617
Post Office, 617
Railways, 617
to local government, 309, 310, 311, 461, 662, 685, 686, 687–688, 958
to mining, 417
Subtropical fruit, 373, 374
Suffrage, 45
Sugar—
consumption of, 614, 616, 837
imports of, 296, 575, 578, 582, 583, 591
international agreements on, 591
prices of, 600, 604
production, 435, 442, 454
Suicides, 95, 102, 103, 104, 138, 813
Sulphur, 407, 416
imports of, 582, 583
Summary convictions, 228–231, 884
Sunshine, 17–21
Superannuation, 146, 147
government, 163–166, 956, 959
national scheme, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 167, 916
of Members of Parliament, 165
private schemes, 713
self-employed scheme, 167
universal, 153
Superphosphate, 362–363
Supplementary assistance benefits, 146, 147, 148, 153
Supreme Court, 44, 108, 164, 165, 222–223, 224, 226–227, 230, 239, 281, 857, 884
Surveys—
employment, 766–767
geological, 203, 417–418
land, 275–276
Sweepstakes, 838
Swimming accidents, 104
Symphony Orchestra, New Zealand, 337, 339–340

T

Tallow, 296, 555, 556, 557, 559, 569, 901
Tanning industry, 424, 436, 443
Tariff, Customs, 587–591
Tariffs and Trade Agreement (GATT), 32, 502, 588
Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., 390, 423, 680, 681
Taxation (See individual taxes), 653, 654, 662, 663–677, 691–701, 953–955, 959
direct, 654, 663, 664, 665, 953, 955
exemptions from, 667, 668, 669, 670
incentives, 671
indirect, 619, 620, 621, 623, 628, 629, 646–648, 654, 663–664, 665–666, 953, 955, 961
rates of, 669, 670–671
rebates of, 668–669, 670
Review Authority, 674
system, 666–674
Taxi cabs, 312, 320
Tea—
consumption of, 615
retail price of, 600
Teacher studentships, 184–185
Teachers, 175, 177, 180, 183, 184–185, 773
colleges, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 178, 181–185, 197, 661, 777–778, 883
kindergarten, 175
primary and secondary school, 175
superannuation, 164–166
training of, 170, 174, 178, 181, 184–185
Teaching aids, 186
Technical Correspondence Institute, 170, 174, 175, 194, 195–196, 199, 388, 764
Technical education, 170, 171, 173, 174, 175, 193–196, 764–766, 777–778, 883
Technology, Central Institute of, 173, 194, 196
Telecommunications, 334, 889
Telegraph services, 331, 333–334, 335, 600, 889
Telephone rental concession, 152
Telephone services, 333, 334, 335, 473, 837, 889
Television and radio, 337–340, 473, 523, 600
assembly, 440, 447, 454
international comparisons, 837
value of sets sold on hire purchase, 538, 949
Telex (teleprinter) services, 333–334, 335
Temperature, 16–21
Tenancy Act, 475
Tenure—
of Crown lands, 267–268
of dwellings, 473, 475
of occupied land, 267–268, 276–277, 348
Terms of trade, 608–609, 885
Territorial Air Force, 253
Territorial Forces (Army), 252
Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977, 400, 403
Tetanus immunisation, 117
Textbooks in schools, free, 179, 185
Textiles—
export of, 561
imports of, 576, 579, 582, 583
production of, 426, 430, 431, 433, 435, 443, 454, 456, 457
Theft, 227, 228, 231, 233, 238, 239, 244
Therapists, occupational, 121, 124, 132
Thermal activity, 3, 830
Thermal generation, 485
Thunderstorms, 15
Timber, 383–397, 436, 444, 466, 600, 893
exports of, 297, 394, 395, 556, 557, 559, 571, 902
imports of, 394
inspection of, 398
output, 436, 444, 893
plantations, 348, 349, 351, 383–384, 791, 964, 965
preservation of, 393, 436, 444
resources, 383–384, 388, 397
Timber Preservation Authority, 393
Time service (radio), 206, 842
Tin, 415
Tobacco—
consumption of, 615
duty on, 590, 591, 959
growers, 346, 349, 367, 376, 377, 791, 964, 965
household expenditure on, 609–612
imports of, 575, 578, 582, 583
industry, 361, 362, 367, 376, 377, 430, 431, 433, 435, 442, 455
retail prices of, 601
Tokelau, 22–23, 31, 37, 52, 71, 164, 186, 335, 426–427, 573, 587, 820, 823–825
Toll service, 333, 889
Tomatoes, 370, 371, 614
Tonnage of shipping and cargo, 292–297
Topdressing, 329, 362, 363
Topographical mapping, 276
Totalisator—
Agency Board, 677
taxation, 677
turnover on, 677
Tourism, 66, 661, 823, 826–831, 945
Tourist—
accommodation, 828–829
and Publicity Department, 656, 828, 831, 858, 864, 870, 957
attractions, 826–831
Hotel Corporation, 269, 658, 680, 828
industry, 826–831
Town and country planning, 47, 50, 258–260
Town districts, 46, 59, 282, 283, 689
Town milk supply, 356, 513
Tractors, imports of, 580, 582, 583, 585
Tractors on farms, 350, 365, 366
accidents, 103
Trade and Industry, Department of, 369, 424–425, 426, 427, 552, 553, 592–593, 656, 858, 864, 870, 957
Trade (domestic), 516–538, 691, 696, 698, 699, 760, 772, 786, 799, 812, 948–949
practices, 538
retail, 516–526, 533–535, 643, 948–949
service, 530–532
training of Maori youths, 765–766
unions, 793–794, 795–796
wholesale, 516, 526–530, 536–537, 643, 949
Trade examinations, 193, 194, 196, 764–766
Trade (external), 539–591, 870, 896–902, 949–950
agreements, 505–506, 539, 544, 591
balance of, 544
commissioner service, 553, 877
direction of exports, 545, 562–573
diversification of, 541–544
origin of imports, 577–581
per head value of, 544
Promotion Council, 553–554
representation overseas, 553, 877
statistics, compilation of, 545–546
terms of, 608–609, 885
volume of, 550–551, 556–558
with Middle East, 500, 540, 543, 548
with Western Europe, 499
Trades Certification Board, 193, 194, 196, 764
Trademarks, 832–833
Trading banks, 705–709, 712, 714, 721, 735
Traffic—
accidents, 95, 101, 102, 103, 137, 317–319, 812–813
deaths from, 317–319
air, 325–330
motor, 312
offences, 229–231, 320–322
railways, 300, 301, 890
Training Programme, Young Persons, 762, 763
Transport, 137, 246, 288–330, 511, 603, 604, 652, 653, 657, 659, 660, 661, 691, 696, 698, 699, 946–947, 954, 955, 958
accidents (see Traffic accidents)
boards, 48, 685, 686, 689, 690, 767
equipment, imports of, 576, 581, 583, 584
equipment industry, 431, 432, 434, 440, 448, 454, 708
household expenditure on, 609–612
licensing, 314–315
Ministry of, 116, 290, 314, 319, 320, 321–322, 323, 326, 818, 858, 864, 868
of school children, 183
research, 204–205
to work, 315–317
urban, 300, 305, 306–307, 322–325, 685, 686, 689, 690
Travel—
and tourism, 826–831
publications, 927
tax, 654, 664, 959
Trawling, 398, 399
Treasury, 655, 858, 864–865, 870, 956
Treasury bills, 711
Treaty of Waitangi, 23, 26, 39, 277, 911
Trees, forest, 383–384
Tribunals, administrative, 856
industrial and staff, 780
Trolley-buses, 324
Trout, 5, 830
Trust (liquor) control, 840–841
Trustee, Public, 683, 834–835, 858, 863
Trustee savings banks, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 717–718, 721, 735
Tuberculosis, 95, 135
Tungsten ore, 407, 415
Tunnels, roads and railway, 300
Tussock boards, 48
Twins and triplets born, 85

U

Undergraduates, 187–192
Unemployment, 761, 768–769, 888, 916, 945
benefits, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 153, 768, 959
numbers registered, 769, 945
occupational classification of, 769
UNESCO, 34, 35, 191
Unexercised overdraft authorities, 709
Unimproved value of land, 282–283
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, trade with, 540, 542–543, 549, 562, 565, 566, 578
Unions, trade, 793–794, 795–796
United councils, 47, 259
United Kingdom—
communications with, 332, 334
consumption of butter and margarine, 507
dairy produce and meat imported into, 507
debt domiciled in, 906
exports to, 540, 545, 546, 550, 562, 565–570
imports from, 540, 545, 546, 550, 577, 578–581
investment in New Zealand, 641, 642
New Zealand representation in, 875
relations with, 26–29
representation in New Zealand, 877
shipping to and from, 290
social security reciprocity, 152–153
trade relations with, 499, 500, 501, 503, 504, 505–506, 539, 540, 541, 588–589, 638, 640
visitors and migrants from, 70, 827, 828
United Nations, 34–35, 38, 253
Committee on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 589–590
Development Programme (UNDP), 32, 38
United States of America—
debt domiciled in, 906
exports to, 540, 545, 547, 550, 562, 565–572
imports from, 544, 545, 547, 550, 577, 578–581
investment in New Zealand, 641, 642
New Zealand representation in, 876
relations with, 33
representation in New Zealand, 879
shipping to and from, 290
trade relations with, 499, 500, 501, 503, 505, 539–540, 541, 638, 640
visitors and migrants from, 70, 827, 828
Universities, 174, 175, 187–193, 197, 206, 208, 777–778, 883
buildings, 171, 173, 661
bursaries, 188, 190
colleges of agriculture, 187–188
entrance examinations, 176, 187
extension, 198
graduates, 185, 192
Grants Committee, 187, 206, 470
scholarships, 177, 188
staff, 193
students, 174, 187–192, 883
Uranium, 415
Urban—
areas, 62–63
building permit values, 464, 465
cinemas in, 344
dwelling completions, 464, 465
population, 56–57
stores in, 520, 525, 526
drainage boards, 685, 686, 689, 690
house price index, 468
land transfers, 279
movement, 62–63, 65
population, growth of, 62–63, 65
Public Passenger Transport Council, 323
renewal, 460, 468, 469, 470, 687
section price index, 468
transport, 300, 305, 306–307, 322–325, 685, 686, 689, 690
transport boards, 685, 686, 689, 690, 767
Urbanisation—
effects of, 256–257, 259
of population, 62–63, 65

V

Vacancies, employment, 768–769
Valuation Department, 280, 467, 655, 858, 865, 869, 956
Valuation of land, 280–283, 684
Value added in manufacturing (net), 429, 433–434, 441–453, 894
Valuers' Registration Board, 283
Veal—
consumption of, 613
export of, 615
production of, 356, 357
Vegetable growing, commercial, 352, 353, 362, 363, 366, 367, 368, 370–371
Vegetables—
and fruit, canned, 435, 442, 454
consumption of, 614, 616
exported, canned and frozen, 557, 558, 615
retail prices of, 600
Venereal diseases, 95, 120, 135
Vessels—
entered and cleared from ports, 292–293
fishing, 398, 399, 400
safety of, 802, 818
wrecked, 298
Veterans' allowances, 160
Veterinarians, training of, 187–188, 192
Vice-regal representatives, 846–847
Vineyards and grapes, 366, 367, 373, 375
Visitors to New Zealand, 66, 826–827, 828, 945
Visual aids, in teaching, 186
Vital statistics, 82–111, 882
Vocational guidance, 187, 762, 763, 765–766
Vocational training, 158, 187, 235, 763–766
Volcanoes, 1, 2–3, 7–10, 11, 212, 912
Voluntary welfare organisations, 130
Volunteer Service Abroad (VSA), 39
Voting—
at general elections, 45, 841
at licensing polls, 841
qualifications, 45

W

Wage Adjustment Regulations, 780–781, 782–784
Wages (see also Salaries and wages), 780–804, 952–953
Wages tribunal, 780
Waitangi, Treaty of, 23, 26, 39, 277, 911
Walkways, 274
War—
bursaries for ex-servicemen's children, 161
damage and earthquake insurance, 756–757
History Documentation Centre, 216
pensions, 153, 159–163, 667, 868, 905
veterans' allowances, 160
Warships, 250
Washing machines, 454, 473, 600
Water—
accidents, 101, 102, 103, 104, 137, 815, 816, 817
boards, regional, 264
conservation, 264–265
pollution, 264, 265–266
resources, 264–265, 363
subsidies, 687
supply boards, 48, 687, 767
Waterfront industry, 803–804
Commission, 115, 116, 804
Tribunal, 803
Weather, 12–21, 830
Weedkiller, aerial spraying of, 329
Welfare (See also Social Welfare)—
expenditure on, 905
Maori, 158
maternal, 116–117, 127, 129
of children, 154–158
of workers, 801, 802, 803
organisations (voluntary), 130, 158, 470
Pacific Islanders, 158, 820, 821, 825
services, 129–130
Western Samoa, 11, 27, 28, 31, 32, 37, 52, 71, 80, 186, 335, 426–427, 541–542, 547, 563, 564, 822, 913
Westminster, Statute of, 40, 222
Whales and whaling, 212
Wheat, 202, 366, 367, 368, 369, 604, 614, 891
Board, New Zealand, 369
Research Committee, 369
Research Institute, 202
Whey butter, 354
Whitebait, 405
Wholesale—
liquor licences, 839
prices, 604, 885, 886
trade, 516, 526–530, 536–537, 949
Widowers—
benefits, 146, 147, 148, 149, 152, 153
numbers of, 74, 77
remarriages of, 105, 106, 107
war pensions, 159–162
Wildlife reserves, 272
Wildlife sanctuaries, 261, 269–271, 272–273
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 834–835
Winds, 12–13
Wine, consumption of, 615
Wine licences, 839
Winemaking industry, 366, 367, 373, 375, 435, 442
Women—
accident compensation for, 807
criminal charges and convictions against, 231
deaths of, in childbirth, 95, 100–101
employment in manufacturing, 429, 434–441, 449–453
in Armed Forces, 251
in labour force, 758, 760, 761, 767, 771–775, 775–777, 779, 791, 945, 959
incomes of, 700
married, in the labour force, 776–777
offences by, 231
police, 243
wage rates of, 790
Wood and cork products industry, 430, 431, 433, 436, 444, 456, 457, 560, 561, 575, 576
Wood preservation, 393
Wood pulp—
exports of, 393–395, 557, 559, 560, 571, 902
imports of, 393–395, 575
production of, 390–392, 423, 455
Wood-chip industry, 390, 559
Wool—
Board, New Zealand, 357, 359–360, 364, 500, 509, 511, 516, 916
export price index, 512
exports, 294, 296, 498, 500–501, 551, 555, 556, 557, 559, 563, 564–565, 897, 960
Income Stabilisation Account, 516
levy, 359, 511
marketing of, 359–360, 500–502, 509, 948
overseas exchange transactions, 725, 727
prices for, 359–360, 511–512, 893, 948
production, 352, 353, 358–360, 435, 443, 893
Research Organisation, 202, 204, 206, 266, 360
scouring, 360, 435, 443
Testing Authority, 360
Woollen mills, 435, 443, 747
Work accidents, 809, 810, 811–812
Work permits, 71
Workers—
Educational Association, 199
safety and welfare, 801, 802, 803, 818–819
unions of, 794, 795–796
Working—
conditions, 792–804
hours, 785–786, 801
life expectancies, 778–779
Works and Development, Ministry of, 154, 265, 299, 306, 307, 418, 459, 481, 656, 819, 858, 865, 869, 957, 958
Works and trading account, 113, 171, 651, 658–661, 662
World Bank (see International Bank for Reconstruction and Development)
World Health Organisation, 34, 35, 94, 98, 99, 122, 191
World population statistics, 81
Wrecks, 298, 911, 912, 913, 914, 915

X

X-ray services, 127, 129

Y

Young Persons Courts, 155–156, 222–223, 237
Young Persons Training Programme, 762, 763
Youth Aid Section, New Zealand Police, 155
Youth hostels, 469–470, 762
Youth Hostels Association, 843
Youths, working conditions of, 801, 802, 803

Z

Zinc, 415
Zones, Special Character, 260
Zoology publications, 922–923
BY AUTHORITY: P. D. HASSELBERG, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, WELLINGTON, NEW ZEALAND—1979